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= Richard M. Eakin =
Richard Marshall Eakin ( pronounced AY @-@ kin ; May 5 , 1910 – November 25 , 1999 ) , was an American zoologist and professor at the University of California , Berkeley , widely known for portraying prominent historical scientists during some of his lectures ; dressing in costume and speaking in character to entertain and inform his students . A 1953 Guggenheim fellow , he wrote several books and more than 200 scientific papers . His research focused on eyes and vision in animals , especially the parietal eye or " third eye " of vertebrates , as well as animal embryology . He served as chairman of the UC Berkeley Department of Zoology for over 10 years , was elected president of the Western Society of Naturalists and American Society of Zoologists , and was a fellow of the California Academy of Sciences .
Eakin was born in Florence , Colorado , and grew up in Tulsa , Oklahoma . He initially studied at the University of Tulsa , planning a career in the clergy , before switching to zoology , earning a bachelor 's degree and doctorate at UC Berkeley . After postdoctoral studies in Germany under Hans Spemann he returned to UC Berkeley as a faculty member , where he would teach for over 40 years , earning awards and recognition for his teaching before retiring with highest faculty honors .
= = Early life and education ( 1910 – 1936 ) = =
Richard Eakin was born on May 5 , 1910 , in Florence , Colorado , to parents Marshall and Mary Elizabeth Eakin . He attended high school in Tulsa , Oklahoma , graduating in 1927 . He initially planned to go into the clergy , enrolling in the University of Tulsa and studying subjects such as theology and Greek for two years , before deciding to pursue zoology .
In 1929 , Eakin moved to Berkeley , California to attend UC Berkeley . He earned his A.B. in 1931 , then enrolled in graduate school under J. Franklin Daniel , an ichthyologist and embryologist . For his dissertation , Eakin studied the development of salamander and frog embryos , earning a PhD in zoology in 1935 . From 1935 to 1936 he worked in Germany as a postdoctoral scholar in the laboratories of embryologists Otto Mangold and Nobel laureate Hans Spemann .
On August 8 , 1935 , Eakin married Mary Mulford , daughter of Walter Mulford , a Berkeley professor of forestry .
= = Career ( 1936 – 1977 ) = =
Upon his return to UC Berkeley in 1936 , Eakin was appointed instructor of zoology , becoming assistant professor in 1940 and full professor in 1949 . He was assistant dean of the College of Letters and Science from 1940 to 1943 , and chairman of the Department of Zoology from 1942 to 1948 , and again from 1952 to 1957 . As an administrator he helped found the university 's Bodega Marine Laboratory , Sagehen Creek Field Station , and Cancer Research Genetics Laboratory . In 1956 he published a history of zoological research at Berkeley spanning the period from the university 's 1868 founding through 1956 , followed by a 1988 companion article covering the intervening 32 years .
= = = Research = = =
Eakin was known for his research of animal eyes and photoreceptor cells , especially the parietal eye ( the so @-@ called " third eye " ) and associated pineal gland of vertebrates . He was persuaded to study the parietal eyes of reptiles by his colleague Robert C. Stebbins , and the two published several articles on the parietal eye of western fence lizards . Eakin , alone or with colleagues , published many other papers on the anatomy and function of reptilian parietal eyes and similar structures in amphibians . Eakin 's 1973 monograph , The Third Eye , was received as comprehensive and detailed enough for biologists , yet in a style approachable to non @-@ scientists or undergraduates . He also studied amphibian development and was recognized as a skilled and early practitioner of electron microscopy . Eakin received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1953 , and the Boston Museum of Science 's Walker Prize in 1976 . He authored or co @-@ authored over 200 scientific papers , was elected president of the Western Society of Naturalists in 1949 and American Society of Zoologists in 1975 , and was a fellow of the California Academy of Sciences for 52 years .
= = = " Great scientists speak again " = = =
In 1970 , in order to combat boredom and absenteeism in his introductory zoology course , Eakin gave his first lecture in character , appearing unannounced in full costume and makeup as William Harvey , the 17th @-@ century physician who made the first complete descriptions of blood circulation . His portrayals of historic scientists , including Charles Darwin , Louis Pasteur , and Gregor Mendel , often involved elaborate wigs , makeup , costumes , and props , aided by professional makeup artists and drama teachers- his portrayal of Darwin required up to three hours of makeup , wig , and beard preparation . His lectures were popular with students from the start and attracted international attention , with profiles in publications such as LIFE , Der Spiegel , and the International Herald Tribune . He gave guest lectures at universities nationwide , and in 1975 compiled the text of his lectures , along with photographs , diagrams , and stage directions , into a book , Great Scientists Speak Again . Eakin typically gave six lectures in character during a course , with each " guest lecturer " introducing particular concepts . The figures portrayed , in order of appearance during a typical course , were :
William Harvey ( 1578 – 1657 )
William Beaumont ( 1785 – 1853 )
Hans Spemann ( 1869 – 1941 )
Gregor Mendel ( 1822 – 1884 )
Louis Pasteur ( 1822 – 1895 )
Charles Darwin ( 1809 – 1882 )
Eakin considered his impersonation of Spemann to be his most authoritative , due to knowing him personally from working in his lab in Germany , helping translate a book of his into English , and becoming good friends .
Eakin was recognized for his teaching long before he first donned a wig : in 1963 he was the first recipient of Berkeley 's Senior Citation for Distinguished Teaching and in 1968 received the Outstanding Teaching Award from the Associated Students of the University of California .
= = Later years ( 1977 – 1999 ) = =
Eakin retired in 1977 and was honored with the Berkeley Citation , the highest honor given to Berkeley faculty . He continued to periodically perform his lectures in character until 1988 , and also taught embryology at several historically black colleges and universities in the southern U.S. , including Tougaloo College , Mississippi ; Talladega College and Tuskegee University , Alabama ; and Fisk University in Tennessee .
Eakin was a member of the First Congregational Church of Berkeley for over 60 years , where his first wife , Mary Mulford Eakin – ordained by the United Church of Christ – was associate minister . He co @-@ authored a history of the church in 1999 . In a 1981 interview , Eakin stressed that matters of faith and science should be kept separate – as he did in his own life as both a Christian and a scientist – and that proponents of teaching creationism alongside evolution in public schools should similarly recognize the differences . " The great concepts of justice , mercy and love- science cannot test them or write a formula " , he said , " They are human beliefs and are outside the realm of science . "
His first wife Mary , with whom he had three children ( one of whom died prior to 1956 ) , died in 1980 . He later remarried Barbara Nichols , a former professor at the University of California , San Francisco .
Eakin died on November 25 , 1999 , at his home in Danville , California , at the age of 89 . He was survived by his wife Barbara , a son and daughter from his first marriage , and two stepdaughters .
= = Books = =
Vertebrate Embrology : A Laboratory Manual . University of California Press . 1973 .
The Third Eye . University of California Press . 1973 .
Great Scientists Speak Again . University of California Press . 1975 .
The Future is Watching : A History of the First 125 Years of First Congregational Church of Berkeley . First Congregational Church of Berkeley . 1999 . ( with James M. Spitze )
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= Serb Uprising of 1596 – 97 =
The Serb Uprising of 1596 – 97 was a rebellion organized by Serbian Patriarch Jovan Kantul ( s . 1592 – 1614 ) and led by Grdan , the vojvoda ( " duke " ) of Nikšić against the Ottomans in the Sanjak of Herzegovina and Montenegro Vilayet , during the Long Turkish War ( 1593 – 1606 ) . The uprising broke out in the aftermath of the failed Banat Uprising in 1594 and the burning of Saint Sava 's relics on April 27 , 1595 ; it included the tribes of Bjelopavlići , Drobnjaci , Nikšić and Piva . The rebels , defeated at the field of Gacko ( Gatačko Polje ) in 1597 , were forced to capitulate due to a lack of foreign support .
= = Background = =
In early 1594 , the Serbs in Banat rose up against the Ottomans . The rebels had , in the character of a holy war , carried war flags with the icon of Saint Sava . The war banners were consecrated by Patriarch Jovan Kantul , and the uprising was aided by Serbian Orthodox metropolitans Rufim Njeguš of Cetinje and Visarion of Trebinje ( s . 1590 – 1602 ) . In response , Ottoman Grand Vizier Koca Sinan Pasha demanded that the green flag of the Prophet Muhammed be brought from Damascus to counter the Serb flag and ordered that the sarcophagus containing the relics of Saint Sava be removed from the Mileševa monastery and transferred to Belgrade via military convoy . Along the way , the Ottoman convoy killed all the people in its path as a warning to the rebels . The Ottomans publicly incinerated the relics of Saint Sava on a pyre atop the Vračar plateau on April 27 , 1595 , and had the ashes scattered .
The incineration of Sava 's relics provoked the Serbs , and empowered the Serb liberation movement . From 1596 , the center of anti @-@ Ottoman activity in Herzegovina was the Tvrdoš Monastery in Trebinje , where Metropolitan Visarion was seated . Many of the Orthodox bishops appealed to the Archduchy of Austria for help in liberating their lands . The Uskoks , irregular soldiers in Habsburg Croatia , supported Austria , being scattered over the whole area between Senj and Ragusa ( modern day Dubrovnik ) . With a daring raid on April 8 , 1596 , the Uskoks even managed to occupy the Klis Fortress , though they were unable to hold it . At one point , Austrian officials considered taking military action in Bosnia , where Dalmatian @-@ born Maltese knight Franjo Brtučević was in their service . However , they did not have the strength to fight the Ottomans in Bosnia . Earlier , Austrian forces had gone to great lengths and still barely managed to resist the Ottomans in Hungary .
= = Uprising = =
In 1596 , the liberation movement spread into Ottoman Montenegro and the neighbouring tribes in Herzegovina , especially those under the influence of Metropolitan Visarion . Of the priests , Patriarch Jovan depended mostly on Visarion , and of the chieftains , mostly on Grdan , the vojvoda ( " duke " ) of Nikšić . A Ragusan document from the beginning of 1596 claimed that the metropolitan and many Herzegovinian chieftains gathered in the Trebinje Monastery where they swore oath " to give up and donate 20 @,@ 000 heroes to the [ Austrian ] emperors ' light . " The rebels sought help from the Austrians , and asked to be handed an Austrian flag to show the Ottomans that they had at least symbolic Austrian support . Shortly thereafter , on April 8 , 1596 , Klis was captured by the Uskoks , prompting a wave of excitement among Christians from Lika to Herzegovina . At the end of 1596 , after the outbreak of the Himara Revolt , Serbs began to rebel against the Ottomans . The uprising , led by Grdan , broke out in Bjelopavlići , then spread to Drobnjaci , Nikšić , Piva and Gacko . Save for the Brđani , the Montenegrin tribes did not participate in the uprising . At the time , Dervish Bey , the sanjak bey of Montenegro , threatened the Montenegrins through the provveditore ( " overseer " ) of Kotor .
Two Serbian monks , Damjan Ljubibratić and Pavle , were dispatched by Patriarch Jovan Kantul to Pope Clement VIII in 1597 . Patriarch Jovan assured the pope of his " loyalty and obedience " to the Church of Rome , and sought help " to liberate the Serb people from the Ottomans " . The monks made an exhibition to the papal curia on Serbian history and , among other things , petitioned the pope to send an army to Herceg Novi , which would aid vojvoda Grdan on the land ; the tribes of Zupci , Nikšić , Piva , Banjani , Drobnjaci and Gacko would rise up in arms . From there , they would go to Onogošt ( Nikšić ) , where all chieftains of all Montenegro , Dukađin , and the nearby lands , would gather . In the case of action , they could count on 100 @,@ 000 fighters . It was said that since the Ottomans took Saint Sava from the Serbs " God does not help them any more , Christians kill them from every side " . The curia then accused the monks , of " [ praying ] to God for our Evil . " The monks asked the pope , with the support of Serb spiritual and secular leaders , to send a respectable Christian to oversee them .
The Archbishop of Ohrid , Atanasije , after his movement had largely failed in Albania , was now in Rome . The Serb uprising had no better luck ; the Herzegovinian tribes , Drobnjaci , Nikšić and Piva began fighting , but were defeated at the field of Gacko ( Gatačko Polje ) by Dervish Bey sometime in 1597 . According to the Venetian Lazzaro Soranzo ( 1599 ) , the Piperi , Kuči , Klimenti , Bjelopavlići and others tried to liberate themselves from Ottoman tyranny , and upon hearing the false claim that Sultan Mehmed III lost the battle and his life at the Siege of Eger , " they all rose up under the command of vojvoda Grdan and there was a great slaughter of Turks who were on their land . As I tried to find out more , I heard the contrary , that they unhappily withdrew into their mountains " ; Montenegrin historian Gligor Stanojević , based on Soranzo 's account , which he described as " the most interesting and most contradicting note on the movement of the Brda and Herzegovina tribes in this time " , believed that the rebellion did not have the scale of a national uprising .
[ There were ] spontaneous uprisings or rebellions which often erupted caused by some event and quickly died away . Such disturbances , insurrections or rebellions took place earlier and later in all parts of the Balkans , and the Turks very quickly and efficiently reacted to them . If those rebellions did not lead to anything , they were another drop of hatred between the conquerors and the people .
When the talks between the rebels and the papacy led to nothing and no foreign support arrived , the rebels were forced to capitulate to the Ottomans . Ahmed @-@ paša Dugalić , the beylerbey ( " governor " ) of Bosnia , pardoned Grdan of his crimes , and did not even strip him of his lands in Nikšić .
The rebels were challenged before any real action could be realized . Austria was not able to move towards Buda , let alone Bosnia or Serbia ; the papal curia did not choose to aid the rebels ; and Spain had their own problems . The diplomats — various adventurers , though well @-@ meaning — were amateurs , and had wrongfully and colourfully painted the picture to both sides . To some they promised more than they could do , and to others they presented opportunities as being more mature than they were . Many false reports were made . [ The rebels ] naïvely thought that the messages and promises they received would give them greater success than they had . The only lesson learnt was for them to be more cautious . The Ottomans , occupied in Hungary , Croatia and the coast , were willing to somewhat leave them alone for the moment being . At this time , none of the prominent leaders in the Ottoman Serb regions were hurt .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
After the failure of the uprising , many Herzegovinians moved to the Bay of Kotor and Dalmatia . The earliest more significant Serb migrations took place between 1597 and 1600 . Grdan and Patriarch Jovan would continue to plan revolts against the Ottomans in the coming years . Jovan contacted the pope again in 1599 , without success . The Orthodox Christians in the Balkans sought the right moment to revolt against the Ottomans , and Serbian , Greek , Bulgarian and Albanian monks visited European courts for help . In 1607 , Patriarch Jovan Kantul negotiated with Emanuel I to be sent a force for the liberation of the Balkans , in exchange for " the Crown of Macedonia " . Jovan assured him that an army of 20 @,@ 000 , 25 guns and weapons for 25 @,@ 000 more to be distributed in the Balkans would overwhelm the Ottoman sultan . After years of planning , nothing concrete resulted in it , because such an operation " required Spanish naval and logistical support " . The 1596 – 97 uprising would stand as a model for multiple anti @-@ Ottoman uprisings in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the coming centuries .
= = Annotations = =
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= Lemington Power Station =
Lemington Power Station is a small , now defunct coal @-@ fired power station , located in North East England . It is situated on the Lemington Gut , a backwater of the River Tyne , at Lemington , 3 @.@ 5 mi ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) west of Newcastle upon Tyne . The station 's main building still stands today and is a rare example of an early power station , dating from before the nationalisation of the United Kingdom 's electrical supply industry .
The station was opened in 1903 with a total generating capacity of 970 kilowatts , the electricity generated being used to power a tram system , and provide local households and streets with electric lighting . The station ceased generating electricity in 1919 , however the structure was retained for use as a sub @-@ station until 1946 when the tram line closed . The station was partially demolished in 1949 , but has since been made a locally listed building and is now owned by construction company Nortland Construction . In March 2012 Norland applied to Newcastle City Council for permission to demolish the building on the grounds of it being at risk of collapse .
= = Background = =
In the early 1900s , an increasing number of areas were being provided with electricity , and train and tram lines were being electrified . In the area around Newcastle upon Tyne , this required the opening of power stations at Wallsend , Forth Banks and The Close . Two supply companies built the stations , the Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne Electric Supply Company ( NESCo ) to the east of Newcastle , and the Newcastle and District Electric Lighting Company ( DisCo ) to the west .
DisCo built a station at Lemington , in the western outskirts of the city , to provide electricity for a tram line which ran through their supply area , from the City Centre to Throckley . The station was sited amid the derelict buildings of the Tyne Iron Company 's ironworks . They had opened in 1797 and closed in 1886 . The works were largely demolished , but some of the ironworks ' buildings and chimneys still stood unused , and the power station was built amongst them . DisCo opened Lemington Power Station in 1903 .
= = Design and specification = =
The station consists of a parallel boiler house and turbine hall , which creates a large double @-@ gabled building . It is of steel frame construction with brick cladding . Other features include round @-@ headed openings and ridge ventilators . This building originally housed the station 's boilers and turbo generators . Constructed alongside the station was a brick built chimney , to remove gasses from the boilers . The station was first brick built power station in North East England , with corrugated iron being the usual material used prior to this .
The station 's boiler house housed three coal @-@ fired Lancashire boilers , each of 200 HP capacity and each with individual economisers . These boilers provided steam for two 410 kilowatt ( kW ) and one 150 kW direct current Parsons turbo generators . This gave the station a total generating capacity of 970 kW . Before being used in the Lemington power station , these generators had been used in Forth Banks Power Station and in Newburn Steelworks . One of the steam turbines from these sets is now on display at the Electric Power and Historical Museum in Yokohama , Japan , after sitting on display in the entrance to Blyth Power Station for many years .
= = Operations = =
The power station was well situated for coal deliveries as it was only 200 yd ( 180 m ) from Lemington Staithes . The staithes marked the end of the Wylam Waggonway , which brought coal from a number of nearby collieries to the staithes for export . Coal was hauled from the staithes to the power station , before being dumped directly into overhead hoppers in the boiler house . From there it was burned in the boilers to provide steam for the turbo generators . This steam was then cooled after use , using condensers , the water for which was taken from the Lemington Gut . This was a backwater of the River Tyne , created when a new channel was cut in 1876 .
As well as providing power for the tram system , the station was a source of electricity for local homes . The building of a power station brought major environmental improvements to what was a highly polluted area , because electricity represented a much cleaner source of household energy than coal , which was used at the time . Local households gradually switched to the new power source . A partner in the enterprise of the Lemington power station was Sir Matthew White Ridley , who had considerable interests in coal and banking .
= = Closure and present = =
Production of electricity in the station ceased in 1919 , ushered in by the completion of an extension to generating equipment at Newburn Steelworks . The building was retained and continued to be used to supply power to the tram route by housing a sub @-@ station , which used rotary converters . The station also provided a service for local residents who wanted their wireless accumulators recharged . The station continued to operate in this way until 1946 , when the tram route was closed . The station 's chimney was demolished in 1949 , along with remaining structures of the Tyne Iron Works , which had stood next to the power station throughout its operation .
The main turbine and boiler building is now a locally listed building , standing today as a monument to the important role that Tyne and Wear played in the development of electrical supply . The building had been considered for the more protected Listed Building status , but the decision was taken in May 2004 not to promote it . Other early power stations in the area ( such as those at Dunston and Wallsend ) have all been entirely demolished . The Lemington station is partly still standing due to riverside sites becoming less important to industrial development , leading to the site never being redeveloped .
The large remaining building currently stands in amongst a small industrial estate at the foot of the nearby Lemington Glass Cone . Along with the neighbouring Ironworks site , it is owned by Norland Construction , a crane and plant company formerly known as Reeds Cranes and Plant , the building used as storage for their machinery . The site is thought to be contaminated with coal products , fuels and oils such as PCBs , as well as dioxins and furans . In 2003 , Newcastle City Council released plans that they hoped to redevelop the site for heritage tourism in the future .
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= Tropical Storm Helene ( 2000 ) =
Tropical Storm Helene was a long @-@ lived tropical cyclone that oscillated for ten days between a tropical wave and a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) tropical storm . It was the twelfth tropical cyclone and eighth tropical storm of the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season , forming on September 15 east of the Windward Islands . After degenerating into a tropical wave , the system produced flooding and mudslides in Puerto Rico . It reformed into a tropical depression on September 19 south of Cuba , and crossed the western portion of the island the next day while on the verge of dissipation . However , it intensified into a tropical storm in the Gulf of Mexico , reaching its peak intensity while approaching the northern Gulf Coast .
The storm rapidly weakened before moving ashore near Fort Walton Beach , Florida on September 22 . It produced heavy rainfall along the Florida Panhandle that reached 9 @.@ 56 in ( 243 mm ) . The rains flooded hundreds of houses and caused the Sopchoppy River to reach a record crest . Gusty winds left about 5 @,@ 000 people without power , though the rains alleviated drought conditions . In South Carolina , Helene spawned a tornado that killed one person and injured six others ; heavy rainfall in the state also led to a death when a driver hydroplaned into a tree . The rainfall extended northeastward into Delaware . Overall damage in the United States was estimated at $ 16 million . Helene emerged from North Carolina as a tropical storm , and re @-@ intensified to near @-@ hurricane strength before being absorbed by a cold front on September 25 .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the African coast on September 10 . Shortly thereafter , it lost most of its atmospheric convection and initially showed few signs of development as it moved westward . On September 14 , convection reformed near the center of the system . It continued to organize , and the next day the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified it as Tropical Depression Twelve . At this point , it was located 470 mi ( 765 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . At this point , the depression had a weak circulation and ragged convection . An anticyclone to its north caused the depression to move generally to the west , and upper @-@ level conditions were forecast to be favorable for intensification . However , the circulation moved away from the main area of convection before a Hurricane Hunters flight indicated that the depression degenerated into a tropical wave on September 16 . Although there was not a closed circulation , the flight observed flight @-@ level winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) to the north and east of the system .
The remnants of the depression continued westward , moving through the Lesser Antilles on September 17 . Despite favorable conditions for redevelopment including low wind shear and warm ocean temperatures , the system remained a tropical wave as it moved across the Caribbean Sea . Late on September 19 , another reconnaissance plane discovered a closed circulation to the northwest of Grand Cayman . Although there was minimal convection near the center , it organized enough to be re @-@ classified as a tropical depression . Upon redeveloping , the depression was moved west @-@ northwestward around a large anticyclone to the east of Florida . Its circulation was broad , though the NHC anticipated further strengthening . Conditions remained favorable for intensification , but instead the depression weakened as it approached Cuba . Around 1200 UTC on September 20 , it moved across the western tip of Cuba into the Gulf of Mexico with minimal thunderstorms near the center . A few hours later , the NHC noted that " the cyclone [ was ] on the verge of breaking open into an east @-@ west oriented trough " . The agency did not discontinue advisories due to an increase in convection near the center , although no intensification was expected . However , the system 's circulation and convection became better organized , and early on September 21 the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Helene .
Upon becoming a tropical storm , Helene gradually turned to the north while rounding an anticyclone to its east . It rapidly intensified after its upgrade , and reached its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) late on September 21 . The storm was small with an asymmetric wind field , and wind shear displaced the circulation from the deep convection . Increasing wind shear prevented Helene from attaining hurricane status , and the storm began weakening on September 22 as it approached the northern Gulf Coast . By 0900 UTC that day , strong wind shear moved the convection away from the center and toward the north and northeast . This prompted NHC forecaster Lixion Avila to remark , " If I did not have a reconnaissance plane in the area , I would not know there was a tropical cyclone by just observing IR satellite imagery . " The storm made landfall near Fort Walton Beach , Florida at 1200 UTC on September 22 after weakening from its peak intensity to winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) .
After moving ashore , an area of convection redeveloped over Helene 's center and the circulation became well @-@ defined on radar imagery . The storm accelerated to the northeast into the Westerlies , and about six hours following its landfall , Helene weakened to tropical depression status after crossing into southeastern Alabama . A few hours later , the NHC issued the last advisory on the system and transferred warnings to the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center . Hurricane forecast models anticipated restrengthening , and due to the forecast track north of the Gulf Stream , the NHC predicted intensification as an extratropical cyclone . The agency noted that Tropical Storm Danny re @-@ intensified in the same region as a tropical cyclone . Despite strong wind shear , convection increased over Helene 's center as the storm moved through North Carolina . Stations along the Outer Banks reported sustained winds up to 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Satellite imagery and buoy data indicated that Helene re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm inland over North Carolina . The storm emerged from the Virginia coast into an area of less wind shear , where conditions were thus more favorable for strengthening . The storm became compact over the northern Atlantic Ocean , with a diameter of 140 mi ( 230 km ) . Strong convection developed over the center on September 24 , and the following day Helene re @-@ attained its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while southeast of Nova Scotia . The wind estimate was based on observations from the Neptune Olivine , a nearby ship that recorded 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) winds and a barometric pressure of 988 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) ; because the ship was located to the south of the center , the storm 's minimum pressure was estimated at 986 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . Helene continued moving rapidly to the east @-@ northeast , and late on September 25 dissipated as it was absorbed by a cold front .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
When Tropical Depression Twelve first formed , several governments across the Lesser Antilles issued a tropical storm watch , including the SSS islands , Antigua and Barbuda , Anguilla , Montserrat , and Saint Kitts and Nevis . The watch was discontinued after the depression degenerated into a tropical wave . As a tropical wave , Helene moved through the Lesser Antilles with strong winds ; gusts on Guadeloupe reached 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . The system also produced heavy rainfall , reaching 3 @.@ 14 in ( 80 mm ) on Antigua . The wave passed to the south of Puerto Rico on September 17 and 18 . Across the southern and eastern portion of the island , the system produced 6 to 12 in ( 150 to 300 mm ) of rainfall , which resulted in flash flooding and mudslides . One house was destroyed and more than 100 houses were affected in Ponce , forcing several families to evacuate . The flooding also destroyed a bridge in Guayama and made many roads impassable . Damage on the island was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2000 USD ) . After the system redeveloped into a tropical depression , the government of Cuba issued a tropical storm warning for the provinces of Isla de la Juventud , Havana , and Pinar del Río , as well as for the city of Havana .
= = = United States = = =
About 21 hours before Helene made landfall , the NHC issued a tropical storm warning from the border of Louisiana and Mississippi to the mouth of the Aucilla River along the Florida Panhandle . Six hours later , the agency also issued a hurricane watch from the border of Florida and Alabama to the mouth of the Aucilla River . The day before the storm moved ashore , local American Red Cross chapters had 18 emergency shelters on standby to house storm evacuees . One shelter opened in Tallahassee and one in Apalachicola . About 130 people evacuated to shelters in the western portion of the Florida panhandle and planes evacuated military bases in the region . Government buildings were closed in Okaloosa , and schools were closed in Okaloosa , Walton , and Santa Rosa counties .
Despite being a weak tropical cyclone at landfall , Tropical Storm Helene caused $ 16 million in damage ( 2000 USD ) . In Alabama , wind gusts reached 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) at Brookley Air Force Base in Mobile ; the same station recorded the highest rainfall in the state , with a total of 1 @.@ 08 in ( 27 mm ) . The storm also caused minor beach erosion and coastal damage along Dauphin Island .
In neighboring Florida , the storm dropped heavy rainfall along the panhandle , peaking at 9 @.@ 56 in ( 243 mm ) in Apalachicola . The rains caused flooding , notably in Franklin , Wakulla , and Leon counties , all of which closed schools and public buildings . Flood warnings were issued for areas affected by Tropical Storm Gordon five days prior . High rainfall caused the Sopchoppy River to exceed its banks and reach a record crest of 34 @.@ 9 ft ( 10 @.@ 6 m ) , breaking the previous record set in 1970 . Several homes and nearby roads were flooded near the river . About 100 homes were flooded in Leon County , and 70 streets were flooded in Tallahassee . Portions of U.S. Highway 98 were flooded in Port St. Joe and near Carrabelle . About 70 people had to evacuate their homes due to the flooding . Flooding was minimal in the western Florida panhandle due to drought conditions the previous summer . Sustained winds across the state peaked at 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , though gusts reached 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) at Cape San Blas . At that location , there was over $ 100 @,@ 000 in road damage and beach loss . The winds combined with the heavy rainfall caused trees to fall onto power lines , leaving about 5 @,@ 000 people without electricity . The storm spawned 6 tornadoes along the panhandle , one of which destroyed several mobile homes in Wakulla . As the storm moved ashore , tides were less than 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) above normal , but were high enough to cause minor beach erosion . In Leon County , the storm destroyed two homes and six mobile homes , and damaged more than 120 homes in Wakulla County .
When Helene moved through Georgia , it had sustained winds of around 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , with higher gusts . It dropped heavy rainfall along its path , with a statewide peak of 5 @.@ 13 in ( 130 mm ) in Dunwoody . The rainfall alleviated persistent drought conditions across the state . However , the combination of winds and rainfall downed trees and power lines ; one falling tree damaged a car in Sandersville . To the northwest of Georgia , rainfall spread into Tennessee , reaching 3 @.@ 12 in ( 79 mm ) in Copperhill . As Helene moved through South Carolina , it spawned an F2 tornado in Martin that killed one person , injured six , and damaged 12 houses . The highest rainfall in the United States associated with Helene was a total of 9 @.@ 60 in ( 244 mm ) in Bamberg , though weather radar images estimated totals of up to 14 in ( 360 mm ) . The rains caused flooding along Highway 47 near Elgin . In Berkeley County , a woman died after hydroplaning and driving her car into a tree .
Rainfall in North Carolina peaked at 8 @.@ 31 in ( 211 mm ) in Longwood ; in Jacksonville , the precipitation caused street flooding . Off the shore of North Carolina , a station at Diamond Shoal Light reported wind gusts of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while Helene was re @-@ intensifying into a tropical storm . Along the coast , the highest gusts were 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) , reported at both Cape Lookout and Duck . Rainfall from the storm extended through Virginia and into Delaware .
= = = Canada = = =
After re @-@ intensifying into a tropical storm for a second time , Helene passed to the southeast of Atlantic Canada . Although its strongest winds remained offshore , the outer rainbands dropped light precipitation , peaking at 0 @.@ 89 in ( 22 @.@ 5 mm ) in eastern Nova Scotia , and 1 @.@ 18 in ( 30 mm ) in southeastern Newfoundland .
= = Aftermath = =
On October 3 , United States President Bill Clinton declared nine Florida counties as disaster areas , which allocated federal funding for debris removal , emergency services , and restoration of damaged public facilities . In Franklin County , many residents had to boil water before consumption due to contaminated water wells . As a result , the local Red Cross chapter provided water bottles to the affected residents . The Red Cross also deployed two Mobile Feeding Vehicles to Wakulla County , and a total of 700 meals were ultimately distributed .
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= Mary Wayte =
Mary Wayte Bradburne ( born March 25 , 1965 ) , née Mary Alice Wayte , is an American former competition swimmer , two @-@ time Olympic gold medalist , and television sports commentator . During her international swimming career , Wayte won eight medals in major international championships , including four golds .
= = Early years = =
Wayte was born and raised on Mercer Island , Washington , where she swam for the Chinook Aquatic Club . As a 16 @-@ year @-@ old high school sophomore , Wayte won three gold medals in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , the 200 @-@ meter backstroke and the 800 @-@ meter freestyle relay at the 1981 National Sport Festival . She won eight Washington state high school swimming titles in five different events while attending Mercer Island High School .
= = College swimming career = =
Wayte accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , where she swam for coach Randy Reese 's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) competition from 1983 to 1987 . As a Gator swimmer , she won two individual NCAA national titles in the 100 @-@ yard freestyle and the 400 @-@ yard individual medley in 1985 . With Gator teammates Laureeen Welting , Kathy Treible , Tracy Caulkins , Dara Torres and Paige Zemina , she was a member of the Gators ' NCAA championship relay teams in the 400 @-@ yard and 800 @-@ yard freestyle relays for three consecutive years ( 1984 , 1985 , 1986 ) , anchoring five of the six relays . In total , she won eight NCAA championships in those three years . She also won eleven individual Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) championships and was a member of ten SEC championship relay teams . Wayte was the SEC Swimmer of the Year in 1985 , and received a total of twenty @-@ six All @-@ American honors in her four years as a collegiate swimmer .
= = International swimming career = =
From 1981 to 1988 , Wayte was a member of the U.S. national swim team , competing in major international championships in Japan ( 1981 , 1985 ) , France ( 1982 ) , the Netherlands ( 1982 ) , Venezuela ( 1983 ) , Monaco ( 1985 ) , Spain ( 1986 ) and South Korea ( 1988 ) . At the 1983 Pan American Games in Caracas , Venezuela , she won a gold medal as a member of the winning U.S. 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay team , and the silver medal in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle event .
At the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , Wayte won her first Olympic gold medal in the women 's 200 @-@ meter freestyle event by defeating her American rival and former world record @-@ holder Cynthia Woodhead . Her winning 200 @-@ meter time of 1 : 59 @.@ 23 was her career best to date , overcoming Woodhead 's early lead in the final 50 meters . She earned her second Olympic gold medal by swimming in the preliminary heat for the winning U.S. women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay team .
Four years later , when Seoul , South Korea hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics , she swam the freestyle leg for the silver medal @-@ winning U.S. team in the women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay with teammates Beth Barr ( backstroke ) , Tracey McFarlane ( breaststroke ) , and Janel Jorgensen ( butterfly ) . The U.S. women 's medley relay team was fraught with last @-@ minute drama , as several previously selected swimmers dropped out to focus on individual events , or were replaced because they had performed below expectations , only hours before the event final . In the event final , the U.S. medley relay team included women with no history of competing together , no relay exchange practice , and no coach ; the East German favorites taunted the Americans before the race . Wayte would later characterize the race as one of her proudest moments . She also captured a bronze medal with the third @-@ place U.S. women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay team that included Mitzi Kremer , Dara Torres and Laura Walker . Individually , she finished fourth in the women 's 200 @-@ meter freestyle ; she was also a medal contender in the women 's 200 @-@ meter individual medley , but was disqualified when the judges ruled she used an illegal butterfly kick on the breaststroke leg of the medley .
= = Life after swimming = =
Wayte graduated from the University of Florida with a bachelor 's degree in telecommunications in 1989 . She retired from competition swimming following the 1988 Olympics , and worked as a fund @-@ raiser for the International Swimming Hall of Fame . She became a celebrity promoter and endorsed products and services on behalf of Alamo Rent a Car , the National Spa and Pool Institute , and Speedo . She later worked as a television broadcaster for the Sports Channel network , covering NCAA and international swimming competitions and interviewing fans at NBA games . For the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona , Spain , Wayte worked as NBC 's women 's swimming color commentator , and later covered the NCAA women 's swimming championships for ESPN . She also served on the U.S. Olympic Committee 's athletes advisory council .
Wayte was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a " Gator Great " in 1998 , the International Swimming Hall of Fame in 2000 , and the Pacific Northwest Swimming Hall of Fame in 2004 . The community swimming pool where she formerly trained in Mercer Island , Washington was renamed " Mary Wayte Pool . "
Wayte married business executive Jim Bradburne in 1995 , and they have two daughters . She currently lives in Seattle , Washington , and works in corporate communications for Cisco Systems . Wayte participates in Swim Across America , a charitable organization that enlists former Olympic swimmers to raise funds for cancer research .
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= Nickel ( United States coin ) =
A nickel , in American usage , is a five @-@ cent coin struck by the United States Mint . Composed of 75 % copper and 25 % nickel , the piece has been issued since 1866 . Its diameter is .835 inches ( 21.21mm ) and its thickness is .077 inches ( 1 @.@ 95 mm ) .
The silver half dime , equal to five cents , had been issued since the 1790s . The American Civil War caused economic hardship , driving gold and silver from circulation ; in response , in place of low @-@ value coins , the government at first issued paper currency . In 1865 , Congress abolished the five @-@ cent fractional currency note after Spencer M. Clark , head of the Currency Bureau ( today the Bureau of Engraving and Printing ) , placed his own portrait on the denomination . After successful introduction of two @-@ cent and three @-@ cent pieces without precious metal , Congress also authorized a five @-@ cent piece consisting of base metal ; the Mint began striking this version in 1866 .
The initial design of the Shield nickel was struck from 1866 until 1883 , then was replaced by the Liberty Head nickel . The Buffalo nickel was introduced in 1913 as part of a drive to increase the beauty of American coinage ; in 1938 , the Jefferson nickel followed . In 2004 and 2005 , special designs in honor of the bicentennial of the Lewis and Clark Expedition were issued . In 2006 , the Mint reverted to using Jefferson nickel designer Felix Schlag 's original reverse ( or " tails " side ) , although a new obverse , by Jamie Franki , was substituted . As of the end of FY 2013 , it cost more than nine cents to produce a nickel ; the Mint is exploring the possibility of reducing cost by using less expensive metals .
= = Background = =
The silver half disme ( as the half dime , pronounced the same , was first called ) was one of the denominations prescribed by the Mint Act of 1792 , its weight and fineness were set by law . The first pieces under federal authority were half dismes , struck in 1792 in the cellar of John Harper , a saw maker ; as the first federal mint was still under construction in Philadelphia , this took place locally at Sixth and Cherry Streets . The dies were engraved by Adam Eckfeldt , who a half @-@ century later recalled the silver for the half dimes was supplied by President George Washington , and that the 1 @,@ 500 coins struck from the bullion were given to Washington 's Secretary of State , Thomas Jefferson , for distribution to important people , both in the US and overseas . By legend , President Washington supplied silverware from his home , Mount Vernon , to provide bullion for the coins . In his annual message to Congress in late 1792 , Washington noted the ongoing construction of a mint building and stated : " There has also been a small beginning in the coinage of half dimes , the want of small coins in circulation calling the first attention to them . "
In 1793 , the newly established Philadelphia Mint began striking cents and half cents . Coinage of precious metal was delayed ; Congress required the assayer and chief coiner to each post a security bond of $ 10 @,@ 000 , a huge sum in 1793 . In 1794 , Congress lowered the chief coiner 's bond to $ 5 @,@ 000 , and the assayer 's to $ 1 @,@ 000 ; President Washington 's appointees to those positions were thus able to qualify and take office . Subsequently , silver coinage began that year .
The half dime was struck to various designs by Mint Engraver Robert Scot from 1794 until 1805 , though none were dated 1798 , 1799 , or 1804 . By 1804 , silver US coins were heavily exported , as they could be exchanged at par in the West Indies with heavier Spanish coins , which were then imported as bullion and deposited at the Mint for melting and restriking . In response , in 1804 the US stopped striking silver dollars ; issuance of the half dime was discontinued from 1805 until 1829 . In 1807 , mint Director Robert Patterson in a letter explained to Jefferson ( by then president ) " nearly the whole of our Silver Bullion ( chiefly Spanish dollars ) come through the Banks , and it is very seldom that they will consent to take any coin less than half dollars . "
Beginning in 1829 , the silver five @-@ cent piece was again struck ; beginning in 1837 , its fineness was increased from .8924 to .900 . Also in 1837 , the half dime 's obverse design changed from one by William Kneass , depicting a bust of Liberty , to one that featured a seated Liberty by Christian Gobrecht ; until its abolition in 1873 , the half dime would bear modifications of this design . In 1851 , it ceased to be the smallest US silver coin as a three cent piece was issued by the Mint .
= = Inception = =
The Civil War caused most American coins to vanish from circulation , with the gap filled by such means as merchant tokens , encased postage stamps , and United States fractional currency , issued in denominations as low as three cents . Although specie ( gold or silver coins ) was hoarded or exported , the copper @-@ nickel cent , then the only base metal denomination being struck , also vanished . In 1864 , Congress began the process of restoring coins to circulation by abolishing the three @-@ cent note and authorizing bronze cents and two @-@ cent pieces , with low intrinsic values , to be struck . These new coins initially proved popular , though the two @-@ cent piece soon faded from circulation . On March 3 , 1865 , Congress passed legislation authorizing the Mint to strike three @-@ cent pieces of 75 % copper and 25 % nickel .
In 1864 , Congress authorized a third series of fractional currency notes . The five @-@ cent note was to bear a depiction of " Clark " , but Congress was appalled when the issue came out not with a portrait of William Clark , the explorer , but Spencer M. Clark , head of the Currency Bureau . According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , Congress 's " immediate infuriated response was to pass a law retiring the five @-@ cent denomination , and another to forbid portrayal of any living person on federal coins or currency . " Clark kept his job only because of the personal intervention of Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase .
Mint Director James Pollock had been opposed to striking coins containing nickel , but in view of the initial success of the copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece , he became an advocate of striking five @-@ cent pieces in the same metals . In his 1865 report , Pollock wrote , " From this nickel alloy , a coin for the denomination of five cents , and which would be a popular substitute for the five cent note , could easily be made ... [ The five @-@ cent coin should be struck in base metal ] only until the resumption of specie payments ... in time of peace ... coins of inferior alloy should not be permitted to take the place permanently of silver in the coinage of pieces above the denomination of three cents . "
Industrialist Joseph Wharton had a near @-@ monopoly on the mining of nickel in the United States , and sought to promote its use in coinage . He was also highly influential in Congress . His friends there , though they had failed to obtain the metal 's use for the two @-@ cent piece , had been more successful with the base @-@ metal three @-@ cent coin . Pollock prepared a bill authorizing a five @-@ cent coin of the same alloy as the three @-@ cent piece , with a total weight not to exceed 60 grains ( 3 @.@ 9 g ) . At the committee stage in the House of Representatives , the weight was amended to 77 @.@ 19 grains ( 5 @.@ 00 g ) , ostensibly to make the weight equal to five grams in the metric system but more likely so that Wharton could sell more nickel . This made the new coin heavy , in terms of weight per $ .01 of face value , compared to the three @-@ cent copper @-@ nickel coin . The bill passed without debate on May 16 , 1866 . The new copper @-@ nickel coin was legal tender for up to one dollar , and would be paid out by the Treasury in exchange for coin of the United States , excluding the half cent , cent and two @-@ cent . It was redeemable in lots of $ 100 for banknotes . Fractional currency in denominations of less than ten cents was withdrawn .
= = Shield nickel ( 1866 – 1883 ) = =
In anticipation of the approval of the new five @-@ cent coin , the Mint 's chief engraver , James B. Longacre , had begun preparing designs and pattern coins in 1865 . After rejecting pieces showing deceased presidents George Washington and Abraham Lincoln , Treasury Secretary Hugh McCulloch decided on a design similar to Longacre 's two @-@ cent piece , with a shield on the obverse and a numeral 5 surrounded by stars and rays on the reverse . This has come to be known as the Shield nickel .
The new coins proved difficult to produce ; owing to the hardness of the planchet , the coins were not of high quality and the life of the striking dies was brief . The design was widely criticized ; Wharton described the obverse as suggesting " a tombstone surmounted by a cross and overhung by weeping willows . " The American Journal of Numismatics described the Shield nickel as " the ugliest of all known coins " . The rays were eliminated from the reverse design in 1867 , in the hope of eliminating some of the production problems . The design change created confusion among the population — many people assumed that one design or the other was a counterfeit — and the Mint briefly considered abandoning the shield design entirely . After heavy production in its first years , by late 1869 , enough nickels had been struck to meet the needs of commerce ; fewer were coined in the following years .
The new coins tended to accumulate in the hands of merchants beyond the legal tender limit , but banks refused to accept them beyond the one @-@ dollar maximum . Storeowners were forced to discount the coins to brokers . Postmasters , compelled by law to accept the coins , found that the Treasury would not accept them as deposits except in lots of $ 100 , in accordance with the authorizing statute . In 1871 , Congress alleviated the problem by passing legislation allowing the Treasury to redeem unlimited quantities of nickels and other low @-@ denomination coins when presented in lots of not less than $ 20 . It was not until 1933 , long after the shield design passed from the scene , that the nickel was made legal tender without limit .
Half dimes continued to be struck , at both the Philadelphia and the San Francisco Mint , until the series was ended by the Coinage Act of 1873 . Despite the abolition , the silver pieces continued to circulate in the West , where silver or gold coins were preferred , throughout the remainder of the 19th century . Improved economic conditions , combined with low silver prices , brought large quantities of hoarded silver coinage , including half dimes , into circulation beginning in April 1876 . In late 1876 , production of the Shield nickel was halted . No Shield nickels were struck in 1877 or 1878 , excepting proof specimens for collectors . As the Treasury had a large stock of nickels in storage , only small numbers were struck over the next few years ; full @-@ scale production did not resume until December 1881 .
= = Liberty Head or " V " nickel ( 1883 – 1913 ) = =
With production of nickels lagging in the late 1870s , and with minimal strikings of the copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece , Wharton sought to increase the use of nickel at the Mint . The bronze cent represented a major portion of the Mint 's production , and Wharton began to lobby for the piece to be struck in copper @-@ nickel , as it had been from 1857 until 1864 . In 1881 , this lobbying led Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Archibald Loudon Snowden to order Mint Engraver Charles Barber to produce uniform designs for a new cent , three @-@ cent piece , and five @-@ cent piece . Snowden required that the new coins depict the head of Liberty with the legend LIBERTY and the date , with the nickel 's reverse to have a wreath of wheat , cotton , and corn around a Roman numeral " V " for " 5 " , to denote the denomination . Under the proposal , the nickel would retain its weight of 5 grams ( 0 @.@ 18 oz ) , but its diameter would be increased to 22 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) .
Barber duly produced the required designs . Snowden eventually decided against a new cent or three @-@ cent piece , but Barber continued work on the nickel , with the size adjusted to 21 @.@ 21 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 835 in ) . When specimens were sent to Washington for routine approval by Treasury Secretary Charles J. Folger , to Snowden 's surprise , they were rejected . The secretary , on review of the coinage statutes , had realized that the laws required " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " to appear on the reverse , not the obverse where Barber had placed it . Barber modified his design accordingly , and the coin was ready for striking in early 1883 . However , by then , Shield nickels dated 1883 had already been coined . To ensure these pieces would not be hoarded for their rarity , Mint officials kept the two designs in production side by side for several months .
Criminals soon realized that the new nickel , which lacked the word " CENTS " , was close in size to the five @-@ dollar gold piece , and if they were to plate the nickel with gold , it might be passed for five dollars . Some coins were even given a reeded edge by fraudsters , making them appear more like the gold coins . The Mint halted production of the new coins ; production of Shield nickels continued . Barber was told to modify his work , which he did , moving other design elements to accommodate the word " CENTS " at the bottom of the reverse . The revised nickel was issued on June 26 , 1883 , the date on which production of the Shield nickel was finally stopped . The public promptly hoarded the " centless " nickels , believing the Treasury Department intended to recall them , and that they would become rare .
The Liberty Head nickel was heavily struck during its 30 @-@ year run , except during economic downturns in 1885 – 1886 and in 1894 , when only small numbers were struck . In 1890 , Congress ended production of the three @-@ cent piece , leaving the five @-@ cent coin as the only one in copper nickel . That year , Congress also allowed the Secretary of the Treasury to authorize the redesign of United States coins , if the former design had been struck for at least 25 years . Although the nickel and silver dollar had been redesigned within the previous quarter @-@ century , a provision in the latter act made them eligible for immediate redesign . In 1896 , pattern nickels were struck for the first time since 1885 , when experimental , holed coins had been tested ; however , no redesign took place .
= = = Growth of the nickel in commerce = = =
Coin @-@ operated machines to vend food , for amusement , and for gambling became popular in the 1890s . Such machines could be placed on otherwise unused floor space in businesses , required little maintenance , and brought in money for owners . Beginning about 1898 , coin @-@ operated mechanical pianos also became popular . The Mills Novelty Company was a leading producer of such devices ; by 1906 it was producing machines ranging from a mechanically played violin to fortune @-@ telling devices . While some machines took cents or other denominations , the nickel was the coin of choice for these machines .
Among the innovations in business caused by the use of the nickel in coin @-@ operated machines was the automat , in which patrons would serve themselves by inserting a coin ( initially a nickel , though by the 1950s a higher denomination was needed ) into a mechanism , turning a handle , and removing a sandwich or dessert . These restaurants were first established in Germany , but were popularized in the United States by , among other firms , Horn & Hardart . A type of business which took its name from the coin was the nickelodeon cinema , where a nickel bought admission to view a series of one @-@ reel short films , generally about 12 minutes in length , which ran continuously from early afternoon until late at night , with the patron free to remain as long as he liked . Although another denomination gave the penny arcade its name , the nickel was commonly used there as well .
Few nickels had circulated in the western states before the 1880s ( people there preferred silver and gold coins ) ; interest in the new Liberty Head design had led to increasing use of nickels there . Good economic conditions and high demand for nickels for use in coin @-@ operated devices caused the piece to circulate throughout the nation by 1900 . That year , Mint Director George E. Roberts called on Congress to quintuple the Mint 's appropriation to purchase base metals for striking into nickels and cents . At the time , statutory restrictions permitted production of cents and nickels only at Philadelphia ; Roberts ' request that Congress allow striking at the other mints was granted in 1906 . The Denver and San Francisco Mints began striking nickels in 1912 .
= = = 1913 Liberty Head nickel rarity = = =
The Liberty Head nickel was replaced after 1912 , and initially there was no indication that 1913 @-@ dated pieces with that design existed . In December 1919 , a coin dealer , Samuel W. Brown , placed advertisements in coin publications , offering to buy 1913 Liberty Head nickels . The following August , Brown appeared at the annual American Numismatic Association ( ANA ) convention bearing such a piece . Brown claimed that a master die had been prepared for 1913 and that these pieces had been run off to test it . As it turned out , Brown possessed five coins , which he eventually sold . After spending fifteen years in the hands of the eccentric Col. E.H.R. Green , the famous Fort Worth , Texas , area collector , the coins were finally dispersed in 1943 . Since then , they have had several owners each . Today , two are on public display — at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the ANA 's Money Museum in Colorado Springs , while three are owned privately . The most recent sale of a 1913 Liberty Head nickel was in January 2010 , when one sold for $ 3 @,@ 737 @,@ 500 in an auction .
It is uncertain how the 1913 nickels came to be made . The Mint 's records show no production of 1913 Liberty head nickels , and none were authorized to be made . Dies were prepared in advance and sent to California for a 1913 @-@ S Liberty Head nickel coinage , but upon orders from Mint Director Roberts in December 1912 to end the old design , they were returned to Philadelphia . They were received by December 23 , and were almost certainly destroyed routinely by early January . Brown had been an employee at the Philadelphia Mint ( although this was not known until 1963 ) and many theories focus suspicion on him .
= = Buffalo or Indian Head ( 1913 – 1938 ) = =
President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 expressed his dissatisfaction with the artistic state of American coins , and hoped to hire sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens to beautify them . Saint @-@ Gaudens , before his 1907 death , designed a new eagle and double eagle , which entered circulation that year ; the cent , quarter eagle , and half eagle were redesigned by other artists and were released into circulation by 1909 . That year , Mint Director Frank Leach instructed Barber to make pattern coins for new nickels . Most of these coins featured the first president , George Washington . However , the project was discontinued when Leach left office on November 1 , 1909 , to be replaced by Abram Andrew .
On May 4 , 1911 , Eames MacVeagh , son of Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh wrote to his father :
A little matter that seems to have been overlooked by all of you is the opportunity to beautify the design of the nickel or five cent piece during your administration , and it seems to me that it would be a permanent souvenir of a most attractive sort . As possibly you are aware , it is the only coin the design of which you can change during your administration , as I believe there is a law to the effect that the designs must not be changed oftener than every twenty @-@ five years . I should think also it might be the coin of which the greatest numbers are in circulation .
Soon after the MacVeagh letter , Andrew announced that the Mint would solicit new designs for the nickel . Sculptor James Earle Fraser , who had been an assistant to Saint @-@ Gaudens , approached the Mint , and rapidly produced concepts and designs . Mint Director George Roberts , who had returned to office in place of Andrew , initially favored a design featuring Lincoln , but Fraser soon developed a design featuring a Native American on one side and a bison on the other . Secretary MacVeagh wrote , " Tell him that of the three sketches which he submitted we would like to use the sketch of the head of the Indian and the sketch of the buffalo . " In July 1912 , news of the new nickel became public , and coin @-@ operated machine manufacturers sought information . Clarence Hobbs of the Hobbs Manufacturing Company , maker of counterfeit detectors , feared the new nickel would not be passed by his devices . Hobbs demanded various changes to the design , to which the artist was reluctant to agree .
The Hobbs Company continued to interpose objections in 1913 . On February 3 , Hobbs sent Roberts a lengthy list of changes that he wanted in the coin , and the sculptor was required to attend a conference with Hobbs representatives . On the fifth , following the conference , which ended with no agreement , Fraser sent MacVeagh a ten @-@ page letter , complaining that his time was being wasted by the Hobbs Company , and appealing to the Secretary to bring the situation to a close . Secretary MacVeagh agreed to hold a meeting at his office in Washington on February 14 . Barber prepared patterns showing what the nickel would look like if the changes demanded by Hobbs were made . MacVeagh conducted the meeting much like a legal hearing , and issued a letter the following day . The secretary noted that no other firm had complained , that the Hobbs mechanism had not been widely sold , and that the changes demanded — a clear space around the rim and the flattening of the Indian 's cheekbone — would affect the artistic merit of the piece . MacVeagh concluded , " You will please , therefore , proceed with the coinage of the new nickel . "
The coins were officially released to circulation on March 4 , 1913 , and quickly gained positive comments for depicting truly American themes . However , The New York Times stated in an editorial that " The new ' nickel ' is a striking example of what a coin intended for wide circulation should not be ... [ it ] is not pleasing to look at when new and shiny , and will be an abomination when old and dull . " The Numismatist , in March and May 1913 editorials , gave the new coin a lukewarm review , suggesting that the Indian 's head be reduced in size and the bison be eliminated from the reverse .
Dies for the new design proved to break quickly . Barber made proposed revisions , which Fraser approved after being sent samples . These changes enlarged the legend " FIVE CENTS " and changed the ground on which the bison stands from a hill to flat ground . According to data compiled by numismatic historian David Lange from the National Archives , the changes to what are known as Type II nickels ( with the originals Type I ) actually decreased the die life . A problem not addressed was the exposure of the date to wear ; many Buffalo nickels today have the date worn away .
In January 1938 , the Mint announced an open competition for a new nickel design , to feature early president Thomas Jefferson on the obverse , and Jefferson 's home , Monticello on the reverse . The last Buffalo nickels were struck in April 1938 at the Denver Mint , the only mint to strike them that year .
= = = Design and name controversies = = =
The identities of the models for the Native American on the obverse and for the bison on the reverse are not known with certainty . Fraser stressed that the Indian was a type , rather than based on a specific individual , and identified various Native Americans as models , not always consistently , including Iron Tail , Two Moons , and Big Tree ( of the Kiowa people ) . There have been other claimants , the most prominent being John Big Tree , a Seneca , who made many public appearances as the " nickel Indian " until his death in 1967 . Fraser recounted that the animal on the reverse was an American bison , Black Diamond , whom he stated lived at the Bronx Zoo , and also described the model simply as a bison at the Bronx Zoo . However , Black Diamond was never at the Bronx Zoo , but instead lived at the Central Park Zoo ( both facilities are in New York City ) until the animal was sold and slaughtered in 1915 . The placement of the horns on the still @-@ extant mounted head of Black Diamond differs from that of the bison on the nickel .
From its inception , the coin was referred to as the " Buffalo nickel " , reflecting the common misnomer for the bison . The numismatic publication with the greatest circulation , Coin World , calls it an Indian head nickel , while R.S. Yeoman 's Red Book refers to it as an " Indian Head or Buffalo type " .
= = Jefferson nickel ( 1938 – present ) = =
When the Buffalo nickel had been struck for 25 years and could be replaced without an act of Congress , the Mint moved quickly to replace it . Although the Fraser design is popular today among numismatists , it did not enjoy that status in 1938 , and there was no public outcry at the decision . In January 1938 , the Mint announced an open competition for the new nickel design , with the winner to receive a prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 . Anticipating the 1943 bicentennial of Jefferson 's birth , competitors were to place his portrait on the obverse , and a depiction of his house Monticello on the reverse .
On April 24 , Felix Schlag was announced as the winner . His design featured the portrayal of Jefferson which would be used on the nickel until 2004 , closely conforming to the former president 's bust by sculptor Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon , which is to be found in Boston 's Museum of Fine Arts . However , the model differs from the nickel that was struck for circulation because it featured a view of Monticello from an angle , and a style of lettering officials did not like ; Schlag was required to change both . Either through a misunderstanding or an oversight , Schlag did not include his initials in the design ; they would not be added until 1966 . Production began on October 3 , 1938 ; they were released into circulation on November 15 . According to contemporary accounts , the Jefferson nickel was initially hoarded , and it was not until 1940 that it was commonly seen in circulation .
With the entry of the United States into World War II , nickel became a critical war material , and the Mint sought to reduce its use of the metal . On March 27 , 1942 , Congress authorized a nickel made of 50 % copper and 50 % silver , but gave the Mint the authority to vary the proportions , or add other metals , in the public interest . The Mint 's greatest concern was in finding an alloy that would use no nickel , but still satisfy counterfeit detectors in vending machines . An alloy of 56 % copper , 35 % silver and 9 % manganese proved suitable , and this alloy began to be coined into nickels from October 1942 . In the hope of making them easy to sort out and withdraw after the war , the Mint struck all " war nickels " with a large mint mark appearing above Monticello . The mint mark P for Philadelphia was the first time that mint 's mark had appeared on a US coin . The prewar composition returned in 1946 ; all nickels struck since then have been in 75 % copper and 25 % nickel .
In 1966 , a small change was made to the design to add the initials of the designer ( FS ) to the obverse , underneath Jefferson 's portrait . In commemoration of that change , two specimen 1966 nickels with the initials were struck and presented to him . Coins struck at any mint between 1965 and 1967 lack mint marks , which were omitted as the Mint replaced the silver circulating coins with copper @-@ nickel . Beginning in 1968 , mint marks were again used , and on the nickel were moved to the lower part of the obverse , to the right of Jefferson 's bust . From 1971 , no nickels were struck for circulation in San Francisco — the 1971 @-@ S was the first nickel struck in proof only since 1878 .
= = = Westward Journey commemoratives ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = =
The Mint had struck circulating commemorative coins for the United States Bicentennial , giving quarters , half dollars , and dollars struck in 1975 and 1976 a dual date , " 1776 – 1976 " . After Canada issued a successful series of quarters in 1992 honoring its provinces and territories , the Mint obtained congressional permission to issue a series of US quarters honoring American states ; they began to be issued in 1999 . In 2002 , the Mint began to consider redesigning the nickel in honor of the upcoming bicentennial of the Lewis and Clark Expedition . Representative Eric Cantor ( Republican @-@ Virginia ) did not wish to see Monticello ( located in his home state ) moved permanently off the nickel . The resultant " American 5 @-@ Cent Coin Design Continuity Act of 2003 " , was signed into law on April 23 , 2003 . Under its terms , the Treasury Secretary could vary the nickel 's designs in honor of the 200th anniversary of the Expedition and of the Louisiana Purchase , but the nickel would again feature Jefferson and Monticello beginning in 2006 . Unless Congress acts again , every future five @-@ cent coin will feature Jefferson and Monticello .
The Mint used Schlag 's obverse in 2004 , with two new reverse designs . Mint sculptor @-@ engraver Norman E. Nemeth 's adaptation of an Indian Peace Medal struck for Jefferson was the first new design , followed by a depiction by Mint sculptor @-@ engraver Al Maletsky of a keelboat like that used by the Expedition . The 2005 obverse was struck during that year only , with a design by sculptor Joe Fitzgerald based on Houdon 's bust of Jefferson . The legend " LIBERTY " on the obverse was traced from Jefferson 's handwriting in drafting the Declaration of Independence ; as the word is never capitalized in that document , Fitzgerald borrowed a capital L from Jefferson 's other writings . The reverse for the first half of the year depicted an American bison , recalling the Buffalo nickel and designed by Jamie Franki . The reverse for the second half showed a coastline and the words " Ocean in view ! O ! The Joy ! " , from a journal entry by William Clark , co @-@ leader of the Expedition . Clark had actually written the word as " ocian " , but the Mint modernized the spelling .
Another Franki design has , since 2006 , been used for the obverse , depicting a view of Jefferson from the front ( rather than in profile ) based on an 1800 study by Rembrandt Peale , and includes " Liberty " in Jefferson 's script . According to Acting Mint Director David Lebryk , " The image of a forward @-@ facing Jefferson is a fitting tribute to [ his ] vision . " The reverse beginning in 2006 was again Schlag 's Monticello design , but newly sharpened by Mint engravers . As Schlag 's obverse design , on which his initials were placed in 1966 , is no longer used , his initials were placed on the reverse to the right of Monticello .
= = = Increase in metal values = = =
In the first decade of the 21st century , commodity prices for copper and nickel , which make up the five @-@ cent coin , rose dramatically , pushing the cost of manufacturing a nickel from 3 @.@ 46 cents in fiscal year 2003 to 10 @.@ 09 cents in fiscal year 2012 . By comparison , a Canadian nickel ( which is primarily made of steel ) still costs less than its face value to produce as of 2013 . In response , Mint Director Henrietta Fore in 2004 asked Congress to fund research into lower @-@ cost alternatives to present coinage metals . Although the initiative lapsed when she left office in 2005 , in 2010 , Congress passed the Coin Modernization , Oversight , and Continuity Act ( CMOCA ) , directing the Mint to explore alternatives to the present compositions of the six denominations , from cent to dollar . In 2011 , the Mint awarded a contract to study the issue to Concurrent Technologies Corporation of Johnstown , Pennsylvania . The report in response to the legislation declared that there is no material that would reduce the one @-@ cent coin 's manufacturing cost to below one cent , so it was removed from consideration . The report requested additional time to study the issue , ensuring the continuation , for the present , of the existing coinage metals . The Mint expects demand for nickels in commerce to increase from 840 million needed in Fiscal Year 2011 to 1 @.@ 08 billion in 2015 .
Meanwhile , in an attempt to avoid losing large quantities of circulating nickels to melting , the United States Mint introduced new interim rules on December 14 , 2006 , that criminalized the melting and export of pennies ( which as of 2013 cost 1 @.@ 83 cents to produce ) and nickels . Violators of these rules can be punished with a fine of up to $ 10 @,@ 000 , five years imprisonment , or both . The rules were finalized on April 17 , 2007 . The melt value of a nickel for some time was more than five cents , including nearing over one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half times its face value in May 2007 . Since then , the supply and demand of the coin 's composition metals have stabilized . A nickel 's melt value fell below its face value from late 2008 through mid @-@ 2010 , and more recently again from late mid @-@ 2012 through the present . In February 2014 , it was reported that the Mint was conducting experiments to use copper @-@ plated zinc ( the same composition used for the United States 1 cent coin ) for the nickel .
In December 2014 , the Mint released its next Biennial report in response to the CMOCA . In it , the Mint declared that plated zinc products did not hold up to steam / wear tests and were rejected for US coins outside the penny ( which does not see significant use by the public ) . Materials considered " feasible " for the 5 @-@ cent coin were nickel @-@ plated steel , multi @-@ ply @-@ plated steel , and potentially another copper / nickel alloy , this time with ~ 77 % copper , ~ 20 % nickel , and ~ 3 % manganese . Further testing was recommended to explore even less expensive alloys that would not require changes to vending machines ( as the steel @-@ based materials would require ) .
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= McEwan 's =
McEwan 's is a brand of beer that originated in Edinburgh , Scotland and is owned by the English brewer Wells & Youngs .
William McEwan opened the Fountain Brewery in Fountainbridge , Edinburgh , in 1856 . The firm underwent several mergers in the following century , including with local rival William Younger 's , and later with Newcastle Breweries to form Scottish & Newcastle . The McEwan 's brand passed to Heineken in 2008 after their purchase of Scottish & Newcastle 's British operations . Heineken sold the brand to Wells & Youngs in 2011 .
McEwan 's is best known for 80 / - , a Heavy beer , and Export , an India Pale Ale . All of the draught beers ( except Best Scotch ) are brewed at the Caledonian Brewery in Edinburgh , whilst the canned and bottled beers are produced at the Eagle Brewery in Bedford , England . The beers are sold predominantly in Scotland and the North East of England .
Despite being the dominant presence in Scottish brewing for around a century , the McEwan 's brands were neglected by Scottish & Newcastle , who concentrated on their global brands . The McEwan 's ales were eclipsed by John Smith 's Bitter and Belhaven Best and cask @-@ conditioned beers such as Deuchars IPA , whilst the lager fell behind Tennent 's .
McEwan 's is well known for its cavalier mascot , broadly based on the Frans Hals painting , the Laughing Cavalier portrait , which has been used since the 1930s . The company was a well known sponsor of numerous football teams throughout the 1980s and 90s , most notably Blackburn Rovers ' Premier League title winning side , and Rangers F.C.
= = History = =
= = = Victorian beginnings = = =
William McEwan opened the Fountain Brewery in Fountainbridge , then a suburb on the outskirts of Edinburgh , in 1856 , using £ 2 @,@ 000 loaned by his mother and his uncle . The area and the brewery are named after the spring waters from the vicinity , which , in addition to its proximity to the Caledonian railway line and the Union Canal , determined the location of the brewery . McEwan had employed geologists to identify the prime location for a supply of well water . Beforehand , McEwan had engaged in industrial espionage at Bass and Allsopp 's breweries in order to learn techniques and assay costs . After establishing a market share in the industrial regions of the Scottish lowlands , from the early 1860s McEwan built up a successful colonial export trade by exploiting his family 's shipowning connections . It was during this time that McEwan 's India Pale Ale , the beer that was the foundation for much of the company 's reputation , was first labelled Export .
By the 1870s McEwan 's brewery employed 170 men and boys , and its beers were widely available in England . By 1880 , the brewery site covered 12 acres . McEwan 's 80 / - , a Heavy beer , was first brewed in the late nineteenth century ; the shilling " / - " denotion refers to the wholesale price for a hogshead of the beer . In 1886 , as he prepared to enter Parliament , William McEwan appointed his nephew , William Younger , as managing director of the brewery . When the company was registered in 1889 it was worth £ 408 @,@ 000 and had capital of £ 1 million , and was the largest brewery in the United Kingdom under a single owner . By the turn of the twentieth century the company had a large share of the market throughout Scotland , a 90 per cent share of the Tyneside market , and was exporting to Scottish expatriates across the British Empire . At its peak the brewery was producing two million barrels of beer a year , much of it for export .
= = = Twentieth @-@ century mergers = = =
In 1907 , McEwan 's acquired the trade and goodwill of Alexander Melvin & Co of central Edinburgh . By 1914 , McEwan 's bottled beers were distributed across the United Kingdom . In December 1930 , McEwan 's merged with Edinburgh rival William Younger 's Brewery to form Scottish Brewers in a defensive move after the Great Depression diminished revenues . Each entity was initially run separately , and only certain financial and technological resources were amalgamated . During this period the company became an early pioneer of container beer , largely due to its dependence on exports , particularly to the Royal Navy , where beer might be stored on board ships for up to a year . The NAAFI continued to be an important McEwan 's customer throughout the century . In the early 1930s , Jardine Matheson approached the company regarding a potential brewing venture in China , but McEwan 's did not welcome the threat to their export business .
The company 's export trade declined during and after the Second World War , and as a result , the Abbey Brewery in Edinburgh , previously the Younger 's brewery , was closed down in 1956 and converted into offices . By the 1950s , McEwan 's had become the dominant party in the McEwan Younger venture , and a full merger was undertaken in 1959 . Scottish Brewers continued to increase its market share in the brewing sector , doubling its output after a costly five @-@ year programme of expansion and modernisation undertaken between 1958 and 1963 .
The company merged with Newcastle Breweries in 1960 , forming Scottish & Newcastle , a group with market value of £ 50 million . William McEwan Younger , the son of William Younger , was the chairman and managing director . The company dedicated itself to the free trade , and promoted its brands to an extent not previously witnessed in the British brewing industry . McEwan 's Export became one of the three core brands of the new company , alongside Newcastle Brown Ale and Younger 's Tartan Special . Scottish & Newcastle became the dominant force in brewing across Scotland and the North of England . From the 1960s , the company began to style itself MacEwan 's in export markets , in order to make pronunciation easier . The company 's McEwan 's Strong Ale was the highest gravity beer on general sale throughout the world . McEwan 's Export was alternatively sold as India Pale Ale or Scotch Ale overseas . William McEwan Younger retired in 1970 .
The Fountain Brewery was rebuilt in 1973 and pioneered the use of computer control for the entire brewing process . The site had a 2 million barrel capacity , and occupied 22 acres on a new site which had formerly been occupied by a British Rubber mill . McEwan 's Export became a nationally distributed beer by the 1970s , and was the highest selling canned beer in the United Kingdom by 1975 . McEwan 's Lager was introduced in 1976 as the demand for lager increased , but it struggled to gain credibility until the " Alive and kicking " campaign was launched in 1986 . McEwan 's Export was launched in the United States in 1989 . Two bottled ales were launched , McEwan 's Champion Ale ( 7 @.@ 3 % ) in 1997 and McEwan 's Parliament Ale ( 5 % ) in 1999 . In 2000 , McEwan 's had 13 percent of the Scottish lager market and around 40 percent of the Scottish ale market . In 2003 McEwan 's 70 / - was overtaken by Belhaven Best as Scotland 's best @-@ selling ale , and McEwan 's Lager was discontinued .
= = = Closure of the Fountain Brewery = = =
In February 2004 Scottish & Newcastle announced the closure of the Fountain Brewery . Production costs at Fountainbridge had become twice as high as those at the company 's lowest @-@ cost brewery in Tadcaster , North Yorkshire . It closed in June 2005 , with the loss of 170 jobs . Production of McEwan 's draught beers was transferred to the Caledonian Brewery with cans of McEwan 's Export being produced at John Smith 's Brewery in Tadcaster . The McEwan 's and Younger 's brands added around 50 @,@ 000 barrels to the production of the Caledonian . The last regular batch of the cask @-@ conditioned version of McEwan 's 80 / - was brewed in 2006 after annual production dropped below 10 @,@ 000 barrels , although the beer made a brief return in June 2011 and has since been brewed seasonally by W & Y. McEwan 's Lager was reintroduced in 2009 .
= = = Sale to Wells & Youngs = = =
In October 2011 , Heineken sold the McEwan 's beer brands to Wells & Youngs for around £ 20 million , and production of McEwan 's Best Scotch and canned and bottled brands moved to Bedford . The new owners vowed to reintroduce McEwan 's as a cask ale brand and launch an expanded premium bottled range . Together with the Younger 's brands McEwan 's generates £ 80 million of sales annually in the UK , and McEwan 's is now the largest Wells & Youngs brand . It is the highest @-@ selling ale brand in Scotland where it has a 20 per cent market share . Like most largely pasteurised ale brands in the UK it has been in a state of managed decline . The beers are sold predominantly in Scotland and the north of England ; a small amount is exported to Italy . 2012 saw the launch of McEwan 's Export in bottles , and a new seasonal cask @-@ conditioned golden ale called McEwan 's Gold . In 2013 , export sales to Canada were resumed , having been discontinued under Heineken . In April 2013 McEwan 's Red was launched , aimed at younger drinkers and with the intention of expanding the brand into England . McEwan 's beers began to be sold in France in April 2013 . The bottled beers McEwan 's Amber and Signature were launched in July 2013 .
= = Current product range = =
McEwan 's 60 / - ( 3 @.@ 2 per cent ABV )
A beer style known in Scotland as " Light " , this dark coloured beer is similar to an English mild ale .
McEwan 's Best Scotch ( 3 @.@ 6 per cent ABV )
A beer that shares style characteristics with both mild and bitter . It sells 23 @,@ 000 hectolitres annually . Sales are concentrated in the Tyneside region , and the beer is not found in Scotland . Production was moved from the Tyne Brewery in Newcastle upon Tyne to the Federation Brewery in Gateshead in 2005 . The Federation Brewery was closed in 2010 , and production of McEwan 's Best Scotch was contracted to the Burtonwood Brewery near Cheshire , until it moved to Bedford following the Wells & Youngs takeover .
McEwan 's 70 / - ( 3 @.@ 7 per cent ABV )
Shares many characteristics with an English session bitter .
McEwan 's 80 / - ( 4 @.@ 2 per cent ABV )
A Heavy , which until 2000 was brewed to 4 @.@ 5 per cent ABV .
McEwan 's Export ( 4 @.@ 5 per cent ABV )
The second highest selling canned premium ale in the UK . In cans , it sold over 30 @,@ 000 hectolitres in 2012 . In Scotland it accounts for 83 per cent of the canned premium ale market . Sometimes sold as McEwan 's India Pale Ale in overseas markets .
McEwan 's Champion Ale ( 7 @.@ 3 per cent ABV )
A Burton or Edinburgh ale , a style known locally as " Wee Heavy " . Available across the United Kingdom in 500ml bottles , it is one of the top twenty highest selling bottled ales , selling around 7 @,@ 000 hectolitres in 2012 . A stronger version is sold as McEwan 's Scotch Ale in export markets .
McEwan 's Lager ( 3 @.@ 6 per cent ABV )
McEwan 's Red ( 3 @.@ 6 per cent ABV )
An ale with a reddish tinge introduced in 2013 .
= = Advertising = =
Throughout the Victorian period , and into the twentieth century , McEwan 's drew heavily from imagery of the British Empire in its branding . The Laughing Cavalier mascot was introduced to the McEwan 's brand in the 1930s . Based on the well @-@ known Frans Hals painting , it has been used extensively in advertisements and branding ever since . During the 1960s and ' 70s , McEwan 's was advertised as " The best buy in beer " .
From the 1970s until the early 1990s McEwan 's Best Scotch was marketed in the North East of England as " The one you 've got to come back for " .
The " alive and kicking " campaign for McEwan 's Lager from 1986 until 1997 saw some of the most memorable and radical television advertisements yet produced at the time .
= = = Sponsorship = = =
During the 1980s and 1990s , McEwan 's sponsored six football clubs and two rugby league clubs :
Carlisle United – 1982 to 1988 ( as ' McEwan 's Younger ' )
Darlington – 1984 to 1987
Rangers – 1987 to 1999 ( McEwan 's Lager )
Notts County – 1991 to 1994 ( Away games only )
Blackburn Rovers – 1991 to 1995
St Helens RLFC – 1991 to 1999
Wakefield Trinity Wildcats – 1993 @-@ 1997
Newcastle United – 1991 to 1996 ( Away games only )
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= Courage C60 =
The Courage C60 was a Le Mans Prototype ( LMP ) racing car built by Courage Compétition in 2000 , and used in international sports car races until 2006 . A replacement for the Courage C52 , it was Courage 's first all @-@ new prototype since the Courage C41 was built in 1994 . Initially fitted with a 4 @-@ litre naturally @-@ aspirated Judd GV4 V10 engine in 2000 , and run by SMG Compétition , Pescarolo Sport began using a 3 @.@ 2 @-@ litre twin @-@ turbocharged Sodemo @-@ Peugeot A32 V6 engined version of the car in 2001 , and the Peugeot @-@ engined versions would prove to be the most successful . In 2004 , Pescarolo redeveloped the C60 on their own , and replaced the Peugeot engines with 5 @-@ litre Judd GV5 V10s . In 2005 , Courage ran two updated versions of the C60 ( known as the C60 Hybrid , and using the Judd GV4 engines ) as a factory effort , and one of these took third place at that year 's 24 Hours of Le Mans ; Pescarolo also updated their C60s into a similar Hybrid format , and took second at the 2005 and 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans , whilst also winning the Le Mans Series in both years . In 2006 , the all @-@ new Courage LC70 was introduced by Courage , and Pescarolo introduced their 01 in 2007 .
= = Design and development = =
In 2000 , Courage Compétition introduced the C60 as a clean @-@ sheet replacement for the Courage C52 . Like its predecessor , the C60 was designed by Paolo Catone , and was the first all @-@ new car since the Courage C41 was introduced . The C60 used a carbon fibre and aluminium honeycomb monocoque chassis , whilst its suspension consisted of double wishbones , pushrods and horizontally @-@ located dynamic dampers . SMG Compétition were the first team to run the car , and their C60 was fitted with a 4 @-@ litre naturally @-@ aspirated Judd GV4 V10 engine , In 2001 , Pescarolo Sport began using the C60 and their C60s used a Sodemo @-@ developed 3 @.@ 2 @-@ litre twin @-@ turbocharged Peugeot A32 V6 engine , capable of a claimed power output of 550 hp ( 410 kW ; 558 PS ) . In 2002 , André de Cortanze redeveloped the C60 into the C60 Evo , which notably featured an unusual brake duct system similar to that found on an open @-@ wheel racing car at the front of the car , whilst the rear wing endplates were redesigned and the Peugeot A32 engine now produced a claimed output of 580 hp ( 433 kW ; 588 PS ) . The endplates were further developed in 2003 , whilst the engine 's air restrictors were decreased in size from 32 @.@ 4 to 30 @.@ 7 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) , resulting in the claimed power output decreasing to 510 hp ( 380 kW ; 517 PS ) . In 2004 , Pescarolo began running the car as a " Pescarolo C60 " with a 5 @-@ litre Judd GV5 V10 engine , as Henri Pescarolo had further developed the C60 . For 2005 , Courage and Pescarolo both released redeveloped versions of the C60 for the new LMP1 regulations ; both were designated as C60 Hybrids and used Judd engines . The Pescarolo version retained its Judd GV5 engine , with a claimed power output of 630 hp ( 470 kW ; 639 PS ) , whilst the Courage version used the smaller 600 hp ( 447 kW ; 608 PS ) Judd GV4 engine , and featured a noticeably different rear wing . Courage introduced the new Catone @-@ designed Courage LC70 in 2006 as the C60 's replacement .
= = Racing history = =
= = = 2000 – 2001 = = =
The C60 made its debut at the 2000 Silverstone 500 USA Challenge , when SMG Compétition 's Gary Formato and Philippe Gache used the car to take tenth place , and eighth in the LMP category . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Gache and Formato were to be joined by Didier Cottaz , but suspension failure after 219 laps forced the team to retire . SMG ran Cottaz and Gache at the 1000 km of Nürburgring , but an accident after 44 laps lead to the team 's retirement .
For 2001 , Pescarolo Sport replaced their C52s with the C60 . Their first race with the C60 came at the 12 Hours of Sebring , with Jean @-@ Christophe Boullion , Sébastien Bourdais and Laurent Rédon selected to drive the car ; however , engine problems after 167 laps forced them to retire , and they were classified 25th overall , and seventh in class . At the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Catalunya , Boullion and Bourdais completed 57 laps before another engine problem forced them to retire . For the 2 Hours 45 Minutes of Donington Park , Boullion partnered Rédon to fourth place , the fastest of the non @-@ Audi entries . However , oil pump issues struck at the 1000 km of Monza , forcing Boullion , Rédon and Bourdais to retire . Three C60s were entered in the 2001 24 Hours of Le Mans ; Pescarolo ran Boullion , Bourdais and Rédon in one car , and Emmanuel Clérico , Cottaz and Boris Derichebourg in another , whilst SMG ran Gache alongside Jérôme Policand and Anthony Beltoise in their C60 . Only the Boullion / Bourdais / Rédon C60 finished ( in 13th overall , and 4th in the LMP900 category ) , as the other Pescarolo car crashed out after 42 laps , and SMG 's C60 succombed to engine problems 9 laps later . Pescarolo Sport 's next race with the C60 came at the 1000 km Estoril , where Boullion , Rédon and Derichebourg were able to take the car 's first ever victory , although they had initially been disqualified for ignoring blue flags ; Boullion and Rédon immediately followed this with another victory in their next race , which was the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Magny @-@ Cours . Boullion and Derichebourg finished the season off with second at the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Nürburgring . Courage finished the American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) season classified in sixth , whilst they took fifth in the FIA Sportscar Championship , and third in the European Le Mans Series ( ELMS ) .
= = = 2002 – 2003 = = =
For 2002 , Courage Compétition began running a factory team again ( using a Judd @-@ engined C60 ) , whilst Pescarolo Sport continued with their Peugeot @-@ engined C60 . The 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Catalunya saw Courage 's Thed Björk , Derichebourg and Cottaz take fifth overall , whilst Pescarolo 's Boullion and Bourdais won the race . At the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Estoril , it was Cottaz and Derichebourg who took second for Courage , whilst Boullion and Franck Lagorce finished fourth for Pescarolo . At the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Brno , Cottaz and Derichebourg took another second for Courage , whilst Pescarolo did not compete . Three C60s were entered for the 2002 24 Hours of Le Mans ; Courage selected Cottaz , Derichebourg and Björk to drive their car , whilst Pescarolo ran Boullion , Lagorce and Bourdais in one of their C60 @-@ Peugeots , and Stéphane Ortelli , Ukyo Katayama and Éric Hélary drove their other car . Although the C60 of Ortelli / Katayama / Hélary succombed to engine trouble after 144 laps , the other Pescarolo @-@ entered C60 finished tenth overall , and ninth in class whilst the Courage @-@ entered C60 finished 15th overall , and 11th in class . Pescarolo reverted to a single @-@ car entry for the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Magny @-@ Cours , which , with Bourdais and Boullion at the wheel , finished in second ; the Courage @-@ entered car , driven by Cottaz and Derichebourg , succumbed to electrical issues before completing a lap . Courage did not run their car again , whilst Pescarolo 's Boullion and Lagorce took third at the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Dijon , before Bourdais and Boullion finished the season with a victory at the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Spa . Courage finished the season tied with Dome on 97 points in the SR1 Constructor 's Championship , but lost the title to Dome as they had won a single race less .
Pescarolo started the 2003 FIA Sportscar Championship season with a victory at the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Estoril , with Boullion partnering Stéphane Sarrazin in the C60 . Like the previous year , three C60s were entered at the 24 Hours of Le Mans ; Courage ran Jonathan Cochet , Jean @-@ Marc Gounon and Stéphan Grégoire in their car , whilst Pescarolo ran Boullion , Sarrazin and Lagorce in one car , with Nicolas Minassian , Soheil Ayari and Hélary in the other . The three C60s finished seventh , eighth and ninth respectively , which equated to fifth , sixth and seventh in the LMP900 category . Pescarolo followed this result with a string of retirements at the 500 km of Monza , the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Oschersleben and the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Donington . The 1000 km of Spa saw a return to form , as Sarrazin and Lagorce took second , before Pescarolo ended the FIA Sportscar Championship season with a victory at the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Nogaro ( where Ayari replaced Sarrazin ) . Despite the mid @-@ season slump , Pescarolo were still able to deliver Courage second in the SR1 Constructor 's Championship . The final race of the C60 's season came at the non @-@ championship 1000 km of Le Mans , where Sarrazin , Lagorce and Bourdais took second place .
= = = 2004 – 2005 = = =
In 2004 , Pescarolo Sport were the only team to use the C60 , which they ran as the " Pescarolo C60 " . The team 's first race came in the 1000 km of Monza , which formed part of the new Le Mans Endurance Series ( LMES ) ; here , Ayari and Emmanuel Collard took fourth overall , and were the fastest of the non @-@ Audi entrants . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Collard partnered Bourdais and Minassian in one C60 , whilst Ayari drove with Érik Comas and Benoît Tréluyer in the other . Although the C60 of Collard , Bourdais and Minassian succombed to engine trouble after 282 laps , the Ayari / Comas / Tréluyer finished fourth overall , and fastest of the non @-@ Audi runners once more . Hélary was selected to partner Ayari at the 1000 km of Nürburgring , and this time the pair brought the C60 home in fifth overall . Pescarolo 's last race of the season came at the 1000 km of Spa , where Gounon and Ayari lasted nine laps before being forced to retire due to accident damage . Pescarolo finished the LMES season in fifth place , level on points with Team Jota .
In 2005 , Courage Compétition began running their updated C60 Hybrid , whilst Pescarolo also updated their C60 ; the two teams were the fastest and second fastest respectively at the Paul Ricard test session . At the LMES season opener , which was the 1000 km of Spa , the Courage @-@ entered car , driven by Cochet , Christian Vann and Alexander Frei was eliminated in a pit @-@ lane accident , whilst the Pescarolo entry , driven by Bouillon , Collard and Comas finished second . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , both teams entered two cars ; Courage entered Frei , Vann and Dominik Schwager in one car , and Cochet , Shinji Nakano and Bruce Jouanny in the other , whilst Pescarolo ran Collard , Boullion and Comas in one of their C60s , with Ayari , Hélary and Sébastien Loeb in the other . One car from each team finished ; Collard , Boullion and Comas took second for Pescarolo , whilst Schwager , Frei and Vann finished eighth for Courage . Both teams reverted to single @-@ car entries for the 1000 km of Monza , which Collard and Boullion won for Pescarolo ; the Gounon / Vann / Frei combination in the Courage finished sixth overall , and fourth in the LMP1 category . For the 1000 km of Silverstone , it was Frei , Vann and Cochet , driving for Courage , who were the fastest C60 ; they took 14th , and 13th in class , whilst Collard and Boullion had problems and finished 34th , and 17th in class . The 1000 km of Nürburgring saw Boullion and Collard take fourth for Pescarolo , whilst Frei and Cochet took eighth for Courage . At the final round of the season , which was the 1000 km of Istanbul , Collard and Boullion took another victory for Pescarolo , whilst the Courage of Gounon and Frei took 21st overall , and eighth in class . This result meant that Pescarolo had won their first ever team 's championship , whilst Courage finished seventh .
= = = 2006 = = =
For 2006 , Pescarolo were the only team to run the C60 in the newly @-@ renamed Le Mans Series ( LMS ) . Collard and Boullion started the season in exactly the same way they had finished the previous one , by winning the 1000 km of Istanbul in the Pescarolo C60 Hybrid . The 1000 km of Spa saw Collard and Boullion win again , despite starting the race from the pitlane after a crash in free practice . At the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Pescarolo entered two C60s , as usual ; one driven by Hélary , Loeb and Franck Montagny , whilst the other was driven by Collard , Minassian and Comas . The Montagny / Hélary / Loeb car took second overall , beating one of the brand @-@ new Audi R10 TDIs , whilst the other car finished fifth overall , and fourth in the LMP1 category . Having returned to the LMS , Collard and Boullion were joined by Hélary for the 1000 km of Nürburgring , and the trio took another win for Pescarolo . Didier André replaced Hélary in the final two rounds , which were the 1000 km of Donington and 1000 km of Jarama , and Pescarolo won both races to complete a clean sweep . As a result , Pescarolo retained the LMP1 team 's championship with the maximum score possible . The C60 was made obsolete by the new LMP1 regulations for 2007 , and thus was retired , and replaced by the Pescarolo 01 .
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= Operation Camargue =
Operation Camargue was one of the largest operations by the French Far East Expeditionary Corps and Vietnamese National Army in the First Indochina War . It took place from 28 July until 10 August 1953 . French armored platoons , airborne units and troops delivered by landing craft to the coast of central Annam , modern @-@ day Vietnam , attempted to sweep forces of the communist Viet Minh from the critical Route One .
The first landings took place in the early morning on 28 July , and reached the first objectives , an inland canal , without major incident . A secondary phase of mopping @-@ up operations began in a " labyrinth of tiny villages " where French armored forces suffered a series of ambushes . Reinforced by paratroopers , the French and their Vietnamese allies tightened a net around the defending Viet Minh , but delays in the movement of French forces left gaps through which most of the Viet Minh guerillas , and many of the arms caches the operation was expected to seize , escaped . For the French , this validated the claim that it was impossible to operate tight ensnaring operations in Vietnam 's jungle , due to the slow movement of their troops , and a foreknowledge by the enemy , which was difficult to prevent . From then on , the French focused on creating strong fortified positions , against which Viet Minh General Giáp could pit his forces , culminating in Opération Castor and the Battle of Dien Bien Phu .
With the French forces withdrawn from the operation by the late summer of 1953 , Viet Minh Regiment 95 re @-@ infiltrated Route One and resumed ambushes of French convoys , retrieving weapons caches missed by the French forces . Regiment 95 occupied the area for the remainder of the First Indochina War and were still operating there as late as 1962 against the South Vietnamese Army during the Second Indochina , or Vietnam War .
= = Background = =
The First Indochina War had raged , as guerrilla warfare , since 19 December 1946 . From 1949 , it evolved into conventional warfare , due largely to aid from the communists of the People 's Republic of China ( " PRC " ) to the north . Subsequently , the French strategy of occupying small , poorly defended outposts throughout Indochina , particularly along the Vietnamese @-@ Chinese border , started failing . Thanks to the terrain , popular support for August Revolution and support for decolonization from bordering China and the U.S.S.R. , the Viet Minh had succeeded in turning a " clandestine guerrilla movement into a powerful conventional army " , following asymmetric warfare theory laid by Mao Tse Tung , something which previously had never been encountered by the western colonial powers . In October 1952 , fighting around the Red River Delta spread into the Thai Highlands , resulting in the Battle of Nà Sản , at which the Viet Minh were defeated . The French used the lessons learned at Nà Sản – strong ground bases , versatile air support , and a model based on the British Burma Campaign – as the basis for their new strategy . The Viet Minh , however , remained unbeatable in the highland regions of Vietnam , and the French " could not offset the fundamental disadvantages of a roadbound army facing a hill and forest army in a country which had few roads but a great many hills and forests " .
In May 1953 , General Henri Navarre arrived to take command of the French forces , replacing General Raoul Salan . Navarre spoke of a new offensive spirit in Indochina – based on strong , fast @-@ moving forces – and the media quickly took Operation Camargue to be the " practical realization " of that .
= = = Chinese and American backing = = =
Following the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 , the Viet Minh established close ties with China . It enabled the Chinese to expand their area of influence into Indochina and the Viet Minh to receive much @-@ needed Chinese equipment and strategic planning support . From mid @-@ 1950 , PRC military advisers were seconded to the Viet Minh at battalion , regimental and divisional levels . The common border meant that " China became a ' sanctuary ' where the Viet Minh could be trained and refitted " . When the Korean War broke out , Indochina became " an important pawn in Cold War strategy " . In December 1950 , the United States , concerned about growing Chinese Communist influence , started providing military aid to the French , with a first payment of US $ 15 million .
In the spring of 1953 , the Viet Minh launched campaigns in Laos and succeeded in linking up Laotian territorial gains with their bases in north @-@ western Vietnam . Meanwhile , the winding down of the Korean War meant that China was able " to give much more attention to its southern neighbour " . Similarly , the US " released from its heavy burden in the Korean conflict ... dramatically increased its military and financial support " to the French . By June 1953 , the US " had sent : 1 @,@ 224 tanks and combat vehicles ; 120 @,@ 792 rifles and machine guns ; more than 200 million rifle and machine gun cartridges ; more than five million artillery projectiles ; 302 boats and 304 aircraft " ( by end of the war , total US aid amounted to nearly four billion dollars ) .
= = Prelude to the battle = =
Route One , also known as Route Coloniale One ( or RC1 ) , had been the main north – south artery along the coastline of Vietnam since the outbreak of violence in 1949 . Communications and convoys along these lines suffered from regular attacks by Viet Minh irregulars , despite efforts by the French during 1952 in Operation Sauterelle . The Viet Minh paramilitary forces around Route One originated mainly from a region of fortified villages dispersed along sand dunes and salt marshes between Hué to the south , and Quang Tri to the north . French forces had suffered from Viet Minh ambushes , an attack that the latter had become very proficient at throughout the war , most notably in the annihilation of Group Mobile 42 in 1950 and of GM 100 in 1954 . The roads in Vietnam were almost all closed during the night and " abandoned to the enemy " . Between 1952 and 1954 , 398 armored vehicles were destroyed , 84 % of them from mines and booby traps . Typically , the Viet Minh ambushed convoys by obstructing the road with a fallen tree or pile of boulders , and then destroying the first and last vehicles of the halted convoy with remote mines . Caltrops , mines and the steep cliff faces naturally found at the road side aided in funneling the target convoy into a small area , where machine guns , mortars and recoilless rifles were trained . Viet Minh Regiment 95 repeatedly deployed these tactics , inflicting severe losses on the French forces passing along Route One , which led to its French nickname of la rue sans joie ( " the Street Without Joy " ) . Regiment 95 was , along with regiments 18 and 101 , part of the Viet Minh Division 325 , commanded by General Tran Quy Ha . The division was formed in 1951 from pre @-@ existing units in Thừa Thiên just north of Route One , and became operational in the summer of 1952 .
By early summer 1953 , thanks in part to the wind @-@ down of hostilities in the Korean War , the French command had " sufficient reserves " at hand to begin clearing the Viet Minh back from Route One . They assembled 30 battalions , two armored regiments and two artillery regiments for one of the largest operations of the conflict . Called Operation Camargue , it was named for the sandy marshland to the west of Marseille , France . The difficult terrain was to prove the decisive factor and gave a major advantage to the one Viet Minh regiment tasked with defending Route One .
From a 100 @-@ meter ( 109 yd ) deep beach of " hard sand " the French landing forces were to advance through a series of dunes . The dunes were up to 20 meters ( 22 yd ) high and interspersed with precipices , ditches and a handful of small villages . Beyond this was an 800 @-@ meter ( 875 yd ) belt of pagodas and temples , which war correspondent Bernard Fall described as having excellent defensive potential . Beyond these temples was Route One itself with a series of closely packed and fortified villages , including Tân An , Mỹ Thủy , Van Trinh and Lai @-@ Ha . This network of villages and hedgerows made both ground and air surveillance difficult . Across from Route One the villages continued amid an area of quicksand , swamps and bogs , which would stop all but a few of the vehicles at the disposal of the French . Although there were roads , most were mined or damaged . Throughout the area , the civilian population remained and provided a further complication for the French high command .
= = = French order of battle = = =
The French divided their forces into four groupement mobiles ( " mobile groups " ) : A through D. Group A consisted of Mobile Group 14 , which contained 3rd Amphibious Group , 2nd Marine Commando , 2nd Battalion 1st Colonial Parachute Regiment , and 3rd Vietnamese Parachute Battalion . Operation Camargue was to be one of the final proving grounds for the use of French armour during the war . It was to land on the beach in line with the center of Route One . Meanwhile , Group B was to advance over land from the west of the north @-@ east facing beach . This group consisted of Mobile Group Central Vietnam 's 6th Moroccan Spahis , 2nd Amphibious Group , a tank platoon from 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment , and two infantry companies from the Quang @-@ Tri military base . Group C was to advance from the south @-@ west into the back of Van Trinh through the swamps , and consisted of the 9th Moroccan Tabor , 27th Vietnamese Infantry Battalion , 2nd Battalion of the 4th Moroccan Rifle Regiment , 1 Commando , a tank platoon of the Moroccan Colonials , an armoured patrol boat platoon , and an LCM platoon . Group D consisted of 3rd Battalion of the 3rd Algerian Rifles , the 7th Amphibious Group , and a commando group , and was to land at the south @-@ east end of the beach , below Group A. These forces in total formed " two amphibious forces , three land @-@ borne groupments and one airborne force " all of which was commanded by General Leblanc . This French force , vastly outnumbering the Viet Minh regiment opposing it , was tasked with sealing the Communist forces into a tight pocket , and systematically destroying them , as well as capturing as many prisoners , arms caches and as much equipment as possible .
= = Securing Route One = =
= = = French landing = = =
On 27 July 1953 , the French landing craft departed from their assembly points , and by 04 : 00 on the following had begun disembarking 160 amphibious landing craft belonging to Group A 's 3rd Amphibious opposite the coastline . By 06 : 00 , these vehicles had landed on the beach and proceeded to occupy sand ridges overlooking the dunes beyond . Proceeding into the dunes , the vehicles of 3rd Amphibious became stuck in the sand ; in the meantime , other regular infantry elements of Group A were experiencing more difficulties in the sea , taking two extra hours to reach the beach . Thus unsupported , elements of 3rd Amphibious that either disembarked floundering vehicles or were pushed , managed to escape the dunes and advance between Tân An and Mỹ Thủy . The French amphibious vehicles were the World War II @-@ era 29 @-@ C cargo carriers , nicknamed the " crab " or " crabe " and LVT 4 or 4As , known as " alligators " . The latter were armed with two .30 caliber and two .50 caliber Browning machine guns and an M20 recoilless rifle . While the alligators were sufficiently armoured and well suited to the water , they struggled on land . In contrast , the crab had difficulty in water and its large size presented too great a target on land ; however , it was lighter and more maneuverable , except in paddy fields where its suspension became clogged with vegetation .
While Group A 's forward elements were breaching the dune barrier unopposed , two of Group B 's battalions crossed the Van Trịnh Cănal . By 07 : 45 , when they made visual contact with the crabs and alligators of Group A , they had succeeded in sealing off the northern escape route of Regiment 95 . By 08 : 30 , the 6th Moroccan Spahis also reached the canal , having had difficulty crossing the swamps on the landward side with their M24 Chaffee tanks . No French units , as yet , had made any major contact with the Viet Minh . A minor fire @-@ fight had taken place on the southern edge of Group B 's advance when an Algerian company exchanged fire with 20 – 30 Viet Minh and suffered the first French fatalities . Simultaneously , Group C had advanced into the center of the area of operation , and executed " the most complicated maneuver of the operation " . This involved crossing Route One and sealing off the land side of the operational area , and was completed by 08 : 30 .
Group D , finally , was tasked with advancing south from its landing point to close off an escape route that ran between the sea and an inland lagoon towards the city of Hué . Landing at 04 : 30 , the group made quick progress through the beach and dunes , secured the small city of Thé Chi Dong and hit the north coast of the lagoon by 05 : 30 , thereby sealing off that escape route with no enemy contact . The final act of sealing the noose was to move some of the French Navy vessels north to the Vietnamese villages of Ba @-@ Lang and An @-@ Hoi where any attempt by Regiment 95 to flee by sea would have taken place .
= = = Tightening the loop = = =
With the landings and the encirclement of Regiment 95 complete and the net deemed secure , the French forces began the second phase of the operation and began to sweep through the area for the encircled Viet Minh . Each French group began to move through the villages around Route One in an attempt to locate the Viet Minh forces . Group B , which was lined up along the canal – the jump @-@ off point for the second phase of the operation – moved to sweep the northern villages while Group C did the same further south . The method of searching each village was to seal it off entirely with encircling troops , and then inspect it with a heavily armed unit of minesweepers and K @-@ 9 teams . Men of military age were arrested and screened by intelligence officers . This process was time @-@ consuming , and by 11 : 00 Group B had traveled 7 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) through the network of villages with no results or resistance . At this time , the 6th Moroccan Spahis entered the village of Dong @-@ Qué with their M @-@ 24 tanks and the support of the 1st Battalion of the Moroccan Rifles and the artillery of Colonel Piroth ( later commander of the artillery at the battle of Dien Bien Phu ) and his 69th African Artillery Regiment .
The Moroccan infantry took the lead , and the French commanders sealed themselves in their tank turrets and advanced behind . Viet Minh forces , which were waiting in ambush , fired almost the same instant as the lead Moroccan units who noticed their presence . The Moroccan forces spread out into the surrounding rice paddies , and the bazookas of the Viet Minh missed the French tanks . The French commander called in Piroth 's artillery and Dong @-@ Qué " disintegrated under the impact of their high @-@ angle fire " , particularly when a French shell found the Viet Minh ammunition depot . As the French tanks approached , the Viet Minh drove the civilians out to clog up the entrance to the village , however as the Viet Minh retreated they were spotted through the civilians by the Moroccan infantry and killed by 13 : 00 . During this battle , however , most of the Regiment 95 personnel who had been elsewhere managed to escape towards the southern end of the French encirclement . Leblanc had realized the intentions of Regiment 95 's commander , and had requested one of the two reserve paratroop units to be deployed at the border between the network of temples and the dune @-@ filled area in front of where Group D had originally landed . This paratroop unit , 2nd Battalion of the 1st Colonial Parachute Regiment , began to advance towards the canal at 10 : 45 , 15 minutes before Group B entered Dong @-@ Qué .
Group C 's 9th Tabor had also , like the M @-@ 24s of Group B , struggled through the marshes during the first phase of the operation , and were late in arriving at the jumping @-@ off point for phase two , the canal . At 08 : 45 , Moroccan units of Group C were investigating the village of Phu An on the opposite side of the lagoon from Group D 's landing area , when they came under heavy fire . Despite being nearer to Group D , the engaged units radioed their immediate commanders back in Group C , who were by now some distance away , further inland . This delay , coupled with the failure of many of the units ' SCR300 radios , meant that these advance elements of Group C failed to get through until 09 : 10 . At 09 : 40 , the commander of Group C called up various reinforcements from Hué including two companies of Vietnamese trainee NCOs and five infantry companies , two of which came via landing craft and did not reach the beleaguered elements of Group C until 18 : 00 , half an hour after the Moroccans had finally counter @-@ attacked and occupied Phu @-@ An . The 2nd Battalion of the Parachute Chasseurs Regiment had been requested to drop at 14 : 00 to support the advanced elements of Group C but did not jump until 16 : 50 and thus failed to assemble before the Moroccans themselves occupied Phu @-@ An . With the final capture of Phu @-@ An , the extreme southern tip of the encirclement , the pincer movement was complete .
= = = Escape of Regiment 95 = = =
By 17 : 30 , with Phu @-@ An captured , all French reserves now committed , and one half of the pocket fully swept by groups B and A at the northern end of the battlefield , the French appeared to have gained the upper hand . By now , the expected windfall of arms caches and prisoners should have taken place . However , the unexpected time taken to capture Phu @-@ An , and the delayed arrival of the paratroop reinforcements who had been scattered by the winds , had left a gap between Phu @-@ An and the southern edge of the lagoon . This 12 @-@ kilometer ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) gap was eventually covered by only four French battalions , leaving gaps through which the Viet Minh could escape . Crabs and alligators were stationed on , or in some cases in , the canal network , and French infantry were scattered across the edge of the pocket throughout that night in order to detect escaping Viet Minh . However , despite the occasional shot , flare and searchlight , no Viet Minh were detected .
On the morning of 29 July 1953 , the French forces continued to advance into the remaining 23 @-@ square @-@ kilometer ( 9 sq mi ) pocket , encountering neither Viet Minh nor civilian . Groups A , B and D reached the edge of the canal opposite Group C by 13 : 00 , having retrieved a small number of suspected Viet Minh and a " few weapons " . At this time , however , a Morane aircraft detected the movement of elements of Regiment 95 towards An @-@ Hoi on the extreme northern corner of the operational area , outside of the pocket . The French carried out a raid on An @-@ Hoi by commando groups and elements of Group A , which took place at 15 : 00 and returned with suspected Viet Minh by 18 : 00 . The French then undertook a methodical house @-@ to @-@ house search of the entire area , sweeping each village , and the surrounding paddy fields and jungle , risking encounter with Viet Minh caltrops . Meanwhile , 2nd and 3rd amphibious used their crabs and alligators to herd prisoners towards Trung @-@ An for interrogation . By the end of 29 July , with resistance to the French forces having ceased , a general withdrawal of paratroopers , amphibious groups and marines began .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Rebuilding and reaction = = =
After the departure of all but regular French infantry , efforts to make the area suitable for permanent occupation by French forces and French @-@ friendly civilians began . This involved the rebuilding of road and rail links ( Vietnam 's North – South railway ran alongside Route One ) , the repairing of infrastructure , demining , the installation of new Vietnamese government administrators , and the provision of " everything from rice to anti @-@ malaria tablets " . Over 24 villages were placed under the authority of the Vietnamese government , and Regiment 95 had been driven from the area . In comparison to Fall , South Vietnamese general Lâm Quang Thi states in his memoirs that Operation Camargue was " one of the most successful French military operations during the Indochina war " in the area of Route One .
Newspapers stated that the operation had been a " total success , demonstrating once more the new aggressiveness and mobility " of the French forces . However , in the days following the end of the fighting , press reports on the French failure to capture the anticipated large numbers of Viet Minh began to appear though the British newspaper , The Times , did publish claimed casualty figures of 1 @,@ 550 for the Viet Minh , 200 of which were killed . This estimate was altered by the French the next day to 600 killed or wounded and 900 captured , and it was suggested that the operation did " not appear to have been successful " . In contrast to these figures , Bernard Fall records 182 Viet Minh casualties and 387 prisoners . He also notes that " 51 rifles , eight sub @-@ machine guns , two mortars , and five BARs " were captured . Of the prisoners , however , it is not recorded how many were confirmed to be members of Regiment 95 . Both Fall and the newspapers published in the days following the official termination of the operation on 10 August 1953 , give French casualties as 17 dead and 100 wounded . Giáp wrote " it was announced we suffered heavy losses although in fact our losses were insignificant ... their troops had to withdraw with heavy losses " .
Fall goes on to record that the " major defect " of Operation Camargue was that the French had nothing like the numerical superiority to encircle a force in the terrain around Road One , 15 : 1 as opposed to the 20 : 1 or 25 : 1 that he believed required . He states that the slow French progress ( around 1 @,@ 500 yards an hour ) and the large distances each unit had to guard from Viet Minh infiltration meant that the Viet Minh could easily escape the net . He also states that Viet Minh intelligence were always aware of French movements , as the size of French units and the complex technology involved in the operation gave its presence and intentions away almost immediately , whereas in contrast the simpler Viet Minh operations were far more difficult to detect .
= = = Route One and Regiment 95 = = =
Regiment 95 survived Operation Camargue and resumed ambushes in 1954 , as well as assaulting a Vietnamese garrison near Hué . The regiment remained in the area , taking part in General Giáp 's 1954 campaign season , until Vietnam was split into North and South Vietnam by the cease @-@ fire , whereupon it infiltrated back to the north along Route One during broad daylight , leaving small cells of guerillas in the area . The regiment returned to resume ambushes of the South Vietnamese Army in 1962 .
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= Summer of 4 Ft . 2 =
" Summer of 4 Ft . 2 " is the twenty @-@ fifth and last episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 19 , 1996 . In the episode , the Simpson family goes to Ned Flanders family 's beach house . Hanging around with a new set of children , Lisa becomes popular , while Bart is left out . Bart tries to sabotage his sister 's newfound acceptance , but fails .
The episode was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Mark Kirkland . The episode guest stars Christina Ricci , who recorded her lines over the phone instead of going into the studio . The Simpson family 's rented beach house is based on the then @-@ show runner Josh Weinstein 's parents ' house in New Hampshire . The episode features cultural references to Pippi Longstocking , The New Yorker character Eustace Tilley , and Alice and The Hatter from Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , and was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
= = Plot = =
Lisa finds out on the last day of school how unpopular she is when nobody cares enough to sign her yearbook , while Bart makes people feel grateful that he signs theirs . Meanwhile , Ned Flanders offers the Simpson family the use of his beach house in Little Pwagmattasquarmsettport over the summer , though Homer makes Ned work on his faulty septic tank before he agrees . Marge likes the idea and suggests that Bart should bring Milhouse and that Lisa should bring a friend too . However , Lisa has no friends to bring and decides to change her image as a result , deliberately leaving behind her un @-@ stylish wardrobe . After reaching the beach house , Lisa lies to Marge that she forgot to pack , so they go shopping for new clothes . Lisa buys a new set of clothes that she believes will make her look " cool " , and goes to look for some likeminded people her own age . Marge , now feeling left out , decides to focus her parenting on Maggie , who looks worried . Homer , in the meantime , buys a large firework to celebrate Independence Day , only for it to backfire due to a fast @-@ burning fuse ; he initially throws it in the fridge , but changes his mind when he remembers the beer inside and instead chucks it in the dishwasher , causing it to rupture a pipe .
When Lisa succeeds in making friends with a group of local children ( in particular a girl named Erin ) , Bart becomes jealous and complains that they should be his friends . He tries to steal her new friends from her with a skateboarding display , but they find his effort pathetic and shun him , which Bart blames on Milhouse . Lisa is then spending more time with her new friends , to the point where they hold a beach party to celebrate the 4th of July . Bart then decides to take revenge by showing her friends the yearbook and all of Lisa 's deeply nerdy real pastimes . As her new friends stare in shock at Lisa 's nerdy hobbies , Lisa runs off in tears .
The next morning , Lisa is furious with Bart for exposing her true self . She is about to pour maple syrup in Bart 's eyes when Marge tells them about a carnival happening later that evening . They all go , but Bart and Lisa continue to bicker and fight , right up to when they ride the bumper cars and Bart rams Lisa 's car out of the arena . Feeling dejected , Lisa decides to leave , concluding that she was probably never meant to have friends , and Bart feels guilty for hurting Lisa . When Lisa returns to the beach house , she finds her friends in the act of seemingly vandalizing the Simpsons ' car . Thinking it 's some sort of cruel prank , she simply tells them to finish it and leave , but it 's then revealed they were actually decorating the car with sea shells in her honor , at which point they tell her they don 't care that she 's smart because she 's a good person and they learned stuff from her . Lisa is thrilled , but Homer shows up and screams in horror at how his car got messed up . Before leaving Bart presents Lisa with her yearbook , which now has wonderful messages from her new friends and even Milhouse . He reveals he felt guilty for hurting her , so he explained his behavior to her new friends and asked them to sign her yearbook . Lisa forgives Bart , while Marge tells Homer that the kids should 've cleaned out the shells before gluing them to the car , as the Simpsons are followed by seagulls trying to eat the mollusks inside .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Dan Greaney , and directed by Mark Kirkland . It was Greaney 's second episode on The Simpsons . The staff of the show wanted to do a summer episode because there was " so much stuff " about summer vacations that they felt had to be covered in an episode . David Silverman , one of the show 's animators , particularly likes the episode because he thinks it captures the feel of being on summer vacation .
The area in which the Flanders family 's beach house is located in is based on the Cape Cod peninsula . Many of the writers of The Simpsons spent time on Cape Cod so they decided to model the new locations on it . The animators looked at Cape Cod photographs to get inspiration for the episode , and one of the show 's background designers , Lance Wilder , grew up in that area . The beach house is based on the then @-@ show runner Josh Weinstein 's parents ' house in New Hampshire , to which the writers had paid visit many times . They played several board games when they were there , which gave them the idea to have to the Simpson family play the Mystery Date board game in the episode . Silverman said that the episode was difficult to animate and direct because it had so many new and detailed backgrounds and completely different locations .
American actress Christina Ricci guest starred in the episode as Erin , one of Lisa 's new friends . Ricci was not able to come to the recording studio , so she recorded all of her lines over the phone . Weinstein , who was a fan of Ricci , thought she did a nice performance in the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title is a parody of the 1971 film Summer of ' 42 . Lisa has a daydream in which the following fictional characters appear : Pippi Longstocking , The New Yorker character Eustace Tilley , and Alice and The Hatter from Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . Milhouse compares Lisa 's new appearance to the character Blossom from the American television series Blossom . TeeJay 's ZayMart is a spoof of defunct retailer Zayre and parent company T.J. Maxx . Homer replicates a scene from the 1973 film American Graffiti when he buys some embarrassing products at the store in order to get some illegal fireworks . The Mystery Date board game that the family is forced to play is an actual Milton Bradley Company board game from the 1960s . Weinstein recalled playing it as a child and claim it to be " a very disappointing game to play as a little boy " because of the female target audience . The ending music of American Graffiti , " All Summer Long " by The Beach Boys , is also played at the end of the episode .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Summer of 4 Ft . 2 " finished forty @-@ second ( tied with Melrose Place and Married ... with Children ) in the ratings for the week of May 13 to May 19 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 . The episode was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week ( tied with Melrose Place and Married ... With Children ) , following The X @-@ Files .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " This episode will strike a chord with anyone that 's ever tried to fit in with the crowd [ ... ] Lisa gets to show the many facets of her character , and there 's a superb slapstick sequence as Homer tries to dispose of a firework . " Dave Foster of DVD Times praised the episode and said : " The episode is quite simply my favourite Lisa episode regardless of season . From calm to cool and fiercely aggressive , we 've rarely seen Lisa so enticing as we do here , and the episode 's many elements including the side stories for the other family members culminate in one of the finest this season has to offer . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and said that he likes how it addresses Bart 's resentment of Lisa 's popularity . " Granted , it makes [ Bart ] a little too mean , but it 's entertaining , " he added . Jacobson went on to say : " Marge gets the best moment again , as I love watching her non @-@ violent approach to the bumper cars . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best parts of the episode to be the scenes that feature Milhouse , particularly his yearbook message to Lisa and the scene with the Mystery Date board game . She concluded her review by giving the episode a grade of A.
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= Roswell High School ( Georgia ) =
Roswell High School ( RHS ) is a public high school in Roswell , Georgia , USA which opened in 1949 . It serves the entire city of Roswell west of Georgia 400 and the city of Mountain Park , as well as small portions of Alpharetta and Milton . With a population of over of 2 @,@ 233 students in the 2013 – 2014 school year , RHS is one of the largest schools in the Fulton County School System . Roswell High School neighbors both Fellowship Christian School and Blessed Trinity Catholic High School . It is also the second oldest of Fulton County 's schools in the northern portion of the county , opening between Milton High School ( 1921 ) , and Chattahoochee High School ( 1991 ) . Roswell is currently on its third campus , which opened in 1990 . The current building is the oldest in use high school building in north Fulton .
The school offers students many extracurricular activities , including 72 clubs , 11 academic teams , and various services clubs . Some other activities meet as elective classes such as musical groups , drama , and art . These classes are supplemented by after @-@ school rehearsals , meetings , and outside concerts . Students also have the option to compete in the school 's 42 Varsity , Junior Varsity , and Freshman athletic programs .
Roswell is a member of the Georgia High School Association ( GHSA ) and Region 5 @-@ AAAAAA for athletic competition as of the 2013 @-@ 2014 academic year . The school 's mascot is the Hornets and the colors are green , white and black . The school offers 16 different sports comprising 23 varsity level teams . Eight of the Roswell Hornet teams have won state championships , totaling 20 overall . The most championships won by a single team is seven , accomplished by the girls ' gymnastics program .
= = History = =
Roswell High School first opened in 1949 and is the second oldest high school in Fulton County north of the Chattahoochee River . Like the city of Roswell , the school bears the name of Roswell King . King founded the cotton mill that would eventually be the city 's economic backbone for much of its early history . The immediate predecessor to Roswell High School was the Roswell Public School on Mimosa Boulevard , which housed grades 1 – 10 and opened in the 1892 after the Georgia General Assembly passed Act No. 51 on December 20 , 1892 , allowing the city to elect a school board and levy taxes for support of the school . Students from outside the city limits were required to pay tuition . In 1896 , the city council and mayor were authorized by the state to issue $ 5 @,@ 000 in bonds to build a new school building .
In 1914 , the existing school was torn down and two new structures were built . Since schools were segregated at that time , a two @-@ story brick building was constructed on Mimosa Boulevard to house the white students in grades 1 through 10 , and a one @-@ room wooden building was built on Pleasant Hill Avenue for black students in grades 1 through 7 . The Pleasant Hill facility also served as a meeting place for a local lodge and the Pleasant Hill Baptist Church until the church built its own facility across the street in 1922 . Grade 11 was added in the 1920s to the Mimosa Boulevard school . Black students who progressed past grade 7 could then attend Washington High School in Atlanta .
During the Great Depression , the city of Roswell was annexed into Fulton County from Cobb County as part of its 1932 combination with Milton County and Campbell County . Roswell students in grades ten and eleven were then sent to Milton High School in Alpharetta or North Fulton High School in Atlanta to finish their secondary education ( which ended upon completion of grade 11 ) .
In 1949 , the Mimosa Boulevard building was demolished , and a new school was built on the existing site to allow the 10th and 11th grades to return to Roswell as the inaugural Roswell High School . G.W. Adams was the first principal and oversaw the addition of more rooms to the school over the next few years . During this growth , the Baptist , Presbyterian and Methodist churches also located on Mimosa Boulevard were used to house auxiliary classrooms . Also in 1949 , the high school began participating in athletics with a varsity basketball team and other senior high school extracurricular activities . In 1950 , Roswell High School added grade 12 as part of state @-@ wide standard for high schools and played its first varsity football season . The first graduating class graduated in the spring of 1951 .
Construction began nearby on Alpharetta Highway near the present @-@ day Roswell City Hall on a new campus . That facility opened in the fall of 1954 and allowed the high school ( grades 8 – 12 ) to physically separate from the elementary school ( grades 1 – 7 ) . Roswell High 's second campus was designed by the architecture firm Stevens & Wilkinson , which innovated school designs and utilized a " finger plan " to improve functionality of the school . It had a capacity of 400 students and had facilities for industrial arts , shop , music halls , science labs , art room , indoor gymnasium , athletic fields , a football stadium , and a track . The primary school remained in the Mimosa Boulevard building as Roswell Elementary . As of 2007 , the brick elementary building is part of an expanded structure still owned by the Fulton County School System , and it houses the Crossroads Second Chance North Alternative School and the Teaching Museum North . Roswell High remained at the Alpharetta Highway campus until the fall of 1990 when the current campus on King Road was opened .
= = Campus = =
The current campus is the third that Roswell High School has occupied . It opened in the fall of 1990 on King Road , just off of Highway 92 , with an enrollment of nearly 2 @,@ 000 students . It is the oldest high school building in North Fulton . The new campus was expanded with a football stadium and softball field added in 1994 and an auditorium in 1995 , paid for by the RHS Foundation . The campus includes science , computer , video , and cosmetology labs ; baseball and softball fields , a stadium for football and soccer , a lacrosse field , an additional practice field , a dome style gymnasium , a cross country trail , and lighted tennis courts for athletics .
In 2008 the Roswell gymnasium was named one of the top high school gyms in the nation . Cited was the domed rotunda , the hanging four sided scoreboard , and locker room facilities .
On February 2 , 2007 , Roswell High had a groundbreaking ceremony for an expansion project . The 23 @,@ 851 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 215 @.@ 8 m2 ) expansion added ten new classrooms , including science labs and a new band room . This increased the school to a 1 @,@ 900 student official capacity with the state . The addition also reduced some of the need for portable classrooms , but portable units were still utilized after the expansion to handle Roswell 's enrollment ( 2400 students as of 2007 ) . Construction officially began on February 5 , 2007 . The addition was paid for by a one @-@ cent Special @-@ purpose local @-@ option sales tax ( SPLOST ) . Additional improvements to RHS for additional safety and security features , technology and curriculum equipment enhancements , and athletic facilities upgrades were to be implemented as part of third SPLOST approved by Fulton County voters on March 20 , 2007 .
In 2014 , Roswell High School began renovating its main entrance . The main office and front desk were relocated as a safety measure for the administration . The security office was also relocated to be near the main entrance . Due to the renovation , trailer one was removed from the property . The renovation took down the metal covering leading from the carpool drop off to the main entrance .
Roswell High School also added a new exterior with a stone face and large front @-@ facing windows . Small interior changes included new bathroom fixtures and tile .
= = Students and faculty = =
In the 2007 – 2008 school year , Roswell 's enrollment was 2 @,@ 428 . In that year , the student population was 68 % white , 15 % African American , 12 % Hispanic , and 1 % Asian . Roswell has a relatively large immigrant population , including students from Russia and other former Soviet republics , Korea , and African nations . More recent demographic data shows a student population composed of 63 % white , 14 percent Hispanic , 14 percent African American , 5 percent Asian , and 4 percent American Indian . According to 2007 statistics , 92 percent of the school 's graduates go on to colleges and universities across the United States . The school 's current student enrollment is 2 @,@ 436 . As of 2007 , Roswell 's faculty had 246 full @-@ time teachers , with 85 % holding an advanced degree .
Roswell High School is the highest @-@ level school in Fulton County 's Roswell Cluster . The schools that feed into Roswell include Hembree Springs , Mimosa , Mountain Park , Roswell North , and Sweet Apple Elementary Schools . The middle schools that feed into Roswell are Crabapple Middle School and Elkins Pointe Middle School . Also included in the Roswell Cluster is the Crossroads Second Chance North Alternative School , which serves northern Fulton County students in grades six through twelve .
= = Academics = =
RHS is a part of the Fulton County School System and is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and the Georgia Department of Education .
Roswell was named a National Blue Ribbon School in 1997 – 1998 by the United States Department of Education . It was also designated a Georgia School of Excellence in 1996 .
26 Advanced Placement Program ( AP ) classes are offered , and SAT as well as ACT scores regularly exceed the national and state average . For the 2005 – 2006 school year , Roswell 's average SAT score was 1663 with the new SAT scoring system , which ranked Roswell third in the Fulton County School System and sixth in Metro Atlanta . The Georgia state average was 1477 while the national average was 1518 . 477 students took AP exams in 2005 , with 84 % receiving the necessary score ( 3 or higher ) to earn college credit . Nationally , only 60 % score high enough to earn college credits . Three RHS students were named National Merit Scholars in 2005 .
Roswell 's academic success has brought national recognition . In 2006 , the school was ranked the # 472 school in Newsweek Magazine 's top 1 @,@ 200 schools , ranking in the top 3 % nationally . Roswell was third on the list among Fulton County 's 12 high schools .
Roswell offers a unique curriculum with many electives not offered anywhere else in the county . The school 's unique course offerings include the Career Tech diploma track , robotics , psychology , archaeology , and foreign languages . The Foreign Language department offers French , Spanish , Latin , German , and Japanese , and was honored in the January 2007 issue of Atlanta Magazine for offering the most foreign language courses in the Atlanta area . RHS students participated in the 2007 Annual Japanese Challenge Academic Bowl and won the most awards of any school at the competition .
In 2007 , RHS Senior Maia Bageant was named as one of 141 Presidential Scholars by the United States Department of Education . In 2008 , Roswell High was one of 23 Georgia schools recognized by state school superintendent Kathy Cox as an AP Merit School ( 20 % of students taking AP exams , 50 % or more of those receiving a score of three or higher ) . Also in 2008 , Roswell High School student Ishna Sharma was named as one of only 139 Presidential Scholars . RHS student Anand Srinivasan received the Kroger Pinnacle Award in 2014 , the top award given at the state @-@ wide annual Georgia Science and Engineering Fair .
U.S. News & World Report ranked Roswell High 162nd in its 2014 list of best high schools for the academic disciplines of science , technology , engineering , and mathematics ( STEM ) and 339th on the 2014 list of best high schools in the United States .
= = = Career Tech = = =
The Career Tech department at Roswell High is made up of Broadcast and Video Production , Cosmetology , Family and Consumer Sciences , Diversified Technology , Pre @-@ Engineering , Business Education , and JROTC . Through this department , students may take three consecutive years of one of the branches to obtain a Career Technology High School Diploma in place of a College Prep Diploma . Courses cover diverse topics such as culinary arts , business , computers , interior design , and introduction to education and early childhood care .
= = = = Broadcast and Video Production = = = =
The Broadcast and Video Production department is designed to teach students about the television industry . Using a hands @-@ on method , students learn about all aspects of television from pre @-@ production to production to post @-@ production . The facility is made up of a working television studio , a large control room , six edit rooms ( each equipped with both linear and non @-@ linear editing systems ) , a radio station , and a normal classroom . Students in the program learn to produce everything from commercials and PSAs to dramas , news shows , and sporting events . The advanced classes produce a weekly news show , the Morning Buzz , which airs at the beginning of the day . The Broadcast and Video department supports the student @-@ run radio station , WRHS the Hive , the film club , and the yearly School House Rock concert .
= = = JROTC = = =
Roswell High School offers a Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( JROTC ) program . This helps students improve their grades , be more responsible , and hone leadership skills . The program at Roswell High School also offers extracurricular activities , including Drill Team , Raider Team , and Rifle Team .
The Drill Team provides students in the JROTC program the opportunity to learn how to properly follow orders by executing various complex series of commands given by the team 's captain . The sabre and color guards are a part of the drill team and present the colors ( national and state flags ) at various school and community events , or honor people of great importance . The Drill Team also represents the school in competitions .
The Raider Team is intended to improve the physical fitness of cadets ; they go through many exercises included in physical training , such as push ups , sit ups , pull ups , flexed arm hang , crunches , the one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) run , and litter carry . The Raider Team enters various competitions , winning a championship in 2006 – 2007 .
The Rifle team is jointly run by the JROTC program and the Athletics Department , and represents the school in the Olympic sport of riflery . The team won the Region 6 championship six straight years between 1996 and 2001 . The team finished second in the state in 2000 finishing with a score of 1142 . State champion East Coweta High School finished with a score of 1150 .
= = = Fine arts = = =
Roswell High School offers fine arts opportunities in art , band , chorus , drama , and orchestra . The groups meet throughout the year as elective classes and extracurricular activities , and hold many events . These include performances at football games , murals painted in the school 's halls , concerts , plays , and a spring musical jointly put on by the drama and choral departments .
The drama department annually hosts Short Attention Span Theatre , featuring plays , shorts , and monologues which written , casted , directed , and produced by RHS students .
= = = = Chorus = = = =
Roswell Choruses have performed on numerous occasions for the Georgia Music Educator 's Association and sang at the 2003 Southern Division of the Music Educator 's National Conference in Savannah , Georgia . The Singing Hornets have performed concerts at Notre Dame , St. Peter 's Basilica , Carnegie Hall , and Disney World . They have performed with professional orchestras , including the Atlanta Symphony Youth Orchestra and Orchestra Atlanta . Each year , the Roswell Choral Music Program receives invitations for students to participate in the Georgia All @-@ State Chorus and the Governor 's Honors Program . Ensembles include the Chamber Singers , Vocal Jazz , Advanced Women 's , and Advanced Men 's Choirs .
= = = = Band = = = =
The Roswell High School band department contains the marching band , wind ensemble , symphonic band , pep band , jazz band , and percussion ensemble . The marching band performs for all varsity football games and has competitions throughout the fall , as well as parade appearances . The marching band competes in Class AAA and in 2008 placed third overall in the Georgia Invitational Band Championship . In 2009 the wind ensemble , which was one of only three selected , will take part in the Honor Bands of Georgia program hosted at Columbus State University in Columbus , Georgia . The program is an educational opportunity for the bands participating and is meant to further music education in the state .
= = = Hornet Advisory Program = = =
The Hornet Advisory Program aims to help freshmen adjust to high school life . It brings together faculty advisers , academic counselors , and upperclassmen students to act as mentors to freshmen and acclimate them to Roswell High School . The program meets with students three times a week .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
Roswell High School offers students a variety of options to get involved in the school . Roswell sponsors sports teams in fifteen different sports as well as several club sports . Students can also participate in service clubs , academic clubs , and general interests clubs for a variety of tastes and preferences .
= = = Athletics = = =
The Roswell High mascot is the Hornet and the school colors are green , black , and white . The Hornets compete in 16 sports at the varsity level , with additional teams competing at the junior varsity and 9th grade level . 11 sports are available to boys , 10 are for girls , and 2 are co @-@ ed . Overall , 23 teams compete at varsity level , with 43 total .
The Hornets have won multiple state titles in athletics , including three each in football and baseball , and two in boys ' basketball . Roswell 's most successful girls ' team is gymnastics , which has won seven state championships ( 1997 , 2000 – 2003 , 2005 , 2007 ) . In 1970 @-@ 71 Roswell completed a three @-@ peat in the GHSA , winning a state title ( including a back @-@ to @-@ back campaign in baseball ) in baseball , basketball , and football within 12 months of each other . In total the Roswell Hornets have won 19 team state championship titles in the school 's 23 sports .
Since its inception , Roswell 's traditional rival has been Milton , the oldest high school in northern Fulton County . The Roswell / Milton series is the most @-@ played high school football rivalry in metro Atlanta , with the 2014 game marking the sixtieth meeting between the schools . The two have competed since 1950 in every sport the two schools offer . In 1963 a fight broke out between the fans of the schools at a football game and the series was banned for several years . The football series then went uninterrupted from 1970 – 1997 but was temporarily ended when the GHSA moved Milton to a different Region , which made scheduling difficult . The series was reinstated in 2000 when Milton and Roswell were again in Region 6 @-@ AAAAA . Since 1950 , Roswell has held a 34 – 21 – 1 advantage over their arch rival in football , including winning seven straight from 2001 @-@ 2007 . The 2008 meeting was won by Milton , 20 @-@ 19 . Roswell won a series record 14 straight games from 1983 – 1995 . Roswell 's very first football game was against Milton , a 14 @-@ 0 win on September 22 , 1950 . The largest margin of victory in the series also belongs to Roswell , a 45 @-@ 0 victory on October 26 , 2007 .
In lacrosse , the series records are the opposite ; Roswell has a losing record to its arch rival in lacrosse . The closest sport in the rivalry is gymnastics , in which the two teams have combined for eleven state titles ( seven Roswell , four Milton ) and for seven years from 1997 to 2003 one of the two teams won every state championship . In other sports with records available , Roswell 's boys ' soccer team has gone 5 – 0 – 1 against Milton since 2004 while the girls ' soccer team has gone 2 – 4 against the Eagles . 2008 saw the Hornet soccer teams record a sweep over the Milton Eagles for the second straight year . On October 22 , 2008 , the Atlanta Journal Constitution named the Roswell @-@ Milton rivalry as the 7th best football rivalry in the state . Reasons cited included the age of the rivalry and the fight in 1963 . In 2013 the rivals played for the state baseball championship . Milton ultimately ended up winning the state championship in extra innings by one run in front of an overflow crowd . It marked the second straight year a team from the rival schools faced off for a state title , as the girls ' lacrosse teams did so in 2012 .
Roswell has also developed a strong rivalry with Centennial High School , the city 's other public high school , in which the two teams play for the Roswell Cup in football , the series starting in 2000 . In soccer , Centennial is the bigger rival than Milton . Roswell Football holds a 9 – 2 record over Centennial . On the soccer pitch , Roswell girls have a 3 – 3 record with the Knights since 2004 , while the boys hold a 1 – 5 record during that time period .
Other significant rivals include Chattahoochee , Lassiter , and Alpharetta . Blessed Trinity is Roswell 's closest rival as the two are less than a mile apart ; it is also the newest rival . The two schools started an annual series in soccer in 2007 . They have met three times in soccer , with the boys ' record being tied 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 and the girls ' record being 0 @-@ 1 @-@ 2 for Roswell .
For the 2005 – 2006 school year , Roswell 's overall athletic program finished 25th in the state 's Director 's Cup standings , which measures the top athletic programs in the state . When ranking just the boys ' teams , Roswell finished 13th in the state .
As of the 2014 @-@ 2015 season , Roswell varsity teams compete in the eight team Region 5 @-@ AAAAAA . The AAAAAA classification was created for the 2012 @-@ 2013 season by the GHSA for the largest schools in the state . Roswell was previously a member of Region 6 @-@ AAAAA since its inception in 2000 with the addition of class AAAAA , although Roswell 's region opponents have varied . Prior to joining AAAAA , Roswell was in Region 6 @-@ AAAA for 12 years from 1988 until 1999 . The current members of Region 6 include county rivals Alpharetta , Centennial , and Milton . Teams from neighboring Cobb are Campbell , Kell , Lassiter , Pope , Walton , and Wheeler . Region realignment for the 2010 @-@ 2011 school year kept Roswell in Region 6 , along with Alpharetta , Centennial , and Milton . North Fulton school Northview joined the other four Fulton schools , along with the North Forsyth Raiders and West Forsyth Wolverines of Forsyth County , to create a seven @-@ team region .
Roswell offers all GHSA sponsored sports . Various programs offer teams at the varsity , JV , and freshman levels . Such sports for boys include football , baseball , basketball and lacrosse . Girls ' teams with all three levels are basketball and volleyball . Sports offering varsity and JV teams include cross country , golf , soccer , tennis , and track and field for both genders . Softball and lacrosse are such programs for girls while wrestling is such a program for boys . Swimming & diving is only varsity for both genders , while gymnastics is offered at the varsity level for girls . Roswell offers two co @-@ ed sports , competition cheerleading and riflery ; both are solely varsity teams .
= = = = Traditions = = = =
Every fall students are encouraged to wear their class colors on football game day Fridays to show their school spirit . The days of Homecoming Week are themed , and students dress up to win spirit points for their class , culminating in the Friday class color day and pep rally . On Wednesday or Thursday night of Homecoming Week , students decorate the halls of the school by class to reflect the theme of the dance . Each hall is judged , with the winning class receiving spirit points . On game days , the Roswell Marching Band plays the school 's fight song as they march through the halls . Roswell 's fight song is a version of the " Washington and Lee Swing . " Seniors dress up in camouflage every Friday for school and for the football games .
The senior class of 2010 brought the " Flour Toss " tradition to Roswell . At every kickoff of the Friday football games , students anticipate the kick , each holding fistfuls of white flour . As soon as the player kicks the ball , hands go up in the air , releasing the flour , creating a cloud of white to welcome the opposing team .
= = = = Football = = = =
Roswell 's football team has won three State Championships ( 1968 , 1970 , and 2006 ) , two State Runner @-@ Ups ( 1956 and 2015 ) , and ten Region Championships , the latest in 2015 . Since 1950 Roswell has a combined record of 405 – 244 – 7 . Roswell football history started in 1950 when a spring practice and game was held . During the fall of that year , Roswell posted a 4 – 2 record , including two wins over arch rival Milton .
Coach Bill Yoast began building Roswell 's football success when he came to coach the Hornets in 1954 . In two years he got Roswell to the 1956 State Championship game , which Roswell lost to Monticello . He stayed at the school until 1960 , when he left for Virginia .
Roswell 's first and so far only undefeated season was in 1968 , when sophomore quarterback Jeff Bower led the Hornets to a 13 – 0 season and the football team 's first State Championship . It was the most wins for a season in school history until 2006 , when that state championship team went 13 – 1 – 1 , tying the 1968 team in wins . Two years later , in 1970 , Roswell won a state title with a 12 – 2 record with Jeff Bower again leading the team . He also won state championships in baseball in 1970 and 1971 and basketball in 1971 . Bower would go on to a long career as a football coach , most notably as the head coach of Southern Miss from 1990 to 2007 .
Roswell 's coach with the best record is Ray Manus , who was head coach for 23 seasons ( 1975 – 97 ) . and had a record of 141 – 102 – 1 . After retiring as head coach , Coach Manus returned to the team as an assistant in 2004 , and the stadium was officially named after him that year as well . Though he never won a state title as head coach , Manus was on the coaching staff for all three titles .
In 2006 , after a 35 year absence from being at the top of the state , the Hornets recaptured a state title for the first time in 36 years . The team finished the regular season 9 – 1 and the # 2 seed in the playoffs from Region 6 @-@ AAAAA . Roswell continued to win in the state playoffs , including a 10 @-@ 9 win over defending State Runner @-@ Up Brookwood High School , and won the right to play for a State Championship by defeating Tift County in the Georgia Dome state semi @-@ finals . Roswell was eventually crowned state co @-@ champion after a controversial 14 @-@ 14 tie against the Peachtree Ridge Lions . The Hornets finished the season 13 – 1 – 1 . Roswell players won many post @-@ season accolades , including quarterback Dustin Taliaferro , who made the Atlanta Journal Constitution and Associated Press All @-@ State First team , and running back Alex Daniel ( All @-@ State Honorable Mention ) .
The Roswell Hornets began the 2007 season ranked # 1 in Class AAAAA and nationally ranked by three publications , including a # 8 ranking by Rivals.com. The Hornets finished 2007 with a 10 – 3 record . Of the three losses Walton made the state semifinals and Lowndes became state champions . The Hornets finished the season ranked # 6 in the state by the AJC and # 5 by the AP . Eight members of the 2007 football team received collegiate scholarships , and six of those signees will attend Division I Football Bowl Subdivision schools .
Coach Tim McFarlin resigned as the head coach in the spring of 2008 . Over his ten @-@ year tenure as head coach , Roswell compiled a record of 82 – 34 – 1 , won a share of the 5A state championship in 2006 , reached the state high school playoffs seven times and won two region championships . In 2006 , he was named State AAAAA Coach of the Year . McFarlin was an assistant football coach with the Hornets for 17 years before becoming head coach in 1998 . Roswell hired Leo Barker , defensive coordinator under McFarlin for the 2006 and 2007 seasons , as the head coach for the 2008 season . Barker was the tenth head coach of the Roswell Hornets and served in that position for the 2009 and 2010 seasons before resigning .
Leo Barker 's first season at Roswell , 2008 , ended with a 5 @-@ 5 record and the Hornets just missing the playoffs . In his second season the Hornets rebounded and had a 9 @-@ 1 regular season record , finishing second in Region 6 @-@ AAAAA behind Lassiter who defeated the Hornets 45 @-@ 24 . The Hornets made it to the second round of the playoffs , falling to the # 1 state ranked Grayson High School 24 @-@ 14 , giving Roswell a 10 @-@ 2 record for 2009 .
Justin Sanderson , the assistant head coach under Barker , was promoted to head coach for the 2011 season . After compiling a 3 @-@ 17 record in 2 seasons , Sanderson was replaced after the 2012 season with John Ford . As of the 2014 season , Ford is the current head football coach at RHS .
= = = = Gymnastics = = = =
Roswell 's gymnastics program has won a total of seven state championships since 1997 , including four straight from 2000 – 2003 . Roswell 's seven state titles is second in the sports history behind only Lakeside , Dekalb 's nine . The 2006 team finished third in the state , and in 2007 Roswell won their seventh state championship in the sport on April 27 at Westminster , defeating arch rival Milton by only 1 @.@ 55 points despite having no gymnasts winning an individual championship . The 2007 team , however , placed at least one gymnast in the top six of each apparatus , including Annie Turner , who placed second in the All @-@ Around , third on vault and bars , and fifth on floor . Two Roswell gymnasts finished second and sixth on the balance beam . In 2008 the Hornets finished fourth in the state .
= = = = Lacrosse = = = =
Along with rival Centennial , Roswell became one of the first two public schools in the state to offer lacrosse in 1999 . Roswell was the host of the first GHSA sponsored tournament in May 2002 . The school was one of only six to field a women 's team in 1999 , along with Centennial and several private schools . The 2006 Boys Lacrosse team made the state playoffs for the first time by finishing second in their region , and made it to the second round . In 2008 , the Roswell Lacrosse program added a freshman boys ' team , the first such team in the state . Another milestone for the Roswell Lacrosse team came in 2008 when Michael Bender was named an All @-@ American , the first Roswell lacrosse player to be given that honor .
In 2013 , the boys ' team took a big step forward , making it to the state semifinals before falling to Lambert 17 @-@ 6 . The following year , Roswell went into the state playoffs as a 2 seed from Region 2 . They beat East Coweta in the first round , and then beat their cross @-@ town rival and the defending state champion , Centennial . They would then beat Walton at home , which led to a rematch of the previous years semi @-@ final match up against Lambert in the State Championship . In Ray Manus Stadium , with over 5 @,@ 000 fans in attendance , Roswell captured its first Boys ' Lacrosse State Championship , defeating the Lambert Longhorns 6 @-@ 5 . They finished the season 17 @-@ 3 and were ranked by the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution as the # 1 team in the state of Georgia . They were ranked the # 8 team in the South by Nike .
The Roswell Girls ' Lacrosse team made the state playoffs for the first time in 2009 . They made the second round of the state playoffs , falling to eventual champion Chattahoochee . The team finished with a 13 @-@ 5 @-@ 1 record and ranked # 5 in the state .
= = = = Other athletic programs = = = =
The Hornet baseball program has won three state titles . The team has been a state playoff participant and has been ranked nationally by such sources as USA Today Top 100 and Baseball America . For the 2007 season , Roswell 's team was ranked in the pre @-@ season nationally . The Hornets ' state championships in baseball were won in 1970 , 1971 , and 1986 . They finished second in the state in 1969 , 1976 , and 2013 . The 1986 state championship team holds the record for the most wins in program history at 29 .
Roswell 's boys ' golf team has one state title , taking first place in 1990 . In 2006 , Roswell finished second when rain canceled the second of the two @-@ round tournament . Coach Tim McFarlin led the 2006 State Runner @-@ Up team just seven months before taking the football team to the 2006 State Championship .
Roswell 's track & field program has won two boys ' state championships in 1959 and in 1961 . The 1959 State Championship in track was the school 's first state championship in any sport . The program hosts the annual Roswell Relays track meet and the Region 6 @-@ AAAAA Track Championships . The cross country program saw the girls ' team finish eighth in the state in 2007 . Roswell also won a Track and Field State Championship in 1961 . The track team partners annually with the Rotary Club of Roswell to hold the Roswell Rotary Relays .
Roswell won two state championships in boys basketball in 1971 and 1997 and in slow @-@ pitch softball in 1992 . The softball state title was the first for a girls ' team at Roswell .
= = = Clubs = = =
As of the 2012 @-@ 2013 academic year , RHS offers students many extracurricular activities catering to the school 's diverse interests , including 72 clubs , 11 academic teams , and service clubs .
Clubs include academic honor societies , political interests , service clubs , social / general interest clubs , and non @-@ varsity sport clubs . Service clubs include Key Club , Anchor Club , Animal Rescue Club , and the Habitat For Humanity Club , which raises funds and builds houses in conjunction with the local Habitat chapter . Academic clubs include Art Club , Art National Honor Society , Beta Club , and National Honor Society . Political interest clubs are the Peace Activists Club , Young Democrats , Young Republicans , and Shanti , which attempts to eliminate teenage apathy . Competitive clubs include the two @-@ time state champion Fencing Team , Roswell Ice Hockey Club , Ultimate Frisbee Club , Policy Debate Team , Breakdance Team , and the Unique Dance team .
General interest clubs include the Medical Club for students interested in medical careers , Chess Club , Cycling Club , Future Business Leaders of America , Fellowship of Christian Athletes , Fly Fishing Club , International Club Latino Club , Russian Club , Video Game Club , Writing Club , and Friends Club , which brings students with disabilities and regular education students together .
The school is served by the elected Student Council .
= = = Publications and media outlets = = =
Established in 1983 , The Sting is the school 's official student newspaper and is a member of the Georgia Scholastic Press Association . The monthly publication has been recognized on multiple occasions by the GSPA and the Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia . The newspaper features news , editorials , opinions , features , entertainment , and sports . The staff also maintains the paper 's related website .
The student literary magazine the Helicon is produced by the school 's literary magazine staff . The magazine is published once each semester and features student @-@ created poetry , short stories , essays , photos , and artwork . The Helicon has also received multiple awards from the GSPA .
The student @-@ published yearbook is the Mimosan , and the student @-@ run radio station is WRHS The Hive .
= = Notable people = =
Coach Bill Yoast , portrayed by Will Patton in the movie Remember the Titans , was a Roswell High football coach from 1954 – 1960 before leaving for Virginia . Game film from Roswell is used in several scenes in the movie .
Former Roswell baseball and football coach Charlie Horne , who coached the Hornets from 1967 – 1974 , was named to the Georgia Athletics Coaches Association Hall of Fame in June 2007 . At Roswell he led the football and baseball teams to the 1968 and 1970 State Football Championships as well as the 1970 and 1971 baseball championships .
= = = Notable alumni = = =
Grover Babcock , film producer and director , Atlanta Film Festival and Sundance Film Festival winner for Best Documentary , Gotham Awards and Full Frame Documentary Film Festival award winner , and Hamptons International Film Festival nominee
Jimmy Barthmaier , MLB pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates
Justin Bolli , professional golfer
Jeff Bower , head football coach at The University of Southern Mississippi 1990 – 2007
Kim Burse , musical director for Beyoncé , composer , producer
Filippo Chillemi , Univ. of Notre Dame soccer 2000 – 2004 , US National Team member 1998 – 2002 , professionally in Italy with F.C. Matera , F.C. Olbia , and Empoli F.C. 2004 @-@ 2006 . Played in the 1999 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship where the US finished in fourth place .
Jay Clark , head coach for the Georgia gymnastics program at the University of Georgia 2009 – 2012
Alec Kessler , former NBA first round pick
Bryan Konietzko , Annie Award @-@ nominated , Daytime Emmy Award @-@ nominated , and Emmy Award @-@ nominated co @-@ creator and executive producer of Avatar : The Last Airbender
Carl Nyman , Emmy Award @-@ nominated art director
Jermaine Phillips , Tampa Bay Buccaneers safety , played during the Super Bowl victory of 2002
Tony Phillips , Major League Baseball player from 1982 – 1999
Steve Prouty , Academy Award @-@ nominated and Emmy Award @-@ nominated special effects and make @-@ up artist
Mike Ramsey , Major League Baseball infielder
Ken Ray , Major League Baseball player
Chris Reis , National Football League safety with the New Orleans Saints
Brad Schrade , Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning investigative reporter for the Star Tribune
Alain Sergile , swimmer on the Haitian Olympic Team at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Tony Skole , head baseball coach at East Tennessee State University
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= Hurricane Mitch =
Hurricane Mitch was the most powerful and destructive hurricane of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season , with maximum sustained winds of 180 mph ( 290 km / h ) . The storm was the thirteenth tropical storm , ninth hurricane , and third major hurricane of the season . Along with Hurricane Georges , Mitch was the most notable hurricane in the season . At the time , Hurricane Mitch was the strongest Atlantic hurricane observed in the month of October , though it has since been surpassed by Hurricane Wilma of the 2005 season . The hurricane matched the fourth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record ( it has since dropped to seventh ) .
Mitch formed in the western Caribbean Sea on October 22 , 1998 , and after drifting through extremely favorable conditions , it rapidly strengthened to peak at Category 5 status , the highest possible rating on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . After drifting southwestward and weakening , the hurricane hit Honduras as a minimal hurricane . It drifted through Central America , reformed in the Bay of Campeche , and ultimately struck Florida as a strong tropical storm .
Due to its slow motion from October 29 to November 3 , Hurricane Mitch dropped historic amounts of rainfall in Honduras , Guatemala , and Nicaragua , with unofficial reports of up to 75 inches ( 1 @,@ 900 mm ) . Deaths due to catastrophic flooding made it the second deadliest Atlantic hurricane in history ; nearly 11 @,@ 000 people were killed with over 11 @,@ 000 left missing by the end of 1998 . Additionally , roughly 2 @.@ 7 million were left homeless as a result of the hurricane . The flooding caused extreme damage , estimated at over $ 6 billion ( 1998 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Depression Thirteen formed on October 22 over the southwestern Caribbean Sea , from a tropical wave that exited Africa on October 10 . It executed a small loop , and while doing so intensified into Tropical Storm Mitch . A weakness in a ridge allowed the storm to track slowly to the north . After becoming disorganized due to wind shear from an upper @-@ level low , Mitch quickly intensified in response to favorable conditions , including warm waters and good outflow . It became a hurricane on October 24 and developed an eye . After turning to the west , Mitch rapidly intensified , first into a major hurricane on October 25 and then into a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale the next day .
At peak intensity , Mitch maintained maximum sustained winds of 180 mph ( 285 km / h ) while off the northern coast of Honduras . Hurricane Hunters reported a minimum barometric pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) , which at the time was the lowest in the month of October and tied for the fourth lowest for any Atlantic hurricane . Initially , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) and various tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated a turn to the north , threatening the Yucatán peninsula . Instead , Mitch turned to the south due to a ridge that was not observed while the storm was active . Land interaction imparted weakening , and the hurricane made landfall on Honduras on October 29 with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Mitch slowly weakened while turning to the west over land , maintaining deep convection over waters . After moving across mountainous terrain in Central America , the surface circulation of Mitch dissipated on November 1 . The next day , the remnants reached the Gulf of Mexico , which reorganized into a tropical storm on November 3 . Mitch accelerated to the northeast ahead of a cold front , moving across the Yucatán peninsula before striking southwestern Florida on November 5 . Shortly thereafter , the storm became an extratropical cyclone , which was tracked by the NHC until November 9 .
= = Preparations = =
Due to the threat , the government of Honduras evacuated some of the 45 @,@ 000 citizens on the Bay Islands and prepared all air and naval resources . The government of Belize issued a purple alert and asked for citizens on offshore islands to leave for the mainland . Because the hurricane threatened to strike near Belize City as a Category 4 hurricane , much of the city was evacuated in fear of a repeat of Hurricane Hattie 37 years earlier . Guatemala issued a purple alert as well , recommending boats to stay in port , telling people to prepare or seek shelter , and warning of potential overflowing rivers . By the time hurricane Mitch made landfall , numerous people were evacuated along the western Caribbean coastline , including 100 @,@ 000 in Honduras , 10 @,@ 000 in Guatemala , and 20 @,@ 000 in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Mitch was the deadliest Atlantic hurricane since the Great Hurricane of 1780 , displacing the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 as the second @-@ deadliest on record . Nearly 11 @,@ 000 people were confirmed dead , and almost as many reported missing . Deaths were mostly from flooding and mudslides in Central America , where the slow @-@ moving hurricane and then tropical storm dropped nearly 36 inches ( 900 mm ) of rain . The flooding and mudslides damaged or destroyed tens of thousands of homes , with total damage amounting to over $ 5 billion ( 1998 USD , $ 6 billion 2006 USD ) , most of which was in Honduras and Nicaragua . Prior to Mitch , the deadliest hurricane in Central America was Hurricane Fifi in 1974 , which killed an estimated 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 .
= = = Honduras = = =
While offshore northern Honduras , Hurricane Mitch passed over Guanaja island . High waves eroded northern coastlines and damaged lagoons . Most of the Bay Islands had damage to their water facilities . Two days of winds exceeding 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) destroyed nearly all of the plants and trees on Guanaja , uprooting or knocking down almost the entire mangrove forest . It is estimated that the hurricane produced waves of 44 ft ( 13 m ) in height .
While moving slowly for several days offshore Honduras , Hurricane Mitch drew moisture from the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea , producing high amounts of rainfall of over 300 mm ( 12 in ) per day . The highest official total was 928 mm ( 36 @.@ 5 in ) at Choluteca , which represented more than half of the annual precipitation average ; at the same location , 466 @.@ 7 mm ( 18 @.@ 37 in ) fell in a 24 @-@ hour period on October 31 , which was more than double of the previous record set in 1985 . There were unofficial rainfall totals in Central America as high as 1 @,@ 900 mm ( 75 in ) ; rain gauges in mountainous areas were washed away . The high rainfall caused many rivers in the country to overflow " to an unprecedented extent this century " , as described by the United Nations . The rainfall collected in rivers , causing extensive river flooding across the country . The greatest depth recorded was 12 @.@ 5 m ( 41 ft ) on the Ulúa River near Chinda , whilst the greatest width recorded was 359 m ( 1 @,@ 178 ft ) on the Río Lean near Arizona . The rainfall also caused widespread mudslides across the mountainous country . In the country 's interior , particularly the southern portion , the high rainfall caused hundreds of landslides , many of them shallow and about 95 % in the form of debris flow . However , two earthflows caused significant damage near Tegucigalpa .
Hurricane Mitch wrought significant damage to Honduras , affecting nearly the entire population and causing damage in all 18 departments . The United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean estimated that Mitch caused the worst floods of the 20th century in the country . An estimated 70 – 80 % of transportation network was destroyed , including most bridges and secondary roads , amounting to $ 236 million in damage . Hurricane Mitch left widespread power outages after damaging more than 385 km ( 239 mi ) of power lines and several power plants . About 70 % of Honduras lost access to fresh water after the storm , although many rural areas had already been experiencing water shortages . The combined damage to transportation , communication , utilities , including power and water , was estimated at $ 665 million .
High water levels along the Choluteca River affected the capital , Tegucigalpa , reaching levels 10 m ( 33 ft ) above their banks . The floods damaged about one @-@ third of buildings , including some more than 350 years old . Across Honduras , agriculture sustained serious damage , with initial estimates of 70 % of crops destroyed . About 50 @,@ 000 bovine were killed , as were 60 % of the fowl population . Crop and agricultural damage totaled about $ 1 billion , which would take the country years to recover . Honduras 's Social Fund for Housing estimated that 35 @,@ 000 houses nationwide were destroyed with another 50 @,@ 000 damaged , leaving 1 @.@ 5 million people homeless – about 20 % of the total population . This was the highest number of victims from any natural disaster in Honduras 's history . Overall , Hurricane Mitch killed about 7 @,@ 000 people in Honduras , and damage was estimated at L52,345,000,000 ( $ 3 @.@ 8 billion ) , of which $ 2 @.@ 005 billion was from direct damages and the remainder from indirect costs . The overall impact represented about 70 % of Honduras 's annual gross domestic product ( GDP ) .
= = = Nicaragua = = =
Though Mitch never entered Nicaragua , its large circulation caused extensive rainfall , with estimates of over 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) . In some places , as much as 25 inches ( 630 mm ) of rain fell on coastal areas . The flank of the Casita Volcano failed and turned into a lahar from excessive rain . The resulting mudslide ultimately covered an area 10 miles ( 16 km ) long and 5 miles ( 8 km ) wide .
Two million people in Nicaragua were directly affected by the hurricane . Across the country , Mitch 's heavy rains damaged 17 @,@ 600 houses and destroyed 23 @,@ 900 , displacing 368 @,@ 300 of the population . 340 schools and 90 health centers were severely damaged or destroyed . Sewage systems and the electricity subsector were severely damaged , and , combined with property , damage totaled to $ 300 million ( 1998 USD ) .
Transportation was greatly affected by the hurricane , as well . The rainfall left 70 % of the roads unusable or destroyed and greatly damaged 92 bridges . Over 1 @,@ 700 miles ( 2700 km ) of highways or access roads needed replacement subsequent to the storm , especially in the northern part of the country and along portions of the Pan @-@ American Highway . Total transportation damage amounted to $ 300 million ( 1998 USD ) . Agricultural losses were significant , including the deaths of 50 @,@ 000 animals , mostly bovines . Crops and fisheries were affected greatly as well , and , combined with agricultural losses , damage totaled to $ 185 million ( 1998 USD ) .
The situation was further compounded by a total of 75 @,@ 000 live land mines — left over from the Contra insurgency of the 1980s — that were calculated to have been uprooted and relocated by the floodwaters .
In all , Hurricane Mitch caused at least 3 @,@ 800 fatalities in Nicaragua , of which more than 2 @,@ 000 were killed in the towns of El Provenir and Rolando Rodriguez from the landslide at the Casita volcano . The mudslide buried at least four villages completely in several feet of mud . Throughout the entire country , the hurricane left between 500 @,@ 000 and 800 @,@ 000 homeless . In all , damage in Nicaragua is estimated at around $ 1 billion ( 1998 USD ) .
= = = Caribbean Sea = = =
Mitch was also responsible for the loss with all hands of Windjammer Barefoot Cruises ' schooner Fantome . The story was recorded in the book The Ship and The Storm by Jim Carrier . The schooner , which was sailing near the center of the hurricane , experienced over 50 foot ( 15 m ) waves and over 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) winds , causing her to sink off the coast of Honduras .
On the south coast of Cuba , the hurricane caused waves of up to 13 feet ( 4 m ) high and winds gusts peaking at 42 mph ( 67 km / h ) , causing numerous tourists and workers on the Isle of Youth and Cayo Largo del Sur to leave for safer grounds .
In Jamaica , where officials declared hurricane warnings 12 hours prior to its closest approach , Mitch caused moderate rainfall and gusty winds for days . Strong waves hit western Jamaica , with wave heights unofficially estimated at nearly 7 feet ( 2 m ) in height . The rainfall in outer rainbands , at times severe , flooded many roads across the island and left them covered with debris . One house in Spanish Town collapsed from the flooding , leaving four homeless . Many other homes and buildings were flooded , forcing many to evacuate . A river in northeastern Jamaica overflowed its banks , while heavy rainfall across the mountainous parts of the country caused numerous mudslides . In all , Mitch killed three people on Jamaica .
On the Cayman Islands , the hurricane caused strong waves , gusty winds , and heavy rainfall at times . Damage was relatively minimal , amounting to blown out windows and beach erosion . Strong waves damaged or destroyed many docks on the south shore of the islands , and also sank one dive ship near Grand Cayman . In addition , numerous incoming and outgoing flights were cancelled .
= = = Rest of Central America = = =
Due to Mitch 's large circulation , it dropped heavy precipitation as far south as Panama , especially in the Darién and Chiriquí provinces . The flooding washed away a few roads and bridges , and damaged numerous houses and schools , leaving thousands homeless . The hurricane left three casualties in Panama .
In Costa Rica , Mitch dropped heavy rains , causing flash flooding and mudslides across the country , mostly in the northeastern part of the country . The storm impacted 2 @,@ 135 homes to some degree , of which 241 were destroyed , leaving 4 @,@ 000 homeless . Throughout the country , the rainfall and mudslides affected 126 bridges and 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) or roads , mostly on the Inter @-@ American Highway which was affected by Hurricane Cesar , two years prior . Mitch affected 115 sq. miles ( 300 km2 ) of crop lands , causing damage to both export and domestic crops . In all , Hurricane Mitch caused $ 92 million in damage ( 1998 USD ) and seven deaths .
While drifting through El Salvador , the hurricane dropped immense amounts of precipitation , resulting in flash flooding and mudslides through the country . Multiple rivers , including the Río Grande de San Miguel and the Lempa River overflowed , contributing to overall damage . The flooding damaged more than 10 @,@ 000 houses , leaving around 84 @,@ 000 homeless and forcing 500 @,@ 000 to evacuate . Crop damage was severe , with serious flooding occurring on 386 sq. miles ( 1000 & km2 ) of pasture or crop land . The flooding destroyed 37 % of the bean production , 19 % of the corn production , and 20 % losses in sugar canes . There were heavy losses in livestock as well , including the deaths of 10 @,@ 000 cattle . Total agricultural and livestock damaged amounted to $ 154 million ( 1998 USD ) . In addition , the flooding destroyed two bridges and damaged 1 @,@ 200 mi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of unpaved roads . In all , Mitch caused nearly $ 400 million in damage ( 1998 USD ) and 240 deaths .
Similar to the rest of Central America , Mitch 's heavy rains caused mudslides and severe flooding over Guatemala . The flooding destroyed 6 @,@ 000 houses and damaged 20 @,@ 000 others , displacing over 730 @,@ 000 and forcing over 100 @,@ 000 to evacuate . In addition , the flooding destroyed 27 schools and damaged 286 others , 175 severely . Flooding caused major damage to crops , while landslides destroyed crop land across the country . The most severely affected crops for domestic consumption were tomatoes , bananas , corn , other vegetables , and beans , with damaged totaling to $ 48 million ( 1998 USD ) . Export crops such as bananas or coffee were greatly damaged as well , with damage amounting to $ 325 million ( 1998 USD ) . Damage to plantations and soil totaled to $ 121 million ( 1998 USD ) . The flooding also caused severe damage to the transportation infrastructure , including the loss of 37 bridges . Across the country , flooding damaged or destroyed 840 miles ( 1350 km ) of roads , of which nearly 400 miles ( 640 km ) were sections of major highways . In all , Hurricane Mitch caused $ 748 million ( 1998 USD ) and 268 deaths in Guatemala . In addition , Mitch caused 11 indirect deaths when a plane crashed during the storm .
In Belize , the hurricane was less severe than initially predicted , though Mitch still caused heavy rainfall across the country . Numerous rivers exceeded their crests , though the rainfall was beneficial to trees in mountainous areas . The flooding caused extensive crop damage and destroyed many roads . Throughout the country , eleven people died because of the hurricane .
In Mexico , Mitch produced gusty winds and heavy rains on the Yucatán Peninsula , with Cancún on the Quintana Roo coast being the worst hit . Nine people were killed from the flooding , though damage was relatively minimal . The maximum 24 @-@ hour rainfall total from Mitch was 13 @.@ 4 inches ( 340 mm ) in Campeche , while the highest rainfall total was 16 @.@ 85 inches ( 428 @.@ 0 mm ) in Ciudad del Carmen .
= = = Florida and remnants = = =
Then a tropical storm , Mitch caused a storm surge of up to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) feet in the lower Florida Keys before making landfall on the Florida west coast . Key West International Airport reported peak wind gusts of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) and sustained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , the only report of tropical storm force in the state . Offshore , the Fowey Rocks Light reported a wind gusts of 73 mph ( 117 km / h ) . In addition , Mitch caused moderate rainfall , peaking at 7 inches ( 200 mm ) in Jupiter , though some estimates indicate localized totals of up to 10 inches ( 250 mm ) . The storm spawned five tornadoes over the state , the strongest of which was an F2 .
In the Florida Keys , multiple buildings that had been damaged by Hurricane Georges were leveled by Mitch . Tornadoes from the storm damaged or destroyed 645 houses across the state , in addition to injuring 65 people . Gusty winds left 100 @,@ 000 without power during the storm 's passage . In all , Mitch caused $ 40 million in damage ( 1998 USD ) in Florida and two deaths from drowning when two boats capsized .
As an extratropical cyclone , Mitch passed west of Ireland and the United Kingdom . In Ireland , the storm produced gusts as high as 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) and 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) waves . The winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving over 30 @,@ 000 homes without power . One tree fell onto a car in Louth , severely injuring the driver . In Dublin , high winds knocked the roof off of a building , and several other buildings nationwide were damaged . The storm caused airports to close and ferry service to be suspended .
= = Aftermath = =
Because of the hurricane 's destruction in Central America and elsewhere in North America , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Mitch in the spring of 1999 ; it will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . The name was replaced with Matthew in the 2004 season .
After the disaster caused by Hurricane Mitch , countries around the world donated significant aid , totaling $ 6 @.@ 3 billion ( 1998 USD ) . Throughout Central America , which was recovering from an economic crisis that occurred in 1996 , many wished to continue the growth of the infrastructure and economy . In addition , after witnessing the vulnerability to hurricanes , the affected governments endeavored to prevent such a disaster from occurring again .
Hundreds of thousands of people lost their homes , but many took this as an opportunity to rebuild stronger houses . With a new , structurally improved foundation , homes were redesigned to be able to withstand another hurricane . However , lack of arable crop land took away the jobs from many , decreasing an already low income even lower .
Following the passage of Mitch , disease outbreaks occurred throughout Central America , including cholera , leptospirosis , and dengue fever . Over 2 @,@ 328 cases of cholera were reported , killing 34 people . Guatemala was most affected by the bacterium , where most of the deaths occurred from contaminated food . 450 cases of leptospirosis were reported in Nicaragua , killing seven people . There were over 1 @,@ 357 cases of dengue reported , though no deaths were reported from the disease .
While stalling over the western Caribbean Sea , Mitch 's strong winds produced strong waves , damaging local coral reefs . Later , the storm 's immense rainfall led to runoff polluted with debris and fresh water . This resulted in diseases occurring within the coral . However , the hurricane 's upwelling cooled the warm water temperatures , preventing significant bleaching and destruction of the coral reef .
Mitch caused such massive and widespread damage that Honduran President Carlos Roberto Flores claimed it destroyed fifty years of progress in the country . Honduras , the country most affected by the hurricane , received significant aid for the millions impacted by the hurricane . Mexico quickly gave help , sending 700 tons of food , 11 tons of medicine , four rescue planes , rescue personnel , and trained search dogs . Cuba also volunteered , sending a contingent of physicians to the country . The U.S. administration offered at first troops stationed in Honduras , and then withdrew them a few days after the storm . They also at first offered only $ 2 million ( 1998 USD ) in aid , which came as a shock to residents , and president Carlos Roberto Flores alike . The U.S. later increased their offer to $ 70 million ( 1998 USD ) . The Honduran government distributed food , water , and medical services to the hurricane victims , including the more than 4 million without water . In addition , the country initially experienced a sharp increase in the unemployment rate , largely due to the destruction of crop lands . However , rebuilding provided jobs in the following years . In Costa Rica , reconstruction after the hurricane increased the number of jobs by 5 @.@ 9 % , lowering the unemployment rate slightly .
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= Siege of Fort Stanwix =
The Siege of Fort Stanwix ( also known at the time as Fort Schuyler ) began on August 2 , 1777 , and ended August 22 . Fort Stanwix , in the western part of the Mohawk River Valley , was then the primary defense point for the Continental Army against British and Indian forces aligned against them in the American Revolutionary War . The fort was occupied by Continental Army forces from New York and Massachusetts under the command of Colonel Peter Gansevoort . The besieging force was composed of British regulars , American Loyalists , Hessian soldiers from Hesse @-@ Hanau , and Indians , under the command of British Brigadier General Barry St. Leger and the Iroquois leader Joseph Brant . St. Leger 's expedition was a diversion in support of General John Burgoyne 's campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley to the east .
One attempt at relief was thwarted early in the siege when a force of New York militia under Nicholas Herkimer was stopped in the August 6 Battle of Oriskany by a detachment of St. Leger 's forces . While that battle did not involve the fort 's garrison , some of its occupants sortied and raided the nearly empty Indian and Loyalist camps , which was a blow to the morale of St. Leger 's Indian support . They killed some Seneca . The siege was finally broken when American reinforcements under the command of Benedict Arnold neared , and Arnold used a ruse , with the assistance of Herkimer 's relative Hon Yost Schuyler , to convince the besiegers that a much larger force was arriving . This misinformation , combined with the departure of Indian fighters not interested in siege warfare and upset over their losses from the raids , led St. Leger to abandon the effort and retreat .
St. Leger 's failure to advance on Albany contributed to Burgoyne 's surrender following the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 . Although St. Leger reached Fort Ticonderoga in late September , he was too late to aid Burgoyne .
The first official US flag was flown during battle on August 3 , 1777 at Fort Schuyler . The Continental Congress adopted the following resolution on June 14 , 1777 : " Resolved , that the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes , alternate red and white ; that the union be thirteen stars , white , on a blue field , representing a new constellation . " There was a delay in displaying this flag . The resolution was not signed by the secretary of the Congress until September 3 , though it was previously printed in the newspapers . Massachusetts reinforcements to Fort Schuyler brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag . Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes ; scarlet material was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives , while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat . A voucher shows that Congress paid Capt. Swartwout for his coat for the flag .
= = Background = =
Fort Stanwix occupied a strategic western portage known as the Oneida Carrying Place ( site of modern Rome , New York ) between the Mohawk River , which flowed southeast to the Hudson River , and Wood Creek , whose waters ultimately led to Lake Ontario . Built by the British in 1758 during the French and Indian War on the only dry ground in the area , the fort had fallen into disrepair . When the American Revolutionary War widened in 1776 to include the frontier areas between New York and the Province of Quebec , the site again became strategically important .
British Colonial Secretary Lord Germain and General John Burgoyne developed a plan for gaining control of the Hudson River valley that included an expedition that King George described as a " diversion on the Mohawk River " . In March 1777 Germain issued orders assigning the expedition to Lieutenant Colonel Barry St. Leger , an experienced frontier fighter who had served in the French and Indian War .
= = Forces assemble = =
In April 1777 , Continental Army Major General Philip Schuyler ordered the 3rd New York Regiment under the command of Colonel Peter Gansevoort to occupy and rehabilitate the fort as a defense against British and Native incursions from Quebec . Arriving in May , they immediately began working on the fort 's defenses . Although they officially renamed the fort to Fort Schuyler , it was still widely known by its original name . Warnings from the friendly Oneida Indians that the British were planning an expedition to the Mohawk Valley were confirmed by mid @-@ July , spurring the pace of the work . In early July , Gansevoort reported on the state of affairs to Schuyler , noting that provisions and ammunition were in short supply . Schuyler ordered additional supplies sent to the fort on July 8 .
St. Leger , who was brevetted a brigadier general for the expedition , assembled a diverse force consisting of British regulars from the 8th and 34th Regiments , a number of artillerymen , 80 jäger from Hesse @-@ Hanau , 350 Loyalists from the King 's Royal Regiment of New York , a company of Butler 's Rangers , and about 100 Canadien laborers . His artillery consisted of two six @-@ pound pieces , two 3 @-@ pounders , and four small mortars . He expected these to be adequate for the taking of a dilapidated fort with about 60 defenders , which was the latest intelligence he had when the expedition left Lachine , near Montreal , on June 23 .
St. Leger first learned that the Americans had occupied Stanwix in force when prisoners captured from its garrison were brought to him on the St. Lawrence . He learned from the prisoners that Fort Stanwix had been repaired and was " garrisoned by upwards of 600 men ... and the rebels are expecting us , and are acquainted with our strength and route " . Daniel Claus , the Indian agent accompanying the expedition , convinced St. Leger to go to Oswego , where a body of Indians could be recruited . They arrived at Oswego , New York on July 14 , where Joseph Brant and about 800 Indians joined the expedition . These consisted mainly of Mohawks and Senecas , but there were also warriors from the other tribes of the Iroquois League ( other than the Oneidas and the Tuscaroras , who still claimed neutrality ) , and some Indians from the Great Lakes area .
After leaving Oswego another report reached St. Leger that more supplies were en route to the fort . St. Leger immediately dispatched Brant with 200 Indians and 30 regulars to intercept those supplies and begin besieging the fort . Brant 's arrival at the fort on August 2 was just too late . The supply convoy , which was guarded by 200 men from the 9th Massachusetts Regiment , had arrived and been unloaded . Brant 's men were able to capture the convoy 's boat captain ; the Massachusetts men remained in the fort . St. Leger 's main force arrived the next day , although the artillery did not arrive for several more days .
= = Siege begins = =
At first , St. Leger tried to intimidate the fort 's occupants by parading his troops — including the Indians in their war dress — in front of the fort . When this failed he sent a truce flag bearing a proclamation authored by General Burgoyne ; Gansevoort refused to respond . St. Leger then began siege operations , encamping the regulars and artillery on a low rise north of the fort , and most of the Indians and Loyalists to its south , with a picket line of Indian encampments along the Mohawk River .
St. Leger 's artillery was held up by a tactic that was also used to slow down Burgoyne 's army after the fall of Ticonderoga . Gansevoort and his men had systematically felled trees across the wooded track the expedition came down , and St. Leger needed to clear the track to make way for his artillery . This work occupied all but 250 of St. Leger 's white men , with the actual encirclement of the fort dominated by Indians .
On August 5 , St. Leger received word from Joseph Brant 's sister Molly that an American relief column was marching up the Mohawk valley .
= = Oriskany = =
The Tryon County Committee of Safety received news of St. Leger 's movements on July 30 , and set about raising additional troops . On August 4 , about 800 men from the Tryon County militia were mustered at Fort Dayton ( near modern Herkimer , New York ) by Nicholas Herkimer , the committee chairman . By late the next day the column had arrived within 10 miles ( 16 km ) of Fort Stanwix . St. Leger , on learning of their approach , sent Johnson with a small number of regulars and rangers , along with Brant and most of the Indians , to oppose Herkimer 's advance . They set up an ambush , and in a bloody confrontation near Oriskany Creek , both sides suffered significant casualties , including Herkimer , who suffered a serious wound to the leg . The Americans drove St. Leger 's detachment back , but Herkimer ( who eventually died of his wounds ) was forced to retreat back to Fort Dayton due to the large number of casualties . The confrontation came at another cost to St. Leger . Gansevoort 's besieged men took advantage of the absence of a sizable part of St. Leger 's force to make a sortie , in which Gansevoort 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Marinus Willett , led 250 men out and looted the nearly empty Indian camps of " several wagon @-@ loads of spoils " , including John Johnson 's orderly book , plans for the expedition , and a letter the British had intercepted from Gansevoort 's fiancée . The tale of this party recovering actual wagonloads of materials is probably untrue . It likely dates to a memoir by Marinus Willett written late in his life ; no contemporaneous accounts of the sortie , including Willett 's earlier journals , mention the need for wagons .
When the British force returned from Oriskany they arrived at a camp that had been stripped of much , including personal belongings and the blankets the Indians slept in . Combined with the fact that the battle at Oriskany had cost so many Indian lives , this greatly upset the Indians . They had been told that the white men , who had thus far fought relatively little , would do most of the fighting . This breach of trust damaged relations between the Indians and St. Leger , and became instrumental in the eventual failure of the siege .
St. Leger took advantage of his victory to deliver another demand for the fort 's surrender , which Gansevoort also rejected . The next day St. Leger sent in a third surrender demand , which included ( false ) news that Burgoyne was in Albany as well as threats that the Indians would be permitted to massacre the garrison and destroy the Mohawk valley communities from which the garrison was drawn . In an eloquent refusal , Lieutenant Colonel Willett responded , " By your uniform you are British officers . Therefore let me tell you that the message you have brought is a degrading one for a British officer to send and by no means reputable for a British officer to carry . "
Taking advantage of a brief truce , Gansevoort sent Willett and another officer out on August 8 to notify Schuyler of their situation . After making their way through swampy territory on the British lines , they continued down the Mohawk valley , eventually meeting a relief column under the command of Major General Benedict Arnold .
= = Siege relief = =
Schuyler had received early reports of the action at Oriskany on August 8 , and dispatched Ebenezer Learned 's 4th Massachusetts Regiment to relieve the besieged fort the next day . On August 12 , even before Willett could reach him , Schuyler held a war council to decide how to deal with the combined threats of St. Leger and Burgoyne , whose large army had reached the Hudson River . Amid concerns that the withdrawal from Ticonderoga by General Arthur St. Clair would be repeated at Stanwix , the council decided , with near unanimity , not to send a relief column to Fort Stanwix . In opposition to the council , Schuyler insisted on a relief expedition , which Arnold offered to lead . In addition to Schuyler 's actions , Major General Israel Putnam , based in Peekskill , New York , on August 14 dispatched two regiments ( the 1st Canadian and the 2nd New York ) , which were already on guard duty in the Mohawk River valley . These two units were still en route when the siege was lifted , and turned back .
By August 20 , Arnold , Willett and 700 Continental Army regulars had arrived at Fort Dayton . In an attempt to enlarge his force , Arnold tried to interest the Tryon County men in another attempt against St. Leger , but raised only about 100 men . He then decided to wait , hoping that friendly Oneidas and Tuscaroras could be convinced to join the effort , or that a request to Schuyler for another 1 @,@ 000 men would be fulfilled . However , news reached him that the siege had reached a critical stage , and that action was necessary . St. Leger had learned that his guns were largely ineffective against the fort 's walls from long range , so he began entrenching operations to establish positions closer to the fort . Gansevoort reported that the siege trenches had reached within striking distance of one of the fort 's bastions .
Uncomfortable with the number of troops available to him , Arnold opted for a deception to sow trouble in the British camp . While at Fort Dayton , a number of Loyalists had been arrested , including Hon Yost Schuyler . Arnold convinced Hon Yost , a member of the King 's Royal Regiment of New York who grew up with many of the Mohawk Indians attacking Fort Stanwix , to spread rumors that large numbers of Americans , under the command of " The Dark Eagle " , were about to descend on St. Leger 's camp . Hon Yost 's good conduct was assured by holding hostage his brother .
Arnold 's stratagem seems to have met with some success . St. Leger recorded on August 21 that " Arnold was advancing , by rapid and forced marches , with 3 @,@ 000 men " , even though Arnold was still at Fort Dayton on that day . When St. Leger held a council , about 200 Indians had already abandoned the camp , and in the council the remaining Indians , unhappy with siege warfare and the loss of their equipment , threatened to leave if he did not lift the siege . On August 22 , St. Leger broke camp and began the trek back to Lake Ontario , leaving behind a sizable amount of equipment . A number of men from St. Leger 's party deserted or were captured by the fort 's garrison , including Hon Yost .
= = Aftermath = =
Arnold , whose force was augmented by the arrival of friendly Indians , advanced about 10 miles ( 16 km ) toward Fort Stanwix on August 23 when a messenger from Gansevoort notified him of St. Leger 's departure . Pushing on , they reached the fort that evening . Early the next day , Arnold detached 500 men to pursue St. Leger , whose column was also being taunted and harassed by his formerly supportive Indian allies . An advance party reached the shores of Oneida Lake in heavy rain just as the last of St. Leger 's boats were departing . Leaving a garrison at the fort , with smaller outposts along the Mohawk , Arnold then hurried back with about 1 @,@ 200 men to rejoin the main army .
While still on Oneida Lake , St. Leger learned from an Indian messenger of the true state of Arnold 's force . On August 27 , St. Leger wrote to Burgoyne from Oswego that he intended to join him by traveling via Lake Champlain . He reached Fort Ticonderoga on September 29 , too late to assist Burgoyne .
Burgoyne blamed the failure of his campaign in part on St. Leger 's failure to penetrate the Mohawk valley , and the lack of sufficient Loyalist support . He believed that a well @-@ placed Loyalist uprising in upstate New York would have diverted enough American resources that either his advance or St. Leger 's would have succeeded . He was also hopeful that St. Leger 's arrival at Ticonderoga would be sufficient to assist in his retreat . However , he was already surrounded by the time St. Leger arrived at Ticonderoga , and surrendered after the Battle of Bemis Heights ( second Saratoga ) . In an analysis after the surrender , Burgoyne noted that the failure of General William Howe to support him made it possible for Washington to divert resources from the area around New York City to assist both in the relief of Stanwix and at Saratoga .
Fort Stanwix itself saw little action after the siege , although it was a dangerous and unpopular posting because of regular harassment by Loyalists and hostile Indians . In the spring of 1779 the Continental Army used the fort as a staging ground for the destruction of Onondaga Castle . In 1780 , the garrison was blockaded for several days by a large force of Indians led by Joseph Brant . Finally , in the spring of 1781 , when flood and fire ( most likely arson ) destroyed most of the fort , the Americans evacuated the post .
= = Legacy = =
Fort Stanwix was eventually destroyed in the 19th century . The site was designated a U.S. National Monument in 1935 . In 1961 the site was designated a National Historic Landmark , and in 1966 it was added to the National Register of Historic Places . The fort was reconstructed in the 1970s by the National Park Service .
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= Ogle County Courthouse =
The Ogle County Courthouse is a National Register of Historic Places listing in the Ogle County , Illinois , county seat of Oregon . The building stands on a public square in the city 's downtown commercial district . The current structure was completed in 1891 and was preceded by two other buildings , one of which was destroyed by a group of outlaws . Following the destruction of the courthouse , the county was without a judicial building for a period during the 1840s . The Ogle County Courthouse was designed by Chicago architect George O. Garnsey in the Romanesque Revival style of architecture . The ridged roof is dominated by its wooden cupola which stands out at a distance .
In addition to the courthouse building , the public square contains several outbuildings and sites that are also historic in nature and considered contributing properties to the Oregon Commercial Historic District , including a sculpture by Lorado Taft and a cast @-@ iron fountain . The courthouse joined the Register in 1981 and was included as a contributing property to the historic district in 2006 . After initially joining the Register the structure underwent a careful restoration . The courthouse no longer serves as the primary judiciary center for the county ; its successor is located directly across the street .
= = History = =
Ogle County Courthouse has been the name of three buildings . The current structure on the public square , no longer in use as the judiciary center in Ogle County , was constructed in late 1890 and early 1891 at a cost of US $ 107 @,@ 000 . The basically square Romanesque Revival structure is topped with a cupola and features a full basement . It was designed by Chicago architect George O. Garnsey .
= = = First courthouse = = =
The first session of the Ogle County Commissioners ' Court took place on January 3 , 1837 , after the city of Oregon was picked as the county seat . The first courthouse was completed in 1840 @-@ 1841 , but it never saw use . The 1840 @-@ 41 courthouse was constructed at a cost of $ 4 @,@ 000 , partially in response to " a gang of villains " harassing citizens . On March 21 , 1841 , the night before court convened in its new building , the bandits allegedly set the courthouse on fire , completely destroying it . The town , whipped into a fury by horse whipping and thievery and , even murder , later formed a band of " Regulators " to hunt down and bring the bandits to justice . Essentially vigilantes , the group tracked down two residents , " Old Man Driscoll " ( possibly Driskell ) and his son , William Driscoll , both suspected of the murder . The Driscolls were arrested and brought to Oregon by the Regulators . A trial was organized at a nearby mill . The defendants were provided with counsel and the trial ensued , which residents involved called " fair " at the time .
The swift outcome of the trial resulted in the almost immediate execution of the two men . One Driscoll , led out alone , was shot first . Then the other was led out , shown his dead relative 's body and pushed for a confession . The defendant refused to confess , though he reportedly said he had committed other crimes for which he deserved death , and was also shot .
After the lynching , friends and relatives of the Driscolls attempted to strike back at the Regulators . They obtained an indictment against many of the Regulators charging them with murder . The Regulators responded by obtaining their own Bills of Indictment against every person who had stood by and witnessed the lynching . With 125 people under indictment no witnesses could be found , and no jury could be formed , so the judge cleared the charges .
= = = Courthouse limbo = = =
For several years , between the March 1841 arson and 1848 , court convened in various private residences . Without a courthouse in Oregon , the county seat , proposals to move the county seat began to circulate . Ogle County communities , Byron , Mount Morris , Grand Detour and Daysville were all in contention for the designation , and , ultimately , the new courthouse . At the deciding meeting the representatives from Daysville removed their town from the running and sided with Oregon . The withdrawal of Daysville gave Oregon a slim majority of votes and it retained its status as county seat of Ogle County .
= = = Second courthouse = = =
The replacement for the first courthouse , destroyed by arson , was not completed until the summer of 1848 . A one @-@ story brick building , the second Ogle County Courthouse was constructed for $ 3 @,@ 000 . The county used it for several decades but it was soon outgrown as various county offices began to accumulate more and more records and files . The structure exhibited Greek Revival style , common at the time . Some of the 1848 building 's architectural elements included , a vent cupola , double @-@ hung sash windows , complete with shutters , a gabled front roof and corniced returns . The new building was used as a multi @-@ purpose public building ; besides being the courthouse it served as the meeting hall for the Evangelical Lutheran Congregation of Oregon until 1850 . When community leader Henry Mix died in 1867 citizens gathered at the courthouse to mourn . Though the 1848 Ogle County Courthouse was soon found to be " inadequate in every respect " it would be over 40 years before a new facility was built . The idea of a new courthouse was met with staunch opposition and it was not until 1891 that the 1848 building was demolished and the current building erected .
= = = Third courthouse = = =
The current old courthouse in Ogle County was completed in 1891 and has been in constant use since . It was dedicated on August 20 , 1891 and remained the county 's primary judicial building until the same date 114 years later , in 2005 . On that day Ogle County dedicated its fourth courthouse , across the street from the historic old courthouse . The 1891 courthouse was completed at a cost of slightly more than $ 100 @,@ 000 . It is constructed of red brick and detailed with Naperville and Ashton limestone in a rock @-@ faced motif . Architect George O. Garnsey , who also designed the Ellwood House in nearby DeKalb County , designed the building in the Romanesque Revival style . The cupola was not added to the roof until 1892 .
During its early years , the courthouse was a popular community meeting place ; the courthouse lawn was a common setting for community events and gatherings . Today , events no longer regularly take place on the courthouse lawn , but some festivals still occur at the location . After being listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981 a series of renovations began on the building , in order to , " preserve its historical and architectural integrity . " Inside the courthouse , each office and courtroom was renovated , the exterior of the structure was refurbished and restored as well . The work was completed in 1983 and the building opened for public tours in 1984 .
= = Architecture = =
This example of Romanesque Revival architecture was designed by George O. Garnsey , a Chicago architect well known in northern Illinois . An impressive structure , the courthouse is designed on a monumental scale .
= = = Exterior = = =
The building is constructed of red pressed brick , detailed with locally quarried limestone , and reinforced with steel girders . The building 's primary contractor was C.A. Moses . The red brick facade is detailed with significant amounts of limestone , including in its continuous lintels and sills . The entrances are covered with large round arches . The full basement is hinted at by the building 's prominent foundation and water table . The window lintels , and sills , as well as the arches and stairs are trimmed with limestone .
The roof is sharply angled toward its center , where a wooden cupola tops the building . It was completed after the building , in 1892 . At each of the square shaped building 's four corners are dormers , which serve to break up the monotony of the otherwise ridged roof . The dormers resemble the cupola , in that they are dormered as well as multi @-@ gabled . The roof has had routine maintenance performed as required . The building 's dominant feature , its cupola , sits on an oversized brick base with a terra cotta belt around its base top . It features blocked openings with multiple arches , double round arches , Corinthian pilasters , and organic corner detailing .
The courthouse is elaborately windowed . Some windows , mostly on the first floor are straight topped . On the second floor most of the windows are topped with limestone arches . The original , wood @-@ framed windows were replaced in 1972 . The building 's two main entrances feature stone arches over recessed doors ; eleven step stairways lead to both doors . New doors were installed in both entrances in 1971 .
= = = Interior = = =
The remaining original woodwork , sills , door frames , and interior doors , are all solid oak . The interior walls are 12 inches thick and , either painted or covered with paneling . An open , double staircase leads from the first floor to the second and third floors and the center of the building houses an elevator which moves from the basement to the third floor . The interior floors are all white pine wood , though some of the floors have now been carpeted . First floor ceilings are 15 feet high , with doors at a height of 12 feet . The second floor features the courtrooms , which , through the 1980s remodel , had the ceilings lowered to 10 feet . The interior renovation was completed at a cost of US $ 1 @.@ 5 million .
= = Other features = =
The public square where the Ogle County Courthouse stands is in the heart of the Oregon Commercial Historic District . Besides the courthouse , there are five other important sites on the public square , all of which are considered contributing properties to the historic district . The sites include cannons , war memorials , and a cast @-@ iron fountain . Iron Mike , the 1896 cast @-@ iron fountain , is on the south side of the 400 Block of Washington Street in the Oregon Commercial Historic District . The multi @-@ tier fountain is set into a matte green concrete base , and is four feet tall and three feet wide , at its widest point . Its lowest tier is adorned with the words " Illinois Humane Society . "
= = = Civil War cannons = = =
The public square also features two surplus Civil War era cannons . The two cannons " guard " the eastern entrance to the Ogle County Courthouse . Both cannons were put in place sometime between 1898 and 1900 . The Columbiad Cannon ( the southern most cannon ) was cast in 1846 in Boston , Massachusetts . The northern most cannon , the Parrot Cannon , was cast in 1864 .
= = = The Soldiers ' Monument = = =
The Soldiers ' Monument sits on the southeast corner of the public square . The monument was designed by sculptor Lorado Taft in 1911 and Chicago architects Allen Bartlit Pond and Irving Kane Pond designed the structure that encompasses Taft 's sculptures . The installation was dedicated in 1916 . The monument is adorned with plaques honoring Ogle County 's war dead from the American Civil War , Mexican War , War of 1812 and World War I , the last of which was added later .
= = = War Memorial = = =
On the north side of the public square is a terraced concrete memorial dedicated to Ogle County veterans of wars other than those included on The Soldiers ' Monument . Dedicated on June 29 , 1950 , the War Memorial is adorned with plaques representing five American wars , World War I , World War II , the Korean War , the Vietnam War and the Persian Gulf War . The plaques were added from 1951 @-@ 1991 . The memorial features four brick tiers topped with concrete caps , each cap holds a flagpole base .
= = Significance = =
The Ogle County Courthouse was added to National Register of Historic Places on September 10 , 1981 . On August 16 , 2006 its historic importance was reasserted when it was included as a contributing property in the Oregon Commercial Historic District 's listing on the National Register . On its original National Register nomination form the building was cited as significant in the areas of " architecture " and " politics and government . " The courthouse has been called a " prized landmark , " and a site " that holds a special place of honor " in the city of Oregon . Three of the features on and around the courthouse grounds , Iron Mike , the War Memorial , and The Soldiers ' Monument , all greatly contribute to the sense of time and place that the Oregon Commercial Historic District conveys .
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= Sunday Bloody Sunday =
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " is a song by the Irish rock band U2 . It is the opening track from their 1983 album War and was released as the album 's third single on 11 March 1983 in Germany and the Netherlands . " Sunday Bloody Sunday " is noted for its militaristic drumbeat , harsh guitar , and melodic harmonies . One of U2 's most overtly political songs , its lyrics describe the horror felt by an observer of the Troubles in Northern Ireland , mainly focusing on the Bloody Sunday incident in Derry where British troops shot and killed unarmed civil rights protesters and bystanders who were there to rally against Operation Demetrius @-@ related internment ( imprisonment without trial ) , while at the same time rejecting hate and revenge as a response noted in the lyrics , " There 's many lost , but tell me who has won . " Along with " New Year 's Day , " the song helped U2 reach a wider listening audience . It was generally well received by critics on the album 's release .
The song has remained a staple of U2 's live concerts . During its earliest performances , the song created controversy . Lead singer Bono reasserted the song 's anti @-@ sectarian @-@ violence message to his audience for many years . Today , it is considered one of U2 's signature songs , and is one of the band 's most performed tracks . Critics rate it among the best political protest songs , and it has been covered by over a dozen artists . It was named the 272nd @-@ greatest song by Rolling Stone on their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . "
= = Writing and recording = =
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " grew from a guitar riff and lyric written by the Edge in 1982 . While newlyweds Bono and Ali Hewson honeymooned in Jamaica , the Edge worked in Ireland on music for the band 's upcoming album . Following an argument with his girlfriend , and a period of doubt in his own song @-@ writing abilities , the Edge — " feeling depressed ... channelled [ his ] fear and frustration and self @-@ loathing into a piece of music . " This early draft did not yet have a title or chorus melody , but did contain a structural outline and theme . After Bono had reworked the lyrics , the band recorded the song at Windmill Lane Studios in Dublin . During the sessions , producer Steve Lillywhite encouraged drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. to use a click track , but Mullen was firmly against the idea . A chance meeting with Andy Newmark ( of Sly & the Family Stone ) — a drummer who used a click track religiously – changed Mullen 's mind . The opening drum pattern soon developed into the song 's hook . A local violinist , Steve Wickham , approached the Edge one morning at a bus stop and asked if U2 had any need for a violin on their next album . In the studio for only half a day , Wickham 's electric violin became the final instrumental contribution to the song .
Drummer Mullen said of the song in 1983 :
" We 're into the politics of people , we 're not into politics . Like you talk about Northern Ireland , ' Sunday Bloody Sunday , ' people sort of think , ' Oh , that time when 13 Catholics were shot by British soldiers ' ; that 's not what the song is about . That 's an incident , the most famous incident in Northern Ireland and it 's the strongest way of saying , ' How long ? How long do we have to put up with this ? ' I don 't care who 's who – Catholics , Protestants , whatever . You know people are dying every single day through bitterness and hate , and we 're saying why ? What 's the point ? And you can move that into places like El Salvador and other similar situations – people dying . Let 's forget the politics , let 's stop shooting each other and sit around the table and talk about it ... There are a lot of bands taking sides saying politics is crap , etc . Well , so what ! The real battle is people dying , that 's the real battle . "
= = Composition = =
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " is played at a tempo of 103 beats per minute in a 4 / 4 time signature . The song opens with a militaristic drumbeat and electric violin part ; the aggressive snare drum rhythm closely resembles a beat used to keep a military band in step . The distinctive drum sound was achieved by recording Mullen 's drumwork at the base of a staircase , producing a more natural reverb . It is followed by the Edge 's repeating arpeggios ( see notation at left ) . The riff , which follows a Bm – D – G6 chord progression , establishes the minor chord territory of the piece . As the song progresses , the lyrics and guitar become more furious . The guitar riff has been described as the " bone @-@ crushing arena @-@ rock riff of the decade " by Rolling Stone . A bass drum kick on every beat provides the musical foundation until the first chorus , when Adam Clayton 's bass guitar enters .
In contrast to the violent nature of the verses , the emergence of major chords creates a feeling of hope during Bono 's " How long , how long must we sing this song ? " refrain . During the chorus , the Edge 's backing vocals further develop this tread , using a harmonic imitative echo . The snare drum is absent from this section , and the guitar parts are muted . This part of the song deviates musically from the raw aggression seen in the song 's verses and gives the song a more uplifting structure . Bono once commented that " love is ... a central theme " of " Sunday Bloody Sunday "
The band have said the lyrics refer to the events of both Bloody Sunday and Bloody Sunday ( in 1972 and 1920 , respectively ) , but are not specifically about either event . The song takes the standpoint of someone horrified by the cycle of violence in the province . Bono rewrote the Edge 's initial lyrics , attempting to contrast the two events with Easter Sunday , but he has said that the band were too inexperienced at the time to fully realise that goal , noting that " it was a song whose eloquence lay in its harmonic power rather than its verbal strength . "
Early versions opened with the line " Don 't talk to me about the rights of the IRA , UDA . " U2 's bassist , Adam Clayton , recalls that better judgment led to the removal of such a politically charged line , and that the song 's " viewpoint became very humane and non @-@ sectarian ... which , is the only responsible position . " The chosen opening line , " I can 't believe the news today " crystallises the prevailing response , especially among young people , to the violence in Northern Ireland during the 1970s and 1980s . In successive stanzas , the lyrics paraphrase religious text from Matthew 10 : 35 ( " mother 's children ; brothers , sisters torn apart " ) and bring a twist to 1 Corinthians 15 : 32 ( " we eat and drink while tomorrow they die " , instead of " let us eat and drink ; for tomorrow we die " ) . The song finishes with a call for the Irish to stop fighting each other , and " claim the victory Jesus won ... on [ a ] Sunday bloody Sunday . "
= = Reception = =
U2 were aware when they decided to record " Sunday Bloody Sunday " that its lyrics could be misinterpreted as sectarian , and possibly place them in danger . Some of the Edge 's original lyrics explicitly spoke out against violent rebels , but were omitted to protect the group . Even without these lyrics , some listeners still considered it to be a rebel song — even one which glorifies the events of the two Bloody Sundays to which the lyrics refer .
Commercially , the single had its biggest impact in the Netherlands , where it reached number 3 on the national charts . In the US , the song gained significant album @-@ oriented rock radio airplay , and together with the earlier " New Year 's Day " helped expose U2 to a mainstream American rock audience .
Critical reception to the song was positive . In the Irish magazine Hot Press , Liam Mackey wrote that " Sunday Bloody Sunday " " takes the widescreen view ... a powerful riff and machine @-@ gun drumming [ is ] crisscrossed by skipping violin . " Denise Sullivan commented for Allmusic that Mullen 's opening drumwork " helps set the tone for the unforgiving , take @-@ no @-@ prisoners feel of the song , as well as for the rest of the album . "
= = Live performances = =
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " has been performed more than 600 times by U2 . It was first heard by a live audience in December 1982 in Glasgow , Scotland , on a twenty @-@ one show " Pre @-@ War Tour . " The band were particularly nervous about playing the song in Belfast , Northern Ireland . Upon introducing the song there at the Maysfield Leisure Centre , Bono promised to " never play it again " if the crowd didn 't like it . The crowd overwhelmingly enjoyed the song ; the Edge recalls that " the place went nuts , it drew a really positive reaction . " , also saying that " We thought a lot about the song before we played it in Belfast and Bono told the audience that if they didn 't like it then we 'd never play it again . Out of the 3 @,@ 000 people in the hall about three walked out . I think that says a lot about the audience 's trust in us . " The band remained apprehensive , however . Even by the song 's sixth performance , Bono was introducing the song with the statement " This song is not a rebel song . "
Throughout 1983 's War Tour , Bono continued to reassure audiences that " This song is not a rebel song , this song is ' Sunday Bloody Sunday ' " highlighting the non @-@ partisan intentions of the lyrics . The live performances on this tour featured a routine during which Bono would set a white flag in the front of the stage while the band vamped three chords — B minor , D major , and G major . ( though the band traditionally tune their instruments down a half step so the chords are B flat minor , D flat and G Flat ) . As the band vamped , Bono would sing " no more ! " with the audience . These performances were highly effective with U2 's audience ( at the time , U2 were most popular as a college rock act ) . Live performances of the song subsequently appeared on their 1983 live album Under a Blood Red Sky and their concert film Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky . In the Unforgettable Fire Tour of 1984 and 1985 , " Sunday Bloody Sunday " continued to be a prominent midpoint of each U2 concert — as did the " no more ! " interlude . Along with a performance of " Bad , " the song was performed at Live Aid in July 1985 .
As U2 reached new levels of fame in 1987 with The Joshua Tree , " Sunday Bloody Sunday " continued to be a focal point of concerts . Some performances featured slower , more contemplative versions of the song ; other concerts saw the wilder , more violent version . This tour marked the first time " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was played in Northern Ireland since 1982 , and it has not been performed there since .
The 1988 rockumentary Rattle and Hum includes a particularly renowned version of the song , recorded on 8 November 1987 at McNichols Sports Arena in Denver , Colorado . On this version Bono 's mid @-@ song rant angrily and emphatically condemns the Remembrance Day Bombing that had occurred earlier that same day in the Northern Irish town of Enniskillen :
After the Joshua Tree Tour , Bono was heard saying the band might never play the song again , because the song was " made real " with the performance in Denver , and it could never be matched again . Following their original intent , " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was not played during any of the forty @-@ seven shows on the Lovetown Tour in 1989 . The song reappeared for a brief period during the Zoo TV Tour , and late during the second half of PopMart Tour ( 1997 – 1998 ) , U2 played an emotional concert in war @-@ ravaged Sarajevo that included a solo performance of the song by the Edge . " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was subsequently played live in this style until the end of the tour in March 1998 .
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " was played at every concert on the 2001 Elevation and 2005 – 2006 Vertigo tours . Performances in 2001 frequently included parts of Bob Marley 's " Get Up , Stand Up " and " Johnny Was " . A memorable mid @-@ song message referencing the Omagh bombing of 1998 ( " Turn this song into a prayer ! " ) is captured on the live DVD U2 Go Home : Live from Slane Castle . In concerts in New York City after the September 11 , 2001 attacks , the " no more ! " interlude was replaced by Bono holding an American flag .
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " was used during the Vertigo Tour of 2005 and 2006 , often alongside " Bullet the Blue Sky " and " Love and Peace or Else " as a trio of politically driven songs performed during the middle part of the band 's set . Bono extended the " no more ! " interlude to explain a headband he had donned in the previous song . The headband depicted the word " coexist " ( written to depict a crescent , a Star of David , and a Christian cross ) . The Coexist symbol is trademarked in the United States by an LLP in Indiana , and the original artwork was created in 2001 by a Polish artist . As with the 2001 shows , the Vertigo tour saw the song applied to subjects further afield than The Troubles in Northern Ireland . During 2006 Australian shows , in Brisbane , Bono asked for Australian Terrorism suspect David Hicks to be brought home and tried under Australian laws . In subsequent Australian concerts he dedicated the song to the victims of the 2002 Bali bombings – where 88 of the fatalities were Australians – saying ' This is your song now ! ' . The song was also performed at every concert on the U2 360 ° Tour , paying tribute to the 2009 Iranian election protests on each occasion by projecting scenes from the protests and Persian writing in green on the video screen .
= = Music video = =
Although a promotional music video had not been produced for the original release , the band used footage from a 5 June 1983 live performance filmed for the concert film U2 Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky to promote the song . Directed by Gavin Taylor , the video displays Bono 's use of a white flag during performances of the song . The video highlights the intensity and emotion felt by many audience members during U2 's concerts , while the rainy , torch @-@ lit setting in Colorado 's Red Rocks Amphitheatre further adds to the atmosphere . In 2004 , Rolling Stone cited the performance as one " 50 Moments that Changed the History of Rock and Roll " and noted that " the sight of Bono singing the anti @-@ violence anthem ' Sunday Bloody Sunday ' while waving a white flag through crimson mist ( created by a combination of wet weather , hot lights and the illumination of those crags ) became the defining image of U2 's warrior @-@ rock spirit and — shown in heavy rotation on MTV — broke the band nationwide . "
= = Other releases = =
The album version of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was originally included on War , but it can also be heard on a number of promotional releases , including the compilations The Best of 1980 @-@ 1990 and U218 Singles . Several live versions have been released ; the video available on Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky is from a performance at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in June 1983 , but the version on the live album Under a Blood Red Sky is from a performance in August 1983 . Audio from the Sarajevo concert of 1997 is featured as a b @-@ side on 1997 's single " If God Will Send His Angels . " The song also appears on Rattle and Hum , PopMart : Live from Mexico City , Elevation 2001 : Live from Boston , U2 Go Home : Live from Slane Castle , Vertigo 2005 : Live from Chicago , Live from Paris , U2 3D , U2 360 ° at the Rose Bowl and in the closing credits of the 2002 TV film Bloody Sunday . The only concert films that " Sunday Bloody Sunday " does not appear on are Zoo TV : Live from Sydney and Vertigo 05 : Live from Milan .
= = Legacy = =
The song appears in the closing credits of the 2002 biopic Bloody Sunday .
In 2010 , Rolling Stone ranked " Sunday Bloody Sunday " 272nd on its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . " In 2006 , Q named " Sunday Bloody Sunday " the 18th @-@ greatest song of the 1980s . The staff of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame selected " Sunday Bloody Sunday " as one of 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll . The New Statesman listed it as one of the Top 20 Political Songs , and similarly , Time named it one of the Top 10 Protest Songs .
In 2007 , The Roots covered " Sunday Bloody Sunday " in a medley with " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " for an NAACP dinner honouring Bono . While the band played the song , Black Thought rapped lines from the band 's own " False Media " and bits of Edwin Starr 's " War " .
In 2008 , Jay @-@ Z sampled " Sunday Bloody Sunday " in a version of " Heart of the City " performed at the Glastonbury Festival . During a version of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " performed by the band at the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards , Jay @-@ Z improvised lyrics over the breakdown in the song before including a snippet of " Get Up , Stand Up . "
= = Track listings = =
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " was commercially released throughout most of Europe in support of U2 's album War . Its cover art is the same as that of " Two Hearts Beat as One , " except on the Japan release . The B @-@ side on the single , " Endless Deep , " is one of the few U2 songs that features bassist Adam Clayton singing .
= = Personnel = =
Bono – lead vocals
The Edge – guitar , backing vocals
Adam Clayton – bass guitar
Larry Mullen , Jr . – drums
Steve Wickham – electric violin
= = Chart positions = =
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= Ambondro mahabo =
Ambondro mahabo is a mammal from the middle Jurassic ( about 167 million years ago ) of Madagascar . The only species of the genus Ambondro , it is known from a fragmentary lower jaw with three teeth , interpreted as the last premolar and the first two molars . The premolar consists of a central cusp with one or two smaller cusps and a cingulum ( shelf ) on the inner , or lingual , side of the tooth . The molars also have such a lingual cingulum . They consist of two groups of cusps : a trigonid of three cusps at the front and a talonid with a main cusp , a smaller cusp , and a crest at the back . Features of the talonid suggest that Ambondro had tribosphenic molars , the basic arrangement of molar features also present in marsupial and placental mammals . It is the oldest known mammal with putatively tribosphenic teeth ; at the time of its discovery it antedated the second oldest example by about 25 million years .
Upon its description in 1999 , Ambondro was interpreted as a primitive relative of Tribosphenida ( marsupials , placentals , and their extinct tribosphenic @-@ toothed relatives ) . In 2001 , however , an alternative suggestion was published that united it with the Cretaceous Australian Ausktribosphenos and the monotremes ( the echidnas , the platypus , and their extinct relatives ) into the clade Australosphenida , which would have acquired tribosphenic molars independently from marsupials and placentals . The Jurassic Argentinean Asfaltomylos and Henosferus and the Cretaceous Australian Bishops were later added to Australosphenida , and new work on wear in australosphenidan teeth has called into question whether these animals , including Ambondro , did have tribosphenic teeth . Other paleontologists have challenged this concept of Australosphenida , and instead proposed that Ambondro is not closely related to Ausktribosphenos plus monotremes , or that monotremes are not australosphenidans and that the remaining australosphenidans are related to placentals .
= = Discovery and context = =
Ambondro mahabo was described by a team led by John Flynn in a 1999 paper in Nature . The scientific name derives from the village of Ambondromahabo , close to which the fossil was found . It is known from the Bathonian ( middle Jurassic , about 167 million years ago ) of the Mahajanga Basin in northwestern Madagascar , in the Isalo III unit , the youngest of the three rock layers that make up the Isalo " Group " . This unit has also yielded crocodyliform and plesiosaur teeth and remains of the sauropod Lapparentosaurus .
= = Description = =
Ambondro was described on the basis of a fragmentary right mandible ( lower jaw ) with three teeth in it ( Figure 1 ) , interpreted as the last premolar ( p @-@ last ) and the first two molars ( m1 and m2 ) . It is in the collection of the University of Antananarivo as specimen UA 10602 . Relative to other primitive mammals , it is small . Each of the teeth has a prominent cingulum ( shelf ) on the inner ( lingual ) side . The p @-@ last has a strong central cusp . There is a cuspule ( small cusp ) on the back of the tooth and probably another on the inner front corner . This tooth resembles the molars of symmetrodonts , a group of primitive mammals , but the back cusp is smaller than the metaconid of symmetrodonts .
The front half of the m1 and m2 consists of the trigonid , a group of three cusps forming a triangle : the paraconid at the front on the inner side , protoconid in the middle on the outer ( labial ) side , and metaconid at the back on the inner side ( see Figure 2 ) . The three cusps form a right angle with each other at the protoconid , so that the trigonid is described as " open " . The paraconid is higher than the metaconid . At the front margin , a cingulum is present that is divided into two small cusps . Unlike in various early tribosphenic mammals and close relatives , there is no additional cuspule behind the metaconid . At the back of the trigonid , the crest known as the distal metacristid is located relatively close to the outer side of the tooth and is continuous with another crest , the cristid obliqua , which is in turn connected to the back of the tooth .
The talonid , another group of cusps , makes up the back of the tooth . It is wider than long and contains a well @-@ developed cusp , the hypoconid , on the outer side and a depression , the talonid basin , in the middle . The cristid obliqua connects to the hypoconid . The smaller hypoconulid cusp is present towards the inner side of the tooth , and the hypoconid and hypoconulid are connected by a cutting edge which is suggestive of the presence of a metacone cusp on the upper molars . Further towards the inner side , a crest , the entocristid , rims the talonid basin ; on m1 , it is swollen and on m2 , it contains two small cuspules , but a distinct entoconid cusp is absent . This entocristid is continuous with the lingual cingulum .
Wear facets are areas of a tooth that show evidence of contact with a tooth in the opposing jaw when the teeth are brought together ( known as occlusion ) . Flynn and colleagues identified two wear facets at the front and back margins of the talonid basin ; they argue that these wear facets suggest the presence of a protocone ( another cusp on the outer side of the tooth ) on the upper molars . In a 2005 paper on Asfaltomylos , a related primitive mammal from Argentina , Thomas Martin and Oliver Rauhut disputed the presence of these wear facets within the talonid basin in Ambondro and instead identified wear facets on the cusps and crests surrounding the basin . They proposed that wear in the australosphenidan talonid occurs mainly on the rims , not in the talonid basin itself , and that australosphenidans may not have had a functional protocone .
= = Interpretations = =
In their paper , Flynn and colleagues described Ambondro as the oldest mammal with tribosphenic molars — the basic molar type of metatherian ( marsupials and their extinct relatives ) and eutherian ( placentals and their extinct relatives ) mammals , characterized by the protocone cusp on the upper molars contacting the talonid basin on the lower molars in chewing . The discovery of Ambondro was thought to extend the known temporal range of tribosphenic mammals 25 million years further into the past . Consequently , Flynn and colleagues argued against the prevailing view that tribosphenic mammals originated on the northern continents ( Laurasia ) , and instead proposed that their origin lies in the south ( Gondwana ) . They cited the retention of a distal metacristid and an " open " trigonid as characters separating Ambondro from more modern tribosphenidans .
In 2001 , Zhe @-@ Xi Luo and colleagues alternatively proposed that a tribosphenic molar pattern had arisen twice ( compare Figure 3 , top ) — once giving rise to the marsupials and placentals ( Boreosphenida ) , and once producing Ambondro , the Cretaceous Australian Ausktribosphenos , and the living monotremes , which first appeared in the Cretaceous ( united as Australosphenida ) . They characterized Australosphenida by the shared presence of a cingulum on the outer front corner of the lower molars , a short and broad talonid , a relatively low trigonid , and a triangulated last lower premolar .
Also in 2001 , Denise Sigogneau @-@ Russell and colleagues in their description of the earliest Laurasian tribosphenic mammal , Tribactonodon , agreed with the relationship between Ausktribosphenos and monotremes , but argued that Ambondro was closer to Laurasian tribosphenidans than to Ausktribosphenos and monotremes . As evidence against the integrity of Australosphenida , they cited the presence of lingual cingula in various non @-@ australosphenidan mammals ; the presence of two cusps in the anterior cingulum in Ambondro as well as some boreosphenidans ; the different appearance of the premolar in Ambondro ( flat ) and Ausktribosphenos ( squared ) ; and the contrast between the talonids of Ambondro ( with a well @-@ developed hypoconid on the labial side ) and Ausktribosphenos ( squared ) .
The next year , Luo and colleagues published a more thorough analysis confirming their previous conclusion and adding the Cretaceous Australian Bishops to Australosphenida . They mentioned the condition of the hypoconulid , which is inclined forward , rather than backward as in boreosphenidans , as an additional australosphenidan character and noted that Ausktribosphenos and monotremes were united , to the exclusion of Ambondro , by the presence of a V @-@ shaped notch in the distal metacristid . In the same year , Asfaltomylos was described from the Jurassic of Argentina as another australosphenidan . In contrast to Ambondro , this animal lacked a distal metacristid and did not have as well @-@ developed a lingual cingulum .
However , in 2003 Michael Woodburne and colleagues revised the phylogenetic analysis published by Luo and colleagues , making several changes to the data , particularly in the monotremes . Their results ( Figure 3 , bottom ) challenged the division between Australosphenida and Boreosphenida , as proposed by Luo et al . Instead , they excluded monotremes from Australosphenida and placed the remaining australosphenidans close to Eutheria , with Ambondro most closely related to Asfaltomylos . In 2007 , Guillermo Rougier and colleagues described another australosphenidan , Henosferus , from the Jurassic of Argentina ; they argued against a relationship between Eutheria and Australosphenida ( Figure 3 , top ) , but were ambivalent about the placement of monotremes within Australosphenida . Based in part on Martin and Rauhut 's earlier work on wear facets in australosphenidans , they questioned the presence of a true functional protocone on the upper molars of non @-@ monotreme australosphenidans — none of which are known from upper teeth — and consequently suggested that australosphenidans may not , after all , have had truly tribosphenic teeth .
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= Overlord ( 2007 video game ) =
Overlord is an action role @-@ playing video game developed by Triumph Studios and published by Codemasters for the Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 3 . The former two versions of the game were released in North America on June 26 , 2007 , then later in Europe on June 29 and Australia on July 6 , 2007 .
Development on the game began in early 2006 and the game was first announced in May of the same year , with actual gameplay demonstrated at E3 2006 . After over a year and a half of development , its release in 2007 was met with generally favourable reviews and helped boost overall sales for Codemasters that year . An expansion pack entitled Overlord : Raising Hell was announced on November 1 , 2007 and released February 15 , 2008 along with additional multiplayer maps and a local split screen co @-@ op mode . A PlayStation 3 version of the game also entitled Overlord : Raising Hell was released in 2008 in Europe on June 20 , and June 24 in North America , which included both the original game and its downloadable content . A sequel for all three systems entitled Overlord II was announced the same year on August 13 along with a spin @-@ off for the Wii entitled Overlord : Dark Legend and a Nintendo DS game called Overlord : Minions . A Linux version is under development .
Overlord is set in a fantasy world , where the player takes the role of a resurrected warrior known simply as The Overlord who has control over hordes of gremlin @-@ like creatures known as " minions " . The player must defeat seven corrupt ruling heroes in order to reconquer the lands and establish his lordship over its inhabitants . The game features a corruption feature , similar to that of the Fable games , but allowing the player to " be evil ... or really evil , " where certain actions and choices affect different aspects of the story and gameplay . While the Overlord is controlled in a third person perspective , the way minions are controlled brings elements of real @-@ time strategy and upgrades bring those of role @-@ playing games . The game also uses black humour and is often a satire and parody of the traditional fantasy setting and plot .
= = Gameplay = =
The game centers around simultaneously controlling the Overlord and an army of goblin @-@ like minions to traverse the 3D gameworld and defeat the seven heroes who slew the Overlord 's predecessor , and who have since been corrupted by power . Each one represents one of the seven deadly sins .
There are four minion races , each of which have their own colour and abilities . Browns are melee fighters , blues can revive defeated minions and swim , reds throw fireballs at enemies , can put out fires and are immune to fire attacks , and greens backstab enemies and can clear poisonous gas and plants . Minions are summoned from the spawning pits found scattered throughout the game . The player needs to pay life @-@ force , which can be gained by killing creatures , like large bugs , to summon minions . At the start of the game only five minions can be summoned at once ; as the game progresses this can increase to a maximum of fifty . In addition to controlling minions , the player can sacrifice them at altars of blood and magic to restore the Overlord 's health or mana . Once a forge is acquired , they can be used to imbue weapons and armour to increase the Overlord 's abilities .
The player begins in an old ruined tower that has been plundered of its magical artifacts and acts as a central hub for the player . As the stolen tower objects are recovered , new rooms and spells become available for use , and the Overlord 's maximum health and mana increase . The player also needs to recover the blue , green , and red minion hives to summon the respective minions . The player can customize the tower with a variety of visual items such as banners and statues ; the available visual items differ depending on in @-@ game actions . Armour and weapons can be purchased or improved in the forge . Most defeated enemy types appear as opponents in the dungeon , an arena where the Overlord can fight them again ( excluding bosses such as heroes and one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind beasts ) .
While the game claims that the Overlord is evil , the quests show him being more of an anti @-@ hero . It also tracks how corrupt the Overlord is in accomplishing his goals . During the game the Overlord is tempted by each of the deadly sins while trying to kill their corresponding heroes . The player 's choices will influence your corruption level , either raising or lowering it . Slaughtering inoffensive townsfolk , stealing gold and other activities can also increase the corruption level . The corruption level changes the way townsfolk treat the Overlord and will also change his appearance , a system similar to Fable . As corruption increases , the Overlord 's armour will become more devilish with horns protruding out of the back , shoulders , elbows and knees and he will acquire a black aura . The corruption level also determines which game ending the player sees and which high @-@ level spells they can cast .
The game offers several multiplayer modes . Slaughter pits two Overlords against each other in a head to head combat with potentially hundreds of minions . In Survival , two Overlords team up against large armies of enemies . Pillage is a competition in which two Overlords and their minions compete to see who can pillage and plunder the most gold in a selected amount of time . The Xbox 360 version provides voice chat over Xbox Live . In the PlayStation 3 version Raising Hell , the game features a mini @-@ map on screen to help the player navigate through the game 's world .
= = Story = =
= = = Characters = = =
The player takes the role of the Overlord , the game 's silent protagonist / anti @-@ hero , whose motivations and personality are left for the player to determine . At the outset of the game , tiny gremlin @-@ like minions pry open his coffin and revive him . In rapid succession , his minions shove him into armour , name him successor to the previous Overlord , and task him with slaying his predecessor 's murderers , the Seven Heroes . In the intervening years , the Seven Heroes each fell prey to one of the Seven Deadly Sins . Despite recalling nothing of his past , the Overlord begins to rebuild the tower at the suggestion of his adviser Gnarl . As the new Overlord , the protagonist holds absolute sway over his minions . Complementing this power , he possesses some proficiency using axes , swords , and maces . Through his tower , the Overlord can channel magical energies capable of wanton destruction or defense .
Although the titular Overlord is the protagonist , the game relies heavily on Gnarl , the oldest minion , to advise and guide the player . For the majority of the game , he remains by the Tower Heart relaying information and reminders since " there are evil deeds that need doing " . He acts as narrator for the plot . Eventually , the Overlord 's mistress also comes to reside in the tower . She redecorates the rooms and upgrades the minions and the tower as well as shares opinions on certain actions . Rose is the first potential mistress rescued from bandits . Despite the Overlord 's menace and actions , she is initially strong @-@ willed , cheery and unafraid of the Overlord 's minions . The other potential mistress is Rose 's sister Velvet whose evil tendencies are less ambiguous than her sister 's and dresses far more provocatively . She repeatedly ask for presents and lusts for the Overlord and shows a distinct lack of empathy or grief over her fiancé 's murder at the hands of the Overlord .
The " seven heroes " are corrupt themselves , each with a trait representing one of the seven deadly sins . The Halfling leader Melvin Underbelly has become gluttonous and as a result , morbidly obese – he has taken to sending bands of armed ( also obese ) halflings to steal food from neighbouring Spree to feed his unending hunger . The mightiest Elven warrior of Evernight Forest , Oberon Greenhaze is in a constant sleep and his sloth has caused his nightmares to haunt the forest . His apathy allowed the dwarves to invade Evernight and kill or enslave most of the elves , but they were in turn driven out when the creatures of his nightmares became real . The ruler of Heaven 's Peak and Velvet 's fiancé , Sir William the Black shows strong lust towards unorthodox sexual interests such as having relations with a succubus , and indulges in decadent parties with a secret cult . The presence of the succubus has caused a plague of undeath in the fortified city . The Dwarf King Goldo Golderson of the Golden Hills has become overly greedy and desires wealth over all the other aspects of life where he has even forced the remaining elves to mine for it . His paranoia that his riches will be stolen has led him to heavily militarise the entire dwarven empire – he himself rides a war @-@ like steam roller named " Rollie " . Envy drives Jewel the Thieving Hero to steal anything valuable even though she cares nothing for possessions , and Kahn the Warrior is very protective of her and is driven wild with wrath whenever anything appears to threaten her . Both of them command the bandits and beholders from the Ruborian Desert . The Previous Overlord , having possessed the body of the Wizard ( who was the founder of the group of heroes ) , shows pride in his work , which involves deception and an urge for supreme power , and is the game 's main antagonist .
= = = Plot = = =
The game begins where Gnarl and the Brown minions awaken the Overlord from his tomb . From here they suit him in his armour and proclaim him Overlord in his old and dilapidated tower – the previous Overlord having been killed by heroes , ready to reconquer the lands . The Overlord first turns to the Mellow Hills , where the Halflings and their leader Melvin Underbelly are using the townspeople of Spree and Red minions as slave labour . The Overlord storms the Halfling Homes , slaying Melvin and reclaiming the Reds and Spree ( to the peasants ’ delight or disgust depending on whether the Overlord returns their stolen food ) . Castle Spree however has come under attack by bandits . After flushing them out , the castle mistress Rose offers her service to the Overlord . At Evernight Forest , the roots of a tree where Oberon Greenhaze sleeps cover the Elves ' home , nearly extinct after being ransacked by Dwarves . The Green minions are found and Oberon is slain . The Elves ' sacred statue , however , has been stolen by the Dwarves , angering Jewel , the Thieving Hero , who wanted to steal it for herself . At Heaven ’ s Peak the town is overrun by zombies and demons . Here the Overlord gains the Blue minions . At the town ’ s inn , it is discovered that town leader Sir William the Black had fallen for a Succubus , calling off his wedding to Rose ’ s sister Velvet . Killing Sir William in Angelis Keep , Velvet offers her services to the Overlord and he must choose between her and Rose .
The Overlord then turns to the Dwarven Golden Hills and their leader Goldo Golderson , who has become greedy for gold . Here the remaining enslaved Elves claim the last of their women are being held in the Royal Halls of the Dwarven Keep . Meanwhile , at the Dwarf construction site , Gnarl recommends that the Overlord stash a few minions inside the Elf sacred statue and allow Jewel to take it in order to follow her to her homeland , the Ruborian Desert . Back at the Royal Halls , where Goldo is defeated , the Overlord can either take his stash of gold or free the remaining Elf women before the halls collapse . The Ruborian desert is found and Jewel is captured and interrogated . An enraged Kahn the Warrior , protective of Jewel , strikes back and the Overlord now has to save Spree and Heaven ’ s Peak from his wrath .
Back at the tower the minions submit to the previous Overlord who has secretly possessed the Wizard , originally father to Rose and Velvet , and who now lays claim to his previous title . The old Overlord tells the current one that he was originally the eighth hero who came to slay him , yet fell from a great height and was left for dead by his companions while they looted the Tower . The Old Overlord however put him in the sarcophagus to heal his wounds in order to use him to defeat the other heroes . The Overlord battles the old Overlord , during which the old Overlord brags of being responsible for the corruption of the heroes . Upon the old Overlord 's death , the Overlord reclaims his tower and minions . Depending on the Overlord 's corruption and choices throughout , the ending will show 4 of 8 different ending cutscenes where either the Overlord is met with bliss and praise or he pillages and scorches the land and tortures the inhabitants . Regardless of the player 's unique ending , the Jester is shown performing some sort of ritual , with Gnarl narrating " Evil will always find a way " , opening up the events for Raising Hell .
= = Development = =
Overlord was officially announced by the start of May 2006 under the same name for the Xbox 360 and PC , advertised as being a next generation game set in a " twisted fantasy world where players have the choice to be evil ... or really evil ! " Along with this announcement , the first screenshots and artwork were released to game websites . Early concept art showed the Overlord with a clearly visible human face as opposed to his form in the final release as a dark covered shadow with lit up eyes . At E3 2006 , the majority of the game mechanics were revealed within the same month , while the multiplayer component had yet to be announced .
The Xbox 360 demo was released for download over Xbox Live on June 8 , while the PC demo was released just days later over the internet , weeks before the game 's first release in North America . The demo included only the initial portion of the game , which contained the game 's introductory cinematic and narration , the tutorial and the Overlord 's battle to free human peasants from a Halfling operated slave camp .
During post release , along with patches , by August there were already outlined plans for downloadable content for both versions . These were said to include the introduction of new multiplayer maps , offline co @-@ op and the possibility of an extension or an additional chapter to the game 's single @-@ player plot . A patch was released for the PC version of the game , updating the software to version 1 @.@ 2 and fixing a number of bugs , including one which occasionally prevented players from completing the game . The corresponding Xbox 360 update arrived several weeks later . The first official downloadable content was announced in November the same year , along with news of an official expansion , in the form of a " Challenge Pack " , which was to add seven new maps and two modes to the multiplayer feature , an offline split screen version and a " Legendary " difficulty for single player , with corresponding Achievement Points for the 360 version . These new modes were made available on February 15 , 2008 over the internet on various gaming sites for the PC and Xbox Live for the 360 , the Split @-@ Screen option for free .
In July 2007 , shortly after the release of Overlord there were rumours of a PlayStation 3 port , due to job advertisements at Triumph Studios , which mentioned one position needed " Porting [ Xbox 360 ] / PC code base to [ PlayStation 3 ] " . A spokesman for Codemasters however quickly corrected this by stating " We are not porting Overlord to [ PlayStation 3 ] . " It wasn 't until February 2008 , when Codemasters confirmed a PlayStation 3 version of Overlord was in development . However instead of a straight port of the original , the version is to include both the original game and its additional downloadable content and expansion on one Blu @-@ ray Disc , under the title Overlord : Raising Hell to be released in Summer 2008 . The demo was made available over the online PlayStation Store on May 15 , 2008 and later fully released the following month in June .
= = = Overlord : Raising Hell = = =
On November 1 , 2007 , Codemasters announced Overlord : Raising Hell , a downloadable expansion pack . The premise behind this is that an Abyss appears in each of the five kingdoms ( Mellow Hills , Evernight Forest , Heaven 's Peak , the Golden Hills and the Ruborian Desert ) , causing the residents to disappear ( they enter the abyss because they believe it will save them from the Overlord ) . In each of the Abysses there is a hero being tortured and an Abyss stone . In order to obtain the Abyss Stone and gain control over the Abyss , the Overlord has to battle the residents of the Abysses ( Wraiths ) and the fallen heroes . Once the Overlord has control of the Abysses , he will be able to battle the one who summoned these Abysses and fight for the domination of his realm . Along with the additional multiplayer content , Raising Hell was released over official game download websites for the PC and Xbox Live for the 360 , on February 15 , 2008 .
= = = Sequel and spin @-@ offs = = =
Following the games release on the PlayStation 3 , the same year on August 13 Codemasters announced a sequel entitled Overlord II to be released for all three platforms for the last Overlord to be released sometime in 2009 . According to developers , the game " massively increases the scope of the original concept " while taking the role of a different Overlord due to the events in the story of Raising Hell , continuing where the last game finished with a new " Roman @-@ inspired " prime foe . Control over minions will also be expanded allowing to do other tasks like " riding mounts , using war machines and sailing warships " In the same announcement for the official sequel were plans for a spin @-@ off for the Wii entitled Overlord : Dark Legend to feature a new Overlord although plot continuity with the main series has yet to be explained but is to establish " the idea that there have been a series of Overlords throughout time " . Being developed entirely for the Wii , it has motion controls implemented such as " plucking a minion from the horde , holding him by the neck and shaking him around " by using this feature . Another spin @-@ off entitled Overlord : Minions was released for the Nintendo DS handheld game console but with more puzzle based gameplay and only controlling the minions . Both Nintendo spin @-@ offs were developed by Climax Studios while Triumph Studios would work exclusively on developing Overlord II . All three games were eventually released during June , 2009 . A new installment in the series , Overlord : Fellowship of Evil was announced in April 2015 . The game was released on October 20 , 2015 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and will support co @-@ operative multiplayer upon launch .
= = Reception = =
Before its release , at E3 2006 , Overlord won GameSpot 's E3 2006 Editors Choice Award of Best Surprise . Overlord gained a generally positive response from game critics with an average review score of 77 % for the Xbox 360 version and 81 % for the PC at GameRankings . Many sources praised the game for its concept , noted for being similar to that of Pikmin , which was popular for the same reason .
GameSpot noted " the satisfaction of running amok with your legion of wickedly enthusiastic minions is what makes Overlord worth playing " while Game Informer praised the game 's personality , notably that of the minions , where " The satire is funny , and the evil is deliciously over @-@ the @-@ top , but the minions are the real stars " . IGN stated similar pros , calling it " evil , yet light @-@ hearted , humor " and that with the " richly detailed world combine for a game that is worth diving into " . 1UP.com noted the personal element of controlling the minions , stating " If they ( minions ) die , just call up more . Something happens along the way , though : You start getting attached to the little guys " .
Despite the game 's premise as the choice to be " evil or really evil " , numerous reviewers pointed out that some of the game 's choices within missions are more good than evil ; such as , for example , the option to return the peasants ' stolen food stocks . While mentioning this too , Eurogamer added that , since the game humour is mainly satire , these good deeds " kind of becomes the joke . Especially early on , there 's a fairly obvious irony in that everyone else in the world is assuming that you 're this brave hero when in fact you 're clearly a sociopath " . In December 2007 , Overlord was included in Eurogamer 's Top 50 Games of 2007 .
Other reviewers noted that the game can become frustrating at times , due to the controls not being able to keep up with the game 's pace , and apparent glitches between platform and regional versions . IGN US gave the 360 version a 6 @.@ 6 / 10 due to a game crashing bug , calling it " the equivalent of having to critique a good book only to pause three quarters of the way through and have the author rip the remaining pages out simply because you took a break at the wrong moment " . IGN UK and Australia , however , did not find such a bug , giving Overlord a higher score of 8 @.@ 1 and 8 @.@ 0 . GameSpot had a similar issue over the poor camera control in the PC version , at first rating it with a 6 @.@ 0 , but re @-@ rated the game higher after reviewing a newer version . They still , however , held the shortcoming of the " controls that you 'll occasionally struggle against " . GameSpy noted the multiplayer mode being " sloppy " and " unstable " at times , not being as enjoyable as the single player mode , having " experienced a couple disconnects , and had more than one game end prematurely due to simple frustration " .
When Overlord : Raising Hell for the PlayStation 3 was released , it was met with similar praise and complaints as the previous two versions with a current review average of 75 % at GameRankings . Eurogamer continued its praise , even calling it " probably one of the best games currently available on PS3 " . IGN however found the PS3 version to harbour many technical issues including drop in frame rate , long load times and lag in multiplayer , issues that GameSpot also found by concluding while the PS3 version is the best value for money , due to " the unpredictable frame rate , sluggish controls , and fickle camera in the PS3 version " , it suggested others to " pick up the technically superior Xbox 360 version and spend a little extra to get the downloadable content " . Game Trailers also found a few technical issues but concluded that " when things are clicking ... With plenty of humor and a substantially long quest , players will be surprised at how enjoyable Overlord can be . "
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= China =
China , officially the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , in Asia , is the world 's most populous state , with a population of over 1 @.@ 381 billion . The state is governed by its vanguard party based in the capital of Beijing . It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces , five autonomous regions , four direct @-@ controlled municipalities ( Beijing , Tianjin , Shanghai , and Chongqing ) , two mostly self @-@ governing special administrative regions ( Hong Kong and Macau ) , and claims sovereignty over Taiwan . China is a great power and a major regional power within Asia , and has been characterized as a potential superpower .
Covering approximately 9 @.@ 6 million square kilometers , China is the world 's second largest state by land area , and either the third or fourth @-@ largest by total area , depending on the method of measurement . China 's landscape is vast and diverse , ranging from forest steppes and the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the wetter south . The Himalaya , Karakoram , Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from south and central Asia . The Yangtze and Yellow rivers , the third and sixth longest in the world , respectively , run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard . China 's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 9 @,@ 000 mi ) long , and is bounded by the Bohai , Yellow , East China , and South China seas .
China is a cradle of civilization , with its known history beginning with an ancient civilization – one of the world 's earliest – that flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain . For millennia , China 's political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties . Since 221 BCE , when the Qin Dynasty first conquered several states to form a Chinese empire , the state has expanded , fractured and reformed numerous times . The Republic of China ( ROC ) replaced the last dynasty in 1912 , and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949 , when it was defeated by the Communist Party of China in the Chinese Civil War . The Communist Party established the People 's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949 , while the ROC government relocated to Taiwan with its present capital in Taipei . Both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China .
China had the largest economy in the world for most of the past two thousand years , during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline . Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978 , China has become one of the world 's fastest @-@ growing major economies . As of 2014 , it is the world 's second @-@ largest economy by nominal GDP and largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . China is also the world 's largest exporter and second @-@ largest importer of goods . China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world 's largest standing army and second @-@ largest defense budget . The PRC is a member of the United Nations , as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council in 1971 . China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations , including the WTO , APEC , BRICS , the Shanghai Cooperation Organization ( SCO ) , the BCIM and the G @-@ 20 .
= = Etymology = =
The English word " China " is thought to have been originally derived from the Sanskrit word Cīna ( चीन ) , which is translated into the Persian word Chīn ( چین ) . Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture , including the Mahābhārata ( 5th century BCE ) and the Laws of Manu ( 2nd century BCE ) . The word " China " itself was first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa . The journal was translated and published in England in 1555 . The traditional theory , proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini and supported by many later scholars , is that the word China and its earlier related forms are ultimately derived from the state of " Qin " ( 秦 ) , the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou dynasty which unified China to form the Qin dynasty . Other suggestions for the derivation of " China " however exist .
The official name of the modern state is the People 's Republic of China ( Chinese : 中华人民共和国 ; pinyin : Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó ) . The common Chinese names for the state are Zhōngguó ( Chinese : 中国 , from zhōng , " central " or " middle " , and guó , " state " or " states " , and in modern times , " nation " ) and Zhōnghuá ( Chinese : 中华 ) , although the state 's official name has been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments . The term Zhōngguó appeared in various ancient texts , such as the Classic of History of the 6th century BCE , and in pre @-@ imperial times it was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia tribes from perceived " barbarians " . The term , which can be either singular or plural , referred to the group of states or provinces in the central plain , but was not used as a name for the state as a whole until the nineteenth century . The Chinese were not unique in regarding their state as " central " , with other civilizations having the same view of themselves .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China between 250 @,@ 000 and 2 @.@ 24 million years ago . A cave in Zhoukoudian ( near present @-@ day Beijing ) exhibits hominid fossils dated at between 680 @,@ 000 and 780 @,@ 000 BCE . The fossils are of Peking Man , an example of Homo erectus who used fire . Fossilised teeth of Homo sapiens dating to 125 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 BCE have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County , Hunan . Chinese proto @-@ writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BC , Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC , Damaidi around 6000 BC and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC . Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols ( 7th millennium BC ) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system .
= = = Early dynastic rule = = =
According to Chinese tradition , the first dynasty was the Xia , which emerged around 2100 BCE . The dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou , Henan in 1959 . It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia Dynasty or of another culture from the same period . The succeeding Shang dynasty is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records . The Shang ruled the plain of the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE . Their oracle bone script ( from c . 1500 BCE ) represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found , and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters . The Shang were conquered by the Zhou , who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE , though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords . Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in the 300 @-@ year Spring and Autumn Period , only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king . By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th – 3rd centuries BCE , there were seven powerful sovereign states in what is now China , each with its own king , ministry and army .
= = = Imperial China = = =
The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state . Qin Shi Huang , the emperor of Qin , proclaimed himself " First Emperor " ( 始皇帝 ) and imposed reforms throughout China , notably the forced standardization of Chinese characters , measurements , length of cart axles , and currency . His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes , incorporating the Lingnan area into China . The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years , falling soon after Qin Shi Huang 's death , as its harsh legalist and authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion .
The subsequent Han dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE , and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that has endured to the present day . The Han Dynasty expanded the empire 's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching southern Korea , Vietnam , Mongolia and Central Asia , and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia . Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world . The Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism , a philosophy developed in the Spring and Autumn period , as its official state ideology . Despite the Han 's official abandonment of Legalism , the official ideology of the Qin , Legalist institutions and policies remained and formed the basis of the Han government .
After the collapse of Han , a period of disunion known as the period of the Three Kingdoms followed . The brief unification of the Jin dynasty was broken by the uprising of the Five Barbarians . In 581 CE , China was reunited under the Sui . However , the Sui Dynasty declined following its defeat in the Goguryeo – Sui War ( 598 – 614 ) .
Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties , Chinese economy , technology and culture entered a golden age . After the campaigns against the Turks , China returned control of the Western Regions and reopened the Silk Road during the flourishing age of Tang dynasty , which was devastated and weakened by the An Shi Rebellion in the 8th century . The Song dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade . Between the 10th and 11th centuries , the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people , mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China , and the production of abundant food surpluses . The Song dynasty also saw a revival of Confucianism , in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang , and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts , as landscape art and porcelain were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity . However , the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchen Jin dynasty . In 1127 , Emperor Huizong of Song and the capital Bianjing were captured during the Jin – Song Wars , remnants of the Song retreated to southern China .
In the 13th century , China was gradually conquered by the Mongol Empire . In 1271 , the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty ; the Yuan conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279 . Before the Mongol invasion , the population of Song China was 120 million citizens ; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300 . A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty . Under the Ming Dynasty , China enjoyed another golden age , developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture . It was during this period that Zheng He led voyages throughout the world , reaching as far as Africa . In the early years of the Ming Dynasty , China 's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing . With the budding of capitalism , philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo @-@ Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations . The scholar @-@ official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements , which , together with the famines and the wars against Japanese invasions of Korea and Manchu invasions led to an exhausted treasury .
In 1644 , Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng . The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell . The Manchu Qing dynasty then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li 's short @-@ lived Shun dynasty , and subsequently seized control of Beijing , which became the new capital of the Qing Dynasty .
= = = End of dynastic rule = = =
The Qing dynasty , which lasted from 1644 until 1912 , was the last imperial dynasty of China . As a conquest dynasty , it successively conquered the Ming loyalists and Dzungar Khanate , adding Mongolia , Tibet and Xinjiang into the empire , and strengthened the centralized autocracy to crackdown on anti @-@ Qing sentiment . The Haijin ( " sea ban " ) and the ideological control as represented by the literary inquisition caused social and technological stagnation . In the 19th century , the dynasty experienced Western imperialism following the First Opium War ( 1839 – 42 ) and the Second Opium War ( 1856 – 60 ) with Britain and France . China was forced to sign unequal treaties , pay compensation , open treaty ports , allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals , and cede Hong Kong to the British under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking . The First Sino @-@ Japanese War ( 1894 – 95 ) resulted in Qing China 's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula , as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan .
The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which millions of people died . In the 1850s and 1860s , the failed Taiping Rebellion ravaged southern China . Other major rebellions included the Punti @-@ Hakka Clan Wars ( 1855 – 67 ) , the Nian Rebellion ( 1851 – 68 ) , the Miao Rebellion ( 1854 – 73 ) , the Panthay Rebellion ( 1856 – 73 ) and the Dungan Revolt ( 1862 – 77 ) . The initial success of the Self @-@ Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by the series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s .
In the 19th century , the great Chinese Diaspora began . Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876 – 79 , in which between 9 and 13 million people died . In 1898 , the Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan to establish a modern constitutional monarchy , but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi . The ill @-@ fated anti @-@ Western Boxer Rebellion of 1899 – 1901 further weakened the dynasty . Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms , the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 – 12 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China .
= = = Republic of China ( 1912 – 49 ) = = =
On 1 January 1912 , the Republic of China was established , and Sun Yat @-@ sen of the Kuomintang ( the KMT or Nationalist Party ) was proclaimed provisional president . However , the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai , a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China . In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army , he was forced to abdicate and reestablish the republic .
After Yuan Shikai 's death in 1916 , China was politically fragmented . Its Beijing @-@ based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless ; regional warlords controlled most of its territory . In the late 1920s , the Kuomintang , under Chiang Kai @-@ shek , the then Principal of the Republic of China Military Academy , was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political manoeuvrings , known collectively as the Northern Expedition . The Kuomintang moved the nation 's capital to Nanjing and implemented " political tutelage " , an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat @-@ sen 's San @-@ min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state . The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists , against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War . This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang , especially after the Communists retreated in the Long March , until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi 'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan .
The Second Sino @-@ Japanese War ( 1937 – 1945 ) , a theatre of World War II , forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists . Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population ; in all , as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died . An estimated 200 @,@ 000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation . During the war , China , along with the UK , the US and the Soviet Union , were referred to as " trusteeship of the powerful " and were recognized as the Allied " Big Four " in the Declaration by United Nations . Along with the other three great powers , China was one of the four major Allies of World War II , and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war . After the surrender of Japan in 1945 , Taiwan , including the Pescadores , was returned to Chinese control . China emerged victorious but war @-@ ravaged and financially drained . The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war . In 1947 , constitutional rule was established , but because of the ongoing unrest , many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China .
= = = People 's Republic of China ( 1949 – present ) = = =
Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of mainland China , and the Kuomintang retreating offshore , reducing the ROC 's territory to only Taiwan , Hainan , and their surrounding islands . On 1 October 1949 , Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People 's Republic of China . In 1950 , the People 's Liberation Army succeeded in capturing Hainan from the ROC and incorporating Tibet . However , remaining Nationalist forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s .
Mao 's regime consolidated its popularity among the peasants through the land reform with between 1 and 2 million landlords executed . Under its leadership , China developed an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons . The Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million . However , Mao 's Great Leap Forward , a large @-@ scale economic and social reform project , resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961 , mostly from starvation . In 1966 , Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution , sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao 's death in 1976 . In October 1971 , the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations , and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council .
In 1976 , Mao died . The Gang of Four was quickly arrested and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution . In 1978 Deng Xiaoping took power and instituted significant economic reforms . The Communist Party loosened governmental control over citizens ' personal lives , and the communes were gradually disbanded in favour of private land leases . This marked China 's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment . China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982 . In 1989 , the violent suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnation and sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries .
Jiang Zemin , Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s . Under their administration , China 's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11 @.@ 2 % . The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001 , and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao 's leadership in the 2000s . However , rapid growth also severely impacted the country 's resources and environment , and caused major social displacement . Living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the late @-@ 2000s recession , but centralized political control remained tight .
Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by factional disputes and political scandals . During China 's 18th National Communist Party Congress in November 2012 , Hu Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by Xi Jinping . Under Xi , the Chinese government began large @-@ scale efforts to reform its economy , which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth . The Xi – Li Administration also announced major reforms to the one @-@ child policy and prison system .
= = Geography = =
= = = Political geography = = =
The People 's Republic of China is the second @-@ largest country in the world by land area after Russia , and is either the third- or fourth @-@ largest by total area , after Russia , Canada and , depending on the definition of total area , the United States . China 's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Specific area figures range from 9 @,@ 572 @,@ 900 km2 ( 3 @,@ 696 @,@ 100 sq mi ) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica , 9 @,@ 596 @,@ 961 km2 ( 3 @,@ 705 @,@ 407 sq mi ) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook , to 9 @,@ 596 @,@ 961 km2 ( 3 @,@ 705 @,@ 407 sq mi ) according to the CIA World Factbook .
China has the longest combined land border in the world , measuring 22 @,@ 117 km ( 13 @,@ 743 mi ) from the mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin . China borders 14 nations , more than any other country except Russia , which also borders 14 . China extends across much of East Asia , bordering Vietnam , Laos , and Myanmar ( Burma ) in Southeast Asia ; India , Bhutan , Nepal , Afghanistan , and Pakistan in South Asia ; Tajikistan , Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia ; and Russia , Mongolia , and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia . Additionally , China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea , Japan , Vietnam , and the Philippines .
= = = Landscape and climate = = =
The territory of China lies between latitudes 18 ° and 54 ° N , and longitudes 73 ° and 135 ° E. China 's landscapes vary significantly across its vast width . In the east , along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea , there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains , while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north , broad grasslands predominate . Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges , while the central @-@ east hosts the deltas of China 's two major rivers , the Yellow River and the Yangtze River . Other major rivers include the Xi , Mekong , Brahmaputra and Amur . To the west sit major mountain ranges , most notably the Himalayas . High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north , such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert . The world 's highest point , Mount Everest ( 8,848m ) , lies on the Sino @-@ Nepalese border . The country 's lowest point , and the world 's third @-@ lowest , is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake ( − 154m ) in the Turpan Depression .
China 's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons , which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer . In the winter , northern winds coming from high @-@ latitude areas are cold and dry ; in summer , southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist . The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country 's highly complex topography .
A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts , particularly the Gobi Desert . Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms , prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring , which then spread to other parts of east Asia , including Korea and Japan . China 's environmental watchdog , SEPA , stated in 2007 that China is losing a million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km ² ) per year to desertification . Water quality , erosion , and pollution control have become important issues in China 's relations with other countries . Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people .
= = = Biodiversity = = =
China is one of 17 megadiverse countries , lying in two of the world 's major ecozones : the Palearctic and the Indomalaya . By one measure , China has over 34 @,@ 687 species of animals and vascular plants , making it the third @-@ most biodiverse country in the world , after Brazil and Colombia . The country signed the Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992 , and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993 . It later produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan , with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010 .
China is home to at least 551 species of mammals ( the third @-@ highest such number in the world ) , 1 @,@ 221 species of birds ( eighth ) , 424 species of reptiles ( seventh ) and 333 species of amphibians ( seventh ) . China is the most biodiverse country in each category outside the tropics . Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world 's largest population of homo sapiens . At least 840 animal species are threatened , vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China , due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction , pollution and poaching for food , fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine . Endangered wildlife is protected by law , and as of 2005 , the country has over 2 @,@ 349 nature reserves , covering a total area of 149 @.@ 95 million hectares , 15 percent of China 's total land area .
China has over 32 @,@ 000 species of vascular plants , and is home to a variety of forest types . Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country , supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear , along with over 120 bird species . The understorey of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo . In higher montane stands of juniper and yew , the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons . Subtropical forests , which are predominate in central and southern China , support as many as 146 @,@ 000 species of flora . Tropical and seasonal rainforests , though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island , contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China . China has over 10 @,@ 000 recorded species of fungi , and of them , nearly 6 @,@ 000 are higher fungi .
= = = Environmental issues = = =
In recent decades , China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution . While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent , they are poorly enforced , as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favour of rapid economic development . Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country ; the World Bank estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world 's 20 most @-@ polluted cities are located in China . China is the world 's largest carbon dioxide emitter . The country also has significant water pollution problems : 40 % of China 's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011 . This crisis is compounded by increasingly severe water shortages , particularly in the north @-@ east of the country .
However , China is the world 's leading investor in renewable energy commercialization , with $ 52 billion invested in 2011 alone ; it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local @-@ scale renewable energy projects . By 2009 , over 17 % of China 's energy was derived from renewable sources – most notably hydroelectric power plants , of which China has a total installed capacity of 197 GW . In 2011 , the Chinese government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan ( US $ 618 @.@ 55 billion ) in water infrastructure and desalination projects over a ten @-@ year period , and to complete construction of a flood prevention and anti @-@ drought system by 2020 . In 2013 , China began a five @-@ year , US $ 277 @-@ billion effort to reduce air pollution , particularly in the north of the country .
= = Politics = =
China 's constitution states that The People 's Republic of China " is a socialist state under the people 's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants , " and that the state organs " apply the principle of democratic centralism . " The PRC is one of the world 's few remaining socialist states openly endorsing communism ( see Ideology of the Communist Party of China ) . The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist , but also as authoritarian and corporatist , with heavy restrictions in many areas , most notably against free access to the Internet , freedom of the press , freedom of assembly , the right to have children , free formation of social organizations and freedom of religion . Its current political , ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as the " people 's democratic dictatorship " , " socialism with Chinese characteristics " ( which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances ) and the " socialist market economy " respectively .
= = = Communist Party = = =
China 's constitution declares that the country is ruled " under the leadership " of the Communist Party of China ( CPC ) . The electoral system is pyramidal . Local People 's Congresses are directly elected , and higher levels of People 's Congresses up to the National People 's Congress ( NPC ) are indirectly elected by the People 's Congress of the level immediately below . The political system is decentralized , and provincial and sub @-@ provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy . Other political parties , referred to as democratic parties , have representatives in the National People 's Congress and the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference ( CPPCC ) .
Compared to its closed @-@ door policies until the mid @-@ 1970s , the administrative climate is less restrictive than before . China supports the Leninist principle of " democratic centralism " , but critics describe the elected National People 's Congress as a " rubber stamp " body .
= = = Government = = =
The President of China is the titular head of state , serving as the ceremonial figurehead under National People 's Congress . The Premier of China is the head of government , presiding over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions . The incumbent president is Xi Jinping , who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission , making him China 's paramount leader . The incumbent premier is Li Keqiang , who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee , China 's de facto top decision @-@ making body .
There have been some moves toward political liberalization , in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels . However , the Party retains effective control over government appointments : in the absence of meaningful opposition , the CPC wins by default most of the time . Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption . Nonetheless , the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high , with 80 – 95 % of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government , according to a 2011 survey .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
The People 's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces and considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province , although Taiwan is currently and independently governed by the Republic of China , which disputes the PRC 's claim . China also has five subdivisions officially termed autonomous regions , each with a designated minority group ; four municipalities ; and two Special Administrative Regions ( SARs ) , which enjoy a degree of political autonomy . These 22 provinces , five autonomous regions , and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as " mainland China " , a term which usually excludes the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau . None of these divisions are recognized by the ROC government , which claims the entirety of the PRC 's territory .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
The PRC has diplomatic relations with 171 countries and maintains embassies in 162 . Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries ; it is thus the largest and most populous state with limited recognition . In 1971 , the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . China was also a former member and leader of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement , and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries . Along with Brazil , Russia , India and South Africa , China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and hosted the group 's third official summit at Sanya , Hainan in April 2011 .
Under its interpretation of the One @-@ China policy , Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China . Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan , especially in the matter of armament sales .
Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai 's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence , and is also driven by the concept of " harmony without uniformity " , which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences . This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations , such as Zimbabwe , North Korea and Iran . China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia , and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council .
= = = = Trade relations = = = =
In recent decades , China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia @-@ Pacific neighbours . In 2004 , it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit ( EAS ) framework as a forum for regional security issues . The EAS , which includes ASEAN Plus Three , India , Australia and New Zealand , held its inaugural summit in 2005 . China is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization ( SCO ) , along with Russia and the Central Asian republics . China became a member of the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) on 11 December 2001 .
In 2000 , the United States Congress approved " permanent normal trade relations " ( PNTR ) with China , allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries . China has a significant trade surplus with the United States , its most important export market . In the early 2010s , US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued , giving China an unfair trade advantage . In recent decades , China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co @-@ operation ; in 2012 , Sino @-@ African trade totalled over US $ 160 billion . China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies , becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina .
= = = = Territorial disputes = = = =
Ever since its establishment after the second Chinese Civil War , the PRC has been claiming the territories governed by the Republic of China ( ROC ) , a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan , as a part of its territory , which includes the island of Taiwan as Taiwan Province , Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province . These claims are controversial because of the complicated Cross @-@ Strait relations , and has been one of the most important principles in Chinese diplomacy .
In addition to Taiwan , China is also involved in other international territorial disputes . Since the 1990s , China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders , including a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan . China is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas , such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal . On 21 May 2014 President Xi , speaking at a conference in Shanghai , pledged to settle China 's territorial disputes peacefully . " China stays committed to seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other countries over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests " , he said .
= = = = Emerging superpower status = = = =
China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower , with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress , growing military might , very large population , and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century . Others , however , warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China 's growth as the century progresses . Some authors also question the definition of " superpower " , arguing that China 's large economy alone would not qualify it as a superpower , and noting that it lacks the military and cultural influence of the United States .
= = = Sociopolitical issues , human rights , and reform = = =
The Chinese democracy movement , social activists , and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform . While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s , political freedom is still tightly restricted . The Constitution of the People 's Republic of China states that the " fundamental rights " of citizens include freedom of speech , freedom of the press , the right to a fair trial , freedom of religion , universal suffrage , and property rights . However , in practice , these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state . Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling Communist Party are tolerated , censorship of political speech and information , most notably on the Internet , are routinely used to prevent collective action . In 2005 , Reporters Without Borders ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index , indicating a very low level of press freedom . In 2014 , China ranked 175th out of 180 countries .
Rural migrants to China 's cities often find themselves treated as second @-@ class citizens by the hukou household registration system , which controls access to state benefits . Property rights are often poorly protected , and taxation disproportionately affects poorer citizens . However , a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s , and additional social services provided to rural dwellers .
A number of foreign governments , foreign press agencies and NGOs also routinely criticize China 's human rights record , alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial , forced abortions , forced confessions , torture , restrictions of fundamental rights , and excessive use of the death penalty . The government has suppressed popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to " social stability " , as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 .
Falun Gong was first taught publicly in 1992 . In 1999 , when there were 70 million practitioners , the persecution of Falun Gong began , resulting in mass arrests , extralegal detention , and reports of torture and deaths in custody . The Chinese state is regularly accused of large @-@ scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang , including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression .
The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the right to subsistence and economic development is a prerequisite to other types of human rights , and that the notion of human rights should take into account a country 's present level of economic development . It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese standard of living , literacy rate and average life expectancy since the 1970s , as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods . Furthermore , some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of democratization , although others remain more conservative . Some major reform efforts have been conducted ; for an instance in November 2013 , the government announced plans to relax the one @-@ child policy and abolish the much @-@ criticized re @-@ education through labour program , though human rights groups note that reforms to the latter have been largely cosmetic . During the 2000s and early 2010s , the Chinese government was increasingly tolerant of NGOs that offer practical , efficient solutions to social problems , but such " third sector " activity remained heavily regulated .
= = Military = =
With 2 @.@ 3 million active troops , the People 's Liberation Army ( PLA ) is the largest standing military force in the world , commanded by the Central Military Commission ( CMC ) . The PLA consists of the Ground Force ( PLAGF ) , the Navy ( PLAN ) , the Air Force ( PLAAF ) , and the People 's Liberation Army Rocket Force ( PLARF ) . According to the Chinese government , China 's military budget for 2014 totalled US $ 132 billion , constituting the world 's second @-@ largest military budget . However , many authorities – including SIPRI and the U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense – argue that China does not report its real level of military spending , which is allegedly much higher than the official budget .
As a recognized nuclear weapons state , China is considered both a major regional military power and a potential military superpower . According to a 2013 report by the US Department of Defense , China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear ICBMs , along with a number of SRBMs . However , compared with the other four UN Security Council Permanent Members , China has relatively limited power projection capabilities . To offset this , it has developed numerous power projection assets since the early 2000s – its first aircraft carrier entered service in 2012 , and it maintains a substantial fleet of submarines , including several nuclear @-@ powered attack and ballistic missile submarines . China has furthermore established a network of foreign military relationships along critical sea lanes .
China has made significant progress in modernising its air force in recent decades , purchasing Russian fighter jets such as the Sukhoi Su @-@ 30 , and also manufacturing its own modern fighters , most notably the Chengdu J @-@ 10 , J @-@ 20 and the Shenyang J @-@ 11 , J @-@ 15 , J @-@ 16 , and J @-@ 31 . China is furthermore engaged in developing an indigenous stealth aircraft and numerous combat drones . Air and Sea denial weaponry advances have increased the regional threat from the perspective of Japan as well as Washington . China has also updated its ground forces , replacing its ageing Soviet @-@ derived tank inventory with numerous variants of the modern Type 99 tank , and upgrading its battlefield C3I and C4I systems to enhance its network @-@ centric warfare capabilities . In addition , China has developed or acquired numerous advanced missile systems , including anti @-@ satellite missiles , cruise missiles and submarine @-@ launched nuclear ICBMs . According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 's data , China became the world 's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010 – 14 , an increase of 143 per cent from the period 2005 – 09 .
= = Economy = =
As of 2014 , China has the world 's second @-@ largest economy in terms of nominal GDP , totalling approximately US $ 10 @.@ 380 trillion according to the International Monetary Fund . If purchasing power parity ( PPP ) is taken into account , China 's economy is the largest in the world , with a 2014 PPP GDP of US $ 17 @.@ 617 trillion . In 2013 , its PPP GDP per capita was US $ 12 @,@ 880 , while its nominal GDP per capita was US $ 7 @,@ 589 . Both cases put China behind around eighty countries ( out of 183 countries on the IMF list ) in global GDP per capita rankings .
= = = Economic history and growth = = =
From its founding in 1949 until late 1978 , the People 's Republic of China was a Soviet @-@ style centrally planned economy . Following Mao 's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution , Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market @-@ oriented mixed economy under one @-@ party rule . Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized , while foreign trade became a major new focus , leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones ( SEZs ) . Inefficient state @-@ owned enterprises ( SOEs ) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright , resulting in massive job losses . Modern @-@ day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership , and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism . The state still dominates in strategic " pillar " sectors such as energy production and heavy industries , but private enterprise has expanded enormously , with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008 .
Since economic liberalization began in 1978 , China has been among the world 's fastest @-@ growing economies , relying largely on investment- and export @-@ led growth . According to the IMF , China 's annual average GDP growth between 2001 and 2010 was 10 @.@ 5 % . Between 2007 and 2011 , China 's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the G7 countries ' growth combined . According to the Global Growth Generators index announced by Citigroup in February 2011 , China has a very high 3G growth rating . Its high productivity , low labour costs and relatively good infrastructure have made it a global leader in manufacturing . However , the Chinese economy is highly energy @-@ intensive and inefficient ; China became the world 's largest energy consumer in 2010 , relies on coal to supply over 70 % of its energy needs , and surpassed the US to become the world 's largest oil importer in September 2013 . In the early 2010s , China 's economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit troubles , weakening international demand for Chinese exports and fragility in the global economy .
In the online realm , China 's e @-@ commerce industry has grown more slowly than the EU and the US , with a significant period of development occurring from around 2009 onwards . According to Credit Suisse , the total value of online transactions in China grew from an insignificant size in 2008 to around RMB 4 trillion ( US $ 660 billion ) in 2012 . The Chinese online payment market is dominated by major firms such as Alipay , Tenpay and China UnionPay .
= = = China in the global economy = = =
China is a member of the WTO and is the world 's largest trading power , with a total international trade value of US $ 3 @.@ 87 trillion in 2012 . Its foreign exchange reserves reached US $ 2 @.@ 85 trillion by the end of 2010 , an increase of 18 @.@ 7 % over the previous year , making its reserves by far the world 's largest . In 2012 , China was the world 's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment ( FDI ) , attracting $ 253 billion . In 2014 , China 's foreign exchange remittances were $ US64 billion making it the second largest recipient of remittances in the world . China also invests abroad , with a total outward FDI of $ 62 @.@ 4 billion in 2012 , and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies . In 2009 , China owned an estimated $ 1 @.@ 6 trillion of US securities , and was also the largest foreign holder of US public debt , owning over $ 1 @.@ 16 trillion in US Treasury bonds . China 's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies , and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods . According to consulting firm McKinsey , total outstanding debt in China increased from $ 7 @.@ 4 trillion in 2007 to $ 28 @.@ 2 trillion in 2014 , which reflects 228 % of China 's GDP , a percentage higher than that of some G20 nations .
China ranked 29th in the Global Competitiveness Index in 2009 , although it is only ranked 136th among the 179 countries measured in the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom . In 2014 , Fortune 's Global 500 list of the world 's largest corporations included 95 Chinese companies , with combined revenues of US $ 5 @.@ 8 trillion . The same year , Forbes reported that five of the world 's ten largest public companies were Chinese , including the world 's largest bank by total assets , the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China .
= = = Class and income equality = = =
China 's middle @-@ class population ( if defined as those with annual income of between US $ 10 @,@ 000 and US $ 60 @,@ 000 ) had reached more than 300 million by 2012 . According to the Hurun Report , the number of US dollar billionaires in China increased from 130 in 2009 to 251 in 2012 , giving China the world 's second @-@ highest number of billionaires . China 's domestic retail market was worth over 20 trillion yuan ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 trillion ) in 2012 and is growing at over 12 % annually as of 2013 , while the country 's luxury goods market has expanded immensely , with 27 @.@ 5 % of the global share . However , in recent years , China 's rapid economic growth has contributed to severe consumer inflation , leading to increased government regulation . China has a high level of economic inequality , which has increased in the past few decades . In 2012 , China 's Gini coefficient was 0 @.@ 474 .
= = = Internationalization of the renminbi = = =
Since 2008 global financial crisis , China realized the dependency of US Dollar and the weakness of the international monetary system . The RMB Internationalization accelerated in 2009 when China established dim sum bond market and expanded the Cross @-@ Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project , which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity .
In November 2010 , Russia began using the Chinese renminbi in its bilateral trade with China . This was soon followed by Japan , Australia , Singapore , the United Kingdom , and Canada . As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi , it became the eighth @-@ most @-@ traded currency in the world in 2013 .
= = Science and technology = =
= = = Historical = = =
China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming Dynasty . Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions , such as papermaking , printing , the compass , and gunpowder ( the Four Great Inventions ) , later became widespread in Asia and Europe . Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers . However , by the 17th century , the Western world had surpassed China in scientific and technological development . The causes of this Great Divergence continue to be debated .
After repeated military defeats by Western nations in the 19th century , Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self @-@ Strengthening Movement . After the Communists came to power in 1949 , efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union , in which scientific research was part of central planning . After Mao 's death in 1976 , science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations , and the Soviet @-@ inspired academic system was gradually reformed .
= = = Modern era = = =
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution , China has made significant investments in scientific research , with $ 163 billion spent on scientific research and development in 2012 . Science and technology are seen as vital for achieving China 's economic and political goals , and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as " techno @-@ nationalism " . Nonetheless , China 's investment in basic and applied scientific research remains behind that of leading technological powers such as the United States and Japan . Chinese @-@ born scientists have won the Nobel Prize in Physics four times , the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Physiology or Medicine once respectively , though most of these scientists conducted their Nobel @-@ winning research in western nations .
China is rapidly developing its education system with an emphasis on science , mathematics and engineering ; in 2009 , it produced over 10 @,@ 000 Ph.D. engineering graduates , and as many as 500 @,@ 000 BSc graduates , more than any other country . China is also the world 's second @-@ largest publisher of scientific papers , producing 121 @,@ 500 in 2010 alone , including 5 @,@ 200 in leading international scientific journals . Chinese technology companies such as Huawei and Lenovo have become world leaders in telecommunications and personal computing , and Chinese supercomputers are consistently ranked among the world 's most powerful . China is furthermore experiencing a significant growth in the use of industrial robots ; from 2008 to 2011 , the installation of multi @-@ role robots in Chinese factories rose by 136 percent .
The Chinese space program is one of the world 's most active , and is a major source of national pride . In 1970 , China launched its first satellite , Dong Fang Hong I , becoming the fifth country to do so independently . In 2003 , China became the third country to independently send humans into space , with Yang Liwei 's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5 ; as of 2015 , ten Chinese nationals have journeyed into space , including two women . In 2011 , China 's first space station module , Tiangong @-@ 1 , was launched , marking the first step in a project to assemble a large manned station by the early 2020s . In 2013 , China successfully landed the Chang 'e 3 probe and Yutu rover onto the Moon ; China plans to collect lunar soil samples by 2017 .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Telecommunications = = =
China currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country in the world , with over 1 billion users by February 2012 . It also has the world 's largest number of internet and broadband users , with over 688 million internet users as of 2016 , equivalent to around half of its population . The national average broadband connection speed is 9 @.@ 46 MB / s , ranking China 91st in the world in terms of internet speed . As of July 2013 , China accounts for 24 % of the world 's internet @-@ connected devices . Since 2011 China is the nation with the most installed telecommunication bandwidth in the world . By 2014 , China hosts more than twice as much national bandwidth potential than the U.S. , the historical leader in terms of installed telecommunication bandwidth ( China : 29 % versus US : 13 % of the global total ) .
China Telecom and China Unicom , the world 's two largest broadband providers , accounted for 20 % of global broadband subscribers . China Telecom alone serves more than 50 million broadband subscribers , while China Unicom serves more than 40 million . Several Chinese telecommunications companies , most notably Huawei and ZTE , have been accused of spying for the Chinese military .
China is developing its own satellite navigation system , dubbed Beidou , which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012 , and is planned to offer global coverage by 2020 .
= = = Transport = = =
Since the late 1990s , China 's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways . In 2011 China 's highways had reached a total length of 85 @,@ 000 km ( 53 @,@ 000 mi ) , making it the longest highway system in the world . In 1991 , there were only six bridges across the main stretch of the Yangtze River , which bisects the country into northern and southern halves . By October 2014 , there were 81 such bridges and tunnels .
China has the world 's largest market for automobiles , having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production . Auto sales in 2009 exceeded 13 @.@ 6 million and may reach 40 million by 2020 . A side @-@ effect of the rapid growth of China 's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents , with poorly enforced traffic laws cited as a possible cause — in 2011 alone , around 62 @,@ 000 Chinese died in road accidents . In urban areas , bicycles remain a common mode of transport , despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2012 , there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China .
China 's railways , which are state @-@ owned , are among the busiest in the world , handling a quarter of the world 's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world 's tracks in 2006 . As of 2013 , the country had 103 @,@ 144 km ( 64 @,@ 091 mi ) of railways , the third longest network in the world . All provinces and regions are connected to the rail network except Macau . The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year holiday , when the world 's largest annual human migration takes place . In 2013 , Chinese railways delivered 2 @.@ 106 billion passenger trips , generating 1 @,@ 059 @.@ 56 billion passenger @-@ kilometers and carried 3 @.@ 967 billion tons of freight , generating 2 @,@ 917 @.@ 4 billion cargo tons @-@ kilometers .
China 's high @-@ speed rail ( HSR ) system , built entirely since the early 2000s , had 11 @,@ 028 kilometres ( 6 @,@ 852 miles ) of track in 2013 and was the longest HSR network in the world . The network includes the Beijing – Guangzhou – Shenzhen High @-@ Speed Railway , the single longest HSR line in the world , and the Beijing – Shanghai High @-@ Speed Railway , which has three of longest railroad bridges in the world . The HSR track network is set to reach approximately 16 @,@ 000 km ( 9 @,@ 900 mi ) by 2020 . The Shanghai Maglev Train , which reaches 431 km / h ( 268 mph ) , is the fastest commercial train service in the world .
As of May 2014 , 20 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation , with a dozen more to join them by 2020 . The Shanghai Metro , Beijing Subway , Guangzhou Metro , Hong Kong MTR and Shenzhen Metro are among the longest and busiest in the world .
There were 182 commercial airports in China in 2012 . With 82 new airports planned to open by 2015 , more than two @-@ thirds of the airports under construction worldwide in 2013 were in China , and Boeing expects that China 's fleet of active commercial aircraft in China will grow from 1 @,@ 910 in 2011 to 5 @,@ 980 in 2031 . With rapid expansion in civil aviation , the largest airports in China have also joined the ranks of the busiest in the world . In 2013 , Beijing 's Capital Airport ranked second in the world by passenger traffic ( it was 26th in 2002 ) . Since 2010 , the Hong Kong International Airport and Shanghai Pudong International Airport have ranked first and third in air cargo tonnage .
Some 80 % of China 's airspace remains restricted for military use , and Chinese airlines made up eight of the 10 worst @-@ performing Asian airlines in terms of delays . China has over 2 @,@ 000 river and seaports , about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping . In 2012 , the Ports of Shanghai , Hong Kong , Shenzhen , Ningbo @-@ Zhoushan , Guangzhou , Qingdao , Tianjin , Dalian ranked in the top in the world in container traffic and cargo tonnage .
= = = Other infrastructure = = =
According to data presented by the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of WHO and UNICEF in 2015 , about 36 % of the rural population in China still did not have access to improved sanitation .
Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization , as well as water scarcity , contamination , and pollution . In June 2010 , there were 1 @,@ 519 sewage treatment plants in China and 18 plants were added each week .
= = Demographics = =
The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People 's Republic of China as approximately 1 @,@ 370 @,@ 536 @,@ 875 . About 16 @.@ 60 % of the population were 14 years old or younger , 70 @.@ 14 % were between 15 and 59 years old , and 13 @.@ 26 % were over 60 years old . The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0 @.@ 46 % .
Although a middle @-@ income country by Western standards , China 's rapid growth has pulled hundreds of millions of its people out of poverty since 1978 . Today , about 10 % of the Chinese population lives below the poverty line of US $ 1 per day , down from 64 % in 1978 . Urban unemployment in China reportedly declined to 4 % by the end of 2007 . At present , the urban unemployment rate of China is about 4 @.@ 1 % .
With a population of over 1 @.@ 3 billion and dwindling natural resources , the government of China is very concerned about its population growth rate and has attempted since 1979 , with mixed results , to implement a strict family planning policy , known as the " one @-@ child policy . " Before 2013 , this policy sought to restrict families to one child each , with exceptions for ethnic minorities and a degree of flexibility in rural areas . A major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013 , allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child . The government is now dropping the one @-@ child policy in favor of a two @-@ child policy . Data from the 2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may now be around 1 @.@ 4 .
The policy , along with traditional preference for boys , may be contributing to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth . According to the 2010 census , the sex ratio at birth was 118 @.@ 06 boys for every 100 girls , which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls . The 2010 census found that males accounted for 51 @.@ 27 percent of the total population . However , China 's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953 , when males accounted for 51 @.@ 82 percent of the total population .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups , the largest of which are the Han Chinese , who constitute about 91 @.@ 51 % of the total population . The Han Chinese – the world 's largest single ethnic group – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial @-@ level division except Tibet and Xinjiang . Ethnic minorities account for about 8 @.@ 49 % of the population of China , according to the 2010 census . Compared with the 2000 population census , the Han population increased by 66 @,@ 537 @,@ 177 persons , or 5 @.@ 74 % , while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 7 @,@ 362 @,@ 627 persons , or 6 @.@ 92 % . The 2010 census recorded a total of 593 @,@ 832 foreign citizens living in China . The largest such groups were from South Korea ( 120 @,@ 750 ) , the United States ( 71 @,@ 493 ) and Japan ( 66 @,@ 159 ) .
= = = Languages = = =
There are as many as 292 living languages in China . The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino @-@ Tibetan language family , which contains Mandarin ( spoken natively by 70 % of the population ) , and other Chinese varieties : Wu ( including Shanghainese ) , Yue ( including Cantonese and Taishanese ) , Min ( including Hoochew , Hokkien and Teochew ) , Xiang , Gan , and Hakka . Languages of the Tibeto @-@ Burman branch , including Tibetan , Qiang , Naxi and Yi , are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan – Guizhou Plateau . Other ethnic minority languages in southwest China include Zhuang , Thai , Dong and Sui of the Tai @-@ Kadai family , Miao and Yao of the Hmong – Mien family , and Wa of the Austroasiatic family . Across northeastern and northwestern China , minority ethnic groups speak Altaic languages including Manchu , Mongolian and several Turkic languages : Uyghur , Kazakh , Kyrgyz , Salar and Western Yugur . Korean is spoken natively along the border with North Korea . Sarikoli , the language of Tajiks in western Xinjiang , is an Indo @-@ European language . Taiwanese aborigines , including a small population on the mainland , speak Austronesian languages .
Standard Mandarin , a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect , is the official national language of China and is used as a lingua franca in the country between people of different linguistic backgrounds .
Chinese characters have been used as the written script for the Sinitic languages for thousands of years . They allow speakers of mutually unintelligible Chinese varieties to communicate with each other through writing . In 1956 , the government introduced simplified characters , which have supplanted the older traditional characters in mainland China . Chinese characters are romanized using the Pinyin system . Tibetan uses an alphabet based on an Indic script . Uyghur is most commonly written in a Perseo @-@ Arabic script . The Mongolian script used in China and the Manchu script are both derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet . Modern Zhuang uses the Latin alphabet .
= = = Urbanization = = =
China has urbanized significantly in recent decades . The percent of the country 's population living in urban areas increased from 20 % in 1980 to over 50 % in 2014 . It is estimated that China 's urban population will reach one billion by 2030 , potentially equivalent to one @-@ eighth of the world population . As of 2012 , there are more than 262 million migrant workers in China , mostly rural migrants seeking work in cities .
China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million , including the seven megacities ( cities with a population of over 10 million ) of Chongqing , Shanghai , Beijing , Guangzhou , Tianjin , Shenzhen , and Wuhan . By 2025 , it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants . The figures in the table below are from the 2010 census , and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits ; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations ( which includes suburban and rural populations ) . The large " floating populations " of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult ; the figures below include only long @-@ term residents .
= = = Education = = =
Since 1986 , compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school , which together last for nine years . In 2010 , about 82 @.@ 5 percent of students continued their education at a three @-@ year senior secondary school . The Gaokao , China 's national university entrance exam , is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions . In 2010 , 27 percent of secondary school graduates are enrolled in higher education . Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level .
In February 2006 , the government pledged to provide completely free nine @-@ year education , including textbooks and fees . Annual education investment went from less than US $ 50 billion in 2003 to more than US $ 250 billion in 2011 . However , there remains an inequality in education spending . In 2010 , the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥ 20 @,@ 023 , while in Guizhou , one of the poorest provinces in China , only totalled ¥ 3 @,@ 204 . Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15 . In 2011 , around 81 @.@ 4 % of Chinese have received secondary education . By 2007 , there were 396 @,@ 567 primary schools , 94 @,@ 116 secondary schools , and 2 @,@ 236 higher education institutions in China .
As of 2010 , 94 % of the population over age 15 are literate , compared to only 20 % in 1950 . In 2009 , Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world 's best results in mathematics , science and literacy , as tested by the Programme for International Student Assessment ( PISA ) , a worldwide evaluation of 15 @-@ year @-@ old school pupils ' scholastic performance . Despite the high results , Chinese education has also faced both native and international criticism for its emphasis on rote memorization and its gap in quality from rural to urban areas .
= = = Health = = =
The National Health and Family Planning Commission , together with its counterparts in the local commissions , oversees the health needs of the Chinese population . An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s . At that time , the Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign , which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene , as well as treating and preventing several diseases . Diseases such as cholera , typhoid and scarlet fever , which were previously rife in China , were nearly eradicated by the campaign . After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978 , the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition , although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People 's Communes . Healthcare in China became mostly privatized , and experienced a significant rise in quality . In 2009 , the government began a 3 @-@ year large @-@ scale healthcare provision initiative worth US $ 124 billion . By 2011 , the campaign resulted in 95 % of China 's population having basic health insurance coverage . In 2011 , China was estimated to be the world 's third @-@ largest supplier of pharmaceuticals , but its population has suffered from the development and distribution of counterfeit medications .
As of 2012 , the average life expectancy at birth in China is 75 years , and the infant mortality rate is 12 per thousand . Both have improved significantly since the 1950s . Rates of stunting , a condition caused by malnutrition , have declined from 33 @.@ 1 % in 1990 to 9 @.@ 9 % in 2010 . Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities , China has several emerging public health problems , such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution , hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers , and an increase in obesity among urban youths . China 's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years , such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS , although this has since been largely contained . In 2010 , air pollution caused 1 @.@ 2 million premature deaths in China .
= = = Religion = = =
Over the millennia , Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements . The " three teachings " , including Confucianism , Buddhism , and Taoism , historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture . Elements of these three belief systems are often incorporated into popular or folk religious traditions . Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China 's constitution , although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution .
Demographically , the most widespread religious tradition is the Chinese folk religion , which overlaps with Taoism , and describes the worship of the shen ( 神 ) , a character that signifies the " energies of generation " . The shen comprises deities of the natural environment , gods representing specific concepts or groups , heroes and ancestors , and figures from Chinese mythology . Among the most popular folk cults are those of Mazu ( goddess of the seas ) , Yellow Emperor ( one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese race ) , Guandi ( god of war and business ) , Caishen ( god of prosperity and richness ) , Pangu and many others . China is home to many of the world 's tallest religious statues , including the tallest of all , the Spring Temple Buddha in Henan .
The government of the People 's Republic of China is officially atheist . Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the State Administration for Religious Affairs . A 2015 poll conducted by Gallup International found that 61 % of Chinese people self @-@ identified as " convinced atheist . " Scholars have noted that in China there is no clear boundary between religions , especially Buddhism , Taoism and local folk religious practice . According to the most recent demographic analyses , an average 30 — 80 % of the Chinese population practice some form of Chinese folk religions and Taoism . Approximately 10 — 16 % are Buddhists , 2 — 4 % are Christians , and 1 — 2 % are Muslims . In addition to Han people 's local religious practices , there are also various ethnic minority groups in China who maintain their traditional autochthone religions . Various sects of indigenous origin comprise 2 — 3 % of the population , while Confucianism as a religious self @-@ designation is popular among intellectuals . Significant faiths specifically connected to certain ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism and the Islamic religion of the Hui and Uyghur peoples .
= = Culture = =
Since ancient times , Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism and conservative philosophies . For much of the country 's dynastic era , opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations , which have their origins in the Han Dynasty . The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China , such as the belief that calligraphy , poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama . Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward @-@ looking national perspective . Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today .
The first leaders of the People 's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order , but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals . They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture , such as rural land tenure , sexism , and the Confucian system of education , while preserving others , such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state . Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history , while others claim that the Communist Party 's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture , especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s , where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed , having been denounced as " regressive and harmful " or " vestiges of feudalism " . Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture , such as Confucianism , art , literature , and performing arts like Peking opera , were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time . Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted .
Today , the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society . With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution , various forms of traditional Chinese art , literature , music , film , fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival , and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide . China is now the third @-@ most @-@ visited country in the world , with 55 @.@ 7 million inbound international visitors in 2010 . It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism ; an estimated 740 million Chinese holidaymakers travelled within the country in October 2012 alone .
= = = Literature = = =
Chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty . Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of thoughts and subjects including calendar , military , astrology , herbology , geography and many others . Some of the most important early texts include the I Ching and the Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state @-@ sponsored curriculum in dynastic era . Inherited from the Classic of Poetry , classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty . Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively . Chinese historiography began with the Shiji , the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty @-@ Four Histories , which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore . Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty , Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical , town and gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include Water Margin , Romance of the Three Kingdoms , Journey to the West and Dream of the Red Chamber . Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin Yong , it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the East Asian cultural sphere .
In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty , Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens . Hu Shih and Lu Xun were pioneers in modern literature . Various literary genres , such as misty poetry , scar literature and the xungen literature , which is influenced by magic realism , emerged following the Cultural Revolution . Mo Yan , a xungen literature author , was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012 .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse , drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety , in which the most influential are known as the " Eight Major Cuisines " , including Sichuan , Cantonese , Jiangsu , Shandong , Fujian , Hunan , Anhui , and Zhejiang cuisines . All of them are featured by the precise skills of shaping , heating , colorway and flavoring . Chinese cuisine is also known for its width of cooking methods and ingredients , as well as food therapy that is emphasized by traditional Chinese medicine . Generally , China 's staple food is rice in the south , wheat based breads and noodles in the north . The diet of the common people in pre @-@ modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables , with meat reserved for special occasions . And the bean products , such as tofu and soy milk , remain as a popular source of protein . Pork is now the most popular meat in China , accounting for about three @-@ fourths of the country 's total meat consumption . While there is also a Buddhist cuisine and an Islamic cuisine . Southern cuisine , due to the area 's proximity to the ocean and milder climate , has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables ; it differs in many respects from the wheat @-@ based diets across dry northern China . Numerous offshoots of Chinese food , such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food , have emerged in the nations that play host to the Chinese diaspora .
= = = Sports = = =
China has become a prime sports destination worldwide . The country gained the hosting rights for several major global sports tournaments including the 2008 Summer Olympics , the 2015 World Championships in Athletics and the upcoming 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup .
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world . There is evidence that archery ( shèjiàn ) was practised during the Western Zhou Dynasty . Swordplay ( jiànshù ) and cuju , a sport loosely related to association football date back to China 's early dynasties as well .
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture , with morning exercises such as qigong and t 'ai chi ch 'uan widely practised , and commercial gyms and fitness clubs gaining popularity in the country . Basketball is currently the most popular spectator sport in China . The Chinese Basketball Association and the American National Basketball Association have a huge following among the people , with native or ethnic Chinese players such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian held in high esteem . China 's professional football league was established in 2004 , it is the largest football market in Asia . Other popular sports in the country include martial arts , table tennis , badminton , swimming and snooker . Board games such as go ( known as wéiqí in Chinese ) , xiangqi , mahjong , and more recently chess , are also played at a professional level . In addition , China is home to a huge number of cyclists , with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012 . Many more traditional sports , such as dragon boat racing , Mongolian @-@ style wrestling and horse racing are also popular .
China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932 , although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952 . China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , where its athletes received 51 gold medals – the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year . China also won the most medals of any nation at the 2012 Summer Paralympics , with 231 overall , including 95 gold medals . In 2011 , Shenzhen in Guangdong , China hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade . China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing .
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= 1933 Cuba – Bahamas hurricane =
The 1933 Cuba – Bahamas hurricane was last of six major hurricanes , or at least a Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale , in the active 1933 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed on October 1 in the Caribbean Sea as the seventeenth tropical storm , and initially moved slowly to the north . While passing west of Jamaica , the storm damaged banana plantations and killed one person . On October 3 , the storm became a hurricane , and the next day crossed western Cuba . Advance warning in the country prevented any storm @-@ related fatalities , although four people suspected of looting were shot and killed during a curfew in Havana . The German travel writer Richard Katz witnessed the hurricane while in Havana , and described the experience in his book " Loafing Around the Globe " ( " Ein Bummel um Die Welt " ) .
After entering the Florida Straits , the hurricane turned to the northeast , producing tropical storm winds along the Florida Keys . High rainfall caused flooding , while three tornadoes spawned by the storm damaged houses in the Miami area . The hurricane reached peak winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) on October 6 while moving through the Bahamas . It subsequently weakened and became extratropical on October 8 . The former hurricane lashed the coast of Nova Scotia with high winds and rain , leaving about $ 1 million ( 1933 CAD ) in damage . Rough seas sank several ships and killed nine people in the region . The remnants of the hurricane eventually dissipated on October 9 to the south of Newfoundland .
= = Meteorological history = =
Toward the end of September 1933 , there was a large area of disturbed weather across the southern Caribbean Sea . By September 30 , a low pressure area developed south of San Andrés island . The next day , observations from a station at Cabo Gracias a Dios and a ship indicated a tropical storm had developed off the eastern coast of Honduras . Low atmospheric pressure suggested the system had winds of tropical storm force despite lack of direct observations . Moving northward , the storm gained size as it slowly intensified . Based on observations and interpolation of data , it is estimated the storm became a hurricane early on October 3 while passing west of Jamaica . That day , a station at South Negril Point that day reported a force 8 on the Beaufort scale , well to the east of the center . While approaching the southern coast of Cuba , the hurricane reached estimated winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . At 0900 UTC on October 4 , the hurricane made landfall on the Zapata Peninsula of Cuba , followed by a second landfall on the Cuban mainland three hours later . Beginning at 1600 UTC that day , the capital , Havana , observed the passage of the eye , where a pressure of 976 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) was reported .
The hurricane weakened slightly over land before emerging into the Straits of Florida and re @-@ intensifying . On October 5 , it turned to the northeast while remaining southeast of the Florida mainland , although the strongest winds remained over water . Early on October 6 while the hurricane was moving through the Bahamas , a ship reported a pressure of 958 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) , although it was unknown if it was in the center or the periphery of the storm . Based on the data , the maximum sustained winds were estimated at 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) , although the ship estimated winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . The storm maintained peak winds for about 18 hours , after which it weakened while accelerating to the northeast . After passing to the west of Bermuda on October 7 , the hurricane became extratropical the next day while still maintaining hurricane force winds . The storm brushed the coast of Nova Scotia before it was last noted approaching another extratropical storm on October 9 to the south of Atlantic Canada .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Early in its duration , the developing storm brushed the coast of Honduras with light winds . In Jamaica , gusts approached hurricane force , while heavy rainfall damaged transportation in Kingston . The storm wrecked small houses and damaged the local banana industry . There was one death in Jamaica . The hurricane crossed western Cuba with winds estimated at 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . This prompted officials to declare a curfew for the capital in the midst of political upheaval following a coup . A newspaper described the curfew before the storm as " the most peaceful night in a week . " However , the government ordered soldiers in Havana to shoot anyone suspected of looting , and four looters were killed during the storm 's passage . Heavy associated rainfall caused rivers to overflow in three provinces , flooding low @-@ lying areas . In Cienfuegos , the storm destroyed several houses . Offshore northern Cuba , two United States ships took shelter at the port in Matanzas due to rough seas . High tides flooded the Havana waterfront up to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) deep , and several boats sank at the city 's harbor . Due to advance warning and evacuations , there were no direct deaths in the country , and 20 people were injured .
Storm warnings were issued on the west coast of Florida to Boca Grande and on the east coast to Titusville , with hurricane warnings for the Florida Keys . Although the hurricane passed just southeast of the Florida Keys , the highest winds reported in Florida were 44 mph ( 70 km / h ) in Key West . The storm passed closest to Long Key , where winds were estimated at 63 mph ( 102 km / h ) , due to being on the weak side of the storm . Farther north , Miami reported winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) . Rainfall reached over 11 in ( 280 mm ) in 24 hours in Key West . There , the storm knocked over several trees and caused some power outages . Portions of the city were flooded while boats were washed ashore . Elsewhere in Florida , three tornadoes were reported during the hurricane 's passage . In Fort Lauderdale , a tornado injured one person , and another one in Miami knocked down four homes and injured two . The third tornado was in Hollywood , where several houses were damaged .
Later as the hurricane moved through the Bahamas , it produced winds of 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) at Hope Town and 91 mph ( 146 km / h ) at Millville , both on Abaco . The outer periphery of the storm brushed Nantucket to the west with winds of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) and Bermuda to the east with 46 mph ( 75 km / h ) .
While moving offshore Atlantic Canada , the former hurricane produced gale force winds , peaking at 52 mph ( 83 km / h ) in Halifax , Nova Scotia . There , the storm also dropped heavy rainfall reaching 9 @.@ 84 in ( 250 mm ) over two days , including 3 @.@ 6 in ( 90 mm ) in 24 hours . Flooding covered streets in the province , causing traffic jams , and farmlands . In Annapolis Valley , the rainfall washed out a bridge while the winds damaged about one @-@ third of the apple crop . The dam at Chocolate Lake overflowed due to the rainfall , and a dam broke in Great Village , destroying a nearby bridge . Many trees fell during the storm , resulting in power outages after some fell onto lines . Outside Nova Scotia , the storm produced winds of 51 mph ( 81 km / h ) in Shediac , New Brunswick , where high waves left coastal damage . In Newfoundland , the storm washed out three bridges , as well as portions of roads and rails , and flooded one house . Throughout Atlantic Canada , high waves washed ashore , sank , or broke at least ten boats from their moorings , killing nine people including seven from an overturned boat sailing from Boston to Yarmouth . Overall damage in Canada was estimated at around $ 1 million ( 1933 CAD ) , including $ 250 @,@ 000 in lost apple crop .
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= Merv Harvey =
Mervyn Roye Harvey ( 29 April 1918 – 18 March 1995 ) was a cricketer who played in one Test match for Australia in 1947 . His younger brother , Neil , was one of Australia 's finest batsmen , and the pair played together for Victoria during the latter part of Merv 's career .
Merv Harvey broke into the Victorian state team during the 1940 – 41 season and played in three first @-@ class matches . The highlight of the first phase of his career for Victoria was a rapid 70 in one hour against a New South Wales attack containing Bill O 'Reilly , regarded as the best bowler in the world at the time . However , the outbreak of World War II in the Pacific caused the suspension of top @-@ level cricket and halted Harvey ’ s progress . Harvey then served in the Royal Australian Air Force as an airframe fitter , losing his best cricketing years to the war .
An opening batsman , Harvey was described by Neil as " the greatest cricketer of us all " and known for his attacking style and penchant for hooking fast bowlers . He was initially overlooked for Victorian selection after cricket resumed in 1945 – 46 , before being recalled for the final match of the season , and he responded by scoring a career @-@ best 163 . He was a regular member of the Victorian team during the 1946 – 47 season , and although he faced much competition for national selection as Australia had an abundance of quality openers at the time , he was selected for his only Test during the fourth Test of the season against England at the Adelaide Oval when both Bill Brown and Sid Barnes were injured . Harvey made 12 and 31 before being dropped immediately due to Barnes ' recovery .
In 1947 – 48 , Harvey played with younger brothers Neil and Ray in two matches for Victoria , captaining the team in the second of these fixtures . However , his own form began to wane and he was dropped from the team mid @-@ way through the season . In 1948 – 49 , Harvey remained outside the first @-@ choice team , and played in only two first @-@ class matches against Tasmania when Victoria fielded a second @-@ string team . He retired at the end of the season , having played only 22 first @-@ class matches in an interrupted career . Harvey captained his state five times during the post @-@ war phase of his career , standing in when regular captain Lindsay Hassett was away on national duty .
= = Early years = =
Merv Harvey was born in Broken Hill , New South Wales to Horace " Horrie " and Elsie Harvey . Horace worked for BHP driving horse @-@ drawn trailers . Merv was the second child in the family and the oldest son . Five younger brothers were to follow , in chronological order Mick , Harold , Ray , Neil and Brian . The family relocated to Newcastle , a mining town and harbour in New South Wales , before shifting to the inner @-@ Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy , a staunchly working @-@ class , industrial area . Horace secured a job at the confectionery company Life Savers ( Australasia ) Ltd , located next door to their house at 198 Argyle Street . The 19th century two @-@ storey house was owned by the firm and was used as lodgings for the workers ’ families . It no longer exists , having been demolished to make way for a textile factory .
The Cornish @-@ descended Horace raised his family as strict Methodists , disallowing gambling , alcohol , tobacco and profanity in his household . An ardent cricketer during his years in New South Wales , he was good enough to hit 196 runs during a match in Newcastle , and he encouraged his children to play sport . He himself played for the Rita Social Club after moving to Fitzroy .
As recreational facilities and grass ovals were sparse in densely populated Fitzroy , Merv and his younger brothers played cricket in a cobblestone laneway between their terraced house . Here they played cricket with a tennis ball , home made cricket bat and a kerosene tin for a wicket . They were usually joined by other local children , two of whom became elite sportsmen : Allan Ruthven and Harold Shillinglaw . The group also played Australian rules football , kicking around rolled up cardboard and newspaper . Much of the batting skill displayed by the Harvey brothers has been attributed to these games played on the unpredictable bounce of the bumpy laneway . The surface also had a V @-@ shaped slope inwards towards the centre of the lane , causing balls to deviate sideways after bouncing . As the laneway meant that the playing area was long and narrow , the young boys also had to learn to play the ball straight in accordance with orthodox cricket technique . The Harveys played another form of cricket in their concreted backyard using a marble instead of a ball , and a miniature bat . This sharpened their reflexes .
Merv was the first of the brothers to attend the nearby George Street State School and join the Fitzroy Cricket Club as they reached their early teens . The club had a program whereby they gave a medal for every local school to award to the best cricketer in their ranks in that year . The successful student would then be given access to all of the club 's facilities . All of the Harvey brothers were recipients were of this medal . At Fitzroy , they came under the influence of former Victorian all @-@ rounder Arthur Liddicut and the club ’ s veteran captain Joe Plant . Merv and his younger siblings had no formal coaching , and their father , a regular presence at the club , chose to stay in the background as their respective careers developed . Horace did not advise his sons on how to bat , allowing them to formulate their own style and technique . According to the brothers , it was their mother who was vocal and extroverted , in contrast to their reserved father . The boys who failed to score runs were given kitchen duty , and according to them , their parents never showed favouritism .
During the winter , they played baseball for Fitzroy Baseball Club , often competing in matches played as curtain raisers to the elite Australian rules football competition , the Victorian Football League . Saturday night entertainment for the family typically consisted of dinner after the day ’ s cricket matches for Fitzroy , and Plant , Liddicut and other cricket club personnel were often invited . Under the influence of Plant and Liddicut , the boys were taught to adopt an aggressive approach , using fast feet movement to attack spin bowling in particular . In 1932 , Harvey captained the Victorian Under @-@ 15 schoolboys team on a tour of Queensland and one of his players was future Victorian and Australian teammate Keith Miller . Harvey graduated to Fitzroy 's first XI in 1933 – 34 .
= = First @-@ class beginnings = =
During the 1938 – 39 season , Harvey was selected for the Victorian Second XI to play in a match against their counterparts from New South Wales . Harvey was run out for four in the first innings and then made eight as his team succumbed to a 227 @-@ run defeat . As a result , he was not called up into the First XI for the next two years .
Harvey made his first @-@ class debut for Victoria against Queensland at the Gabba in 1940 – 41 . In the first innings , he made 25 before being caught by wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon from the bowling of Jack Ellis as the visitors took first innings points in a drawn match . In the next match , he made an impression . After making 35 in the first innings , he scored 70 in an hour 's batting in the second innings at the SCG against New South Wales . In both innings , he was dismissed by leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly , the leading bowler in the world , but Victoria managed to prevail by 24 runs . The teams met again three weeks later , and this time , New South Wales turned the table , winning by 235 runs . Harvey made 14 in the first innings , bowled by O 'Reilly for the second innings in a row . In the second innings he made 38 before being removed by another leg spinner , Cec Pepper . Harvey ended the season with 182 runs at 36 @.@ 40 .
Harvey enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) at Fitzroy on 12 May 1942 and was a member of the 30 Squadron . He served as an airframe fitter during World War II , which severely interrupted his sporting career , and first @-@ class cricket was cancelled after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor prompted the outbreak of hostilities in the Pacific . He was discharged on 25 January 1946 with the rank of aircraftman . According to cricket administrator Bill Jacobs , the war cost Harvey his prime cricketing years . Jacobs believed that Harvey would have been selected for Australia in the period otherwise interrupted by war .
= = Post @-@ war resumption and only Test = =
After the war ended in 1945 , first @-@ class cricket resumed in 1945 – 46 . Harvey played in a trial match for state selection . Playing for the Rest of Victoria against the first @-@ choice state team , he made 82 and 25 . This was not enough to convince the state selectors and Harvey did not get a recall to the Victorian team until the end of the season when he played against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval . He responded by striking a career @-@ best 163 to help his team to an innings win .
Immediately after the war , Harvey faced a lot of competition for a place as an opening batsman in the Australian team , but a vacancy arose in 1946 – 47 , when Bill Brown , who had captained Australia the previous season and opened for the country in Tests in the 1930s , was sidelined with injury for the whole summer .
In the first match of the season , Harvey ’ s Victorians faced the touring England cricket team led by Wally Hammond . In the first innings , Harvey made 21 of the team ’ s 189 before being caught and bowled by leg spinner Doug Wright . He then made 57 before being dismissed by Alec Bedser as the hosts fell for only 204 in pursuit of 449 for victory , losing by 244 runs .
This was enough for him to be selected in the Australian XI for a match against the Englishmen , in what was effectively a Test dress rehearsal . Rain curtailed the match , and the game did not reach the second innings ; Harvey made 22 in his only opportunity .
There was another match for Victoria against South Australia before the Tests , allowing him another chance to push his claim for national selection . It was also his first Sheffield Shield match ; his previous appearances for Victoria in interstate games were in seasons where the competition was called off due to war and replaced by one @-@ off matches . Harvey could manage only 9 as Victoria amassed 548 in their first innings . They needed 79 runs for victory in 35 minutes on the last afternoon , and with quick scoring required , the more aggressive Keith Miller opened in place of Harvey . When the first wicket fell with the target almost completed , Harvey came in and made three not out by the time the match was over . These performances were not enough for the Australian selectors and Harvey was overlooked for the team for the first two Tests .
After this , Harvey had two opportunities to press for selection for the next Test . He made 13 in an innings victory over Queensland and continued to be overlooked . The second match was the Shield clash with arch @-@ rivals New South Wales , which started on Boxing Day at the MCG . After the visitors had made 205 , Harvey opened with Ken Meuleman , who was out at 1 / 31 , bringing Miller to the crease . Miller hammered the bowling and Victoria were 1 / 154 at the end of the day . The next day , the 271 @-@ run partnership ended after just over three hours when Miller fell at 2 / 302 . Harvey went on to make 136 in what was generally regarded as his best innings . He famously hooked leading Australian paceman Ray Lindwall , the fastest in the world at the time , over the fence into the public bar for six . It was one of the few occasions that Lindwall was hit for six in his long career . Victoria declared at 8 / 560 , Test bowlers Lindwall and Ernie Toshack taking the most punishment with figures of 1 / 100 and 0 / 133 from 18 and 21 overs respectively , as Victoria went on to win by an innings and 114 runs .
In the return match against Queensland , Harvey made 17 as Victoria took a convincing innings win . In the next match against New South Wales , Harvey played with Neil for the first time at first @-@ class level , and pair played together for their state ’ s two remaining matches of the season , although they never batted together as Merv was always out before Neil came in , usually at No. 6 . Merv made 30 and 44 , failing to capitalise on his starts to make a big score with a Test vacancy beckoning ; incumbent opener Sid Barnes was injured and unavailable for the Fourth Test .
Nevertheless , Harvey was selected to play his only Test , the Fourth Test at Adelaide , filling in for the injured Barnes . England batted first and made 460 before being dismissed late on the second day . Harvey opened with Arthur Morris , and made 12 in the first innings before being bowled by Bedser while playing an aggressive shot . With only a few minutes of play left , the Australian captain Don Bradman came in and he too was bowled by Bedser , without scoring a run . Harvey later privately said the Bradman had told him to play cautiously and survive until the end of the day , rather than attack , and that the captain was angry with the resulting two wickets . According to Harvey , Bradman told him that he would never be selected for Australia again . The tourists then declared during the last afternoon and left Australia a target of 314 . The target was not a realistic offer and Morris and Harvey put on an opening stand of 116 before the latter was bowled for 31 by the medium pace of occasional bowler Norman Yardley . The match ended in a draw with Australia on 1 / 215 .
Barnes recovered and resumed his position for the Fifth Test . Harvey ended his season by scoring 10 in his only innings of Victoria ’ s second tour match against England , which was drawn , and was 3 not out in the first innings of the Shield match against South Australia when it was washed out . Harvey made his captaincy debut in the latter match as Lindsay Hassett was representing Australia in the Fifth Test , and his bowlers dismissed South Australia for 222 in Victoria ’ s only innings in the field . This washed @-@ out drawn match was the only time in six Shield matches during the season that Victoria did not emerge victorious , and they won the competition . Harvey ended the season with 405 runs at 33 @.@ 75 .
= = Final seasons = =
By 1947 – 48 , Brown had recovered , so Harvey had to compete with him as well as Morris and Barnes for selection . In the first match of the season against the touring Indians , Harvey made 4 and 35 . The following week , he made 89 in the first innings against South Australia but managed only three in the second innings as the Victorians collapsed to be all out for 182 and lost by nine wickets . Harvey was overlooked for the Australian XI for the Test trial against India the following week . Instead , he played in the match against Queensland , scoring only 13 and 3 . He was subsequently overlooked for the Test selection . During this time , he played alongside Neil in all but the Queensland match , when his younger brother was playing in the Australian XI . However , neither batted together .
Neil returned to the Victorian team for the match against New South Wales at the SCG the following week , and Ray was selected to make his first @-@ class debut , so three Harveys were in the state team for the first time . Merv opened , while Neil and Ray batted at Nos. 4 and 7 respectively . Victoria batted first and the brothers again did not form any partnerships . Merv opened and made 45 as Victoria ended with 331 ; the Harvey brothers had scored almost half the runs . New South Wales were forced to follow on , and Victoria were set 51 for victory . After the fall of Fred Freer at 1 / 24 , captain Lindsay Hassett elevated Ray to No. 3 , allowing two Harveys to bat together for the first time at first @-@ class level . Ray and Merv put on an unbeaten partnership of 27 to take Victoria to a nine @-@ wicket win . Merv and Ray ended unbeaten on 12 and 22 respectively .
The trio then proceeded to play together in the next match against Western Australia two weeks later and Merv captained the team as Hassett was away on Test duty . Victoria batted first and Neil came in to join Merv with the score at 2 / 102 , and the pair added 173 together before the younger brother fell for 94 . One run later , Merv was out for 141 in what turned out to be his final first @-@ class century ; later , Ray made only 1 . Victoria ended on 370 and Western Australia took a 59 @-@ run lead . In the second innings , Merv made 6 and did not bat with his brothers . He declared the innings at 9 / 304 , setting Western Australia a target of 246 for victory . They reached 5 / 205 and Victoria avoided defeat . A fortnight later , Harvey again captained the team and made a duck in his only innings in a rain @-@ curtailed match . After the Victorians had made 412 , Queensland reached 5 / 144 at the end of the match . Despite being the captain , Harvey was dropped for the next match and was overlooked for the rest of the season , ending with 351 runs at 35 @.@ 10 .
After being dropped for the second half of the previous season , Harvey had even less opportunities in 1948 – 49 . His only matches for Victoria came during the Christmas period , when he played consecutive fixtures , both against Tasmania . Although the two games had first @-@ class status , they were effectively Second XI fixtures , as the first @-@ choice team was playing Sheffield Shield matches at the same time . Victoria only batted once in each innings and Harvey made 7 and 36 respectively . Harvey captained the team , and they dominated both matches . The Victorians took a first @-@ innings lead of 171 in the first match , but rain interruptions ended the match with Tasmania at 1 / 100 in their second innings , still 71 runs in arrears . In the second match , Victoria dismissed their opponents for 65 in the first innings to take a lead of 309 runs and they went on to win by an innings and 73 runs . Having seen his previous four matches as captain end in a draw , Harvey ended his first @-@ class career with his only victory as a leader in his final match .
Harvey continued playing in the First XI for Fitzroy until 1954 – 55 , and he finished with 6 @,@ 654 runs at 29 @.@ 31 in 207 First XI matches for the club . Harvey was an attacking opening batsman , strong on the drive and fond of hooking fast bowling . His brother Neil called him " the greatest cricketer of us all " .
= = Outside cricket = =
Harvey worked for more than five decades for the same engineering firm , and lived with his wife Myrtle in the western industrial suburb of Footscray . He had two sons , Jeff and Graeme , both of whom played in first grade for Fitzroy . His grandson Robert Harvey — son of Jeff — was one of the leading Australian rules footballers of the 1990s and the early 21st century . Robert made his Australian Football League debut for St Kilda Football Club in 1988 and played 21 seasons . He was a member of the All @-@ Australian team eight times and won the Brownlow Medal twice , in 1997 and 1998 , for the best and fairest player . Robert played for Victoria at Under @-@ 19 level as a bowler , but he was already playing top @-@ flight football at the time and gave up his cricket career after the national Under @-@ 19 tournament . Another grandson Anthony , the younger brother of Robert , also played for St Kilda and captained Norwood to the 1997 South Australian National Football League ( SANFL ) premiership .
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= Hiroh Kikai =
Hiroh Kikai ( 鬼海 弘雄 , Kikai Hiroo , born 18 March 1945 ) is a Japanese photographer best known within Japan for four series of monochrome photographs : scenes of buildings in and close to Tokyo , portraits of people in the Asakusa area of Tokyo , and rural and town life in India and Turkey . He has pursued each of these for over two decades , and each has led to one or more book @-@ length collections .
Although previously a respected name in Japanese photography , Kikai was not widely known until 2003 , when the first edition of his book Persona , a collection of Asakusa portraits , won both the Domon Ken Award and Annual Award of the PSJ . In 2009 , the ICP and Steidl copublished Asakusa Portraits for an international market .
= = Early years = =
Kikai was born in the village of Daigo ( now part of Sagae , Yamagata Prefecture ) on 18 March 1945 as the seventh and last child ( and fifth son ) of the family . He had a happy childhood , from the age of 11 or so preferring to play by himself in the nature that surrounded the village . He graduated from high school in 1963 and worked in Yamagata for a year , and then went to Hosei University in Tokyo to study philosophy . As a student he was keen on the cinema — he particularly enjoyed the films of Andrzej Wajda , who would later contribute essays to some of his books , and Satyajit Ray — and has said that he would have worked in film production if it did not require writing , a task he has never enjoyed , and money , which he lacked .
Immediately after his graduation in 1968 , Kikai worked for two years as a truck driver and for two in a shipyard . Meanwhile , he stayed in touch with his philosophy professor from his university days , Sadayoshi Fukuda , whose interests extended to writing a regular column for the magazine Camera Mainichi ; he introduced Kikai to its editor , Shōji Yamagishi , who showed him photographs by Diane Arbus that made a great impact on Kikai . Kikai started to take photographs in 1969 . At that time ( when somebody fresh out of university could expect to earn ¥ 40 @,@ 000 per month ) , a Hasselblad SLR camera normally cost ¥ 600 @,@ 000 ; Kikai heard of an opportunity to buy one for ¥ 320 @,@ 000 and mentioned this to Fukuda , who immediately lent him the money , with no interest , and no date or pressure for repayment . ( The loan was eventually repaid . ) This Hasselblad 500CM , with its 80mm lens , is what Kikai has used for his portraits ever since .
= = Career = =
Kikai thought that work on a boat might be photogenic , but , having no experience , could not get a job on one . He was eventually accepted on a boat fishing for tuna when he displayed the scar from an unneeded appendectomy as evidence of one risk fewer that his presence might force the boat into port . He worked on the boat in the Pacific from 6 April until 9 November 1972 , with a stop in Manzanillo ( Mexico ) for provisions . It was during this time that he took his first photographs to be published , in the May 1973 issue of Camera Mainichi . In 1973 he won a prize for his submission to the 14th exhibition of the Japan Advertising Photographers ’ Association . But Kikai decided that in order to be a photographer he needed darkroom skills , and he returned to Tokyo to work at Doi Technical Photo ( 1973 – 76 ) . He became a freelance photographer in 1984 , a year after his first solo exhibition and the same year as his second .
Living close to Asakusa ( Tokyo ) , Kikai often went there on his days off , taking photographs of visitors . He stepped up his visits in 1985 ; a number of collections of his portraits taken there have been published .
Kikai ’ s other long @-@ term photographic projects are of working and residential neighborhoods in and near Tokyo , and of people and scenes in India and Turkey . All these are black and white . However , his occasional diversions have included color photographs of the Gotō Islands and even of nudes .
Unusually in Japan , where photographers tend to join or form groups , Kikai has never been in any group , preferring to work by himself . When not setting out to take photographs , Kikai does not carry a camera with him . He leaves photographing his own family to his wife Noriko , and it is she who has the camera if they go on a trip together .
In the early part of his career , Kikai often had to earn money in other ways : after three years ’ work in the darkroom , he returned to manual labor .
Kikai taught for some time at Musashino Art University , but he was disappointed by the students ’ lack of sustained effort and therefore quit .
= = = Asakusa portraits = = =
Kikai had started his Asakusa series of square , monochrome portraits as early as 1973 , but after this there was a hiatus until 1985 , when he realized that an ideal backdrop would be the plain red walls of Sensō @-@ ji . At that time , the great majority of his Asakusa portraits adopted further constraints : the single subject stands directly in front of the camera ( originally a Minolta Autocord TLR , later the Hasselblad ) , looking directly at it , and is shown from around the knees upwards . Kikai may wait at the temple for four or five hours , hoping to see somebody he wants to photograph , and three or four days may pass without a single photograph ; but he may photograph three people in a single day , and he has photographed over six hundred people in this way . He believes that to have a plain backdrop and a direct confrontation with the subject allows the viewer to see the subject as a whole , and as somebody on whom time is marked , without any distracting or limiting specificity .
Though Kikai started to photograph in Asakusa simply because it was near where he then lived , he has continued because of the nature of the place and its visitors . Once a bustling and fashionable area , Asakusa long ago lost this status . If it were as popular and crowded as it was before the war , Kikai says , he would go somewhere else .
Published in 1987 , Ōtachi no shōzō / Ecce Homo was the first collection of these portraits . It is a large @-@ format book with portraits made in Asakusa in 1985 – 86 . Kikai won the 1988 Newcomer ’ s Award of the Photographic Society of Japan ( PSJ ) for this book and the third Ina Nobuo Award for the accompanying exhibition .
In 1995 , a number of portraits from the series were shown together with the works of eleven other photographers in “ Tokyo / City of Photos ” , one of a pair of opening exhibitions for the purpose @-@ made building of the Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography .
Ya @-@ Chimata , published a year later , has a greater number of portraits printed more cheaply on smaller pages .
Persona ( 2003 ) is a further collection of portraits made in Asakusa . A few are from Kikai ’ s earliest work , but most postdate anything in the earlier books . Several of the subjects appear twice or more often , so the reader sees the effect of time . The book format is unusually large for a photograph collection in Japan , and the plates were printed via quadtone . The book won the 23rd Domon Ken Award and 2004 Annual Award of the PSJ . A smaller @-@ format edition with additional photographs followed two years later .
Asakusa Portraits ( 2008 ) is a large collection edited by the International Center of Photography ( New York ) , published in conjunction with the ICP ’ s exhibition of recent Japanese photography and art “ Heavy Light ” . Kikai ’ s contribution to this exhibition was well received , and Asakusa Portraits won praise for its photography and also ( from Paul Smith ) for the vernacular fashion of those photographed .
= = = Portraits of spaces = = =
Kikai has said that people and scenery are two sides of the same coin . When tired of waiting ( or photographing ) in Asakusa , he walks as far as 20 km looking for urban scenes of interest where he can make “ portraits of spaces ” . A day ’ s walk might take two or three hours for less than a single roll of 120 film . He generally photographs between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. , and avoids photographing when people are outside as their presence would transform the photographs into mere snapshots , easily understood ; even without people , they are the images or reflections of life . Kikai may find a scene that he wants to photograph and then wait there and only photograph it when something unexpected occurs in the frame . After development , he does not bother with contact prints , instead judging a photograph by the negative alone .
Samples from this series have appeared in various magazines from at least as early as 1976 . Each photograph is simply captioned with the approximate address ( in Japanese script ) and year .
Tōkyō meiro / Tokyo Labyrinth ( 1999 ) presents portraits of unpeopled spaces in Tokyo ( and occasionally the adjacent town of Kawasaki ) . There are individual shopfronts , rows of shops and residential streets . Most of the buildings are unpretentious . Like the Asakusa series , these portraits are monochrome and square , taken via a standard lens on 120 film .
Tōkyō mutan / Labyrinthos ( 2007 ) — based on an essay / photograph series that ran in the monthly Sōshi ( 草思 ) from March 2004 to July 2005 and then in the web series “ Tokyo Polka ” — presents more of the same . Between a single nude in a shopfront display from 1978 and a very young boy photographed in December 2006 ( the latter appearing to share the Sensō @-@ ji backdrop of Persona ) , are square monochrome views of Tokyo and Kawasaki , compositions that seem casual and rather disorderly , mostly of unpeopled scenes showing signs of intensive and recent use . The book also has Kikai ’ s essays from “ Tokyo Polka ” , essays that dwell on the inhabitants of Tokyo as observed during walks or on the train .
Tokyo View ( 2016 ) is a large @-@ format collection , mostly of photographs that also appear in one or other of the earlier books ( or Tōkyō pōtoreito / Tokyo Portraits ) .
= = = India = = =
Kikai has said that going to India feels like a return to the Yamagata of his youth , and a release from life in Tokyo . His photography there is much less planned or formal than his portraits of people or places in Tokyo : after an early start with color 120 film , he uses black and white 35mm film in India — and has laughingly said that he would use 35mm in Tokyo if the city were more interesting and didn ’ t make him feel unhappy .
India , a large @-@ format book published in 1992 , presents photographs taken in India ( and to a much lesser extent Bangladesh ) over a period totalling rather more than a year and ranging from 1982 to 1990 . It won high praise from the critic Kazuo Nishii , who commented that the India of Kikai ’ s work seems perpetually overcast , and that in their ambiguity his photographs seem to benefit from the work done in the Asakusa portrait series . The book won Kikai the 1993 Society of Photography Award .
Shiawase / Shanti ( 2001 ) is a collection of photographs that concentrates on children , most of which were taken in Allahabad , Benares , Calcutta , Puri and Delhi in 2000 . It won the Grand Prix of the second Photo City Sagamihara Festival .
= = = Turkey = = =
Wanting to explore somewhere that ( in contrast to India ) was cold , as well as a Muslim land where Asian and European cultures meet , in 1994 Kikai made the first of six visits to Turkey , where he has stayed for a total of nine months . His monochrome photographs of Turkey appeared in the magazine Asahi Camera , and his colour photographs on its website , before the publication in January 2011 of his large book Anatolia , a compilation of his monochrome work .
= = = Photography elsewhere = = =
Kikai was one of thirteen Japanese photographers invited by EU – Japan Fest to photograph the twenty @-@ six nations of the European Union ; he spent twenty @-@ one days in Malta in September 2005 and a short period in Portugal in October 2004 , travelling widely in both countries . In color , these photographs are a departure from his earlier work . Most are more or less candid photographs of people . A collection was published as the eighth in a series of fourteen volumes , In @-@ between .
Series of color photographs from short visits to Cuba ( 2007 ) and Taiwan ( 2013 ) have appeared in Asahi Camera .
= = = Writing = = =
Kikai 's essays have appeared in periodicals and within some of his own photobooks . They have also been collected in four books , in which they are illustrated by reproductions of relevant photographs .
Indo ya Gassan ( “ India and Gassan ” , 1999 ) is a collection about and photographs of India . Gassan is a mountain in central Yamagata close to where Kikai was brought up ; Kikai muses on India and compares it with the Yamagata of his youth .
Me to kaze no kioku ( “ Memories of the eye and the wind ” , 2012 ) collects essays published in Yamagata Shinbun ( 山形新聞 ) since 2006 ; Dare omo sukoshi suki ni naru hi : Memekuri bōbiroku ( “ Days when you come to like anyone a little : An image @-@ turning aide @-@ memoire ” , 2015 ) collects essays published in Bungakukai ( 文學界 ) since 2011 ; Kutsuzoku no herikata ( “ Ways to wear down shoe rubber ” , 2016 ) is a fourth collection .
= = Exhibitions = =
Supplementary English titles in parentheses are nonce translations for this article ; those outside parentheses and in quotation marks were used at the time .
[ A ] : Asakusa portraits
[ I ] : India
[ S ] : Portraits of spaces
[ T ] : Turkey
= = = Selected solo exhibitions = = =
“ Nagi : Machinaka no kōkei ” ( 凪 ： 町中の光景 , Calm : Town scenes ) . [ S ] Konishiroku Photo Gallery ( Shinjuku , Tokyo ) , August – September 1983 .
“ Indo kikō ” ( インド紀行 , India travelogue ) . [ I ] Doi Photo Plaza Shibuya ( Shibuya , Tokyo ) , August 1984 ; Art Plaza ( Fukuoka ) , August 1984 ; Gallery Antomeru ( Sendai ) , September 1984 ; Yamagata , 1984 .
“ Ōtachi no shōzō ( Sensōji keidai ) ” ( 王たちの肖像 ( 浅草寺境内 ) , Portraits of kings [ in the grounds of Sensō @-@ ji ] ) . [ A ] Ginza Nikon Salon ( Ginza , Tokyo ) , September 1988 .
“ Dai @-@ 13 Ina Nobuo shō jushō sakuhinten : Kikai Hiroo ‘ Ōtachi no shōzō ( Sensōji keidai ) ’ ” ( 第13伊奈信男賞受賞作品展 ・ 鬼海弘雄 「 王たちの肖像 ( 浅草寺境内 ) 」 , Exhibition of works winning the 13th Ina Nobuo Award : Hiroh Kikai , Portraits of kings [ in the grounds of Sensō @-@ ji ] ) . [ A ] Ginza Nikon Salon ( Ginza , Tokyo ) ; Osaka ; Kyoto ; etc . , 1988 – 89 .
The Hitachi Collection of Contemporary Japanese Photography , Center for Creative Photography , Tucson , Arizona . 1989 .
“ Dai @-@ 13 @-@ kai Ina Nobuo shō jushō sakuhinten : Kikai Hiroo ‘ Kanshō : Machi no katachi ’ ” ( 第13回伊奈信男賞受賞作品展 ・ 鬼海弘雄 「 観照 ： 町のかたち 」 , Exhibition of works winning the 13th Ina Nobuo Award : Hiroh Kikai , Meditation : Town shapes ) . [ S ] Osaka Nikon Salon , February 1990 ; Ginza Nikon Salon ( Ginza , Tokyo ) , March 1990 ; Kyoto ; etc . , 1990 .
“ Ecce Homo ” . [ A ] Robert Koch Gallery ( San Francisco ) , 1993 .
“ Indo kikō ” ( インド紀行 , India travelogue ) . [ I ] Shōmeidō Gallery ( Kodaira ) , 1998 .
“ Persona ( 1 ) ” . [ A ] Centrum Sztuki i Techniki Japońskiej “ Manggha ” ( Kraków ) , 1999 .
“ Shashin to insatsu hyōgen ” ( 写真と印刷表現 , Photographs and printing expression ) . [ S ] Mitsumura Art Plaza ( Ōsaki , Tokyo ) , February – March 2000 .
“ Persona ( 2 ) ” . [ A ] Centrum Sztuki i Techniki Japońskiej “ Manggha ” ( Kraków ) , November – December 2002 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] The Third Gallery Aya ( Osaka ) , October 2003 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] Domon Ken Photography Museum ( Sakata ) , September – November 2004 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] Ginza Nikon Salon ( Tokyo ) ; Osaka , 2004 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] Galeria Fotografii PF , Centrum Kultury “ Zamek ” ( Poznań ) , February – March 2005 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] Shōmeidō Gallery ( Kodaira ) January 2005 .
“ Perusona ” ( ぺるそな ) . [ A ] Ginza Nikon Salon ( Ginza , Tokyo ) , February – March 2006 ; Osaka Nikon Salon ( Osaka ) , April 2006 .
“ Tōkyō mutan ” ( 東京夢譚 , Tokyo dreams ) . [ S ] Ginza Nikon Salon ( Ginza , Tokyo ) , September 2007 ; Osaka Nikon Salon ( Osaka ) , October 2007 .
“ Tokyo Labyrinth ” . [ S ] Yancey Richardson Gallery ( New York City ) , September – October 2008 .
“ Jinsei gekijō ” ( 人生劇場 , Human theatre ) . [ A ] Gallery Raku , Kyoto University of Art and Design , Kyoto , March 2009 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] Yancey Richardson Gallery ( New York City ) , May – July 2009 .
“ Asakusai portrék ” . [ A ] Liget Gallery ( Budapest ) , November – December 2010 .
“ Anatoria e no purosesu ” ( アナトリアへのプロセス ) . [ T ] Aoyama Book Center ( Omotesandō , Tokyo ) , January 2011 .
“ Tōkyō pōtoreito ” ( 東京ポートレイト ) / “ Tokyo portraits ” . [ A , S ] Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography ( Ebisu , Tokyo ) , August – October 2011 .
“ Anatoria ” ( アナトリア ) . [ T ] M2 ( Shinjuku , Tokyo ) , August 2011 .
“ Persona ” . [ A , S , I , T ] Yamagata Museum of Art ( Yamagata ) , December 2011 – January 2012 .
“ Tokyo Labyrinth ” . [ S ] Zen Foto Gallery ( Roppongi , Tokyo ) , May 2013 .
“ Persona ” / “ Perusona ” ( ペルソナ ) . [ A ] 14th Documentary Photo Festival Miyazaki , Miyazaki Prefectural Art Museum , August – September 2013 .
“ Asakusa Portraits ( 1973 – 2008 ) et India ( 1982 – 2008 ) ” . [ A , I ] In between Gallery ( Paris ) , November 2013 .
“ India 1982 – 2011 ” . [ I ] Canon Gallery S ( Shinagawa , Tokyo ) , May – June 2014 .
“ Retratos de Asakusa ” . [ A ] Tabacalera , Promoción del Arte ( Madrid ) , September – November 2014 .
“ India 1982 – 2011 ” . [ I ] The Museum of Art , Ehime ( Matsuyama , Ehime ) , September – October 2014 .
“ Tôkyô : voyage à Asakusa ” . [ A , S ] Société d 'encouragement pour l 'industrie nationale , Paris 6 . 13 – 23 October 2015 .
= = = Selected group exhibitions = = =
“ The Hitachi Collection of Contemporary Japanese Photography ” . Center for Creative Photography , University of Arizona , 1988 .
“ Nyū dokyumentsu 1990 ” ( ニュー ・ ドキュメンツ 1990 ) / “ New Documents 1990 ” . Museum of Modern Art , Toyama ( Toyama ) , 1990 .
“ Shashin toshi Tōkyō ” ( 写真都市Tokyo ) / “ Tokyo / City of Photos ” . [ A ] ( Other photographers exhibited were Takanobu Hayashi , Ryūji Miyamoto , Daidō Moriyama , Shigeichi Nagano , Ikkō Narahara , Mitsugu Ōnishi , Masato Seto , Issei Suda , Akihide Tamura , Tokuko Ushioda , and Hiroshi Yamazaki . ) Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography , 1995 .
“ Shashin wa nani o katareru ka ” ( 写真は何を語れるか 。 What can photographs say ? ) . [ I ] Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography , June ; Osaka Umeda Canon Salon , July ; Fukuoka Canon Salon , August ; Nagoya Canon Salon , September ; Sapporo Canon Salon , October ; Sendai Canon Salon , November 1997 .
“ Berlin – Tokyo ” . Neue Nationalgalerie , Berlin , 2006 .
“ Tōkyō meiro / Andesu Kuero ” ( 東京迷路 ・ アンデスケロ村 ) / “ Tokyo Labyrinth / Andes Qero ” . [ S ] ( With Yoshiharu Sekino , who exhibited photographs taken of the Q ’ ero . ) Shōmeidō Gallery ( Kodaira ) , July 2007 .
“ Heavy Light : Recent Photography and Video from Japan ” . [ A ] International Center of Photography ( New York ) , May – September 2008 .
“ Sander ’ s Children ” . [ A ] Danziger Projects , New York , 2008 .
Mit anderen Augen . Das Porträt in der zeitgenössischen Fotografie = With Different Eyes : The Portrait in Contemporary Photography . [ A ] Die Photografische Sammlung / SK Stiftung Kultur , Cologne , 26 February – 29 May 2016 ; Kunstmuseum Bonn , 25 February – 8 May 2016 .
“ Faces from Places ” . [ A ] L. Parker Stephenson Photographs , Manhattan , 6 May – 16 July 2016 . With Mike Disfarmer , Sirkka @-@ Liisa Konttinen , J. D. ' Okhai Ojeikere , Malick Sidibé , and Jacques Sonck .
= = Permanent collections = =
Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography : 17 photographs from the series Ōtachi no shōzō ( later known as Persona or Asakusa Portraits ) , 1985 – 86 .
Museum of Modern Art , Toyama ( Japan )
Domon Ken Photography Museum ( Sakata , Yamagata , Japan )
Neue Nationalgalerie ( Berlin )
Center for Creative Photography ( University of Arizona , Tucson )
Hood Museum of Art ( Dartmouth College , Hanover , New Hampshire )
Museum of Fine Arts , Houston ( Texas )
Museum of the International Center of Photography ( New York )
Mead Art Museum ( Amherst College , Amherst , MA )
Philadelphia Museum of Art
= = Publications = =
= = = Books by Kikai = = =
Ōtachi no shōzō : Sensō @-@ ji keidai ( 王たちの肖像 ： 浅草寺境内 ) / Ecce homo : Portraits of kings . Yokohama : Yatate , 1987 . Photograph collection , with captions in Japanese and English , and an essay by Sadayoshi Fukuda . There are forty @-@ one monochrome plates .
India . Tokyo : Misuzu Shobō , 1992 . ISBN 4 @-@ 622 @-@ 04385 @-@ 8 . Photograph collection , with text ( by Kikai and Munesuke Mita ) in Japanese and English , and captions in English . There are 106 monochrome plates ( all “ landscape ” format ) .
Ya @-@ Chimata : Ōtachi no kairō ( や ・ ちまた ： 王たちの回廊 , Ya @-@ Chimata : A gallery of kings ) . Tokyo : Misuzu Shobō , 1996 . ISBN 4 @-@ 622 @-@ 04409 @-@ 9 . Photograph collection , with text ( by Kikai and ten other writers ) in Japanese only . There are 183 monochrome plates .
Tōkyō meiro ( 東京迷路 ) / Tokyo Labyrinth . Tokyo : Shōgakukan , 1999 . ISBN 4 @-@ 09 @-@ 681241 @-@ 2 . Photograph collection , with text ( by Andrzej Wajda , Genpei Akasegawa , and Suehiro Tanemura ) in Japanese only . There are 108 monochrome plates .
Indo ya Gassan ( 印度や月山 , India and Gassan ) . Tokyo : Hakusuisha , 1999 . ISBN 4 @-@ 560 @-@ 04928 @-@ 9 . Thirty essays and forty @-@ one photographs ; text in Japanese only . The monochrome photographs are a mixture of “ landscape ” ( across two pages ) and “ portrait ” ( on single pages ) .
Shiawase : Indo daichi no kodomo @-@ tachi ( しあわせ ： インド大地の子どもたち ) / Shanti : Children of India . Tokyo : Fukuinkan , 2001 . ISBN 4 @-@ 8340 @-@ 1779 @-@ 6 . Photograph collection ( all monochrome ) : thirteen “ landscape ” photographs across both pages ; and ninety @-@ four “ portrait ” . There are no captions , and the text is in Japanese only .
Persona . Tokyo : Sōshisha , 2003 . ISBN 4 @-@ 7942 @-@ 1240 @-@ 2 . Photograph collection , with captions and text ( by Andrzej Wajda , Suehiro Tanemura , and Kikai ) in both Japanese and English . Between an additional plate at the front and back , there are twelve plates in a prefatory section ( photographs taken well before the others ) , and in the body of the book twenty @-@ eight plates four to a page and 138 plates on their own pages .
Perusona ( ぺるそな ) / Persona . Tokyo : Sōshisha , 2005 . ISBN 4 @-@ 7942 @-@ 1450 @-@ 2 . Second , popular edition of the 2003 Persona in a smaller format . There are additional essays and photographs by Kikai ; captions in both Japanese and English , other text in Japanese only . The twelve prefatory plates of the first edition and 191 plates of the main series are each presented on a separate page ; there are also three more plates of photographs outside the series .
In @-@ between 8 : Kikai Hiroo Porutogaru , Maruta ( In @-@ between 8 鬼海弘雄 ポルトガル 、 マルタ ) / In @-@ between , 8 : Hiroh Kikai , Portugal , Malta . Tokyo : EU – Japan Fest Japan Committee , 2005 . ISBN 4 @-@ 903152 @-@ 07 @-@ 3 . Photograph collection ; captions and text in both Japanese and English . There are twenty @-@ eight colour photographs of Portugal and twenty @-@ seven of Malta .
Tōkyō mutan ( 東京夢譚 ) / Labyrinthos . Tokyo : Sōshisha , 2007 . ISBN 4 @-@ 7942 @-@ 1572 @-@ X. Collection of 118 monochrome photographs and essays ; captions ( for each , the approximate address and the year ) and essays are in Japanese only .
Asakusa Portraits . New York : International Center of Photography ; Göttingen : Steidl , 2008 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 86521 @-@ 601 @-@ 4 . Collection of monochrome photographs ; captions and texts in English only . With an interview of Kikai by Noriko Fuku , essays by Kikai ( translated from Perusona ) and an essay on Asakusa by Hiromichi Hosoma ( 細馬宏通 ) .
Anatoria ( アナトリア ) / Anatolia . Tokyo : Crevis , 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 904845 @-@ 10 @-@ 3 . Collection of 140 monochrome photographs ( all “ landscape ” format ) of Turkey ( not only Anatolia ) . With afterwords by Toshiyuki Horie and Kikai .
Tōkyō pōtoreito ( 東京ポートレイト ) / Tokyo Portraits . Tokyo : Crevis , 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 904845 @-@ 14 @-@ 1 . Exhibition catalogue of over 150 monochrome photographs of the “ Asakusa portraits ” and “ portraits of spaces ” series . Afterwords ( by Shinji Ishii [ いしいしんじ ] , Iwao Matsuyama [ 松山巖 ] , and Nobuyuki Okabe [ 岡部信幸 ] ) in Japanese only ; captions in Japanese and English .
Me to kaze no kioku : Shashin o meguru esē ( 眼と風の記憶 写真をめぐるエセー ) . Tokyo : Iwanami , 2012 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 00 @-@ 024952 @-@ 2 . Essay collection .
Seken no hito ( 世間のひと ) . Chikuma Bunko . Tokyo : Chikuma Shobō , 2014 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 480 @-@ 43156 @-@ 1 . A bunkobon anthology of the Asakusa portrait series .
Dare o mo sukoshi suki ni naru hi : Memekuri bōbiroku ( 誰をも少し好きになる日 眼めくり忘備録 ) . Tokyo : Bungei shunjū , 2015 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 16 @-@ 390215 @-@ 9 . Essay collection .
Tokyo View . Kyoto : Kazetabi @-@ sha , 2016 . A large @-@ format collection of 117 monochrome photographs of the “ portraits of spaces ” series . Captions in Japanese and English ; afterword by Hideki Maeda in Japanese only .
Kutsuzoku no herikata ( 靴族の減り方 ) . Tokyo : Chikuma Shobō , 2016 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 480 @-@ 87621 @-@ 8 . Essay collection , contains 32 full @-@ page plates from the “ portraits of spaces ” series .
= = = Other books with contributions by Kikai = = =
Shashin toshi Tōkyō ( 写真都市Tokyo ) / Tokyo / City of Photos . Tokyo : Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography , 1995 . Catalogue of an exhibition held in 1995 . Plates 113 – 29 , admirably printed , are from Kikai ’ s series of Asakusa portraits . Captions and texts in both Japanese and English .
Literatura na świecie ( Warsaw , ISSN 0324 @-@ 8305 ) number 1 – 3 , 2002 . This special issue on Japanese literature , Japonia , is illustrated with photographs by Kikai , taken from Ya @-@ Chimata and Tōkyō meiro / Tokyo Labyrinth . Text in Polish .
Ueda Makoto . Shūgō jūtaku monogatari ( 集合住宅物語 , The story of collective housing ) . Tokyo : Misuzu , 2004 . ISBN 4 @-@ 622 @-@ 07086 @-@ 3 . A book about collective housing in Japan from the Dōjunkai buildings onward , with 165 illustrative color photographs , all by Kikai . ( Some monochrome photographs are older and are by other photographers . ) The text , by Ueda , is in Japanese only . Content previously ( 1997 – 2001 ) published in Tokyojin .
In @-@ between : 13 @-@ nin no shashinka 25 @-@ kakoku ( In @-@ between 13人の写真家 25ヶ国 ) / In @-@ between : 13 photographers , 25 nations . Tokyo : EU – Japan Fest Japan Committee , 2005 . ISBN 4 @-@ 903152 @-@ 13 @-@ 8 . Kikai is one of the thirteen in this supplementary collection of photographs in six themes ( “ Stones and walls ” , “ Words ” , etc . ) ; captions and text in both Japanese and English .
Miyako Harumi . Messēji ( メッセージ ) / The Message . Tokyo : Juritsusha , 2006 . ISBN 4 @-@ 901769 @-@ 41 @-@ 3 . A book of which about half consists of quotations from interviews with the enka singer Harumi Miyako , and the other half of color photographs by Kikai . The photographs are not described or identified ; a handful are of Miyako but most are of sea and provincial views . ( In many , the scenes are recognizably of the Kumano area just west of Kumanogawa , Wakayama . ) The text is all in Japanese .
Heavy Light : Recent Photography and Video from Japan . New York : International Center of Photography ; Göttingen : Steidl , 2008 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 86521 @-@ 623 @-@ 6 . Captions and texts in English only .
Higashi @-@ Nihon dai @-@ jishin : Shashinka 17 @-@ nin no shiten ( 東日本大地震 写真家17人の視点 , The great east Japan earthquake : The perspectives of 17 photographers ) . Special compilation by Asahi Camera . Tokyo : Asahi Shinbunsha , 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 02 @-@ 330996 @-@ 8 . A collection of photographs of the aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . Text in Japanese only . Kikai contributes six pages : Sōma in early June , and three towns in Miyagi in late August .
Kikai Hirô and Jean @-@ François Sabouret . Tôkyô : voyage à Asakusa . Atlantique , Éditions de l 'Actualité Scientifique Poitou @-@ Charentes , 2015 . ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 911320 @-@ 55 @-@ 2 . An introduction to the work of Kikai , in French and Japanese .
Gabriele Conrath @-@ Scholl and Stephan Berg , eds . Mit anderen Augen . Das Porträt in der zeitgenössischen Fotografie = With Different Eyes : The Portrait in Contemporary Photography . Cologne : Snoeck , 2016 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 86442 @-@ 158 @-@ 7 . Catalogue of the exhibition .
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= Casimir Pulaski =
Kazimierz Michał Władysław Wiktor Pułaski of Ślepowron coat of arms ( Polish pronunciation : [ kaˈʑimʲɛʂ puˈwaskʲi ] ; English : Casimir Pulaski ; March 6 , 1745 – October 11 , 1779 ) was a Polish noblemanb , soldier and military commander who has been called with his fellow Hungarian friend Michael Kovats de Fabriczy " the fathers of the American cavalry " .
Born in Warsaw and following in his father 's footsteps , he became interested in politics at an early age and soon became involved in the military and the revolutionary affairs in Poland ( the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ) . Pulaski was one of the leading military commanders for the Bar Confederation and fought against Russian domination of the Commonwealth . When this uprising failed , he was driven into exile . Following a recommendation by Benjamin Franklin , Pulaski emigrated to North America to help in the cause of the American Revolutionary War . He distinguished himself throughout the revolution , most notably when he saved the life of George Washington . Pulaski became a general in the Continental Army , created the Pulaski Cavalry Legion and reformed the American cavalry as a whole . At the Battle of Savannah , while leading a daring charge against British forces , he was gravely wounded , and died shortly thereafter .
Pulaski has been remembered as a hero who fought for independence and freedom both in Poland and in the United States . Numerous places and events are named in his honor , and he is commemorated by many works of art . Pulaski is one of only eight people to be awarded honorary United States citizenship . He never married and had no descendants . Despite his fame , there have been uncertainties and controversies surrounding both his place and date of birth and burial .
= = Personal life = =
Pulaski was born on March 6 , 1745 , in the manor house of the Pułaski family in Warsaw , Poland.a Casimir was the eldest son of Marianna Zielińska and Józef Pułaski , who was an advocatus at the Crown Tribunal , the Starost of Warka , and one of the town 's most notable inhabitants . He was a brother of Franciszek Ksawery Pułaski and Antoni Pułaski . His family bore the Ślepowron coat of arms . The Pułaski family was Roman Catholic and early in his youth , Casimir Pulaski attended an elite college run by Theatines , a male religious order of the Catholic Church in Warsaw , but did not finish his education .
There is some circumstantial evidence that Pulaski was a Freemason . When Gilbert du Motier , Marquis de Lafayette laid the cornerstone of the monument erected in Pulaski 's honor in Savannah in 1824 , a full Masonic ceremony took place with Richard T. Turner , High Priest of the Georgia chapter , conducting the ceremony . Other sources claim Pulaski was a member of the Masonic Army Lodge in Maryland . A Masonic Lodge in Chicago is named Casimir Pulaski Lodge , No.1167 and a brochure issued by them claims he obtained the degree of Master Mason on June 19 , 1779 , and was buried with full Masonic honors . To date no surviving documents of Pulaski 's actual membership have been found .
= = Military career = =
In 1762 , Pulaski started his military career as a page of Carl Christian Joseph of Saxony , Duke of Courland and vassal of the Polish king . He spent six months at the ducal court in Mitau , during which the court was interned in the palaces by the Russian forces occupying the area . He then returned to Warsaw , and his father gave him the village of Zezulińce in Podole ; from that time Pulaski used the title of Starost of Zezulińce .
= = = Bar Confederation = = =
With his family , he took part in the 1764 election of the new Polish monarch , Stanisław II August . In December 1767 , Pulaski and his father became involved with the Bar Confederation , which saw King Stanisław as a Russian puppet and sought to curtail Russian hegemony over the Commonwealth . The confederation was actively opposed by the Russian forces stationed in Poland . Pulaski recruited a unit and on February 29 , 1768 , signed the act of the confederation , thus declaring himself an official supporter of the movement . On March 6 , he received the rank of a pułkownik and commanded a choragiew of cavalry . In March and April he agitated among the Polish military , successfully convincing some forces to join the Confederates . He fought his first battle on April 20 near Pohorełe ; it was a victory , as was another on April 23 near Starokostiantyniv . An engagement at Kaczanówka on April 28 resulted in a defeat . In early May he garrisoned Chmielnik , but was forced to retreat when allied reinforcements were defeated . He retreated to a monastery in Berdyczów , which he defended during a siege by royalist forces for over two weeks until June 16 . Eventually he was forced to surrender and was taken captive by the Russians . On June 28 , he was released in exchange for a pledge that he would not again take up arms with the Confederates , and that he would lobby the Confederates to end hostilities . However , Pulaski considered the pledge to be non @-@ binding , and made a public declaration to that effect upon reaching a camp of the Confederates at the end of July . Agreeing to the pledge in the first place weakened his authority and popularity among the Confederates , and his own father considered whether or not he should be court @-@ martialed ; some heated debates followed and Pulaski was reinstated to active duty only in early September .
In 1769 , Pulaski 's unit was again besieged by numerically superior forces , this time in the old fortress of Okopy Świętej Trójcy , which has served as his base of operations since December the previous year . However , after a staunch defense , he was able to break the Russian siege . On April 7 , he was made the regimentarz of the Kraków Voivodeship . In May and June he operated near Przemyśl , but failed to take the town . Criticized by some of his fellow Confederates , Pulaski departed to Lithuania with his allies and a force of about 600 men on June 3 . There , Pulaski attempted to incite a larger revolt against Russia ; despite no decisive military successes , he was able to assemble a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army and deliver it back to a Confederate staging point . This excursion received international notice and gained him a reputation as the most effective military leader in the Bar Confederation . Next , he moved with his unit towards Zamość and after some skirmishes was defeated at the Battle of Włodawa on September 15 . He spent the rest of the year rebuilding his unit in the region of Podkarpacie .
In February 1770 , Pulaski moved near Nowy Targ , and in March , helped to subdue the mutiny of Józef Bierzyński . Based in Izby , he subsequently operated in southern Lesser Poland and on May 13 his force was defeated at the Battle of Dęborzyn . Around June 9 – 10 in Prešov , in a conference with other Confederate leaders , he met Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor , who complimented Pulaski on his actions . On July 3 – 4 , Pulaski 's camp was captured by Johann von Drewitz , and he was forced to retreat into Austria . Early in August he met with the French emissary , Charles François Dumouriez . He disregarded an order to take Lanckoronna and instead cooperated with Michał Walewski in a raid on Kraków on the night of August 31 . He then departed for Częstochowa . On September 10 , along with Walewski , he used subterfuge to take control of the Jasna Góra monastery . On September 18 he met Franciszka z Krasińskich , an aristocrat from the Krasiński family and the wife of Charles of Saxony , Duke of Courland ; he impressed her and she would become one of his protectors . Around September 22 – 24 Walewski was made the commandant of Jasna Góra , which slighted Pulaski . Nonetheless he continued as the de facto commander of Confederate troops stationed in and around Jasna Góra . Between September 10 , 1770 , and January 14 , 1771 , Pulaski , Walewski and Józef Zaremba commanded the Polish forces during the siege of Jasna Góra monastery . They successfully defended against Drewitz in a series of engagements , the largest one on November 11 , followed by a siege from December 31 to January 14 . The defense of Jasna Góra further enhanced his reputation among the Confederates and abroad . A popular Confederate song taunting Drewitz included lyrics about Pulaski and Jasna Góra . Pulaski intended to pursue Drewitz , but a growing discord between him and Zaremba prevented this from becoming a real option .
In February 1771 , Pulaski operated around Lublin ; on February 25 he was victorious at Tarłów and on the night of February 28 and March 1 , his forces besieged Kraśnik . In March that year he became one of the members of the Confederates ' War Council . Dumouriez , who became a military adviser to the Confederates , at the time described him as " spontaneous , more proud than ambitious , friend of the prince of Courland , enemy of the Potocki family , brave and honest " as well as popular among other commanders . This was due to his refusal to follow orders and adhere to discipline . Jędrzej Kitowicz who met him as well around that time described him as short and thin , pacing and speaking quickly , and uninterested in women or drinking . Furthermore , he enjoyed fighting against the Russians above everything else , and was daring to the extent he forgot about his safety in battles , resulting in his many failures on the battlefield .
In May 1771 , Pulaski advanced on Zamość , refusing to coordinate an operation with Dumouriez against Alexander Suvorov ; without Pulaski 's support , the Confederates were defeated at the Battle of Lanckorona . Pulaski 's forces were victorious at the Battle of Majdany , and briefly besieged Zamość , but it was relieved by Suvorov . He retreated , suffering major losses , towards Częstochowa . On July 27 , pressured by Franciszka z Krasińskich , he declared he would from then on strictly adhere to orders from the Confederacy that he had previously habitually disregarded . In October his responsibilities in the War Council were increased , and the same month he became involved with the plan to kidnap King Poniatowski . Pulaski was initially opposed to this plan but later supported it on the condition that the king would not be harmed . The attempt failed , weakening the international reputation of the Confederates , and when Pulaski 's involvement with the attempted kidnapping became known , the Austrians expelled him from their territories . He spent the following winter and spring in Częstochowa , during which time several of his followers were defeated , captured or killed .
On May 31 , 1772 , Pulaski , increasingly distanced from other leaders of the Confederation , left the Jasna Góra monastery and went to Silesia in Prussia . In the meantime , the Bar Confederation was defeated , with most fighting ending around the summer . Overall , Pulaski was seen as one of the most famous and accomplished Confederate leaders . " At the same time , he often acted independently , disobeying orders from Confederate command , and among his detractors ( which included Dumouriez ) had a reputation of a " loose cannon " .
Leaving Prussia , Pulaski sought refuge in France , where he unsuccessfully attempted to join the French Army . In 1773 , his opponents in Poland accused him of attempted regicide , and proceedings began at the Sejm Court on June 7 .
Poniatowski himself warned Pulaski to stay away from Poland , or risk death . The court verdict , declared in absentia in July , stripped Pulaski of " all dignity and honors " , demanded that his possessions be confiscated , and sentenced him to death . He attempted to recreate a Confederate force in the Ottoman Empire during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , but before he could make any progress , the Turks were defeated , and he barely escaped by sea to Marseilles , France . He found himself in debt and unable to find an army that would enlist him . He spent the year of 1775 in France , imprisoned at times for debts , until his allies gathered enough funds to arrange for his release . Around that time , due to the efforts of his friend Claude @-@ Carloman de Rulhière , he was recruited by the Marquis de Lafayette and Benjamin Franklin ( whom he met in spring 1777 ) for service in the American Revolutionary War .
= = = In the United States = = =
= = = = Northern front = = = =
Franklin was impressed by Pulaski , and wrote of him : " Countb Pulaski of Poland , an officer famous throughout Europe for his bravery and conduct in defence of the liberties of his country against the three great invading powers of Russia , Austria and Prussia ... may be highly useful to our service . " He subsequently recommended that General George Washington accept Pulaski as a volunteer in the Continental Army cavalry and said that Pulaski " was renowned throughout Europe for the courage and bravery he displayed in defense of his country 's freedom . " Pulaski departed France from Nantes in June , and arrived in Marblehead , Massachusetts , near Boston , on July 23 , 1777 . After his arrival , Pulaski wrote to Washington , " I came here , where freedom is being defended , to serve it , and to live or die for it . "
On August 20 , he met Washington in his headquarters in Neshaminy Falls , outside Philadelphia . He showed off riding stunts , and argued for the superiority of cavalry over infantry . Because Washington was unable to grant him an officer rank , Pulaski spent the next few months traveling between Washington and the US Congress in Philadelphia , awaiting his appointment . His first military engagement against the British occurred before he received it , on September 11 , 1777 , at the Battle of Brandywine . When the Continental Army troops began to yield , he reconnoitered with Washington 's bodyguard of about 30 men , and reported that the enemy were endeavoring to cut off the line of retreat . Washington ordered him to collect , as many as possible , the scattered troops who came his way , and employ them according to his discretion to secure the retreat of the army . His subsequent charge averted a disastrous defeat of the Continental Army cavalry , earning him fame in America and saved the life of George Washington . As a result , on September 15 , 1777 , on the orders of Congress , Washington made Pulaski a brigadier general in the Continental Army cavalry . At that point , the cavalry was only a few hundred men strong organized into four regiments . These men were scattered among numerous infantry formations , and used primarily for scouting duties . Pulaski immediately began work on reforming the cavalry , and wrote the first regulations for the formation .
On September 16 , while on patrol west of Philadelphia , Pulaski spotted significant British forces moving toward the Continental position . Upon being informed by Pulaski , Washington prepared for a battle , but the encounter was interrupted by a major storm before either side was organized . On October 4 , Pulaski took part in the Battle of Germantown . He spent the winter of 1777 to 1778 with most of the army at Valley Forge . Pulaski argued that the military operations should continue through the winter , but this idea was rejected by the general staff . In turn , he focused on reorganizing the cavalry force , mostly stationed in Trenton . While at Trenton his assistance was requested by General Anthony Wayne , whom Washington had dispatched on a foraging expedition into southern New Jersey . Wayne was in danger of encountering a much larger British force sent to oppose his movements . Pulaski and 50 cavalry rode south to Burlington , where they skirmished with British sentries on February 28 . After this minor encounter the British commander , Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Stirling , was apparently convinced that he was facing a much larger force than expected , and prepared to withdraw his troops across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania at Cooper 's Ferry ( present @-@ day Gloucester City ) . Pulaski and Wayne joined forces to attack Stirling 's position on February 29 while he awaited suitable weather conditions to cross . In the resulting skirmish ( which only involved a few hundred men out of the larger forces on either side ) , Pulaski 's horse was shot out from under him and a few of his cavalry were wounded .
American officers serving under Pulaski had difficulty taking orders from a foreigner who could scarcely speak English and whose ideas of discipline and tactics differed enormously from those to which they were accustomed . This resulted in friction between the Americans and Pulaski and his fellow Polish officers . There was also discontent in the unit over delays in pay , and Pulaski 's imperious personality was a regular source of discontent among his peers , superiors , and subordinates . Pulaski was also unhappy that his suggestion to create a lancer unit was denied . Despite a commendation from Wayne , these circumstances prompted Pulaski to resign his general command in March 1778 , and return to Valley Forge .
Pulaski went to Yorktown , where he met with General Horatio Gates and suggested the creation of a new unit . At Gates ' recommendation , Congress confirmed his previous appointment to the rank of a brigadier general , with a special title of " Commander of the Horse " , and authorized the formation of a corps of 68 lancers and 200 light infantry . This corps , which became known as the Pulaski Cavalry Legion , was recruited mainly in Baltimore , where it was headquartered . Henry Wadsworth Longfellow would later commemorate in verse the consecration of the Legion 's banner . By August 1778 , it numbered about 330 men , both Americans and foreigners . General Charles Lee commented on the high standards of the Legion 's training . The " father of the American cavalry " demanded much of his men and trained them in tested cavalry tactics . He used his own personal finances when money from Congress was scarce , in order to assure his forces of the finest equipment and personal safety . However , later that year a controversy arose related to the Legion 's finances , and its requisitions from the local populace . His troubles with the auditors continued until his death ; Pulaski complained that he received inadequate funds , was obstructed by locals and officials , and that he was forced to spend his own money . He was not cleared of these charges until after his death .
In the autumn Pulaski was ordered to Little Egg Harbor , where in the engagement on October 15 , known as The Affair at Little Egg Harbor , the legion suffered heavy losses . During the following winter Pulaski was stationed at Minisink , at that time in New Jersey . Ordered to take part in a punitive Sullivan Expedition against the Iroquois , he was dissatisfied with this command , and intended to leave the service and return to Europe , but instead asked to be reassigned to the Southern front . On February 2 , 1779 Washington instead ordered him to South Carolina .
= = = = Southern front = = = =
Pulaski arrived in Charleston on May 8 , 1779 , finding the city in crisis . General Benjamin Lincoln , commander of the southern army , had led most of the army toward Augusta , Georgia , in a bid to recapture Savannah , which had been captured by the British in late 1778 . The British commander , Brigadier General Augustine Prevost , responded to Lincoln 's move by launching a raiding expedition from Savannah across the Savannah River . The South Carolina militia fell back before the British advance , and Prevost 's force followed them all the way to Charleston . Pulaski arrived just as military leaders were establishing the city 's defenses . When the British advanced on May 11 , Pulaski 's Legion engaged forward elements of the British force , and was badly mauled in the encounter . The Legion infantry , numbering only about 60 men before the skirmish , was virtually wiped out , and Pulaski was forced to retreat to the safety of the city 's guns . Although some historians credit this action with Prevost 's decision to withdraw back toward Savannah the next day ( despite ongoing negotiations of a possible surrender of Charleston ) , that decision is more likely based on news Prevost received that Lincoln 's larger force was returning to Charleston to face him , and that Prevost 's troops had gone further than he had originally intended . One early historian criticized Pulaski 's actions during that engagement as " ill @-@ judged , ill @-@ conducted , disgraceful and disastrous " . The episode was of minor strategic consequence and did little to enhance the reputation of Pulaski 's unit .
Although Pulaski frequently suffered from malaria while stationed in Charleston , he remained in active service . At the beginning of September Lincoln prepared to launch an attempt to retake Savannah with French assistance . Pulaski was ordered to Augusta , where he was to join forces with General Lachlan McIntosh . Their combined forces were to serve as the forward elements of Lincoln 's army . Pulaski captured a British outpost near Ogeechee River . His units then acted as an advance guard for the allied French units under Admiral Charles Hector , comte d 'Estaing . He rendered great services during the siege of Savannah , and in the assault of October 9 commanded the whole cavalry , both French and American .
= = = Death and burial = = =
While attempting to rally fleeing French forces during a cavalry charge , Pulaski was mortally wounded by grapeshot . The reported grapeshot is on display today at the Georgia Historical Society in Savannah ; The Charleston Museum also has a grapeshot reported to be from Pulaski 's wound . A wounded Pulaski was carried from the field of battle and taken aboard the South Carolina merchant brig privateer Wasp under the command of Captain Samuel Bulfinch , where he died two days later , having never regained consciousness . His death , perceived by American Patriot supporters as heroic , further boosted his reputation in America .
The historical accounts for Pulaski 's time and place of burial vary considerably . According to several contemporary accounts there were witnesses , including Pulaski 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp , that Pulaski received a symbolic burial in Charleston on October 21 , sometime after he was buried at sea . Other witnesses , including Captain Samuel Bulfinch of the Wasp however , claimed that the wounded Pulaski was actually later removed from the ship and taken to the Greenwich plantation in the town of Thunderbolt , near Savannah , where he died and was buried .
In March 1825 , during his grand tour of the United States , Lafayette personally laid the cornerstone for the Casimir Pulaski Monument in Savannah , Georgia . Remains at Monterey Square in that city , alleged to be Pulaski 's , were exhumed in 1996 and examined in a forensic study . The eight @-@ year examination , including DNA analysis , ended inconclusively , although the skeleton is consistent with Pulaski 's age and occupation . A healed wound on the skull 's forehead is consistent with historical records of an injury Pulaski sustained in battle , as is a bone defect on the left cheekbone , believed to have been caused by a benign tumor . The remains were reinterred with military honors in 2005 .
= = Tributes and commemoration = =
The United States has long commemorated Pulaski 's contributions to the American Revolutionary War , and already on October 29 , 1779 , the United States Congress passed a resolution that a monument should be dedicated to him , but the first monument to him was not built until 1854 . A bust of Pulaski was added to a collection of other busts of American heroes at United States Capitol in 1867 . On May 11 , 1910 , US President William Taft revealed a Congress @-@ sponsored General Casimir Pulaski statue . In 1929 , Congress passed another resolution , this one recognizing October 11 of each year as " General Pulaski Memorial Day " , with a large parade held annually on Fifth Avenue in New York City . Separately , a Casimir Pulaski Day is celebrated in Illinois and some other places on the first Monday of each March . After a previous attempt failed , Congress passed a joint resolution conferring honorary U.S. citizenship on Pulaski in 2009 , sending it to President Barack Obama for approval . He duly signed it on November 6 , 2009 , making Pulaski the seventh person so honored .
In Poland , in 1793 Pulaski 's relative , Antoni Pułaski , obtained a cancellation of his brother 's sentence from 1773 . He has been mentioned in the literary works of numerous Polish authors , including Adam Mickiewicz , Juliusz Słowacki and Józef Ignacy Kraszewski . Adolf Nowaczyński wrote a drama " Pułaski w Ameryce " ( Pulaski in America ) in 1917 . A museum dedicated to Pulaski , the Kazimierz Pułaski Museum , opened in Warka in 1967 .
Throughout Poland and the United States , people have celebrated anniversaries of Pulaski 's birth and death , and there exist numerous objects of art such as paintings and statues of him . In 1879 , to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his death , Henri Schoeller composed " A Pulaski March " . Twenty years earlier , Eduard Sobolewski composed his opera , " Mohega " , about the last days of Pulaski 's life . Commemorative medals and stamps of Pulaski have been issued . Several towns and counties in United States are named after him , as are numerous streets , parks and structures , such as the Pulaski Bridge or the Pulaski Skyway . There is also a number of educational , academic , and Polish @-@ American institutions named after him . A US Navy submarine , USS Casimir Pulaski , has been named for him , as was a 19th @-@ century United States Revenue Cutter Service cutter . A Polish frigate , ORP Generał Kazimierz Pułaski , is also named after Pulaski . Fort Pulaski , active during the American Civil War , is named in honor of Casimir Pulaski . A statue commemorating Pulaski titled General Casimir Pulaski stands at the eastern end of Freedom Plaza in Washington , D.C. There is an equestrian statue of Pulaski in Roger Williams Park in Providence , Rhode Island . A statue by Granville W. Carter depicting Pulaski on a rearing horse signaling a forward charge with a sword in his right hand is erected in Hartford , Connecticut .
Polish historian Władysław Konopczyński , who wrote a monograph on Pulaski in 1931 , noted that he was one of the most accomplished Polish people , grouping him with other Polish military heroes such as Tadeusz Kościuszko , Stanisław Żółkiewski , Stefan Czarniecki , and Prince Józef Poniatowski .
" The Mysterious Stranger " , a 1959 episode of the ABC / Warner Brothers western television series Sugarfoot , features Adam West as Frederick Pulaski , a declared descendant of the Casimir Pulaski . However , Pulaski never married or had direct heirs . In the story line , Frederick Pulaski is a concert pianist who defends oppressed Polish miners in a western town . Series character Tom " Sugarfoot Brewster ( Will Hutchins ) , befriends Pulaski in a legal hearing and reconciles him with the young woman to whom both are smitten , Kathy O 'Hara ( Sue Randall ) , who is also studying to be a concert pianist . Karl Swenson appears in this episode as Kathy 's wealthy Irish father , Dennis O 'Hara .
= = In popular culture = =
In the Season 3 episode of The West Wing entitled " Stirred " , Pulaski is mentioned , and US President Jed Bartlett describes him as " a Polish Brigadier General who vanquished the Russian and Prussian military , then came to the colonies and commanded our cavalry during the American Revolution " .
There is a statue of Pulaski in the fictional town of Stars Hollow from the TV series Gilmore Girls .
Singer @-@ songwriter Sufjan Stevens wrote a song entitled " Casimir Pulaski Day " on his Illinois album .
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= 6th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 6th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . Originally formed in 1914 for service during the First World War , the battalion fought at Gallipoli and on the Western Front . The battalion was disbanded in 1919 but was re @-@ raised in 1921 as part of the Citizens Force , and adopted the title of " Royal Melbourne Regiment " in 1935 . The battalion did not serve overseas during the Second World War and was eventually disbanded in 1944 . It was re @-@ raised in 1948 and remained in existence until 1960 when it was absorbed into the Royal Victoria Regiment . Today its honours and traditions are maintained by the 5th / 6th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = First World War = = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War , the decision was made to raise an all volunteer force outside of the existing Citizens Force units for overseas service known as the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . The 6th Battalion was completely recruited from Victoria , drawing from Melbourne and the surrounding suburbs to the north where four Citizens Force battalions — the 55th , 56th , 63rd and 64th Infantry — were headquartered . Raising was complete within a fortnight of the outbreak of the war in August 1914 and less than two months later the battalion embarked for overseas on the troop transport Suffolk , forming part of the 2nd Brigade , 1st Division .
The battalion proceeded to Egypt , arriving on 2 December and after a period of training it took part in the Landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915 , where it went ashore as part of the second wave . Shortly after the landing the 2nd Brigade was transferred from Anzac Cove to Cape Helles to assist in the attack on Krithia . During the unsuccessful attack , the 6th Battalion suffered heavy casualties , losing 133 men killed or died of wounds . Afterwards , they returned to Anzac Cove , arriving there on 17 May , to take part in defending the beachhead that had been established . In August , when the Allies attempted a break out , the battalion took part in the attack on Lone Pine . In September they were withdrawn for a period of rest to Lemnos . They returned in November and resumed defensive duties . By that time , due to the failure of August Offensive , the campaign evolved into a stalemate . They remained in the line December , when the Allies carried out a successful evacuation . During the campaign they lost 22 officers and 398 other ranks killed .
After the withdrawal from Gallipoli , the battalion returned to Egypt where they received reinforcements and carried out defensive duties . During this time the AIF was reorganised and expanded as fresh divisions were raised . In order to spread experience across the new units , the existing units were split up and the 6th Battalion provided half its experienced officers and non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) to the 58th Battalion . In March 1916 , it sailed to France and deployed to the Somme , where it was sent to a quiet sector near Fleurbaix . Its first combat came on 12 June when the battalion launched a trench raid on the Germans opposite their position . Their first major action in France came later , however , at Pozières in July 1916 , during which time they lost 102 men killed . Later the battalion fought at Ypres , in Belgium , before returning to the Somme in winter , during which time they undertook defensive duties as well as patrols into no man 's land . After this the battalion took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt , before taking part in the Battle of Menin Road in September 1917 , when Lieutenant Frederick Birks earned the 6th Battalion 's only Victoria Cross .
In March and April 1918 , the battalion took part in the defensive actions in response to the German spring offensive , before subsequently taking part in the Allied Hundred Days Offensive , launched near Amiens on 8 August 1918 . The 6th Battalion joined the advance the following day , striking out from Villers @-@ Bretonneux and taking part in the capture of Lihons . The battalion continued operations to late September 1918 , taking part in the advance towards Herleville , but was then withdrawn from the line for rest and reorganisation and did not see any further combat . In November , the members of the battalion began being repatriated back to Australia as the demobilisation process began . The process was undertaken gradually based upon length of service and as the battalion 's numbers began to dwindle it was amalgamated with the 7th Battalion in March 1919 . Later , this battalion was also amalgamated with the 5th and 8th Battalions , to form the 2nd Brigade Battalion .
During the war the 6th Battalion lost 1 @,@ 066 killed and 2 @,@ 017 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Victoria Cross , one Order of St Michael and St George , five Distinguished Service Orders with one bar , 31 Military Crosses with two bars , 34 Distinguished Conduct Medals , 127 Military Medals with nine bars , nine Meritorious Service Medals , 48 Mentioned in Despatches and 13 foreign awards .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
In 1921 , the decision was made to perpetuate the numerical designations and battle honours of the AIF by re @-@ raising the AIF units as part of the Citizens Force . This was done by reorganising the existing Citizens Forces units so that they would adopt the identity of the AIF units that had been recruited within their regions and in which many of the pre @-@ war citizen soldiers had served . This was designed so as to maintain the regional identity of the Citizens Forces units , as well as the honours and traditions of the AIF units . In this time the 6th Battalion was re @-@ raised from personnel drawn from six existing units : all of the 2nd Battalion , 6th Infantry Regiment ; as well as part of the 29th Light Horse Regiment ; the 2nd Battalion , 46th Infantry Regiment ; the 2nd Battalion , 60th Infantry Regiment ; the 5th Battalion , 5th Infantry Regiment and the 5th Battalion , 21st Infantry Regiment . Through these units , the battalion gained a complex lineage , including that of the 64th Infantry , a unit that could trace its lineage back to 1854 and claimed to be the oldest infantry unit in Australia .
Initially attached to the 2nd Infantry Brigade , 4th Division , in 1927 , when territorial titles were adopted by the Army , the battalion adopted the title of 6th Battalion , City of Melbourne Regiment . It also adopted the motto Semper Parartus at this time . In 1929 , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , the compulsory training scheme was abolished and in its place a new system was introduced whereby the Citizens Forces would be maintained on a part @-@ time , voluntary basis only . It was also renamed the " Militia " at this time . The decision to suspend compulsory training , coupled with the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower of many Militia units dropped considerably and as a result the decision was made to amalgamate a number of units . Nevertheless , the 6th Battalion was not affected by this decision and in 1931 it formed an alliance with the Royal Fusiliers . In 1935 , the battalion was re @-@ designated as the " Royal Melbourne Regiment " . This title was officially approved on King George V 's jubilee and was a unique honour , as the battalion was at the time the only Australian infantry unit to carry the Royal prefix .
= = = Second World War = = =
At the outset of the Second World War , due to the provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) which prohibited sending the Militia to fight outside of Australian territory , The decision was made to raise an all volunteer force to serve overseas — initial operations were conceived to be likely in the Middle East , France and later possibly England — while it was decided that the Militia would be used to defend the Australian mainland and to improve Australia 's overall level of readiness through the reinstitution of compulsory military service and extended periods of continuous periods of training . During this time the 6th Battalion was called up for a number of periods of continuous service in order to bolster their readiness and undertook garrison duties in Australia . In 1944 , however , the decision was made to disband the unit , as the Australian government sought to reallocate resources to the economy and began the demobilisation process early . Later , in January 1945 , the battalion 's parent unit , the 2nd Brigade was also disbanded .
= = = Post Second World War = = =
In 1948 , with the completion of the demobilisation process , the Citizens Force was re @-@ raised as the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , which was established on a restricted establishment of two divisions . As a part of this force , it was announced on 1 May 1948 that the 6th Battalion , Royal Melbourne Regiment would be re @-@ raised . Two companies were formed in Melbourne along with battalion headquarters , while depots were located at Carlton and Preston . It was also decided that the battalion would perpetuate the battle honours of the 2 / 6th Battalion , which had fought in North Africa , Greece and New Guinea during the war . Waltzing Matilda was approved as the battalion 's regimental march in 1953 .
In mid @-@ 1960 , the Australian Army adopted the Pentropic divisional structure , which was based on the establishment of five @-@ company battalions . The result of this was a reduction in the number of CMF units , many of which were merged to form new units on the Pentropic establishment . At the same time , it was decided to amalgamate the old local and regional regiments that had existed into six new multi @-@ battalion state @-@ based regiments , such as the Royal Victoria Regiment . As a result of these changes , in July the 6th Battalion was merged with the 5th Battalion and the 58th / 32nd Battalion to form the 1st Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment ( 1 RVR ) ; within this organisation the 6th Battalion 's identity was maintained by ' C ' ( Melbourne ) Company . Prior to this , in March , the battalion had received the Freedom of the City from the City of Melbourne .
In 1965 , the Pentropic system was abandoned and a further re @-@ organisation of the CMF was undertaken as existing battalions were reduced and additional battalions were raised in the more populous areas , namely in Queensland , Victoria and New South Wales . At the same time , the concerns about the regional identity of these units were addressed by reintroducing the old numerical designations . As a result , the large Pentropic battalions were split up once again and the 6th Battalion once again was raised as a full battalion , known as the 6th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment . In July 1975 , due to declining troop numbers further reorganisation resulted in the amalgamation of the 5th and 6th Battalions once more , albeit under the guise of the 1st Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment ( 1 RVR ) . This lasted until August 1982 when due to concerns about the strategic situation following the Russian invasion of Afghanistan , the Australian government announced the expansion of the CMF and decided to raise another battalion in Victoria . This battalion was the 5th / 6th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment ( 5 / 6 RVR ) and by mid @-@ 1981 , 1 RVR had reached peak strength and the following year the battalion was split to form the new 5 / 6 RVR , a unit which remains in existence today and maintains the battle honours and traditions of its predecessor AIF and Militia units .
= = Alliances = =
United Kingdom – Royal Fusiliers .
= = Battle honours = =
The 6th Battalion was awarded the following battle honours :
Second Boer War : South Africa 1899 – 1902 .
First World War : Somme 1916 – 18 , Pozières , Bullecourt , Ypres 1917 , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Lys , Hazebrouck , Amiens , Albert 1918 , Hindenburg Line , Epehy , France and Flanders 1916 – 18 , Helles , Krithia , ANZAC , Landing at ANZAC , Defence at ANZAC , Suvla , Sari Bair , Gallipoli 1915 , Egypt 1915 – 16 .
Second World War : North Africa , Bardia 1941 , Capture of Tobruk , Greece 1941 , South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 45 , Wau , Lababia Ridge , Bobdubi II , Mubo II , Komiatum , Liberation of Australian New Guinea , Maprik , Yamil – Ulupu , Kaboibus – Kiarivu .
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= Henry Cornelius Burnett =
Henry Cornelius Burnett ( October 25 , 1825 – October 1 , 1866 ) was a U.S. Representative from the state of Kentucky and a Confederate States senator . A lawyer by profession , Burnett had held only one public office — circuit court clerk — before being elected to Congress . He represented Kentucky 's 1st congressional district immediately prior to the Civil War . This district contained the entire Jackson Purchase region of the state , which was more sympathetic to the Confederate cause than any other area of Kentucky . Burnett promised the voters of his district that he would have President Abraham Lincoln arraigned for treason . Unionist newspaper editor George D. Prentice described Burnett as " a big , burly , loud @-@ mouthed fellow who is forever raising points of order and objections , to embarrass the Republicans in the House " .
Besides championing the Southern cause in Congress , Burnett also worked within Kentucky to bolster the state 's support of the Confederacy . He presided over a sovereignty convention in Russellville in 1861 that formed a Confederate government for the state . The delegates to this convention chose Burnett to travel to Richmond , Virginia to secure Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy . Burnett also raised a Confederate regiment at Hopkinsville , Kentucky , and briefly served in the Confederate States Army . Camp Burnett , a Confederate recruiting post two miles west of Clinton in Hickman County , Kentucky , was named after him .
Burnett 's actions were deemed treasonable by his colleagues in Congress , and he was expelled from the House in 1861 . He is one of only five members of the House of Representatives ever to be expelled . Following his expulsion , Burnett served in the Provisional Confederate Congress and the First and Second Confederate Senates . He was indicted for treason after the war , but never tried . He returned to the practice of law , and died of cholera in 1866 at the age of 40 .
= = Early life and political career = =
Henry Cornelius Burnett was born to Dr. Isaac and Martha F. ( Garrett ) Burnett on October 25 , 1825 , in Essex County , Virginia . In his early childhood , he moved to Cadiz , Kentucky , with his family . He was educated in the common schools of the area and at an academy in Hopkinsville , Kentucky . Following this , he studied law , was admitted to the bar in 1847 , and commenced practice at Cadiz . He was a member of the Cadiz Christian Church .
On April 13 , 1847 , Burnett married Mary A. Terry , the daughter of a prominent Cadiz merchant . They had four children : John , Emeline , Henry , and Terry ( who died shortly after birth ) . The younger Henry Burnett became a successful lawyer in Paducah and , later , Louisville .
In the first election following the ratification of the Kentucky Constitution of 1850 , Burnett was elected clerk of the circuit court of Trigg County , Kentucky , defeating James E. Thompson . He resigned in 1853 to run for Congress . Later that year , he was elected as a Democrat to the 34th Congress , succeeding Speaker of the House Linn Boyd . He was re @-@ elected to the three succeeding Congresses ; during the 35th Congress , he chaired the Committee of Enquiry regarding the sale of Fort Snelling and served on the Committee on the District of Columbia .
= = Outset of the Civil War = =
Burnett supported fellow Kentuckian John C. Breckinridge for president in the 1860 presidential election , but Breckinridge lost to Abraham Lincoln . Lincoln had campaigned against the expansion of slavery beyond the states in which it already existed . His victory in the election resulted in seven Southern states declaring their secession from the Union . Despite this , most Americans believed the Union could still be saved . Burnett , however , disagreed . In the January 7 , 1861 issue of Paducah 's Tri @-@ Weekly Herald , he declared , " There is not the slightest hope of any settlement or adjustment of existing troubles . " Despite his pessimism , Burnett endorsed the ill @-@ fated Peace Conference of 1861 .
Following the rapid secessions of Mississippi , Florida , Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , and Texas , Congress began preparing the nation for war , including by strengthening the army and navy and raising funds for the treasury . Burnett attempted to circumvent these measures by proposing an amendment stipulating that none of these new appropriations could be used to subdue or make war against any of the southern states , but the amendment was defeated .
To avert war then , the Kentucky General Assembly called for a meeting of border states to convene in Frankfort on May 27 . Kentucky 's twelve delegates to the convention were to be chosen by special election on May 4 . However , after the Confederates fired on Fort Sumter on April 12 , the secessionist candidates withdrew from the election . Expressing the view of the majority of these delegates , Burnett opined in the Tri @-@ Weekly Herald that the convention would not occur . He was wrong ; the convention was held as scheduled , but it failed to accomplish anything of significance .
= = Special congressional elections of 1861 = =
President Lincoln called for special congressional elections to be held in Kentucky in June 1861 . The voters of the First District 's Southern Rights party called a meeting to be held May 29 , 1861 at the Graves County courthouse in Mayfield . The purpose of the meeting was ostensibly to re @-@ nominate Burnett for his congressional seat , but some Unionists believed an ulterior motive was in play . George D. Prentice , editor of the Unionist Louisville Journal , wrote on May 21 , 1861 that " the object of [ the Mayfield Convention ] , though not officially explained , is believed to be the separation of the First District from Kentucky if Kentucky remains in the Union , and its annexation to Tennessee " .
Most of the records of the Mayfield Convention were lost , presumably in a fire that destroyed the courthouse in 1864 . The most extensive surviving record comes from the notes of James Beadles , a Unionist observer of the proceedings . After a number of speeches were delivered , a majority committee chaired by Paducah circuit judge James Campbell presented a report containing seven resolutions . The resolutions declared the region 's sympathy with the South , although it pledged to abide by Kentucky 's present policy of neutrality . It condemned President Lincoln for waging an unjust war , and praised Governor Beriah Magoffin for refusing Lincoln 's call for troops . The report also condemned the federal government for arming Union sympathizers in the state with so @-@ called " Lincoln guns " . A minority committee report was given by Ballard County resident and future U.S. Representative Oscar Turner . This report called Kentucky 's neutrality " futile " and " cowardly , " promised to fight off any invasion by the North , and recommended calling for aid from Tennessee and the Confederate States in the event of such an invasion . It further warned that if the entire state did not adopt this position , the Purchase region would secede and align itself with Tennessee .
Burnett , along with Lyon County 's Willis B. Machen and Union County 's Benjamin P. Cissell , initially endorsed Campbell 's majority report . After some debate , Burnett proposed four resolutions in lieu of both reports . The resolutions condemned President Lincoln for the war against the South and the federal government for the provision of the " Lincoln guns " . They also praised Governor Magoffin for rebuffing Lincoln 's call for troops and encouraged him to drive away any Union invasion of the state . Burnett 's resolutions were passed by large margins in preference to both the majority and minority reports .
Finally , the convention turned to the issue of nominating Burnett . Four others , including Turner , Machen , and Cissell , were also offered as nominees . Burnett received 124 of 155 votes on the first ballot and was chosen unanimously on the second ballot . In his acceptance speech , Burnett declared that he was undecided as to whether he would take the oath of office if elected . This statement alluded to an earlier comment by Turner that " no man who is engaged in the cause of the South could go to Congress and take the oath of office without perjuring himself . " Burnett promised that if he did assume his seat , he was determined to arraign President Lincoln for treason .
In the special elections , Burnett defeated Lawrence Trimble of Paducah . He was the only states ' rights candidate elected in the statewide canvass . He won handily in the Jackson Purchase region , which was by far the most pro @-@ Southern area of the state . However , outside the Purchase , he won only his home county of Trigg , and that by a slim margin of 20 votes . ( Besides the Purchase counties , the First District also included Caldwell , Crittenden , Hopkins , Livingston , Lyon , Trigg , Union , and Webster counties . )
Burnett took his seat in the 37th Congress ; sources make no mention of his making good on his threat not to take the oath of office . Just days after the First Battle of Bull Run , Burnett 's fellow Kentuckian , John J. Crittenden proposed a resolution blaming the war on the disloyal Southerners and defining the war 's aim as preservation of the Union without interference in the rights or institutions of the states . Burnett asked that the question be divided . His request was granted , but he only found one colleague willing to vote with him against blaming Southerners for the war .
= = Confederate military service and expulsion = =
After Congress adjourned on August 6 , 1861 , Burnett returned home to Cadiz and spoke at a number of pro @-@ Southern rallies . On September 4 , 1861 , Confederate Major General Leonidas Polk violated Kentucky 's neutrality by ordering Brigadier General Gideon Johnson Pillow to occupy Columbus . In response , Ulysses S. Grant captured Paducah on September 6 , 1861 . With neutrality no longer a tenable option , Burnett presided over a conference of Kentucky 's Southern sympathizers that occurred at Russellville between October 29 and October 31 , 1861 . The self @-@ appointed delegates to this conference called for a sovereignty convention on November 18 , 1861 for the purpose of establishing a Confederate government for the state .
In the interim between the two conventions , Burnett traveled to Hopkinsville , where he and Colonel W.C.P. Breckinridge raised a Confederate regiment dubbed the 8th Kentucky Infantry . On November 11 , 1861 , Burnett himself enlisted in the Confederate States Army at Camp Alcorn ; he was chosen as colonel of the 8th Kentucky , but never took command .
The sovereignty convention gathered at the William Forst House in Russellville as scheduled on November 18 , 1861 . Burnett also presided over this convention . Fearing for the safety of the delegates , he first proposed postponing proceedings until January 8 , 1862 , but Scott County 's George W. Johnson convinced the majority of the delegates to continue . By the third day , the military situation was so tenuous that the entire convention had to be moved to a tower on the campus of Bethel Female College , a now @-@ defunct institution in Russellville .
The convention passed an ordinance of secession and established a provisional Confederate government for Kentucky . Burnett , William Preston of Fayette County and William E. Simms of Bourbon County were chosen as commissioners for the provisional government and were dispatched to Richmond , Virginia to negotiate with Confederate President Jefferson Davis to secure Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy . For reasons unexplained by the delegates , Dr. Luke P. Blackburn , a native Kentuckian living in Mississippi , was invited to accompany the commissioners . Despite the fact that Kentucky 's elected government in Frankfort had opposed secession , the commissioners convinced Davis to recommend Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy ; the Confederate Congress officially admitted Kentucky on December 10 , 1861 .
Following his successful mission to Richmond , Burnett joined the 8th Kentucky at Fort Donelson . On February 16 , 1862 , Ulysses S. Grant led a combined Federal army @-@ navy attack against the fort . Most of the Confederate garrison was captured , including the 8th Kentucky , but Burnett escaped in General John B. Floyd 's retreat following the defeat . This battle ended Burnett 's military service .
Burnett 's subversive activities did not go unnoticed by his colleagues in Congress . He was absent when the body reconvened December 2 , 1861 . The following day , Indiana representative W. McKee Dunn introduced a resolution to expel Burnett from Congress . The resolution passed easily , removing Burnett from the seat he had occupied continuously since 1855 .
= = Confederate political service = =
Burnett represented Kentucky in the Provisional Confederate Congress from November 18 , 1861 to February 17 , 1862 , and served as a member of that body 's Finance Committee . He was then elected as a senator to the First and Second Confederate Congresses , serving from February 19 , 1862 to February 18 , 1865 . In the Confederate Senate , he served on the Engrossment and Enrollment and Military Affairs Committees .
On March 29 , Confederate president Jefferson Davis called on the Confederate Congress to pass a conscription bill . The bill would require a three @-@ year term of service for all able @-@ bodied white men between the ages of 18 and 35 . At first , the bill was unpopular , but as the military situation grew more desperate for the Confederacy , both houses quickly passed it . Still , the measure caused some to question Davis ' military decisions ; among them was Burnett , usually one of Davis ' staunchest allies . In an April 19 , 1862 address to the legislature , Burnett denounced Davis ' preference for those who were , like Davis himself , graduates of West Point . The speech drew such a vigorous positive response from the gallery that some of the most zealous had to be removed .
Following the conclusion of the Civil War , Burnett sought an audience with President Andrew Johnson , an old congressional colleague , but Johnson told him to go home . Burnett was indicted for treason at Louisville , but released on bond and never prosecuted . He partnered with Judge John R. Grace and resumed the practice of law in Cadiz . He died of cholera in Hopkinsville on September 28 , 1866 . Initially buried in the Old Cadiz Cemetery , he was moved to the East End Cemetery in Cadiz . His tombstone bears no mention of his Confederate service .
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= Business routes of U.S. Route 127 in Michigan =
There have been 10 business routes of US Highway 127 in the state of Michigan . The business routes are all sections of state trunkline highway that run through the central business districts of their respective towns connecting them to the mainline highway outside of those downtown areas . These various business routes were formerly part of the routing of US Highway 127 ( US 127 ) or its predecessor in Central Michigan , US 27 before the construction of highway bypasses . The southern two , in Jackson and Mason were previously parts of US 127 , while seven of the northern eight ( Lansing , St. Johns , Ithaca , St. Louis , Mount Pleasant , Clare and Harrison ) were originally part of US 27 , a highway which was replaced on its northern end by US 127 in 2002 . The business loop through Alma was once numbered US 27A .
In the late 1920s , US 27 was shifted to run through St. Louis instead of Alma , and the former route was renumbered US 27A . US 127 was realigned near Mason in the mid @-@ 1940s , and a business loop was created out of the former routing there . A similar bypass of Jackson in the late 1950s also spawned a business loop . In the early 1960s , a new expressway ( later freeway ) for US 27 through Central Michigan led to the creation of several business loops . Other bypasses opened in the 1980s and 1990s and created the last two business loops . The 2002 extension of US 127 to replace US 27 also led to the redesignation of business loops to their current monikers .
= = Jackson = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop of US 127 through Jackson that is wholly concurrent with M @-@ 50 . Its southern end is at an interchange in a rural section of Summit Township . From exit 34 on US 127 , the business loop runs north and northwesterly , crossing the Grand River . North of the river , the roadway is bounded by businesses as it runs along Cooper Street through residential areas on the southeastern side of Jackson . In the downtown area , Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 merges with Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) and splits to follow a one @-@ way pairing of streets that form a loop through downtown . Northbound traffic continues along the eastern side of this loop on Cooper Street and crosses the Grand River again . At the intersection with Michigan Avenue , BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 turns westward onto Louis Glick Highway around the northern side of downtown . The business loop crosses the Grand River a third and final time along Louis Glick . On the western side of downtown , the business loop angles southwesterly as Louis Glick Highway merges into Michigan Avenue . ( At the same time , the southern half of the one @-@ way loop , Washington Street , also splits from Michigan Avenue . ) BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 follows Michigan Avenue westward through residential neighborhoods to an intersection with West Avenue , where Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 turns northward , separating from BL I @-@ 94 ( Michigan Avenue ) . As the business loop approaches its parent highway , it transitions into a commercial area . The northern terminus of Bus . US 127 is at the same interchange northwest of Jackson in Blackman Township where the US 127 and I @-@ 94 freeways merge .
Jackson was first bypassed on its eastern side around 1959 with a new US 127 freeway . At that time , the former routing of US 127 through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 127 . In 1964 , several changes were made to the business routes in downtown Jackson . Southbound Bus . US 127 traffic was shifted off Michigan Avenue along Blackstone Street to Washington Avenue , and from there it ran along Washington to Francis Street and back to Michigan Avenue . The northbound traffic was shifted north at Mechanic Street to Pearl Street , continuing until turning south at Blackstone back to Michigan Avenue . The eastern end was updated further in 1968 to use Louis Glick Highway to connect to the northern half of the loop around downtown to Michigan Avenue . A set of connector streets on the western side of the downtown loop opened in November 1969 to streamline the flow of traffic further resulting in the last changes to the BL I @-@ 94 routing in Jackson . Southbound traffic was redirected to the connector on Michigan Avenue just east of Third Street . This connector curved south then east to Washington Avenue near First Street . Louis Glick Highway was extended west from Blackstone curving south to merge into Michigan .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Jackson County .
= = Mason = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) was a business loop that ran through downtown Mason . It started at an intersection on the southern edge of the city where US 127 split from Hull Road to bypass downtown Mason to the west . From there , the business loop ran northward along Hull Road , becoming Jefferson Street . At the intersection with M @-@ 36 ( Ash Street ) , Bus . US 127 turned westward and ran concurrently with M @-@ 36 . After four blocks and a crossing of the Sycamore Creek , Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 36 turned northward on Cedar Street to Columbia Avenue and then turned westward along Columbia to an intersection with US 127 west of downtown .
The state bypassed Mason around 1946 , building a new highway to the west of downtown , and the former route of US 127 through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 127 . This business loop existed until 1964 . At that time , the bypass around Mason was upgraded to a full freeway with an interchange at Cedar Street northwest of downtown . Two segments of highway were turned over to local control at this time : the southern half of Bus . US 127 along Hull Road and Jefferson Street as well as the section of Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 36 along Columbia Avenue . M @-@ 36 was extended northward along Cedar Street to the new interchange , and the Bus . US 127 designation was decommissioned .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Mason , Ingham County .
= = Lansing = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business route in Lansing that is unsigned . The trunkline starts at an intersection with Business Loop Interstate 96 ( BL I @-@ 96 ) at the corner of Cedar and North streets in the northern part of the city . Marked as Old US 27 on maps , the business route follows Cedar Street northeasterly and transitions onto East Street . The highway runs through residential areas on the north side of Lansing . Along the route of Bus . US 127 , the highway is immediately bounded by some commercial businesses . At Sheridan Road , the highway crosses from Ingham County into Clinton County and continues as a road named Old US 27 . Bus . US 127 continues through suburban southern Clinton County , still bordered by businesses and residential neighborhoods , northward to an interchange with I @-@ 69 in DeWitt Township .
In 1984 , part of the northern freeway bypass of Lansing opened as I @-@ 69 . At that time , US 27 was rerouted to follow the new freeway . The former routing of US 27 through downtown Lansing was redesignated Bus . US 27 as a business loop along Lansing Road , I @-@ 496 and BL I @-@ 96 at this time . Eight years later , the last section of I @-@ 69 was completed in Michigan . Afterwards , Bus . US 27 was truncated to the interchange between BL I @-@ 96 / Capitol Loop and I @-@ 496 , and the state reconfigured it into a business spur into downtown Lansing from the north .
In 1999 , MDOT petitioned the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state . However , unlike the other new Bus . US 127s , this one had no connection to US 127 , its new parent highway . MDOT has retained the business route as an unsigned trunkline designation ever since .
Major intersections
= = St. Johns = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) starts at the Price Road interchange along US 127 south of St. Johns . From here , Bus . US 127 follows Price Road to the former US 27 and turns north along South Old US 27 . In the city of St Johns , it is known as Whittemore Street and intersects M @-@ 21 ( State Street ) . Bus . US 127 continues north on North Old US 27 to its northern terminus . The northern terminus of Bus . US 127 nearly coincides with the northern end of the existing US 127 freeway in Clinton County . Approximately one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of the Bus . US 127 interchange north of St. Johns , the US 127 freeway merges back onto its former alignment to proceed northerly into Gratiot County .
The St. Johns Bypass on US 27 opened on August 31 , 1998 , and the former route of the highway through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 27 afterward . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state to reflect the new parent highway designation .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Clinton County .
= = Ithaca = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop that runs from an interchange on US 127 on the southern Ithaca city limits through downtown and back to the freeway north of the city . The southern end is at exit 117 on US 127 , and from there , the business loop runs westward along Center Street through a cluster of businesses adjacent to the freeway interchange . Further west , Bus . US 127 passes through residential neighborhoods to enter downtown Ithaca . At Main Street , the business loop turns northward one block to Emerson , then turns westward one block along Emerson to Pine River Street , bypassing downtown Ithaca . From there , Bus . US 127 turns northward along the former route of US 27 through town . North of downtown , the highway passes through another residential area before exiting Ithaca . North of town , the business loop passes a golf course before turning eastward a short distance along Polk Road to connect to the freeway .
An expressway through Gratiot County opened in late 1961 , and US 27 was rerouted to follow it , bypassing Ithaca to the east . The former route of US 27 along Center and Pine River streets in Ithaca was designated Bus . US 27 at this time . On April 26 , 1973 , the state transferred control over one block of Center Street west of Main Street and one block of Pine River Street south of Emerson Street . At the same time , the city transferred control of one block each of Main and Emerson streets . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state to reflect the new parent highway designation .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Gratiot County .
= = Alma = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop through Alma . The highway starts at a partial interchange for exit 123 on US 127 in a rural area east of Alma . There are a few businesses adjacent to the interchange and an intersection with State Road , which provides access to another partial interchange with US 127 as well as the Bus . US 127 for St. Louis . Continuing westward along Lincoln Road , the landscape along the southern leg of Bus . US 127 comprises farm land . Once the highway enters Alma , the street name changes to Superior Street . Bus . US 127 crosses the Pine River and runs through residential neighborhoods on the eastern side of Alma before entering the downtown area . At an intersection with Wright Avenue to the east of the campus of Alma College , Bus . US 127 turns northward . North of downtown , the business loop crosses another residential area before passed the hospital and more commercial properties . In Pine River Township north of the city , Bus . US 127 intersects M @-@ 46 ( Monroe Road ) . M @-@ 46 connects the Alma business loop to the St. Louis business loop and a partial interchange with US 127 , while the Alma business loop continues less than half a mile ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) to the partial interchange with US 127 that serves as the business loop 's northern terminus .
When the state highway system was initially signposted in 1919 , the highway running north south through the Alma area was numbered M @-@ 14 . In 1926 , this highway was renumbered as part of US 27 . The new highway designation was supposed to pass through St. Louis instead of Alma , but US 27 initially follows the routing of M @-@ 14 . By the end of 1929 , the mainline of US 27 is shifted to its desired routing through St. Louis , and the former route of it through Alma became US 27A .
An expressway through Gratiot County opened in late 1961 , and US 27 was rerouted to follow it , bypassing Alma to the east . The former route of US 27A along Lincoln Road / Superior Street and Wright Avenue / Alger Road ) in Alger was designated Bus . US 27 at this time . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state to reflect the new parent highway designation .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Gratiot County .
= = St. Louis = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop through St. Louis . The highway starts at an interchange with US 127 south of St. Louis at exit 114 . From there , it follows State Road northward through farmland into the southern edge of town . There , Bus . US 127 follows Main Street through residential areas into downtown . At the intersection with M @-@ 46 ( Washington Street ) , the business loop turns westerly along the other highway , running concurrently . The combined highway crosses the Pine River and runs through residential areas as it exits the town . As Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 46 approaches US 127 , it passes several businesses . The business loop terminates at exit 127A near the northern terminus of the Bus . US 127 for Alma .
An expressway through Gratiot County opened in late 1961 , and US 27 was rerouted to follow it , bypassing St. Louis to the west . The former route of US 27 along State Road / Main Street and M @-@ 46 ( Washington Street / Monroe Road ) in St. Louis was designated Bus . US 27 at this time . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state to reflect the new parent highway designation .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Gratiot County .
= = Mount Pleasant = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) in Mount Pleasant runs along a former section of US 27 in the city . The business loop starts at a partial interchange with US 127 at exit 139 in Union Township south of town . The exit ramp from the northbound direction of the freeway exits from the left and forms the northbound lanes of the business loop while the southbound lanes of the business loop merge into the southbound direction of the freeway . Bus . US 127 runs to the west as a four @-@ lane divided highway parallel to tracks of the Great Lakes Central Railroad . Near the south end of the city 's commercial strip in the township , the two directions of the business loop merge as an undivided highway and follow Mission Street . Mission runs on the eastern edge of the campus of Central Michigan University , including running past Kelly / Shorts Stadium , home field of the Central Michigan Chippewas football team . North of Bellows Street , the blocks to either side of Mission Street takes on a more residential character while the main street continues to be lined with retail and commercial establishments . M @-@ 20 merges in from the west at High Street to run concurrently along the business loop . At Pickard Street , M @-@ 20 turns east and Bus . US 127 continues through the north end of town . North of Corporate Way in Union Township , the business loop leaves Mission Street and returns to a divided highway , veering northeasterly to connect to exit 139 on US 127 . This is also a partial interchange as the northbound lanes from the business loop merge into the northbound lanes of the freeway from the left and the southbound lanes of the business loop are formed from the exit ramp off US 127 . The total length of Bus . US 127 in the Mount Pleasant area is 5 @.@ 688 miles ( 9 @.@ 154 km ) .
In early 1961 , a divided highway section for US 27 was opened in Gratiot and Isabella counties ; this routing connected into the former US 27 alignment south of Mount Pleasant at Mission Street . By the end of 1961 , the US 27 freeway through Isabella County was completed and the divided highway was upgraded to full freeway status . With this project completed , the connector between the freeway and Mission Street south of Mount Pleasant and the former routing along Mission in town was rechristened Bus . US 27 . A new divided highway connector on the north end of town was built to complete the business route . In 2002 , when US 127 replaced US 27 north of Lansing , the Mount Pleasant business loop was given its current moniker to match .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Isabella County .
= = Clare = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop in Clare . The northern half of the route of the highway is shared with Bus . US 10 , running concurrently through downtown . The southern end is at a directional interchange with US 127 south of Clare in Isabella County . This interchange provides access to northbound Bus . US 127 from northbound US 127 only , and traffic from the southbound business loop must enter the southbound freeway only . The business loop runs northwesterly away from the freeway to a roundabout intersection with Mission Road . Bus . US 127 turns northward on Mission Road , crossing into Clare County and following McEwan Street through residential areas on the south side of Clare . At the intersection with 5th Street in downtown , Bus . US 10 merges in from the east and M @-@ 115 terminates from the west . Bus . US 127 / Bus . US 10 passes through a residential area on the north side of the city and crosses the South Branch of the Tobacco River . As the business loop approaches US 127 / U.S. Route 10 in Michigan , it follows Clare Avenue past several businesses before terminating at a full interchange with the freeway .
An expressway through Isabella and Clare counties opened in late 1961 , and US 27 was rerouted to follow it , bypassing Clare to the east . The former route of US 27 along McEwan Street and Clare Avenue was designated Bus . US 27 at this time . A freeway bypass north of Clare and Farwell opened in 1975 , and US 10 was rerouted along the US 27 freeway to connect from the new bypass to the existing freeway east of the city , bypassing both cities . The section of US 10 in downtown Clare was designated Bus . US 10 at this time , running along Bus . US 27 to connect to US 27 / US 10 north of downtown . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state .
Major intersections
= = Harrison = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop running through downtown Harrison . The southern end starts at exit 170 on US 127 and runs concurrently northwesterly and northward along M @-@ 61 through rural woodland away from the freeway . The business loop passes through the unincorporated community of Allendale as Park Street and turns northwesterly near the southern end of Budd Lake . Now named 1st Street , Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 61 enters Harrison and turns northward through residential areas into downtown . At the intersection with Main Street , M @-@ 61 separates to the west , and the business loop continues northwesterly parallel to the shore of Budd Lake . Bus . US 127 turn northward and exists Harrison hear the Clare County Fairgrounds . North of town , the business loop passes the unincorporated community of Ash Acres in Hayes Township before passing the Clare County Airport . Bus . US 127 turns northeasterly through woodland north of the airport and terminates at exit 176 on US 127 .
An expressway through Clare County opened in late 1961 , and US 27 was rerouted to follow it , bypassing Harrison to the east . The former route of US 27 along M @-@ 61 and 1st Street / Clare Avenue in Harrison was designated Bus . US 27 at this time . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state to reflect the new parent highway designation .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Clare County .
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= Joel Brand =
Joel Brand ( 25 April 1906 – 13 July 1964 ) was a rescue worker , born in Transylvania and raised in Germany , who became known during the Holocaust for his efforts to save Hungary 's Jews from deportation to Auschwitz , after the German invasion of that country in March 1944 .
A leading member of Budapest 's Aid and Rescue Committee , which smuggled Jews out of occupied Europe , Brand was approached in April 1944 by Adolf Eichmann , the German Schutzstaffel ( SS ) officer in charge of the deportations . Eichmann proposed that Brand broker a deal between the SS and the United States or Britain , in which the Nazis would exchange one million Jews for 10 @,@ 000 trucks for the Eastern front and large quantities of tea and other goods . It was the most ambitious of a series of such deals between Nazi and Jewish leaders ; Eichmann called it " Blut gegen Waren " ( " blood for goods " ) .
Nothing came of the proposal , which the London Times called one of the most loathsome stories of the war . Historians believe that the SS , including its commander , Heinrich Himmler , intended the negotiations as cover for peace talks with the Western Allies that would exclude the Soviet Union and perhaps even Adolf Hitler . Whatever its purpose , the proposal was thwarted by the British government . They arrested Brand in Aleppo ( then under British control ) , where he had gone to propose Eichmann 's offer to the Jewish Agency , and put an end to it by leaking details to the media .
The failure of the proposal , and the wider issue of why the Allies were unable to save the 435 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews deported to Auschwitz between May and July 1944 , became the subject of bitter debate for many years . In 1961 Life magazine called Brand " a man who lives in the shadows with a broken heart . " He told an interviewer shortly before his death in 1964 : " An accident of life placed the fate of one million human beings on my shoulders . I eat and sleep and think only of them . "
= = Background = =
= = = Early life = = =
One of seven children , Brand was born to a Jewish family in Naszód , Siebenbürgen ( Transylvania ) , then part of Austria @-@ Hungary , now Năsăud , Romania . His mother was from Naszód , the daughter of a banker , and his father was the founder of the Budapest telephone company . Brand 's paternal grandfather , also Joel Brand , had owned the post office in Mukacheve .
The family moved to Erfurt in Germany when Brand was four . Brand attended school until 1923 and said he had completed his Abitur . When he was 19 he went to stay with an uncle in New York , then worked his way across the United States , washing dishes and working on roads and in mines . He joined the Communist Party , worked for the Comintern as a sailor , and sailed to Hawaii , the Philippines , South America , China and Japan . In or around 1930 he returned to Erfurt , where his father had founded another telephone company . Brand took a job with the company and became a functionary with the Thuringian KPD ( Communist Party of Germany ) .
He was living in Germany on 30 January 1933 when Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor , and as a communist was arrested just before the Reichstag fire on 27 February that year . Released in 1934 , he settled in Budapest where he worked again for his father 's company . He joined the Poale Zion , a Marxist @-@ Zionist party , became a vice @-@ president of the Budapest Palestine Office , which organized Jewish emigration to Palestine , and sat on the governing body of the Jewish National Fund .
= = = Aid and Rescue Committee = = =
In 1935 Brand married Haynalka " Hansi " Hartmann and together they opened a knitwear and glove factory on Rozsa Street , Budapest , which after a few years had a staff of over 100 . The couple had met as members of a hachscharah , a group of Jews preparing to move to Palestine to work on a kibbutz , but Brand 's plans changed when his mother and three sisters fled to Budapest from Germany and he had to support them .
Brand 's involvement in smuggling Jews into Hungary began in July 1941 , when Hansi Brand 's sister and brother @-@ in @-@ law were caught up in the Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi deportations . The Hungarian government sent 18 @,@ 000 Jews to German @-@ occupied Ukraine because they were unable to prove they were Hungarian citizens ; 14 @,@ 000 – 16 @,@ 000 of them were shot by the SS . Brand paid a Hungarian counter @-@ espionage officer to bring his wife 's relatives back safely .
Through the Poale Zion party , the Brands joined other Zionists engaged in rescue work , including Rezső Kasztner , a lawyer and journalist from Kolozsvár ( Cluj ) , and Ottó Komoly , an engineer , and in January 1943 the group set up the Aid and Rescue Committee with Komoly as chairperson . The committee raised money , forged documents , maintained contacts with intelligence agencies and ran safe houses . Brand testified during Adolf Eichmann 's trial that , between 1941 and the invasion in March 1944 , they had helped 22 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 Jews reach Hungary .
Oskar Schindler became one of the committee 's contacts , smuggling letters and money into the Kraków ghetto on their behalf . During a visit by Schindler to Budapest in November 1943 , they learned that he had been bribing Nazi officers to let him bring Jewish refugees into his factory in Poland , which he ran as a safe haven . This further encouraged the committee , after the invasion of Hungary , to try negotiating with the SS .
= = March – May 1944 = =
= = = Invasion of Hungary = = =
The Germans invaded Hungary on Sunday , 19 March 1944 , meeting no resistance . Following Hungary 's annexation in 1941 of parts of Romania , Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia , there were 725 @,@ 000 Jews in the country , as well as over 60 @,@ 000 Jewish converts to Christianity and others the Nazis counted as Jews , according to Yehuda Bauer . Most were liberal Jews and fully assimilated , nearly 30 percent were Orthodox , and a small minority were Zionists .
Restrictions on Jews were already in place before the invasion , including a prohibition on marrying Christians . After the invasion , Randolph Braham writes , the Hungarian government immediately began the process of isolating Jews from the rest of the community . From 5 April Jews over the age of six had to wear a 3 @.@ 8 x 3 @.@ 8 inch ( 10 x 10 cm ) yellow badge . They were forbidden from using telephones , owning cars or radios , travelling or moving home , and had to declare the value of their property . Jewish civil servants , journalists and lawyers were sacked , non @-@ Jews could not work in Jewish households . Books by Jews were removed from libraries and Jewish authors could no longer be published .
Brand was hidden in a safe house by Josef Winniger , a courier for German military intelligence , who had been selling Brand information about Jewish refugees ; Kasztner and Komoly also went into hiding . The committee wanted to establish contact with the Germans and offered a go @-@ between $ 20 @,@ 000 to arrange a meeting with SS Hauptsturmführer Dieter Wisliceny , one of Eichmann 's assistants .
David Crowe writes that the SS had become an economic force in its own right by 1944 , thanks to its plundering of Jewish businesses and ownership of factories that used slave labour from concentration camps . Jewish rescue workers made several attempts to exploit SS corruption . Gisi Fleischmann and Rabbi Michael Dov Weissmandl paid Dieter Wisliceny $ 20 @,@ 000 in 1942 to suspend the deportation of Jews from Slovakia , though whether the bribe was the reason for the suspension is debatable .
Fleischmann and Weissmandl 's rescue group , the Working Group , devised a more ambitious proposal in November that year . Known as the Europa plan or Grossplan , the aim was to bribe the SS with money from Jews overseas , primarily the United States , to stop the deportation of all Jews to Poland . Various sums have been mentioned in connection with this , including $ 2 – 3 million . Nothing came of it , reportedly because Heinrich Himmler intervened in August 1943 .
The Aid and Rescue Committee decided to ask Wisliceny whether the SS were , as Kasztner wrote in a later report , " prepared to negotiate with the illegal Jewish rescue committee on an economic basis about the moderation of the anti @-@ Jewish measures . " Brand and Kasztner met Wisliceny on 5 April . They told him they were in a position to continue Fleischmann 's negotiations and could offer $ 2 million with a down payment of $ 200 @,@ 000 . They asked that there be no deportations , mass executions or pogroms in Hungary , no ghettos or camps , and that Jews who held immigration certificates for Palestine ( issued by the British mandatory government ) be allowed to leave . Wisliceny accepted the $ 200 @,@ 000 , but indicated that $ 2 million might not be enough . He said there would be no deportations and no harm to the Jewish community while negotiations continued , and arranged for Aid and Rescue Committee exemptions from anti @-@ Jewish laws to allow its members to travel and use cars and telephones .
= = = First meeting with Eichmann = = =
Following the contact with Wisliceny , Brand received a message on 25 April that SS Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann wanted to see him . Eichmann had arrived in Budapest as head of the Sondereinsatzkommando overseeing the deportation of the Jews . Brand was told to wait in the Opera Cafḗ and from there was driven by the SS to Eichmann 's headquarters at the Hotel Majestic .
SS Untersturmbannführer Kurt Becher , an emissary of Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler , was also at the meeting . In a tone that Brand compared to the " clatter of a machine gun , " Eichmann offered to sell him one million Jews , not for money , but for goods from overseas :
I have already made investigations about you and your people and I have verified your ability to make a deal . Now then , I am prepared to sell you one million Jews ... Goods for blood – blood for goods . You can take them from any country you like , wherever you can find them – Hungary , Poland , the Ostmark , from Theresienstadt , from Auschwitz , wherever you like .
Eichmann said he would discuss the proposal with Berlin , and that in the meantime Brand should decide what kinds of goods he was in a position to offer . Brand asked how the committee was supposed to obtain these goods . Eichmann said he should open negotiations with the Allies overseas and that Eichmann would arrange a travel permit . Brand suggested Istanbul , where another committee member had a Jewish Agency contact . He testified years later that on leaving the hotel he felt like a " stark madman . "
= = = Further meetings = = =
Eichmann sent for Brand again a few days later . Eichmann was accompanied this time by Gerhard Clages , also known as Otto Klages , chief of Himmler 's Sicherheitsdienst ( security service ) in Budapest . Clages ' presence meant that three of Himmler 's senior officers – Eichmann , Becher and Clages – had involved themselves with the Brand proposal . Clages handed Brand $ 50 @,@ 000 and 270 @,@ 000 Swiss francs that the Germans had intercepted , sent to the Aid and Rescue Committee by rescue workers in Switzerland via the Swedish Embassy in Budapest .
Eichmann told Brand that he wanted 10 @,@ 000 new trucks for the Waffen @-@ SS to use on the Eastern front , one truck for every 100 Jews , as well as 200 tons of tea , 200 tons of cocoa , 800 tons of coffee and 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cases of soap . If Brand returned from Istanbul with confirmation that the Allies had accepted the proposal , Eichmann said he would release 10 percent of the one million . The deal would proceed with 100 @,@ 000 Jews released for every 1 @,@ 000 trucks .
It remains unclear whether Eichmann told Brand to return to Budapest by a particular date . According to Bauer , Brand said at various points that he was advised he could " take [ his ] time " or given one , two or three weeks . Hansi Brand testified during Eichmann 's trial that in the meantime she and her children had to remain in Budapest , effectively as hostages . Brand and Eichmann met several more times , the final time on 15 May , the day the deportations began . Between then and 8 July 1944 , 437 @,@ 402 Jews , almost the entire Jewish population of the Hungarian countryside , are recorded as having been deported to Auschwitz on 147 trains , a rate of around 12 @,@ 000 a day . Most were gassed .
= = May – October 1944 = =
= = = Brand leaves for Istanbul = = =
Brand secured a letter of recommendation for the Jewish Agency from the Hungarian Jewish Council . He was told he would be travelling with Bandi Grosz ( real name , Andor Gross ) , a Hungarian who had worked for Hungarian and German military intelligence ; Grosz would travel to Istanbul as the director of a Hungarian transport company . The SS drove the men from Budapest to Vienna on 17 May , where they stayed the night in a hotel reserved for the SS .
Grosz later testified that Brand 's mission had been a cover for his own . He said he had been told by Clages to arrange a meeting in a neutral country between senior German and American officers , or British if necessary , to broker peace between the German Sicherheitsdienst and the Western Allies .
= = = Meeting with Jewish Agency = = =
In Vienna Brand was given a German passport in the name of Eugen Band . He cabled the Jewish Agency in Istanbul to say he was on his way , and arrived by German diplomatic plane on 19 May . Paul Rose writes that Brand had no idea at this point that the deportations to Auschwitz had already begun .
Brand had been told by the Jewish Agency by return cable that " Chaim " would meet him in Istanbul . Convinced of the importance of his mission , he believed this was Chaim Weizmann , president of the World Zionist Organization , later the first president of Israel . In fact the man who had arranged to meet him was Chaim Barlas , head of the Istanbul group of Zionist emissaries . Not only was Barlas not there , but there was no entry visa waiting for Brand , and he was threatened with arrest and deportation . Brand saw this as the first betrayal by the Jewish Agency . Bauer argues that Brand , then and later , failed to grasp that the Jewish Agency was powerless . That his passport was in the name of Eugen Band would have been enough to cause the confusion .
The visa situation was sorted out by Bandi Grosz and the men were taken to a hotel , where they met the Jewish Agency delegates . Brand was furious that no one sufficiently senior was available to negotiate a deal . The Jewish Agency agreed to arrange for Moshe Sharett ( previously Shertok ) , head of its political department and later second prime minister of Israel , to travel to Istanbul to meet him . Brand passed them a plan of Auschwitz ( probably from the Vrba @-@ Wetzler report ) and demanded that the gas chambers , crematoria and railways lines be bombed . The discussions left him discouraged and depressed . He wrote that the delegates lacked any sense of urgency and were focused more on internal politics and Jewish emigration to Palestine , rather than the slaughter in Europe : " [ They ] were undoubtedly worthy men ... But they lacked any awareness of how critical was the period of history in which they were living . They had not looked death in the face day after day , as we had in Budapest ... "
= = = Interim agreement = = =
Ladislaus Löb writes that proposals and counter @-@ proposals flew between Istanbul , London and Washington . The Jewish Agency and Brand wanted the Allies to string the Germans along in the hope of slowing the deportations .
The Agency gave Brand a document , dated 29 May 1944 , that offered $ 400 @,@ 000 for every 1 @,@ 000 Jewish emigrants to Palestine , one million Swiss francs per 10 @,@ 000 Jewish emigrants to neutral countries such as Spain , and 10 @,@ 000 Swiss francs a month if the deportations were to stop . If the SS would allow the Allies to supply food , clothes and medicine to the Jews in concentration camps , the Nazis would be supplied with the same . Rose writes that the agreement was intended only to give Brand something to take back to Budapest .
Brand cabled his wife on 29 and 31 May to tell her ( and thereby Eichmann ) about the agreement , but there was no response . Rezső Kasztner and Hansi Brand had been held in Budapest between 27 May and 1 June by the Hungarian Arrow Cross . They received the telegrams when they were released , but Eichmann refused to halt the deportations .
= = = Arrested by British = = =
In Istanbul Brand was told that Moshe Sharett was unable to obtain a visa for Turkey . The Jewish Agency asked Brand to meet him instead in Aleppo on the Syrian @-@ Turkish border . He was reluctant ; the area was under British control and he was afraid they would want to question him , but the Agency told him it would be safe and he left by train with two of its delegates .
While on the train , Brand was approached by two representatives of Zeev Jabotinsky 's Hatzohar ( Revisionist Zionist ) party and the World Agudath Israel Orthodox religious party . They told him the British were going to arrest him in Aleppo : " Die Engländer sind in dieser Frage nicht unsere Verbündeten " ( " the British are not our allies in this matter " ) . As soon as he arrived at the Aleppo train station on 7 June , he was stopped by a British man in plain clothes and pushed into a Jeep that was waiting with its engine running .
The British drove him to a villa , where for four days they tried to stop Moshe Sharett from meeting him . Sharett " fought a battle of telephones and cables , " Bauer writes , and on 11 June he and the Jewish Agency intelligence group were finally introduced to Brand . The discussion lasted several hours . Sharett wrote in a report of 27 June : " I must have looked a little incredulous , for he said : ' Please believe me : they have killed six million Jews ; there are only two million left alive . ' " At the end of the meeting , Sharett broke the news that the British were insisting Brand not return to Budapest . Brand became hysterical .
= = = Proposal rejected = = =
Brand was taken to Cairo , where he was questioned by the British for weeks . On 22 June he was interviewed by Ira Hirschmann of the American War Refugee Board ; Hirschmann wrote a positive report about Brand , but his influence was limited . Brand went on hunger strike for 17 days in protest at his detention .
The British , Americans and Soviet Union discussed the proposal . British Foreign Secretary ( later Prime Minister ) Anthony Eden wrote a memo on 26 June outlining the options . The British were convinced they were dealing with a Himmler trick , perhaps an attempt to broker a peace deal without the Soviet Union . If the deal had gone ahead and large numbers of Jews had been released in central Europe , Allied airborne and possibly land @-@ based military operations might have had to stop . Bauer believes the British feared this was Himmler 's motive – to turn the Jews into human shields – because it would have allowed the Germans to devote their forces to fighting the Red Army .
The Americans were more open to negotiating . A rift developed between them and the British who , Bauer writes , were worried about large @-@ scale Jewish immigration to Palestine , then under British control . There was also concern about the effect of Jewish immigration to the UK or US .
Eden did suggest a counter @-@ proposal on 1 July , but it was reduced , Bauer writes , to a ridiculous minimum . He told the American government that the British would allow Brand to return to Budapest with a message for Eichmann suggesting that 1 @,@ 500 Jewish children be given safe passage to Switzerland , 5 @,@ 000 from Bulgaria and Romania be allowed to leave for Palestine , and that Germany guarantee safe conduct for ships carrying Jewish refugees . He did not say what he would offer in return . On 11 July Prime Minister Winston Churchill put an end to the idea when he told Eden that the murder of the Jews was " probably the greatest and most horrible crime ever committed , " and that there should be " no negotiations of any kind on this subject . " Of Brand 's mission he wrote : " The project which has been put forward through a very doubtful channel seems itself also to be of the most nondescript character . I would not take it seriously . "
= = = Leak to media = = =
The British leaked details of Eichmann 's proposal to the media . On 19 July 1944 – the day before the 20 July plot , the attempted assassination of Adolf Hitler – the New York Herald Tribune ( dateline London , 18 July ) reported that two Hungarian government emissaries in Turkey had proposed that Hungarian Jews be given safe passage in exchange for British and American pharmaceuticals and transport for the Germans . The London Times called it " one of the most loathsome " stories of the war , an attempt to " blackmail , deceive and split " the Allies , and a " new level of fantasy and self @-@ deception . "
The mass deportation of Hungarian Jews had already stopped by the time of the leak . Following publication in mid @-@ June of parts of the Vrba @-@ Wetzler report , describing the use of gas chambers inside Auschwitz , the Jewish Agency in Geneva had cabled London asking that Hungarian ministers be held personally responsible for the killings . The cable was intercepted and passed to Hungarian regent Miklós Horthy , who ordered an end to the deportations on 7 July .
The British released Brand on 5 October 1944 . Brand said they would not allow him to return to Hungary and forced him to travel to Palestine . Bauer disputes this , writing that Brand was simply afraid of returning to Budapest , convinced the Germans would murder him .
= = = Himmler 's involvement = = =
Germany 's Foreign Minister , Joachim von Ribbentrop , had apparently known nothing about the proposal . He cabled Brigadeführer Edmund Veesenmayer of the SS on 20 July 1944 to ask about it , and was told on 22 July that Brand and Grosz had been sent to Turkey on the orders of Heinrich Himmler , head of the SS . Eichmann himself said during interrogation after the war that the order had come from Himmler , as did SS officer Kurt Becher : " Himmler said to me : ' Take whatever you can from the Jews . Promise them whatever you want . What we will keep is another matter . ' "
Bauer writes that the " clumsiness of the approach has been a wonderment to all observers . " He argues that Eichmann wanted to murder Jews , not sell them , but was forced instead to act as Himmler 's reluctant messenger . On the day Brand left Germany for Istanbul in May 1944 , Eichmann was in Auschwitz checking that it was ready for the trainloads of Jews about to arrive from Hungary . The camp 's commander , Obersturmbannführer Rudolf Höss , said it would be difficult to process such large numbers , whereupon Eichmann ordered that new arrivals be gassed immediately rather than going through " selection . " This does not suggest that he was going to halt the killing until Brand returned from Istanbul .
In Bauer 's view , the presence at one of the meetings of Gerhard Clages of the SS signals that Himmler was focusing on secret peace talks . Brand and Grosz arrived in Istanbul just two months before the attempted assassination of Adolf Hitler on 20 July 1944 . Himmler knew that attempts might be made on Hitler 's life , though not where and when . It is possible that he wanted to broker for peace in case Hitler did not survive , using low @-@ level agents for plausible deniability , and if Hitler did survive , Bauer argues , Himmler could offer him a peace deal with the West that excluded the Soviet Union .
Brand himself came to believe that the proposal had been designed to drive a wedge between the Allies . Two months before his death in 1964 , at the trial in Germany of Eichmann 's deputies Hermann Krumey and Otto Hunsche , he said he had " made a terrible mistake in passing this on to the British . It is now clear to me that Himmler sought to sow suspicion among the Allies as a preparation for his much desired Nazi @-@ Western coalition against Moscow . "
= = = Kasztner train = = =
Brand 's failure to return to Budapest was a disaster for the Aid and Rescue Committee . On 27 May Hansi Brand , who at some point during this period had become Kasztner 's lover , was arrested and beaten by the Hungarian Arrow Cross . Kasztner wrote that on 9 June that Eichmann told him : " If I do not receive a positive reply within three days , I shall operate the mill at Auschwitz " ( " die Muehle laufen lasse " ) . Hansi Brand told Claude Lanzman :
We ... [ lived ] between fear and despair and hope . And that formed itself into such a heap of stuff , that I can 't really describe it – how it was and what it was . Every evening , we went to pieces and during the night , we tried to build ourselves up again , so we could go into the street ... and look like human beings again ... And [ it ] was like being in a windmill ; it turned and moved .
Bauer argues that the Aid and Rescue committee made the mistake of almost adopting the anti @-@ Semitic belief in unlimited Jewish power , that Jewish leaders could move around freely and persuade the Allies to act , and that American Jews had easy access to money and goods . The committee had similar trust in the Allies , but the latter were preparing for the invasion of Normandy , which began on 6 June 1944 . " At that crucial moment , " writes Bauer , " to antagonize the Soviets because of some hare @-@ brained Gestapo plan to ransom Jews was totally out of the question . "
Despite the setbacks , Kasztner , Hansi Brand and the rest of the committee secured the release of around 1 @,@ 684 Jews , including 273 children , who were allowed to leave Budapest for Switzerland by train on 30 June 1944 . The committee paid SS officer Kurt Becher $ 1000 per person in foreign currency , shares , jewellery and gold , raised from the wealthier passengers to cover the cost of the rest . After an unexplained detour to the Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp , the passengers arrived in Switzerland in two batches in August and December that year . Joel Brand 's mother , sister and niece were on the train , as were 10 members of Kasztner 's family and 388 people from the Kolozsvár ghetto in his home town . Kastner 's relationship with these passengers led to the criticism that his negotiations with Becher had focused on saving people he knew , an allegation that led to his assassination in 1957 .
= = Later life = =
= = = Move to Israel = = =
Bauer concludes that Brand was a courageous man who had passionately wanted to help the Jewish people , but his life was plagued after the mission by suspicion , including from other members of the Aid and Rescue Committee , because of his failure to return to Budapest . After the British released him , he joined the Stern Gang , who were fighting to remove the British from Palestine . He and Hansi Brand lived for the rest of their lives in Israel , at first moving to the Givat Brenner kibbutz , then Tel Aviv , with their two sons .
Ronald Florence writes that Brand seemed to live only to set the record straight . He offered testimony about the blood @-@ for @-@ goods proposal during several trials , including that of Eichmann in Jerusalem in 1961 and Eichmann 's assistant Hermann Krumey in Frankfurt in 1964 .
= = = Kasztner assassination = = =
Brand testified in 1954 at the controversial libel trial in Jerusalem of Malchiel Gruenwald , who was sued by the Israeli government on behalf of Rezső Kasztner . Gruenwald was a Hungarian Holocaust survivor who had moved to Israel after the war . In a self @-@ published pamphlet in 1952 he accused Kasztner , by then an Israeli civil servant , of having collaborated with the Nazis by dealing with Eichmann . Brand testified for Kasztner , but instead of defending him took the opportunity to accuse the Jewish Agency , whose officials became the first Israeli government , of having helped the British scupper the blood @-@ for @-@ goods proposal .
After a trial that lasted 18 months , the judge concluded that , by negotiating with Eichmann , failing to warn the many to save the few on the Kasztner train , and writing an affidavit after the war for Kurt Becher , Kasztner had " sold his soul to the devil . " It was because of Kasztner 's support for Becher that the Americans decided not to prosecute Becher at Nuremberg . Kasztner also wrote affidavits for Hans Jüttner , Dieter Wisliceny and Hermann Krumey .
The judge said that Kasztner 's failure to do more to warn the community that they were being sent to the gas chambers , and not resettled , had helped Eichmann maintain order , and that the Kasztner train had been a payoff . Tom Segev called the ruling " one of the most heartless in the history of Israel , perhaps the most heartless ever . " The Supreme Court of Israel overturned most of the verdict in January 1958 , ruling that the lower court had " erred seriously , " but Kasztner was assassinated in 1957 as a result of the earlier judgment .
= = Death = =
Brand was never able to put behind him the idea that he might have saved a million lives . In 1961 Life magazine called him " a man who lives in the shadows with a broken heart . " He died of a heart attack , aged 58 , during a visit to Germany in July 1964 , telling an interviewer shortly before his death : " An accident of life placed the fate of one million human beings on my shoulders . I eat and sleep and think only of them . "
Over 800 mourners attended his funeral in Tel Aviv , including Colonel Arieh Baz on behalf of Israel 's President Zalman Shazar and Teddy Kollek , director @-@ general of the prime minister 's office , on behalf of Prime Minister Levi Eshkol . The eulogy was delivered by Gideon Hausner , the attorney general who prosecuted Adolf Eichmann .
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= Acid2 =
Acid2 is a test page published and promoted by the Web Standards Project to expose web page rendering flaws in web browsers and other applications that render HTML . Named after the acid test for gold , it was developed in the spirit of Acid1 , a relatively narrow test of compliance with the Cascading Style Sheets 1 @.@ 0 ( CSS1 ) standard , and was released on 13 April 2005 . As with Acid1 , an application passes the test if the way it displays the test page matches a reference image .
Acid2 tests aspects of HTML markup , CSS 2 @.@ 1 styling , PNG images , and data URIs . The Acid2 test page will be displayed correctly in any application that follows the World Wide Web Consortium and Internet Engineering Task Force specifications for these technologies . These specifications are known as web standards because they describe how technologies used on the web are expected to function .
Acid2 was designed with Microsoft Internet Explorer particularly in mind . The creators of Acid2 were dismayed that Internet Explorer did not follow web standards . It was prone to display web pages differently from other browsers , causing web developers to spend time tweaking their web pages . Acid2 challenged Microsoft to make Internet Explorer comply with web standards .
Acid2 was released on 13 April 2005 . On 31 October 2005 , Safari 2 @.@ 0 @.@ 2 became the first browser to pass Acid2 . Opera , Konqueror , Firefox , and others followed . With the release of Internet Explorer 8 on 19 March 2009 , the latest versions of all major desktop web browsers now pass the test , until IE10 was released , which fails the test , and its successor , Microsoft Edge , has never been able to render it ( as of writing ) . Acid2 was followed by Acid3 .
The test fails when browsers become compliant with current CSS collapse and margin standards .
= = History = =
Acid2 was first proposed by Håkon Wium Lie , chief technical officer of Opera Software and creator of the widely used Cascading Style Sheets web standard . In a 16 March 2005 article on CNET , Lie expressed dismay that Microsoft Internet Explorer did not properly support web standards and hence was not completely interoperable with other browsers . He announced that Acid2 would be a challenge to Microsoft to design Internet Explorer 7 , then in development , to achieve a greater degree of standards compliance than previous versions of Internet Explorer . The original Acid1 test had forced browser makers to fix their applications or face embarrassment ; Lie hoped that Acid2 would do the same .
Lie and a colleague , Ian Hickson , had created the first draft of the test in February 2005 . Ian Hickson coded the final test in collaboration with the Web Standards Project and the larger web community . It was officially released on 13 April 2005 and at that time , every web browser failed it spectacularly .
On 23 April 2005 , Acid2 was updated to fix a bug that made the mouth appear too close to the nose . After several complaints , the test was again updated in January 2006 to remove a test for unpopular SGML @-@ style comments that were never widely implemented . In browsers that do not implement SGML @-@ style comments , the original test displayed the word " ERROR " on the bottom part of the face .
In March 2008 , Ian Hickson released Acid3 as a follow @-@ up to Acid2 . While Acid2 primarily tests CSS , Acid3 focuses more on JavaScript and other " Web 2 @.@ 0 " technologies .
= = Microsoft 's response = =
In July 2005 , Chris Wilson , the Internet Explorer Platform Architect , stated that passing Acid2 was not a priority for Internet Explorer 7 , describing the test as a " wish list " of features rather than a true test of standards compliance . In December 2007 , Microsoft announced that all the changes required to pass Acid2 would be made available in Internet Explorer 8 , but that the changes would not be turned on by default , meaning that IE8 would not actually pass the test . The concern was that switching to a new behavior would cause too many problems in web pages expecting Internet Explorer 's old , non @-@ compliant behavior . Then in March 2008 Microsoft released IE8 beta 1 and turned on the changes by default after all . James Pratt , product manager for IE8 , explained that this decision was made so that " developers can spend more time building features and cool stuff , and less time just trying to tweak their sites across different browsers . "
Unfortunately , another unresolved standards compliance issue caused IE8 beta 1 to fail if not all elements of the test were hosted from the same server . In August 2008 Microsoft released IE8 beta 2 , which resolved the issue . As of that beta , however , standards mode is not turned on by default for pages loaded in the " Intranet Zone " . This zone is active for pages loaded via UNC paths , named addresses without dots ( like http : / / mysite / ) , and sites that bypass the proxy settings . As such , IE8 will not pass the Acid2 test if loaded in these cases .
= = Overview of standards tested = =
Acid2 tests a variety of web standards published by the World Wide Web Consortium and the Internet Engineering Task Force . With the exception of CSS 2 @.@ 1 , all web standards tested were codified before the year 2000 . CSS 2 @.@ 1 was a candidate recommendation at the time of Acid2 's release , and was still a candidate recommendation as of 23 April 2009 .
Specifically , Acid2 tests :
Alpha transparency in PNG @-@ format images : The eyes of the smiley face use alpha transparency , which is part of the 1996 Portable Network Graphics specification . Alpha transparency blends the eyebrows into the face smoothly and elegantly . This was a significant issue because Internet Explorer 6 , the most widely used web browser at the time Acid2 was released , did not support alpha transparency . This deficiency was rectified in Internet Explorer 7 , bringing Internet Explorer in line with other web browsers in this regard .
The object element : The eyes also test support of the HTML object element . The object element has been a part of HTML since HTML 4 was released in 1998 , yet by 2005 it still was not completely supported in all web browsers . The creators of Acid2 considered object element support important because it allows for content fallback — if an object fails to load , then the browser can display alternative ( generally simpler , more reliable ) content in its place .
Data URIs : The actual images that form the eyes are encoded as data URIs , which allow multimedia to be embedded in web pages rather than stored as a separate file . Acid2 tests the most common case , where a binary image is base64 @-@ encoded into text and then that encoded text is included in a data URI in the web page . Although the IETF published the data URI specification in 1998 , they never formally adopted it as a standard . Nonetheless , the HTML 4 @.@ 01 specification references the data URI scheme , and data URI support has now been implemented in most browsers .
Absolute , relative , and fixed CSS positioning : Absolute positioning means that the web developer specifies the exact X and Y coordinates where an element is to be placed into the page . Relative positioning means that the web developer specifies an X and Y offset from the usual position of the element . Fixed positioning means that the element is placed relative to the browser window , and scrolls with the window rather than with the rest of the page .
The CSS box model : This feature allows the web designer to specify dimensions , padding , borders , and margins , and was the focus of the original Acid1 test . Acid2 not only retests margin support but also tests minimum and maximum heights and widths , features new to CSS 2 @.@ 0 .
CSS table formatting : This part of CSS allows the web designer to apply table formatting without traditional HTML table markup .
CSS generated content : Using CSS generated content , web developers can add decorations and annotations to specified elements without having to add the content to each one individually .
CSS parsing : A number of illegal CSS statements are present in Acid2 to test error handling . Standards @-@ compliant browsers are expected to handle these errors as the CSS specification directs . This helps ensure cross @-@ browser compatibility by making all browsers treat CSS with the same level of strictness , so that what works in one browser should not cause errors in another .
Paint order : Acid2 requires that the browser has standard paint order . That is , overlapping elements should be placed or painted on top of each other in the correct order .
Hovering effects : When the user moves his or her mouse over the smiley face 's nose , it turns blue . This is called a hovering effect , and while it has traditionally been used for hyperlinks , it should work on a wide variety of HTML elements .
Because Acid2 is not a comprehensive test , it does not guarantee total conformance to any particular standard . A variant of the Acid2 test that does not test for data URI support is also available from the Web Standards Project .
= = Passing conditions = =
A passing score is only considered valid if the browser 's default settings were used . Actions such as changing font sizes , zoom level , and applying user stylesheets can break the display of the test . This is expected and is not relevant to a browser 's compliance .
The following browser settings and user actions invalidate the test :
Scrolling
Resizing the browser window
Zooming in or out
Disabling images
Using Opera 's Fit to width or Small Screen Rendering modes
Applying custom fonts , colors , styles , etc .
User JavaScript or Greasemonkey scripts
Enabling Internet Explorer 's " compatibility view "
= = Compliant applications = =
If rendered correctly , Acid2 will appear as a smiley face below the text " Hello World ! " in the user 's browser , with the nose turning blue when the mouse cursor hovers over it . At the time of the test 's release , every browser failed it , but now a number of browsers pass it . See the list below .
= = = Officially released = = =
Internet Explorer , the web browser that comes with Windows
Odyssey Web Browser , a web browser for AmigaOS and MorphOS
Gecko @-@ based browsers
Mozilla Firefox , a web browser for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
SeaMonkey , an Internet suite for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
Songbird , a media player and web browser for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
Camino , a web browser for Mac OS X
Mozilla Thunderbird , an email client for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
Firefox for mobile , a web browser for mobile devices
Miro , an RSS aggregator , BitTorrent client , web browser and media player
Mozilla Sunbird , a calendar application for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
Spicebird 0 @.@ 8 , a personal information manager for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
WebRunner ( formerly Prism ) , a web application platform for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
WebKit- and KHTML @-@ based browsers
Safari , the web browser included in Mac OS X
Google Chrome , a web browser for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
Konqueror , a web browser for Linux
OmniWeb , a web browser for Mac OS X
Shiira , a web browser for Mac OS X
iCab , a web browser for Mac OS X
Web , the official GNOME web browser
Midori , the official Xfce web browser
The Google Earth integrated web browser
Presto @-@ based browsers
Opera , a web browser for Windows , Mac OS X , Linux , BSD and Solaris with mobile versions for all mobile phones , tablets and all Apple products like iPad
The Internet Channel , a version of the Opera browser for the Nintendo Wii game console .
Prince , an XML @-@ to @-@ PDF converter for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
= = Non @-@ compliant applications = =
Even though Opera Mini is based on the same rendering engine as Opera for personal computers , it does not pass the Acid2 test . This is because Opera Mini intentionally reformats web pages to try to make them more suitable for devices with small screens .
= = Timeline of passing applications = =
The following is a list of releases noting significant releases of applications that passed the test . New applications that have passed Acid2 since their first official release are not included in the timeline .
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= Radstock =
Radstock is a town in Somerset , England , 9 miles ( 14 km ) south west of Bath , and 8 miles ( 13 km ) north west of Frome . It is within the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset and had a population of 5 @,@ 620 according to the 2011 Census . Since 2011 Radstock has been a town council in its own right .
Radstock has been settled since the Iron Age , and its importance grew after the construction of the Fosse Way , a Roman road . The growth of the town occurred after 1763 , when coal was discovered in the area . Large numbers of mines opened during the 19th century including several owned by the Waldegrave family , who had been Lords of the Manor since the English Civil War . Admiral Lord Radstock , brother of George , fourth Earl Waldegrave , took the town 's name as his title when created a Baron .
The spoil heap of Writhlington colliery is now the Writhlington Site of Special Scientific Interest , which includes 3 @,@ 000 tons of Upper Carboniferous spoil from which more than 1 @,@ 400 insect fossil specimens have been recovered . The complex geology and narrow seams made coal extraction difficult . Tonnage increased throughout the 19th century , reaching a peak around 1901 , when there were 79 separate collieries and annual production was 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 tons per annum . However , due to local geological difficulties and manpower shortages output declined and the number of pits reduced from 30 at the beginning of the 20th century to 14 by the mid @-@ thirties ; the last two pits , Kilmersdon and Writhlington , closed in September 1973 . The Great Western Railway and the Somerset and Dorset Railway both established stations and marshalling yards in the town . The last passenger train services to Radstock closed in 1966 . Manufacturing industries such as printing , binding and packaging provide some local employment . In recent years , Radstock has increasingly become a commuter town for the nearby cities of Bath and Bristol .
Radstock is home to the Radstock Museum which is housed in a former market hall , and has a range of exhibits which offer an insight into north @-@ east Somerset life since the 19th century . Many of the exhibits relate to local geology and the now disused Somerset coalfield and geology . The town is also home to Writhlington School , famous for its Orchid collection , and a range of educational , religious and cultural buildings and sporting clubs .
= = History = =
Radstock has been settled since the Iron Age . Its importance grew with the construction of the Fosse Way , the Roman road that ran along what is now part of the A367 in Radstock . As a result , the town was known as Stoche at the time of the Domesday Book of 1086 , meaning the stockade by the Roman road , from the Old English stoc . The rad part of the name is believed to relate to red ; the soil locally is reddish marl . The parish of Radstock was part of the Kilmersdon Hundred ,
The Great Western Railway , and the Somerset and Dorset Railway , established stations and marshalling yards in the town . Radstock was the terminus for the southern branch of the Somerset Coal Canal , which was turned into a tramway in 1815 . It then became a central point for railway development , with large coal depots , wash houses , workshops and a gas works . As part of the development of the Wiltshire , Somerset and Weymouth Railway , an 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) line from Radstock to Frome was built to carry the coal . In the 1870s the broad @-@ gauge line was converted to standard gauge and connected to the Bristol and North Somerset Line which linked the town to the Great Western Railway . The Radstock Railway Land covers the old marshalling yards and sheds and comprises an area of approximately 8 @.@ 8 hectares of land which is the subject of ongoing planning and development applications to redevelop the area .
The town is close to the site of the Radstock rail accident , a rail crash that took place on the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway , on 7 August 1876 . Two trains collided on a single track section , resulting in the deaths of 15 passengers .
The last passenger train services in Radstock closed in 1966 , and the last coal mines closed in 1973 . Manufacturing industries such as printing , binding and packaging provide some local employment . More recently Radstock has become a commuter town for the nearby cities of Bath and Bristol , leading to traffic problems at peak hours .
= = = Coal mining = = =
In 1763 , coal was discovered in Radstock and mining began in the area . In , 1896 the pits were owned by the Trustee of Frances , late Countess of Waldegrave . The Waldegrave family had been Lords of the Manor of Radstock since the English Civil War . Between 1800 and 1850 , Ludlows , Middle Pit , Old Pit , Smallcombe , Tynings , and Wellsway mines opened . There were also a series of pits east of the town at Writhlington and under different ownership . In 1896 , they were owned by Writhlington , Huish and Foxcote Colliery Co . ; however , following an acrimonious dispute about the terms and conditions of the miners in 1899 , a new company , Writhlington Collieries Co . , was set up to run the mines . The Upper and Lower Writhlington , Huish and Foxcote were all merged into one colliery . The spoil heap is a now Writhlington Site of Special Scientific Interest . The site and includes 3 @,@ 000 tons of Upper Carboniferous spoil from which more than 1 @,@ 400 insect fossils have been recovered . These include Phalangiotarbi , and Graeophonus. and the world 's earliest known Damselfly . It is a Geological Conservation Review Site .
The complex geology and narrow seams made the coal extraction difficult ; three underground explosions , in 1893 , 1895 and 1908 , were amongst the first attributable solely to airborne coal dust .
Tonnage increased throughout the 19th century , reaching a peak around 1901 , when there were 79 separate collieries and annual production was 1 @.@ 25 million tons per annum . However , due to local geological difficulties and manpower shortages , decline soon took hold and the number of pits reduced from 30 at the beginning of the 20th century to 14 by the mid @-@ thirties , 12 at nationalisation to create National Coal Board on 1 January 1947 , 5 by 1959 and none after 1973 . Narrow seams made production expensive , limiting profit and investment , and a reduced national demand together with competition from more economical coalfields led to the closure of the last two pits in the coalfield , Kilmersdon and Writhlington , in September 1973 .
= = Governance = =
As of 2011 , Radstock became a town council in its own right . Until then , the town was part of the Norton Radstock civil parish , which was created in 1974 as a successor to the Norton @-@ Radstock Urban District , itself created in 1933 by the merger of Midsomer Norton and Radstock urban districts , along with part of Frome Rural District . Under the Local Government Act 1972 it became a successor parish to the urban district .
Radstock is governed by the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset and by Radstock Town Council . There is one electoral ward in Radstock with the same area and population as is quoted above .
It was also part of the Wansdyke constituency , which elects a Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . At the 2010 general election this constituency changed to North East Somerset . It is also part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament .
= = Geography = =
The main geological feature in this area of the Mendip Hills south of Hallatrow consists of Supra @-@ Pennant Measures which includes the upper coal measures and outcrops of sandstone . The southern part of the Radstock Syncline have coals of the Lower and Middle Coal Measures been worked , mainly at the Newbury and Vobster collieries in the southeast and in the New Rock and Moorewood pits to the southwest . The Hercynian orogeny caused shock waves in the rock as the Mendip Hills were pushed up , forcing the coal measures to break along fractures or faults . Along the Radstock Slide Fault the distance between the broken ends of a coal seam can be as much as 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 457 m ) .
Radstock lies on the Wellow Brook which then runs through Wellow to join the Cam Brook at Midford to form Midford Brook before joining the River Avon close to the Dundas Aqueduct and the remains of the Somerset Coal Canal . The base of the valley is of alluvium deposits . Above this on both sides of all of the valley is a band of shales and clays from the Penarth Group . These rocks are from the Triassic period . The majority of the remaining upland around Radstock is Lias Limestone ( white and blue ) while the very highest part above 130 m , south of Haydon , is a small outcrop of Inferior Oolitic Limestone . All these limestones are from the Jurassic period . The steepest slopes of both the Kilmersdon and Snail ’ s Bottom valleys have frequently slipped . Below all of the area is the coal bearing Carboniferous strata . Haydon is an outlier of Radstock and was built to house the miners for the local pit . The disused railway line and inclined railway at Haydon form important elements within the Kilmersdon valley east of Haydon . The modern landscape has a less maintained and " rougher " character and texture than neighbouring agricultural areas . This is caused in the main by the remnants of the coal industry and its infrastructure and changes in agricultural management . The disturbance caused by coal mining and the railways and the subsequent ending of mining and disuse of the railways has created valuable habitats of nature conservation interest .
Along with the rest of South West England , Radstock has a temperate climate , which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of England . The annual mean temperature is about 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) with seasonal and diurnal variations , but because of the modifying effect of the sea , the range is less than in most other parts of the United Kingdom . January is the coldest month , with mean minimum temperatures between 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) and 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) . July and August are the warmest months in the region , with mean daily maxima around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . In general , December is the dullest month and June the sunniest . The southwest of England enjoys a favoured location , particularly in summer , when the Azores High extends its influence north @-@ eastwards towards the UK .
Cloud often forms inland , especially near hills , and reduces exposure to sunshine . The average annual sunshine is about 1 @,@ 600 hours . Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection . In summer , convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds , and a large proportion of the annual precipitation falls from showers and thunderstorms at that time of year . Average rainfall is 800 – 900 mm ( 31 – 35 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , and June to August having the lightest . The predominant wind direction is from the southwest .
= = Transport = =
Radstock was the terminus for the southern branch of the Somerset Coal Canal , which was turned into a tramway in 1815 and later incorporated into the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway . It then became a central point for railway development with large coal depots , warehouses , workshops and a gas works . As part of the development of the Wilts , Somerset and Weymouth Railway an 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) line from Radstock to Frome was built to carry the coal . In the 1870s the broad @-@ gauge line was converted to standard gauge and connected to the Bristol and North Somerset Line connecting it to the Great Western Railway at Bristol ; the GWR also took over the Wiltshire , Somerset and Weymouth Railway in 1876 . The Bristol and North Somerset line closed to passenger traffic in 1959 . The line is now the route of National Cycle Route 24 , otherwise known as the Colliers ' Way , a national cycle route which passes many landmarks associated with the coal field ; other local roads and footpaths follow the tramways developed during the coal mining years . The cycle route currently runs from Dundas Aqueduct to Frome via Radstock , although it is intended to provide a continuous cycle route to Southampton and Portsmouth .
Radstock had a second railway station on the Somerset & Dorset Joint Railway extension to Bath , which closed to passengers in 1966 . The stations were adjacent to each other in the centre of the town , and each had level crossings across the busy A367 road , causing long tailbacks at busy periods . The S & D line also carried substantial coal traffic . A spur from the Great Western line on to the S & D and continuing to Writhlington Colliery remained open for a few years after the railway 's closure to passenger traffic , until the colliery closed in 1973 .
= = Memorial Gardens = =
Since the closure of the railways the railway land in the centre of the town stood empty for many years . Most prominent was a green space between the museum and brook which housed a dis @-@ used pit wheel on a low steel frame , which many passers @-@ by mistook for a spinning wheel . There had long been an aspiration to develop a memorial park or garden on the site to commemorate both the mining history of the town and to provide a new setting for the town 's war memorial .
In 2001 a local practice of landscape architects , New Leaf Studio were commissioned by Bath & North East Somerset Council to develop proposals for the land . The first phase of the park , the Memorial gardens were then built for the Norton Radstock Town Council in 2005 to New leaf Studio 's designs incorporating a new sculptural base for the old mine wheel by artist Sebastien Boyesen .
The new Memorial Gardens incorporate the war memorial which was moved from Victoria Square as part of the project . The planting employs a naturalistic style with broad drifts of herbaceous perennials and grasses providing colour through a long season , extending through the winter with dry stems and seed heads .
= = Museum = =
The Radstock Museum is housed in the town 's former market hall . The museum has a range of exhibits which offer an insight into north @-@ east Somerset life since the 19th century . The museum was originally opened in 1989 in barns in Haydon , and moved to its current site in the restored and converted Victorian Market Hall , a grade II listed building dating from 1897 which was opened on 10 July 1999 by Loyd Grossman . Many of the exhibits relate to the now disused local Somerset coalfield and geology . Other areas include aspects of local history including the school and shops , a forge , carpenter 's shop and exhibits relating to agriculture . Artefacts and memorabilia of the Somerset Coal Canal , Somerset and Dorset and Great Western Railways are also on display .
= = Education = =
First schools for children up to 11 include St Mary ’ s C of E Primary School , St Nicholas C of E Primary School and Trinity Primary School . In the neighbouring parish of Westfield lie Westfield Primary School and , for pupils with complex learning difficulties , Fosseway School .
Writhlington School in Radstock is a secondary school for pupils aged 11 – 18 . It has specialist status as a Business and Enterprise College . The school has 1 @,@ 242 pupils in both compulsory and sixth @-@ form education . The school is notable for its orchid project , which includes the biggest collection of orchids outside Kew Gardens and has won numerous awards including a gold medal at the 2009 Chelsea Flower Show . The school has also won awards in business with its enterprise companies and was named the most enterprising school in England in 2006 .
The town is served by the Somer Valley site of Bath College , a further education college in neighbouring Westfield .
= = Sport and leisure = =
Radstock has a Non @-@ League football club Radstock Town F.C. who play at The Southfields Recreation Ground .
= = Media = =
The local free newspaper , the Midsomer Norton , Radstock & District Journal , has its offices in the town . The other local weekly paper is the Somerset Guardian , which is part of the Daily Mail and General Trust . The monthly magazine , the Mendip Times , also includes local features . Somer Valley FM ( 97.5FM and online ) is the Community Radio for the district .
= = Religious sites = =
Radstock contains four churches , united under the umbrella of " Churches together in Radstock " . There are frequent interfaith unity services in the town .
The Anglican parish church of St Nicholas has a west tower dating from the 15th century . The rest of the church was rebuilt in 1879 in Geometric style , by William Willcox . It is Grade II listed .
Radstock Methodist Church was formed in 1842 but the present building opened in 1902 . It was damaged by a fire in 2004 , and reopened in 2005 . Radstock Baptist Church , situated on Wells Hill , was founded in 1844 .
Radstock was one of the missions established in 1913 by the Downside community . A temporary building of thin wooden beams and asbestos blocks was erected in 1913 , and dedicated to St Hugh . Its altar rails and benches came from Prior Park . Dom Mackey was succeeded in 1918 by Dom Ambrose Agius , who acquired a disused printing works , formerly a barn and converted it into the present church in Westfield , which opened in 1929 . It was rebuilt after a serious fire in 1991 . It has a statue of the patron on its façade .
Radstock is also home to a Jehovah 's Witness Kingdom Hall .
= = Notable people = =
William Blacker ( 1843 – 1913 ) , Australian politician
L. J. F. Brimble ( 1904 – 65 ) , botanist and editor of Nature magazine .
Alick Grant ( 1916 – 2008 ) , footballer for Aldershot , Leicester City , Derby County , Newport County and York City .
Bill Hyman ( 1875 – 1959 ) , Somerset County cricketer .
Ernest Hyman ( 1904 – 1927 ) , Yeovil Town footballer .
Frank Pratten ( 1886 @-@ 1941 ) , founder of F. Pratten and Co Ltd , manufacturer of prefabricated classrooms and other buildings .
Janet Tanner , novelist and former local councillor ( also writes under the pseudonyms Jade Shannon and Amelia Carr ) .
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= Effects of Hurricane Wilma in The Bahamas =
The effects of Hurricane Wilma in The Bahamas were generally unexpected and primarily concentrated on the western portion of Grand Bahama . Hurricane Wilma developed on October 15 , 2005 in the Caribbean Sea , and after initially organizing slowly it explosively deepened to reach peak winds of 185 mph ( 295 km / h ) and a record @-@ low pressure of 882 mbar ( hPa ) . It weakened and struck eastern Mexico as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , and accelerated northeastward to make landfall on southwestern Florida on October 24 . After crossing the state , Wilma briefly restrengthened in the open Atlantic Ocean , moving north of The Bahamas before weakening and later becoming an extratropical cyclone .
On October 24 , Hurricane Wilma made its closest approach to The Bahamas , passing about 150 km ( 90 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Freeport . While passing the archipelago , Wilma produced hurricane @-@ force winds and powerful storm surge , flooding southwestern coastal areas of Grand Bahama and destroying hundreds of buildings . Damage totaled about $ 100 million ( 2005 USD ) , almost entirely on the western half of the island . Central Grand Bahama , including the Freeport area , reported minor to moderate damage , while the eastern end received little to no damage . One child died on the island from the flooding . Elsewhere in the Bahamas , moderate damage occurred on Abaco and Bimini , while islands further to the south reported minimal wind damage
= = Preparations = =
At 1200 UTC on October 23 , about 24 hours before Wilma made its closest approach to the archipelago , the government of The Bahamas issued a hurricane warning for the northwestern portion of the territory , including the Abacos , Andros Island , Berry Islands , Bimini , Eleuthera , Grand Bahama , and New Providence . The government of The Bahamas advised citizens to rush preparations to completion , though many failed to fully prepare , believing Wilma would pass through the region as a tropical storm . Many homes failed to board windows or apply hurricane shutters , as well . Officials ordered evacuations for the eastern and western portion of Grand Bahama island , and established multiple shelters on the island . Evacuations were minimal ; it is estimated that between 300 and 1 @,@ 000 people left . As most people failed to prepare sufficiently for the hurricane , hardware stores and food markets were generally well @-@ stocked .
= = Impact = =
On Grand Bahama Island , Wilma produced sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 95 mph ) and a gust of 178 km / h ( 111 mph ) . The hurricane also produced a storm surge of over 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) , reportedly as high as 6 @.@ 1 m ( 20 ft ) along the southwestern portion of the island . The surge , which moved about 305 m ( 1 @,@ 000 ft ) inland , caused large @-@ scale flooding that washed away or destroyed about 800 homes . Damage was estimated at $ 100 million ( 2005 USD ) on the western portion of the island . Excluding the southwestern region of Grand Bahama , the majority of the island reported minor wind damage , and the eastern end of the island reported little , or no , damage . Over 7 @,@ 000 people on the island were directly affected by the hurricane , many of whom had not fully recovered from hurricanes Frances and Jeanne during the previous year .
Significant damage was reported in coastal areas of Grand Bahama Island , with widespread destruction of roofs and vehicles , along with downed poles and trees . Power and telephone services were disrupted throughout the island . A total of 400 structures sustained damage , of which about 200 commercial buildings were severely damaged and recommended by engineers not to be repaired . Among the destroyed buildings were a police station on the western end and several buildings in Freeport . More than 500 automobiles were flooded , including five police cars . The storm surge also raised 54 corpses in five graveyards on the island . Several resorts were closed for an extended period of time , all on the western portion of the island . One hotel , the Xanadu Beach and Marine Resort , reported about $ 3 @.@ 5 million in damage ( 2005 USD ) , including numerous destroyed windows designed to withstand hurricane @-@ force winds . Further to the east , numerous houses and commercial buildings lost their roofs in the city of Freeport . One serious traffic accident occurred when the winds overturned a bus , inflicting injuries on the driver . Several other traffic accidents were reported in the area , although none were severe . During the passage of the hurricane , five cases of looting were reported , of which one person was caught in the process . Storm surge from the hurricane killed one child , the only casualty directly related to Wilma in the archipelago .
Damage was also heavy on Bimini island , where heavy rainfall and powerful storm surge damaged homes , trees , and utility poles . On the island , the hurricane severely damaged a hotel and eight waterfront homes . On Abaco , eight homes and a governmental clinic were destroyed . The storm surge destroyed a government dock and caused flooding and beach erosion near the coast . New Providence and the Berry Islands also reported minor wind damage from Wilma , primarily to downed trees and power lines . Throughout the Bahamas , Wilma damaged public infrastructure such as schools , roads , health clinics , and electrical systems .
= = Aftermath = =
By about two days after the passage of Hurricane Wilma , 800 residents on Grand Bahama remained in shelters , including 65 families who lost their homes and stayed in a hotel set up as a government shelter in Freeport . On Bimini , most residents who evacuated to shelters returned to their homes within two days of the hurricane . The Bahamian Red Cross quickly assessed the damage on Grand Bahama and Bimini , and successfully requested to be included under the federation 's hurricane appeal for Central America . Local Red Cross chapters mobilized all available resources to assist the residents most affected . The Bahamian Red Cross began a three @-@ month program to distribute food and other items to 1 @,@ 000 of the 3 @,@ 500 affected families , primarily on Grand Bahama ; the remaining 2 @,@ 500 families received assistance from the government and other organizations . Volunteers delivered building materials and provided water vouchers to those affected . In Nassau , the Red Cross disaster contingency stock sent a boat with food items , blankets , health kits , tarpaulins and water . About a week after the hurricane , the United States Agency for International Development began providing $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 2005 USD ) to the Bahamian National Emergency Management Agency for the purchase and distribution of emergency supplies . The agency also provided $ 9 @,@ 000 ( 2005 USD ) for locally contracted helicopter assessments in the affected areas . Red Cross agencies throughout the Caribbean Sea provided hygienic kits , plastic sheeting , blankets , and jerry cans .
Electricians had power restored to the Freeport area by the day after the storm , and had power restored to most of the western portion of the island within three weeks after the hurricane . Work crews quickly removed road debris and tree limbs , and by the day after the passage of Wilma most roads were cleared . The passage of the hurricane left 1 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 people and hundreds of animals homeless . In response , the Grand Bahama Humane Society distributed about 340 kg ( 750 lb ) of dog food and treated or euthanized injured animals , depending on their condition . The earlier effects of Wilma on Mexico left many tourist areas in that country closed , leading to a 10 % increase in tourism in the Bahamas in December 2005 . By about three weeks after the hurricane , the airport on Grand Bahama Island was reopened , and all but one resort were also reopened ; the remaining resort was reopened about two months after the hurricane .
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= SMS Viribus Unitis =
SMS Viribus Unitis was the first Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought battleship of the Tegetthoff class . Its name , meaning " Joint Forces " , was the personal motto of Emperor Franz Joseph I.
Viribus Unitis was ordered by the Austro @-@ Hungarian navy in 1908 . As the first of the newly created Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , she was laid down in Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste on 24 July 1910 . Viribus Unitis was launched from the shipyard on 24 June 1911 and was formally commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 5 December 1912 .
During World War I , Viribus Unitis took part in the flight of the German warships SMS Goeben and Breslau . In May 1915 , she also took part in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . Viribus Unitis was sunk by a limpet mine planted by frogmen of the Italian Regia Marina on 1 November 1918 .
= = Construction and design = =
= = = Construction = = =
Viribus Unitis was ordered in 1908 as the first of a class of four , the first dreadnoughts to be built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Initially intended to be named Tegetthoff , she was renamed on the personal order of Emperor Franz Josef ; following this , the second ship of the class was named Tegetthoff . The ship was laid down in the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste on 24 July 1910 . Following eleven months of construction , Viribus Unitis was launched on 24 June 1911 . Following her fitting out , she was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 5 December 1912 .
= = = Characteristics = = =
Viribus Unitis had an overall length of 152 metres ( 498 ft 8 in ) , a beam of 27 @.@ 9 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 8 @.@ 7 metres ( 28 ft 7 in ) at deep load . She displaced 20 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 19 @,@ 684 long tons ) at load and 21 @,@ 689 tonnes ( 21 @,@ 346 long tons ) at deep load .
Viribus Unitis had four Parsons steam turbines , each of which was housed in a separate engine @-@ room . The turbines were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 27 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 134 kW ) , which was theoretically enough to attain her designed speed of 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) , but no figures from her speed trials are known to exist . She carried 1 @,@ 844 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 815 @.@ 4 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 267 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 263 @.@ 0 long tons ) of fuel oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) .
Viribus Unitis mounted twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) / 45 @-@ caliber K 10 guns in four triple turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) / 50 K 10 guns mounted in casemates amidships . Twelve 66 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) / 50 K 10 guns were mounted on open pivots on the upper deck above the casemates . Three more 66 @-@ mm K 10 guns were mounted on the upper turrets for anti @-@ aircraft duties . Four 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted , one each in the bow , stern and on each broadside ; twelve torpedoes were carried .
= = Service history = =
= = = Archduke Franz Ferdinand 's visit to Sarajevo = = =
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria traveled aboard Viribus Unitis in late June 1914 en route to Bosnia to observe military maneuvers . On 25 June , he boarded the ship in Trieste Harbor and travelled to the mouth of the Neretva River , where he transferred to another vessel . On 30 June , two days after Ferdinand and his wife were killed by Gavrilo Princip in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo , Viribus Unitis transported their bodies back to Trieste .
= = = World War I = = =
Prior to the war , Viribus Unitis was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . During World War I , the battleship saw limited service due to the Otranto Barrage which prohibited Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships from leaving the Adriatic sea . As a result , she hardly ever left Pola .
Viribus Unitis , along with her sister ships Tegetthoff , Prinz Eugen and the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , was mobilized on the eve of World War I to support the flight of SMS Goeben and Breslau . The two German ships were stationed in the Mediterranean and were attempting to break out of the strait of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops and vessels and make their way to Turkey . After the Germans successfully broke out of Messina , the navy was recalled . The fleet had by that time advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy . Viribus Unitis also participated in the bombardment of the Italian city of Ancona in May 1915 . Following these operations Viribus Unitis remained in Pola for most of the remainder of the war .
Her tenure in Pola was livened up by a visit from the new Emperor Charles I on 15 December 1916 and another by Kaiser Wilhelm II on 12 December 1917 during his inspection of the German submarine base there . The Italians conducted no less than eighty air raids on Pola between 1915 and 1917 .
= = = The Otranto Raid = = =
By 1918 , the new commander of the Austrian fleet , Konteradmiral Miklós Horthy , decided to conduct another attack on the Otranto Barrage to allow more German and Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boats to safely get through the heavily defended strait . During the night of 8 June , Horthy left the naval base of Pola with Viribus Unitis and Prinz Eugen . The other two dreadnoughts , Szent István and Tegetthoff , along with one destroyer and six torpedo boats departed Pola on 9 June . At about 3 : 15 on the morning of 10 June , two Italian MAS boats , MAS 15 and MAS 21 , spotted the Austrian fleet . The MAS platoon was commanded by Capitano di fregata Luigi Rizzo while the individual boats were commanded by Capo timoniere Armando Gori and Guardiamarina di complemento Giuseppe Aonzo respectively . Both boats successfully penetrated the escort screen and split to engage each of the dreadnoughts . MAS 21 attacked Tegetthoff , but her torpedoes failed . MAS 15 managed to hit Szent István with her torpedoes at about 3 : 25 am . Both boats were then chased away from the scene by the Austrian escort vessels .
Despite attempts to take the crippled Szent István into tow by Tegetthoff , the ship continued to sink and the attempt was abandoned . A few minutes after 6 : 00 am Szent István sank . Admiral Horthy , commander of the proposed attack , soon canceled the attack because he thought that the Italians had discovered his plan and ordered the ships to return to Pola . On the contrary , the Italians did not even discover that the Austrian dreadnoughts had departed Pola until later on 10 June when aerial reconnaissance photos revealed that they were no longer there . This was the last military operation that the Viribus Unitis was to take part in and she spent the rest of her career at port in Pola .
= = = Italian sabotage and sinking = = =
After it was clear that Austria @-@ Hungary had lost World War I , the Austrian government decided to give the ship , along with much of the fleet , to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs . This move would have avoided handing the fleet to the Allies , since the new state had declared neutrality . Following the transfer of Viribus Unitis to the State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , she was renamed Jugoslavija .
On 1 November 1918 , two men of the Regia Marina , Raffaele Paolucci and Raffaele Rossetti , rode a primitive manned torpedo ( nicknamed Mignatta or " leech " ) into the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola . Using limpet mines , they then sank Viribus Unitis now wearing the Croatian flag on its mast as well as the freighter Wien . It is not clear if the Italians participating in the action knew that the ship no longer belonged to Austria @-@ Hungary .
Traveling down the rows of Austrian battleships , the two men encountered Viribus Unitis at around 4 : 40 am . Rossetti placed one canister of TNT on the hull of the battleship , timed to explode at 6 : 30 am . He then flooded the second canister , sinking it on the harbor floor close to the ship . This second canister exploded close to the Austrian freighter Wien , resulting in her sinking . The men had no breathing sets , and therefore had to keep their heads above water . They were discovered and taken prisoner just after placing the explosives under the battleship 's hull . The two @-@ man team were captured and taken aboard Viribus Unitis , where they informed the new captain of the battleship what they had done but did not reveal the exact position of the explosives . Admiral Vuković then arranged for the two prisoners to be taken safely to the sister ship Tegetthoff , and ordered the evacuation of the ship . The explosion did not happen at 6 : 30 as predicted and Vuković returned to the ship with many sailors ( believing mistakenly that the Italians had lied ) . He therefore remained on his ship and went down with her and 300 – 400 of her crew when the mines exploded shortly afterwards at 6 : 44 . Following the explosion , the battleship sank in 15 minutes .
The two Italian crew were interned for a few days until the end of the war and were honored by the Kingdom of Italy with the Gold Medal of Military Valor .
= = Commemorations = =
SMS Viribus Unitis was selected as the main motif of a high value collectors ' coin : the Austrian SMS Viribus Unitis commemorative coin , minted on 13 September 2006 . The obverse side shows the flagship Viribus Unitis as seen from the deck of an accompanying ship in the fleet . Two other ships of an older class can be seen in the background . The reverse of the coin is a tribute to the old Austro @-@ Hungarian Imperial Navy , showing the SMS Viribus Unitis from a front angle . A naval biplane circles overhead and a submarine surfaces in the foreground . The coin commemorates not only the ship Viribus Unitis , but also the three main arms of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the First World War . The coin was the last of the series " Austria on the High Seas " .
There is a cutaway model of Viribus Unitis in the Museum of Military History in Vienna . The model is at a scale of 1 : 25 and has a total length of 6 metres . It was built between 1913 and 1917 by eight craftsmen of the shipyard Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino . The model is true to the original in structure , layout , and engine system . It is accurate to the point that , for instance , the painting in the wardroom of the model exactly replicates the original not only in subject but also in the painting technique ( oil on canvas ) .
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= Coat of arms of Singapore =
The National Coat of Arms of Singapore is the heraldic symbol representing the Southeast Asian island nation of Singapore . It was adopted in 1959 , the year Singapore became self @-@ governing within the British Empire . The committee that created it , headed by then Deputy Prime Minister Toh Chin Chye , was also responsible for the national flag and the national anthem of Singapore .
At the centre of the emblem is a red shield bearing a white crescent ( a new moon , representing a rising young nation ) and five white stars ( representing various national ideals including multiculturalism ) , supported by a lion and a tiger ( representing Singapore and Malaysia respectively ) ; below them is a blue ribbon inscribed with Majulah Singapura in gold , Malay for " Onward Singapore " . While the use of the coat of arms is restricted to the government , the symbol enjoys wide use on the national currency and state decorations , and appears on the cover of the national passport .
= = History = =
When Singapore became self @-@ governing in 1959 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew was determined to create for the new state a coat of arms , among other symbols , to replace the coat of arms of the United Kingdom that had been in use until then . A committee was formed to design the state symbols , headed by the deputy prime minister Toh Chin Chye , who wanted both the arms and flag of Singapore to represent the country 's united , multi @-@ ethnic society .
The coat of arms and the flag were created over a span of two months by Toh and his committee . A law establishing the state symbols of Singapore was presented to the National Assembly by the Minister of Culture , S Rajaratnam , and approved in November 1959 . On 3 December 1959 , the state coat of arms , flag and anthem were presented to the people of Singapore for the first time .
Toh said in a 1989 interview that when tasked with the creation of the state symbols , " apart from the anthem we have to produce the flag and the crest " , and he felt that the new flag of Singapore should be flying next to the Union Jack . Toh further stated :
In the case of the state crest , again we got the five stars and the new moon ... A lion next to the tiger . Tiger of course is a more local animal than the lion . The old City Council had a lion . It did merge with our own ideas of self governing of Singapore .
= = Symbolism = =
The central emblem of the coat of arms is a red shield with five white stars resting above a white crescent , similar to the crescent and stars used on the Singapore flag and such other national symbols as the national ensign for civilian ships . Red symbolises " universal brotherhood and equality of man " and white " pervading and everlasting purity and virtue " . The crescent represents a new moon , which reflects " a young nation on the ascendant " , while the five @-@ pointed stars " stand for the nation 's ideals of democracy , peace , progress , justice and equality " .
The supporters of the shield are a lion and a tiger : the tiger symbolises the nation 's historical and close connections to Malaysia ( which Singapore was a state of from 1963 to 1965 ) while the lion represents Singapore itself . Below the supporters is a blue ribbon on which the national motto , Majulah Singapura , is written in gold . Majulah Singapura is also the title of the national anthem ; it means " Onward Singapore " in Malay , the national language of Singapore .
= = Uses = =
In 1985 the Monetary Authority of Singapore ( MAS ) began to issue their second series of coins . The coat of arms is displayed on the obverse side of these coins , surrounded by an inscription comprising the name of Singapore in the four official languages ( Chinese , Malay , Tamil and English ) and the year of minting . In 1987 the dollar coin entered circulation with this same pattern .
According to the MAS , the coat of arms has also appeared on all Singaporean banknotes since the " Orchid " series of 1967 . State decorations of Singapore also depict the coat of arms on the medallions . For example , the medallions of the Darjah Utama Temasek and the Sijil Kemuliaan use the full achievement of arms , while the Darjah Utama Bakti Cemerlang medal displays the shield .
= = Guidelines = =
According to the Singapore Arms and Flag and National Anthem Rules , the use of the coat of arms is restricted to the government . Without explicit permission from the Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts ( MICA ) , no person or group is permitted to physically print , manufacture , display or sell anything depicting the coat of arms , or to allow such actions to happen . It is also forbidden to use any symbol that can be easily mistaken for the coat of arms . Persons who wish to use the coat of arms in a literary work must also obtain prior permission from MICA . The only exception provided by the Rules is that the arms can be used by government officials and ministries on their building 's exteriors and on printed documents .
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= Hsu Tain @-@ tsair =
Hsu Tain @-@ tsair ( traditional Chinese : 許添財 ; simplified Chinese : 许添财 ; pinyin : Xǔ Tiāncái ; Wade – Giles : Hsǔ Tiēn @-@ tsái ; Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : Khó ͘ Thiam @-@ châi ) , a Taiwanese politician who served as the mayor of Tainan City from 2001 to 2010 . Born in Tainan County ( now part of Tainan City ) , Hsu got his PhD candidacy in economics in the United States , where he started participating in the independence movement of Taiwan . He was placed on the black list of Kuomintang and was not allowed to return to Taiwan until 1990 .
When Hsu returned to Taiwan , he joined the Democratic Progressive Party ( DPP ) . Having been elected legislator three times , Hsu is considered a privy councilor to the DPP in the field of economics . He was nominated to run for the mayor of Tainan and was elected in 2001 . During his terms as mayor , Hsu worked on public projects and encouraged tourism . For example , a police unit was established to facilitate tourists in 2007 , and he also improved the environment of the city .
In 2009 , Hsu worked with the Tainan County government to push for a merger that would form a special municipality . The merger was set to take effect in December 2010 , giving Hsu one additional year in his mayoral term . During the DPP primary election for the nomination of a new Tainan mayor in May , he lost to William Lai by 12 % of the votes.After Lai elected mayor , Hsu later run for Lai 's seat as member of Legislative Yuan and finally elected .
= = Early years = =
After graduating from Duba Elementary School in Tainan County , Hsu attended Tsengwen Junior High School ( 曾文中學 ; now the Madou Junior High School ) , where he was a classmate of former President of the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) Chen Shui @-@ bian for four years . He then attended the Cheng Kung Senior High School . In 1976 , Hsu got his Master of Economics degree from the Chinese Culture University and started teaching banking the next year at the same school .
In 1982 , Hsu went to the United States as a Columbia University exchange scholar . In the same year , he joined the World United Formosans for Independence , and he also served as the literary editor for the Taiwan Tribune . As a result , he was placed on the Kuomintang 's black list and was unable to return to Taiwan . He then earned his PhD candidacy from New School for Social Research . In 1990 , Hsu was invited to a meeting by President Lee Teng @-@ hui and returned to Taiwan as a Taiwanese @-@ American professor . With the influence of then @-@ legislators Chen Shui @-@ bian , Peng Pai @-@ hsien ( 彭百顯 ) , Hung Chi @-@ chang ( 洪奇昌 ) , and Lu Hsiu @-@ yi , the government relented and removed the restriction for Hsu to exit and enter the country , finally issuing him a new passport .
Hsu started helping members of the World United Formosans for Independence return to Taiwan in 1991 . In 1992 , after being nominated by the Democratic Progressive Party ( DPP ) , Hsu was elected to become a member of the Legislative Yuan . In 1995 , he was not nominated by the DPP , but was still elected as an independent candidate . He lost the election for the office of mayor of Tainan in 1997 and instead became the secretary @-@ general of the New National Coalition ( 新國家連線 ) shortly after the establishment of the organization . He was re @-@ elected legislator in the 1998 legislative election . Hsu stepped out of the New National Coalition and rejoined the DPP shortly after his re @-@ election to the Legislative Yuan . He was nominated by the DPP Central Executive Committee as the party 's candidate for the Tainan mayoral race .
= = Tainan mayoralty = =
Hsu was elected mayor of Tainan in 2001 and was re @-@ elected to that post in 2004 . In his terms as mayor , he focused on projects to beautify the city , to set up cultural parks and to strive for major constructions . He worked to help the city profit from historical assets and restore Tainan 's former splendor . He made 2007 Tainan 's " year of culture and tourism " to promote Tainan 's tourism attractions . His major mayoral achievements were the renovation of the city transportation system and overseeing the city 's successful bids for the 2005 and 2006 Taiwan Lantern Festivals , the 2007 International Chihsi Arts Festival , and the 2007 National Games of Taiwan ( 全國運動會 ) . One of his major goals , the renovation of the Tainan Railway Station and National Cheng Kung University , is scheduled to be completed during his term in office and has earned him high compliments .
Hsu supported a merger between Tainan City and Tainan County to form a special municipality . The Executive Yuan passed a resolution to upgrade the city , and the official merger will occur in December 2010 . In January 2010 , Hsu declared his candidacy in the 2010 municipal election . During the DPP primary election in May , he lost to fellow Tainan politician William Lai by 12 % of the votes , ending his candidacy .
= = = Development = = =
During the DPP primary election for the nomination of presidential candidate , Hsu expressed that he " will not support the candidate that opposes the construction of an underground railway system in Tainan . " Then @-@ Premier Su Tseng @-@ chang promised that the construction would be financially supported by the central government if he were elected . As a result , Hsu openly supported Su in the primary election .
He also believes that in order to improve the competitive advantage of Taiwan , the government should review the distribution of resources between northern and southern Taiwan , with the purpose of balancing their development . Hsu , as a member of the Democratic Progressive Party , also supports the independence movement of Taiwan . Hsu thinks that the United Nations membership referendum is an important step for democracy . He participated in the " UN for Taiwan " rally on September 15 , 2007 .
While the National Central Library is located in Taipei , Hsu strongly supports the establishment of a regional branch in Tainan City . The branch might be established in Kaohsiung City , another southern city . Hsu , however , is confident about Tainan being chosen as the location for the new branch because of the transport convenience and academic resources of the region .
= = = Environment = = =
Under his term , the environment of the city greatly improved . Hsu started a program of having the city 's garbage trucks ring out brief English lessons in 2002 . He promoted the use of eco @-@ friendly chopsticks by requiring government officials and teachers to use their own reusable chopsticks when dining , expressing that the goal of the campaign is to reduce the use of disposable chopsticks by 100 @,@ 000 pairs per day .
During his second term in office , Tainan City became the first Taiwanese city to enter the Alliance for Healthy Cities of the World Health Organization . In addition , Tainan also became the first Taiwanese city to enter the Global Cities Dialogue . Hsu also believes that Tainan should become a city of international tourism and culture , and he is working towards that purpose . In September 2007 , he spoke to the 2007 Asia @-@ Pacific Cities Summit participants and stated that Tainan is blessed with natural , historic , cultural and humanistic characteristics , and that Tainan also possesses great conditions for high @-@ tech , trade and investment development .
Hsu worked to make Tainan a smoke @-@ free environment . After the successful ban of smoking in public areas such as shopping centers , he pushed through the ban of smoking in historical sites . The Chihkan Tower became the first smoke @-@ free historical site in Taiwan after the passing of the regulation in October 2007 . Other historical sites covered by the regulation include Tainan Confucian Temple , Fort Zeelandia , and Eternal Golden Castle .
In January 2008 , the government of Tainan started an operation to clean up dioxin @-@ contaminated soil around the site of a defunct factory of Taiwan Alkali Industrial Corp ( 台鹼公司 ) . The Hsu administration was the first to take action since 1982 , when the government became aware of the mercury concentrations .
= = = Law enforcement = = =
Due to an accidental killing of a teenage girl while trying to shoot a psychotic suspect , the Tainan City Police Bureau made a decision to develop a special kind of baton in 2006 . When dealing with suspects without firearms , the police officers are expected to use the baton first in order to reduce accidents . To commemorate the girl who died , mayor Hsu named the baton after her .
In September 2007 , the Tourism Mounted Police Unit of Tainan ( Chinese : 臺南市觀光騎警隊 ) was established to attract tourists . The members of the unit wear green uniforms and ride bicycles around the city in the weekends . They facilitate tourists and at the same time try to reduce crime rate .
= = Criticism = =
After the DPP nominated Hsu as the 2001 Tainan mayoral race candidate , protests led by supporters of then @-@ incumbent mayor George Chang , who is also a member of the DPP , arose . The protesters called Hsu a betrayer of the party as he left the party in 1995 . They showed their disapproval of the party 's choice by burning their party membership cards .
The prevention of dengue fever in Taiwan was always most successful in Tainan City . In 2007 , however , outbreaks in the city was almost unstoppable . The fever outbreaks originally occurred only in Annan District , where the first case was reported in June . The health department failed to control the spread of the fever , and all six districts ended up having confirmed cases . There were also an outbreak in an old soldiers ' home . On August 22 , Mayor Hsu apologized for the disastrous outbreak of the dengue fever ; he announced that the health department would be reorganized and new officials would be appointed in six months .
= = = Mayoral scandals = = =
While then @-@ mayor of Taipei Ma Ying @-@ jeou was indicted for alleged misuse of " special allowance fund " , prosecutors dropped Hsu Tain @-@ tsair 's case in March 2007 . However , on April 10 , 2007 , Hsu was indicted by prosecutors for his alleged involvement in a construction scandal and violations of the Government Procurement Act ( Chinese : 政府採購法 ) . The scandal was broken by the Tainan City councillor Hsieh Long @-@ chieh ( 謝龍介 ) in May 2006 during a council meeting .
In April 2007 , Hsu was indicted by the Tainan prosecutors . In their statement of charges , the prosecutors accused Hsu of money grafting in an underground city construction project . According to Hsu , the prosecutors heavily used the testimonies of people who were convicted of crime . In August 2009 , Hsu was found not guilty by the Tainan District Court .
= = Electoral history = =
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= The Kampung Boy =
The Kampung Boy , also known as Lat , the Kampung Boy or simply Kampung Boy , is a graphic novel by Lat about a young boy 's experience growing up in rural Perak in the 1950s . The book is an autobiographical account of the artist 's life , telling of his adventures in the jungles and tin mines , his circumcision , family , and school life . It is also the basis for the eponymous animated series broadcast in 1999 . First published in 1979 by Berita Publishing , The Kampung Boy was a commercial and critical success ; its first printing ( of at least 60 @,@ 000 copies , 16 times ) was sold out within four months of its release . Narrated in English with a smattering of Malay , the work has been translated into other languages , such as Japanese and French , and sold abroad .
The book made Lat an international figure and a highly regarded cartoonist in Malaysia . It won several awards when released as Kampung Boy in the United States , such as Outstanding International Book for 2007 and the Children 's Book Council and Booklist Editor 's Choice for 2006 . The Kampung Boy became a franchise , with the characters of The Kampung Boy decorating calendars , stamps , and aeroplanes . A Malaysian theme park is scheduled to open in 2012 with the fictional characters as part of its attractions . The Kampung Boy is very popular in Southeast Asia and has gone through 16 reprints . A sequel , Town Boy , which followed the protagonist in his teenage years in the city , was published in 1981 and a spin @-@ off , Kampung Boy : Yesterday and Today , in 1993 . The latter reused the setting of The Kampung Boy to compare and contrast the differences between Malaysian childhood experiences in the 1950s and 1980s .
= = Problem = =
The Kampung Boy tells the story of a young boy , Lat , and his childhood in a kampung ( village ) . A graphic novel , it illustrates the boy 's life in pictures and words . Aside from being the protagonist , Lat is also the narrator . The story opens with his birth in a kampung in Perak , Malaysia , and the traditional rituals surrounding the event : the recitation of blessings , the singing of religious songs , and the observance of ceremonies . As Lat grows older , he explores the house , gradually shifting the story 's focus to the comic activities of his family outside their abode .
Lat starts the first stage of his formal education — reading the Qur 'an . At these religious classes , he makes new friends and joins them in their adventures , swimming in the rivers and exploring the jungles . Lat 's parents worry over his lack of interest in his studies ; he acknowledges their concern but finds himself unmotivated to forgo play for academic pursuits . When he reaches his tenth year , he undergoes the bersunat , a ritual circumcision . The ceremonies that precede the operation are elaborate , with processions and baths in the river . The circumcision proves to be " just like an ant bite ! "
Sometime after recovering from the circumcision , Lat trespasses on a tin mine with his friends . They teach him how to gather the mud left in the wake of the mining dredges and pan for valuable ore . The activity is illegal but often overlooked by the miners . Lat brings the result of his labour back to his father , expecting praise . Instead , he is punished for neglecting his studies and future . After overhearing his parents ' laments and being shown the family 's rubber plantation , Lat finds the will to push himself to study . He is rewarded for his efforts , passing a " special examination " and qualifying for a " high @-@ standard " boarding school in Ipoh , the state capital .
Rushing home to inform his parents , Lat discovers his father in negotiations with a tin mining company , which is surveying the land . The company will offer a large sum of money for the family 's properties if they discover tin on it . Other villagers are hoping for similar deals with the company . They plan to buy houses in Ipoh if their hopes are realised . The day for Lat to depart the village has arrived and he is excited , but as he is about to depart , sadness washes over him . He acknowledges the emotions as his love of the village and hopes that the place where he was born will remain unchanged when he returns and see it changed .
= = Conception = =
The Kampung Boy is an autobiography . Its author , Lat , grew up in a kampung and moved to the city after graduating from high school . He worked there as a crime reporter and drew cartoons to supplement his income — a hobby he had started at the age of nine . Lat became the column cartoonist for his newspaper after impressing his editors with his cartoons on the bersunat . He was sent to London to study at St Martin 's School of Art and on returning to Malaysia in 1975 , he reinvented his column , Scenes of Malaysian Life , into an editorial comic series . It proved popular and as Lat 's fame grew , he began questioning his city lifestyle and reminiscing about his life in the kampung . Lat felt he and his fellow citizens had all forgotten their village origins and wanted to remind them of that . He began working on The Kampung Boy in 1977 , conceptualising and drawing the scenes when he was not drawing Scenes of Malaysian Life . His labour came to fruition in 1979 when Berita Publishing Sendirian Berhad released The Kampung Boy on the Malaysian market .
= = Art style and presentation = =
The style of Kampung Boy does not follow that commonly found in Western graphic novels . A page can be occupied fully by a single drawing , accompanied by text . The image either presents a scene that stands on its own or segues into the next , forming a story sequence that flows across two facing pages . The story is told in a local dialect of English , simpler in its grammatical structure and sprinkled with Malay words and phrases . Deborah Stevenson , editor of The Bulletin of the Center for Children 's Books , found that the narration invokes a sense of camaraderie with the reader , and carries an " understated affection for family , neighbours and village life . " Mike Shuttleworth , reviewer for The Age , said that Lat often achieved humour in this book by illustrating the scene contrary to what was described . Stevenson agreed , highlighting a scene in which Mat spoke of how his mother tenderly fed him porridge ; the illustration , however , shows her irritation as the toddler spits the porridge back at her .
Kevin Steinberger , reviewer for Magpies , found Lat 's layout made Kampung Boy an " easy , inviting read . " He said that Lat 's pen @-@ and @-@ ink drawings relied on the " strong contrast between black and white to create space and suggest substance . " Lat drew the children of Kampung Boy as " mostly mop @-@ topped , toothy , bare @-@ bottomed or sarong @-@ draped " kids , who are often " exaggeratedly dwarfed " by items of the adult world . He explained that the way the boys were drawn was partly due to the influence of comics he read in the 1950s ; " naughty ones with ... bushy hair " were prominent male protagonists in those books . The adult characters are easily distinguished by their exaggerated clothing and accessories such as puffed out pants and butterfly glasses . " Short and round " shapes make the design of the characters distinctive . These characters display exaggerated expressions , particularly when they are drawn to face the readers .
Francisca Goldsmith , a librarian and comics reviewer , found Lat 's scenes to be " scribbly " , yet " wonderfully detailed " . Similarly , comics journalist Greg McElhatton commented that The Kampung Boy was " a strange mix of caricature and careful , fine detail . " These two views lend support to Muliyadi 's assertion that Lat demonstrated his strength in The Kampung Boy ; his eye for detail extended to his characters and , more importantly , the surroundings . Lat 's characters look , dress , act , and talk like real Malaysians would , and they are placed in environments that are readily identifiable with local jungles , villages , and cities . The faithful details impart a sense of familiarity to Malaysian readers and make the scenes convincing to others .
= = Adaptations = =
New Straits Times , the paper Lat was working for in the 1970s , was published in English ; its directive was to serve a multi @-@ racial readership . Redza commented that Lat understood Malaysian society and the need to engage all of its racial groups . The Kampung Boy was thus written and published in English . At Lat 's request , Berita Publishing hired his friend , Zainon Ahmad , to translate the graphic novel into Malay . This version was published under the title Budak Kampung . By 2008 , The Kampung Boy had been reprinted 16 times , and translated into various languages such as Portuguese , French , and Japanese . Countries that have printed localised versions of The Kampung Boy include Brazil , Germany , Korea and the United States .
= = = United States adaptation = = =
The United States adaptation , which dropped the definite article from the title , was published by First Second Books in 2006 . The book is in a smaller format ( 6 inches by 8 inches ) and sported Matt Groening 's testimonial — " one of the all @-@ time great cartoon books " — on its cover . According to Gina Gagliano , First Second 's Marketing Associate , the publishers left the story mostly untouched ; they had not altered the contents to be more befitting to American tastes . They did , however , change the grammar and spelling from British English ( the standard followed by Malaysia ) to the American version and lettered the text in a font based on Lat 's handwriting . First Second judged that the original book 's sprinklings of Malay terms were not huge obstacles to their customers . Most of the Malay words could be clearly understood from context , either through text or with the accompanying illustrations . The clarity of the language left the publisher few terms to explain to North American readers ; the few that remained were explained either by inserting definitions within parentheses or by replacing the Malay word with an English equivalent .
= = = Animated television series = = =
The success of The Kampung Boy led to its adaptation as an animated series . Started in 1995 , production took four years to complete and was an international effort , involving companies in countries such as Malaysia , the Philippines , and the United States . The series uses the characters of the graphic novel , casting them in stories that bear similarities to The Simpsons . Comprising 26 episodes , Kampung Boy features themes that focus on the meshing of traditional ways of life with modern living , the balance between environmental conservation and urban development , and local superstitions . One of its episodes , " Oh ! Tok " , featuring a spooky banyan tree , won a special Annecy Award for an animated episode of more than 13 minutes in 1999 . Although the pilot episode was shown on television in 1997 , the series began broadcasting over the satellite television network Astro in 1999 . Aside from Malaysia , Kampung Boy was broadcast in other countries such as Germany and Canada .
= = Reception and legacy = =
According to Lat , The Kampung Boy 's first print — 60 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 copies — was sold out in three to four months ; by 1979 , at least 100 @,@ 000 had been sold . The Kampung Boy is regarded as Lat 's finest work and representative of his oeuvre . After being published in the United States , Kampung Boy won the Children 's Book Council and Booklist Editor 's Choice award in 2006 . It was also awarded the Outstanding International Book for 2007 by the United States Board of Books for Young People .
The Kampung Boy was successful due to its realistic presentation of Malaysia 's cultural past . Many Malaysians who grew up in the 1960s or earlier fondly remembered the laidback lives they had in the kampung upon reading the book . Stevenson said that The Kampung Boy 's portrayal of the past would resonate with everyone 's fondness for a happy experience in his or her own past . Those unfamiliar with the ways of the kampung could relate to the " universal themes of childhood , adolescence , and first @-@ love " . According to Stevenson , the illustrations help to clarify any unfamiliar terms the reader might face and the narrative force of Lat 's story depends more on the protagonist 's experiences than on the details . The book 's appeal to both children and adults lies in Lat 's success in recapturing the innocence of childhood .
Malaysian art historian Redza Piyadasa said that " The Kampung Boy was a masterpiece that was clearly designed to be read as a novel . " He compared the graphical depiction of childhood experience to Camara Laye 's novel The African Child and viewed The Kampung Boy as the " finest and most sensitive evocation of a rural Malay childhood ever attempted in [ Malaysia ] , in any creative medium . " Steinberger had the same thoughts , but compared The Kampung Boy to Colin Thiele 's autobiographical novel Sun on the Stubble , which expounds on the fun and mischief of early childhood .
Lat 's success with The Kampung Boy created new opportunities for him . He set up his own company — Kampung Boy Sendirian Berhad ( Village Boy private limited ) — to handle the merchandising of his cartoon characters and occasional publishing of his books . Kampung Boy is partnering with Sanrio and Hit Entertainment in a project to open an indoor theme park in Malaysia by the end of 2012 . One of the park 's attractions is the showcasing of Lat 's characters alongside those of Hello Kitty and Bob the Builder . The distinctive characters of The Kampung Boy have become a common sight in Malaysia . They are immortalised on stamps , financial guides , and aeroplanes .
= = Sequel and spinoff = =
= = = Town Boy = = =
Town Boy is the sequel to The Kampung Boy . Published in 1981 , it continues Mat 's story in the multicultural city of Ipoh , where he attends school , learns of American pop music , and makes new friends of various races , notably a Chinese boy named Frankie . Mat capers through town and gets into mischievous adventures with his friends . He and Frankie bond through their common love of rock @-@ and @-@ roll and playing air @-@ guitar to Elvis Presley 's tunes above the coffee shop run by Frankie 's parents . As Mat grows into his teens , he dates Normah , " the hottest girl in Ipoh . " Town Boy 's story is a collection of Lat 's reminiscences about his teenage days in Ipoh , an account of " the days before [ he ] moved to the capital city to venture into life as an adult ... and later a professional doodler . " The cartoonist wanted to publicise his knowledge of music and write a subtle story about friendship . Frankie is representative of the diverse friends Lat made in those days through a common love of music .
The book 's layout is more varied than The Kampung Boy 's , featuring " short multi @-@ panel sequences with giant double @-@ page @-@ spread @-@ drawings . " Comics artist Seth commented that Lat 's drawings are filled with " vigor and raw energy " , " entirely based on eccentric stylizations but grounded with an eye capable of wonderfully accurate observation of the real world . " At certain points , crowd scenes spread across the pages of the book , filled with " Lat 's broadly humorous and humane " characters . Comics journalist Tom Spurgeon said after readings such scenes : " There are times when reading Town Boy feels like watching through a street fair after it rains , everyday existence altered by an event just enough to make everything stand out . You can get lost in the cityscapes . "
The Asian characters occasionally speak in their native tongues , their words rendered in Chinese or Tamil glyphs without translations . Goldsmith and Ridzwan did not find the foreign words to be a hindrance in understanding and enjoying the work . Instead , they believed the non @-@ English languages aided Lat 's construction of his world as one different from a dominantly English @-@ speaking world . Lat 's depiction of Mat 's visit to Frankie 's home transcends culture , portraying realistically the experiences most children feel when visiting the " foreign but familiar staleness " of their new friend 's home . Mat and Frankie 's growing friendship is a central theme of the book , and their bond as they enjoy rock @-@ and @-@ roll together in Frankie 's house has become a notable scene for readers such as journalist Ridzwan A. Rahim . Their friendship marks a shift in the story of Mat 's life from a focus on his family in The Kampung Boy to a focus beyond . As the book revolves around Mat 's friendship with Frankie , it ends with the Chinese boy 's departure to the United Kingdom from the Ipoh railway station .
As of 2005 , Town Boy had been reprinted 16 times . It has also been translated into French and Japanese . Reviews of Town Boy were positive . Librarian George Galuschak liked the book for its detailed crowd scenes and its diverse cast of characters — both animal and human . The " energy " in Lat 's drawings reminded him of Sergio Aragonés and Matt Groening . Laurel Maury , a reviewer for the Los Angeles Times , likened the book to a Peanuts cartoon , but without the melancholy typical of Charles M. Schulz 's work . She said that Lat delivered a " rollicking " world and that his characters ' interactions made the story unpretentious and heart @-@ warming . Although Spurgeon believed any single scene in Town Boy was superior to any book from a lesser cartoonist , he preferred the narrower scope of The Kampung Boy ; he felt the tighter focus of Lat 's first book gave a more personal and deeper insight into the author 's growth as a young boy . Town Boy , with its quicker pace , felt to him like a loose collection of heady first @-@ time experiences that failed to explore all possibilities of the encounters .
= = = Kampung Boy : Yesterday and Today = = =
John Lent , a scholar of comics , described Kampung Boy : Yesterday and Today as Lat 's " crowning achievement " . Published in 1993 , Yesterday and Today returns to Lat 's roots as a kampung child as described in The Kampung Boy . It explores in greater detail the games played by Lat and his friends and the lifestyle they had in the 1960s . However , Yesterday and Today also compares these past events to similar occurrences in the 1980s and ' 90s , contrasting the two in a humorous light ; the opposition of the two time frames is further enhanced by rendering the portrayals of contemporary scenes in watercolour while those of the past remain in black and white . Lat 's goal for this book was to " tell his own children how much better it was in the old days . "
Like in The Kampung Boy , the scenes in Yesterday and Today are presented in great detail . Lat shows the children playing with items constructed from simple items found in the household and nature . He also illustrates the toys ' schematics . He compares the games with their modern counterparts , lamenting the loss of creativity in modern youths . Other comments on societal changes are in the book . A child is taking a swimming lesson in a pool , intently watched by his parents who have a maid in tow with various items in her hands . While the parents gesticulate wildly at their son , the lifeguard and instructor calmly sit by the pool , watching the boy 's smooth progress . This scene is contrasted with Lat 's own experience at the hands of his father , who casually tosses the terrified boy into a river , letting him either swim or flounder . Such details , according to Muliyadi , invoke a yearning for the past and help readers " better appreciate [ the ] cartoons " .
University lecturer Zaini Ujang viewed Yesterday and Today 's comparisons as criticisms of society , putting forth the question of whether people should accept " development " to simply mean discarding the old for the new without regards to its value . Professor Fuziah of the National University of Malaysia interpreted the book 's ending as a wakeup call to parents , questioning them if they should deny their children a more relaxed childhood . Lent agreed , saying that Lat had asserted the theme from the start , showing him and his childhood friends " not in a hurry to grow up " . Redza hinted that Lat 's other goal was to point out the " dehumanising environment " that Malaysian urban children are growing up in . A Japanese edition of Yesterday and Today was published by Berita Publishing in 1998 .
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= Portland Trail Blazers =
The Portland Trail Blazers , commonly known as the Blazers , are an American professional basketball team based in Portland , Oregon . The Trail Blazers compete in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) as a member club of the league 's Western Conference Northwest Division . The team played its home games in the Memorial Coliseum before moving to Moda Center in 1995 ( called the Rose Garden until 2013 ) . The franchise entered the league as an expansion team in 1970 , and has enjoyed a strong following : from 1977 through 1995 , the team sold out 814 consecutive home games , the longest such streak in American major professional sports at the time , and only since surpassed by the Boston Red Sox . The Trail Blazers have been the only NBA team based in the bi @-@ national Pacific Northwest , after the Vancouver Grizzlies relocated to Memphis and became the Memphis Grizzlies in 2001 , and the Seattle SuperSonics relocated to Oklahoma City and became the Oklahoma City Thunder in 2008 .
The team has advanced to the NBA Finals three times , winning the NBA championship once in 1977 . Their other NBA Finals appearances were in 1990 and 1992 . The team has qualified for the playoffs in 31 seasons of their 45 @-@ season existence , including a streak of 21 straight appearances from 1983 through 2003 , the second longest streak in NBA history . The Trail Blazers ' 31 playoff appearances rank third in the NBA only behind the Los Angeles Lakers and San Antonio Spurs since the team 's inception in 1970 . Six Hall of Fame players have played for the Trail Blazers ( Lenny Wilkens , Bill Walton , Clyde Drexler , Dražen Petrović , Arvydas Sabonis , and Scottie Pippen ) . Bill Walton is the franchise 's most decorated player ; he was the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player in 1977 , and the regular season MVP the following year . Four Blazer rookies ( Geoff Petrie , Sidney Wicks , Brandon Roy and Damian Lillard ) have won the NBA Rookie of the Year award . Two Hall of Fame coaches , Lenny Wilkens and Jack Ramsay , have patrolled the sidelines for the Blazers , and two others , Mike Schuler and Mike Dunleavy , have won the NBA Coach of the Year award with the team .
= = History = =
= = = Franchise inception = = =
Sports promoter Harry Glickman sought a National Basketball Association ( NBA ) franchise for Portland as far back as 1955 when he proposed two new expansion teams , the other to be located in Los Angeles . When the Memorial Coliseum was opened in 1960 Glickman saw the potential it could serve as a professional basketball venue but it was not until February 6 , 1970 , that the NBA board of governors granted him the rights to a franchise in Portland . To raise the money for the $ 3 @.@ 7 million admission tax , Glickman associated himself to real estate magnates Bob Schmertz of New Jersey , Larry Weinberg of Los Angeles and Herman Sarkowsky of Seattle . Two weeks later , on February 24 , team management held a contest to select the team 's name and received more than 10 @,@ 000 entries . The most popular choice was " Pioneers " , but that name was excluded from consideration as it was already used by sports teams at Portland 's Lewis and Clark College . The name " Trail Blazers " received 172 entries , and was ultimately selected by the judging panel , being revealed on March 13 in the halftime of a SuperSonics game at the Memorial Coliseum . Derived from the trail blazing activity by explorers making paths through forests , Glickman considered it a name that could " reflect both the ruggedness of the Pacific Northwest and the start of a major league era in our state . " Despite initial mixed response , the Trail Blazers name , often shortened to just " Blazers " , became popular in Oregon .
= = = 1970 – 1974 = = =
Along with the Cleveland Cavaliers and Buffalo Braves ( now Los Angeles Clippers ) , the Trail Blazers entered the NBA in 1970 as an expansion team , under coach Rolland Todd . Geoff Petrie and Sidney Wicks led the team in its early years , and the team failed to qualify for the playoffs in its first six seasons of existence . During that span , the team had three head coaches ( including future hall @-@ of @-@ famer Lenny Wilkens ) ; team executive Stu Inman also served as coach . The team won the first pick in the NBA draft twice during that span . In 1972 , the team drafted LaRue Martin with the number one pick , and in 1974 the team selected Bill Walton from UCLA .
= = = 1974 – 1978 = = =
In 1976 , the ABA – NBA merger saw those two rival leagues join forces . Four ABA teams joined the NBA ; the remaining teams were dissolved and their players distributed among the remaining NBA squads in a dispersal draft . The Trail Blazers selected Maurice Lucas in the dispersal draft . That summer , they also hired Jack Ramsay as head coach .
The two moves , coupled with the team 's stellar play , led Portland to several firsts : winning record ( 49 – 33 ) , playoff appearance , and NBA Championship in 1977 . Starting on April 5 of that year , the team began a sellout streak of 814 straight games — the longest in American major professional sports history — which did not end until 1995 , after the team moved into a larger facility .
The team started the 1977 – 78 season with a 50 – 10 mark , and some predicted a dynasty in Portland . However , Bill Walton suffered a foot injury that ended his season and would plague him over the remainder of his career , and the team struggled to an 8 – 14 finish , going 58 – 24 overall . In the playoffs , Portland lost to the Seattle SuperSonics in the 1978 conference semifinals . That summer , Walton demanded to be traded to a team of his choice ( Clippers , Knicks , Warriors , or 76ers ) because he was unhappy with his medical treatment in Portland . Walton was never traded , and he held out the entire 1978 – 79 season and left the team as a free agent thereafter . The team was further dismantled as Lucas left in 1980 .
= = = 1980 – 1983 = = =
During the 1980s , the team was a consistent presence in the NBA post @-@ season , failing to qualify for the playoffs only in 1982 . However , they never advanced past the conference semifinals during the decade . The Pacific Division of the NBA was dominated by the Los Angeles Lakers throughout the decade , and only the Lakers and the Houston Rockets represented the Western Conference in the NBA Finals . Key players for the Blazers during the early 1980s included Mychal Thompson , Billy Ray Bates , Fat Lever , Darnell Valentine , Wayne Cooper , T. R. Dunn , Jim Paxson , and Calvin Natt .
= = = 1983 – 1988 = = =
In the 1983 draft , the team selected University of Houston guard – forward Clyde Drexler with the 14th pick ; " Clyde the Glide " would become the face of the franchise for over a decade , and the team 's second @-@ most decorated player ( after Walton ) . In the next year 's draft , the Trail Blazers landed the No. 2 pick in the NBA draft . After the Houston Rockets selected Drexler 's college teammate Akeem Olajuwon at No. 1 , the Trail Blazers selected Kentucky center Sam Bowie . Drafting third , the Chicago Bulls selected Michael Jordan . The selection of the injury @-@ plagued Bowie over Jordan has been criticized as one of the worst draft picks in the history of American professional sports . That summer , the Blazers also made a controversial trade , sending Lever , Cooper , and Natt to the Denver Nuggets for high @-@ scoring forward Kiki Vandeweghe . In the 1985 draft , the Blazers selected point guard Terry Porter with the last pick of the first round . Porter would go on to become one of the top point guards in the league , and the Blazers ' all @-@ time leader in assists .
However , the Blazers continued to struggle in the post @-@ season , and in 1986 , Ramsay was fired and replaced with Mike Schuler . Despite this , they were the only team to beat the Boston Celtics on the road that season . That off @-@ season , the team drafted two players from behind the Iron Curtain , Arvydas Sabonis and Dražen Petrović , and sent Thompson to the San Antonio Spurs for former Oregon State University star Steve Johnson . Johnson was a high @-@ scoring forward @-@ center who the team intended to pair with Bowie on the frontline . It was not to be , as Bowie broke his leg five games into the 1986 – 87 season , missing the next two and a half seasons . During Schuler 's brief tenure , the Blazers failed to advance out of the first round of the NBA playoffs .
= = = = Paul Allen ownership = = = =
In 1988 , Paul Allen purchased the Blazers . His first season as owner was one marked by turmoil , as conflicts erupted over who should start at several positions . Both Vandeweghe and Johnson suffered injuries ; they were replaced in the starting lineup by Jerome Kersey and Kevin Duckworth . Several players , most notably Drexler , were accused of undermining Schuler . The team went 25 – 22 to open the 1988 – 89 season , and Schuler was fired . He was replaced on an interim basis with assistant coach Rick Adelman , and Vandeweghe was traded to the New York Knicks . Under Adelman , the team went 14 – 21 to finish the season , and barely qualified for the playoffs . That off @-@ season , the team traded Sam Bowie ( who had returned to the team to end the season ) to the New Jersey Nets for forward Buck Williams , and Adelman was given the coaching job on a non @-@ interim basis .
= = = 1988 – 1995 = = =
The addition of Williams , and the replacement of the defensively challenged Vandeweghe with the defensive @-@ minded Kersey , turned the team from a poor defensive squad into a good one . Led by Drexler , the team reached the NBA Finals in 1990 and 1992 , losing to the Detroit Pistons and Chicago Bulls , respectively . Possibly inspired by the 1985 Chicago Bears 's " Super Bowl Shuffle " , during the run @-@ up to their 1990 Finals appearance , the Blazers recorded two songs : " Bust a Bucket " and " Rip City Rhapsody " ( with music played and recorded by Josh Mellicker , " Rip City " being a reference to the city 's nickname ) . The year in between their two finals appearances , the team posted a league @-@ best 63 – 19 record before losing to the Los Angeles Lakers in the Western Conference finals . However , the team failed to win an NBA title , and failed to advance past the first round in 1993 and 1994 . Adelman was fired after the 1994 season , and replaced with P. J. Carlesimo , which led to the resignation of executive vice @-@ president Geoff Petrie , a close friend of Adelman 's .
In July 1994 , the Trail Blazers announced the hiring of a new team president , former Seattle SuperSonics general manager Bob Whitsitt . Whitsitt , known as " Trader Bob " for his penchant for making trades , immediately set about revamping the Blazers roster ; this included dismantling the aging Drexler @-@ led team that had twice been to the finals . Drexler requested to be traded to a contender , and the Trail Blazers traded him to the Houston Rockets . In the fall of 1995 , the team left the Memorial Coliseum for a new home , the 20 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Rose Garden Arena . The sellout streak ended in the new building .
= = = 1995 – 2003 = = =
= = = = 1995 – 2000 = = = =
Several players left in free agency , including Terry Porter ( 1995 ) , Buck Williams ( 1996 ) , and Cliff Robinson ( 1997 ) , which left Jerome Kersey unprotected in the 1995 expansion draft .
In an effort to rebuild , the team acquired several players who were highly talented , but had reputations for off @-@ court troubles . Isaiah Rider , who was traded by the Minnesota Timberwolves for a draft pick and career backups due to his frequent arrests and lack of punctuality , was arrested for cannabis possession two days before his debut with the Blazers . Rasheed Wallace , who was acknowledged as a hot @-@ tempered player since college , was also acquired , in a trade with the Washington Bullets . Point guard Kenny Anderson was signed as a free agent , and subsequently traded to the Toronto Raptors for Damon Stoudamire in February 1998 ( the Raptors traded Anderson to the Boston Celtics five days later , because he did not want to play in Canada ) . Initially , this approach worked , as the team returned to the Western Conference finals in 1999 under head coach Mike Dunleavy . After being swept by the eventual champion San Antonio Spurs , Whitsitt sent Rider and guard Jim Jackson to the Atlanta Hawks for guard Steve Smith and acquired former All @-@ Star forward Scottie Pippen from the Houston Rockets . The team again advanced to the Western Conference Finals , where they faced a Los Angeles Lakers team led by Shaquille O 'Neal and Kobe Bryant . In that series , the Trail Blazers dropped three out of the first four games before winning the next two , forcing a pivotal Game 7 . The Blazers had a 15 @-@ point lead in the fourth quarter , but lost the game and the series to the Lakers , who went on to win the first of three consecutive titles .
= = = = 2000 – 2003 = = = =
The Trail Blazers made a series of personnel moves in the 2000 and 2001 off @-@ seasons that failed to produce the desired results . Forward Jermaine O 'Neal was traded to the Indiana Pacers for Dale Davis . Brian Grant signed with the Miami Heat , and was replaced with ex @-@ Seattle forward Shawn Kemp . The team started off well , posting the Western Conference 's best record through March 2001 , and then signed guard Rod Strickland to augment their point guard corps . The move backfired , and the team lost 17 of its remaining 25 games , and was eliminated in the first round of the playoffs ( swept by the Los Angeles Lakers ) . Some in the media began to criticize the team , and Whitsitt , previously proclaimed a genius for his work in both Seattle and Portland , was criticized . A particular criticism was that Whitsitt was attempting to win a title by assembling a roster of stars , without paying attention to team chemistry . Longtime NBA coach and analyst , Doug Collins , referred to Whitsitt as a " rotisserie @-@ league manager . " A fan was ejected from the Rose Garden for holding up a banner that said " Trade Whitsitt " , and many in the national media started referring to the team as the " Jail Blazers " because of many players ' off @-@ court problems .
That offseason the churning continued ; Dunleavy was fired , and replaced with Maurice Cheeks , a " players ' coach " who some thought would relate better to the players than Dunleavy did . Cheeks brought on Dan Panaggio as assistant coach after a failed courtship with Henry Bibby of Southern California . More transactions followed as the Blazers traded Steve Smith to the Spurs for Derek Anderson . In one of his most controversial moves to that time , Whitsitt signed free agent Ruben Patterson , who had previously pleaded no contest to a felony sexual assault charge and was required to register as a sex offender . Popular center , Arvydas Sabonis , who had a towel flung in his face by Rasheed Wallace during the playoffs , decided to leave the team .
The next two seasons were just as disastrous for the team 's reputation . Several players , including Wallace , Stoudamire , and Qyntel Woods , were cited for marijuana possession . Woods pleaded guilty to first @-@ degree animal abuse for staging dog fights in his house , some involving his pit bull named Hollywood . Hollywood and Woods ' other pit bull , Sugar , were confiscated , and Woods was given eighty hours of community service . He also agreed to donate $ 10 @,@ 000 to the Oregon Humane Society . Wallace was suspended for seven games for threatening a referee . Zach Randolph and Patterson got in a fight during practice , with Randolph sucker punching his teammate in the eye , an injury which kept Patterson from making a meaningful contribution during the playoffs . When police came to Stoudamire 's house to respond to a burglar alarm , they noticed the smell of marijuana , searched the premises , and found a pound of cannabis located in a crawlspace ; the search was later declared illegal and charges in the matter were dropped . Guard Bonzi Wells famously told Sports Illustrated in a 2002 interview : " We ’ re not really going to worry about what the hell ( the fans ) think about us . They really don ’ t matter to us . They can boo us everyday , but they ’ re still going to ask for our autographs if they see us on the street . That 's why they ’ re fans , and we ’ re NBA players . " Wells was fined $ 50 @,@ 000 by the Blazers for the statement .
Fan discontent soared ; despite the team continuing to post a winning record , attendance at the Rose Garden started to decline . In the summer of 2003 , with attendance declining , the team going nowhere on the court , and an exorbitant payroll , Whitsitt announced that he would leave the team to focus on Paul Allen 's other franchise , the Seattle Seahawks .
= = = 2003 – 2006 = = =
To replace Whitsitt , the team hired two men at new positions . John Nash , a veteran NBA executive , was hired as general manager , and Steve Patterson as team president . The new management promised a focus on character while remaining playoff contenders ; the team soon published a " 25 @-@ Point Pledge " to fans . Troublesome players including Wells , Wallace , and Jeff McInnis were traded . However , the team failed to qualify for the 2004 NBA Playoffs , ending a streak of 21 straight appearances .
The following year was marked by more trouble as the team plummeted to a 27 – 55 record . The bankruptcy of the Oregon Arena corporation , which resulted in the Rose Garden being owned by a consortium of investment firms , further alienated the fanbase , as did an incident in which forward Darius Miles ( himself African @-@ American ) called coach Maurice Cheeks a " nigger " , following it up with more racial invective when Cheeks sought out Nash , referring to Nash as Cheeks ' " daddy . " The latter incident was compounded by what many viewed as inadequate discipline for Miles , followed by a secret agreement between the team and Miles to refund the amount of his fine . Cheeks was fired that season and replaced on an interim basis by director of player @-@ personnel Kevin Pritchard . That summer the team hired Nate McMillan , who had coached the Sonics the prior season , and Pritchard returned to the front office .
The following 2005 – 06 season was not better , as the Blazers posted a league @-@ worst 21 – 61 record . Attendance was lower , and the year was not free of player incidents . Players such as Miles , Patterson , Randolph , and Sebastian Telfair were involved in either on @-@ court bickering or off @-@ court legal incidents . Nash was fired at the end of the season , with Steve Patterson assuming the general manager role in addition to his duties as president . In addition , the team had a poor relationship with the management of the Rose Garden , frequently complaining of a " broken economic model . " It was widely speculated by the end of the year that Paul Allen would sell the team , and the team was offered for sale that summer , with several groups expressing interest . However , Allen was willing to spend money and urged Pritchard to make draft @-@ day trades . He subsequently took the team off the market .
= = = 2006 – 2011 = = =
In the 2006 NBA draft the Blazers traded Viktor Khryapa and draft rights for Tyrus Thomas for draft rights to LaMarcus Aldridge . The Blazers also traded for the sixth pick , Brandon Roy . In the spring of 2007 , Steve Patterson resigned as team president , and Paul Allen entered into an agreement to re @-@ purchase the Rose Garden . On the court , the team finished with a 32 – 50 record , an 11 @-@ game improvement , and rookie shooting guard Roy was named the 2006 – 07 Rookie of the Year . That summer Pritchard was promoted to general manager , and former Nike Inc. executive Larry Miller was hired as team president . The Blazers won the 2007 NBA draft lottery and selected Ohio State center Greg Oden with the No. 1 pick in the draft . Some had speculated that they might choose Kevin Durant instead ; Durant was picked at No. 2 by regional rivals the Seattle SuperSonics . Oden suffered a pre @-@ season knee injury requiring microfracture surgery , and missed the entire 2007 – 08 season . Oden 's constant battle with injuries and Durant 's success resulted in comparisons to the Blazers ' selection of Sam Bowie over Michael Jordan in 1984 .
Despite this , the Trail Blazers had a 13 @-@ game winning streak that began in early December , resulting in a 13 – 2 record , an NBA best for the month of December . Nate McMillan won NBA Coach of the Month honors , and Roy garnered NBA Western Conference Player of the Week honors in back @-@ to @-@ back weeks ( the first Trail Blazer to accomplish the feat since Clyde Drexler in the 1990 – 91 season ) . Western Conference head coaches selected Roy to the 2008 NBA All @-@ Star Game , the first All @-@ Star for the Blazers since Rasheed Wallace in 2001 . The Blazers finished the season 41 – 41 , their best record since the 2003 – 04 season . Following the season , the Blazers became the only NBA team for the Pacific Northwest , as the Seattle SuperSonics moved to Oklahoma City .
During the 2008 – 09 season , after much waiting , Greg Oden debuted with the Blazers , playing in 61 games . Portland also added some international flavor to the team with the arrival of Spanish swingman Rudy Fernández , a member of the Spanish national basketball team . French @-@ native Nicolas Batum emerged as a skilled defensive forward who was inserted into the starting lineup as a rookie . Roy appeared in his second @-@ straight All @-@ Star Game , and Fernández competed in the Sprite Slam Dunk Contest during NBA All @-@ Star Weekend . Roy had a career @-@ high 52 points against the Phoenix Suns and game @-@ winning shots against the Houston Rockets and New York Knicks . The Blazers clinched a playoff berth for the first time since 2003 and achieved a 54 – 28 record , their first winning record since the 2002 – 03 season . As the fourth seed and holding home court advantage , the Trail Blazers played the fifth @-@ seeded Houston Rockets in the 2009 Playoffs , losing the playoff series 4 games to 2 .
In the 2009 off @-@ season , the Trail Blazers traded the No. 24 pick to Dallas for the No. 22 pick and selected Víctor Claver . They also selected Villanova forward Dante Cunningham with the No. 33 pick , Jon Brockman and guard Patrick Mills . Brockman was traded to the Kings in exchange for No. 31 pick Jeff Pendergraph . Free agent Channing Frye signed with the Phoenix Suns and Sergio Rodríguez was traded to the Kings . The Blazers attempted to sign free agent small forward Hedo Türkoğlu , who led the Orlando Magic to the 2009 NBA Finals , but after a verbal agreement he decided to sign with the Toronto Raptors . The Blazers then attempted to sign restricted free agent Paul Millsap ; however , their offer was matched by the Utah Jazz . On July 24 , 2009 , the Trail Blazers signed point guard Andre Miller .
Despite a winning record , injuries hobbled the team for the 2009 – 2010 season . Reserves Batum and Fernández started the season on the inactive list and forward Travis Outlaw soon followed after a serious foot injury early in the season . Most notably , centers Oden and Joel Przybilla suffered season @-@ ending knee injuries , while Roy and Aldridge played through shoulder , hamstring , ankle and knee injuries . Head Coach Nate McMillan was likewise not spared , suffering a ruptured Achilles tendon during practice and was in a walking boot . Because of the void at the center position , Blazers general manager Kevin Pritchard worked out a deal to acquire Marcus Camby from the Los Angeles Clippers in exchange for Steve Blake and Outlaw . Although wins did not come as easily as the season before , the Blazers rallied to finish at 50 – 32 , and finished 6th in the West . Roy underwent surgery after suffering a torn meniscus in his right knee , but returned for Game 4 of the first round series against the Phoenix Suns . However , the accumulation of injuries was too much to bear , and the short @-@ handed Trail Blazers lost the series 4 – 2 to the Suns .
= = = = 2010 – 2011 = = = =
During the 2010 off @-@ season , the Blazers ' front office experienced significant personnel changes beginning in July with the announcement of new general manager Rich Cho , succeeding former general manager Kevin Pritchard , who was relieved of his duties after the 2010 NBA draft . Cho became the first general manager of Asian descent in NBA history . On August 12 , the Trail Blazers signed two new assistant general managers , Bill Branch and Steve Rosenberry . Branch and Rosenberry replaced former assistant general manager Tom Penn , who was released by Portland in March . The organization also made changes to Nate McMillan 's coaching staff by hiring Bernie Bickerstaff , Bob Ociepka and Buck Williams , with Bickerstaff assuming the lead assistant coach position due to the departure of Monty Williams . The Blazers acquired rookies Armon Johnson , Luke Babbitt , and Elliot Williams from the 2010 NBA draft and off @-@ season trades . On July 21 , Wesley Matthews signed a five @-@ year deal with the Blazers after his former team , the Utah Jazz , declined to match Portland 's offer .
Similar to the previous season , Portland was overcome with injuries from the start of the 2010 – 11 season . Jeff Pendergraph and rookie guard Elliot Williams both suffered knee injuries that sidelined them for the season ; Portland later waived Pendergraph . In November , they announced that Oden would have microfracture surgery on his left knee , ending his 2010 – 2011 season . This injury marked Oden 's third NBA season cut short due to a knee injury . Three @-@ time All @-@ Star Brandon Roy underwent double @-@ arthroscopic surgery on January 17 , 2011 , to repair both knees after dealing with constant struggles , leaving his future up in the air . Just days after , Marcus Camby also underwent arthroscopic knee surgery to repair his left knee .
Despite struggles with injury , Portland performed at a playoff level throughout the season . LaMarcus Aldridge emerged as the focal point of the team and posted career @-@ high numbers , as well as Western Conference Player of the Week and Month honors . Wesley Matthews also emerged in the absence of Brandon Roy , proving his worth as the Blazers ' key off @-@ season addition . Believing the team could make a significant run in the playoffs , Cho executed his first major trade on February 24 , 2011 , just seven minutes before the deadline . The Trail Blazers sent forward Dante Cunningham , center Joel Przybilla and center Sean Marks to the Charlotte Bobcats in return for former All @-@ Star and All @-@ Defensive forward Gerald Wallace . The emergence of Aldridge and the play of Matthews kept the Blazers competitive , sealing another playoff berth by winning 48 games . However , like in their last two postseasons , the Blazers were eliminated in six games of the first round , this time against the eventual champions , the Dallas Mavericks .
During the 2011 off @-@ season , the Blazers released Cho , reportedly due to communication and " chemistry issues " with owner Paul Allen . Director of Scouting Chad Buchanan took over as acting interim General Manager . The dismissal of Cho was criticized by Sports Illustrated as " illogical " , although they noted that Allen had done a lot of questionable moves during his tenure as team owner .
On June 23 , 2011 , in the NBA draft , the Trail Blazers drafted guards Nolan Smith from Duke University with the 21st selection and Jon Diebler from Ohio State University with the 51st selection . On the same day , the Blazers front office had made a three @-@ team trade with the Denver Nuggets and Dallas Mavericks . The trade sent Blazers guards Andre Miller to Denver and Rudy Fernández to Dallas along with international player Petteri Koponen , who had yet to make an appearance for Portland ; Denver then sent guard Raymond Felton to Portland and Denver also received rookie forward Jordan Hamilton from Dallas as well as a future second @-@ round pick from Portland .
= = = 2011 – 2013 = = =
A lockout put transactions on hold until early December , and the Blazers were hit with three downfalls once the date came : Brandon Roy announced his retirement due to chronic knee problems , Greg Oden was diagnosed with yet another setback involving his ongoing knee issues , and LaMarcus Aldridge underwent heart surgery . Interim GM Chad Buchanan signed three free agents in the week before Portland 's first exhibition game : Kurt Thomas , Jamal Crawford and Craig Smith .
In the shortened 2011 – 12 NBA season , the Blazers got off to a 7 – 2 start . But the team quickly began to collapse , as starting point guard Raymond Felton , among others , struggled with McMillan 's new approach to a running @-@ style offense . The team gained some notability as Aldridge was named to his first All @-@ Star Game . Despite Aldridge 's performance , the rest of the team became more inconsistent .
On March 15 , 2012 , the Trail Blazers made several moves , including two trades before the 3 pm EST deadline . Center Marcus Camby was sent to the Houston Rockets in exchange for center Hasheem Thabeet and point guard Jonny Flynn . Portland also received Houston 's second @-@ round draft pick in the 2012 NBA draft . Portland then traded forward Gerald Wallace to the New Jersey Nets for center Mehmet Okur , forward Shawne Williams , and New Jersey 's first @-@ round , top @-@ 3 @-@ protected pick in the 2012 NBA draft . All four players acquired in the trades held expiring contracts , meaning they would be free agents at the end of the season . Oden was released from the roster after playing a total of 82 games in five NBA seasons , being cut along with Chris Johnson in order to make room for the incoming traded players . Finally , head coach Nate McMillan was also fired , leaving the franchise with the third @-@ most coaching wins , behind Jack Ramsay and Rick Adelman . Portland named Kaleb Canales as the interim head coach for the rest of the 2011 – 2012 NBA season . A few days later , Portland claimed forward J. J. Hickson off waivers from the Sacramento Kings . After shaking up the roster and limping to the end of the regular season with a 28 – 38 record and finishing out of playoff contention for the first time in three years , the team entered the offseason on the search for a general manager and new head coach .
At the 2012 NBA draft lottery on May 30 , the Blazers secured the number 6 pick of the draft via the Brooklyn Nets from the Gerald Wallace trade , and also ended up with the number 11 pick due to their own record . Neil Olshey became the new GM in June , making it just over a year since the Blazers had had a non @-@ interim general manager .
On June 28 , 2012 , the Blazers selected Weber State guard Damian Lillard and University of Illinois center Meyers Leonard with the 6th and 11th picks overall , respectively . They also selected University of Memphis guard Will Barton with the 40th pick overall , and traded the rights of the 41st overall pick , University of Kansas guard Tyshawn Taylor , to the Brooklyn Nets for cash considerations .
Headed by their new general manager Olshey , the Trail Blazers front office further made a few changes during July 2012 . The Blazers signed their 30th pick from the 2006 draft , Joel Freeland , and their 22nd pick from the 2009 draft , Víctor Claver , as well as re @-@ signing Hickson and Nicolas Batum . They also signed veteran point guard Ronnie Price to back up Lillard , who was selected as co @-@ MVP of the 2012 Las Vegas Summer League . Dallas Mavericks assistant coach Terry Stotts was hired as head coach on August 7 , 2012 .
Under the reins of Lillard , the Blazers played well into January 2013 , posting a 20 – 15 record . On January 11 , 2013 , at home against the Miami Heat , Wesley Matthews made two consecutive three @-@ pointers late in the fourth quarter to help the Blazers secure a 92 – 90 victory . However , despite the Blazers remaining among the playoff contenders for most of the season , injuries to starters Batum , LaMarcus Aldridge , and Matthews , as well as a losing streak of 13 games – the longest in the franchise 's history – led to the 11th position in the West , with a 33 – 49 record . Averaging 19 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 5 assists , and 3 @.@ 1 rebounds , Lillard was unanimously named Rookie of the Year , joining Ralph Sampson , David Robinson , and Blake Griffin as the only unanimous selections in NBA history .
= = = 2013 – 2015 = = =
Going into the 2013 NBA draft , the Trail Blazers held four picks : the 10th pick in the first round and three second @-@ round picks . The Blazers selected guard C. J. McCollum out of Lehigh University with their 10th pick , and also selected center Jeff Withey from Kansas , power forward Grant Jerrett from Arizona , and Montenegrin big man Marko Todorović . In addition , Cal guard Allen Crabbe was acquired from the Cleveland Cavaliers in exchange for two second @-@ round picks , in the 2015 and 2016 drafts .
The Blazers finished the 2014 season with 21 more wins than the previous season , which amounted for the largest single @-@ season improvement in franchise history . This included a period in November when they won 11 straight games , and 13 – 2 in the month overall , for which coach Terry Stotts took home Coach of the Month honors . On December 12 , 2013 , Aldridge scored 31 points and pulled down 25 rebounds in a home game against the Rockets , the first time a Trail Blazer recorded a 30 @-@ point , 25 @-@ rebound game . On December 14 , 2013 , the Blazers made a franchise @-@ record 21 three @-@ pointers against the Philadelphia 76ers . They tied the new record 19 days later against the Charlotte Bobcats , becoming the first NBA team to make 20 or more three @-@ pointers in a game more than once in a season . Lillard was voted in as a reserve to his first All @-@ Star game , joining Aldridge to represent Portland at the game . Portland finished 54 – 28 , securing the fifth seed in the playoffs against the Rockets . The team also shot 81 @.@ 5 % at the free throw line , made 770 three pointers , and started four players for all 82 regular @-@ season games , all franchise records .
The first @-@ round series against the Rockets was a tight one , with three of the six games going to overtime . The Blazers fared well in the first two games despite not having home @-@ court advantage , beating Houston 122 @-@ 120 and 112 @-@ 105 in Games 1 and 2 respectively , fueled by Aldridge 's 46 points and 18 rebounds in Game 1 , and 43 points and 3 blocks in Game 2 . The biggest headline came in the sixth game of the series with the Rockets threatening to force a Game 7 back at Houston . Down two points with 0 @.@ 9 seconds left in the game , Damian Lillard hit a buzzer @-@ beating three @-@ pointer to close out the series , and the Blazers advanced to the semifinals for the first time since 2000 , where they lost to the eventual champion San Antonio Spurs in 5 games .
During the 2014 offseason , Olshey signed center Chris Kaman and two @-@ time former Blazer guard Steve Blake to bolster the bench . Expectations by sportswriters and analysts were high for the Trail Blazers going into the 2015 NBA season given their surprise success in 2013 – 14 . The Blazers beat the reigning Northwest Division Champion Oklahoma City Thunder 106 @-@ 89 in their season opener at home on October 29 , 2014 . Like the season before , the Trail Blazers dominated the month of November , at one point winning nine straight games from November 9 to November 26 before being defeated by the Memphis Grizzlies . Injuries , which had not amounted to significance the previous season , started to inflict themselves on various players . Starting center Lopez fractured his right hand in a game against the Spurs on December 15 , 2014 , and would miss the next 23 games . Initially , the Blazers were much unfazed , winning 129 – 119 in triple overtime against the Spurs on December 19 , a game that saw Lillard and Aldridge combine for 75 points on 29 field goals ; Lillard netted a career @-@ high 43 points . Four days later , Lillard hit a three @-@ pointer to tie the game and force overtime against the Thunder en route to 40 points and a 115 – 111 victory . Three Blazers went to New Orleans for the All Star Weekend : Matthews for the Foot Locker Three @-@ Point Contest , Lillard as a reserve to the All @-@ Star Game , and Aldridge as a starter to the All @-@ Star game .
More injuries appeared around the start of the new year , which forced Aldridge , Batum , and Joel Freeland to miss various amounts of time , but none greater than Wesley Matthews ' Achilles tendon tear on March 5 , 2015 . Called " the heart and soul " of the team by Aldridge , Matthews was in the midst of a career year when the freak injury occurred in a game against the Mavericks . The loss of his defense , three @-@ point shooting and hustle was part of the reason why the Blazers stumbled in the latter half of the season . In the first half of the season , the Blazers had a record of 30 – 11 , allowed opponents to score an average of 97 @.@ 0 points , and forced them to shoot 29 @.@ 7 % on three @-@ pointers ; in the second half the Blazers regressed to a 21 – 20 record , allowed 100 @.@ 2 points , and let opponents shoot 37 @.@ 9 % from three . The Blazers clinched a return trip to the playoffs on March 30 , 2015 , defeating the Phoenix Suns , 109 – 86 . Finishing the season 51 – 31 , they clinched their first Northwest Division title since 1999 , but fell to the Grizzlies in five games in the first round of the playoffs .
= = = 2015 – present = = =
In the 2015 NBA draft , the Blazers selected Arizona forward Rondae Hollis @-@ Jefferson and subsequently traded him to the Brooklyn Nets along with Steve Blake for center Mason Plumlee and the 42nd pick , Pat Connaughton .
After losing four of their five starters at the end of the 2014 – 15 season , the Blazers won 44 games , were the 5th seed in the Western Conference , and beat the Clippers in six games in the first round but were eliminated by the Golden state Warriors in five games in the conference semifinals .
= = Season @-@ by @-@ season results = =
In the Blazers ' 46 years of existence ( through 2016 ) , they have qualified for the NBA playoffs 32 times , including a streak of 21 straight playoff appearances from 1983 through 2003 . The team has one NBA title , in 1977 , and appeared in the NBA Finals two other times , in 1990 and 1992 . The best record posted by the team was 63 – 19 , in 1991 ; the worst record was 18 – 64 , in the team 's second season .
= = Players = =
= = = Current roster = = =
= = = Retained draft rights = = =
The Trail Blazers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA . A drafted player , either an international draftee or a college draftee who isn 't signed by the team that drafted him , is allowed to sign with any non @-@ NBA teams . In this case , the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non @-@ NBA team ends . This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
1 As team owner and founder , number is still available to players .
2 Ramsay did not play for the team ; the number represents the 1977 NBA Championship he won while coaching the Blazers .
3 Number retired twice in 2008
= = = Basketball Hall of Famers = = =
= = = = Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame = = = =
Notes :
1 In total , Wilkens was inducted into the Hall of Fame three times : as player , as coach and as a member of the 1992 Olympic team .
2 Inducted posthumously .
3 In total , Drexler was inducted into the Hall of Fame twice : as player and as a member of the 1992 Olympic team .
4 In total , Pippen was inducted into the Hall of Fame twice : as player and as a member of the 1992 Olympic team .
= = = = FIBA Hall of Fame = = = =
Notes :
1 Inducted posthumously .
= = = = Oregon Sports Hall of Fame = = = =
The Oregon Sports Hall of Fame honors Oregon athletes , teams , coaches , and others who have made a significant contribution to sports in Oregon . Also inducted into the Hall are the 1976 – 77 team , and the following Trail Blazers ' players :
= = = Franchise leaders = = =
Bold denotes still active with team .
Italic denotes still active but not with team .
Points scored ( regular season ) ( as of the end of the 2015 – 16 season )
Other statistics ( regular season ) ( as of April 14 , 2016 )
= = = Individual awards = = =
= = = NBA draft = = =
The Trail Blazers have had the No. 1 pick in the NBA draft four times in their history ; each time selecting a center . In 1972 the choice was LaRue Martin , Bill Walton was picked in 1974 , Mychal Thompson in 1978 , and Greg Oden was taken in 2007 . Several Blazer picks have been criticized by NBA commentators as particularly unwise :
The selection of Martin over Bob McAdoo .
The selection of Thompson over Larry Bird ( drafted No. 6 by the Boston Celtics ) in 1978 .
The selection of center Sam Bowie with the No. 2 pick in the 1984 NBA draft over Michael Jordan ( who was then drafted by the Chicago Bulls ) ; other notable players taken later in that draft include future Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers Charles Barkley and John Stockton .
The selection of Greg Oden over Kevin Durant in the 2007 NBA draft
Other notable draft picks include player @-@ coach Geoff Petrie , Sidney Wicks , Larry Steele , Lionel Hollins and Jim Paxson in the 1970s and Clyde Drexler , Jerome Kersey , Terry Porter and Arvydas Sabonis in the 1980s .
In the 1990s , the Blazers selected Jermaine O 'Neal and in the modern millennium drafted Zach Randolph and , in 2006 , acquired Brandon Roy and LaMarcus Aldridge in a draft day that included six trades involving the Trail Blazers .
= = Team branding = =
The team 's colors are red , black , white , and silver , which was added in 2002 . The team 's " pinwheel " logo , originally designed by the cousin of Glickman , is a graphic interpretation of two five @-@ on @-@ five basketball teams lined up against each other . One side of the pinwheel is red ; the other side is silver ( formerly black or white ) . The logo has gone from a vertical alignment to a slanted one starting in the 1991 season , creating a straight edge along the top
Portland 's home uniforms are white in color , with red , black , and silver accents ; the primary road uniform is black , with red , white , and silver accents . The alternate road uniform is red with white , silver , and black accents . From 1970 to the 1977 – 78 season , the team wore red road uniforms , switching to black in that year , with a switch from horizontal lettering with the tail added on the last letter to vertical lettering midway through its lifespan . The team again wore red from 1979 to 1985 , switching back to black road jerseys after that . In 2002 , the team reintroduced red jerseys . The team 's uniforms have remained nearly the same since the 1977 – 78 season , featuring a " blaze " strip diagonal down the jersey and into the shorts . Notable alterations include the change from lowercase lettering to uppercase in 1991 – 92 , tapered ends on the letters and silver trim in 2002 – 03 , and the return of the city name to the black road jerseys in 2006 – 07 . In the 2009 – 10 NBA season they introduced a special jersey commemorating the Blazers ' " Rip City " nickname , borrowing elements from their old and current logos . For the 2012 – 13 NBA season , the red jerseys were slightly altered , featuring a straightened " Portland " script and black lettering with silver trim , along with a modified " blaze " striping , " Rip City " shorts script and pinwheel logo in front of the uniform .
The team 's mascot is Blaze the Trail Cat , a two @-@ tone silver @-@ colored mountain lion , which has been the team 's official mascot since 2002 . Prior to Blaze 's debut , the Trail Blazers never had any official mascot . A popular unofficial mascot was the late Bill " The Beerman " Scott , a Seattle beer vendor / cheerleader who worked for numerous pro teams , including the Trail Blazers , the Seattle Seahawks , and the Seattle Mariners . Scott worked for the Trail Blazers from 1981 through 1985 .
= = Front office = =
The team is owned by Microsoft co @-@ founder Paul Allen ; ownership of the Trail Blazers is via a series of holding companies which Allen owns . Vulcan Inc. is a private corporation in which Allen is the chairman and sole shareholder . A subsidiary of Vulcan , Vulcan Sports and Entertainment ( VSE ) , manages Allen 's sports @-@ related properties , including the Trail Blazers , the Seattle Seahawks NFL team , the Seattle Sounders MLS team , and the Moda Center . In the fall of 2012 , Peter McLoughlin was named CEO of Vulcan Sports and Entertainment .
The Trail Blazers as a corporate entity are owned by VSE . Allen serves as the team 's chairman , and his longtime associate Bert Kolde is vice @-@ chairman . The position of president and chief executive officer is held by Chris McGowan , with Larry Miller having held the job until resigning in July 2012 . The post of chief operating officer is vacant ; the most recent COO of the team was Mike Golub , who resigned in July 2008 to take a more enhanced role with VSE . Kevin Pritchard served as general manager of the Trail Blazers until he was fired on June 24 , 2010 . The announcement was issued by the Blazers ' head office just an hour before the beginning of the 2010 NBA draft . A month later , the Blazers named Oklahoma City Thunder assistant general manager Rich Cho as their new general manager . Cho was fired less than a year later , and director of college scouting Chad Buchanan served as interim general manager for the entire 2011 – 12 season . In June 2012 , the Trail Blazers hired Neil Olshey as general manager .
Before Allen purchased the team in 1988 , the Trail Blazers were owned by a group of investors headed by Larry Weinberg , who is chairman emeritus .
= = Venues = =
The Trail Blazers play their home games in the Moda Center , a multipurpose arena which is located in Portland 's Rose Quarter , northeast of downtown . The Moda Center , originally named the Rose Garden , opened in 1995 and can seat a total of 19 @,@ 980 spectators for basketball games ; capacity increases to 20 @,@ 580 with standing room . Like the Trail Blazers , the Moda Center is owned by Paul Allen through subsidiary Vulcan Sports and Entertainment , and the arena is managed by Global Spectrum . During a two @-@ year period between 2005 and 2007 , the arena was owned by a consortium of creditors who financed its construction after the Oregon Arena Corporation , a now @-@ defunct holding company owned by Allen , filed for bankruptcy in 2004 . In August 2013 , the arena 's name was changed from the Rose Garden to the Moda Center , after the Blazers ' front office officials reached a $ 4 million agreement with Moda Health Corporation . The name change was met with considerable criticism from fans .
Prior to 1995 , the Trail Blazers home venue was the Memorial Coliseum , which today stands adjacent to the Moda Center . This facility , built in 1960 , can seat 12 @,@ 888 spectators for basketball . It was renamed the Veterans Memorial Coliseum in 2011 .
= = = In @-@ game entertainment = = =
The team has a cheerleading @-@ dance squad known as the BlazerDancers . Consisting of 16 members , the all @-@ female BlazerDancers perform dance routines at home games , charity events , and promotional events . The 2008 – 2009 team held auditions in late July 2008 . Seven new dancers , as well as nine returning dancers made up the new team . A junior dance team composed of 8- to 11 @-@ year @-@ old girls also performs at selected home games , as does a hip hop dance troupe . Other regular in @-@ game entertainment acts include a co @-@ educational acrobatic stunt team which performs technically difficult cheers , a break dancing squad known as the Portland TrailBreakers , and a pair of percussion acts .
= = Fan support and " Blazermania " = =
The relationship between the team and its fans , commonly known as " Blazermania " , has been well @-@ chronicled . The Trail Blazers have long been one of the NBA 's top draws , with the exception of two periods in the team 's history . The team drew poorly during its first four seasons of existence , failing to average more than 10 @,@ 000 spectators per game . Attendance increased in 1974 , when the team drafted Bill Walton .
The phenomenon known as Blazermania started during the 1976 – 77 season , when the team posted its first winning record , made its first playoff appearance , and captured its only NBA title , defeating the heavily favored Philadelphia 76ers in the NBA Finals ; the team has been popular in Portland since that time . That season , the team started a sellout streak which continued until the team moved into the Rose Garden in 1995 . The team continued to average over 19 @,@ 000 spectators per game until the 2003 – 04 season , when attendance declined after the team continued to suffer image problems due to the " Jail Blazer " reputation it had gained , and was no longer as competitive on the court . After drafting eventual Rookie of the Year and three @-@ time All Star Brandon Roy in 2006 , attendance climbed in the 2006 – 07 season and continued to rebound in the 2007 – 08 season . The final 27 home games of the 2007 – 2008 season were consecutive sell @-@ outs , a streak which continued through the entire 2008 – 2009 season and into the start of the 2011 – 2012 season .
= = Media = =
= = = Television and radio broadcast = = =
Like all NBA franchises , games of the Trail Blazers are routinely broadcast via television and radio . The team was one of the first in the NBA to produce its own television broadcasts . The team 's television production facility is known as Post @-@ Up Productions . Television broadcasts of Blazer games , when not carried on a national network , are broadcast either on Comcast SportsNet Northwest or the Blazers Television Network , a network of five over @-@ the @-@ air television stations ( four in Oregon ; one in Washington ) . The flagship station of the Blazers Television Network is KGW in Portland .
For the 2007 – 08 season , all but six regular @-@ season games were carried on one these networks ; the other six were broadcast nationally on TNT or ESPN . Thirty @-@ four games were produced and broadcast in high @-@ definition television . The Trail Blazers ' former television play @-@ by @-@ play team was Mike Barrett and Mike Rice , joined by sideline reporter Michael Holton , who succeeded Terry Porter ( 2010 – 11 ) and Rebecca Haarlow ( 2009 – 10 ) . The team was also known for its long association with Steve " Snapper " Jones , who played for the team prior to his career as a television analyst ; Jones departed the franchise in 2005 .
All Trail Blazer games are broadcast over the radio , with broadcasting carried on the Trail Blazers radio network , which consists of 25 stations located in the Pacific Northwest . The flagship station of the Blazers ' radio network is 620 KPOJ in Portland . The radio broadcasting team consists of play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Brian Wheeler and studio host Jay Allen . All games are preceded by a pre @-@ game analysis show , Blazers Courtside , and followed by a post @-@ game show known as The 5th Quarter . Bob Akamian served as studio host until halfway through the 2010 – 2011 season , when the team hired away Adam Bjaranson from their over @-@ the @-@ air TV partner , KGW , and former Trail Blazers ' player Michael Holton is the studio analyst . The original radio announcer for the team was Bill Schonely , who served as the team 's radio play @-@ by @-@ play announcer from 1970 until his retirement in 1998 — calling 2 @,@ 522 Blazers games — and remains with the team as a community ambassador .
Trail Blazers broadcasts have been criticized on several fronts . The broadcast personalities , all of whom are Trail Blazers employees , have been criticized in the media for being " homers " ; further it has been alleged that the 2005 departure of Steve Jones was due in part to team displeasure with Jones ' sometimes frank analysis of the team 's on @-@ court performance and off @-@ court decisions . Furthermore , the team 's television contract with CSN Northwest has been criticized due to the channel 's lack of carriage on satellite television providers such as DirecTV and Dish Network , both of which compete with Comcast 's cable television operations .
On June 16 , 2016 , The Oregonian reported that Barrett , Rice , and analyst Antonio Harvey had been released by the Trail Blazers . Wheeler will call games on radio alone , while new television commentators are to be determined . The three personalities will still receive pay for the final season of their contracts . The change comes as part of a plan by the team to overhaul its telecasts as it enters the final year of its current television deal with CSN Northwest .
On July 6 , 2016 , the team renewed its contract with CSN Northwest through the 2020 @-@ 2021 season . Under the new deal , CSN Northwest will have exclusive rights to all Trail Blazers games beginning in the 2017 @-@ 18 season . The team had originally considered an arrangement with KPTV , under which games would be broadcast over @-@ the @-@ air and simulcast via an internet service , but deals with potential streaming partners fell through . Root Sports Northwest made a higher @-@ value , long @-@ term offer . However , the offer was rejected for its potential impact on reach ; although DirecTV , which serves 33 % of the Portland market , carries the network by virtue of its co @-@ ownership by AT & T , Root Sports could not guarantee whether its carriage deal with Comcast Cable , which serves 55 % of the Portland market , would be renewed . Team president Chris McGowan also praised the recent leadership changes at the CSN networks , noting that their new president David Preschlack ( formerly of ESPN ) had a background in television distribution .
= = = Press relations = = =
Several local news outlets provide in @-@ depth coverage of the Trail Blazers . Chief among them is The Oregonian , the largest paper in the state of Oregon . Other newspapers providing detailed coverage of the team ( including the assignment of beat writers to cover the team ) include the Portland Tribune , a weekly Portland paper , and the Vancouver , Washington Columbian . Notable local journalists to cover the team include John Canzano of the Oregonian , Jason Quick of CSNNW , and Dwight Jaynes of the Portland Tribune . Online coverage of the Oregonian is provided through OregonLive.com , a website collaboration between the paper and Advance Internet . In addition to making Oregonian content available , oregonlive.com hosts several blogs covering the team written by Oregonian journalists , as well as an additional blog , " Blazers Blog " , written by Sean Meagher .
Relations between the team and The Oregonian have often been tense ; the paper is editorially independent of the team and is often critical . During the Steve Patterson era , relations between the two institutions became increasingly hostile ; several NBA executives told ESPN 's Chris Sheridan that the situation was the " most dysfunctional media @-@ team relationship " that they could recall . For instance during a portion of a pre @-@ 2006 NBA draft workout , which was closed to the media , an Oregonian reporter looked through a curtain separating the press from the workout and wrote about this on his blog . Outraged , the team closed subsequent practices to the press altogether , leading John Canzano of the paper to respond with outrage on his blog . In November 2006 , the Oregonian commissioned an outside editor to investigate the deteriorating relationship , a move the rival Willamette Week called " unusual " . In the report , both sides were criticized somewhat , but did not make any revelations which were unexpected .
Additional coverage is offered by various blogs , including Blazers Edge ( part of SB Nation ) and The Portland Roundball Society ( part of ESPN 's TrueHoop Network ) .
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= Béla IV of Hungary =
Béla IV ( 1206 – 3 May 1270 ) was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1235 and 1270 , and Duke of Styria from 1254 to 1258 . Being the oldest son of King Andrew II , he was crowned upon the initiative of a group of influential noblemen in his father 's lifetime in 1214 . His father , who strongly opposed Béla 's coronation , refused to give him a province to rule until 1220 . In this year , Béla was appointed Duke of Slavonia , also with jurisdiction in Croatia and Dalmatia . Around the same time , Béla married Maria , a daughter of Theodore I Laskaris , Emperor of Nicaea . From 1226 , he governed Transylvania with the title Duke . He supported Christian missions among the pagan Cumans who dwelled in the plains to the east of his province . Some Cuman chieftains acknowledged his suzerainty and he adopted the title of King of Cumania in 1233 . King Andrew died on 21 September 1235 and Béla succeeded him . He attempted to restore royal authority , which had diminished under his father . For this purpose , he revised his predecessors ' land grants and reclaimed former royal estates , causing discontent among the noblemen and the prelates .
The Mongols invaded Hungary and annihilated Béla 's army in the Battle of Mohi on 11 April 1241 . He escaped from the battlefield , but a Mongol detachment chased him from town to town as far as Trogir on the coast of the Adriatic Sea . Although he survived the invasion , the Mongols devastated the country before their unexpected withdrawal in March 1242 . Béla introduced radical reforms in order to prepare his kingdom for a second Mongol invasion . He allowed the barons and the prelates to erect stone fortresses and to set up their private armed forces . He promoted the development of fortified towns . During his reign , thousands of colonists arrived from the Holy Roman Empire , Poland and other neighboring regions to settle in the depopulated lands . Béla 's efforts to rebuild his devastated country won him the epithet of " second founder of the state " ( Hungarian : második honalapító ) .
He set up a defensive alliance against the Mongols , which included Daniil Romanovich , Prince of Halych , Boleslaw the Chaste , Duke of Cracow and other Ruthenian and Polish princes . His allies supported him in occupying the Duchy of Styria in 1254 , but it was lost to King Ottokar II of Bohemia six years later . During Béla 's reign , a wide buffer zone — which included Bosnia , Barancs ( Braničevo , Serbia ) and other newly conquered regions — was established along the southern frontier of Hungary in the 1250s .
Béla 's relationship with his oldest son and heir , Stephen became tense in the early 1260s , because the elderly king favored his daughter , Anna and his youngest child , Béla , Duke of Slavonia . He was forced to cede the territories of the Kingdom of Hungary east of the river Danube to Stephen , which caused a civil war lasting until 1266 . Nevertheless , Béla 's family was famed for his piety : he died as a Franciscan tertiary , and the veneration of his three saintly daughters — Kunigunda , Yolanda , and Margaret — was confirmed by the Holy See .
= = Childhood ( 1206 – 20 ) = =
Béla was the oldest son of King Andrew II of Hungary by his first wife , Gertrude of Merania . He was born in the second half of 1206 . Upon King Andrew 's initiative , Pope Innocent III had already appealed to the Hungarian prelates and barons on the 7th of June to swear an oath of loyalty to the King 's future son .
Queen Gertrude showed blatant favoritism towards her German relatives and courtiers , causing widespread discontent among the native lords . Taking advantage of her husband 's campaign in the distant Principality of Halych , a group of aggrieved noblemen seized and murdered her in the forests of the Pilis Hills on 28 September 1213 . King Andrew only punished one of the conspirators , a certain Count Peter , after his return from Halych . Although Béla was a child when his mother was assassinated , he never forgot her and declared his deep respect for her in many of his royal charters . In his correspondence with his sister , the noted Franciscan saint , Elizabeth of Hungary , he was often counseled to restrain his anger at the nobles for the death of their mother .
Andrew II betrothed Béla to an unnamed daughter of Tzar Boril of Bulgaria in 1213 or 1214 , but their engagement was broken . In 1214 , the King requested the Pope to excommunicate some unnamed lords who were planning to crown Béla king . Even so , the eight @-@ year @-@ old Béla was crowned in the same year , but his father did not grant him a province to rule . Furthermore , when leaving for a Crusade to the Holy Land in August 1217 , King Andrew appointed John , Archbishop of Esztergom to represent him during his absence . During this period , Béla stayed with his maternal uncle Berthold of Merania in Steyr in the Holy Roman Empire . Andrew II returned from the Holy Land in late 1218 . He had arranged the engagement of Béla and Maria , a daughter of Theodore I Laskaris , Emperor of Nicaea . She accompanied King Andrew to Hungary and Béla married her in 1220 .
= = Rex iunior = =
= = = Duke of Slavonia ( 1220 – 26 ) = = =
The senior king ceded the lands between the Adriatic Sea and the Dráva River — Croatia , Dalmatia and Slavonia — to Béla in 1220 . A letter of 1222 of Pope Honorius III reveals that " some wicked men " had forced Andrew II to share his realms with his heir . Béla initially styled himself as " King Andrew 's son and King " in his charters ; from 1222 he used the title " by the Grace of God , King , son of the King of Hungary , and Duke of all Slavonia " .
Béla separated from his wife in the first half of 1222 upon his father 's demand . However , Pope Honorius refused to declare the marriage illegal . Béla accepted the Pope 's decision and took refuge in Austria from his father 's anger . He returned , together with his wife , only after the prelates had in the first half of 1223 persuaded his father to forgive him . Having returned to his Duchy of Slavonia , Béla launched a campaign against Domald of Sidraga , a rebellious Dalmatian nobleman , and captured Domald 's fortress at Klis . Domald 's domains were confiscated and distributed among his rivals , the Šubići , who had supported Béla during the siege .
= = = Duke of Transylvania ( 1226 – 35 ) = = =
King Andrew transferred Béla from Slavonia to Transylvania in 1226 . In Slavonia , he was succeeded by his brother , Coloman . As Duke of Transylvania , Béla adopted an expansionist policy aimed at the territories over the Carpathian Mountains . He supported the Dominicans ' proselytizing activities among the Cumans , who dominated these lands . In 1227 he crossed the mountains and met Boricius , a Cuman chieftain , who had decided to convert to Christianity . At their meeting , Boricius and his subjects were baptized and acknowledged Béla 's suzerainty . Within a year , the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania was established in their lands .
Béla had long opposed his father 's " useless and superfluous perpetual grants " , because the distribution of royal estates destroyed the traditional basis of royal authority . He started reclaiming King Andrew 's land grants throughout the country in 1228 . The Pope supported Béla 's efforts , but the King often hindered the execution of his son 's orders . Béla also confiscated the estates of two noblemen , brothers Simon and Michael Kacsics , who had plotted against his mother .
Béla 's youngest brother , Andrew , Prince of Halych was expelled from his principality in the spring of 1229 . Béla decided to help him to regain his throne , proudly boasting that the town of Halych " would not remain on the face of the earth , for there was no one to deliver it from his hands " , according to the Galician – Volhynian Chronicle . He crossed the Carpathian Mountains and laid siege to Halych together with his Cuman allies in 1229 or 1230 . However , he could not seize the town and withdrew his troops . The Galician – Volhynian Chronicle writes that many Hungarian soldiers " died of many afflictions " on their way home .
Béla invaded Bulgaria and besieged Vidin in 1228 or 1232 , but he could not capture the fortress . Around the same time , he set up a new border province , the Banate of Szörény ( Severin , Romania ) , in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube . In a token of his suzerainty in the lands east of the Carpathians , Béla adopted the title " King of Cumania " in 1233 . Béla sponsored the mission of Friar Julian and three other Dominican monks who decided to visit the descendants of the Hungarians who had centuries earlier remained in Magna Hungaria , the Hungarians ' legendary homeland .
= = His reign = =
= = = Before the Mongol invasion ( 1235 – 41 ) = = =
King Andrew died on 21 September 1235 . Béla , who succeeded his father without opposition , was crowned king in Székesfehérvár on 14 October . He dismissed and punished many of his father 's closest advisors . For instance , he had Palatine Denis blinded and Julius Kán imprisoned . The former was accused of having , in King Andrew 's life , an adulterous liaison with Queen Beatrix , the King 's young widow . Béla ordered her imprisonment , but she managed to escape to the Holy Roman Empire , where she gave birth to a posthumous son , Stephen . Béla and his brother , Coloman considered her son a bastard .
Béla declared that his principal purpose was " the restitution of royal rights " and " the restoration of the situation which existed in the country " in the reign of his grandfather , Béla III . According to the contemporaneous Roger of Torre Maggiore , he even " had the chairs of the barons burned " in order to prevent them from sitting in his presence during the meetings of the royal council . Béla set up special commissions which revised all royal charters of land grants made after 1196 . The annulment of former donations alienated many of his subjects from the King . Pope Gregory IX protested strongly at the withdrawal of royal grants made to the Cistercians and the military orders . In exchange for Béla 's renouncing of the taking back of royal estates in 1239 , the Pope authorized him to employ local Jews and Muslims in financial administration , which had for decades been opposed by the Holy See .
After returning from Magna Hungaria in 1236 , Friar Julian informed Béla of the Mongols , who had by that time reached the Volga River and were planning to invade Europe . The Mongols invaded Desht @-@ i Qipchaq — the westernmost regions of the Eurasian Steppes — and routed the Cumans . Fleeing the Mongols , at least 40 @,@ 000 Cumans approached the eastern borders of the Kingdom of Hungary and demanded admission in 1239 . Béla only agreed to give them shelter after their leader , Köten , promised to convert together with his people to Christianity , and to fight against the Mongols . However , the settlement of masses of nomadic Cumans in the plains along the Tisza River gave rise to many conflicts between them and the local villagers . Béla , who needed the Cumans ' military support , rarely punished them for their robberies , rapes and other misdeeds . His Hungarian subjects thought that he was biased in the Cumans ' favor , thus " enmity emerged between the people and the king " , according to Roger of Torre Maggiore .
Béla supported the development of towns . For instance , he confirmed the liberties of the citizens of Székesfehérvár and granted privileges to Hungarian and German settlers in Bars ( Starý Tekov , Slovakia ) in 1237 . Zadar , a town in Dalmatia which had been lost to Venice in 1202 , acknowledged Béla 's suzerainty in 1240 .
= = = Mongol invasion of Hungary ( 1241 – 42 ) = = =
The Mongols gathered in the lands bordering Hungary and Poland under the command of Batu Khan in December 1240 . They demanded Béla 's submission to their Great Khan Ögödei , but Béla refused to yield and had the mountain passes fortified . The Mongols broke through the barricades erected in the Verecke Pass ( Veretsky Pass , Ukraine ) on 12 March 1241 .
Duke Frederick II of Austria , who arrived to assist Béla against the invaders , defeated a small Mongol troop near Pest . He seized prisoners , including Cumans from the Eurasian Steppes who had been forced to join the Mongols . When the citizens of Pest realized the presence of Cumans in the invading army , mass hysteria emerged . The townsfolk accused Köten and their Cumans of cooperating with the enemy . A riot broke out and the mob massacred Köten 's retinue . Köten was either slaughtered or committed suicide . On hearing about Köten 's fate , his Cumans decided to leave Hungary and destroyed many villages on their way towards the Balkan Peninsula .
With the Cumans ' departure Béla lost his most valuable allies . He could muster an army of less than 60 @,@ 000 against the invaders . The royal army was ill @-@ prepared and its commanders — the barons alienated by Béla 's policy — " would have liked the king to be defeated so that they would then be dearer to him " , according to Roger of Torre Maggiore 's account . The Hungarian army was virtually annihilated in the Battle of Mohi on the Sajó River on 11 April 1241 . A great number of Hungarian lords , prelates and noblemen were killed , and Béla himself narrowly escaped from the battlefield . He fled through Nyitra to Pressburg ( Nitra and Bratislava in Slovakia ) . The triumphant Mongols occupied and ravaged most lands to the east of the Danube River by the end of June .
Upon Duke Frederick II of Austria 's invitation , Béla went to Hainburg an der Donau . However , instead of helping Béla , the Duke forced him to cede three counties ( most probably Locsmánd , Pozsony , and Sopron ) . From Hainburg , Béla fled to Zagreb and sent letters to Pope Gregory IX , Emperor Frederick II , King Louis IX of France and other Western European monarchs , urging them to send reinforcements to Hungary . In the hope of military assistance , he even accepted Emperor Frederick II 's suzerainty in June . The Pope declared a Crusade against the Mongols , but no reinforcements arrived .
The Mongols crossed the frozen Danube early in 1242 . A Mongol detachment under the command of Kadan , a son of Great Khan Ögödei , chased Béla from town to town in Dalmatia . Béla took refugee in the well @-@ fortified Trogir . Before Kadan laid siege to the town in March , news arrived of the Great Khan 's death . Batu Khan wanted to attend at the election of Ögödei 's successor with sufficient troops and ordered the withdrawal of all Mongol forces . Béla , who was grateful to Trogir , granted it lands near Split , causing a lasting conflict between the two Dalmatian towns .
= = = " Second Founder of the State " ( 1242 – 61 ) = = =
Upon his return to Hungary in May 1242 , Béla found a country in ruins . Devastation was especially heavy in the plains east of the Danube where at least half of the villages were depopulated . The Mongols had destroyed most traditional centers of administration , which were defended by earth @-@ and @-@ timber walls . Only well @-@ fortified places , such as Esztergom , Székesfehérvár and the Pannonhalma Archabbey , had successfully resisted siege . A severe famine followed in 1242 and 1243 .
Preparation for a new Mongol invasion was the central concern of Béla 's policy . In a letter of 1247 to Pope Innocent IV , Béla announced his plan to strengthen the Danube — the " river of confrontations " — with new forts . He abandoned the ancient royal prerogative to build and own castles , promoting the erection of nearly 100 new fortresses by the end of his reign . These fortresses included a new castle Béla had built at Nagysáros ( Veľký Šariš , Slovakia ) , and another castle Béla and his wife had built at Visegrád .
Béla attempted to increase the number of the soldiers and to improve their equipment . He made land grants in the forested regions and obliged the new landowners to equip heavily armoured cavalrymen to serve in the royal army . For instance , the so @-@ called ten @-@ lanced nobles of Szepes ( Spiš , Slovakia ) received their privileges from Béla in 1243 . He even allowed the barons and prelates to employ armed noblemen , who had previously been directly subordinated to the sovereign , in their private retinue . Béla granted the Banate of Szörény to the Knights Hospitaller on 2 June 1247 , but the Knights abandoned the region by 1260 .
To replace the loss of at least 15 percent of the population , who perished during the Mongol invasion and the ensuing famine , Béla promoted colonization . He granted special liberties to the colonists , including personal freedom and favorable tax treatment . Germans , Moravians , Poles , Ruthenians and other " guests " arrived from neighboring countries and were settled in depopulated or sparsely populated regions . He also persuaded the Cumans , who had in 1241 left Hungary , to return and settle in the plains along the River Tisza . He even arranged the engagement of his firstborn son , Stephen , who was crowned king @-@ junior in or before 1246 , to Elisabeth , a daughter of a Cuman chieftain .
Béla granted the privileges of Székesfehérvár to more than 20 settlements , promoting their development into self @-@ governing towns . The liberties of the mining towns in Upper Hungary were also spelled out in Béla 's reign . For defensive purposes , he moved the citizens of Pest to a hill on the opposite side of the Danube in 1248 . Within two decades their new fortified town , Buda , became the most important center of commerce in Hungary . Béla also granted privileges to Gradec , the fortified center of Zagreb , in 1242 and confirmed them in 1266 .
Béla adopted an active foreign policy soon after the withdrawal of the Mongols . In the second half of 1242 he invaded Austria and forced Duke Frederick II to surrender the three counties ceded to him during the Mongol invasion . On the other hand , Venice occupied Zadar in the summer of 1243 . Béla renounced Zadar on 30 June 1244 , but Venice acknowledged his claim to one third of the customs revenues of the Dalmatian town .
Béla set up a defensive alliance against the Mongols . He married three of his daughters to princes whose countries were also threatened by the Mongols . Rostislav Mikhailovich , a pretender to the Principality of Halych , was the first to marry , in 1243 , one of Béla 's daughters , Anna . Béla supported his son @-@ in @-@ law to invade Halych in 1245 , but Rostislav 's opponent , Daniil Romanovich repulsed their attack .
On 21 August 1245 Pope Gregory freed Béla of the oath of fidelity he had taken to Emperor Frederick during the Mongol invasion . In the following year Duke Frederick II of Austria invaded Hungary . He routed Béla 's army in the Battle of the Leitha River on 15 June 1246 , but perished in the battlefield . His childless death gave rise to a series of conflicts , because both his niece , Gertrude , and his sister , Margaret , made a claim to Austria and Styria . Béla decided to intervene in the conflict only after the danger of a second Mongol invasion had diminished by the end of the 1240s . In retaliation of a former Austrian incursion into Hungary , Béla made a plundering raid into Austria and Styria in the summer of 1250 . In this year he met and concluded a peace treaty with Daniil Romanovich , Prince of Halych in Zólyom ( Zvolen , Slovakia ) . With Béla 's mediation , a son of his new ally Roman married Gertrude of Austria .
Béla and Daniil Romanovich united their troops and invaded Austria and Moravia in June 1252 . After their withdrawal , Ottokar , Margrave of Moravia — who had married Margaret of Austria — invaded and occupied Austria and Styria . In the summer of 1253 , Béla launched a campaign against Moravia and laid siege to Olomouc . Daniil Romanovich , Boleslaw the Chaste of Cracow , and Wladislaw of Opole intervened on Béla 's behalf , but he lifted the siege by the end of June . Pope Innocent IV mediated a peace treaty , which was signed in Pressburg ( Bratislava , Slovakia ) on 1 May 1254 . In accordance with the treaty , Ottokar , who had in the meantime become King of Bohemia , ceded Styria to Béla .
Béla appointed his son @-@ in @-@ law , Rostislav Mikhailovich Ban of Macsó ( Mačva , Serbia ) in 1254 . Rostislav 's task was the creation of a buffer zone along the southern borders . He occupied Bosnia already in the year of his appointment and forced Tzar Michael Asen I of Bulgaria to cede Belgrade and Barancs ( Braničevo , Serbia ) in 1255 . Béla adopted the title of King of Bulgaria , but he only used it occasionally in the subsequent years .
The Styrian noblemen rose up in rebellion against Béla 's governor Stephen Gutkeled and routed him in early 1258 . Béla invaded Styria , restored his suzerainty and appointed his oldest son , Stephen , Duke of Styria . In 1259 , Batu Khan 's successor , Berke , proposed an alliance by offering to marry one of his daughters to a son of Béla , but he refused the Khan 's offer .
Discontented with the rule of Béla 's son , the Styrian lords sought assistance from Ottokar of Bohemia . Béla and his allies — Daniil Romanovich , Boleslaw the Chaste , and Leszek the Black of Sieradz — invaded Moravia , but Ottokar vanquished them in the Battle of Kressenbrunn on 12 June 1260 . The defeat forced Béla to renounce Styria in favor of the King of Bohemia in the Peace of Vienna , which was signed on 31 March 1261 . On the other hand , Ottokar divorced his elderly wife , Margarete of Austria , and married Béla 's granddaughter — the daughter of Rostislav Mikhailovich by Anna — Kunigunda .
Béla had originally planned to give his youngest daughter , Margaret , in marriage to King Ottokar . However , Margaret , who had been living in the Monastery of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits ' Island , refused to yield . With the assistance of her Dominican confessor , she took her final religious vows which prevented her marriage . Infuriated by this act , the King , who had up to that time supported the Dominicans , favored the Franciscans in the subsequent years . He even became a Franciscan tertiary , according to the Greater Legend of his saintly sister , Elisabeth .
= = = Civil war ( 1261 – 66 ) = = =
Béla and his son , Stephen jointly invaded Bulgaria in 1261 . They forced Tzar Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria to abandon the region of Vidin . Béla returned to Hungary before the end of the campaign , which was continued by his son .
Béla 's favoritism towards his younger son , Béla ( whom he appointed Duke of Slavonia ) and daughter , Anna irritated Stephen . The latter suspected that his father was planning to disinherit him . Stephen often mentioned in his charters that he had " suffered severe persecution " by his " parents without deserving it " when referring to the roots of his conflict with his father . Although some clashes took place in the autumn , a lasting civil war was avoided through the mediation of the Archbishops Philip of Esztergom and Smaragd of Kalocsa who persuaded Béla and his son to make a compromise . According to the Peace of Pressburg , the two divided the country along the Danube : the lands to the west of the river remained under the direct rule of Béla , and the government of the eastern territories was taken over by Stephen , the king @-@ junior .
The relationship between father and son remained tense . Stephen seized his mother 's and sister 's estates which were situated in his realm to the east of the Danube . Béla 's army under the command of Princess Anna crossed the Danube in the summer of 1264 . She occupied Sárospatak and captured Stephen 's wife and children . A detachment of the royal army , under the command of Béla 's Judge royal Lawrence forced Stephen to retreat as far as the fortress at Feketehalom ( Codlea , Romania ) in the easternmost corner of Transylvania . The king @-@ junior 's partisans relieved the castle and he started a counter @-@ attack in the autumn . In the decisive Battle of Isaszeg , he routed his father 's army in March 1265 .
It was again the two archbishops who conducted the negotiations between Béla and his son . Their agreement was signed in the Dominican Monastery of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits ' Island ( Margaret Island , Budapest ) on 23 March 1266 . The new treaty confirmed the division of the country along the Danube and regulated many aspects of the co @-@ existence of Béla 's regnum and Stephen 's regimen , including the collection of taxes and the commoners ' right to free movement .
= = = Last years ( 1266 – 70 ) = = =
The " nobles of all Hungary , who are called servientes regis " from both the senior and the junior king 's domains assembled in Esztergom in 1267 . Upon their request , Béla and Stephen jointly confirmed their privileges , which had first been spelled out in the Golden Bull of 1222 , before 7 September . Shortly after the meeting , Béla assigned four noblemen from each county with the task of revising property rights in Transdanubia .
King Stephen Uroš I of Serbia invaded the Banate of Macsó , a region under the rule of Béla 's widowed daughter , Anna . A royal army soon routed the invaders and captured Stephen Uroš . The Serbian monarch was forced to pay ransom before being released .
Béla 's favorite son , Béla , died in the summer of 1269 . On 18 January 1270 the King 's youngest daughter , the saintly Margaret , also died . In short order , Béla fell terminally ill . Before his death , he requested King Ottokar II of Bohemia , ( Princess Anna 's son @-@ in @-@ law ) , to assist his wife , daughter and partisans in case they were forced to leave Hungary by his son . Béla died on Rabbits ' Island on 3 May 1270 . With his death at the age of 63 , he exceeded in age most members of the House of Árpád . He was buried in the church of the Franciscans in Esztergom , but Archbishop Philip of Esztergom had his corpse transferred to the Esztergom Cathedral . The Minorites only succeeded in regaining Béla 's remains after a long lawsuit .
= = Family = =
Béla 's wife , Maria Laskarina was born in 1207 or 1208 , according to historian Gyula Kristó . She died in July or August 1270 . Their first child , Kunigunda , was born in 1224 , four years after her parents ' marriage . She married to Boleslaw the Chaste , Duke of Cracow in 1246 .
A second daughter , Margaret followed Kunigunda in about 1225 ; she died unmarried before 1242 . The third daughter of Béla , Anna was born around 1226 . She and her husband , Rostislav Mikhailovich were especially favored by Béla . Her great @-@ grandson , Wenceslaus — a grandson of her daughter , Kunigunda by King Ottokar II of Bohemia — was King of Hungary from 1301 to 1305 .
Béla 's fourth child , Catherina died unmarried before 1242 . Next , Elisabeth was born ; she was given in marriage to Henry XIII , Duke of Bavaria in about 1245 . Her son , Otto was crowned King of Hungary in 1305 , but was forced to leave the country by the end of 1307 . Elisabeth 's sister , Constance married , around 1251 , Lev Danylovich , second son of Prince Daniil Romanovich of Halych . Béla 's seventh daughter , Yolanda became the wife of Bolesław the Pious , Duke of Greater Poland .
Béla 's first son , Stephen was born in 1239 . He succeeded his father . Béla 's youngest daughter , Margaret was born during the Mongol invasion in 1242 . Dedicated to God by her parents at birth , she spent her life in humility in the Monastery of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits ' Island and died as a Dominican nun . The King 's youngest ( namesake ) son , Béla was born between around 1243 and 1250 .
The Greater Legend of Saint Elisabeth of Hungary ( Béla 's sister ) described Béla 's family as a company of saints . It wrote that the " blessed royal family of the Hungarians is adorned with resplendent pearls that irradiate all the earth " . In fact , the Holy See sanctioned the veneration of three daughters of Béla and his wife : Kunigunda was beatified in 1690 , Yolanda in 1827 ; and Margaret was canonized in 1943 . A fourth daughter , Constance also became subject to a local cult in Lemberg ( Lviv , Ukraine ) , according to the Legend of her sister , Kunigunda .
The following family tree presents Béla 's offspring , and some of his relatives mentioned in the article .
= = Legacy = =
Bryan Cartledge writes that Béla " reorganised the structure of government , re @-@ established the rule of law , repopulated a devastated countryside , encouraged the growth of towns , created the new royal town of Buda and revived the commercial life of the country " during his over three @-@ decade @-@ long reign . Béla 's posthumous epithet — the " second founder of the state " — shows that posterity attributed to him Hungary 's survival of the Mongol invasion . On the other hand , the Illuminated Chronicle notes that Béla " was a man of peace , but in the conduct of armies and battles the least fortunate " when narrating Béla 's defeat in the Battle of Kressenbrunn . The same chronicle preserved the next epigram which was written on his tomb :
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= Water supply and sanitation in Colombia =
This article was last updated on substance in August 2012 . However , sections of this article are older and may need to be updated . Feel free to update this article wherever needed .
Water supply and sanitation in Colombia has been improved in many ways over the past decades . Between 1990 and 2010 , access to improved sanitation increased from 67 % to 82 % , but access to improved water source 's increased only slightly from 89 % to 94 % . In particular , coverage in rural areas lags behind . Furthermore , despite improvements , the quality of water and sanitation services remains inadequate . For example , only 73 % of those receiving public services receive water of potable quality and in 2006 only 25 % of the wastewater generated in the country underwent any kind of treatment .
= = Overview = =
A comprehensive sector policy , introduced in 1994 , aimed at increasing water and sanitation investments through targeted transfers to municipalities , improving service quality and efficiency by promoting private sector participation in the poorest parts of the country where utilities were not performing well , the establishment of autonomous regulatory agencies at the national level , increased cost recovery , and protecting the poorest through cross @-@ subsidies in the form of area @-@ based tariffs . This same policy has been pursued and refined by different consecutive governments .
Responsibilities in the sector are divided as follows :
The Vice @-@ Ministry of Water and Sanitation , created in October 2006 within the Ministry of Environment , Housing and Territorial Development is in charge of setting sector policy .
Regulation is the responsibility of two separate institutions at the national level , the Potable Water and Basic Sanitation Regulation Commission ( CRA ) and the Superintendency of Residential Public Services ( SSPD ) , a multi @-@ sector regulatory agency .
Service provision is the responsibility of 1 @,@ 500 water and sanitation service providers in urban areas and probably more than 12 @,@ 000 communal organizations providing services in rural and peri @-@ urban areas . While most urban service providers are public , in 2004 there were 125 private and 48 mixed public @-@ private water companies in the country .
Cost recovery in the sector has improved substantially . Between 1990 and 2001 , the average tariff for water and sanitation in Colombia increased from US $ 0 @.@ 32 / m3 to US $ 0 @.@ 81 / m3 , equivalent to an increase of 153 % . As a result , 24 % of investments were self @-@ financed by utilities in 2004 . Other features of the sector are the existence of some large , well @-@ performing public companies ; a strong and stable participation by the local private sector in service provision ; and some well @-@ performing community @-@ based organizations in peri @-@ urban areas .
Recently , the government of Álvaro Uribe has initiated a number of complementary policies to accelerate increases in access to water and sanitation services , such as the strengthening of the roles of departments in the governance of the sector , a program for marginal urban neighborhoods and an increase in investments for wastewater treatment .
= = Access = =
In 2010 , 92 % of the population had access to an improved source of water and 77 % had access to adequate sanitation . The rural population , which accounts for about 25 % of the national total , has the lowest coverage rates , with only 72 % having access to safe water and 63 % to adequate sanitation . Coverage is lowest on the Atlantic Coast ( Caribbean Region ) , in the Orinoquia , and in Amazonia .
= = Service quality = =
In addition to issues of service coverage , Colombia ’ s water and sanitation sector faces issues of service quality . However , service quality has improved considerably over the last fifteen years . The biggest cities tend to offer better service quality than smaller towns and rural areas .
Continuity of supply . The average duration of daily water service has increased from 15 @.@ 36 hours in 1993 to 19 @.@ 82 hours in 2003 at the national level . In the four biggest cities of the country , service is continuous . Nevertheless , rationing of water and interrupted sanitation are ordinary incidents in small towns and rural areas .
Drinking water quality . According to a survey of the Superintendencia de Servicios Públicos Domiciliarios ( SSPD ) or Superintendency for Residential Public Services in 2004 , 72 % of the users had water of potable quality . In some cases , the water supply system ’ s pressure is not adequate , increasing the risk of bacterial contamination .
Sewerage . Sewage collection systems do not have sufficient hydraulic capacity to handle wastewater flows , especially in poor neighborhoods , which results in combined sewer overflows and sanitary sewer overflows .
Wastewater treatment . In 2006 , 25 % of the wastewater generated in the country underwent some kind of treatment . The remaining 75 % is discharged without any treatment , contaminating a significant part of the natural water resources .
= = History = =
The water and sanitation sector in Colombia underwent one cycle of centralization and decentralization within the past several decades . Since the enactment of a comprehensive new sector policy in 1994 , various governments have pursued the same set of basic policies , including targeted transfers to municipalities , private sector participation , regulation , cost recovery and a system of cross @-@ subsidies .
= = = Centralization ( 1950s to late 1980s ) = = =
In the first half of the 20th century , municipalities were responsible for the provision of basic water and sanitation services in Colombia . In 1950 , similar to many other countries , a centralized system was adopted and the Instituto de Fomento Municipal ( INSFOPAL ) or Municipal Development Institute was created . Empresas Departamentales de Acueducto y Alcantarillado ( ACUAS ) or Departmental Water and Sewerage Companies were created , consisting of the departments , the municipalities and INSFOPAL , which took care of managing and maintaining the infrastructure of the member communities . In that way , investment at the national level was channelled into this important area of public health .
In 1976 , within the framework of a change in sector policies , the ACUAS were transformed into Empresas de Obras Sanitarias ( EMPOS ) or Sanitary Works Companies at the regional or municipal level , which were put in charge of financing , planning , developing and managing public services in most municipalities . However , some municipalities kept the responsibility for service provision at the local level and created municipal companies . The most notable case are the Empresas Públicas de Medellín ( EPM ) , a municipally owned multi @-@ sector utility created in 1955 .
At the national level , the water sector institutionally depended on the Ministry of Health .
= = = Decentralization ( late 1980s to 1993 ) = = =
In the 1980s , the sector was in crisis , characterized by low investment , poor cost recovery and poor service quality in most of the country . As a result , the government decided to break up INSFOPAL at the end of the 1980s and to devolve the responsibility for service provision back to the municipalities after four decades , except for some cases like the Valle de Cauca department , where the regional companies continued providing the services . Furthermore , the institutional responsibility for the sector was transferred from the Ministry of Health to the Ministry of Economic Development . This change was not only an administrative change , but it introduced a different focus and perspective to the sector .
= = = New financing system and public @-@ private partnerships ( 1994 @-@ 2006 ) = = =
The two liberal governments of César Gaviria ( 1990 @-@ 1994 ) and Ernesto Samper ( 1994 @-@ 1998 ) pursued a policy of economic opening and business modernization . In the spirit of these policies , the government established a comprehensive new sector policy that aimed at increasing water and sanitation investments through targeted transfers to municipalities , improving service quality and efficiency by promoting private sector participation in the poorest parts of the country where public utilities were not performing well , the establishment of autonomous regulatory agencies at the national level , increased cost recovery , and protecting the poorest through cross @-@ subsidies in the form of area @-@ based tariffs . The basis of this sector policy was established by Law 142 of July 1994 , at the end of president César Gaviria ’ s term of office . With some modifications to that law in 2001 , the same policy continues to be pursued to today despite several changes of governments .
In 1995 , the first water and sanitation concession in Colombia was given to a mixed public @-@ private company in the city of Cartagena , followed by a second concession in Barranquilla in 1996 and more concessions in the next years . In 2002 , the government launched a program of business modernization to introduce private sector participation also in small and medium @-@ sized municipalities , leading to significant improvements in quality and efficiency of service provision in some municipalities . Drinking water use has decreased by 25 % between 1996 and 2001 . Tariff increases and the inclusion of low income users who did not have access to piped water before influenced this trend .
= = = Creation of a Vice @-@ Ministry for Water and Sanitation and Departmental Plans ( since 2006 ) = = =
The government of Álvaro Uribe wants to rapidly increase coverage , overtaking the Millennium Development Goals for the sector and to improve service quality , especially in small towns and rural areas , which have the highest requirement of service improvement .
At the end of 2006 , a Vice @-@ Ministry for Water and Sanitation was created . It has initiated four new programs :
Departmental Water and Sanitation Plans
Programa de Saneamiento para Asentamientos ( SPA ) or Sanitation Program for Settlements within the framework of an Integral Quarter Improvement Program
Municipal Waste Water Sanitation Program ( SAVER ) to increase the rate of treated municipal water
Handwashing Program
Water Storage campaign
The Departmental Water and Sanitation Plans program provides such services as planning and harmonizing resources and has regional systems of service provision at the level of each department of the country . The program was first implemented in four departments which have some of the most difficult conditions : Sucre , Córdoba , Magdalena and La Guajira . The program also aimed to overcome the sector ’ s fragmentation into many small utilities to benefit from economies of scale . In 2010 30 Departmental Plans were completed and published , covering almost all of the country 's 32 departments .
In about 2011 , the responsibility for water supply and sanitation , and with it the Vice @-@ Ministry , was transferred to the newly created Ministry of Housing , Cities and Territories . As of August 2012 , the Vice @-@ Ministry 's website made no more reference to the Departmental Water and Sanitation Plans . The handwashing program , the SPA and SAVER were still in place . In addition , two new programs were started :
A " water culture " ( Cultura del Agua ) program that combats apathy and lack of interest concerning water utilities , promotes water reuse and the protection of watersheds , and fights water losses , illegal connections and the non @-@ payment of water bills .
A " transparent water " program to ensure greater visibility and a wider implication of various stakeholders in water projects , especially during an early stage of implementation .
= = Responsibility for water supply and sanitation = =
The current responsibilities and policies in the water and sanitation sector in Colombia are primarily defined in the 1991 constitution and in Law 142 of 1994 ( Ley de Servicios Públicos Domiciliarios or Public Housing Services Law )
= = = Policy and regulation = = =
The Vice @-@ Ministry of Water and Sanitation , created in October 2006 within the Ministry of Environment , Housing and Territorial Development is in charge of setting sector policy . This sector policy is defined in the framework of national policy established by the Departamento Nacional de Planificación ( DNP ) or National Planning Department .
Responsibility for regulating water services is vested in two separate institutions at the national level . The Comisión de Regulación de Agua Potable y Saneamiento Básico ( CRA ) or Potable Water and Basic Sanitation Regulatory Commission defines criteria for efficient service provision and sets the rules for tariff revision , but is not in charge of controlling the application of these rules . The latter is the responsibility of the Superintendencia de Servicios Públicos Domiciliarios ( SSPD ) or Superintendency for Residential Public Services , a multi @-@ sector regulatory agency .
The Government aims at improving the performance of the water and sanitation sector through : ( 1 ) strengthening the regulatory framework ; ( 2 ) implementing technical assistance programs ; ( 3 ) providing financial support to promote modernization and efficient management as well as to subsidize the poor ; and ( 4 ) rationalizing the institutional framework at the national level to improve coordination in the sector . The government also supports private sector participation in the sector .
= = = Service provision = = =
Colombian municipalities are responsible for “ ensuring that their inhabitants are given domestic services of water supply and sanitation in an efficient way by public companies ” . Therefore , public utilities are directly responsible for service provision , except for some special cases defined in the law , in which municipalities can offer the services directly . In rural areas and some marginal urban areas , communal water boards also offer water supply services .
Over the last few years , the number of companies has increased and the direct service provision by municipalities has decreased . To simplify the process of changing suppliers ' ownership structure , municipal utilities were transformed into public stock corporations , which allow private sector participation without a further change of the legal status . In 2006 , 53 % of all suppliers were public companies , the remainder being direct municipal suppliers ( 15 % ) , private companies ( 12 % ) , official companies , which are companies that are not specialized in water and sanitation ( 13 % ) , mixed companies ( 6 % ) and authorized organizations ( 1 % ) . Smaller utilities included , there are more than 1 @,@ 500 water and sanitation service providers of in urban areas , and probably more than 12 @,@ 000 communal organizations providing services in rural areas .
The sector is characterized by a high degree of fragmentation which makes it difficult to realize economies of scale , according to a World Bank study . To solve this problem , the creation of regional companies has been suggested .
= = = = Urban areas = = = =
Most Colombian cities - including the three largest ones , Bogota , Medellin and Cali - are served by public utilities . However , the private sector also plays an important role , including 125 private and 48 mixed public @-@ private water companies in 2004 out of 1 @,@ 500 urban service providers .
= = = = = Public utilities = = = = =
Some of Colombia 's larger cities are home to well @-@ performing public utilities , some of them providing multiple services , others being specialized in water and sanitation only . The Empresas Públicas de Medellín or Public Companies of Medellín , is a municipally owned multi @-@ sector utility in charge of water supply , sanitation , solid waste management , electricity generation and distribution as well as local telecommunications in Medellín and its surrounding areas .
Another multi @-@ sector utility is the Empresas Municipales de Cali ( Emcali ) , which provides fixed line local telecoms , Internet , potable water , sewage and electricity services to some 600 @,@ 000 clients . EMCALI has suffered financially due to onerous payment obligations resulting from a Power Purchase Agreement signed in 1997 with an Independent Power Producer , TermoEmcali .
The capital of Colombia , Bogotá , is served by a water and sanitation utility , the Empresa de Acueducto y Alcantarillado de Bogotá ( EAAB ) .
= = = = = Private sector participation = = = = =
Private sector participation in Colombia 's water and sanitation sector has been much more stable than in some other Latin American countries . In 2004 , there were 125 private and 48 mixed public @-@ private water companies in Colombia , including large , medium and small companies . Private sector involvement in the Colombian water sector began in 1995 in Cartagena , with support from the World Bank . The most important examples are in Cartagena , Barranquilla , Santa Marta , Tunja , Montería , Palmira , Girardot , and Riohacha . Operators are to a large extent Colombian . Overall performance of utilities with private sector participation has improved , in some cases spectacularly , and some – such as Barranquilla – have had impressive successes in expanding coverage to the urban poor .
According to a World Bank report , the key to success of private sector participation in the Colombian water sector has been the development of homegrown solutions , and , at times , skillfully adapting models used elsewhere to the particular circumstances and culture of Colombia .
The World Bank 's Private Participation in Infrastructure Database shows private investment commitments in water supply and sanitation of US $ 940 million from 1995 to 2006 through 51 transactions , including 27 classified as concessions , 22 as management and lease contracts , and 2 as greenfield projects .
= = = = Small towns and peri @-@ urban areas = = = =
In some smaller towns and peri @-@ urban areas , there are examples of successful provision of water supply and sanitation services by community organizations and regional companies , which in some cases set an example in terms of community empowerment , transparency and accountability .
An example of a regional association is Acuavalle S.A. ESP , which provides drinking water and sanitation to 582 @,@ 000 inhabitants in 33 municipalities of the Valle del Cauca department . It was founded as a non @-@ profit public limited company in 1959 . The shareholders of the company are the Valle del Cauca department , the ‘ ’ Corporación Autónoma regional del valle del Cauce ’ ’ and 33 municipalities , which are served by the utility .
Another example , is the Junta Administradora del Acueducto La Sirena en el Valle del Cauca ( Water Board La Sirena ) in the southwestern outskirts of Cali , which manages 778 residential connections , offering continuous service to some 4 @,@ 200 users . It operates a sewerage system and a wastewater treatment plant . Water consumption is metered . The average monthly tariff is US $ 3 @.@ 5 for 28m3 . There is no social stratification , but special tariffs are applied to those users who consume more than 28m3 . The annual cash surplus is about US $ 10 @,@ 000 which is reinvested in preventive maintenance and in some cases in construction works . In this way , in the last 3 years a water capture facility was constructed in Quebrada Epaminondas , another one at Melendez River was improved , and a water tank with a capacity of 220m3 was constructed .
Another example is the Asociación Acueducto de Río Negro de Popayán , which was formed 10 years ago integrating 10 supply systems , supplying 7 @,@ 000 residential connections . The association is preparing its own water treatment plant and preparing to install meters with the aid of the Colombian organization Asociados en Desarrollo Rural ( ADR ) or Associates in Rural Development and the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) .
= = = = Rural areas = = = =
Coverage in rural areas is unusually low , given the level of economic development and sector development . Using a broad definition of access , based on the WHO definition of an improved water source , access in rural areas in Colombia was 71 % , while it was 81 % in Honduras - a considerably poorer country - and 89 % in Ecuador , also a poorer country than Colombia .
In addition to the armed conflict , there are other explanations for this situation : Municipalities tend to use their financial resources from the Sistema General de Participaciones or General Participation System ( Law 715 of 2001 ) mainly in urban areas . Furthermore , there is no institution or program at the national level which offers technical assistance to the 12 @,@ 000 rural community organizations . Law 142 of 1994 assigns that task to the departments , but these have not carried out the task in a satisfactory way so far .
The 2002 Inventario Sanitario Rural ( ISR ) or Rural Sanitary Register confirms that situation . Only 21 % of the rural community organizations were considered able to carry out maintenance and only 10 % to commercially operate the service . Only 32 % issued bills and only 10 % used metering . In 2005 , the government defined guidelines for basic water supply and sanitation policy in rural areas to increase coverage and improve quality in those areas .
In addition a GIS study published in 2014 documented that for many rural areas the time needed to drive to water testing labs than is longer than the sample is viable .
= = Innovative approaches = =
Since 1994 Colombia has pioneered many innovative approaches for basic service provision in general and for water supply and sanitation in particular .
Some of them were introduced at the national level , while others were initiated in one city or region . Notable innovations at the national level are the introduction of two autonomous economic regulatory agencies ( one , CRA , to develop and fine @-@ tune regulatory tools in the water and sanitation sector , and another one , SSPD , to implement them in across all basic services ) in 1994 ; the introduction of socio @-@ economic strata as a basis for spatially differentiated tariffs , also in 1994 ; and the spatial aggregation of municipal service providers in small towns at the departmental level to benefit from economies of scale since 2006 , with strong support from the national government .
A notable innovation initiated by a city or a region is the creation of mixed public @-@ private enterprises for urban water supply that has begun in 1995 in Cartagena , followed by Barranquilla and other Northern and Central cities and towns . Another innovation is an association of community @-@ based organizations ( CBOs ) providing water supply in rural and peri @-@ urban areas in the departments of El Valle , Cauca and Risaralda in Southwestern Colombia . It began in the late 1990s with the assistance of the Universidad del Valle in Cali in order to protect and recover source watersheds and to strengthen the CBOs ' capacity to administrate , operate and maintain their water systems .
In addition , Colombia boasts one of the oldest and largest multi @-@ utilities in Latin America , Empresas Públicas de Medellín ( EPM ) , created in 1955 .
= = Efficiency = =
The average level of non @-@ revenue water ( physical and economic losses ) in Colombia in 2006 is estimated to be 49 % . This level is higher than the Latin American average ( approximately 40 % ) and the regulatory goal of 30 % . In the past , the national average of non @-@ revenue water was estimated 40 % in 2001 , which is almost the same as in 1990 . In the largest cities of the country , levels of non @-@ revenue water are below the national average ( 40 % in Bogotá , 35 % in Medellín and 39 % in Cali ) .
= = Financial aspects = =
= = = Tariffs = = =
The Colombian tariff system is defined in the Ley de Servicios Públicos or Public Services Law from 1994 . It is applied in public , mixed and private companies . The tariff system aims at reconciling the achievement of cost recovery with the protection of the poor . The basic tariff is calculated on the basis of economic costs according to a methodology defined at the national level by CRA ( Law 287 of 2004 ) . Therefore , in principle , tariffs in different municipalities do not differ due to local government ’ s decisions to raise tariffs or not , but only because of the different costs of the services .
The base tariff of each service provider has to be adjusted by law for different geographic areas within the city , each assumed to correspond to one socio @-@ economic class , according to adjustment factors that are specified by law . This system of area @-@ based tariffs is supposed to provide cross @-@ subsidies from more affluent to poorer users . Every municipality has defined geographic areas that each correspond to one of the six socio @-@ economic classes . Class 1 represents the lowest income group while class 6 stands for the highest . As per 2007 , the tariff adjustment factors were the following :
There are many more citizens who live in areas corresponding to classes 1 – 3 than those who live in the areas corresponding to classes 5 and 6 . For example , in Bogotá 73 % of the population live in zones of classes 1 – 3 , whereas only 10 % live in zones classified as 5 and 6 . Consequently , the tariff system permanently causes deficits which require subsidies paid by the national government .
Between 1990 and 2001 , the average tariff for water and sanitation in Colombia increased from US $ 0 @.@ 32 / m3 to US $ 0 @.@ 81 / m3 , equivalent to an increase of 153 % . In 2006 , the average monthly bill for residential customers was about US $ 6 @.@ 80 for water supply and US $ 4 @.@ 60 for sanitation services .
Free basic water . Inspired by the Human Right to Water , two important cities in Colombia make a basic amount of water ( Minimo Vital de Agua Potable ) available to their poorest residents free of charge . In 2009 , Medellin made 2 @.@ 5 cubic meters of water per month and per person - or 10 cubic meters for a family of four - available for free to all urban residents in class 1 . The city wants to reach 45 @,@ 000 households and has budgeted 25 billion Pesos ( USD 14 million ) to finance free basic water and associated awareness campaigns . In February 2012 Bogota also introduced 6 cubic meters of free basic water per household for households in classes 1 and 2 , covering more than 1 @.@ 5 million households or 39 % of all households . The annual cost is estimated at 60 billion Pesos ( USD 33 million ) .
= = = Investment = = =
Between 1995 and 2003 , US $ 3 @.@ 4 billion ( 7 @,@ 965 billion Colombian pesos ) were invested in the sector , of which 16 % were financed by the private sector . Since 1998 , private financing increased from almost zero to become a significant share of the total investment . Furthermore , despite a drop in 2001 , investment in the sector has increased since 1999 .
The SSPD forecasts a total investment of US $ 2 @.@ 2 billion ( 4 @,@ 922 billion Colombian pesos ) in the water and sanitation sector from 2007 to 2017
The Minister of Environment , Housing and Territorial Development announced in May 2008 that US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ( 9 @.@ 2 billion Colombian pesos ) will be spent in order to facilitate the construction of facilities in areas without access to drinking water . The national government will control the destination of the resources and guarantees transparency in the whole spending process . According to the minister , Colombia should already have reached full drinking water coverage , given the past investments in the sector .
= = = Financing = = =
According to the ministry , the investments were mainly financed through three sources : self @-@ financing , funding by the national government and charges for the extraction of petroleum and carbon .
A World Bank study estimates an investment of US $ 411m in 2004 , which was financed as follows :
US $ 108m ( 26 % ) by companies through self @-@ financing
US $ 249m ( 61 % ) by state funding through SGP
US $ 49m ( 12 % ) by Corporaciones Autónomas Regionales ( CAR ) or Regional Autonomous Corporations
US $ 5m ( 1 % ) by other sources
According to the report , the average annual transfers from the national government to the municipalities for water supply and sanitation ( including solid waste ) were about US $ 278m between 1998 and 2001 . 86 % of that funding was allocated through the SGP as defined in Law 715 . A certain percentage of these resources was dedicated exclusively for water supply and sanitation . They mainly go to small municipalities that show low income levels . Nevertheless , many municipalities use funding through SGP dedicated for water supply and sanitation for other purposes .
The CAR receive property tax , electric power utilities , environmental charges for extracting water and charges for discharging waste water .
= = External cooperation = =
The main external cooperation partners for the Colombian water and sanitation sector are the World Bank , the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ( IDB ) and the Andean Development Corporation ( CAF ) .
= = = World Bank = = =
The World Bank supports the sector through dedicated water and sanitation projects , as well as through water and sanitation components in other , broader projects .
Dedicated water and sanitation projects :
Bogotá Urban Services Project
Cartagena Water Supply , Sewerage and Environmental Management Project
La Guajira Water and Sanitation Infrastructure and Service Management Project
Water And Sanitation Sector Support Project First Phase APL
Water Sector Reform Assistance Project
Non @-@ dedicated projects :
Disaster Vulnerability Reduction First Phase APL
Rio Frio Carbon Offset Project
Amoya River Environmental Services
Sustainable Development Investment Project
= = = Inter @-@ American Development Bank ( IDB ) = = =
Potable Water and Sanitation Pereira
= = = Andean Development Corporation ( CAF ) = = =
CAF supports the sector through a USD 42 @.@ 5 million loan to the Cesar Department in 2006 and a USD 58 @.@ 1 million loan to the Empresas Aguas del Magdalena approved in 2007 .
For information on CAF projects in Colombia see : CAF Colombia
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= German submarine U @-@ 47 ( 1938 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 47 was a Type VIIB U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's navy ( Kriegsmarine ) during World War II . She was laid down on 25 February 1937 at Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft in Kiel as yard number 582 and went into service on 17 December 1938 under the command of Günther Prien .
During U @-@ 47 's career , she sank a total of 31 enemy vessels and damaged eight more , including the British battleship HMS Royal Oak on 14 October 1939 . U @-@ 47 ranks as one of the most successful German U @-@ boats of World War II .
= = Design = =
German Type VIIB submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIA submarines . U @-@ 47 had a displacement of 753 tonnes ( 741 long tons ) when at the surface and 857 tonnes ( 843 long tons ) while submerged . She had a total length of 66 @.@ 50 m ( 218 ft 2 in ) , a pressure hull length of 48 @.@ 80 m ( 160 ft 1 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 20 m ( 20 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 50 m ( 31 ft 2 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 74 m ( 15 ft 7 in ) . The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four @-@ stroke , six @-@ cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of 2 @,@ 800 to 3 @,@ 200 metric horsepower ( 2 @,@ 060 to 2 @,@ 350 kW ; 2 @,@ 760 to 3 @,@ 160 shp ) for use while surfaced , two AEG GU 460 / 8 @-@ 276 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 750 metric horsepower ( 550 kW ; 740 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 23 m ( 4 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 17 @.@ 9 knots ( 33 @.@ 2 km / h ; 20 @.@ 6 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 90 nautical miles ( 170 km ; 100 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 8 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 100 km ; 10 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 47 was fitted with five 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and one at the stern ) , fourteen torpedoes , one 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) SK C / 35 naval gun , 220 rounds , and one 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of between forty @-@ four and sixty .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 47 carried out ten combat patrols and spent a total of 238 days at sea . She sank 31 enemy ships ( totalling 164 @,@ 953 tons ) and damaged eight more . Prior to her disappearance in March 1941 , U @-@ 47 lost one crewman , Heinrich Mantyk , who fell overboard on 5 September 1940 .
= = = First patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 was assigned to the 7th U @-@ boat Flotilla on 17 December 1938 , ( the day she was commissioned ) . She was an operational boat in the 7th Flotilla for her entire career . U @-@ 47 was sent to sea in a pre @-@ emptive move before war broke out in September 1939 , this move would enable her to engage enemy vessels as soon as the war began . She left for her first war patrol on 19 August 1939 ( two weeks before the commencement of hostilities ) , from the port of Kiel . During her first patrol , she circumnavigated the British Isles and entered the Bay of Biscay . It was here that U @-@ 47 sank her first three ships , SS Bosnia on 5 September , SS Rio Carlo on 6 September and SS Gartavon on 7 September 1939 .
= = = Second patrol and the sinking of HMS Royal Oak = = =
On 8 October 1939 , U @-@ 47 began her second patrol . On 14 October 1939 ( six days after leaving port ) , she succeeded in penetrating the Royal Navy 's primary base at Scapa Flow . Although most of the Home Fleet was not at the base at the time , U @-@ 47 managed to find a target , the battleship HMS Royal Oak . Once she had spotted Royal Oak , she opened fire with her torpedoes . Her first two salvos did nothing more than sever an anchor chain . After reloading the bow tubes the last salvo of three torpedoes struck the British warship , causing severe flooding . Taking on a list of 15 degrees , her open portholes were submerged , worsening the flooding and increasing the list to 45 degrees ; Royal Oak sank within 15 minutes with the loss of over 800 men . Following the attack , Prien received the nickname Der Stier von Scapa Flow ( " The Bull of Scapa Flow " ) ; the emblem of a snorting bull was then painted on the conning tower of U @-@ 47 and the image soon became the emblem of the entire 7th U @-@ boat Flotilla . Prien was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross , the first sailor of a U @-@ boat and the second member of the Kriegsmarine to receive this decoration . The rest of the crew members were awarded the Iron Cross . Two other U @-@ 47 crew members also earned the Knight 's Cross later on during World War II : the chief engineer ( Leitender Ingenieur ) Johann @-@ Friedrich Wessels and 1st watch officer ( I. Wachoffizier ) Engelbert Endrass .
Many years later , in September 2002 , one of the unexploded torpedoes that U @-@ 47 had fired during the attack on Royal Oak rose to the surface from its resting place on the bottom . The unexploded torpedo , minus its warhead , gradually drifted towards the shore , where it was spotted by a crewman aboard the Norwegian tanker Petrotrym . A Royal Navy tugboat intercepted the torpedo , and after identifying it as having belonged to U @-@ 47 63 years earlier , EOD ( explosive ordnance disposal ) personnel discarded it a mile from shore .
On 16 April 2016 Royal Navy bomb disposal experts detonated a World War Two torpedo found in Scapa Flow in Orkney . It is believed to have been one of those fired at HMS Royal Oak by a German U @-@ boat in 1939 .
= = = Third patrol = = =
Following a lavish celebration in Berlin for the sinking of HMS Royal Oak in which the crew members of U @-@ 47 were received by Adolf Hitler and decorated , the boat returned to sea on 16 November 1939 . Once the U @-@ boat had left Kiel on 16 November , she headed out into the North Sea . After traveling around the British Isles into the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel , U @-@ 47 sank a further three vessels , Navasota on 5 December , the Norwegian steamer MV Britta on 6 December and Tajandoen on 7 December . Following the sinking of Navasota , British destroyers briefly fired depth charges at the U @-@ boat but she managed to safely evade the attack without any damage .
= = = Fourth patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 left the port of Wilhelmshaven and began her fourth patrol on 11 March 1940 . For 19 days , she roamed the North Sea in search of any Allied convoys . However , she only managed to torpedo the Danish steam merchantman Britta north of Scotland on 25 March . Following the sinking of Britta , U @-@ 47 returned to Wilhelmshaven on 29 March .
= = = Fifth patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 's fifth patrol was her first one that resulted in no ships sunk . She left Wilhelmshaven on 3 April 1940 , and headed once again out into the North Sea . While she did not sink any Allied vessels on her fifth patrol , around 19 April , she fired a torpedo aimed at the British battleship HMS Warspite but the torpedo missed its target or failed to detonate upon impact . Several nearby destroyers attempted to sink the U @-@ boat using depth charges . U @-@ 47 managed to escape .
= = = Sixth patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 's sixth patrol was much more successful . Having left Kiel on 3 June 1940 , she ventured out into the North Sea and operated off the southern coast of Ireland . Along with six other U @-@ boats in Wolfpack Prien , she attacked Convoy HX @-@ 47 and the first ship to fall victim to the U @-@ boat was the British vessel , SS Balmoralwood ; which was sunk on 14 June . Within less than a month , the boat sank a further seven vessels , San Fernando on the 21st , Cathrine on the 24th , Lenda and Leticia on the 27th , Empire Toucan on the 29th , Georgios Kyriakides on the 30th , and SS Arandora Star on 2 July . The German submarine returned to Kiel on 6 July after 34 days at sea and eight enemy vessels sunk .
= = = Seventh patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 's seventh patrol consisted of her travelling north of the British Isles and into the North Atlantic , south of Iceland . During a period of 30 days , she sank a total of six enemy vessels and damaged another . U @-@ 47 's first victory during her seventh patrol was the sinking of the Belgian passenger ship Ville de Mons on 2 September 1940 . This was followed by the sinking of a British vessel , Titan , on 4 September and Gro , José de Larrinaga , and Neptunian on the 7th . On the 9th , U @-@ 47 sank the Greek merchant ship Possidon , and on 21 September she damaged the British merchant ship Elmbank . Following these victories , on the 25th , U @-@ 47 entered the French port of Lorient , which was now under German control following the decisive Battle of France .
= = = Eighth patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 's eighth patrol began on 14 October 1940 when she left her home port of Lorient . While her eighth patrol lasted ten days , she sank four enemy vessels and damaged a further two in only two days . On 19 October , U @-@ 47 damaged the British vessel Shirak and sank Uganda and Wandby , both of which were British registered . The next day , the U @-@ boat damaged the British vessel Athelmonarch and sank La Estancia as well as Whitford Point . She returned to port three days later on the 23rd .
= = = Ninth patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 left her home port of Lorient on 3 November 1940 and moved out into the North Atlantic in search of Allied convoys . During her ninth patrol , she damaged three ships , Gonçalo Velho , Conch and Dunsley and sank another , Ville d ´ Arlon . U @-@ 47 returned to Lorient for the last time on 6 December .
= = = Disappearance = = =
U @-@ 47 departed Lorient on her tenth and last patrol on 20 February 1941 . She went missing on 7 March 1941 and was believed at the time to have been sunk by the British destroyer HMS Wolverine west of Ireland , when a submarine was attacked by Wolverine and HMS Verity . The British ships took turns covering each other 's ASDIC blind spots and dropping patterns of depth charges until the submarine rose almost to the surface before sinking and then exploding with an orange flash visible from the surface . Postwar assessment showed that the boat attacked there was U @-@ A , part of the foreign U @-@ Boat corps . To date , there is no official record of what happened to U @-@ 47 , although a variety of possibilities exist , including mines , a mechanical failure , a victim of her own torpedoes , or possibly a later attack that did not confirm any claims by the corvette team of HMS Camellia and HMS Arbutus . U @-@ 47 had a crew of 45 officers and men during her last North Atlantic patrol in early 1941 , all of whom were presumed to have died .
= = = Wolfpacks = = =
U @-@ 47 took part in one wolfpack , namely .
Prien ( 12 – 17 June 1940 )
= = Summary of raiding history = =
During her service in the Kriegsmarine , U @-@ 47 sank 30 commercial ships totalling 162 @,@ 769 GRT and one warship of 29 @,@ 150 tons ; she also damaged eight commercial ships totalling 62 @,@ 751 GRT and one warship of 10 @,@ 035 tons .
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= Bold Orion =
The Bold Orion missile , also known as Weapons System 199B ( WS @-@ 199B ) , was a prototype air @-@ launched ballistic missile ( ALBM ) developed by Martin Aircraft during the 1950s . Developed in both one- and two @-@ stage designs , the missile was moderately successful in testing , and helped pave the way for development of the GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt ALBM . In addition , the Bold Orion was used in early anti @-@ satellite weapons testing , performing the first interception of a satellite by a missile .
= = Design and development = =
The Bold Orion missile was developed as part of Weapons System 199 , initiated by the United States Air Force ( USAF ) in response to the U.S. Navy 's Polaris program , with funding authorised by the United States Congress in 1957 . The purpose of WS @-@ 199 was the development of technology that would be used in new strategic weapons for the USAF 's Strategic Air Command , not to deliver operational weapons ; a primary emphasis was on proving the feasibility of an air @-@ launched ballistic missile .
The designation WS @-@ 199B was assigned to the project that , under a contract awarded in 1958 to Martin Aircraft , would become the Bold Orion missile . The design of Bold Orion was simple , using parts developed for other missile systems to reduce the cost and development time of the project . The initial Bold Orion configuration was a single @-@ stage vehicle , using a Thiokol TX @-@ 20 Sergeant solid @-@ fuel rocket . Following initial testing , the Bold Orion configuration was altered to become a two @-@ stage vehicle , an Allegany Ballistics Laboratory Altair upper stage being added to the missile .
= = Operational history = =
Having been given top priority by the Air Force , the first flight test of the Bold Orion missile was conducted on May 26 , 1958 , from a Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet carrier aircraft , which launched the Bold Orion vehicle at the apex of a high @-@ speed , high @-@ angle climb . The zoom climb tactic , combined with the thrust from the rocket motor of the missile itself , allowed the missile to achieve its maximum range , or , alternatively , to reach space .
A twelve @-@ flight test series of the Bold Orion vehicle was conducted ; however , despite suffering only one outright failure , the initial flight tests of the single @-@ stage rocket proved less successful than hoped . Authorisation was received to modify the Bold Orion to become a two @-@ stage vehicle ; in addition to the modifications improving the missile 's reliability , they increased the range of Bold Orion to over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) . Four of the final six test firings were of the two @-@ stage vehicle ; these were considered completely successful , and established that the ALBM was a viable weapon .
= = = ASAT test = = =
The final test launch of Bold Orion , conducted on October 13 , 1959 , was a test of the vehicle 's capabilities in the anti @-@ satellite role . Launched from an altitude of 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) from its B @-@ 47 mothership , the missile successfully intercepted the Explorer 6 satellite , passing its target at a range of less than 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) at an altitude of 156 miles ( 251 km ) . Had the missile been fitted with a nuclear warhead , the satellite would have been destroyed .
The Bold Orion ASAT test was the first interception of a satellite by any method , proving that anti @-@ satellite missiles were feasible . However this test , along with an earlier , unsuccessful test of the High Virgo missile in the anti @-@ satellite role , had political repercussions ; the Eisenhower administration sought to establish space as a neutral ground for everyone 's usage , and the " indication of hostile intent " the tests were seen to give was frowned upon , with anti @-@ satellite weapons development being curtailed shortly thereafter .
= = = Legacy = = =
The results of the Bold Orion project , along with those from the testing of the High Virgo missile , also developed under WS @-@ 199 , provided data and knowledge that assisted the Air Force in forming the requirements for the follow @-@ on WS @-@ 138A , which would produce the GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt missile .
= = Launch history = =
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= New Jersey Route 35 =
Route 35 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey , primarily traveling through the easternmost parts of Middlesex , Monmouth , and Ocean counties . It runs 58 @.@ 11 mi ( 93 @.@ 52 km ) from the entrance to Island Beach State Park in Berkeley Township , Ocean County to an intersection with Route 27 in Rahway , Union County . Between Seaside Park and Mantoloking , Route 35 follows the right @-@ of @-@ way of the former Pennsylvania Railroad along the Jersey Shore . The route heads through Point Pleasant Beach and crosses the Manasquan River on the Brielle Bridge , meeting Route 34 and Route 70 at the former Brielle Circle in Wall Township . From there , Route 35 heads north and intersects Route 138 , an extension of Interstate 195 , continuing north through Monmouth County before crossing the Victory Bridge over the Raritan River into Perth Amboy , where the route continues north to Rahway .
Route 35 was designated in 1927 to run from Lakewood to South Amboy , replacing Pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 from Lakewood to Belmar and from Eatontown to South Amboy . It was realigned onto its current alignment between Brielle and Belmar in 1929 and saw a northward extension along U.S. Route 9 from South Amboy to Iselin in 1947 . In 1953 , Route 35 was realigned to run from Point Pleasant to Seaside Heights along a former part of Route 37 , with Route 35 between Lakewood and Point Pleasant becoming Route 88 . At the same time , Route 35 was removed from U.S. Route 9 between South Amboy and Iselin and realigned to follow a former piece of Route 4 between South Amboy and Rahway . From the late 1950s to the mid @-@ 1970s , there were plans to build a freeway along the Route 35 corridor from Seaside Heights north into Monmouth County ; the only portion that was built became part of Route 18 . Route 35 was extended south to the Island Beach State Park entrance by the 1980s . Recent improvements to the route have removed many traffic circles and replaced the first cloverleaf interchange in the United States , built in 1929 , at U.S. Route 1 / 9 in Woodbridge Township with a partial cloverleaf interchange .
= = Route description = =
= = = Ocean County = = =
Route 35 begins at the entrance to Island Beach State Park in Berkeley Township , Ocean County on the Barnegat Peninsula . It heads north on a divided highway with parking spaces in the median through residential areas of South Seaside Park . It briefly becomes an undivided highway before crossing into Seaside Park , where the route becomes four @-@ lane , divided Central Avenue , which also has median parking spaces . Route 35 passes by residences in Seaside Park , with the median widening for the Seaside Park Police Department building at the Sixth Avenue intersection , and then the road widening to six lanes further north . Upon crossing Decatur Street , the southbound lanes of Route 35 run one block to the west of the northbound lanes and then turns to the west , crossing into Seaside Heights , a beach resort that has a boardwalk and two amusement piers , Casino Pier and Funtown Pier . In Seaside Heights , Route 35 turns north and interchanges with Route 37 on the Seaside Heights / Berkeley Township border on the eastern shore of Barnegat Bay .
Past the Route 37 interchange , Route 35 continues north along Barnegat Bay , curving eastward and crossing into Toms River Township , where the route splits into a block @-@ wide one @-@ way pair with two lanes in each direction that heads north through residential and commercial Ortley Beach . After crossing into Lavallette a mile later , the northbound direction of Route 35 becomes Grand Central Avenue and the southbound direction of Route 35 becomes Anna O. Hawkins Boulevard . The route then crosses back into Toms River Township , passing through Dover Beaches North . When Route 35 enters Brick Township , the northbound direction becomes Ocean Avenue and the one @-@ way pair between the opposing directions of Route 35 narrows as it passes oceanfront residences . Upon crossing into Mantoloking , Route 35 becomes a two @-@ lane , undivided road and heads north along a narrow peninsula , intersecting the eastern terminus of County Route 528 ( Herbert Street ) less than a mile later .
Route 35 continues north through Bay Head , becoming Main Avenue , then enters Point Pleasant Beach , a beach resort with a boardwalk that is home to Jenkinson 's Aquarium , where the route swings to the west and turns north onto another one @-@ way pair with two lanes in each direction — the northbound direction following Cincinnati Avenue and the southbound direction following Richmond Avenue . Southbound Route 35 intersects the eastern terminus of Route 88 in this area . The one @-@ way pair carries the route through the downtown area of Point Pleasant Beach . At the County Route 633 ( Arnold Avenue ) intersection , northbound Route 35 shifts slightly to the west and becomes Hawthorne Avenue . The route becomes a two @-@ way highway again after half a mile and becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway after intersecting County Route 635 ( Broadway ) , almost immediately crossing a channel of the Manasquan River and entering Monmouth County .
= = = Monmouth County = = =
Route 35 crosses into Brielle , Monmouth County , immediately passing over the main channel of the Manasquan River on a drawbridge . Upon crossing into Brielle , the route interchanges with Ashley Avenue and the southern terminus of Route 71 . The route continues northwest and crosses into Wall Township and meets Route 34 and Route 70 at the former Brielle Circle , now an at @-@ grade intersection with jughandles . Past this intersection , Route 35 heads north on a two @-@ lane , undivided road that passes by many businesses . It meets County Route 524 Spur at the Manasquan Circle , where the Circle Factory Outlet Center is located . Past the Manasquan Circle , Route 35 heads north as a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane that intersects County Route 524 ( Allaire Road ) . Route 35 widens to a four @-@ lane divided highway and interchanges with the eastern terminus of Route 138 , which continues west to become Interstate 195 . Route 35 curves to the east and crosses into Belmar . Here , the route runs along the south bank of the Shark River as a four @-@ lane undivided highway , intersecting Route 71 again and forming a concurrency with that route . The two routes continue north along a divided highway until the intersection with 8th Avenue , where Route 71 heads to the east . Past this intersection , Route 35 becomes a four @-@ lane , undivided road again and crosses the Shark River into Neptune Township .
Past the Shark River bridge , Route 35 continues as a four @-@ lane divided highway that features an interchange with County Route 40A ( Memorial Drive ) , crossing into Neptune City . The route continues northwest through residential and commercial areas of Neptune City as a four @-@ lane , undivided highway before heading north as a two @-@ lane , undivided road called Morris Avenue . Route 35 crosses back into Neptune Township , where it becomes Stokes Avenue and crosses Route 33 . It continues through suburban development and comes to the Asbury Park Circle where the route intersects County Route 16 ( Asbury Avenue ) , crosses into Ocean Township , and intersects the eastern terminus of Route 66 . The route becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway and passes by the Seaview Square Shopping Center as it continues north through commercial areas , intersecting many roads with jughandles and passing near Weltz County Park . The route becomes Neptune Boulevard at the Talmadge Avenue intersection .
Route 35 then enters Eatontown , where it passes by the Monmouth Mall and intersects Route 36 at the former Eatontown Circle , now an at @-@ grade intersection with ramps . After that intersection , the route becomes an undivided highway , turning into Main Street . Consequently , Route 35 passes through a few more roads and commercial areas before finally crossing County Route 547 ( Wyckoff Road ) , where it becomes Broad Street . Past this intersection , Route 35 intersects the northern terminus of Route 71 and County Route 537 , forming a concurrency with County Route 537 that lasts until the Tinton Avenue intersection adjacent to the former entrance to Fort Monmouth . Route 35 crosses into Shrewsbury and continues north through residential and commercial areas , passing by The Grove at Shrewsbury . It intersects County Route 520 ( Newman Springs Road ) , running concurrent with that route and immediately crossing into Red Bank . Upon entering Red Bank , County Route 520 , along with County Route 11 , head north on Broad Street and Route 35 heads northwest on two @-@ lane Maple Avenue , which turns north and passes by numerous homes . Route 35 splits from Maple Avenue and rejoins on four @-@ lane Riverside Avenue , where it heads northwest and then crosses the Navesink River into Middletown Township .
Past the Navesink River , the route runs along a four @-@ lane , divided highway with a jersey barrier , passing through commercial areas . It crosses under Normandy Road , which serves as a road and railroad link between the two sections of Naval Weapons Station Earle . Along the northbound lanes of Route 35 , just before the intersection of Kings Highway , stands the Evil Clown of Middletown , a large sign advertising a liquor store . A mixed @-@ use complex , the Middletown Town Center , is also planned to be built in this area . The route intersects County Route 516 ( Cherry Tree Farm Road ) , running concurrent with that route as it enters Holmdel Township . The concurrency with County Route 516 ends at the intersection with South Laurel Avenue , where that route heads to the north and County Route 52 heads to the south on South Laurel Avenue . Route 35 continues west past numerous businesses and runs through Hazlet before crossing into Keyport . In Keyport , the route comes to an interchange with the northern terminus of Route 36 that also features access to the Garden State Parkway . Past this interchange , the road continues northwest and intersects the northern terminus of County Route 3 , where it also features ramps to County Route 516 , which Route 35 passes under just to the north . Past this interchange , the road crosses the Matawan Creek into Aberdeen Township , where it heads northwest through Cliffwood Beach .
= = = Middlesex and Union Counties = = =
Route 35 crosses the Whale Creek into Old Bridge Township , Middlesex County , where it continues northwest through businesses and residences in Laurence Harbor and Cliffwood Beach , both sections of Old Bridge Township . It crosses the Cheesequake Creek on a drawbridge into Sayreville and turns to the west . The road then interchanges with Pine Avenue , which provides access to County Route 615 ( Bordentown Avenue ) . Past this interchange , the route turns north and crosses into South Amboy , where Route 35 comes to an interchange and forms a concurrency with U.S. Route 9 . The two routes head through commercial areas and woodland , interchanging with Raritan Street and Kearney Road , crossing back into Sayreville . U.S. Route 9 and Route 35 split at an interchange ( the former Victory Circle ) that features access to the southbound Garden State Parkway by way of Chevalier Avenue , with Route 35 continuing north on a four @-@ lane divided highway that passes through marshland and crosses the Raritan River on the Victory Bridge into Perth Amboy . In Perth Amboy , the route becomes four @-@ lane , undivided Convery Boulevard upon crossing County Route 656 ( Smith Street ) .
The route continues north through commercial and residential sections of Perth Amboy , crossing over a connector to Route 440 . It intersects the eastbound direction of Route 184 , the former alignment of Route 440 , before meeting Route 440 ( also an unsigned part of County Route 501 ) at an interchange . Route 35 intersects the westbound direction of Route 184 and heads north , crossing into Woodbridge Township , where it becomes Amboy Avenue . In Woodbridge Township , the route passes by William Warren County Park and crosses over the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) . Past the New Jersey Turnpike , the road heads into residential neighborhoods , crossing County Route 514 ( Main Street ) . Route 35 merges onto St. Georges Avenue and comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with U.S. Route 1 / 9 . Past U.S. Route 1 / 9 , the road passes homes and businesses , crossing into Rahway , Union County just before crossing the Rahway River . Upon entering Rahway , Route 35 crosses under the Northeast Corridor rail line just before ending at Route 27 . Route 27 continues north on St. Georges Avenue past the terminus of Route 35 .
= = History = =
The present @-@ day alignment of Route 35 follows parts of many 19th @-@ century turnpikes , including the Keyport and Middletown Turnpike , which was chartered on March 5 , 1852 , the Middletown Turnpike , chartered in 1866 to run from Middletown Township to Red Bank , the Middletown and Keyport Turnpike , which was chartered on March 15 , 1859 to run from Middletown Township to Keyport , the Red Bank and Eatontown Turnpike , chartered on February 9 , 1865 along present @-@ day Broad Street , County Route 11 , and Route 35 , and the Shrewsbury Turnpike , which was chartered in 1857 to run from Red Bank to Eatontown . In 1916 , the current alignment of Route 35 was legislated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 between Point Pleasant and Brielle and from Eatontown to South Amboy . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 35 was designated to run from Lakewood to South Amboy , replacing pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 from Lakewood to Belmar and from Eatontown to South Amboy with the portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 between Belmar and Eatontown becoming Route 4N ( now Route 71 ) . At this time , U.S. Route 9 followed the portions of Route 35 that were formerly a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 .
By the 1940s , Route 35 was designated onto its current alignment between Brielle and Belmar with the former alignment becoming a southern extension of Route 4N . U.S. Route 9 was also moved off of Route 35 onto a newly completed alignment of Route 4 between Lakewood and South Amboy . In 1947 , Route 35 was extended north to end at Route 25 ( now U.S. Route 1 ) in Iselin , running concurrent with U.S. Route 9 .
In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the portion of Route 35 between Lakewood and Point Pleasant became Route 88 and Route 35 was designated to head south from Point Pleasant to Seaside Heights on what had been a part of Route 37 . This section of Route 35 follows the right @-@ of @-@ way of the former Pennsylvania Railroad between Seaside Park and Mantoloking , which was removed in 1949 . Also in the 1953 renumbering , the Route 35 designation was removed from the concurrency with U.S. Route 9 between South Amboy and Iselin and reassigned to the former alignment of Route 4 between South Amboy and Route 27 in Rahway . The western bypass of Seaside Heights was built by the 1960s , extending Route 35 south to the border with Seaside Park .
In the late 1950s , plans were made for a freeway along the Route 35 corridor between Seaside Heights and Long Branch to reduce congestion along the current route . This proposed freeway was built as Route 18 between Wall Township and Eatontown from 1965 to 1991 while the southern portion to Seaside Heights was never built . In the early 1970s , a Route 35 freeway was planned to run from Route 18 north to the planned Route 74 freeway in Matawan with an estimated cost of $ 53 million . This freeway was never built due to the cancellation of the Route 74 freeway in the mid @-@ 1970s .
Since the 1953 renumbering , the current alignment of Route 35 has seen many changes and improvements . The section of the route through downtown Point Pleasant Beach was turned into a one @-@ way pair by 1969 . Route 35 was extended south to the entrance of Island Beach State Park by the 1980s . Many traffic circles have been removed along Route 35 in recent years , including the Brielle Circle in 2001 and the Eatontown Circle , which were both converted into at @-@ grade intersections with traffic lights , and the Victory Circle , which was replaced with an interchange between 2003 and 2006 . Between 2002 and 2005 , the Victory Bridge over the Raritan River was reconstructed at a cost of $ 109 million . Between February 2006 and November 2008 , the cloverleaf interchange with U.S. Route 1 / 9 in Woodbridge Township , which was the first cloverleaf interchange in the United States built in 1929 when this portion of Route 35 was still a part of Route 4 , was replaced with a partial cloverleaf interchange , costing $ 34 million .
On February 1 , 2013 , Route 35 through Mantoloking was fully reopened after being closed since October 29 , 2012 after Hurricane Sandy hit the area . The night of the storm at the intersection where the Mantoloking Bridge and Route 35 meet , a new inlet was formed by the raging storm waters . This effectively cut off the island from the mainland .
Beginning in March 2013 ( after a 6 @-@ month delay due to Hurricane Sandy ) , a four @-@ year major construction project because on Route 35 between Raritan Blvd in Cliffwood Beach ( Old Bridge Township , New Jersey ) and Amboy Avenue in Aberdeen . The project includes several highway improvements designed to alleviate the flooding the highway is prone to due to its lowness and being adjacent in several areas to tidal marshes and Whale Creek and Long Neck Creek , widening of four intersections ( Birchwood Drive , County Road , Cliffwood Ave and Amboy Ave ) , and lane alignments , and additions for pedestrian and bicyclist safety . Also planned are traffic signal upgrades to reduce congestion . The project is expected to be completed in 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Architecture of Fremantle Prison =
The architecture of Fremantle Prison includes the six @-@ hectare ( 15 @-@ acre ) site of the former prison on The Terrace , Fremantle , in Western Australia . Limestone was quarried on @-@ site during construction , and the south @-@ western corner ( the South Knoll ) and eastern portion of the site are at a considerably higher ground level . The Fremantle Prison site includes the prison cell blocks , gatehouse , perimeter walls , cottages , tunnels , and related infrastructure .
The Main Cell Block is the longest and tallest cell range in Australia , and a dominating feature of the prison . New Division , constructed between 1904 and 1907 , continues the façade alignment of the main block . Service buildings were converted into the separate Women 's Prison . Fremantle Prison is surrounded by limestone perimeter walls , while a two storey limestone gatehouse , with a central clock , presents an imposing entrance . North and south of the gatehouse , on The Terrace , are several cottages and houses – three of which are built in Victorian style in contrast to the Georgian style of the others .
A network of tunnels exists under the prison , built to provide the prison , and later the town of Fremantle , with a supply of fresh water . Other elements of the site include the hospital building , prisoner workshops , open spaces , and a limestone ramp on the axis of the gatehouse , heading down towards the port area of Fremantle . Archaeological zones and sub @-@ surface remains of varying levels of significance are found throughout the area of the convict grant .
= = Background = =
Fremantle Prison dates from the early years of European settlement , when it was constructed as the centre of the British Imperial Convict Establishment in Western Australia . While the colony was established as a " free settlement " in 1829 , by the 1840s the early reluctance to accept Britain 's convicts was overcome . Cheap convict labour could overcome the significant shortage of manpower in the colony . However , the arrival of the first convict ship Scindian on 2 June 1850 was unexpected . While a sailing ship had been sent ahead to inform of the pending arrival of seventy @-@ five convicts , it had been blown off course . The Round House was full to capacity , almost overflowing , so the convicts had to be left on the ship . There was also no prepared accommodation for the warders , pensioner guards , Captain Edward Walcott Henderson , Comptroller General of Convicts , or his clerk , James Manning . Rents for accommodation in Fremantle quickly rose due to the sudden increase in demand , leaving Henderson paying more for his basic lodgings in Fremantle than for his house in London . Eventually Henderson leased two properties in Essex Street for £ 250 per year , at the site of the modern @-@ day Esplanade Hotel . He used his convicts to convert the buildings into a temporary prison . Meanwhile , Henderson was looking for a site to build a permanent convict establishment . Whilst he favoured Mount Eliza ( now known as Kings Park ) due to its height , which gave it pleasing vistas and supposedly healthier air , Governor Charles Fitzgerald rejected that proposal . Henderson ultimately settled on the current site on a hill , in a raised and dominant position overlooking the port city of Fremantle .
= = Site = =
= = = Description = = =
Fremantle Prison was built on a land grant of about 36 acres ( 15 ha ) from limestone quarried on @-@ site , and timber cut from Mount Eliza . The site exhibits considerable changes in ground level , natural and man @-@ made , as a result of its location and former use . The ground level is considerably higher in the south @-@ western corner of the site with what remains of the natural landform , formerly known as Church Hill , now referred to as the South Knoll . The eastern portion of the site is also considerably higher than the ground level established around the main cell block . It is a comparatively level terrace and is the highest part of the precinct .
Fremantle Prison comprises substantially intact convict era structures , including the limestone perimeter walls of exceptional heritage significance . Other structures , dating from the time the precinct was in use as a colonial and state prison , are also significant . The convict era complex includes the 1859 main cell block , chapel and wards , yards and refractory cells ; perimeter walls , gate house complex and prison officer residences on the Terrace ; service buildings and hospital ; south @-@ eastern workshops ; ramp access tramway ( Fairbairn Street ) and Henderson Street Warder 's Cottages . Other elements which contribute to the site 's overall heritage significance include the western workshops ( 1900 ) ; new division ( 1907 ) ; and conversion of service building to the female division and the addition of an eastern range ( 1889 – 1909 ) .
= = = Layout = = =
A 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) tall boundary wall encloses the prison grounds , with a gatehouse in the centre of the western wall , facing The Terrace . Other roads bounding the site are Knutsford Street to the north , Hampton Road to the east , and Fothergill Street to the south . Cottages , which housed prison workers and officials , are located outside the wall either side of the gatehouse . Inside the walls , the parade ground is located east of the gatehouse . Beyond it is the Main Cell Block at the centre of the site , which contains two chapels . North of the main block is New Division , and west of that , in the north @-@ western corner , is the former Women 's Prison , previously the cookhouse , bakehouse and laundry . The hospital building stands in the north @-@ eastern corner , while the former workshops are located in the south @-@ eastern corner , as well as to the north of the gatehouse . A system of underground tunnels , constructed to provide fresh water from an aquifer , runs under the eastern edge of the site .
= = = Archaeology = = =
Archaeological zones and sub @-@ surface remains of varying levels of significance are found throughout the area of the convict grant . In particular , the sites of the three former cottages to the east of the perimeter wall in the Hampton Road reserve , the site of the former ' cage ' in the New Division courtyard and the features upon and under the knoll terraces . Other site features include those associated with the water supply system constructed in the 1890s : the brick @-@ vaulted underground reservoir , the associated pumping station , a complex series of rock cut shafts , drives , weirs and the one @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) underground tunnel network . Graffiti and a tablet records the progress of the excavators .
= = Walls and gatehouse = =
The prison is surrounded by limestone perimeter walls , which define the extent of the depot and its original topography to the south , east and north . The walls are of random rubble limestone and lime mortar and range in height from 1 @.@ 2 to 5 metres ( 3 ft 11 in to 16 ft 5 in ) . The additional four courses added in 1898 are of dark stone with a coping . Attached piers occur at approximately 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) centres on the lee sides of the walls . There are a number of openings including both vehicular and pedestrian gates . The walls are of exceptional heritage significance being a vital part of the precinct defining its character . Sterile zones , inside the main perimeter walls and the walls encircling the female division and outside the prison wall , were standard prison practice for surveillance and contribute to the austere character of the prison .
The entry complex consists of a combined gate house and quarters , an entry court and military and civil guard houses with embrasures flanking the inner gate . The two storey limestone gatehouse , with a central clock , presents an imposing entry to the former prison . The gatehouse and associated entry complex was constructed between 1854 and 1855 using convict labour . It was designed by Royal Engineer Edmund Henderson , and constructed out of limestone . The gatehouse has two towers either side of a narrow gate , reminiscent of those found in 13th century English castles or walled cities . The gate was made from iron which had been scavenged from shipwrecks , while the clock at the top of the structure was imported from England . The clock was made in London in 1854 , installed two years later , and as of 2004 , was still sounding every hour .
The gatehouse also has a smaller , second , inner gate , engraved with the names of three significant figures : H. Wray RE , who designed the gate ; J. Manning , clerk of works , who supervised its fabrication ; and Joseph Nelson , the Royal Sappers soldier that wrought the iron . The complex was expanded and altered successively throughout the use of the entry complex for prison 's functions . The entry complex was extended north to the female division as a workshop range , the western workshops , leaving a sterile zone beside the perimeter wall . The gatehouse has remained a significant feature and landmark since the closure of the prison , as the main entrance , and housing a café and office areas . Restoration was carried out in 2005 , preserving the original stone facade and removing non @-@ original rendering .
= = Cell blocks = =
= = = Main Cell Block = = =
Based on the English Pentonville Prison design model of Joshua Jebb , the site 's key feature , the Main Cell Block , was designed by the Comptroller of Convicts Captain Henderson , and completed in 1859 . Designed to hold up to 1000 prisoners , it is 145 metres ( 476 ft ) long and four storeys high , the longest and tallest cell range in Australia . It was constructed by convicts in the 1850s , and there have been few changes since that time . The 1859 main cell block has an impressive facade and is built of limestone ashlar blocks quarried from the site . It is significant for the ways in which its scale , position in the precinct , simplicity , material and near pristine character ensures that it is the focal and dominating feature of the prison ; the evidence of its fabric , internal configuration and spaces reveals its functioning as a convict depot and subsequent prison and its atmosphere . It has come to symbolise the imperial convict era in colonial Western Australia .
The central , four @-@ storey high cell block is flanked on either end by large dormitory wards , called the Association Rooms . Here , as many as 80 men slept in hammocks , either as a reward for good behaviour or because they would soon receive their Ticket of Leave . In contrast , the cells were a confining space measuring just seven by four feet ( 2 @.@ 1 by 1 @.@ 2 m ) . While each cell initially had a basin connected to running water , the installation was before the advent of S @-@ bends ; the smells coming up the pipes lead to their removal by the 1860s . Following a Royal Commission , the cells were made larger by removing a dividing wall from between two cells . Electric lighting was installed in the 1920s , but there were never any toilets – buckets were for the duration of the prison 's operation . Since the prison 's closure , six cells have been restored to represent the varying living conditions at different times in the prison 's history . The main block also houses the gallows , solitary confinement cells , and two chapels .
The single storey 1855 refractory block is on the same axis as the main cell block to its east . It consists of twelve punishment cells and six dark cells with no light . The gallows chamber , built in 1888 , is between this and the main cell block and relates to the colonial use of the prison . The gallows operated via a rope tied around a beam , over a trap door , on the upper level . Opening the trap door would cause the condemned prisoner fall , and thus be hanged .
At the centre of the Main Cell Block is the Anglican Chapel , whose windows were the only ones without bars . It occupies a prominent position in the projecting wing in the centre of the facade . It retains its original painted and stencilled wall patterns beneath later paint layers and is the most intact early prison chapel in Australia . Its interior features include an early and substantial example of a laminated arch construction in the colonies and the first in WA , handsome decalogue boards and some original and elegant joinery . Behind the Anglican chapel altar , there is a painted representation of the Ten Commandments . The words to the sixth commandment use the unusual translation of " thou shalt do no murder " rather than " thou shalt not kill , " the more common interpretation in the Church of England . Given that the gallows were still in regular use , it was felt that " thou shalt not kill " would have been hypocritical . The Catholic Chapel was put into the upper northern Association Ward in 1861 . The floor has evidence of its former use for communal prisoner accommodation , in the form of mortices for hammock rails and a convict painted mural which decorates its wall .
= = = New Division = = =
Fremantle Prison 's New Division was constructed between 1904 and 1907 , as a response to overcrowding . The division continues the façade alignment of the main block . The building , L shaped in plan , is three storeys high of regular coursed pale ashlar limestone blocks with rock @-@ face . Openings are set in brick and freestone and it has a handsome lantern range above the main atrium . The building is visually significant as it complements the main cell block and completes the northern zone of the prison . The interior configuration and cells are significant as an example of an attempt to introduce the separate system to Western Australia , whereby prisoners were completely isolated for the first three months of their sentence . The division 's exercise yard initially used a panopticon to facilitate this concept during the prisoners ' hour of exercise each day . The system was not successful , and considered a dated prisoner management strategy , leading its removal within five years .
The New Division was the first to have electricity , with underground wiring . During World War Two , the Australian Army appropriated the New Division , to keep prisoners separate from the main population , and for those condemned to death . In 1994 the building was retrofitted to cater for offices , small business premises , and meeting rooms .
= = = Women 's Prison = = =
The north @-@ western complex was originally a service area with a cookhouse , bakehouse and laundry , built in the 1850s . A place for women prisoners was needed following the closure of Perth Gaol and the transfer of prisoners to Fremantle . The buildings were converted to a prison , and a wall built around them , creating Western Australia 's first separate prison for women – a gaol within a gaol . Population and crime growth led to them being extended in the 1890s and 1910s . The single storey limestone building , also known as the female division , has a distinctive monitor roof and an upper storey addition to part of the eastern range in red brick . The construction of Bandyup Women 's Prison saw Fremantle 's Women 's Prison close in 1970 . The space was used for education and assessment until the main prison 's closure in 1991 , and has since been adapted for TAFE use as a visual arts facility .
= = Staff accommodation = =
A flat area , to the immediate west of the prison , is called The Terrace and was formed from rubble resulting from the levelling of the prison site . Adjoining the western perimeter wall , but outside the prison on the northern side of the terrace compound , is staff accommodation . Three adjoining residences were built in the 1890s as quarters for prison staff .
The cottages at 2 , 4 , and 6 The Terrace , at the northern end of the street , were built in a Victorian style , in contrast to the Georgian style of the other houses . Number 2 incorporates parts of an 1857 guard room and was converted in the 1890s to quarters , when Numbers 4 and 6 were built alongside as a duplex . Number 2 is a single storey house with random rubble limestone walls and corrugated iron roof separated from the perimeter wall by a rear yard . Numbers 4 and 6 are a pair of single duplex units with random rubble limestone walls , corrugated iron roofs and front verandahs , separated from the perimeter wall by a rear yard .
Four two storey residences , Numbers 8 , 10 , 16 and 18 The Terrace , were built during the 1850s for officer accommodation . Number 8 , also known as the Chaplain 's House , is a two storey house with rendered and painted limestone walls . The plan is roughly square with verandahs and balconies along the west and south sides . A single storey building connects the south @-@ east side of the house to the main prison wall .
Number 10 , also known as the Superintendent 's House , is a two storey house with rendered limestone walls and a corrugated iron roof behind parapet walls . It is connected to the gatehouse with limestone walled buildings . The plan is roughly square and there is a door from the house into the prison from the north @-@ east room of the ground floor . The house was initially built in 1853 for the Chaplain , but was taken over by the superintendent in 1878 and was later used by the prison administration .
Number 16 is a house is two storey building , roughly square in plan , with painted limestone walls and a corrugated sheet metal roof behind a parapet . It accommodated first the superintendent , later on the resident magistrate , and remained in @-@ use as housing for prison officers until the 1970s . Number 18 , also known as the Surgeon 's House , is a two storey structure with limestone walls . It is the southernmost house on The Terrace . Numbers 18 and 8 , the northernmost of the initial buildings , both featured two sitting rooms , three bedrooms , and two dressing rooms , as well as a kitchen , water closet and shed , but with mirrored layouts . Number 18 was expanded with additions built in the 1890s . A single storey limestone structure ( former stables ) is located to the south of Number 18 .
= = Other buildings = =
= = = Hospital = = =
The hospital , built between 1857 and 1859 , was a crucial component of Fremantle Prison . Public works during the convict era relied on convict labour , which could only be provided if the convicts were healthy . Located in the north @-@ eastern corner of the prison compound , the building is H @-@ shaped in plan , single storey with rendered and painted limestone walls . It features a wide verandah with timber posts . From 1886 to 1903 , medical services were relocated to the main cell block , with the former building used to keep invalids and female prisoners . The hospital was refurbished , and reopened in 1904 . It subsequently remained in continuous operation until the prison 's closure in 1991 .
Adjacent to the hospital building is the east reservoir . The brick vaulted reservoir and reticulation system , constructed in 1890 and about 1895 , appear as a low brick structure . The reservoir roof consists of with five rendered vaults each side of a central vault raised 600 millimetres ( 24 in ) above those each side . The centre of the eastern terrace contains the subsurface remains of the 1850s bathhouse and well .
= = = Workshops = = =
The prison 's workshops provided activities and training for the prisoners . They also reduced the cost of maintenance , repairs , and construction by providing an in @-@ house service . The original workshop was a blacksmith 's shop , one of the first buildings to be constructed on the prison site . Later known as the East Workshops , other workshops included carpenter 's , plumber 's and painter 's , a printing office , and from the 1850s , a metal shop . The West Workshops were built at the start of the twentieth century , providing more work for prisoners through a paint shop , mat maker , shoe maker , book binder and tailor shop . The five western workshops are a single storey squared limestone rubble building with openings dressed in brick , with an open saw @-@ tooth roof with southern skylights , concealed behind a parapet wall . In 1993 the western workshops were adapted for use as TAFE art workshops .
Buildings in the area south of the east workshops were used for a shower block , helmet workshop and associated sheds . The structures are recent and , with the exception of some terrace walling , are the last of a series that have been erected and dismantled since World War I.
= = Tunnels = =
At the south eastern corner of the eastern terrace is the former pumping station , associated tunnels and a set of 1850s workshops within an enclosing wall . Underneath parts of the eastern terrace , the adjacent Hampton Road , the pumping station and the workshops there are a complex series of shafts , drives and weirs cut from the rock during the 1890s and early twentieth century . The east workshops is a single storey limestone building on the western side with an enclosed area to the east . The entire workshops yard was roofed using a light steel truss on steel supports in 1960 .
A network of tunnels exists under the prison , including a one @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) connection to South Beach in South Fremantle . It was built by prisoners , but the purpose was not to enable escapes ; their labour was used to provide the prison , and later the town of Fremantle , with a supply of fresh water . Guards in a gun tower adjacent to the tunnel entrance prevented any attempted escapes .
In 1852 , during construction of the buildings , shafts were sunk into the limestone bedrock to provide the prison with fresh water from an aquifer . In 1874 , the Fremantle 's " Water House Well " , used to supply ships , suffered storm damage . This prompted a tank to be installed at the prison , behind the main cell block , to offer the town an alternative water supply . Prisoners worked a pump to fill the tank , which was connected to the jetties through gravity @-@ fed pipes .
Increasing demand led to the construction of a reservoir in 1876 , from which water was drawn , still pumped by prisoners . From 1888 to 1894 , additional wells were built , connected by a series of tunnels or horizontal drives 20 metres ( 66 ft ) under the north @-@ east of the prison . A steam pump was implemented , which drew fifteen thousand imperial gallons ( 68 @,@ 000 L ) per hour of water into the new East Reservoir . In 1896 , a town reservoir was constructed on Swanbourne Street , fed from the prison by a triple expansion steam @-@ driven pump which could take more than one million imperial gallons ( 4 @.@ 5 ML ) per day from the prison tunnels . Prisoners , relieved of manual pumping , were employed to supply wood and stoke boilers .
The Metropolitan Sewerage & Water Supply authority took over control of the pumping station from 1901 until 1910 , when both the prison and town were connected to Perth 's metropolitan water supply . The tunnels were closed in 1910 , but the groundwater continued to be used for the prison 's gardens . In 1989 , oil leaking from nearby tanks contaminated the water . The pollution was eventually cleared by 1996 through bioremediation .
Since the prison 's closure the water supply system including the tunnels , were the subject of heritage studies , including a 2004 inspection by the Western Australia Maritime Museum . The tunnels were re @-@ opened in mid @-@ 2005 , and within one year the main shaft had been refurbished , including " installation of audio @-@ visual equipment , railings and lighting as well as the removal of debris from the access shaft and tunnels , the creation of new steel platforms and ladders and the addition of extra limestone rocks in the tunnels to help lift users out of the water . "
= = Open spaces and related elements = =
The open spaces of the precinct are significant as they provide impressive settings for the structures . They are also important spaces in their own right retaining the stark open character of a penal institution required for surveillance . The extensive forecourt of the main cell block , with its scale and secure location within the perimeter walls , is particularly impressive . Paths are bitumen with grassed garden beds delineated by raised brick edging . South Knoll comprises the remains of the high , natural ground level which at least by 1896 had been terraced to form flat , grassed areas . The former playing fields and tennis courts are still in evidence . There is a brick- vaulted reservoir located under the Knoll . The significant landscape presents an austere and formal quality within the perimeter walls . Generally the landscape is sparse and simple , comprising unobtrusive elements such as lawn , low plantings and pavement . Landscape elements outside the walls include the exotic almond and pine trees on the Terrace .
An inclined tramway , the ramp , was built from the front of the terrace , on the axis of the gatehouse , down towards the port area of Fremantle . The ramp , constructed between 1852 and 1853 , is of limestone rubble from the cut and fill activities required to create the prison site and the terrace . The ramp is an integral part of the original design of the prison complex and is of exceptional heritage significance . It is now cut at its western end by a modern road which severs the historic visual link with Fremantle . On each side of the alignment of the ramp , where it intersects with Henderson Street , are three terrace houses for the accommodation of prison warders . These were erected between 1851 and 1858 and mark the boundary of the Convict Establishment at this point . The limestone used for the early prison and its associated housing was quarried on the site .
Other surviving elements of the early convict establishment include Henderson 's house , " The Knowle " , the three Henderson Street cottages ( terrace housing ) at numbers 7 – 17 , 19 – 29 , and 31 – 41 Henderson Street , a range of terraces at 3 – 9 Holdsworth Street , paths , roads and ramps , garden sites , walls , sub surface works and the more distant routes to the Asylum , the Commissariat Store and wharf site .
= = = Attribution = = =
This article incorporates text from the source Australian Heritage Database – Fremantle Prison ( former ) , 1 The Terrace , Fremantle , WA , Australia , which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3 @.@ 0 Australia licence ( CC @-@ BY 3 @.@ 0 AU ) . Required attribution : © Commonwealth of Australia 2013 .
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= Legend of Mana =
Legend of Mana , originally released in Japan as Seiken Densetsu : Legend of Mana , is a 1999 action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the PlayStation . It is the fourth game in the Mana series , following 1995 's Seiken Densetsu 3 . Set in a high fantasy universe , the game follows an unnamed hero as they restore the land of Fa 'Diel by creating the world around them and completing a number of interrelated quests in order to restore the Tree of Mana .
While incorporating action role @-@ playing elements from the prior games in the series , such as real @-@ time battles , Legend of Mana has its own distinct style of gameplay . Most notably , it gives the player the ability to shape the world 's structure through the Land Make system , generating regions and quests in a non @-@ linear gameplay system rather than a strong main plotline . Legend of Mana was directed by series creator Koichi Ishii , designed by Akihiko Matsui , and produced by veteran Square director and producer Akitoshi Kawazu .
The game had high sales , selling 400 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release and 700 @,@ 000 by the end of 1999 . Reviews were less positive than for prior games in the series . Critics gave considerable acclaim to its vibrant and colorful hand @-@ drawn graphics and soundtrack by Yoko Shimomura , but were critical of the lack of a clear main storyline , stating that it left the game feeling disjointed . The game was re @-@ released as a part of both the PlayStation 's and Square Enix 's best @-@ sellers lines , and re @-@ released on the PlayStation 3 PlayStation Network store as part of the PSone Classics series in 2011 .
= = Gameplay = =
Like previous games in the Mana series , Legend of Mana displays an angled top @-@ down perspective , in which the player characters navigate the terrain and fight off hostile creatures . The player controls the unnamed main character , and is assisted by up to two companions . One of these companions is an optional support character , which depends on what quest the player is performing , while another companion can be chosen by the player out of a roster of monsters , pets , and golems . Both companions are typically controlled by the game 's AI , though a second player can take control of the support character if present . The main character and companions each have their own set of numerical attributes including hit points and strength , which represent the amount of damage the player can take or cause . These stats grow whenever the player advances a level , after gaining enough experience points from battle with enemies .
Battles occur when the player character encounters an enemy while traversing the world . Combat takes place in real @-@ time , and in the location the player found the enemy rather than a separate battle screen . The main character can equip a variety of weapons , armors , and accessories . Weapons let the player perform abilities in combat . Referred to as Special Techs , these abilities are powerful attacks by the main characters and support characters that can be used when the special move meter is full . This meter fills as the player damages enemies . Each weapon , such as a sword or spear , has a set number of special attacks to learn , which can hit single or multiple targets and can be assigned to different buttons on the controller .
Legend of Mana , unlike most action role @-@ playing games , does not feature a set journey through a fixed world . Instead , it features a unique " Land Make " system where the player generates the structure of the game world by placing objects , named Artifacts , on empty square plots on a map . This map takes the form of a grid of spaces presented in an isometric viewpoint on a map screen . When an Artifact is placed in a space on the map , it creates a Land , and the player can enter that Land by selecting the position on the map . Adjacent Lands are not connected ; to move from one land to another the player must first return to the map screen . Different Lands are generated from different Artifacts , each containing a quest which upon completion usually gives the player another Artifact to place . Lands can also contain additional quests . Each Land is ranked from 0 ( no presence ) to 3 ( strong presence ) in its strength in each Spirit of Mana ; this in turn causes magic of that element to be stronger in that Land . The strength of the rankings is dependent on the Artifact , its position on the Map , and the rankings of adjacent Lands . Many locations have non @-@ player characters who give quests and information or sell equipment . Other areas feature enemies and bosses with which the player can battle .
In addition to the main game , after certain quests are completed Legend of Mana gives the player the option to delve into optional gameplay aspects centered around the hero or heroine 's house . The player can forge or improve weapons and armor using raw materials found throughout the game , or combine equipment with items to change their power or add special effects . They can grow different types of fruit in the orchard , raise pets to use as adventuring companions , create items , and build golems . Pets can also be raised with the Japan @-@ only PocketStation peripheral , and two players can battle each other in an arena .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Legend of Mana is set in the fictional world of Fa 'Diel . The Mana Tree , the giver of mana and life for the world , burned down almost entirely nine centuries prior to the events of the game . A war erupted between faeries , human , and others seeking the scarce power of mana that was left . When the war concluded , the burnt Mana Tree slept as it regrew and the many lands of the world were stored in ancient artifacts . A hero , controlled by the player , is self @-@ charged with restoring the world , and mana , to its former self . The Lands of Fa 'Diel are populated with a large number of different creatures , including humans , faeries , demons , the jewel @-@ hearted Jumi race , plant @-@ like Sproutlings and Flowerlings , miner bears called Dudbears , and shadowy beings of the Underworld known as Shadoles . Fa 'Diel is also the home of a host of anthropomorphic animals and objects , as well as monsters from other Mana titles such as Rabites , Chobin Hoods , and Goblins . The player controls the protagonist of the game , who is either a male or female silent protagonist . The character is unnamed and no information is given about their past ; their history and personality is meant to be determined by the player .
= = = Characters and story branches = = =
Rather than a single , overarching plot , the story of Legend of Mana is composed of a multitude of quests split into three main quest arcs , numerous other quests , and a final quest arc . Each main quest arc contains optional side @-@ quests in addition to the main quests . Whenever the player completes the required portions of one of the quest arcs they are allowed to begin the final arc and finish the game , even if the other arcs have not yet been started or completed . The three main quest arcs prior to the final arc are : the Jumi arc , the Larc and Sierra arc , and the Matilda and Irwin arc .
The first main arc is the story of the Jumi , a dying race of people who have external jewel hearts which are considered valuable . The Jumi have long been a persecuted people , and many magic characters in this game refer to them as " dirt " as a pejorative on their jewel cores . This branch focuses on Elazul and Pearl , who are among the few survivors of the Jumi . Elazul is a Jumi Knight , and the mission of his life is to protect the Jumi Guardian Pearl at any cost , even in the face of the jewel hunter , Sandra . The player assists them in helping the Jumi .
The second arc is the story of Larc and Sierra — brother and sister dragoons who serve different dragon masters and fight on opposite sides of the same war for power . Larc serves the dragon Drakonis , who wants to kill the other three dragons so that he can rule the world . Larc blackmails the game 's protagonist to help him in this quest . Sierra , a dragoon for Vadise the White Dragon , wants to stop Drakonis without hurting her brother Larc . In the end , Drakonis is defeated again and banished to the underworld , and Larc is killed .
The third arc is the complicated love story of four childhood friends : Matilda , Irwin , Daena and Escad . Irwin is a half @-@ demon who is angry that society prevents him from a relationship with the holy leader Matilda , and seeks to destroy the world in retribution . Escad seeks to destroy Irwin , and Daena tries to act as a mediator between all parties while keeping Matilda away from Irwin . The conflict eventually escalates into a war between humans and faeries . Depending on the choices of the player , either Daena or Escad will die , while the player helps bring an end to the conflict .
Regardless of which path ( s ) the hero decides to take , they begin the game 's final story , titled " Legend of Mana " . This arc concerns the re @-@ appearance of the Mana Tree . The player journeys to the Mana Tree and scales it , but upon reaching the top they find that the Mana Goddess has become corrupted and the tree is rotten . The player is forced to fight the Mana Goddess , and after winning a Sproutling plants itself in the Mana Tree 's rotten trunk . Calling upon the other Sproutlings to join them , they restore the Mana Tree .
= = Development and release = =
Legend of Mana was directed by Mana series creator Koichi Ishii , who had worked on the three previous games in the series . Many of the other developers were new to the series , including producer Akitoshi Kawazu , the director and producer of many games in Square 's SaGa series , and designer Akihiko Matsui , who had been the director for Chrono Trigger . The game 's character designs and illustrations were done by Shinichi Kameoka , who was also new to the series . Retro Gamer , in 2011 , stated that although Ishii kept the game tied to previous titles in the series by reusing gameplay elements , Kawazu had a heavy influence on the gameplay design of the game .
Legend of Mana was designed as a 2D game , despite the PlayStation 's 3D @-@ focus , as the console could not handle the full 3D world Ishii envisioned where one could interact with natural shaped objects . Kawazu initially let Ishii have a relaxed schedule and budget , as Ishii had a great number of ideas he wanted in the game , but when the project began to get out of control and out of time Kawazu tightened down the rest of the development schedule and convinced the Square executives to delay the game by two months — even though it had already been announced to the public — to allow it to be completed as Ishii envisioned . Kawazu has said that this experience taught him that his true skill in game development lay in working as a producer .
Legend of Mana was first announced by Square in March 1999 just before its debut at the Tokyo Game Show . The game was released in Japan in July 1999 with considerable hype , packaged with demos of Square 's future releases Vagrant Story , Chrono Cross , Front Mission 3 , and Threads of Fate . It was planned to be released in North America alongside the July and August 2000 releases of Chrono Cross and Threads of Fate , but was instead released early on June 6 .
= = = Music = = =
The original score for Legend of Mana was composed , arranged , and produced by Yoko Shimomura . Shimomura was a newcomer to the series ; the previous two Mana games were scored by Hiroki Kikuta , and the first by Kenji Ito . Shimomura said in 2002 that she considered the soundtrack to Legend of Mana to be the one that best expresses herself . She claims that she prefers " passionate music that comes from the heart " , and that she has to " feel the emotions of a piece in the extreme before I am able to write " the music by putting herself in the same mood as the piece is supposed to be in . Legend of Mana featured the first vocal track of any Mana game , " Song of Mana " , which also serves as the game 's opening theme . It was sung by Swedish vocalist Annika Ljungberg , who was chosen by Shimomura because she " wanted to stay away from working with someone popular that everyone already knows " . After hearing a sample of Ljungberg 's music , she flew to Sweden " straight away " to do an analog recording of the song .
The 1999 soundtrack album Seiken Densetsu / Legend of Mana Original Soundtrack collects 55 tracks of music from Legend of Mana on two discs . The music covers many styles including piano , hard rock , and electronic music . The soundtrack was published by DigiCube , and was reprinted by Square Enix in 2004 . The album reached # 65 on the Japanese Oricon music charts and stayed on the charts for two weeks . " Song of Mana " was later made available on the Square Vocal Collection album in 2001 . Four of the game 's tracks were released as part of Drammatica : The Very Best Works of Yoko Shimomura , an album of arrangements highlighting the composer 's work .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Upon the game 's Japanese release , several promotional items were made available from Square , including stuffed toy dolls of the rabite enemy and mascot of the series , a necklace , and lighters . As a promotion for Square 's " Summer of Adventure " release schedule in 2000 , which the North American release of the game was a part of , those who preordered the game were given a free music CD with select tracks from the game . Legend of Mana was re @-@ released in Japan late in 2000 as part of the Square Millennium Collection at a budget price along with a special music box and two character figurines . A companion book titled Seiken Densetsu : Legend of Mana Ultimania including artwork and interviews was released as part of Square 's Ultimania series . It was published by DigiCube in 1999 and later reprinted by Square Enix in 2004 after the subsidiary 's closing . An artbook , Legend of Mana : Making of Mana , was published in 2000 by ASCII . A five @-@ volume manga series , created by Shiro Amano , was published between 2000 and 2002 .
= = Reception = =
In Japan , Legend of Mana was a bestseller at the time of release , and sold over 400 @,@ 000 units in its first week alone as the highest @-@ selling release that week in Japan . By the end of the year , it had sold over 700 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . Legend of Mana was also the top selling PlayStation game during the week of its release in North America .
Legend of Mana received mixed reviews from critics . The game 's presentation was almost universally praised , especially its use of vibrant and colorful hand @-@ drawn graphics . David Smith of IGN claimed that the graphics were one of the game 's best points , and RPGamer 's Andrew P. Bilyk noted that the visuals " may be the most impressive two @-@ dimensional graphics ever to grace an RPG " . Andrew Pfister of Electronic Gaming Monthly praised them even more , calling them " the most impressive 2D artwork ever seen on a console " . Damian Thomas 's RPGFan review likened the graphics to Disney animation for having " a very storybook , cutesy cartoony feel to them " , while Andrew Vestal of GameSpot said that the graphics were some of the most lush and ornate 2D graphics ever made . The game won an award for best graphics at the 4th Japan Game Awards from the Computer Entertainment Supplier 's Association . The music in Legend of Mana was also a high point in many reviews ; the reviewers for Electronic Gaming Monthly called it " fantastic " and " wonderful " . Smith of IGN 's review stated that the soundtrack is " as good as any you 'll hear today " with a good mix of intensity , suspense , and subtle nuance , and Vestal of GameSpot termed it " excellently orchestrated " and a perfect fit for the game in each environment .
Much of the game 's criticism stemmed from its substitution of mostly unrelated quests over a main storyline . GamePro found that the " focus of Legend of Mana is obscured by the over @-@ abundance of subplots " . Similarly , Game Revolution 's Johnny Liu commented that the game lacked depth and felt like a collection of short quests rather than a single game , while Vestal of GameSpot noted that the game 's use of miniquests will likely disappoint those seeking an action @-@ RPG classic , and said that , although fun , the gameplay had a " schizophrenic and disjointed nature " . Next Generation agreed , saying that the Land Make system was an " innovative feature " but that it left the game disjointed without a solid plot to keep everything together . The Japanese Weekly Famitsu reviewers felt that the system was ambitious , but left the game feeling disconnected , and that the divided plotlines kept the beginning of the game from having the charm of the end .
Gary Steinman of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine said that the lack of a plotline gave the player no incentive to keep playing through what he felt was a poor combat system . Both of those criticisms were repeated by Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Sam Kennedy in his review . RPGamer 's Bilyk felt that the smaller plots , while sometimes simplistic and not focused on the player , were enjoyable experiences . IGN 's Smith concluded that while he enjoyed the game , he felt that it was not a complete game like Secret of Mana , but instead a collection of fun experiences .
= = = Legacy = = =
In November 2000 , Legend of Mana was ranked number 48 on Weekly Famitsu 's list of top 100 PlayStation games of all time . The game was re @-@ released on February 21 , 2002 as part of the PSone Books best @-@ sellers series in Japan , in 2006 as part of Square Enix 's Ultimate Hits collection , and re @-@ released on the PlayStation 3 PlayStation Network store as part of the PSone Classics series on March 22 , 2011 .
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= How the García Girls Lost Their Accents =
How the García Girls Lost Their Accents is a 1991 novel written by Dominican @-@ American poet , novelist , and essayist Julia Alvarez . Told in reverse chronological order and narrated from shifting perspectives , the text possesses distinct qualities of a bildungsroman novel . Spanning more than thirty years in the lives of four sisters , the story begins with their adult lives in the United States and ends with their childhood in the Dominican Republic , from which their family was forced to flee due to the father ’ s opposition to Rafael Leónidas Trujillo 's dictatorship .
The novel 's major themes include acculturation and coming of age . It deals with the myriad hardships of immigration , painting a vivid picture of the struggle to assimilate , the sense of displacement , and the confusion of identity suffered by the García family , as they are uprooted from familiarity and forced to begin a new life in New York City . The text consists of fifteen interconnected short stories , each of which focuses on one of the four daughters , and in a few instances , the García family as a whole . Although it is told from alternating perspectives there is particular focus throughout the text on the character of Yolanda , who is said to be both the protagonist and the author 's alter ego .
= = Background and historical context = =
The years between 1956 and 1970 were a period of oppression and instability in the Dominican Republic as the dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo came to an end with his assassination in 1961 , only to be followed by military rule , revolution , intervention by the United States , and further dictatorship . Central control over the military , the economy , and the people meant that only a select few were allowed to leave the island . Critic William Luis describes the situation of immigrants from the Dominican Republic to the United States during the revolution : " The displacement of Caribbean people from their islands to the United States , for political or economical reasons , has produced a tension between the culture of the country of origin and that of the adopted homeland , one representing the past and the other future of the immigrant " .
The García family is an example of this phenomenon . In How the García Girls Lost Their Accents , Alvarez succeeds in altering the events of her own life to create fiction . The family is displaced to the United States after living an established , upper @-@ class life in the Dominican Republic , and is forced to face the challenges which come along with being an immigrant family in a foreign land . Julia Alvarez herself was not born in the Dominican Republic , but in the United States . After her parents ' failed attempt at a life in America , she returned to the Dominican Republic at the age of three months as her parents preferred the dictatorship of Trujillo to the US . Clearly in the novel , this is not the case , however throughout , the reader witnesses the Garcia family assimilate into American society . Although their Hispanic roots are reflected in their personalities , it is evident that the stories which focus on the four daughters depict many problems that normal North American girls do .
Even though How the García Girls Lost Their Accents was written in the United States , there are significant historical ties between the novel and the author ’ s country of origin . Alvarez wrote an essay entitled " An American Childhood in the Dominican Republic " , in which she reveals some information about her own life . This is evidence that it may have served as the basis for the novel . For example , she mentions that it was Mr. Victor , of the US embassy and a member of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , who persuaded Carlos García to join the resistance against Trujillo , and later helped him in leaving the country , and obtaining a job with an international cardiovascular team . This is a parallel to the novel in which Carlos Garcia obtains work as a doctor in New York . Julia Alvarez emigrated to the United States at the age of 10 with her parents and three sisters as political refugees from the Dominican Republic . The novel is a variation of her real @-@ life experiences , which have perhaps been slightly altered . The majority of her literature is constructed from multiple viewpoints and a strongly concealed political undercurrent is present in her literature . In this case , that undercurrent is her family fleeing the Trujillo revolution , something she did as a child . The novel encompasses the impact living under a regime can have on a family , and the way it shaped the four girls ' upbringing . It is also an attempt to understand memory , the past , and a time before the sisters lost their innocence and accents .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel is written episodically and in reverse @-@ chronological order . It consists of fifteen chapters facts three parts : Part I ( 1989 – 1972 ) , Part II ( 1970 – 1960 ) , and Part III ( 1960 – 1956 ) . Part I is centered on the adult lives of the García sisters ; Part II describes their immigration to the United States and their adolescence , and Part III recolletheir early childhood on the island , in the Dominican Republic .
The Garcías are one of the Dominican Republic 's prominent and wealthy families , tracing their roots back to the Conquistadores . Carlos García , a physician and the head of the family , is the youngest of 35 children his father sired during his lifetime , both in and out of wedlock . Laura , Carlos 's wife , also comes from an important family : her father is a factory owner and a diplomat with the United Nations . Many members of the extended family live as neighbours in large houses on an expansive compound with numerous servants . In the early 1950s the García girls are born . Carla , Sandra , Yolanda and Sofía enjoy a happy , protected childhood and are brought up by their parents , aunts and uncles to preserve the family traditions . Their countless cousins serve them as playmates .
= = = Part I = = =
The first part of the novel establishes Yolanda at the centre of the story as she narrates the opening and closing chapter : " Antojos " and " The Rudy Elmenhurst Story " , respectively . In third person , Yolanda 's return to Dominican Republic as an adult is described in the context of a family birthday party and a road trip . Their unity as sisters as " The Four Girls " is introduced in the third chapter , which is a communally narrated . They celebrate Carlos , the patriarch 's , birthday , and Sofía introduces her baby son to his grandfather , helping to repair the father and daughter 's relationship somewhat . During Sofía 's chapter , " The Kiss " , it is revealed that Carlos discovered a packet of love letters addressed to his daughter , enraging him and leading to a conflict which ends in Sofía running away to her German lover . A major focus in this section is the romantic relationships between the four sisters and their partners . Sofía is married to a " world @-@ class chemist " ; Carla and Sandra are in long @-@ term relationships ; and Yolanda is in love with her psychiatrist and has previously broken up with a man named John . Part I closes with " The Rudy Elmenhurst Story " , narrated by Yolanda . This describes Yolanda 's first real relationship , and the tension between her upbringing and American relationships : " I would never find someone who would understand my particular mix of Catholicism and agnosticism , Hispanic and American styles . "
= = = Part II = = =
Part II details the family 's collective experience of living in the United States as immigrants . The girls first attend a Catholic school in New York and later boarding school , and assimilate fairly well to their new environments , although meeting with a few set @-@ backs along the way . Their time in the US begins with the opening chapter , " A Regular Revolution " , and delivers the girls ' ( collective ) opinion that " We didn 't feel we had the best the United States had to offer . We had only second @-@ hand stuff , rental houses in one redneck Catholic neighborhood after another " . While during their first few months in New York they regularly pray to God that they will soon be able to return to their homeland , they quickly start appreciating the advantages of living in a " free country " so that even being sent back to the Dominican Republic for the summer becomes a form of punishment for them .
A major turning point in the novel comes with Laura 's discovery of a bag of Sofía 's marijuana , and her subsequent punishment of being removed from her boarding school and forced to spend a year in the Dominican Republic with family . This event is representative of the girls ' transformation into Americans and away from the Dominican culture and Laura and Carlos ' conflicted relationship with the assimilation . Laura " still did lip service to the old ways " , and Carlos makes a point of educating the accents out of the girls , thus showing the tension between the cultures .
Carla becomes the victim of racism in the third chapter , " Trespass " , with school boys telling her to " Go back to where you came from , you dirty spic ! " Later she is subjected to a child molester who masturbates in his car while pulling up at the curb and talking lecherously to her through the open window . The second part of the novel finishes with the chapter " Floor Show " , in which the García family goes to a Spanish restaurant and Sandra witnesses the host 's wife amorously attempting to kiss her father on the way to the bathroom . Overall , Part II presents the unexpected aspects of living in the United States and becoming Americans , and explores the tensions that develop with the immigrant experience .
= = = Part III = = =
The five chapters in Part III , the concluding section , focus on the García family 's early years in the Dominican Republic , and are the most political of the novel .
The first chapter , " The Blood of the Conquistadores " , opens with an account of two of Trujillo 's agents coming to the family home looking for Carlos . His revolutionary politics and work against the Chapitas made the family a target , and this chapter explicitly details the danger of their situation . The issues in past chapters appear superficial in comparison to the life @-@ or @-@ death nature of the conflicts that the Garcías face earlier in their lives . The family escapes persecution , but is forced to emigrate immediately , establishing their motive for relocating to New York .
The second chapter , " The Human Body " , describes what happens to Mundin , Yolanda and Sofia in the dirty shed near the house . Yolanda plays with her boy cousin , Mundin , and in exchange for a Human Body doll and a modeling clay , shows him her genitals . Sofia also follows suit . ' " Go on , " Mundin ordered impatiently . Fifi had caught on and lowered her pants and panties to her ankles . I gave my sister a defiant look as I lifted up my cowboy skirt , tucked it under my chin , and yanked my panties down ( Alvarez , 235 ) .'
As Part III progresses , the narrative switches to describing their upper @-@ class life on the island , and filling details of the lifestyle the family was born into . The story of the voodoo practicing Haitian family maid is elucidated : she escaped Trujillo 's massacre of Haitians and came to work for Laura , although much of her family was not so lucky .
In the last three chapters Carla , Yolanda and Sandra narrate stories from their childhood surrounded by the extended family , and the girls ' relationship with the United States begins . " An American Surprise " tells of their early ideas of New York City , " where it was winter and the snow fell from heaven to earth like the Bible 's little pieces of manna bread . " The reader realizes that the innocence of childhood and idealized vision of their soon @-@ to @-@ be adopted country , given the reverse @-@ chronological narration of How the García Girls Lost Their Accents , are left behind with the García 's home in the Dominican Republic .
= = Characters = =
= = = Sofia = = =
Sofia , " Fifi " , is the youngest of the four girls , and is the maverick out of her sisters . She gains the attention of the reader multiple times throughout the book , as her stories are different in nature from those of the other García girls . In the book Alvarez quotes " Sofia was the one without the degrees . She had always gone her own way " . Out of her sisters , she was the plain one but had consistent boyfriends and was always being asked advice about men from the other three girls . In the first chapter , " The Kiss " , readers are told the story of her rebellious marriage to a " jolly and good natured " German man in Colombia during a rebellious vacation with her current boyfriend . After her marriage to him , her relationship with her father deteriorates significantly until her son is born . The family reunites to celebrate her father 's birthday and son ’ s christening , although Sofia still feels the same antagonism she felt towards him beforehand .
= = = Sandra = = =
Sandi is the second daughter in the novel , the pretty one who could " pass as an American , with soft blue eyes and fair skin " . We see the loving and caring part of her personality emerge in " Floor Show " where at a very young age she decides that if her family got into a really bad financial situation , she would attempt to get adopted by a rich family , get an allowance " like other American girls got " which she would then pass onto her family . The spot @-@ light falls on her again when she goes away to a graduate program and her parents receive a letter from the dean saying Sandra has been hospitalized after an extreme diet , revealing that she is anorexic . She dreams of being an artist . She broke her arm .
= = = Yolanda = = =
Yolanda is the third oldest and most imaginative of the four girls . She plays the most important role in the novel as Alvarez 's alter ego . She is a schoolteacher , a poet and a writer . Her nicknames , which reflect and represent the different aspects of her personality , consist of " Joe " , " Yosita " , " Yoyo " and simply " Yo " , which is also the title of the sequel to How the García Girls Lost Their Accents . Each of these nicknames are the product of one of Yolanda 's multiple personalities . There is important significance in her character as " Yo " , Spanish first person pronoun , the " I " of the narrator . The nickname " Yoyo " is reminiscent of the toy that goes up and down , back and forth , similar to Yolanda ’ s bouncing from culture to culture , from one extreme to the other . The last , " Joe " represents the American version of Yolanda . Her ultimate return to the Island " represents her desire to displace herself from the North American Joe to the Yolanda of her family and youth . " These nicknames " act to properly define and name the many diverse facets of her complex personality " . Her character is that whose voice and words are most frequently heard throughout the novel ; she is the most developed character and her identity is the most explored of the four girls .
= = = Carla = = =
Carla is the eldest of the four daughters . As is common for the oldest sibling , she is somewhat seen as the mediator between the four sisters in the novel . " As the therapist in the family Carla likes to be the one who understands everything " and " has a tendency to lace all her compliments with calls to self @-@ improvement " . However to her sisters , this creates a somewhat dominating character at times reminiscent of their mother . Her criticism goes farther when she writes an autobiographical paper calling her mother mildly anal @-@ retentive . In Carla ’ s first and perhaps most prominent story in the novel , " Trespass " , as she is walking home from school in New York , a man exposes himself to her and attempts to lure her into his car . Alvarez uses Carla 's character to display the language difficulties faced with only having " classroom English " , and how communication barriers affect immigrants .
= = Style and structure = =
Alvarez defies the Aristotelian notion of a well @-@ knit plot , as the story is told in reverse chronological order through a series of fifteen chapters , with no linear , unifying storyline . In Julia Alvarez : A critical companion , Scholar Silvio Sirias argues that " a well @-@ constructed plot has an underlying structure that promises the reader that the author is in control , and that any event she is telling will eventually make sense " . Sirias then goes on to explain how Alvarez 's initial exposure of the girls to the reader in their somewhat adjusted , adult states enables her to first evoke certain assumptions in the reader and subsequently shatter these assumptions with the disclosure of the García family 's troubled past . Scholar Julie Barak argues that the reverse chronological order Alvarez employs is actually a unique stylistic technique which adds " to the reader 's uncertainty and instability , [ allowing for the recreation ] of the Garcia girls ' own ambiguities " .
Scholar William Luis observes a strong resemblance between the structure of Julia Alvarez ’ s How the García Girls Lost Their Accents and Alejo Carpentier 's Viaje a la Semilla as both employ the tactic of backwards narration and consequently lay claim to two beginnings and two endings . Alvarez has also been said to follow the stylistic traditions established by novels such as Pedro Juan Labarthe 's The Son of Two Nations : The Private Life of a Columbia Student ( 1931 ) , Marcio Veloz Maggiolo 's El prófugo ( 1962 ) , Humberto Cintrón 's Frankie Cristo ( 1972 ) , and Richard Ruiz 's The Hungry American ( 1978 ) . Despite the overtly North American stylistic qualities the book appears to boast at first glance , each of the aforementioned authors are of Hispanic descent .
Julie Barak emphasizes the significance of " one other stylistic idiosyncrasy of the work that adds to the sophistication of [ Alvarez 's ] artistry " as there is a marked transition from third to first person narration for each girl in the last section of the novel . Luis describes this shift as a pivotal moment after which the events assume a chronological order and time accelerates , illuminating life in such a manner that it suddenly makes sense . The manner in which Alvarez alters the narrative voice is a stylistic expression of the extent to which each one of the girls " wants to be in control of her own version of her history ... These first person narratives in the last section become , in effect , a defense offered by each girl in her own words , an explanation of who they have become in the present , of why they ' turned out ' the way they have . " The transition of narrative voice " changes the dynamic of the reader @-@ character @-@ author triad " and allows for the reader , who has been kept at a distance by the third person narrator , to relive " the memory with the character , closely connected to her , developing a strong empathy with a unified character " .
Jacqueline Stefanko rationalizes Alvarez ’ s decision to alternate amongst the varying voices of all four García girls , wither her assertion that " the amnesia produced by the diasporic cultures of Latinas gets negotiated within the text through polyphony " . After significant observation , Stefanko has concluded that " as hybrid selves who cross and recross borders of language and culture , these Latina writers create hybrid texts in order to ' survive in diaspora , ' to use Donna Haraway 's term , seeking to heal the fractures and ruptures resulting from exile and dispersal " . Through her creation of How the García Girls Lost Their Accents Alvarez has intentionally fictionalized her own life story in a polyphonous manner which extends beyond the boundaries of traditional style and genre , thus setting herself apart from the average author both stylistically and structurally .
= = Major themes = =
= = = Fragmentation of self = = =
Perhaps one of the most prominent themes in How the García Girls Lost Their Accents is that of the fragmented concept of the self . The fragmentation of one 's personal identity is a serious issue suffered by all four García girls throughout the course of the novel . Their immigration has left them as multiple beings , torn between their Dominican and American identities . As a college student , Yolanda encounters a boy named Rudy Elmenhurst , who is relentless in his attempts to pressure her into bed with him . When he can bear frustration no longer , Rudy lashes out and ends their relationship , leaving Yolanda devastated and hoping for his return . The inner turmoil evoked in Yolanda by this traumatic episode is evident through her realization of " what a cold lonely life awaited [ her ] in this country . [ Yolanda ] would never find someone who would understand [ her ] peculiar mix of Catholicism and agnosticism , Hispanic and American styles " . Julie Barak , of Mesa State College , has described this passage as a poignant and elegant reprisal of the recurrent sense of being divided selves and speaking divided languages found throughout the majority of the text .
The Flamenco dance in the " Floor Show " chapter evokes similar feelings of desolation in Sandra , as Mrs. Fanning 's drunken interruption of the distinctly Hispanic dance performance makes " a parody of it , a second @-@ rate combination of cultures that Sandi cannot find fulfilling . She is searching for a unified self , something noble , true , beautiful . Just as she gets close to it , however , it is ruined , dissolving into a gauche pastiche too similar to her own divided life in the States " .
Latin American literature scholar , Jacqueline Stefanko , along with several of her peers , has made pointed mention of the significant implications Yolanda ’ s multiple nicknames hold for her fragile and fragmented sense of self . Stefanko observes that " as Yolanda 's names proliferate on the page , we begin to see the multiplicity of her identity [ and ] realize the struggle Yolanda must engage in to not be fragmented in a society that marginalizes her " . Scholar William Luis reinforces the notion that Yolanda ’ s shattered identity stems largely from the " multiple names used [ to refer to her ] . She is Yolanda , Yoyo , Yosita , Yo and , last but not least the English Joe . And above all , she is ' Yo , ' the Spanish first person pronoun , the ' I ' of the narrator . "
Julie Barak finds the wording of Yolanda ’ s note to her husband , John , explaining why she must leave him , quite significant with reference to her divided self @-@ concept . Yolanda began " I 'm going home to my folks till my head @-@ slash @-@ heart clears . She revised the note . I 'm needing some space , some time , until my head @-@ slash @-@ heart @-@ slash @-@ soul- No , no , no she didn 't want to divide herself any @-@ more , three persons in one Yo . "
= = = Quest for clarification of identity = = =
The search for a clear and distinct personal identity is thematically quite closely related to that of the fragmented self . The quest undertaken by the García sisters for the clarification of their confused identities , however , is an attempt to achieve a solution to the problem posed by the fragmented self , and thus warrants separate categorization . Scholar William Luis reminds readers of Alvarez that " Yolanda 's search for her Dominican identity must be understood within the context of the 1960s in the United States " . As they begin to grow , the girls resent their parents who appear oblivious to their need to " fit in America among Americans ; they needed help figuring out who they were , why the Irish kids whose grandparents had been micks were calling them spics " .
Luis uses the term " onomastic displacement " with reference to the multiple nicknames that fragment Yolanda 's concept of a whole and unified self . This continuous onomastic displacement incites in Yolanda the desire to question her divided identity , to seek unity , clarity and a coherent understanding of her circumstances . Yolanda achieves this clarity through the act of writing and even as a young girl she revels in the completion of her speech for the Teacher 's Day address because " she finally sound [ s ] like herself in English ! " Unlike her sister Sandi , " whose artistic predilections were crushed as a child , Yolanda faces and works through her identity problems in her writing " . Barak views Yolanda 's writing as a process that can be used to reunite the fragments of her identity ; as an aid in the acceptance of " her own ' hybrid ' nature ... bringing both her worlds and all her selves into balance " . It is thus only through writing , the expression of Yolanda 's most intricately personal thoughts and revelations , that the protagonist can retain the hope of restoring her unified personal identity .
= = = Assimilation = = =
Assimilation is a particularly difficult process for Hispanic Americans because they have " old countries that are neither old nor remote . Even those born in North America travel to their parents ' homeland , and constantly face a flow of friends and relatives from ' home ' who keep the culture current . This constant cross @-@ fertilization makes assimilation a more complicated process for them than for other minority groups " . Julie Barak confirms Gonzalez Echevarria ’ s assertions regarding Latin American immigration and continues on to demonstrate how the privileged , wealthy existence led by the García girls in the Dominican Republic serves to further complicate their process of assimilation . The girls are vastly unaware of their good fortune until they are faced with the economic hardships of immigration in the United States .
How the García Girls Lost Their Accents confirms the suspicion widely expressed in circles of Latin American literature that North Americans choose not to differentiate between political and economic exile . Alvarez pointedly demonstrates the North American tendency to undervalue cultural diversity by highlighting instances of American ignorance toward distinctions between different Hispanic @-@ Caribbean groups . The García girls are quite conflicted upon their arrival in the United States as they find that distinct cultural groups are lumped together under one broad " immigrant " category and newcomers are encouraged to assimilate silently to the American norm . Yolanda ’ s conflict with her father regarding the potentially controversial speech she has prepared for the Teacher ’ s Day Address provides a classic example of the manner in which the García girls are pressured to conform to the norm . Yolanda feels as though she has sacrificed her principles and sold out to the hyper @-@ sensitive authorities when her father forces her to discard her empowering , rebellious achievement of artistic self @-@ expression for " two brief pages of stale compliments and the polite commonplaces on teachers . A speech wrought by necessity and without much invention " . Julie Barak affirms that " although this incident is in many ways a defeat for both Yolanda and her mother , it does teach them the lesson of conformity that is so important to living peacefully in America . Yolanda learns to fit in , to do the expected " . The girls go on to attend the best schools , lose their Spanish accents and acquire the same psychological disorders as their upper @-@ class American counterparts . Sandra battles anorexia , Carla and Yolanda both have failed marriages , Yolanda and Sandra are both institutionalized for psychiatric issues at one time or another , and Sofía is impregnated out of wedlock .
= = = Fear = = =
How the García Girls Lost Their Accents is rife with the constant presence of fear which manifests itself in a seemingly endless variety of outlets . Alvarez depicts quite vividly the fear evoked in the girls ' mother , Laura , near the chronological beginning of the book , as she " sees the black V.W. [ the trademark of Dominican dictator Trujillo ’ s henchmen ] , and her heart plummets right down to her toes " . Even after the García family has spent several years in the United States , safe from the threat of Trujillo 's retribution , a relentless paranoia continues to plague Carlos , their father , " who still lives in fear of the SIM and who is afraid to speak of ' revolt ' out loud " . This initial fear of Carlos ' punishment for his role in the attempted assassination of Trujillo is what originally prompted the García family ’ s flight from the island and spawned the myriad other fears that would later plague their lives . The conflicted life the daughters would come to lead in the sexually liberated United States would be haunted by the fear of pregnancy and eternal damnation should they allow themselves to be seduced .
The Cuban Missile Crisis also becomes a significant source of fear for the girls . In a very brief chapter entitled " Snow " , Alvarez reveals the impact of this widespread cultural paranoia through the character of Yolanda , who mistakes her first experience of snowfall for " the beginning of a much anticipated nuclear attack " , causing a panicked outbreak of general hysteria in her classroom .
As they continue to grow and mature , the girls have many disappointing encounters which leave them fearful of the loneliness that must awaits them in this foreign country where they struggle hopelessly to fit in and be understood . Even as a grown woman , returning to her Dominican roots , Yolanda finds she can never truly escape the fear that has hovered over her for as long as she can remember . This is evident in the very first chapter , " Antojos " , as Alvarez reveals the panic evoked in the adult Yolanda at the sudden realization that she is stranded in a guava field in the Dominican Republic , where women do not go about unchaperoned at night . Alvarez evokes Yolanda 's fear as she reports that " the rustling leaves of the guava trees echo the warnings of her old aunts : you will get lost , you will get kidnapped , you will get raped , you will get killed " .
As scholar Julie Barak has put it , " the vocabulary of fear that accompanies them is not only a part of their Spanish , but also of their English vocabulary " and the García family can therefore never hold legitimate hopes of escaping the fear .
= = = Memory = = =
William Luis argues that How the García Girls Lost Their Accents " is an attempt to understand memory , the past and a time before the sisters lost their innocence and accents " . Memory plays a significant role in the text , as a means by which the girls can return to the past of their childhood in the attempt to make sense of their present @-@ day realities . The youngest child , Sofía carries with her only a single memory of her brief childhood on the island , in which the García 's Haitian maid , Chucha , says a voodoo goodbye to the girls before they leave for the United States . Sofía feels segregated and deprived " because she has only this one memory to help her reconstruct her bicultural , bilingual self . Though this lack of memory makes her the least divided of her sisters in many ways ... the most disturbed , the most rebellious against her circumstances . " Ironically enough , Chucha ’ s voodoo prediction itself is largely concerned with the concept of memory , as she insists that after leaving the island the girls " will be haunted by what they do and don 't remember . But they have spirit in them . They will invent what they need to survive " . Julie Barak confirms this notion of memory as both a positive and negative force in the García girls ’ constant struggle to unearth their true identities .
= = Literary significance and reception = =
When How the García Girls Lost Their Accents was published in 1991 , the book " made a resounding splash on the literary scene " according to Jonathan Bing in the 1996 Publishers Weekly review of the novel . Although it was her first novel , Alvarez gained significant attention for the book , including a part in the New York Public Library 's 1991 exhibit " The Hand of the Poet from John Donne to Julia Alvarez " . The Women 's Review of Books also lauds the author , stating that " With this first novel , Julia Alvarez joins the rank of other Latina writers such as Nicholasa Mohr and Helena María Viramontes " .
The novel was generally critically acclaimed , with Cecilia Rodríguez Milanés of The Women 's Review of Books writing that " How the García Girls Lost Their Accents is a noteworthy book , demanding our attention . " The Publishers Weekly article notes that " the novel provided a keen look at the island social structure they [ the García family ] wistfully remember and the political turmoil they escaped " .
Since 1991 , the book has become widely read and referenced ; a well @-@ known part of the canon of Latino literature . Julia Alvarez was awarded the status of Doctor Honoris Causa , Humanidades , by Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra , Santiago , Dominican Republic on January 24 , 2006 for How the García Girls Lost Their Accents .
In 1999 , Library Journal reported that a " select cadre of librarians representing New York City 's three public library systems have released their hand @-@ picked list of ' 21 new classics for the 21st century ' " and the novel was included on the list .
A number of scholarly articles and papers have been written on Alvarez 's book since its publication , including " A Search for Identity in Julia Alvarez 's How the García Girls Lost Their Accents " by William Luis and Joan Hoffman 's " She Wants to be Called Yolanda Now : Identity , Language , and the Third Sister in How the García Girls Lost Their Accents " , which was featured in the Bilingual Review .
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= Bayshore Freeway =
The Bayshore Freeway is a part of U.S. Route 101 in the San Francisco Bay Area of the U.S. state of California . It runs along the west shore of the San Francisco Bay , connecting San Jose with San Francisco . Within the city of San Francisco , the freeway is also known as James Lick Freeway , named after the California philanthropist . The road was originally built as a surface road , the Bayshore Highway , and later upgraded to freeway standards . Before 1964 , it was mostly marked as U.S. Route 101 Bypass , with US 101 using the present State Route 82 ( El Camino Real ) .
= = Route description = =
The Bayshore Freeway begins at the Blossom Hill Road interchange on US 101 , where SR 82 begins its northwesterly path along Monterey Highway to San Jose . The freeway curves north and northwest , bypassing downtown San Jose to the east , and then curves west @-@ northwest , crossing I @-@ 880 and SR 87 , the latter just north of the San Jose International Airport . The portion of the highway from San Jose to South San Francisco is relatively straight and flat , running near the west edge of the San Francisco Bay . Junctions here include SR 237 in Sunnyvale , SR 85 in Mountain View , SR 84 in Menlo Park and Redwood City , SR 92 in San Mateo , and the San Francisco International Airport and I @-@ 380 in San Bruno . In South San Francisco , the freeway curves northeast around San Bruno Mountain , crossing its east edge at Sierra Point , and then heads north on a causeway across the former Candlestick Cove to the San Francisco city line .
In San Francisco , where the road is also known as the James Lick Freeway , it continues north @-@ northwesterly between Bayview Park and McLaren Park , and crosses I @-@ 280 at the Alemany Maze . There it curves north @-@ northeasterly around Bernal Heights and then northwest around Potrero Hill , meeting the Central Freeway at the border between the Mission District and South of Market . The Bayshore Freeway ends at the intersection of US 101 and Interstate 80 , which , although signed as Interstate 80 , is not officially Interstate 80 until the San Francisco @-@ Oakland Bay Bridge . The freeway that goes from US 101 to the Bay Bridge that is signed as I @-@ 80 but not officially I @-@ 80 is called the San Francisco Skyway .
= = History = =
= = = Initial construction = = =
Before the Dumbarton and San Mateo @-@ Hayward Bridges were built across the San Francisco Bay in the 1920s , San Francisco was bottled up at the north end of a long peninsula , with driving south on El Camino Real towards San Jose as the only reasonable alternative to the ferries for crossing the bay . The first of several highways built as an alternate to El Camino Real was the Skyline Boulevard , which was added to the state highway system in 1919 . A second route , the Bay Shore Highway ( Route 68 ) , became a state highway in 1923 , but only from the San Francisco city limits into San Mateo County , where the Dumbarton Bridge would begin . Just prior to the start of construction on the Dumbarton Bridge , San Francisco Supervisor Richard J. Welch noted that the Bay Shore Highway would need to be built all the way to San Jose as an escape valve for the additional traffic that the bridge would attract .
The state legislature extended the highway in 1925 , defining it to run from near the intersection of Army Street ( Cesar Chavez Street ) and San Bruno Avenue in San Francisco to a point in San Jose . The governor approved the bill with the stipulation that only the portion between the city limits of San Francisco and San Jose would be a state highway . Construction between South San Francisco and Burlingame had begun by 1924 , funded by a $ 500 @,@ 000 contribution from San Francisco , and was completed in 1928 . A disconnected segment north of San Mateo was built by the state at the same time . It was not until February 1929 that the road was fully paved between San Francisco and Burlingame , and on October 20 , 1929 the new highway was officially dedicated to San Mateo , several months after the connecting San Mateo @-@ Hayward Bridge opened ( at what is now Third Avenue ) . Even then , motorists had to wait until May 7 , 1931 to reach Jefferson Avenue in Redwood City ( near the west end of the four @-@ year @-@ old Dumbarton Bridge ) . The roadway was extended to Oregon Avenue in Palo Alto in mid @-@ 1932 , Lawrence Station Road in mid @-@ 1933 , and to Lafayette Street near Santa Clara , across the Guadalupe River from San Jose , by 1934 . The final piece to Oakland Road ( 13th Street ) in San Jose , which was then the main road - Legislative Route 5 and Sign Route 17 - between San Jose and Oakland , was dedicated on June 12 , 1937 , over ten years after the Dumbarton Bridge opened in January 1927 .
Although the highway was designed and built to what were , at the time , high standards , with a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) wide right @-@ of @-@ way in most places , it was accident @-@ prone because it lacked a median barrier . One segment of the so @-@ called " Bloody Bayshore " was " Boneyard Hill " , a steep grade through the Visitacion Valley near the San Francisco city line , running past a bone meal plant . Causes of the crashes included turning conflicts at intersections , and speeding drivers crossing the centerline to use the oncoming lanes as a passing lane . The roadway was entirely at @-@ grade except for crossings of rail lines . It generally followed the present alignment of the Bayshore Freeway , but deviated in several places : Old Bayshore Highway in San Jose , Veterans Boulevard in Redwood City , Bayshore Highway in Burlingame , a destroyed section of road through San Francisco International Airport , and Airport and Bayshore Boulevards from South San Francisco through Brisbane into San Francisco . Within that city , the new highway continued three miles ( 5 km ) along the present Bay Shore Boulevard to Army ( Cesar Chavez ) Street and Potrero Avenue .
When the Bayshore Highway was completed in 1937 , U.S. Route 101 signs were moved to it from El Camino Real , and El Camino became U.S. Route 101 Alternate . Businesses along El Camino created the El Camino Real Association to protest the move and resulting loss of business , and by 1939 the main route had been moved back , with the Bayshore Highway becoming U.S. Route 101 Bypass . The two routes split in San Jose at the junction of First and Second Streets near Keyes Street , with the El Camino route mostly following the present SR 82 and the Bayshore route using locally maintained Second , Reed , and Fourth Streets to reach the state @-@ maintained Bayshore Highway . In San Francisco , they rejoined at the present location of the Alemany Maze , with the El Camino route following Alemany Boulevard from near the city line ; from there US 101 continued north on Bay Shore Boulevard , Potrero Avenue , and 10th and Fell Streets to Van Ness Avenue , meeting the Bay Bridge approach ( US 40 / US 50 ) at Bryant and Harrison Streets . The Bryant / Harrison one @-@ way pair was added to Route 68 ( which already included the bridge ) in 1937 and removed in 1947 along with the bridge ; in 1961 the new freeway approach became part of Route 68 , which was extended back over the bridge to Route 5 at its Oakland landfall .
Construction of an extension to Route 115 ( Santa Clara Street , now SR 130 ) at 30th Street in San Jose began in 1939 , and was completed by late 1940 . As with the portion between Fourth and 13th Streets , it was not marked as a numbered route . The state legislature authorized an extension beyond San Jose back to El Camino Real near Ford Road in 1947 , which was already under construction , and was completed that year . This was the first segment built with interchanges , and included a median barrier . Despite this , most crossings were at @-@ grade ; only the two ends at Route 115 ( Santa Clara Street ) and regular US 101 included bridges , the former a diamond interchange and the latter a simple split with additional access to Ford Road . It also crossed over Coyote Road , though with no access , just south of the Coyote Creek bridge . The original 1947 bridge over Coyote Road remains , though widened in 1990 , and is one of the oldest road @-@ road grade separations on the present freeway .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
By 1940 , at the dawn of the freeway era , the state was making plans to convert the Bayshore Highway into a ten @-@ lane Bayshore Freeway between San Francisco and Palo Alto . The first piece built was from Peninsula Avenue at the San Mateo @-@ Burlingame line to South San Francisco . This six @-@ lane freeway , completed in 1949 , followed the existing highway to Broadway in Burlingame , but then took a more inland alignment past the San Francisco International Airport , and crossed the old road at South San Francisco , running just east of it to near the south end of the cut at Sierra Point . Construction began inside San Francisco in 1950 and was completed in 1958 ; the new causeway across Candlestick Cove , connecting the completed section in South San Francisco with San Francisco , was dedicated in mid @-@ 1957 . In 1951 , the state legislature renamed the portion within San Francisco after James Lick , a California pioneer and philanthropist .
A movement to make the four @-@ lane undivided " Bloody Bayshore " safer all the way to San Jose began in Palo Alto . As a temporary measure , the state lowered the speed limit , installed traffic signals , closed minor crossroads , and prohibited left turns in places . The community convinced the state to extend the six @-@ lane freeway , which was completed in 1962 . The freeway continued to end at the old El Camino Real merge near Ford Road until the early 1980s , when the South Valley Freeway was constructed .
= = Exit list = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
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= Silver Age of Comic Books =
The Silver Age of Comic Books was a period of artistic advancement and commercial success in mainstream American comic books , predominantly those in the superhero genre . Following the Golden Age of Comic Books and an interregnum in the early to mid @-@ 1950s , the Silver Age is considered to cover the period from 1956 to circa 1970 , and was succeeded by the Bronze and Modern Ages . A number of important comics writers and artists contributed to the early part of the era , including writers Stan Lee , Gardner Fox , John Broome , and Robert Kanigher , and artists Curt Swan , Jack Kirby , Gil Kane , Steve Ditko , Mike Sekowsky , Gene Colan , Carmine Infantino , John Buscema , and John Romita , Sr. By the end of the Silver Age , a new generation of talent had entered the field , including writers Denny O 'Neil , Gary Friedrich , Roy Thomas , and Archie Goodwin , and artists such as Neal Adams , Herb Trimpe , Jim Steranko , and Barry Windsor @-@ Smith .
The popularity and circulation of comic books about superheroes declined following World War II , and comic books about horror , crime and romance took larger shares of the market . However , controversy arose over alleged links between comic books and juvenile delinquency , focusing in particular on crime and horror titles . In 1954 , publishers implemented the Comics Code Authority to regulate comic content . In the wake of these changes , publishers began introducing superhero stories again , a change that began with the introduction of a new version of DC Comics ' The Flash in Showcase # 4 ( Oct. 1956 ) . In response to strong demand , DC began publishing more superhero titles including Justice League of America , which prompted Marvel Comics to follow suit beginning with Fantastic Four # 1 . Silver Age comics have become collectible , with a copy of Amazing Fantasy # 15 ( Aug. 1962 ) , the debut of Spider @-@ Man , selling for $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2011 .
= = Origin of the term = =
Comics historian and movie producer Michael Uslan traces the origin of the " Silver Age " term to the letters column of Justice League of America # 42 ( Feb. 1966 ) , which went on sale December 9 , 1965 . Letter @-@ writer Scott Taylor of Westport , Connecticut wrote , " If you guys keep bringing back the heroes from the [ 1930s @-@ 1940s ] Golden Age , people 20 years from now will be calling this decade the Silver Sixties ! " According to Uslan , the natural hierarchy of gold @-@ silver @-@ bronze , as in Olympic medals , took hold . " Fans immediately glommed onto this , refining it more directly into a Silver Age version of the Golden Age . Very soon , it was in our vernacular , replacing such expressions as ... ' Second Heroic Age of Comics ' or ' The Modern Age ' of comics . It wasn 't long before dealers were ... specifying it was a Golden Age comic for sale or a Silver Age comic for sale . "
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Spanning World War II , when American comics provided cheap and disposable escapist entertainment that could be read and then discarded by the troops , the Golden Age of comic books covered the late 1930s to the late 1940s . A number of major superheroes were created during this period , including Superman , Batman , Wonder Woman , Captain Marvel , and Captain America . In subsequent years comics were blamed for a rise in juvenile crime statistics , although this rise was shown to be in direct proportion to population growth . When juvenile offenders admitted to reading comics , it was seized on as a common denominator ; one notable critic was Fredric Wertham , author of the book Seduction of the Innocent ( 1954 ) , who attempted to shift the blame for juvenile delinquency from the parents of the children to the comic books they read . The result was a decline in the comics industry . To address public concerns , in 1954 the Comics Code Authority was created to regulate and curb violence in comics , marking the start of a new era .
= = = DC Comics = = =
The Silver Age began with the publication of DC Comics ' Showcase # 4 ( Oct. 1956 ) , which introduced the modern version of the Flash . At the time , only three superheroes — Superman , Batman , and Wonder Woman — were still published under their own titles . According to DC comics writer Will Jacobs , Superman was available in " great quantity , but little quality . " Batman was doing better , but his comics were " lackluster " in comparison to his earlier " atmospheric adventures " of the 1940s , and Wonder Woman , having lost her original writer and artist , was no longer " idiosyncratic " or " interesting . " Jacobs describes the arrival of Showcase # 4 on the newsstands as " begging to be bought , " the cover featured an undulating film strip depicting the Flash running so fast that he had escaped from the frame . Editor Julius Schwartz , writer Gardner Fox , and artist Carmine Infantino were some of the people behind the Flash 's revitalization . Robert Kanigher wrote the first stories of the revived Flash , and John Broome was the writer of many of the earliest stories .
With the success of Showcase # 4 , several other 1940s superheroes were reworked during Schwartz ' tenure , including Green Lantern , the Atom , and Hawkman , as well as the Justice League of America . The DC artists responsible included Murphy Anderson , Gil Kane and Joe Kubert . Only the characters ' names remained the same ; their costumes , locales , and identities were altered , and imaginative scientific explanations for their superpowers generally took the place of magic as a modus operandi in their stories . Schwartz , a lifelong science fiction fan , was the inspiration for the re @-@ imagined Green Lantern — the Golden Age character , railroad engineer Alan Scott , possessed a ring powered by a magical lantern , but his Silver Age replacement , test pilot Hal Jordan , had a ring powered by an alien battery and created by an intergalactic police force .
In the mid @-@ 1960s , DC established that characters appearing in comics published prior to the Silver Age lived on a parallel Earth the company dubbed Earth @-@ Two . Characters introduced in the Silver Age and onward lived on Earth @-@ One . It was established that the two realities were separated by a vibrational field that could be crossed , should a storyline involve superheroes from different worlds teaming up .
Although the Flash is generally regarded as the first superhero of the Silver Age , the introduction of the Martian Manhunter in Detective Comics # 225 predates Showcase # 4 by almost a year , and at least one historian considers this character the first Silver Age superhero . However , comics historian Craig Shutt , author of the Comics Buyer 's Guide column " Ask Mister Silver Age " , disagrees , noting that the Martian Manhunter debuted as a detective who used his alien abilities to solve crimes , in the " quirky detective " vein of contemporaneous DC characters who were " TV detectives , Indian detectives , supernatural detectives , [ and ] animal detectives . " Schutt feels the Martian Manhunter only became a superhero in Detective Comics # 273 ( Nov. 1959 ) when he received a secret identity and other superhero accoutrements , saying , " Had Flash not come along , I doubt that the Martian Manhunter would 've led the charge from his backup position in Detective to a new super @-@ hero age . " Unsuccessful attempts to revive the superhero archetype 's popularity include Captain Comet , who debuted in Strange Adventures # 9 ( June 1951 ) ; St. John Publishing Company 's 1953 revival of Rocket Man under the title Zip @-@ Jet ; Fighting American , created in 1954 by the Captain America team of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby ; Sterling Comics ' Captain Flash and its back @-@ up feature Tomboy that same year ; Ajax / Farrell Publishing 's 1954 @-@ 55 revival of the Phantom Lady ; Strong Man , published by Magazine Enterprises in 1955 ; Charlton Comics ' Nature Boy , introduced in March 1956 , and its revival of the Blue Beetle the previous year ; and Atlas Comics ' short @-@ lived revivals of Captain America , the Human Torch , and the Sub @-@ Mariner , beginning in Young Men Comics # 24 ( Dec. 1953 ) .
Cartoon animal super @-@ heroes were longer @-@ lived . Supermouse and Mighty Mouse were published continuously in their own titles from the end of the Golden Age through the beginning of the Silver Age . Atomic Mouse was given his own title in 1953 , lasting ten years , and Atomic Rabbit , later named Atomic Bunny , was published from 1955 to 1959 . In England , the Marvelman series was published during the interregnum between the Golden and Silver Ages , substituting for the British reprints of the Captain Marvel stories after Fawcett stopped publishing the character 's adventures .
= = = Marvel Comics = = =
DC Comics sparked the superhero revival with its publications from 1955 to 1960 . Marvel Comics then capitalized on the revived interest in superhero storytelling with sophisticated stories and characterization . In contrast to previous eras , Silver Age characters were " flawed and self @-@ doubting " .
DC added to its momentum with its 1960 introduction of Justice League of America , a team consisting of the company 's most popular superhero characters . Martin Goodman , a publishing trend @-@ follower with his 1950s Atlas Comics line , note 1 by this time called Marvel Comics , " mentioned that he had noticed one of the titles published by National Comics seemed to be selling better than most . It was a book called The [ sic ] Justice League of America and it was composed of a team of superheroes , " Marvel editor Stan Lee recalled in 1974 . Goodman directed Lee to likewise produce a superhero team book , resulting in The Fantastic Four # 1 ( Nov. 1961 ) .
Under the guidance of writer @-@ editor Stan Lee and artists / co @-@ plotters such as Jack Kirby and Steve Ditko , Marvel began its own rise to prominence . With an innovation that changed the comic @-@ book industry , The Fantastic Four # 1 initiated a naturalistic style of superheroes with human failings , fears , and inner demons , who squabbled and worried about the likes of rent @-@ money . In contrast to the straitlaced archetypes of superheroes at the time , this ushered in a revolution . With dynamic artwork by Kirby , Steve Ditko , Don Heck , and others complementing Lee 's colorful , catchy prose , the new style became popular among college students who could identify with the angst and the irreverent nature of the characters such as Spider @-@ Man , the X @-@ Men and the Hulk during a time period of social upheaval and the rise of a youth counterculture . Comic book readers of the Silver Age were more scientifically @-@ inclined than previous generations . Thus , comic books of the Silver Age explained superhero phenomenons and origins through science , as opposed to the Golden Age , which commonly relied on magic or mysticism .
Comics historian Peter Sanderson compares the 1960s DC to a large Hollywood studio , and argues that after having reinvented the superhero archetype , DC by the latter part of the decade was suffering from a creative drought . The audience for comics was no longer just children , and Sanderson sees the 1960s Marvel as the comic equivalent of the French New Wave , developing new methods of storytelling that drew in and retained readers who were in their teens and older and thus influencing the comics writers and artists of the future .
= = = Other publishers = = =
One of the top American comics publishers in 1956 , Harvey Comics , discontinued its horror comics when the Comics Code was implemented and sought a new target audience . Harvey 's focus shifted to children from 6 to 12 years of age , especially girls , with characters such as Richie Rich , Casper the Friendly Ghost , and Little Dot . Many of the company 's comics featured young girls who " defied stereotypes and sent a message of acceptance of those who are different . " Although its characters have inspired a number of nostalgic movies and ranges of merchandise , Harvey comics of the period are not as sought after in the collectors ' market as DC and Marvel titles .
The publishers Gilberton , Dell Comics , and Gold Key Comics used their reputations as publishers of wholesome comic books to avoid becoming signatories to the Comics Code and found various ways to continue publishing horror @-@ themed comics in addition to other types . Gilberton 's extensive Classics Illustrated line adapted literary classics , with the likes of Frankenstein alongside Don Quixote and Oliver Twist ; Classics Illustrated Junior reprinted comic book versions of children 's classics such as The Wizard of Oz , Rapunzel , and Pinocchio . During the late 1950s and the 1960s , Dell , which had published comics in 1936 , offered licensed TV series comic books from Twilight Zone to Top Cat , as well as numerous Walt Disney titles . Its successor , Gold Key — founded in 1962 Western Publishing started its own label rather than packaging content for business partner Dell — continued with such licensed TV series and movie adaptations , as well as comics starring such Warner Bros. Cartoons characters as Bugs Bunny and such comic strip properties as Beetle Bailey .
With the popularity of the Batman television show in 1966 , publishers that had specialized in other forms began adding campy superhero titles to their lines . As well , new publishers sprang up , often using creative talent from the Golden Age . Harvey Comics ' Harvey Thriller imprint released Double @-@ Dare Adventures , starring new characters such as Bee @-@ man and Magic Master . Dell published superhero versions of Frankenstein , Dracula and the Werewolf . Gold Key did licensed versions of live @-@ action and animated superhero television shows such as Captain Nice , Frankenstein Jr. and The Impossibles , and continued the adventures of Walt Disney Pictures ' Goofy character in Supergoof . American Comics Group gave its established character Herbie a secret superhero identity as the Fat Fury , and introduced the characters of Nemesis and Magic @-@ Man . Even the iconic Archie Comics teens acquired superpowers and superhero identities in comedic titles such as Archie as Capt. Pureheart and Jughead as Captain Hero . Archie Comics also launched its Archie Adventure line ( subsequently titled Mighty Comics ) , which included the Fly , the Jaguar , and a revamp of the Golden Age hero the Shield . In addition to their individual titles , they teamed in their group series The Mighty Crusaders , joined by the Comet and Flygirl join with three characters with their own titles . Their stories blended typical superhero fare with the 1960s ' camp .
Among straightforward Silver Age superheroes from publishers other than Marvel or DC , Charlton Comics offered a short @-@ lived superhero line with characters that included Captain Atom , Judomaster , the Question , and Thunderbolt ; Tower Comics had Dynamo , Mercury Man , NoMan and other members of the superhero espionage group T.H.U.N.D.E.R. Agents ; and even Gold Key had Doctor Solar , Man of the Atom .
= = = Underground comix = = =
According to John Strausbaugh of The New York Times , " traditional " comic book historians feel that although the Golden Age deserves study , the only noteworthy aspect of the Silver Age was the advent of underground comics . One commentator has suggested that , " Perhaps one of the reasons underground comics have come to be considered legitimate art is due to the fact that the work of these artists more truly embodies what much of the public believes is true of newspaper strips — that they are written and drawn ( i.e. , authentically signed by ) a single person . " While a large number of mainstream @-@ comics professionals both wrote and drew their own material during the Silver Age , as many had since the start of American comic books , their work is distinct from what another historian describes as the " raw id on paper " of Robert Crumb and Gilbert Shelton . Most often published in black @-@ and @-@ white with glossy color cover and distributed through counterculture bookstores and head shops , underground comics targeted adults and reflected the counterculture movement of the time ,
= = = End and aftermath = = =
The Silver Age of comic books was followed by the Bronze Age . The demarcation is not clearly defined , but there are a number of possibilities .
Historian Will Jacobs suggests the Silver Age ended in April 1970 when the man who had started it , Julius Schwartz , handed over Green Lantern — starring one of the first revived heroes of the era — to the new @-@ guard team of Denny O 'Neil and Neal Adams in response to reduced sales . John Strausbaugh also connects the end of the Silver Age to Green Lantern . He observes that in 1960 , the character embodied the can @-@ do optimism of the era . However , by 1972 Green Lantern had become world weary ; " Those days are gone – gone forever – the days I was confident , certain ... I was so young ... so sure I couldn 't make a mistake ! Young and cocky , that was Green Lantern . Well , I 've changed . I 'm older now ... maybe wiser , too ... and a lot less happy . " Strausbaugh writes that the Silver Age " went out with that whimper . "
Comics scholar Arnold T. Blumberg places the end of the Silver Age in June 1973 , when Gwen Stacy , girlfriend of Peter Parker ( Spider @-@ Man ) was killed in a story arc later dubbed " The Night Gwen Stacy Died " , saying the era of " innocence " was ended by " the ' snap ' heard round the comic book world — the startling , sickening snap of bone that heralded the death of Gwen Stacy . " Silver Age historian Craig Shutt disputes this , saying , " Gwen Stacy 's death shocked Spider @-@ Man readers . Such a tragedy makes a strong symbolic ending . This theory gained adherents when Kurt Busiek and Alex Ross ' Marvels miniseries in 1994 ended with Gwen 's death , but I 'm not buying it . It 's too late . Too many new directions — especially [ the sword @-@ and @-@ sorcery trend begun by the character ] Conan and monsters [ in the wake of the Comics Code allowing vampires , werewolves and the like ] — were on firm ground by this time . " He also dismisses the end of the 12 @-@ cent comic book , which went to 15 cents as the industry standard in early 1969 , noting that the 1962 hike from 10 cents to 12 cents had no bearing in this regard . Shutt 's line comes with Fantastic Four # 102 ( Sept . 1970 ) , Jack Kirby 's last regular @-@ run issue before the artist left to join DC Comics ; this combines with DC 's Superman # 229 ( Aug. 1970 ) , editor Mort Weisinger 's last before retiring .
According to historian Peter Sanderson , the " neo @-@ silver movement " that began in 1986 with Superman : Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow ? by Alan Moore and Curt Swan , was a backlash against the Bronze Age with a return to Silver Age principles . In Sanderson 's opinion , each comics generation rebels against the previous , and the movement was a response to Crisis on Infinite Earths , which itself was an attack on the Silver Age . Neo @-@ silver comics creators made comics that recognized and assimilated the more sophisticated aspects of the Silver Age .
= = Legacy = =
The Silver Age marked a decline in the prominence of American comics in genres such as horror , romance , teen and furry animal humor , or westerns , which were more popular than superhero adventures in the late 1940s through the mid @-@ 1950s , and fans of these genres see the Silver Age as a decline from that earlier era .
An important feature of the period was the development of the character makeup of superheroes . Young children and girls were targeted during the Silver Age by certain publishers ; in particular , Harvey Comics attracted this group with titles such as Little Dot . Adult @-@ oriented underground comics also began during the Silver Age . Some critics and historians argue that one characteristic of the Silver Age was that science fiction and aliens replaced magic and gods . Others argue that magic was an important element of both Golden Age and Silver Age characters . Many Golden Age writers and artists were science @-@ fiction fans or professional science @-@ fiction writers who incorporated SF elements into their comic @-@ book stories . Science was a common explanation for the origin of heroes in the Silver Age .
The Silver Age coincided with the rise of pop art , an artistic movement that used popular cultural artifacts , such as advertising and packaging , as source material for fine , or gallery @-@ exhibited , art . Roy Lichtenstein , one of the best @-@ known pop art painters , specifically chose individual panels from comic books and repainted the images , modifying them to some extent in the process but including in the painting word and thought balloons and captions as well as enlarged @-@ to @-@ scale color dots imitating the coloring process then used in newsprint comic books . An exhibition of comic strip art was held at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs of the Palais de Louvre in 1967 , and books were soon published that contained serious discussions of the art of comics and the nature of the medium .
In January 1966 , a live @-@ action Batman television show debuted to high ratings . Like pop art , the show took comic @-@ book tropes and re @-@ envisioned them in the context of a different medium . Voiceover narration in each episode articulated the words of comic @-@ book captions while fight scenes had sound effects like " Biff " , " Bam " and " Pow " appear as visual effects on the screen , spelled out in large cartoon letters . Circulation for comic books in general and Batman merchandise in particular soared . Other masked or superpowered adventurers appeared on the television screen , so that " American TV in the winter of 1967 appeared to consist of little else but live @-@ action and animated cartoon comic @-@ book heroes , all in living colour . " Existing comic @-@ book publishers began creating superhero titles , as did new publishers . By the end of the 1960s , however , the fad had faded ; in 1969 , the best @-@ selling comic book in the United States was not a superhero series , but the teen @-@ humor book Archie .
= = Artists = =
Arlen Schumer , author of The Silver Age of Comic Book Art , singles out Carmine Infantino 's Flash as the embodiment of the design of the era : " as sleek and streamlined as the fins Detroit was sporting on all its models . " Other notable artists of the era include Curt Swan , Gene Colan , Steve Ditko , Gil Kane , Jack Kirby and Joe Kubert .
Two artists that changed the comics industry dramatically in the late 1960s were Neal Adams , considered one of his country 's greatest draftsmen , and Jim Steranko . Both artists expressed a cinematic approach at times that occasionally altered the more conventional panel @-@ based format that has been commonplace for decades . Adams ' breakthrough was based on layout and rendering . Best known for returning Batman to his somber roots after the campy success of the Batman television show , his naturalistic depictions of anatomy , faces , and gestures changed comics ' style in a way that Strausbaugh sees reflected in modern graphic novels .
One of the few writer @-@ artists at the time , Steranko made use of a cinematic style of storytelling . Strausbaugh credits him as one of Marvel 's strongest creative forces during the late 1960s , his art owing a large debt to Salvador Dalí . Steranko started by inking and penciling the details of Kirby 's artwork on Nick Fury , Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. beginning in Strange Tales # 151 , but by Strange Tales # 155 Stan Lee had put him in charge of both writing and drawing Fury 's adventures . He exaggerated the James Bond @-@ style spy stories , introducing the vortex beam ( which lifts objects ) , the aphonic bomb ( which explodes silently ) , a miniature electronic absorber ( which protected Fury from electricity ) , and the Q @-@ ray machine ( a molecular disintegrator ) — all in his first 11 @-@ page story .
= = Collectibility = =
A near @-@ mint copy of Amazing Fantasy # 15 , the first appearance of Spider @-@ Man , sold for $ 1 @.@ 1 million to an unnamed collector on March 7 , 2011 .
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= Charles Thom =
Charles Thom ( November 11 , 1872 – May 24 , 1956 ) was an American microbiologist and mycologist . Born and raised in Illinois , he received his PhD from the University of Missouri , the first such degree awarded by that institution . He was best known for his work on the microbiology of dairy products and soil fungi , and in particular his research into the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium . His work influenced the establishment of standards for food handling and processing in the USA . He pioneered the use of culture media to grow microorganisms , and , with food chemist James N. Currie , developed a process to mass @-@ produce citric acid using Aspergillus . Thom played an important role in the development of penicillin in World War II .
= = Early life = =
Thom was born in Minonk , Illinois in 1872 , the fifth of six boys . His parents were Angus Sutherland Thom and Louisa ( Herick ) Thom , Scottish / Irish farmers who had settled in Illinois shortly before the American Civil War . Charles Thom was raised in a strongly religious household ; his father was an elder in the Presbyterian church . Thom upheld Presbyterian values throughout his life , kept active in church affairs , and became a staunch prohibitionist . His early years spent working on his father 's farm instilled the value of a strong work ethic , and first @-@ hand knowledge of agricultural practices that would prove useful in his later career .
After graduating from high school , Thom attended Lake Forest Academy , a preparatory institution for college , in 1889 . He earned a bachelor 's degree from Lake Forest College in 1895 . The next year he spent as a science teacher in a Danville high school , before returning to Lake Forest College to receive his Master 's degree in 1897 . In 1899 , working under the supervision of Howard Ayers , he received his PhD from the University of Missouri on the topic of fertilization in the ferns Aspidium and Adiantum . This was the first doctorate awarded by that institution . Thom married Ethel Winifred Slater in 1906 , with whom he had three children ( one died during childbirth ) . Ethel Thom died in October 1942 , shortly before his retirement . In 1944 he remarried , to Charlotte J. Bayles , with whom he lived until her death . Thom died two years after Charlotte at his home in Port Jefferson , New York , on May 24 , 1956 .
= = Career = =
In 1902 , Thom went to study with George F. Atkinson at Cornell University ; two colleagues included Benjamin Duggar and Herbert Hice Whetzel , who both later became noted botanists . Two years later , he accepted a position as dairy mycologist , working with Herbert William Conn , in charge of " cheese investigations " at the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station in Connecticut . He remained in this institution — a branch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) — holding various research and administrative positions , until his retirement in 1942 . During his employment there , Thom investigated the process of cheese ripening and sought to understand the composition of the microbiological flora required for imparting certain flavors on cheeses . Through this work he isolated and identified the fungi Penicillium camemberti and Penicillium roqueforti .
In 1914 , Thom became the Chief of the Microbiological Laboratory at the USDA Bureau of Chemistry , where his job was to study problems with the handling and processing of foods , and to enforce the Pure Food and Drug Act , a United States federal law that mandated federal inspection of food products . Known for his dedication to maintaining high standards in the food industry , he relished arguing court cases " in defense of sanitary practices in the handling and processing of perishable foods " . In one noted case involving the adulteration of tomato catsup , he presented partially rotten tomatoes to the jury , and , concluding his testimony , asked them " Should the American people have to eat these in their catsup ? "
During his time at the USDA , Thom became a world authority on the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium . Thom pioneered the technique of using defined , reproducible culture media to grow microorganisms ; most of the taxa he described are still valid today . Together with Margaret B. Church , Thom maintained collections of fungus cultures for the American Type Culture Collection , established in 1925 . In 1929 , a year after discovering penicillin , Alexander Fleming published a well @-@ known paper in which he identified the mold Penicillium rubrum as the one responsible for creating the drug . Harold Raistrick succeeded in growing the organism on a simple culture medium , but could not isolate the penicillin produced by the mold when grown this way . With Thom 's assistance , they correctly identified the organism as Penicillium notatum and , in 1941 , developed a method to scale up production at the Department of Agriculture 's Northern Regional Research Laboratory in Peoria , Illinois , which ultimately resulted in an inexpensive supply of the drug .
Thom 's work with the food chemist James N. Currie in 1916 – 17 enabled them to develop a process to mass @-@ produce citric acid using Aspergillus , and a few years later , the first large @-@ scale mold fermentation factory had been established in Brooklyn , New York . This early work ultimately led to the Department of Agriculture 's establishing four Regional Research Laboratories in 1938 that were devoted to industrial mold fermentations .
Thom held his job with the Bureau of Chemistry until 1927 , when the position was abolished . He was then appointed Principal Mycologist of the Division of Soil Microbiology for the newly created Bureau of Chemistry and Soils . In a few years , Thom became known as an authority on soil microbiology , and was often invited to present papers at national and international meetings . In one of Thom 's important contributions to the field , he led the research group responsible for advances that enabled the control of cotton root rot , which at the time was a major problem in the southwestern United States . In collaboration with his protégé Kenneth Raper , they published the Manual of Penicillin in 1940 . Thom formally retired in 1942 , although he remained active as a consultant and guest speaker until shortly before his death .
= = Memberships and honors = =
Thom was the U.S. Delegate to the 1905 International Dairy Congress held in Paris , France . He helped establish a graduate education program at the USDA . In 1907 , he became a charter member of the Dairy Association of America , and in 1918 , was appointed President of the Bacteriological Association of Washington . He attended the 1935 International Soil Congress in Oxford , England and was Vice President of the 1939 International Microbiological Congress in New York . He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences , a charter member of the Mycological Society of America , and president of the Society of American Bacteriologists in 1940 and the Society of Industrial Microbiology in 1950 . Thom was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Science degree by Lake Forest College in 1936 . For his work on penicillin , he and his research group received the Lasker Group Award in 1946 , and the USDA Distinguished Service Award in 1947 . The same year , he received a gold medal from the Spanish National Research Council for his contributions to microbiology and medicine .
= = Described taxa = =
= = Selected publications = =
Thom , Charles ( 1906 ) " Fungi in cheese ripening ; Camembert and Roquefort " in USDA Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 82 pp. 1 – 39
Thom , Charles ( 1910 ) " Cultural studies of species of Penicillium " in USDA Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 118 pp. 1 – 109
Thom , Charles ; Currie , James N. ( 1916 ) " Aspergillus niger group " in Journal of Agricultural Research 7 : 1 pp. 1 – 15
Thom , Charles ; Church , Margaret B. ( 1918 ) . " Aspergillus fumigatus , A. nidulans , A. terreus n. sp. and their allies " . American Journal of Botany 5 ( 2 ) : 84 – 104 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2435130 .
Thom , Charles ; Church , Margaret B. ( 1921 ) . " Aspergillus flavus , A. oryzae and associated species " . American Journal of Botany 8 ( 2 ) : 103 – 126 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2435149 .
Thom , Charles ; Hunter , Albert Clayton ( 1924 ) . " Hygienic Fundamentals of Food Handling " 228 pp .
Thom , Charles ; Church , Margaret B. ( 1926 ) . " The Aspergilli " . 272 pp .
Thom , Charles ( 1930 ) . " The Penicillia " . 644 pp .
Thom , Charles ( 1954 ) . " The evolution of species concepts in Aspergillus and Penicillium " . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 60 : 24 – 34 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1749 @-@ 6632.1954.tb39995.x.
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= Last voyage of the Karluk =
The last voyage of the Karluk , flagship of the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913 – 16 , ended with the loss of the ship and the subsequent deaths of nearly half her complement . On her outward voyage in August 1913 , Karluk , a brigantine formerly used as a whaler , became trapped in the Arctic ice while sailing to a rendezvous point at Herschel Island . After a long drift across the Beaufort and Chukchi seas , the ship was crushed and sunk . In the ensuing months , the crew and expedition staff struggled to survive , first on the ice and later on the shores of Wrangel Island . In all , eleven men died before help could reach them .
The Canadian Arctic Expedition was organised under the leadership of Canadian @-@ born anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson , and had both scientific and geographic objectives . Shortly after Karluk was trapped , Stefansson and a small party left the ship , stating that they intended to hunt for caribou . As Karluk drifted from her fixed position it became impossible for the hunting party to return to the ship . Stefansson reached land and then devoted himself to the expedition 's other objectives , leaving the crew and staff on board the ship under the charge of its captain , Robert Bartlett . After the sinking , Bartlett organised a march to Wrangel Island , 80 miles ( 130 km ) away . Conditions on the ice were difficult and dangerous ; two parties of four men each were lost in the attempt to reach the island .
After the survivors had landed , Bartlett and an Inuk companion set out across the ice for the Siberian coast , in search of help . The pair eventually reached Alaska , but sea ice conditions prevented any immediate rescue mission . On Wrangel Island , the stranded party survived by hunting game , but were short of food and troubled by internal dissent . Before their rescue in September 1914 , three more of the party had died , two of illness and one in violent circumstances .
Historians have divided views on Stefansson 's decision to leave the ship . Some of the voyage 's survivors were critical of his seeming indifference to their ordeal and the loss of their comrades . He escaped official censure , and was publicly honoured for his later work on the expedition despite the Canadian government 's reservations about its overall management . Although Bartlett was criticised by an admiralty commission for taking Karluk into the ice , he was hailed as a hero by the public and by his former Karluk shipmates .
= = Canadian Arctic Expedition = =
= = = Background = = =
The Canadian Arctic Expedition was the brainchild of Vilhjalmur Stefansson , a US @-@ based , Canadian @-@ born anthropologist of Icelandic extraction who had spent most of the years between 1906 and 1912 studying Inuit life in the remote Arctic Canada . His fieldwork had resulted in the first detailed information on the life and culture of the Copper Inuit , the so @-@ called " blond Eskimos " . Stefansson had returned home with plans for another expedition to continue his Arctic studies , and obtained promises of financial backing totalling US $ 45 @,@ 000 ( around US $ 750 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) from the National Geographic Society ( NGS ) in Washington and the American Museum of Natural History in New York . However , he wanted to extend his plans to include geographical exploration in the Beaufort Sea , then a blank space on the world 's maps . For these expanded aims he needed more money , and approached the Canadian government for assistance .
The area known as the " High Arctic " was subject to claims of sovereignty not only from Canada , but also from Norway and the United States . The Canadian government was concerned that an American @-@ financed expedition would give the United States a legal claim to any new land discovered in the Beaufort Sea , so when the Canadian prime minister Robert Borden met Stefansson in Ottawa in February 1913 he offered to assume financial responsibility for the entire expedition . Borden 's government was hopeful that the expedition would strengthen Canada 's claim to sovereignty over the Arctic islands . The American sponsors agreed to withdraw , subject to an NGS condition that the Society could reclaim its rights to the expedition if Stefansson failed to depart by June 1913 . This created a narrow deadline and hurried preparations for the journey north , although Stefansson maintained in his 1921 account that " forethought appeared to have anticipated every eventuality " .
= = = Objectives and strategy = = =
The Canadian government 's financial involvement represented a shift in the expedition 's emphasis , towards geographical exploration rather than the original purpose of ethnological and scientific studies . In a letter to the Canadian Victoria Daily Times , Stefansson set out these separate aims . The main object was to explore the " area of a million or so square miles that is represented by white patches on our map , lying between Alaska and the North Pole " . The expedition also aimed to be the most comprehensive scientific study of the Arctic ever attempted . While a Northern Party searched for new lands , a mainly land @-@ based Southern Party under zoologist Rudolph Anderson would carry out surveys and anthropological studies in the islands off the northern Canadian coast .
The Northern Party 's ship , Karluk , would proceed north from the Canadian coast until it either found land or was stopped by ice . It would explore any land it encountered ; otherwise it would follow the ice edge eastward and attempt to winter at either Banks Island or Prince Patrick Island . If the ship was trapped in the ice and forced to drift , the party would study the direction of Arctic currents and carry out oceanographic research . Meanwhile , Rudolph Anderson 's party was expected to continue with the anthropological studies of the " blond Eskimo " , to collect varieties of Arctic flora and fauna , to carry out geological research , and to seek open @-@ water channels in the hope of establishing new trade routes .
= = = Organisation and personnel = = =
Stefansson 's plan was to take the expedition to the old whaling station at Herschel Island off the Canadian Arctic coast , where the final composition of the Northern and Southern Parties would be decided and where equipment and supplies would be divided among the different strands of the venture . The haste to meet the NGS deadline led to concerns among the expedition 's members about the adequacy of the provision of food , clothing and equipment . Stefansson , who was largely absent in the hectic weeks immediately before sailing and who revealed few of his plans to his team , dismissed such concerns as " impertinent and disloyal " . There were disputes between Stefansson and the scientists over the chain of command ; the Canadian Geological Survey , which had provided four scientists to the expedition , wanted these men to report to them rather than to Stefansson . Southern Party leader Rudolph Anderson threatened to resign over Stefansson 's claim to the publication rights of all private expedition journals .
The scientific team , made up of some of the most distinguished men in their fields , included representatives from the United States , Denmark , Norway and France , as well as from Britain and its Empire . Only two , however , had previous polar experience : Alistair Forbes Mackay , the expedition 's medical officer , had visited Antarctica with Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Nimrod expedition in 1907 – 09 , and had been one of the party of three to discover the location of the South Magnetic Pole . Another Nimrod veteran , the 46 @-@ year @-@ old James Murray , was Stefansson 's oceanographer . Among the younger scientists were William Laird McKinlay ( 1889 – 1983 ) , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old science teacher from Glasgow who was recommended by the Scottish explorer William Speirs Bruce , and Bjarn Mamen ( 1893 – 1914 ) , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old skiing champion from Christiania , Norway , who was taken on as a forester , despite lacking scientific experience .
Stefansson had wanted American whaling skipper Christian Theodore Pedersen to captain Karluk , the ship designated for the Northern Party . When Pedersen withdrew , the captaincy was offered to 36 @-@ year @-@ old Newfoundland @-@ born Robert Bartlett , an experienced polar navigator who had commanded Robert Peary 's ship on the latter 's 1909 polar expedition . Bartlett did not have time , however , to select Karluk 's crew , which was hurriedly assembled from around the Royal Navy Dockyard at Esquimalt in British Columbia . McKinlay later wrote of the crew that " one was a confirmed drug addict ... another suffered from venereal disease ; and in spite of orders that no liquor was to be carried , at least two smuggled supplies on board . " McKinlay worried that this crew might lack the qualities and character necessary in the arduous months ahead , concerns shared by Bartlett , whose first act on arrival in Esquimalt was to fire the first officer for incompetence . In his place he appointed the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Alexander " Sandy " Anderson .
= = = Ships = = =
Karluk had been chosen by Pedersen and bought by Stefansson for the bargain price of US $ 10 @,@ 000 . Stefansson was advised by Pedersen that , of four ships that were available , Karluk was " the soundest and best adapted for our purpose " , but Bartlett had deep reservations about her fitness for prolonged Arctic service . The ship , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old brigantine , was 129 feet ( 39 m ) in length with a beam of 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) . She had been built for the Aleutian fishing industry ( karluk is the Aleut word for " fish " ) and later converted for whaling , when her bows and sides had been sheathed with 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) Australian ironwood . Despite 14 arctic whaling voyages , including six overwinterings , she had not been built to withstand sustained ice pressure , and lacked the engine power to force a passage through the ice . She did not match the expectations of Bartlett , or of many of the more experienced crew .
The ship spent most of April and May 1913 undergoing repairs and refitting at the dockyard in Esquimalt . When Bartlett arrived in early June he immediately ordered further repair work . In addition to Karluk , Stefansson had purchased sight unseen a small gasoline @-@ driven schooner , Alaska , to act as a supply ship for the Southern Party . He later added a second schooner , Mary Sachs , when the hold space in Alaska proved inadequate . In the confusion surrounding the expedition 's departure , McKinlay notes , no attempt was made to align men or equipment to their appropriate ships . Thus anthropologists Henri Beuchat and Diamond Jenness , both designated for the Southern Party , found themselves sailing with Karluk , while their equipment was on board Alaska . McKinlay himself , aboard Karluk as magnetic observer , discovered that most of his equipment was with Alaska . Stefansson insisted that all would be sorted out when the ships reached their Herschel Island rendezvous . " Heaven help us all if we failed to reach Herschel Island " , McKinlay wrote .
= = = Towards Herschel Island = = =
Karluk left Esquimalt on 17 June 1913 , sailing north towards Alaska . The immediate destination was Nome , on the coast of the Bering Sea . There was trouble from the beginning with the steering gear and with the engines , both of which needed frequent attention . On 2 July Karluk reached the Bering Sea in mist , fog and rapidly falling temperatures ; six days later she arrived at Nome where she joined Alaska and Mary Sachs . While the ships were being loaded in Nome , some of the scientists pressed for a meeting with the leader to clarify plans , particularly with regard to the Northern Party whose schedule was vague . The meeting was unsatisfactory . Stefansson 's attitude offended several of the men , some of whom threatened to leave the expedition . They had read press reports in which Stefansson had apparently said that he expected Karluk to be crushed , and that the lives of the staff were secondary to the scientific work . Stefansson would not explain these matters , nor give further details of his plans for the Northern Party . Despite the scientists ' alarm and dissatisfaction , none resigned .
At Port Clarence , just north of Nome , 28 dogs were taken on board before Karluk sailed north on 27 July . The next day she crossed the Arctic Circle , and almost immediately encountered rough weather which resulted in flooded cabins and seasickness . However , McKinlay noted that " whatever defects she had , Karluk was proving herself a fine sea @-@ boat . " On 31 July they reached Point Hope , where two Inuit hunters , known as " Jerry " and " Jimmy " , joined the ship . On 1 August the permanent Arctic ice pack was seen ; Bartlett made several attempts to breach the ice , but each time was forced back . On 2 August , about 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Point Barrow , Karluk thrust her way into the ice but was soon trapped , and drifted slowly eastward for three days before reaching open water off Cape Smythe . Meanwhile , Stefansson had left to travel over the ice to Point Barrow . He rejoined the ship at Cape Smythe on 6 August , bringing with him Jack Hadley , a veteran trapper who required passage east . Hadley , a long @-@ time acquaintance of Stefansson 's , was entered in the ship 's books as carpenter .
At Cape Smythe two more Inuit hunters , Keraluk and Kataktovik , joined the expedition , together with Keraluk 's family — wife Keruk and their two young daughters Helen and Mugpi . As the voyage proceeded , Bartlett became increasingly anxious about the extent of ice in the area , and noted that the brass stemplates on the ship 's bow had already been damaged . Over the next few days Karluk struggled to make headway , as Bartlett took the ship northwards away from the coast , following channels of open water . The only scientific tasks of substance that could be carried out during this period were Murray 's dredging operations , through which he collected many species of Arctic sea life , and the regular depth soundings . On 13 August Bartlett calculated their position as 235 miles ( 378 km ) east of Point Barrow , with a similar distance to travel to Herschel Island . However , this proved to be the ship 's farthest point east , as at that position she became firmly trapped in the ice and began to move slowly westward ; by 10 September Karluk had retreated nearly 100 miles ( 160 km ) back towards Point Barrow . Shortly afterwards , Stefansson informed Bartlett that all hopes for further progress that year had ended , and that Karluk would have to winter in the ice .
= = In the ice = =
= = = Drifting west = = =
On 19 September , with Karluk ice @-@ bound and largely stationary , Stefansson announced that in view of the shortage of fresh meat and the likelihood of a long sojourn in the ice , he would lead a small hunting party that would search for caribou and other game in the area of the Colville River . He would take with him the two Inuit " Jimmy " and " Jerry " , the expedition secretary Burt McConnell , the photographer George Wilkins , and the anthropologist Diamond Jenness . Stefansson expected to be gone for about ten days ; Bartlett was instructed by letter that , if the ship should move from its present position , he should " send a party ashore , to erect one or more beacons giving information of the ship 's whereabouts . " The next day the six men departed . On 23 September , following a blizzard , the ice floe in which Karluk was trapped began to move , and soon the ship was travelling at between 30 and 60 miles ( 48 and 97 km ) a day — but to the west , steadily further from Herschel Island and from Stefansson 's party who , it soon became clear , would not be able to find their way back to the ship .
In an unpublished journal and later correspondence , McKinlay suggested that Stefansson 's departure amounted to abandoning the ship to its fate . The expedition 's historian S.E. Jenness ( son of Diamond Jenness ) rejects this view , pointing out that Stefansson and the hunting party members had left valuable property aboard Karluk ; a possible motive for the trip , Jenness surmises , was to train the younger staff . The anthropologist Gísli Pálsson , writing of the expedition , asserts that while the anger of Bartlett and the crew is understandable , there is no evidence that Stefansson deliberately abandoned the men . It is arguable , Pálsson says , that Stefansson acted responsibly in attempting to secure a supply of fresh meat which would counter the possibility of scurvy , should Karluk be trapped in the ice for a long time . The historian Richard Diubaldo writes " The evidence suggests that this was a normal hunting trip " and " ... there is strong evidence to suggest he [ Stefansson ] wished he had never left [ the ship ] " .
The constant snow and thick mists made it difficult for Bartlett to calculate the Karluk 's position accurately , although during a brief break in the weather on 30 September they glimpsed land which they took to be Cooper Island , in the vicinity of Point Barrow where they had been at the start of August . On 3 October the anxiety of crew and staff increased when , with Point Barrow just 5 miles ( 8 km ) distant , the drift turned northwards , away from the land . There were fears among some that Karluk would repeat the experience of the Jeannette , an American vessel that 30 years previously had drifted in the Arctic ice for months before sinking , with the subsequent loss of most of her crew . Bartlett became aware that Murray and McKay , the two veterans of Shackleton 's Nimrod expedition , were openly contemptuous of their captain 's leadership . They were making plans to leave the ship at an appropriate time , and head for land on their own .
As the weather grew worse Bartlett ordered supplies and equipment to be transferred on to the ice , both to lighten the ship and as a precaution should it be necessary to abandon the vessel in a hurry . Food supplies were augmented by seal hunts — two or three seals a day was the average bag , according to McKinlay — and by a single polar bear that had wandered near the ship in mid @-@ November . On 15 November Karluk reached 73 ° N , the most northerly point of its drift , and then began moving south @-@ west , in the general direction of the Siberian coast . By mid @-@ December the estimated position was 140 miles ( 230 km ) from Wrangel Island . Despite the bleak outlook — Bartlett was privately convinced that Karluk would not survive the winter — a determined effort was made to celebrate Christmas , with decorations , presents , a programme of sports on the ice , and a banquet . By then they were just 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of Herald Island , a rocky outpost east of Wrangel Island ; on 29 December land was visible in the distance , though whether this was Herald Island or Wrangel Island was not clear . The sighting of land briefly raised morale , but in the New Year the ice began breaking up and forming pressure ridges . Over the next few days , wrote McKinlay , " the twanging , drumming , ominous ice sounds got louder and nearer . "
= = = Sinking = = =
Early in the morning of 10 January 1914 , McKinlay records , " a severe shudder shook the whole ship " as the ice attacked the hull . Bartlett , still hoping to save his ship , gave orders to lighten her by removing all accumulated snow from the decks . He also ordered all hands to have warm clothing ready . At 6 @.@ 45 in the evening a loud bang indicated that the hull had been punctured ; Bartlett went immediately to the engine room and observed water pouring in through a gash 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) long . There was no possibility that the pumps could deal with the inflow , and the captain gave the order to abandon ship . Weather conditions , says McKinlay , could hardly have been worse , but the crew and staff worked throughout the night , in pitch darkness and driving snow , to add to the quantities of rations and equipment already stashed on the ice . Bartlett remained on board until the last moments , playing loud music on the ship 's Victrola . At 3 : 15 p.m. on 11 January , Bartlett put on Chopin 's Funeral March as a final salute to the ship , and stepped off . Karluk sank within minutes , her yardarms snapping off as she disappeared through the narrow hole in the ice . McKinlay took stock of the stranded party : 22 men , one woman , two children , 16 dogs and a cat .
= = = Shipwreck Camp = = =
Bartlett 's decision to deposit stores on the ice ensured that an ice camp , known as " Shipwreck Camp " , was more or less established by the time Karluk sank . Two shelters had been built , one a snow igloo with a canvas roof , the other constructed from packing cases . To the latter was added a kitchen with a large stove rescued from Karluk 's engine room . A small , separate shelter was built for the five Inuit , and a rough perimeter created from coal bags and assorted containers . In McKinlay 's words , the camp provided " substantial and comfortable houses on which we could rely for shelter for a long time . " Stores were plentiful , and the party was able to eat well . Much of the time in the first days of the camp was spent preparing and adjusting clothing and sleeping gear , in readiness for the forthcoming march to Wrangel Island . The ice drift was slowly moving the camp in the direction of the island , but as yet there was insufficient daylight to attempt the march .
Amid this activity Mackay and Murray , now joined by the anthropologist Henri Beuchat , played little part in the general life of the camp and expressed their determination to leave it , independently , as soon as possible . Bartlett wanted to wait for the longer daylight hours of February before attempting the march , but was persuaded by McKinlay and Mamen to send a trailbreaking group to set up an advance camp on Wrangel Island . A party of four , led by Karluk 's first officer Alexander Anderson and including crew members Charles Barker , John Brady and Edmund Golightly , left Shipwreck Camp on 21 January with instructions from Bartlett to establish their camp at or near Berry Point on the north shore of Wrangel Island . On 4 February Bjarn Mamen , who accompanied the party as a scout , returned to Shipwreck Camp and reported that he had left the group a few miles short of land that was evidently not Wrangel Island , and was probably Herald Island , 38 miles ( 61 km ) from their intended destination . This was the last sighting of Anderson 's party ; their ultimate fate was not established until ten years later , when their remains were found on Herald Island .
= = = March to Wrangel Island = = =
Bartlett decided to send a team back to establish the exact location of the island that the Anderson party had approached , and to determine if Anderson had actually landed there . An injury to his knee ruled Mamen out from this mission , which was undertaken by ship 's steward Ernest Chafe , with the Inuit pair , Kataktovik and Kuraluk . Chafe 's group came within 2 miles ( 3 km ) of Herald Island before being stopped by open water . A careful examination through binoculars revealed no signs of the missing party , and Chafe concluded that Anderson and company had not reached the island . Chafe and his party then returned to Shipwreck Camp .
Meanwhile , on 4 February , Mackay and his group ( Murray and Beuchat , joined by seaman Stanley Morris ) announced they were leaving the next day , to seek land . Mackay presented Bartlett with a letter dated 1 February that began : " We , the undersigned , in consideration of the present critical situation , desire to make an attempt to reach the land . " The letter requested appropriate supplies , and concluded by emphasising that the journey was on their own initiative and absolving Bartlett from all responsibilities . Bartlett allocated them a sledge , a tent , six gallons of oil , a rifle and ammunition and food for 50 days . They left on 5 February ; the last sighting of them was a few days later , by Chafe and the Inuit , returning from their abortive trip to Herald Island . They found Mackay 's party struggling to make headway , with some of their provisions lost and clothing and other equipment discarded to lighten their load . Beuchat in particular was in a distressed state , nearly delirious and in the throes of hypothermia . However , the party refused assistance and rejected Chafe 's pleas that they return with him to Shipwreck Camp . Thereafter the only hint of their fate was a sailor 's scarf belonging to Morris , later found buried in an ice floe . It was assumed that the four had either been crushed by the ice , or had fallen through it .
Bartlett 's party now consisted of eight Karluk crew members ( himself , engineers John Munro and Robert Williamson , seamen Hugh Williams and Fred Maurer , fireman George Breddy , cook Robert Templeman , and Chafe ) , three scientists ( McKinlay , Mamen and geologist George Malloch ) , John Hadley , and five Inuit ( the family of four and Kataktovik ) . Hadley , nearing 60 years of age , was one of the few , along with Bartlett and the Inuit , with experience of travelling for distances over ice . Bartlett sent his forces out , in groups , to blaze a trail and lay down supply depots on the route to Wrangel Island , thus preparing his inexperienced party for the hazards of ice travel . When he felt they were ready for the main journey he divided them into four teams and sent the first two away on 19 February . Bartlett himself led the last two groups from the camp on 24 February , leaving a note of the party 's location in a copper drum in case the camp should drift into an inhabited area . The distance to Wrangel Island was estimated at 40 miles ( 64 km ) , but the journey proved to be twice that in length .
The ice surface was very broken up , making travel slow and difficult . At first the parties were able to travel along a track that had been marked out by the advance parties . However , recent storms had destroyed much of the trail , and in places progress was held up by breaking ice which at one point almost wrecked Bartlett 's camp as his team slept . On 28 February all the parties came together in front of the first of a series of high ridges , from 25 to 100 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 to 30 @.@ 5 m ) in height , that halted their progress . These stretched east and west , blocking any route to the island . McKinlay , Hadley and Chafe were sent on a risky journey back to Shipwreck Camp to pick up supplies that had been left there , while the rest slowly chopped and cut a pathway through the towering ridges . When McKinlay 's group returned to the main party a week later , the path forward had been advanced by only three miles ( 5 km ) , but the worst of the ridges had been overcome . Hadley claimed that the ridges were worse than anything he had seen in his long years of Arctic experience . The later stages of the journey were easier , as the group travelled over steadily smoother ice , and on 12 March they reached land , a long spit of sand stretching out from the northern shores of Wrangel Island .
= = Bartlett 's journey = =
Bartlett 's initial plan had been for the group to rest briefly on Wrangel Island and then to move on together to the Siberian coast . However , because three men — Mamen , Malloch and Maurer — were injured , and others were weak and frostbitten , Bartlett decided that the main party should remain on the island while he went for help taking only Kataktovik . The pair started off on 18 March , with seven dogs and provisions for 48 days ( 30 days for the dogs ) , and took an extended route round the island 's southern shores to look for signs of Anderson 's or Mackay 's parties . After finding nothing , they headed across the ice towards Siberia , but progress was slow over a surface that was frequently shifting and breaking up to form leads of open water . More time was lost digging out their provisions from the steadily drifting snow . As they drew nearer to the mainland , Kataktovik became nervous ; he had heard that the Alaskan Inuit were disliked in Siberia by the native Chukchi people , and feared for his life . Bartlett did his best to reassure him as they moved slowly forward .
On 4 April the pair reached land near Cape Jakan , west of Cape North on the northern Siberian coast . The presence of sledge marks in the snow showed they had landed in an inhabited area . They followed these tracks for a day , before arriving at a small Chukchi village . Here , contrary to Kataktovik 's fears , they were received hospitably , and given shelter and food . On 7 April they set out for East Cape and the villages on the Bering coast . Bartlett had not previously experienced such relentlessly cold weather , with blizzards , hurricane @-@ force winds , and temperatures often below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) . On the way they passed through other Chukchi villages , where Bartlett traded goods for necessary supplies — he exchanged his Colt revolver for a young , strong dog . Bartlett was touched by the kindness and generosity shown by many of those they encountered on the way , " typical of the true humanity of these kindly people " . On 24 April they arrived at Emma Town , a settlement a few miles west of East Cape . Bartlett calculated that in the 37 days since leaving Wrangel Island , he and Kataktovik had travelled about 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) , all but the last stage on foot .
At Emma Town Bartlett met Baron Kleist , a distinguished Russian official who offered to take him to Emma Harbour on the coast , a week 's journey away , where he could look for a ship to Alaska . Bartlett accepted , and on 10 May , though still weak from his journey and an attack of tonsillitis , said goodbye to Kataktovik ( who was remaining for the time being in Emma Town ) , and set off with the baron . On the way they learned that Captain Pedersen was in the area . On 16 May they reached Emma Harbour ; five days later Pedersen arrived in the whaler Herman and , without delay , took Bartlett on board and set out for Alaska . They arrived off Nome on 24 May , but ice prevented them reaching the shore . After three days ' waiting they turned south , and landed at St Michael , where Bartlett was at last able to send a radio message to Ottawa informing the government of Karluk 's fate . He also made enquiries about the whereabouts of the United States revenue cutter Bear , which he saw as a possible rescue vessel for the stranded party .
= = On Wrangel Island = =
The landfall from Shipwreck Camp had been on the north side of Wrangel Island , at a spot which they named " Icy Spit " . Before his departure , Bartlett asked the party to set up several camps around the island , which would increase the hunting areas . The captain also felt that separation into smaller groups would assist general harmony by keeping incompatible characters apart . He wanted all groups to reassemble at Rodgers Harbor , on the south side of the island , about the middle of July .
However , dissension broke out almost immediately after Bartlett 's departure over the sharing of food . It had not been possible to drag all the supplies from Shipwreck Camp , and the trek had taken longer than expected ; consequently there were shortages of biscuit , pemmican ( a compound of dried meat , fat and sugar ) and dog food . There was little prospect of augmenting supplies by hunting birds and game until the weather improved in May or June . When Hadley and the Inuit , Kuraluk , returned from a seal hunt on the ice , Hadley was widely suspected of concealing the proceeds of the hunt for his own consumption ; the same pair were also accused of wasting scarce cooking oil . McKinlay records that the circumstances depressed morale and destroyed comradeship : " The misery and desperation of our situation multiplied every weakness , every quirk of personality , every flaw in character , a thousandfold . "
Two attempts were made to travel back to Shipwreck Camp to pick up extra food , but both failed , the second resulting in further losses of dogs and equipment . Chafe , whose feet had become gangrenous after severe frostbite , had his toes removed by second engineer Williamson , with improvised tools . McKinlay and Munro risked their lives by travelling over the sea ice towards Herald Island , in a final effort to locate either of the missing parties . They could get no nearer than 15 miles ( 24 km ) , and from an examination of the distant island through binoculars could see no indications of life .
Other health problems persisted ; Malloch 's frostbitten feet failed to heal , and Mamen 's knee , which he had dislocated during the days at Shipwreck Camp , troubled him continuously . A worrying illness began to affect many of the party , the general symptoms were swelling of the legs , ankles and other body parts , accompanied by acute lethargy . Malloch was the worst affected ; he died on 17 May , but his tent @-@ mate Mamen was too ill to see to his burial , so the body lay in the tent for several days , creating a " frightful smell " , until McKinlay arrived to help . Mamen himself died ten days later of the same debilitating disease .
From early June the diet was augmented with the appearance of birds . These birds and their eggs became a vital source of food ; as the supply of seal meat dwindled to nothing , the party was reduced to eating rotten flippers , hide , or any part of a seal that was remotely edible . The sharing of birds became another bone of contention ; according to Williamson " Wednesday last , [ Breddy and Chafe ] really obtained 6 eggs and 5 birds instead of 2 eggs and 4 birds as they reported . " Breddy was suspected of other thefts . On 25 June , after a gunshot was heard , Breddy was found dead in his tent . The circumstances of his death , whether accident , suicide or in Hadley 's view , murder ( with Williamson as the chief suspect ) could not be determined . Williamson later called Hadley 's suspicions " hallucinations and absolutely untrue . " Various items stolen from McKinlay were found among Breddy 's personal effects .
Despite the sombre outlook , the Canadian flag was raised at Rodgers Harbor on 1 July in honour of Dominion Day . Later in the month the party 's spirits improved when Kuraluk caught a 600 @-@ pound ( 270 kg ) walrus , which provided fresh meat for several days . As August came without sign of a ship and the weather began to turn wintry again , hopes of rescue fell ; the party began to prepare for another winter .
= = Rescue = =
The revenue cutter Bear arrived in St Michael , Alaska , midway through June . Her master , Captain Cochran , agreed to go to Wrangel Island as soon as he got permission from the United States government . It would be impossible , in any event , to attempt the rescue before mid @-@ July ; ice conditions in the Arctic that year were reported as severe . After receiving permission , Bear , with Bartlett aboard , left St Michael on 13 July ; the ship had many calls to make along the Alaskan coast before she could proceed with the rescue . On 5 August , at Port Hope , Bartlett met with Kataktovik and gave him his expedition wages and a new suit of clothing . At Point Barrow on 21 August Bartlett encountered Burt McConnell , Stefansson 's erstwhile secretary , who gave details of Stefansson 's movements after leaving Karluk the previous September . In April 1914 , McConnell reported , Stefansson had headed north with two companions , searching for new lands .
McConnell left Point Barrow for Nome aboard King and Winge , an American @-@ registered walrus hunter , while Bear finally sailed for Wrangel Island . On 25 August Bear was stopped by ice 20 miles ( 32 km ) from the island , and after failing to force a way through , Cochran had to return to Nome for more coal — a decision which , says Bartlett , gave him " days to try a man 's soul " . Back in Nome Bartlett met Olaf Swenson , who had chartered King and Winge for the season and was about to sail for Siberia . Bartlett requested that , if possible , King and Winge stop by Wrangel Island and look for the stranded Karluk party . Bear left Nome on 4 September , a few days after Swenson 's ship . King and Winge , with McConnell still aboard , reached Wrangel Island on 7 September . That morning the group at Rodgers Harbor were awakened early in the morning by the sound of a ship 's whistle , and found King and Winge lying a quarter of a mile offshore . They were rapidly transferred to the ship , which then picked up the remainder of the stranded party who were camped along the coast at Cape Waring . By the afternoon all 14 survivors were aboard .
After a futile attempt to approach Herald Island , the ship began the journey back to Alaska ; next day she encountered Bear , with Bartlett aboard . McConnell records that the party were unanimous in their desire to remain with the ship that had effected their rescue , but Bartlett ordered them aboard Bear . Before returning to Alaska , Bear made a final attempt to reach Herald Island ; ice limited their approach to 12 miles ( 19 km ) , and they saw no signs of life . The reunited party arrived at Nome on 13 September , to a great welcome from the local population .
= = Aftermath = =
Bartlett , celebrated as a hero by press and public , was honoured for " outstanding bravery " by the Royal Geographical Society . However , he was later censured by an admiralty commission for taking Karluk into the ice , and for allowing Mackay 's party to leave the main group — despite the letter that Mackay and the others had signed , absolving the captain from responsibility . Stefansson , too , was privately critical of Bartlett 's conduct . Bartlett resumed his career at sea , and over the next 30 years led many more excursions to the Arctic . During the Second World War he carried out surveying and supply work for the Allies ; he died , aged 70 , in April 1946 . His account of the Karluk disaster , published in 1916 , makes no direct criticism of Stefansson or anyone else ; Niven records , however , that to his friends Bartlett was highly uncomplimentary about his former leader .
In 1918 Stefansson returned after four years ' absence , reporting the discovery of three new islands . He was honoured by the National Geographical Society , received tributes from polar veterans such as Peary and Adolphus Greely , and was given the presidency of the Explorers Club of New York . In Canada his reception was more muted ; there were questions relating to the overall costs of the expedition , its poor initial organisation , and his handling of the Southern Party which , under Rudolph Anderson , completed its work independently of Stefansson . Anderson and other members of the Southern Party later petitioned the Canadian government to investigate statements made by Stefansson in his 1921 book The Friendly Arctic , which they felt reflected poorly on their honour . The request was declined on the ground that " no good could come of the enquiry . " In his book Stefansson takes responsibility for the " bold " decision to take Karluk into the ice rather than hugging the coast on the way to Herschel Island , and accepts that he " chose the wrong alternative " . However , McKinlay felt that the book gave an inaccurate account of the Karluk voyage and its consequences , " putting the blame ... on everyone but Vilhjalmur Stefansson . " The historian Tom Henighan believes that McKinlay 's biggest complaint against his leader was that " Stefansson never at any time seemed able to express an appropriate sorrow over his lost men . " Stefansson , who never returned to the Arctic , died in 1962 at the age of 82 .
The fate of First Officer Alexander Anderson 's party remained unknown until 1924 , when an American vessel landed at Herald Island and found human remains , with supplies of food , clothing , ammunition and equipment . From these artefacts it was established that this was Anderson 's party . No cause of death was established , though the plentiful unconsumed supplies ruled out starvation . One theory was that the tent had blown away in a storm and that the party had frozen to death . Another was carbon monoxide poisoning within the tent .
The mystery illness which affected most of the Wrangel Island party and accelerated the deaths of Malloch and Mamen was later diagnosed as a form of nephritis brought about by eating faulty pemmican . Stefansson explained this by saying that " our pemmican makers has failed us through supplying us with a product deficient in fat . " Peary had emphasised that a polar explorer should " give his personal , constant and insistent attention " to the making of his pemmican ; McKinlay believed that Stefansson had devoted too much time selling the idea of the expedition , and too little ensuring the quality of the food that its members would depend upon .
Of the survivors , Hadley continued working for the Canadian Arctic Expedition , becoming second officer and later master of the supply ship Polar Bear . He died of influenza , in San Francisco in 1918 . Hadley and McConnell wrote accounts of their experiences for Stefansson , who incorporated them in The Friendly Arctic . Chafe also wrote and published a short account . Most of the others quickly returned to relative obscurity , but in 1922 Fred Maurer was persuaded by Stefansson to join an attempt to colonise Wrangel Island . To the embarrassment of the Canadian government , Stefansson insisted on going ahead , even though Wrangel Island was indisputably part of what had then become the Soviet Union . A party of five , including Maurer , was sent to the island ; only one , an Inuit woman Ada Blackjack , survived . Despite their ordeal , many of the Karluk survivors lived long lives ; Williamson , who declined to speak or write of his experiences in the Arctic , lived to be 97 , dying in Victoria , Canada , in 1975 . McKinlay died in 1983 , aged 95 , having published his account of the expedition in 1976 . Kuraluk , Kuruk and their daughters , Helen and Mugpi , returned to their former life at Point Barrow . The two girls , says Pálsson , had provided " important sources of cheer at the darkest moments . " Mugpi , who later was known as Ruth Makpii Ipalook , became the very last survivor of the Karluk voyage , dying in 2008 after a full life , aged 97 .
= = Published voyage accounts = =
Six first @-@ hand accounts of Karluk 's last voyage have been published . These include Stefansson 's account which only covers the June to September 1913 period . Expedition secretary Burt McConnell wrote an account of the Wrangel Island rescue which was published in The New York Times , 15 September 1914 . A version of McConnell 's account appears in Stefansson 's book .
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= Ebenezer Avery House =
The Ebenezer Avery House was originally located on Latham Street and Thames Street in Groton , Connecticut , United States . The date of the house 's construction is unknown , but it is believed to be from the 1760s and it was the house of Ebenezer Avery . The Ebenezer Avery House was the location where the British brought the injured soldiers after the Battle of Groton Heights on September 6 , 1781 . In 1971 , the house was moved to Fort Griswold Battlefield State Park in Groton and restored . Though it stands in a state park , the historic house museum continues to be maintained by the Avery Memorial Association .
= = History = =
Constructed around the 1760s , the Ebenezer Avery House is a 10 @-@ room house was owned by Ensign Ebenezer Avery . It was originally located on Latham Street and Thames Street in Groton , Connecticut . Avery was a tailor that answered the call for battle on September 6 , 1781 and went to defend of Fort Griswold from British attack . The Battle of Groton Heights ended with the American defeat and the deaths of its leader , Lieutenant Colonel William Ledyard and resulted in nearly 100 families being left homeless and much of the town 's waterfront .
Part of the Ebenezer Avery House history is how it came to be used after the battle while its owner was absent . Some of the wounded from the battle , those unable to walk , including Stephen Hempstead , were taken prisoner and placed on a wagon with others to be taken down to the fleet . The British men allowed the wagon to run down the hill , where it stopped when it struck a tree , throwing some of the men off the wagon and aggravated their injuries .
The wounded were set upon the beach in preparation for the boat trip to New York , but Ebenezer Ledyard , the brother of William Ledyard , offered himself as hostage . The British took the wounded to Ebenezer Avery 's house and placed Ebenezer Avery and other wounded inside and had them " parolled " . The house was later set on fire with the men inside and " with difficulty extinguished " . In the battle , Avery was shot in the neck " which cut the cords , and left him senseless as one of the dead . " Hempstead said that thirty @-@ five men had been laid upon the floor and the British left them , unattended and uncovered , until Dr. Downer and Dr. Prentiss arrived . Ebenezer Avery recovered , but lost his hearing , and continued to live in the house until his death on January 11 , 1828 at age 81 . The blood stains were still visible at the time of the centennial of the battle in 1881 , but no longer are present . In 1896 , the Thomas Starr Society placed a memorial tablet on the site .
= = Move and restoration = =
In 1970 , the Ebenezer Avery House was in danger of being torn down to construct apartments and it was purchased by R. Stanton Avery . R. Stanton Avery purchased the property with the intention of turning it over to the Avery Memorial Association . Edwin Park , an architect , assessed the house as in need of extensive reconstruction and the association discussed the plan to move the house to Fort Griswold Battlefield State Park . A meeting held on the association on July 24 , 1971 , was held to discuss the movement plan which involved disassembling and reassembling the house at its new location . The project to move the house was a shared cost between R. Stanton Avery and the Avery Memorial Association . By the 1972 meeting , the total cost of the relocation was $ 43 @,@ 000 and the act provoked interest from the State of Connecticut . The house was donated to the State of Connecticut for use as a historic house museum .
In 1973 , the association debated over the sale of land to cover costs of restoring and maintaining the Ebenezer Avery House . The total cost of the move was listed at $ 80 @,@ 000 with an expected $ 3000 per year and the intention was to serve have enough income generated by interest to cover the cost of the house . The Association owned 1 @.@ 3 acres , but would reserve the .3 acre upon which the Avery Monument is located . In May 1975 , the Ebenezer Avery House was opened after being restored to its " original condition " and filled with period items including Lieutenant Ebenezer Avery 's sword , a cousin of Ensign Ebenezer Avery , killed in the Battle of Groton Heights . According to Leary , bricks from the Fitz @-@ John Winthrop house , located in Bluff Point State Park were reclaimed and used to reconstruct the chimney of the Ebenezer Avery House . Fitz @-@ John Winthrop 's house was a sixteen room mansion that fell into disrepair before being destroyed by a fire in 1962 .
As of 2014 , the Ebenezer Avery House is opened from Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day weekend from 12 : 00 p.m. to 4 : 00 p.m. on Fridays , Saturdays and Sundays .
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= Goodman Beaver =
Goodman Beaver is a comics character created by American cartoonist Harvey Kurtzman . Goodman is a naive and optimistic Candide @-@ like character , oblivious to the corruption and degeneration around him , and whose stories were vehicles for biting social satire and pop culture parody . Except for the character 's first appearance , which Kurtzman did alone , the stories were written by Kurtzman and drawn by Will Elder .
Goodman first appeared in a story in Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book in 1959 ; the best @-@ remembered were the five strips the Kurtzman – Elder team produced in 1961 – 62 for the Kurtzman @-@ edited magazine Help ! They tend to be in the parodic style Kurtzman developed when he wrote and edited Mad in the 1950s , but with more pointed , adult @-@ oriented satire and much more refined and detailed artwork on Elder 's part , filled with numerous visual gags .
The best @-@ known of the Goodman Beaver stories is " Goodman Goes Playboy " ( 1962 ) . A satire on the hedonistic lifestyle of Hugh Hefner using parodies of Archie comics characters , whose publisher threatened a lawsuit . The issue was settled out of court , and the copyright for the story passed to Archie Comics . Hefner , the actual target of the strip , found it amusing . Kurtzman and Elder developed a female version of Goodman Beaver for Playboy magazine called Little Annie Fanny ( 1962 – 88 ) .
= = Overview = =
Goodman Beaver is a naïve and optimistic character , oblivious to the degeneration around him . According to Kurtzman , the character was partially inspired by Voltaire 's Candide and Harold Gray 's comic strip character Little Orphan Annie , who , like Goodman , was drawn with blank circles for eyes . Art critic Greil Marcus compares Goodman to Young Goodman Brown in Nathaniel Hawthorne 's tale of the same name — both are pure @-@ souled characters who become disillusioned by the depravity they confront in the world .
Kurtzman wrote five Goodman Beaver stories for his long @-@ time collaborator Will Elder . Most of the stories were in the parodic style Kurtzman had developed as the creator , editor , and writer of Mad , but dealt with more significant issues concerning modernity . Published in the Kurtzman @-@ edited Help ! in the early 1960s , they were drawn in Elder 's " chickenfat " style , in which he crammed every panel with humorous detail and throwaway gags . Elder cited the Flemish Pieter Bruegel the Elder and the Spanish Diego Velázquez as influences on this style .
= = Stories = =
= = = " The Organization Man in the Gray Flannel Executive Suit " = = =
As an editor hired by Schlock Publications Inc . , Goodman loses his youthful idealism when awash in the sea of avarice and selfishness he encounters in the publishing world . In this story Kurtzman used his own personal experiences to satirize the corrupting influence of capitalism and power . Goodman finds himself groping the secretaries , just as the other cynical executives at Schlock do , and ends up stealing from the company .
Goodman was a semi @-@ autobiographical character , reflecting Kurtzman 's disillusioning experiences in the publishing industry . Kurtzman 's artwork is in an exaggerated cartoon style with round , fluid , elongated characters rendered with loose , fluid , and sketchy brushwork and gray wash . Dialogue is in an expressive , handwriting @-@ like style . Kurtzman blends the verbal and visual aspects of the work — for example , when an enraged Goodman Beaver confronts his diminutive boss Mr. Schlock , Goodman is graphically overwhelmed by Schlock 's word balloons , which demonstrates Goodman 's helpless subservience and Schlock 's effortless psychological dominance over his employees .
= = = " Goodman Meets T * rz * n " = = =
" Goodman Meets T * rz * n " first appeared in the September 1961 issue of Help ! , and was Elder 's first take on Goodman Beaver . Set against the backdrop of the fall of European colonialism in the face of the rise of African nationalism , such as in the Kenyan Mau @-@ Mau Uprising , and the spread of the Soviet sphere of influence , the story throws a modern 1960s spin on the romance of jungle adventure as exemplified by the Tarzan tales . Kurtzman sends up T * rz * n 's attitude of superiority , as when T * rz * n ( Tarzan ) confronts an African tribe , or when J * ne ( Jane ) gives T * rz * n basic English lessons .
Elder 's first efforts had Goodman depicted with more monkey @-@ like features — thick , black eyebrows , a large mouth , and small jaw and chin . Kurtzman and Elder desired to have a more " lovable " Goodman , so Elder reworked Goodman 's appearance in later stories , redrawing Goodman 's features to conform with this new look for later reprintings of the " Goodman Meets T * rz * n " story .
= = = " Goodman Goes Playboy " = = =
Help ! ' s most famous story was " Goodman Goes Playboy " , first published in the February 1962 issue of Help ! The story satirized Hugh Hefner and his lifestyle while parodying Archie comics in a much more outlandish way than Kurtzman 's parody " Starchie " in Mad a decade earlier . Kurtzman called this his favorite Goodman Beaver story , and said that Hefner would point people to it when he wanted to explain to people what Kurtzman 's work was about .
Goodman has returned to his hometown , and the Archie characters , home from college , are drinking , partying , skirt @-@ chasing hedonists . Jughead is a beatnik , and the others are leading glamorous lifestyles . Archie Andrews parody Archer explains to a behind @-@ the @-@ times Goodman , " You 've been away too long . Nowadays , the gang is interested mainly in hip @-@ ness — awareness " , rather than keeping up with how the football team is doing . Archer shows Goodman to his place , which must be entered through a staircase built into an enormous statue of a female abdomen . Archer leads Goodman to a Roman @-@ style orgy and has him change into a toga . The party is Archer 's last , as he reveals he has signed a pact with the Devil , and the debt ( Archer 's soul ) was due that night .
" Goodman Goes Playboy " appeared in altered form in the book collection Executive 's Comic Book in 1962 : in the orgy scene the exposed nipples were covered with white ink and the parody Archie characters were altered to obscure the resemblance to characters they were based on in a failed attempt to escape legal action from Archie 's publishers .
= = = " Goodman , Underwater " = = =
While trying to enjoy a book as he floats in a swim ring off a crowded beach , Goodman is interrupted by undersea adventurer Hammer Nelson , who invites Goodman to help him fight underwater crime . Don Quixote @-@ like , the overeager Nelson sees crime where there is none , interrupting swimmers and boaters at play . The pair set out to find a Russian submarine — and find one , but Nelson mistakes it for a monster to be subdued with his speargun . Goodman realizes Nelson 's insanity , abandons the adventurer , and returns to his book .
Framed within the story of Don Quixote , " Goodman , Underwater " satirizes Cold War tensions and sets out to deflate the deluded ideals of do @-@ gooders while parodying the 1960s television series Sea Hunt , which starred Lloyd Bridges as Mike Nelson . The illustrations that bookend the story are from 19th @-@ century French artist Gustave Doré 's Don Quixote illustrations . The story first appeared in Help ! # 14 ( May 1962 ) .
= = = " Goodman Meets S * perm * n " = = =
In " Goodman Meets S * perm * n " , Goodman stumbles across the superhero on a fishing trip . S * perm * n ( Superman ) has gone into hiding from society , sporting a beard and moccasins . He no longer has the desire to help a society he has lost faith in , and which criticizes him for his good deeds . Goodman takes him back to the city to prove that society is still full of good people . While in the city , Goodman encounters an old woman being attacked by a knife @-@ wielding maniac . Goodman flees in terror , but is stopped by S * perm * n who reveals himself as the old woman in disguise — he had been testing Goodman 's selflessness . S * perm * n is horrified and disappointed by the degeneration and corruption he sees in the city , and abandons society again .
First published in Help ! # 15 ( August 1962 ) , Elder described " Goodman Meets S * perm * n " and its detailed splash page as " Marx Brothers on paper . You never knew what to expect " , referring to the busy wealth of gags it was filled with . With artwork by Wally Wood , Kurtzman first parodied Superman in " Superduperman " in the fourth issue of Mad in 1953 .
= = = " Goodman Gets a Gun " = = =
Goodman attends a pool party in his hometown Riverdale , fresh from joining the police force . He spots the popular Liz Taylbone , with whom he had been smitten since high school , but he is too passive and timid to draw her attention . After watching a Marlon Brando movie on TV in the lounge he is infused with courage and returns to the party imitating Brando 's attitude and mannerisms . He draws the attention of Liz Taylbone and the crowd , but not for his Brando impression as he thinks — rather , they are impressed to learn that , as an off @-@ duty police officer , Goodman is carrying a pistol . The group coaxes him into going with them to a night club known for its rough clientele . When the rough crowd arrives , Goodman 's group expects the gun to serve as their protection — until Goodman lets them know his newfound self @-@ confidence drove him to quit the police force two hours earlier . The group abandons Goodman to a thrashing by the thugs .
" Goodman Gets a Gun " appeared first in Help ! # 16 ( November 1962 ) . It was the only Elder @-@ drawn story not to appear in the Executive 's Comic Book collection of 1962 .
= = Publication history = =
Goodman Beaver made his first appearance in Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book in 1959 , in " The Organization Man in the Gray Flannel Executive Suit " . Jungle Book was the first American book of original comics , a mass @-@ market paperback that was the first in a planned series . The book sold poorly , but has been a favorite among Kurtzman fans .
The first Elder @-@ drawn Goodman story appeared in Help ! # 12 in 1961 and was followed in 1962 with four more stories in Help ! # 13 – 16 . A Goodman Beaver collection called Executive 's Comic Book appeared in 1962 from Macfadden Books . In this paperback collection of four stories — " Goodman Meets T * rz * n " , " Goodman Goes Playboy " , " Goodman , Underwater " , and " Goodman Meets S * perm * n " — the strips were reformatted to one panel per page . Elder extended the artwork of each panel to fit the page dimensions .
Kurtzman approached Hugh Hefner in 1960 with the idea of a comic strip feature for Playboy that would star Goodman Beaver . Until then , Playboy had printed many cartoons , but not a comic strip . After exchanging ideas with Hefner the project was approved , but Goodman Beaver was required to be transformed into a voluptuous female . Kurtzman brought in Will Elder as his primary collaborator on Little Annie Fanny .
In 1984 Kitchen Sink Press published a collection called Goodman Beaver , which reprinted four Kurtzman – Elder stories from Help ! — all the Elder @-@ drawn stories except for " Goodman Goes Playboy " , which appeared only in short excerpts permitted by fair use exemptions under US copyright law . The book reprinted the elongated versions of those strips that had appeared in Executive 's Comic Book . Original artwork for 38 of the 139 reproduced panels were lost ; according to Kurtzman , several pages were sent to French magazine Charlie Hebdo for translation and never returned . Kitchen Sink used proofs , photostats , or original magazine appearances for sources from which to reproduce the missing panels .
= = = List of original appearances = = =
= = Reception and legacy = =
Kurtzman had avoided drawing legal fire from the litigious DC Comics and Edgar Rice Burroughs , Inc. when he parodied their copyrighted properties , but the saturnalian depictions of the Archie characters in " Goodman Goes Playboy " provoked legal action from Archie publisher John L. Goldwater , who had earlier played a role in founding the comics industry 's self @-@ censorship body , the Comics Magazine Association of America .
Help ! publisher Jim Warren received a letter on 6 December 1961 accusing the magazine of copyright infringement and demanding removal of the offending issue from newsstands . Warren 's lawyer believed they could succeed if they fought the suit , but the legal costs would make it a " Pyrrhic victory " , and thus recommended settling out of court . Warren could not have the magazine recalled , but he agreed to pay Archie Comics $ 1000 and ran a note of apology in a subsequent issue of Help ! — the August 1962 issue , in which appeared another character franchise parody , " Goodman Meets S * perm * n " . Warren 's action disappointed Kurtzman , who felt that giving in to such censorship set a " terrible precedent " , and amounted to a kind of prostitution .
When the story was reprinted in the book collection Executive Comic Book in 1962 , Elder modified the artwork to obscure the appearance of the Archie characters . Archie Comics found the characters ' appearances still too close to their copyrighted properties and threatened another lawsuit . Kurtzman and Elder settled out of court by handing over the copyright to the story . Archie Comics held on to the copyright and refused to allow the story to be republished .
The actual target of " Goodman Goes Playboy " had been Hefner , who loved it . Kurtzman began working for Hefner again soon afterwards . The strip Kurtzman produced , Little Annie Fanny , is often thought of as a compromise — virtuosic in its visuals , but lacking in content in comparison to the Goodman Beaver stories . R. Fiore and other commentators have considered this ironic in light of the Faustian theme of " Goodman Goes Playboy " .
In June 1983 Denis Kitchen requested the right to reprint the story as part of a planned Goodman Beaver collection . Archie Enterprises chairman Michael J. Silberkleit responded that publishing a story that included the likenesses of the Archie characters would be " a serious breach of copyright and trademark law " . When the company learned that Kitchen planned to publish the story with the pages reduced in size and the characters ' faces blacked out , Archie Enterprises threatened another lawsuit , and Kitchen dropped the story from the collection , which appeared in 1984 . Kitchen went as far as to have the book 's cover redone , as the planned one had incorporated a " Goodman Goes Playboy " panel in the background .
Publisher and critic Gary Groth wrote that Elder 's artwork in the Goodman Beaver stories " clinched his reputation as the cartoon Brueghel [ sic ] with his intricate portraits of a world cheerfully going mad " . Elder considered the stories to be the funniest of his collaborations with Kurtzman , though he said that towards the end of the run he was getting tired of the painstaking work he put into the drawings . The stories placed sixty @-@ fourth on The Comics Journal 's " Top 100 English @-@ Language Comics of the Century " in 1999 , along with four other works with which Kurtzman was involved . Late @-@ 1990s talk of a Goodman Beaver feature film or television series circulated , but the Kurtzman estate was uninterested .
After Comics Journal co @-@ owner Gary Groth discovered that Archie Comics had let the copyright on " Goodman Goes Playboy " expire , he had the story reprinted in The Comics Journal # 262 ( September 2004 ) . It was also made available as a PDF file on the magazine 's website . The story has yet to appear in any reprint collection since the lapse of copyright .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Journals and magazines = = = =
= = = = Web = = = =
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= Marionette ( Fringe ) =
" Marionette " is the ninth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode was co @-@ written by Monica Owusu @-@ Breen and Alison Schapker , and directed by Joe Chappelle . It followed a series of organ recipients being tracked down and having their donated organs removed , all in a scientist 's attempt to resurrect his deceased love interest , whose organs were donated to the victims . Meanwhile , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) copes with the consequences of being back in the prime universe .
The episode first aired on December 9 , 2010 in the United States to an estimated 4 @.@ 74 million viewers . " Marionette " was the series ' winter finale , as well as the last episode to air on Thursdays in the US . It received generally positive reviews . Many critics praised Torv 's portrayal of Olivia after her recent trauma , as well as the aftereffects of Fauxlivia 's deception , as realistic and well @-@ acted .
= = Plot = =
Olivia ( Anna Torv ) has recovered from her ordeal of being trapped in the parallel universe and has rejoined the Fringe team , while others on the team , particularly Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , struggle with the idea that the parallel universe 's Olivia , Fauxlivia , had successfully pretended to be Olivia . Throughout the episode , Olivia is shown to be struggling emotionally with knowing that Fauxlivia has lived in her apartment and has slept with Peter .
The team is called to the home of a man whose heart was removed through a makeshift operation . They learn that not only did someone call for emergency help shortly after the heart 's removal , but the man was found alive by the emergency response team well after his heart was removed , though he eventually died by the time Fringe arrived . Walter ( John Noble ) and Peter recognize scars on the blood vessels leading to the heart , identifying the victim as one that received a heart transplant . During the autopsy at the lab , Walter concludes that a serum was used to prolong the victim 's life well after the heart 's removal , a chemical based on his own past research into life restoration .
A second victim is found , this time a man whose eyes have been removed by forced surgery . Again , they discover the eyes were obtained from organ donation , and they find a connection to a woman called Amanda ( Anja Savcic ) , a ballerina who had committed suicide . They also note the care that the culprit performed the work , and speculate that the person they are looking for is showing some compassion for his victims , calling for emergency help and using the serum to hope that they are given the proper care in time . They find that Amanda 's alleged cremated remains are bogus , and that her body had been stolen before it could be cremated . They start to trace connections to Amanda , finding she was in a depression counseling support group . Though there are several possible suspects , Olivia 's intuition leads her to a man named Roland David Barrett ( Mark Ivanir ) , who was noted to have become enamored with Amanda at the meetings . At Roland 's home , he has recovered the corpse and surgically replaced the organs in her body . Using a makeshift set of ropes and pulleys , Roland engages Amanda 's body in a marionette act to make her perform like a ballerina , promising her he will bring her back to life .
As the Fringe division sets out to Roland 's home , Roland injects Amanda 's body with more of the serum , and she is brought back to life . By the time Fringe arrives , Roland gives himself up willingly , and they find Amanda dead again . Roland explains that though she was alive , when he looked into her eyes , he realized she wasn 't the same person and thus terminated the process . As Roland and Amanda 's body are taken away , Olivia breaks down in front of Peter ; she questions that if Roland could tell that Amanda wasn 't the same person by looking at her eyes , why couldn 't Peter do the same with Fauxlivia ? Peter is unable to answer her , and a distressed Olivia leaves on her own . As Walter takes Peter to get a milkshake , the two are identified by an Observer , who reports on his phone that " he is still alive " .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by co @-@ executive producers Alison Schapker and Monica Owusu @-@ Breen , while being directed by executive producer Joe Chappelle . When asked why they chose " Marionette " and not the previous episode " Entrada " as the mid @-@ season finale , co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman stated they were more interested in consequences , such as the repercussions of having both Olivias back in their own worlds . Pinkner explained , " We 're always more interested in the ' And then what ? ' After ' Entrada , ' what are the consequences of what we witnessed for the first eight episodes ? We very much wanted to play that before the break . "
Pinkner and Wyman summarized the episode in an interview , " The headline here is ' Picking up the pieces . ' Olivia 's had this real Rip Van Winkle experience ; while she was away , life went on without her . Now she 's back and she 's going to find out what happened while she was gone . It 's going to shatter her " . In a conference call interview , Pinkner and Wyman further described the episode as " pretty fantastic " because " it 's one of our most cinematic episodes " . " Marionette " ended the episode arc begun in the season premiere , where one episode would take place entirely in one universe and then the following episode would alternate to the other ; now Fringe would take place entirely in the prime universe , something that Pinkner deemed " less predictable " for viewers .
The episode featured onetime guest appearances by Mark Ivanir as the puppeteer Roland David Barrett , Anja Savcic as the dead ballerina Amanda Walsh , Barbara Tyson as her mother Mrs. Walsh , Michael Bean as Grant Russo , Genevieve Buechner as Tabatha , and Elizabeth McLaughlin as Dr. Alexandra Ross . Actor John Noble believed Barrett to be " very gifted . " Recurring guest star Michael Cerveris also appeared as the Observer .
Noble tweeted live during the episode as part of a special promotion . A week after " Marionette " aired , Fox came out with a promotional video meant to reassure Fringe fans that the show 's move to Friday did not automatically mean it was on the road to being canceled . The new video featured the message " You May Think Friday Is Dead … But We 're Gonna Reanimate It , " a reference to the resurrection plot in " Marionette " . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Marionette " , with the intention of having " students learn about 3 @-@ dimensional protein models and how their use allows scientists to predict biological behavior . "
Lead actress Anna Torv later cited two scenes in " Marionette " of which she was most proud of during her time on Fringe . The first was Olivia 's discovery that Peter was sleeping with Fauxlivia and her reaction — going through all of her clothes in disgust ; the second related to her comment to Peter that she couldn 't " believe that you didn 't know it was me . " Torv explained , " The reason I love those scenes is because it ’ s really easy to be great in your own bedroom [ rehearsing ] , but when you get on set you have so many different obstacles . The scene with Peter and me outside was done at like 1 : 30 in the morning , in the middle of town , so we had piles of drunk people screaming up and down the street , and massive fire engines and trucks coming through … . We 're doing this quiet scene where I have to cry and we 're on the clock , but that ’ s what TV teaches you - – to just go with it very quickly . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Marionette " first aired on December 9 , 2010 in the United States on the Fox network . It was watched by an estimated 4 @.@ 74 million viewers , with a 2 @.@ 8 / 4 rating among all households and a 1 @.@ 7 / 5 ratings for viewers 18 @-@ 49 . Time shifted viewing increased the episode 's ratings by 53 percent among adults , resulting in a rise from 1 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 6 . This was the largest increase of the week in time @-@ shifting viewers . It was Fringe 's winter finale , with the next episode airing January 21 , 2011 . " Marionette " was the last episode to air in its Thursday timeslot , as the series moved to Fridays in the US .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received critical acclaim . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly wrote that despite the " burden " placed on " Marionette " because of its timing , " by now , the series is so sure of its tone , its surging story @-@ telling power , that it more than met its challenges " . Tucker believed the show had become " exhilaratingly fearless " by pulling in the many references from literature , movies and other sources , and also thought that Olivia 's reaction to the Peter @-@ Fauxlivia relationship " felt right " . The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray gave the episode an A , explaining that he felt the episode was " very strong " and " was especially impressed with how Fringe handled the Olivia / Peter relationship " . Television Without Pity graded the episode a B. Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times called the episode " the perfect epilogue to that first chapter , " explaining :
" I ’ ve always wanted to see more of what happens after the ending of a big action movie . Sure , we ’ ve defeated the evil alien mothership and saved mankind , but all our cities are blown up . Or we ’ ve fallen in love while escaping the malfunctioning homicidal robots , but whose side are we spending Christmas with ? It isn ’ t often that you get to see how people move on from these huge events , but “ Marionette ” gives us just that . Bundled with a retelling of the quintessential horror / sci fi story " .
Like Ken Tucker , Hanson also loved how Olivia coped with someone posing as herself , saying that it made her seem like an " honest , real woman " . Despite not typically liking " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episodes , James Poniewozik of Time Magazine thought it " did quite a good job using the case to tell the story of the tension between Peter and Olivia , and the emotional aftermath of returning to a life someone else has borrowed " . Rhea Dee of Pinkraygun.com almost entirely focused on Olivia 's reactions to being back in the prime universe . Dee praised the realistic tone , writing that normally in other shows she was used to the female character being " annoying " after trauma , but " not once in this episode did I feel like Olivia ’ s emotions were irrational " .
The staff of Open Salon.com enjoyed the episode , writing " While I enjoyed the last eight weeks of alternate universe hijinks , this week 's episode reminded me of what I had been missing from the earlier seasons ... It 's nice to know we 'll be back with our good old regular Earth @-@ 1 team for the foreseeable future . Overall , this week was really well done - very effectively creepy , well directed and plotted with just the right about of gore to make you jump " . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Marionette " the eleventh best episode of the series , calling it " a strong , disturbing outing that was part of Fringe 's mid @-@ series peak , in which the show found its best storytelling voice by crafting strange , emotionally resonant case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week plots that thematically paralleled the ongoing character arcs in ways that felt organic , not contrived . " In a similar 2013 list , Den of Geek ranked the episode as the third best of the entire series .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Anna Torv submitted " Marionette " , along with the season three episodes " Olivia " , " Entrada " , and Bloodline " for consideration in the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . She failed to receive a nomination .
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= Bolshoy Ice Dome =
The Bolshoy Ice Dome ( Russian : Большой Ледовый дворец ) is an indoor arena located in Olympic Park , Sochi , Russia . Opened in 2012 , the 12 @,@ 000 @-@ seat arena was primarily constructed to host hockey competitions during the 2014 Winter Olympics . Following the Games , it became the home arena of HC Sochi , an expansion team of the KHL . The arena has also hosted concerts and other events . Prior to the Games , the arena hosted the IIHF World U18 Championships and Channel One Cup in 2013 .
The arena 's exterior is distinguished by its LED @-@ illuminated roof , which its designers described as resembling fabergé eggs and frozen water droplets
= = Name and location = =
The arena was named " Bolshoy " , meaning " major " or " great " in Russian . This highlights the integral role of ice hockey at the Olympics , which has been dubbed " the most popular sport " of the Games by the organizers themselves . Furthermore , the name was chosen due to its universal familiarity in other countries , in addition to its allusion to the Bolshoi Theatre , Bolshoi Ballet , and other great Russian accomplishments .
The Ice Dome was situated in the Coastal Cluster zone of venues for the 2014 Winter Olympics . It served as the main arena for the men and women 's ice hockey tournament throughout the Games . It is the only venue in the Olympic Park located on top of a hill , and is less than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) away from Shayba Arena , which was the secondary ice hockey venue that hosted mainly preliminary round matches .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The construction of the Bolshoy Ice Dome started in 2009 and finished in 2012 . It was designed by architect firm Mostovik and completed at a cost of approximately US $ 180 million , although ITAR @-@ TASS estimated the cost to be as high as $ 300 million . A total of 20 architects and 70 engineers – headed by Andrey Ustinov – were responsible for the construction of the arena .
The exterior structure of the Ice Dome was designed to resemble a frozen ice droplet . It has also drawn comparisons to a Fabergé egg , due to the light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) resembling the " jewel @-@ encrusted surface " of the famous Russian art piece . Ustinov confirmed that the building was designed to be " a combination of both . " The roof of the dome is mostly silver in colour and is covered with aluminium panels . It is decorated with 38 @,@ 000 LED lights which illuminate the outside of the arena at night . The roof also doubles as a scoreboard that displays the live score of the game being played inside and an animation of a hockey puck whenever a goal is scored . However , it famously did not display the final score after the United States defeated the hosts Russia 3 – 2 in an overtime shootout during the 2014 Winter Olympics .
In the arena 's interior , the 12 @,@ 000 seats are arranged in bowl @-@ like configuration . The concourse features 35 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 300 m2 ) of glazed glass , which enables spectators to have a view of the Caucasus Mountains . The hockey rink 's dimensions are 60 metres ( 200 ft ) × 30 metres ( 98 ft ) , in line with the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) specifications . This contrasts with the dimensions of the previous Olympics , which utilized National Hockey League ( NHL ) sized rinks that are 4 metres ( 13 ft ) narrower in width . It contains 12 dressing rooms for players , an entry tunnel that can be accessed by large vehicles , and a practice ice rink . Moreover , the Ice Dome uses heat transfer fluids on the ice and in the air conditioning system . This helps to preserve the quality of the ice , as well as moderate the temperature within the arena so that spectators are kept warm while maintaining the coolness of the ice . These technologies – along with the arena 's insulation – were developed by the Dow Chemical Company , one of the official sponsors of the Olympic Games .
= = Events = =
In order to test the arenas built for the Olympics , the Bolshoy Ice Dome served as one of the venues for the 2013 IIHF World U18 Championships . It subsequently held the Channel One Cup from 19 – 22 December 2013 in final preparation before the start of the Games . As the main venue for the 2014 Olympic ice hockey competition , the Ice Dome hosted most of the preliminary round games and almost all the playoff round matches for the men 's tournament , while hosting solely the medal matches of the women 's tournament . On February 20 , it held the gold medal match for the women 's tournament , which saw Canada overcome a 0 – 2 deficit against the United States to tie the game with less than a minute of regulation time remaining , before scoring in overtime to secure their fourth consecutive Olympic gold medal . The arena hosted the gold medal game of the men 's tournament three days later on 23 February – the final gold medal of the 2014 Games up for contention – in which Canada defeated Sweden by a score of 3 – 0 . In doing so , the Canadian team won an Olympic gold medal outside of North America for the first time in 62 years , became the first team since the Soviet Union in 1984 to finish the tournament with a perfect record , and the first team to successfully defend their gold medal since the Soviets in 1992 .
The venue hosted the 2015 Kontinental Hockey League All @-@ Star Game .
= = Future = =
After the conclusion of the Olympics , the arena will continue to host a variety of sports , in addition to becoming an entertainment centre and concert venue . The arena will host HC Sochi , a KHL expansion team .
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= Thurso =
Thurso ( pronounced / ˈθɜːrsoʊ / , Scots : Thursa , Scottish Gaelic : Inbhir Theòrsa ) is a town and former burgh on the north coast of the Highland council area of Scotland . Situated in the historical area of Caithness , it is the northernmost town on the British mainland . It lies at the junction of the north @-@ south A9 road and the west @-@ east A836 road , connected to Bridge of Forss in the west and Castletown in the east . The 34 miles ( 55 km ) River Thurso flows through the town and into Thurso Bay and the Pentland Firth . The river estuary serves as a small harbour . At the 2011 Census , Thurso had a population of 7 @,@ 933 . The larger Thurso civil parish including the town and the surrounding countryside had a population of 9 @,@ 112 .
Thurso was an important Norse port , and has a later history of trade with ports throughout northern Europe until the 19th century . A thriving fishing centre , Thurso also had a reputation for its linen @-@ cloth and tanning activities . As of 2015 the Dounreay Nuclear power plant , although decommissioned at the end of the 20th century , employs a significant number of the local population . The Category @-@ A listed ruined Old St Peter 's Church ( St. Peter 's Kirk ) is one of the oldest churches in Scotland , dating to at least 1125 . The current church , St Andrew 's and St Peter 's , was built in 1832 to a design by William Burn in the Gothic style .
The town contains the main campus of North Highland College and Thurso High School , the northernmost secondary school on the British mainland , which was established in 1958 . Thurso Castle , built in 1872 , is in ruins . Thurso is home to the football ( soccer ) team , Thurso FC , established in 2008 , which play in the North Caledonian League , and the rugby teams Caithness Crushers and Caithness RFC . Thurso railway station , opened in 1874 , was the most northern station on the Sutherland and Caithness Railway . The nearby port of Scrabster provides ferry services to the Orkney Islands ; the Northlink ferry ( MV Hamnavoe ) operates between Scrabster and Stromness .
= = Etymology = =
Originally Thurso was known by the Celtic name of tarvodubron meaning " bull water " or " bull river " ; similarly Dunnet Head was tarvedunum standing for " bull fort " and the name of the town name may have its roots there . Norse influence altered its name to Thjorsá , then Thorsá , based on the deity of Thor and translating as the place on Thor ’ s River .
The local Scots name , Thursa , derives from the Norse , as does the modern Scottish Gaelic Inbhir Theòrsa ( The " th " is pronounced as " h " and the " bh " as " v " . ) . Inbhir means a river mouth , and is generally found as " Inver " in many anglicised names . It is possible that there was also a pre @-@ Norse Gaelic name as well , as " tarvodunum " is cognate with the modern Gaelic terms , " tarbh " ( bull ) , " dobhran " and " dun " .
= = History = =
Thurso 's history stretches back to at least the era of Norse Orcadian rule in Caithness , which ended conclusively in 1266 . Neolithic horned cairns found on nearby Shebster Hill , which were used for burials and rituals , date back about 5000 years . The town was an important Norse port , and has a later history of trade with ports throughout northern Europe until the 19th century . In 1330 Scotland 's standard unit of weight was brought in line with that of Thurso at the decree of King David II of Scotland , a measure of the town 's economic importance . Old St Peter 's Kirk is said to date from circa 1220 and the time of Caithness Bishop Gilbert Murray , who died in 1245 .
In 1649 , the Irish , led by Donald Macalister Mullach , attacked Thurso and were chased off by the residents , headed by Sir James Sinclair . One of the locals , a servant of Sinclair was said to have killed Mullach by " cutting a button from his master 's coat and firing it from a musket " . In 1811 , the parish had 592 houses with a population of 3462 . Following the passage into law of the 1845 Poor Law Act , a combination poorhouse was constructed ; work commenced in 1854 and was completed by 1856 . The building , which had a capacity to house 149 inmates , was on a five acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) site to the west of Thurso Road and provided poor relief for Thurso and the parishes of Bower , Canisbay , Dunnet , Halkirk , Olrig , Reay and Watten . Many of the poorhouses in Scotland were under used , and by 1924 the building had been unoccupied for several years so was sold ; it was later utilised as housing but by 2001 was again abandoned .
Much of the town is a planned 19th @-@ century development . In 1906 , a new Royal National Lifeboat Institution boathouse and slipway was inaugurated near Scrabster Harbour . A fire on 10 December 1956 destroyed the building and its 47ft Watson @-@ class lifeboat and a new building and boat was built , launched the following year . A new lifeboat , named " The Three Sisters " was inaugurated in 1971 by The Queen Mother . A major expansion occurred in the mid @-@ 20th century when the Dounreay nuclear power plant was established at Dounreay in 1955 , 9 miles ( 14 km ) to the west of the town . The arrival of workers related to the power station caused a three @-@ fold increase in the population of Thurso ; the 1951 census gave a figure of 3 @,@ 000 but this had swelled to 9 @,@ 000 by 1971 . This led to around 1 @,@ 700 new houses being built in Thurso and nearby Castletown , a mixture of local authority housing blended with private houses and flats built by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority . Decommissioned at the end of the 20th century , it is estimated the site will not be cleared of all the waste until the 2070s , so will continue to provide employment .
Thurso is also the name of the viscountcy held by the Sinclair family in the Peerage of the United Kingdom . Thurso hosted the National Mòd in 2010 , which was the first time this festival of Gaelic language and culture had been held so far north .
= = = Governance = = =
Thurso has history as a burgh of barony dating from 1633 when it was established by Charles I. In 1975 , under the Local Government ( Scotland ) Act 1973 , the local government burgh was merged into the Caithness district of the two @-@ tier Highland region . In 1996 , under the Local Government etc ( Scotland ) Act 1994 , the district was abolished and the region became a unitary council area . From 1996 until 2007 , the town of Thurso was covered by two or three wards , each electing one councillor by the first past the post system of election . In 2007 , a single Thurso ward was created to elect three councillors by the single transferable vote system . The new ward is one of three within the Highland Council 's Caithness ward management area and one of seven within the council 's Caithness , Sutherland and Easter Ross corporate management area .
Thurso Community Council was created in 1975 when the burgh was abolished . The community council is not a tier of local government , but it is recognised as a level of statutory representation . The community council represents an area which is somewhat smaller than that represented by ward councillors . The ward area also includes parts of other community council areas .
= = Geography = =
Thurso is the most northerly town on the British mainland , situated on the northern coastline overlooking the Orkney Islands . It is situated at the northern terminus of the A9 road , the main road linking Caithness with the south of Scotland , and is 19 @.@ 5 miles ( 31 @.@ 4 km ) west of John o ' Groats and 20 @.@ 4 miles ( 32 @.@ 8 km ) northwest of Wick , the closest town . Thurso railway station is the most northerly location served by Britain 's rail network , which links the town directly with Wick , the county town of Caithness , and with Inverness . Thurso is bordered by the parishes of Olrig and Bower to the east , Halkirk to the south , and Reay to the west , and stretches from Holburn Head and Crosskirk Bay in the west to Dunnet Head and Dunnet Bay in the east .
The 34 miles ( 55 km ) River Thurso , reputable for its salmon fishing , flows through the town and into Thurso Bay and the Pentland Firth . The river estuary serves as a small harbour . Thurso has a fine harbour and beach and looks out over the Pentland Firth to the Orkney island of Hoy and the towering Old Man of Hoy ( a stack of rock standing out from the main island ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Thurso has a cool oceanic climate , similar weather to the Scottish Highlands , Iceland , Alaska and the Scandinavian West Coast of Norway . The highest temperature recorded was 25 ° C ( July 1995 ) and the lowest -11 ° C ( December 2010 ) . Similar parallels in nearby Sweden have much more continental climates with much more extensive heat and coldwaves , further demonstrating the moderating effect of the North Atlantic . The moderate winter climate is some 30 ° C warmer than marine areas around Hudson Bay in Canada on similar latitudes .
= = Economy = =
Historically , Thurso was known for its production of linen cloth and had a thriving tanning business . Fishing has always been of major significance in the running of the local economy , and the Thurso Shipowner 's Association overlooked much of the shipping activity . The port of Scrabster lies about 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the west of the estuary of the River Thurso , and plays a significant role in the white fish industry in Scotland . Scrabster has deep water in the shelter of Holborn Head . The harbour includes a berth for the MV Hamnavoe , a roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off ferry operated by Northlink linking the Scottish mainland with Stromness on Orkney . There is also a large fishmart and the local lifeboat is stationed there too . From June 2007 , a summer @-@ only weekly ferry service operated by the Faroese company Smyril Line reopened , connecting Scrabster with the Faroe Islands , Iceland and Norway , but has now been discontinued .
Thurso boasts a small museum , Caithness Horizons , several hotels and bars , a surf shop / cafe stocking famous brands , and a large skatepark . There is also a sizeable British Telecom call centre and a plant making special lithium @-@ ion batteries for the MoD on the west side of the town , which along with the Dounreay Nuclear power plant , provide a high level of employment in Caithness . On 12 January 2010 , approval was granted for the Baillie wind farm near Thurso which will feature 21 turbines and supply 52 @.@ 5 MW , enough for 25 @,@ 000 homes .
= = Landmarks = =
The Category A listed ruined Old St Peter 's Church ( St. Peter 's Kirk ) is one of the older churches in Scotland , dated to at least 1125 , and at one time it was the principal church for the county , administered by the Bishops of Caithness . The church held hearings against criminal activity and determined how those caught should be punished . In 1701 , a woman who had a relationship with a Dutch sailor had her head shaved and was publicly shamed , paraded through the town by the local hangman .
The current church , St Andrew 's and St Peter 's , was built in 1832 to a design by William Burn in the Gothic style with buttressed walls and a square tower . The pipe organ was added by Norman & Beard in 1914 , and in 1922 Oscar Paterson contributed some of the stained glass windows such as ' The Sower ' . In 2013 gravestones were vandalised in the graveyard . Holburn Head Lighthouse , within the parish territory , was completed in 1862 to a design by David & Thomas Stevenson and has since achieved Category B listed status .
The Swanson Gallery of Thurso hosts exhibitions throughout the year , and showcases glass art by Ian Pearson . The Caithness Horizons building contains a museum and also hosts exhibitions . Hotels of note include the 103 @-@ room Royal Hotel , Pentland Hotel , Waterside House , Murray House and the Category B listed Forss House Hotel , about 4 miles to the west of Thurso in a Georgian country mansion . At Sir John 's Square is an ornamental garden and statue which was donated to the town by Sir Tollemache Sinclair in memory of his grandfather Sir John Sinclair , a prominent local figure responsible for the " compilation of the First Statistical Account of Scotland and the pioneering of agricultural reforms in Caithness " . A Category C listed fountain was built in 1894 by the son of Sir George Sinclair . Also of note is the wellhouse of Meadow Well at the junction of Traill Street and Manson 's Lane , which was the primary water supply for Thurso for centuries . The current well , with a conical roof , was completed in 1823 .
= = Education = =
The main campus of North Highland College , formerly Thurso College , is one of several partner colleges which constitute the University of the Highlands & Islands . It offers several certificate , diploma and degree courses from subjects as diverse as Nuclear Decommissioning , Hairdressing , Gamekeeping and Golf Management . Adjacent to the UHI is Thurso High School , the most northerly secondary school on the British mainland , established in 1958 . The town also has three primary schools , Pennyland , Miller Academy Primary and Mount Pleasant . Mount Pleasant Primary School teaches in Scottish gaelic , part of a revival of the language in Caithness . According to the 2011 census , 110 residents of the town age three and over ( 1 @.@ 43 % ) speak Gaelic while 181 overall ( 2 @.@ 35 % ) have some facility with the language . A Gaelic language nursery school , Cròileagan Inbhir Theòrsa , was created in the town in 1996 .
Caithness Horizons is a small museum that opened in 2008 . The museum now houses panels from the control room at the Dounreay Materials Testing Reactor ( DMTR ) , which in 1958 had become Scotland 's first operation nuclear reactor .
= = Sport = =
With its powerful swells , Thurso is a notable location for surfing and kayaking , with international surfing championship events having regularly been held in the area . It attracts surfers from all over the world , and both the European Surfing Championships and Scottish Surf Kayaking Championships have been held in Caithness , with Thurso East being the main focus of activity . An annual raft race is organised by the North Coast Branch of Coastguard Association .
The football ( soccer ) team , Thurso FC ( nicknamed " the Vikings " ) , was established in 2008 and plays in the North Caledonian League . Caithness Crushers are a rugby league club playing in the Scotland Rugby League Conference Division 1 , while Caithness RFC are a rugby union club that participate in the Caledonia One . The local athletics club is Caithness Amateur Athletics Club ( C.A.A.C. ) ; hurdler Moira Mcbeath was a 1986 Commonwealth Games athlete . Thurso has the largest swimming club in the Highland area , Thurso Amateur Swimming Club ( TASC ) , with over 250 members . Thurso Bowling Club is next door to the Tesco supermarket . Also of note is Caithness Motocross Club , which stages races fortnightly during the summer on tracks around the county .
= = Transport = =
Thurso railway station opened in 1874 . It was the most northern station on the Sutherland and Caithness Railway . The station became part of the Highland Railway Company in the late 19th century before being absorbed into the London , Midland and Scottish Railway in 1923 @.@ and it is now part of the Far North Line .
The nearby port of Scrabster provides ferry services to the Orkney Islands . The A9 trunk road , which connects Thurso to Inverness , Perth and the Central Belt ends at the ferry terminal . Stagecoach run bus services from Thurso to Wick and John O ' Groats , and a long distance service to Helmsdale and Inverness .
= = Twin towns = =
Thurso has been twinned with Brilon , Germany since 1972 , after two men from the respective towns met in London and agreed a formal link . The twinning has come under threat as Thurso High School no longer participates in its activities and there is a lack of young people willing to preserve relationships between the towns .
= = Notable people = =
Andrew Geddes Bain ( 1797 – 1864 ) — geologist , road engineer , palaeontologist and explorer .
David Orson Calder ( 1823 – 1884 ) — academician and pioneer settler in Utah .
John Charles " Jock " Campbell ( VC ) ( 1894 – 1942 ) — British Army officer .
Martin Carr ( born 1968 ) — writer and musician .
Robert Dick ( 1811 – 1866 ) — geologist ; lived in Thurso from 1830 until death .
John Finlaison ( 1783 – 1860 ) — civil servant and government actuary .
George Finlayson ( 1790 – 1823 ) — naturalist and traveler .
Bryan Gunn ( born 1963 ) — professional football goalkeeper and manager .
Robin Harper ( born 1940 ) — politician .
William Henderson ( 1810 – 1872 ) — physician and homeopath .
Jock Macdonald ( 1897 – 1960 ) — Canadian painter and art educator .
Gary Mackay @-@ Steven ( born 1990 ) — professional football winger , currently playing for Celtic .
Tommy McGee ( born 1979 ) — professional rugby player .
Anne McKevitt ( born 1967 ) — entrepreneur , TV Personality , author and philanthropist .
Martin Rennie ( born 1975 ) — professional football coach .
Sir William David Ross , KBE ( 1877 – 1971 ) — moral philosopher , editor and translator of Aristotle .
Arthur St. Clair ( 1737 – 1818 ) — American Revolutionary War soldier and politician .
Sir William Alexander Smith ( 1854 – 1914 ) — founder of the Boys Brigade .
Colin Stone ( born 1991 ) — Scottish television presenter and journalist , currently with STV News .
Donald Swanson ( 1848 – 1924 ) — senior police officer in the Metropolitan Police during the Jack the Ripper murders .
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= The Xindi =
" The Xindi " is the 53rd episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the first episode of the third season . It first aired on September 10 , 2003 , on the UPN network in the United States . The episode was written by executive producers Rick Berman and Brannon Braga , and directed by Allan Kroeker .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . Beginning with this episode , season three of Enterprise features an ongoing storyline following an attack on Earth by previously unknown aliens called the Xindi at the end of season two . In this episode , the crew of the Enterprise attempt to track down the location of the Xindi homeworld from a lone Xindi working in a mining colony . After being tricked by the mining foreman , Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) and Commander Charles " Trip " Tucker III ( Connor Trinneer ) escape with the alien , with assistance from Lieutenant Malcolm Reed ( Dominic Keating ) and the ship 's new Military Assault Command Operations ( MACO ) team .
" The Xindi " saw the first appearance of several new sets , as well as a new costume for Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) . The episode saw a large number of guest stars , including several who would recur several more times during the third season such as Major Hayes played by Steven Culp , Tucker Smallwood as the Xindi @-@ Primate Councilor and Randy Oglesby as Degra . The episode received ratings of 2 @.@ 6 / 5 percent according to Nielsen Media Research , and was watched by 4 @.@ 1 million viewers . " The Xindi " received a mixed reception from critics , who praised the increase of action promised for the season by this episode but criticised elements such as the writing and the MACOs .
= = Plot = =
As Enterprise travels deeper into the Delphic Expanse , a secret council of aliens discuss what to do with the lone human spaceship . Meanwhile , Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) directs Enterprise to a mining penal colony within the Expanse . He then strikes a deal with the mine 's foreman ( Stephen McHattie ) : in exchange for a half @-@ liter of liquid platinum , Archer and Commander Charles " Trip " Tucker III ( Connor Trinneer ) will be allowed to meet a Primate worker named Kessick ( Richard Lineback ) .
Archer requests the coordinates of Xindus , the Xindi homeworld , from Kessick . But the alien refuses to help unless Archer helps him escape . Archer declines , but he soon learns that the foreman had ulterior motives , since he has ordered three warships to overpower Enterprise and enslave his crew . Kessick claims to know how to escape the mine , but asks for Archer 's help in return for guiding the Starfleet officers . Archer reluctantly agrees , and Kessick leads him and Tucker through the mine 's sewage removal system . However , the group is soon detected in a conduit , and the foreman floods the system with plasma in an effort to kill them . They narrowly escape being killed , but quickly fall into the hands of the mine 's security forces .
Meanwhile , Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) persuades Lieutenant Malcolm Reed ( Dominic Keating ) to allow the newly assigned MACOs ( Military Assault Command Operations ) to attempt an extraction . Led by him , they perform remarkably well in combat , and manage to rescue Archer , Tucker , and Kessick . Enterprise then leaves orbit just as the warships arrive . Unfortunately , Kessick dies , but not before providing coordinates for the Xindi homeworld . When the ship reaches this position , there is nothing but a 100 @-@ year @-@ old field of space debris .
= = Production = =
The episode followed up on the plot introduced in the final instalment of the second season in which a probe from an unknown alien race attacks Earth . A number of new sets and costumes were required , with preparations beginning for some departments up to three weeks before filming began . One change which was made was a new outfit for T 'Pol , with costume tests taking place a week before filming began . The redesign was because of studio executives wanting the show to appeal more to the 18 – 49 male demographic . The production team looked to the mid @-@ series boost that the introduction of Seven of Nine provided on Star Trek : Voyager and sought for Enterprise to appeal to that demographic in the same manner . Kate O 'Hara of New York Magazine later joked in reference to the change , " Women of the future will certainly choose to wear tight , uncomfortable , skin @-@ tight catsuits ! "
" The Xindi " was seen as a new pilot by executive producers Brannon Braga and Rick Berman , who also wrote the episode . Braga said " We were re @-@ establishing an Enterprise that was going to be a little bit different this year , so we had to think of it in those terms . " They felt the best way to do this was to immediately reveal the Xindi to the audience , and to give the MACOs something to do in order to introduce them as well . He called it a " big episode " as they sought to set up the rest of season . The shoot began on June 26 , 2003 , with the expectation that it would take nine days ( as opposed to the usual seven ) to complete . One of the special effects on the episode used ground Styrofoam which had been painted blue and processed through a wood chipper . It was used to represent the mineral Trellium @-@ D within the mine . However , the ground Styrofoam stuck to the actors ' shoes and costumes and ended up being spread throughout the Paramount lot where the series was filmed . It would turn up in unexpected places on set for the rest of the series , and was found in among the sets as they were being dismantled after the end of season four .
= = = Guest cast = = =
" The Xindi " featured several actors who would go on to recur in their roles throughout the third season of Enterprise . These included the MACO marines under the command of Major Hayes , played by Steven Culp . At the time of his appearance in the " The Xindi " , he felt that he did not have any characterisation to work with . During the production of his second episode , " The Shipment " , Culp read an article in the Los Angeles Times about a troubled youth who joined the military and in serving in the Iraq War had found himself . After discussing it with the director , this became the basis for the character . Daniel Dae Kim made his first of three appearances in " The Xindi " as Corporal Chang ; he had previously appeared as Gotana @-@ Retz in the Voyager episode " Blink of an Eye " . Nathan Anderson had previously appeared as Namon in the Voyager episode " Nemesis " ; he made one further appearance as Sergeant Kemper in the following episode , " Anomaly " .
Other actors appearing in " The Xindi " included the members of the Xindi council . As with Kim and Anderson , Tucker Smallwood had already appeared on Voyager . In his case , it was as Admiral Bullock in the episode " In the Flesh " . He appeared as his Xindi character nine times during the third season of Enterprise . Randy Oglesby , who played Degra , was another Voyager alumnus . He had appeared as Kir in the episode " Counterpoint " . Rick Worthy had appeared as several different characters in the Star Trek franchise , including an appearance in the 1998 film Star Trek : Insurrection . As well as Kornan in the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Soldiers of the Empire " , he too had appeared in Voyager , but in two roles ; first as the androids 3947 and 122 in " Prototype " and then as Noah Lessing in " Equinox " . In addition , making a return to the Star Trek franchise was Stephen McHattie , who had previously appeared as the Romulan senator Vreenak in the Deep Space Nine episode " In the Pale Moonlight " .
= = Reception = =
" The Xindi " was first aired in the United States on UPN on September 10 , 2003 . According to Nielsen Media Research , it received a 2 @.@ 6 / 5 percent share among adults . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 percent of all households , and 5 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was estimated that " The Xindi " was watched by 4 @.@ 1 million viewers . The following episode , " Anomaly " , received the same rating but the viewer number increased by 200 @,@ 000 .
Robert Bianco reviewed " The Xindi " for USA Today , giving it two out of four stars . He said that while the Xindi storyline " does promise to provide more action and excitement " , some of the alterations " smack [ ed ] of desperation " . He called T 'Pol " Seven of Vulcan " , and said the main issue with the series was the " subpar " writing . In this episode , he felt that Tucker was written so poorly that Trineer seemed like he was overacting to compensate for it .
A reviewer by the moniker KJB watched the episode for IGN , giving it one out of five stars . He said it was " like watching a television episode made up of all the things from the ' Stuff We 've Tried That Doesn 't Work on Star Trek ' list . " Criticism was directed at the introduction of the MACOs , which were described as Starship Troopers clones , and at the modification to the theme tune . The Xindi themselves were described as " bad Farscape knock offs " , and the reviewer said that they set a poor tone for the rest of the season . Michelle Erica Green said she was in a " double mind " about " The Xindi " in her review at TrekNation as there were both good and bad elements . She praised the action sequences , the make @-@ up and McHattie as the alien foreman . Green enjoyed the twist at the end with the Xindi homeworld being already destroyed , and felt that the Xindi races would be interesting . On the other hand , she thought that the MACO scenes were too dark and that the T 'Pol nude scenes were unnecessary .
= = Book adaptation and home media release = =
" The Xindi " was adapted as a novel in conjunction with the preceding episode , " The Expanse " , by J.M. Dillard . Entitled The Expanse , the book was published by Pocket Books in trade paperback format in October 2003 . The first home media release of " The Xindi " was as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was released on January 7 , 2014 .
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= Æthelhard =
Æthelhard ( also Ethelhard , Æthilheard , Aethelheard or Ethelheard ; died 12 May 805 ) was a Bishop of Winchester then an Archbishop of Canterbury in medieval England . Appointed by King Offa of Mercia , Æthelhard had difficulties with both the Kentish monarchs and with a rival archiepiscopate in southern England , and was deposed around 796 by King Eadberht III Præn of Kent . By 803 , Æthelhard , along with the Mercian King Coenwulf , had secured the demotion of the rival archbishopric , once more making Canterbury the only archbishopric south of the Humber in Britain . Æthelhard died in 805 , and was considered a saint until his cult was suppressed after the Norman Conquest in 1066 .
= = Early life = =
Nothing is known of Æthelhard 's family background or early life , however it is assumed that he was a native of Mercia . He first appears in the historical record as abbot of a monastery at Louth , Lincolnshire before being named to the diocese of Winchester . He was consecrated Bishop of Winchester sometime after 759 and before 778 .
= = Canterbury = =
Æthelhard was translated from the see of Winchester to the see of Canterbury in 792 and was enthroned as archbishop on 21 July 793 . Æthelhard owed his appointment to King Offa of Mercia , and the enthronement was presided over by the then @-@ senior bishop of the land : Hygberht , the Archbishop of Lichfield . King Offa consulted Alcuin of York over proper procedure , as the archbishopric of Lichfield was a new creation .
Around 796 , Æthelhard was deposed by King Eadberht III Præn of Kent because Æthelhard had been appointed by Offa . Offa had died in 796 , and Eadberht seized control of Kent , forcing Æthelhard to flee to the court of Offa 's son Ecgfrith of Mercia . Ecgfrith himself died before 796 , and a distant relative Coenwulf took the throne . Alcuin encouraged Æthelhard to return to Canterbury , and suggested a compromise over the status of Lichfield , which had been established by Offa in rivalry to Canterbury . Alcuin 's plan would have allowed Hygberht to retain archiepiscopal status during his lifetime , but it would be a purely ceremonial rank . In this proposal , Canterbury would regain its status as the only archbishopric south of the Humber and Æthelhard would return to Canterbury . However , Æthelhard was unable to do this while Eadberht was still in power . Alcuin had previously stated that Lichfield had been elevated because of a " lust for power " , presumably by Offa , and not through any consideration of the merits of the plan .
Although Alcuin had scorn for Æthelhard for fleeing Canterbury , the papacy saw it differently . Pope Leo III praised Æthelhard for fleeing and refusing to submit to Eadberht , whom Leo compared to the later Roman emperor Julian the Apostate . There are indications , though , that the Kentish community considered electing another archbishop while Æthelhard was in exile .
= = Troubles with Lichfield = =
Because Lichfield had been established by the papacy , any change in its status required papal assent . Coenwulf 's first embassy to Leo III in 797 about demoting Lichfield did not succeed , mainly because Leo seems to have resented the implied criticism of his predecessor Hadrian I , who had approved the elevation of Lichfield . Coenwulf 's embassy bore a letter to the pope that asked for papal advice on how to resolve the problems surrounding Lichfield and Canterbury . The letter reminded the papacy of Pope Gregory the Great 's old scheme to have two metropolitans in Britain , one in the north and one in the south , with the southern one being based in London . The letter implied that Coenwulf was asking for Æthelhard 's metropolitan see to be moved to London . The same embassy carried a letter from Æthelhard also , which has not survived . The pope , however , did not agree with the embassy . The papal reply to Coenwulf stated that the southern archbishopric must remain at Canterbury , as well as excommunicated Eadberht and authorised his expulsion from Kent if he persisted in keeping Æthelhard from Canterbury .
In 798 Coenwulf invaded Kent and captured Eadberht , whom he blinded and imprisoned . Æthelhard was restored to Canterbury , where he set about restoring the see 's possessions . He also managed to secure professions of obedience from a number of southern bishops , including Eadwulf of Lindsey and Tidferth of Dummoc . But , Hygberht was still being called archbishop in 799 . Because Pope Leo was involved in disputes in Rome during 799 and 800 , and was unable to spare attention for English affairs , no papal decisions could be made on the dispute .
Æthelhard resolved to go to Rome and consult with the pope about the decline in power of the see of Canterbury . The archbishop went to Rome along with Bishop Cyneberht of Winchester , and carried two letters from Coenwulf to the pope . After some discussions , Leo sided with Canterbury and demoted Lichfield back down to a bishopric . Besides these papal actions , there are indications that the cathedral clergy of Canterbury never recognised the elevation of Lichfield .
= = Return from exile = =
Æthelhard returned to England in 803 , and convened the Council of Clovesho , which decreed that no archiepiscopal see besides Canterbury should ever been established in the southern part of Britain . Hygberht attended the council , but as an abbot , which makes it apparent that he had resigned his see before the council met . At that same council , Æthelhard also presented a papal decision that asserted the freedom of churches from secular authority . While at the council , Æthelhard once more proclaimed that the papacy had been deceived into elevating Lichfield , and that it was a " tyranical power " that had been behind the effort . Æthelhard presided over at least eleven synods , and possibly one more .
Æthelhard died on 12 May 805 and was buried in Canterbury . He was later revered as a saint , with a feast day of 12 May , but his cult was suppressed by Archbishop Lanfranc in the late 11th century and never was revived .
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= Darla ( Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) =
Darla is a recurring fictional character created by Joss Whedon and played by Julie Benz in the first , second , and fifth seasons of the American supernatural television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . The character later appeared in the Buffy spin @-@ off series Angel , making at least one appearance in every season . She made her last television appearance in 2004 , appearing as a special guest star in the fifth and final season of Angel .
Darla is introduced in " Welcome to the Hellmouth " , the first episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer , in 1997 . It is revealed early on that she is a vampire , initially in league with the Master , Buffy Summers ' primary antagonist in the first season . Darla 's backstory is disclosed in the episode " Angel " , where it is revealed that she is Angel 's sire ( the one who turned him into a vampire ) and former longtime lover . The character appears in numerous flashback episodes , until she receives a significantly expanded role in Angel . In Angel , she is resurrected by the evil law firm Wolfram & Hart in an attempt to weaken Angel . She later becomes intertwined in many of the story arcs in the second and third season . Darla becomes pregnant , a unique occurrence for a vampire . She sacrifices herself in order to give birth to her and Angel 's human son Connor , ending her run on the series . However , Darla continues to appear in flashback episodes during the next two seasons .
The character was well @-@ reviewed by television critics , with Eric Goldman of IGN saying " Not even dying ( twice ! ) could keep Darla from being an important part of the story behind Buffy the Vampire Slayer and the spinoff series Angel . "
= = Conception and casting = =
Julie Benz initially auditioned for the role of Buffy Summers , but that later went to Sarah Michelle Gellar , who had previously won the part of Cordelia Chase . Benz was offered the small role of the vampire Darla in the pilot episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Her performance was so well @-@ received that her character appeared in a few more episodes . In an interview with TheTVAddict.com , Benz said of her casting : " I was supposed to die in the pilot , but about halfway through the pilot Joss Whedon was like , ' We 're giving you a name and we 're not going to kill you . ' And he did that for a while until it finally came time to kill me , and kill me , and kill me and killed [ sic ] me . " She later went on to say :
For me , I was a new actor to Los Angeles , didn ’ t know the TV business very well so I was just excited to work and play a vampire . I had no clue what I was going to do or how I was going to be scary . Until that is , they put the vampire makeup on me and I went into the trailer and smiled , which I thought was creepy . Joss always said he was intrigued that someone who looked like me and talked like me was like the scariest vampire ever . That 's what he wanted , my sweet voice and demeanour until all of a sudden I 'm just this vicious vampire . "
Darla is first killed in the seventh episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . In that episode , it is revealed that Darla was once romantically involved with Angel and that she made him a vampire . Angel stakes her through the heart . Benz was asked to return to the role three years later , but not on Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Joss Whedon wanted her to appear on the spin @-@ off Angel , which focused on Angel 's adventures in Los Angeles . Benz said in an interview :
I was shocked , really . When they sent me the script [ for Angel ] I kept asking , ' Where 's Darla ? ' I remember calling my agent asking , ' Are you sure they want me for this episode because I can 't seem to find me ? ' And then I get to the last page and there I am ... naked in a box . Awesome . It was exciting .
When asked in an interview with Robert Canning of IGN about how she felt about being asked to come on to Angel after previously being killed off , Benz commented :
I was shocked . I just thought once you poof 'd , you poof 'd ! I thought that was it . So when they threw it out to me that I was coming back ... They didn 't tell me they were bringing her back to life . They just sent me the script for the season finale for season one of Angel , when they rose me from the dead . I was reading the script , and half way through , Darla still hadn 't shown up .
Benz went on to add ,
I was like , ' Alright ... ' I get three quarters of the way through and I think , ' Maybe they sent me the wrong script ... ? ' And then I get to the last page , and I was like , ' Oh my god ! I can 't believe this ! This is so cool ! ' At that time I 'd been committed to another project too . We didn 't even know if I was going to be available or not . But it all ended up working out .
Darla appears in twenty Angel episodes , mainly as an evil antagonist . The character is known for dying the most in the Buffy The Vampire Slayer franchise . Benz later emphasized :
I just didn 't know how it was going to happen . So when they sent me the script [ for my last episode of Angel ] — which I basically had to sign my life away to read — I was sitting in my trailer and I just started to cry . I thought it was such a beautiful ending , it was the payoff and just really brought her whole life kind of to that one moment . So I was really upset my last day of filming because I really thought it was over to me .
= = Characterization = =
Darla is presented in the series as a wicked vampire with , as Benz put it , generally " pure " intentions . In an interview with TheTVAddict , Benz said :
Darla 's just misunderstood . Her intentions are pure , they 're just kind of warped . From her perspective — first she has to eat — she just happens to eat people ! Second , she was in love with Angel , and I always viewed Darla as the jilted ex @-@ wife that could never get over being dumped . If you really look at her , you can have sympathy and empathy for her . In the beginning of her life she was a prostitute , Joss and I actually talked about that a lot , that she was probably abused growing up . She did what she needed to do to survive , she just lacked the people skills .
Achieving Darla 's look was a struggle for Benz . She said : " Taking that makeup off , it was like having six layers of skin ripped off your face every time . It was miserable and the contact lenses were terrible . I don ’ t wear contacts and I don ’ t know how people do it , sticking things in their eyeballs all the time . " The character 's sense of fashion is vital to understanding her past . Benz says Darla is " dressed to the nines " in every time period in which she lives , and " she fully goes after a certain look . If she ’ s going to be living during the Boxer Rebellion time , she ’ s got the big Gibson Girl hair style and the beautiful kimono @-@ style clothes . " Benz points out that in the Buffy pilot episode , Darla — attempting to dress like a high school student — exaggerates it with a " little twist " , wearing a Catholic schoolgirl uniform instead . " I think I influenced Darla fashion @-@ wise in the second season of Angel where she was a little more classic @-@ looking and tailored , " Benz says , explaining she collaborated with the costume designer to transition Darla into a " hipper look " when she became a vampire again . Darla shockingly becomes pregnant in the third season of Angel . In an interview with the BBC , Benz admitted :
Yeah , I really felt at that point she was pretty strung out . Her whole world was rocked . She never thought she could get pregnant and then all of a sudden she 's carrying this child and she 's experiencing this soul for the first time in four hundred years . [ There 's ] the realisation that as soon as the baby 's born the soul 's going to go away , and it 's the first time she really experienced true love , so she was going through a lot emotionally . I just didn 't think that she would have time to really think about how she looked . I don 't think it was a priority , and so for me as an actor it was important that I reveal that . Not get caught up in my own vanity as an actress , and portray the character as where she really was .
In an interview with the BBC , Benz described Darla as strong : " I have an amazing stunt double , Lisa Hoyle who looks exactly like me . She ’ s just brilliant and fearless and she does about 90 per cent of the stunts . I think part of the element of Darla is how strong she is and how fierce she can be and Lisa definitely adds to that element . I would be a doing huge disservice to Darla if I didn ’ t allow her to do the work that she does and to help add to that element that ’ s so important to Darla , which is her strength . "
= = Storylines = =
Darla is born in the late 16th century in the British Isles . Her birth name is never revealed in either series , and Darla herself eventually forgets it . As a young prostitute , she emigrates to the Virginia Colony in North America and becomes independently wealthy but also contracts a fatal case of syphilis . By 1609 , Darla lies dying in the luxurious house she owns . She scoffs at a " priest " who comes to her deathbed before he reveals his true identity : the Master , leader of an elite cult of vampires known as the Order of Aurelius . Darla despises the clergy and religion , a trait that follows her as a vampire . The Master turns her into a vampire and renames her " Darla , " meaning " dear one " in early modern English ( " darling " ) .
Darla spends four centuries torturing innocent people , often accompanied by Angel ( until his soul is restored ) , before showing up in Sunnydale . Her first appearance is in " Welcome to the Hellmouth " , the first episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer , which aired in 1997 . She breaks into Sunnydale High School with a student who goes there . Darla first toys with the youth , then her face morphs into that of a vampire and she bites the boy . Darla later appears in the episode " The Harvest " , where she participates in the ascension of the Master , a very old and powerful vampire . Darla 's role in the series is more prominent in the episode " Angel " , where it is revealed that she is Angel 's sire and former lover . Darla bites an unsuspecting Joyce Summers ( Buffy 's mother ) , making it look as if Angel did it . Angel eventually kills her . She later appears in numerous flashbacks , illuminating her involvement not only with Angel , but also with Spike .
Darla 's role in the franchise increased dramatically after her resurrection by the law firm Wolfram & Hart in the final episode of Angel 's first season , titled " To Shanshu in L.A. " In the second season opener , " Judgement " , Wolfram & Hart lawyers Lindsey McDonald and Lilah Morgan question Darla about her past . She talks of how she can feel Angel , and slowly her memory begins to return . In the episode " First Impressions " , Angel begins having romantic dreams about his maker . The dreams sap his strength . In " Dear Boy " , Angel is shocked to see Darla walking the streets . When he tells his partners , Wesley Wyndam @-@ Pryce and Cordelia Chase , they think he is starting to lose his sanity . During the course of a stakeout by Angel Investigations of a woman suspected of having an affair , Angel confronts the woman , who looks exactly like Darla . She claims she is DeEtta Kramer . When she runs away from him , she walks outside into the sunlight , meaning Darla has not only been resurrected , but is now human . However , Darla and Lindsey 's plan to convert Angel back to evil fails . In the end , Wolfram & Hart bring in Drusilla to make Darla a vampire again after her syphilis returns and she starts to die . Ironically , she is turned back into a vampire as she accepts her fate after a failed attempt by Angel to save her . Drusilla and Darla unsuccessfully attack Angel and leave Los Angeles .
Knowing that Angel has been cursed so that if he ever experiences pure happiness , he will once again lose his soul , Darla later returns and sleeps with him , but her plot fails ; being with her only brings Angel despair , as well as providing him with a new understanding of his role as a champion . Their one @-@ night stand leads to an unexpected development for the both of them : Darla reappears in season three , pregnant with Angel 's child , despite the fact that vampires cannot normally conceive . Her pregnancy allows Darla to experience emotions that had previously been lost to her in the presence of the human soul of her unborn child . Admitting that creating life with Angel was the only good thing they ever did together , Darla makes sure Angel will relay that to their child before she stakes herself through the heart , sacrificing her life so their son , Connor , can be born . Darla turns to dust , but the baby remains . Darla later appears as a spirit , trying to persuade her son in an effort to save him from the renegade deity Jasmine 's manipulations , as the latter 's actions are bringing Connor into the same dark path both Darla and Angel had taken .
= = Reception = =
The character of Darla was well @-@ received by Eric Goldman of IGN . He said : " As the very first character seen on Buffy the Vampire Slayer , Julie Benz instantly made an impression as the vampiress Darla . For the next 8 television seasons , she would get to show many different facets of the role , as not even dying ( twice ! ) could keep Darla from being an important part of the story and mythos behind Buffy the Vampire Slayer and the spinoff series Angel , the latter of which allowed Benz to greatly expand her character . "
= = Appearances = =
Buffy the Vampire Slayer
Darla appears as a guest in 5 episodes
Season 1 ( 1997 ) : " Welcome to the Hellmouth " , " The Harvest " , " Angel "
Season 2 ( 1997 – 98 ) : " Becoming ( Part 1 ) "
Season 5 ( 2000 – 01 ) : " Fool for Love "
Angel
Darla appears as a guest in 20 episodes
Season 1 ( 1999 – 2000 ) : " The Prodigal " , " Five by Five " , " To Shanshu in L.A. "
Season 2 ( 2000 – 01 ) : " Judgment " , " First Impressions " , " Untouched " , " Dear Boy " , " Darla " , " The Trial " , " Reunion " , " Redefinition " , " Reprise " , " Epiphany "
Season 3 ( 2001 – 02 ) : " Heartthrob " , " That Vision Thing " , " Offspring " , " Quickening " , " Lullaby "
Season 4 ( 2002 – 03 ) : " Inside Out "
Season 5 ( 2003 – 04 ) : " The Girl in Question "
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= Delaware Route 48 =
Delaware Route 48 ( DE 48 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from DE 41 in Hockessin east to U.S. Route 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) in downtown Wilmington . The route passes through suburban areas of Wilmington such as Lancaster Pike , intersecting DE 100 and DE 141 . DE 48 continues into Wilmington as Lancaster Avenue and intersects DE 2 , where it splits into the one @-@ way pair of Lancaster Avenue eastbound and Second Street westbound . Upon reaching downtown Wilmington , the route intersects Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) / US 202 and DE 4 before continuing to the eastern terminus .
What is now DE 48 was originally built as the Lancaster Pike in 1817 , a turnpike that was to connect Wilmington to the Gap and Newport Turnpike . The turnpike became county maintained in 1877 . The Lancaster Pike became DE 48 by 1936 , with the route continuing east through Wilmington to the Wilmington @-@ Penns Grove Ferry across the Delaware River , where it connected to Route 48 in Penns Grove , New Jersey . The ferry was discontinued in 1949 and the eastern terminus of DE 48 was cut back to its current location by 1952 .
= = Route description = =
DE 48 begins at an intersection with DE 41 in Hockessin , heading southeast on Lancaster Pike , a two @-@ lane undivided road . The road runs through wooded areas and residential development , curving east and gaining a second westbound lane . The route widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway and crosses the Wilmington and Western Railroad and Red Clay Creek . DE 48 comes to an intersection with DE 100 / DE 141 , at which point DE 100 forms a concurrency with DE 48 . The two routes head southeast as a four @-@ lane undivided road , passing through residential and commercial areas . The road crosses an East Penn Railroad line and runs to the north of a cemetery , with DE 100 splitting from DE 48 by turning south on South Dupont Road as it passes south of the Cab Calloway School of the Arts and Charter School of Wilmington .
DE 48 continues into Wilmington as Lancaster Avenue and heads into areas of homes and businesses , with the eastbound direction narrowing to one lane at an intersection with Greenhill Avenue . Following this intersection , the route crosses over CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision on a bridge . The road narrows to two lanes and passes to the north of another cemetery . The route intersects DE 2 , which follows the one @-@ way pair of Lincoln Street northbound and Union Street southbound , in the Union Park Gardens neighborhood .
At this point , DE 48 itself splits into a one @-@ way pair that follows Lancaster Avenue eastbound and West Second Street westbound , with westbound DE 48 using westbound DE 2 ( North Union Street ) to get from West Second Street to Lancaster Avenue . The one @-@ way pair carries two lanes in each direction . DE 48 continues into downtown Wilmington , where it crosses under a viaduct carrying I @-@ 95 / US 202 , with ramp connections to and from the southbound direction of I @-@ 95 / US 202 via Jackson Street , which parallels I @-@ 95 / US 202 to the west .
Upon crossing under I @-@ 95 / US 202 , a westbound ramp to I @-@ 95 / US 202 complements the eastbound direction of DE 48 , with the road becoming Martin Luther King , Jr . Boulevard , a six @-@ lane divided highway . Westbound DE 48 remains along one @-@ way West Second Street , which carries three lanes . DE 48 intersects the eastern terminus of DE 4 , which provides access to DE 48 from the northbound direction of I @-@ 95 / US 202 . The one @-@ way pair continues further into the downtown and runs a short distance to the north of Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor . The route intersects the southbound direction of US 13 Bus . , which shifts west from North King Street to South Market Street where it intersects DE 48 . Following the intersection with US 13 Bus. southbound , DE 48 follows the one @-@ way pair of East Front Street eastbound and East Second Street westbound , passing to the north of Wilmington Station along the Northeast Corridor that serves Amtrak and SEPTA 's Wilmington / Newark Line . DE 48 reaches its eastern terminus at an intersection with the northbound direction of US 13 Bus . , which follows Walnut Street .
DE 48 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 30 @,@ 195 vehicles at the DE 4 intersection to a low of 13 @,@ 264 vehicles at the McKennans Church Road intersection near Hockessin . The entire length of DE 48 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
The Wilmington Turnpike Company was founded on October 23 , 1809 to build a turnpike from Wilmington to the Pennsylvania border , connecting to the Gap and Newport Turnpike . The turnpike was completed in 1817 at a cost of $ 39 @,@ 549 @.@ 97 . The turnpike became known as the Lancaster Pike and was surfaced with stone . The Wilmington Turnpike Company operated the Lancaster Pike until 1877 when they abandoned the road . The turnpike 's charter was repealed and the road was then under the control of the county levy court . The road leading to the Wilmington @-@ Penns Grove Ferry across the Delaware River between Wilmington and Penns Grove , New Jersey was completed as a state highway by 1931 .
By 1936 , the Lancaster Pike became a part of DE 48 . In addition , the route continued through Wilmington on Lincoln Street , Fourth Street , and Christiana Avenue to the ferry across the Delaware River to Penns Grove , New Jersey , where it connected to Route 48 in New Jersey . In 1939 , DE 48 was rebuilt between DE 41 and Centre Road , eliminating curves and grades . In 1949 , the Wilmington @-@ Penns Grove Ferry was discontinued . DE 48 was realigned onto Lancaster Avenue to continue to US 13 / US 202 ( now US 13 Bus . ) , its current eastern terminus , by 1952 . By 1990 , DE 100 was realigned to follow a portion of DE 48 , bypassing a part of Dupont Road . DE 48 was widened into a divided highway at the DE 141 intersection by 1996 . The divided highway was extended west to Centerville Road a year later .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Ganting Grand Mosque =
The Ganting Grand Mosque ( Indonesian : Masjid Raya Ganting ; also written and pronounced Gantiang in Minang ) is a Sunni mosque located in Ganting , Padang , West Sumatra , Indonesia . Construction began in 1805 , making it the oldest in Padang and one of the oldest in Indonesia . It is a Cultural Property of Indonesia .
The building , which involved persons from various cultural backgrounds in its construction , was the centre of an Islamic reform in the area during the 19th century . Future president Sukarno spent a time of exile at the mosque in 1942 . It survived the tsunami which struck Padang following the 1833 Sumatra earthquake , but was severely damaged after earthquakes in 2005 and 2009 .
The one @-@ floor establishment continues to be used as a center for prayer , as well as religious education ; it also functions as a pesantren for the community . The mosque is also a tourist attraction .
= = Early history = =
According to Abdul Baqir Zein , the mosque was first built in 1700 at the foot of Mount Padang , then moved to the bank of Batang Arau , as the Dutch colonial government intended to use the previous location to build a road to Emma Haven Port . It was later moved to its present location . However , the Indonesian Department of Religion documents the mosque as having been constructed in 1790 with a wooden frame and a roof made from Sago palms . According to this documentation , a sturdier mosque was built in 1805 . Another history of the mosque , from the Culture and Tourism Department of the City of the Padang , suggests that the mosque was first constructed in 1805 . The small mosque had stone flooring , wood and dirt walls , and a pyramidal ceiling like the mosques in Java .
The construction of the mosque was spearheaded by three local figures , Angku Gapuak ( a rich merchant ) , Angku Syekh Haji Uma ( the village chief ) , and Angku Syekh Kapalo Koto ( an ulama ) , while the funds were provided by Minang businesspeople and ulamas throughout Sumatra . It was erected on waqf land donated by locals and located in the center of the city 's Minang district . Construction of the mosque finished in 1810 ; it measured 30 by 30 metres ( 98 ft × 98 ft ) and had a fence 4 metres ( 13 ft ) out from the mosque .
Since its establishment , the mosque has been used to counsel future hajj participants . It also served as the first point of departure for hajj participants from Central Sumatra , who left Sumatra via Emma Haven after the port was opened in 1895 . Before the end of the Padri War , in 1818 the Minang Ulamas held a meeting at Ganting to discuss the steps they would take to eliminate mysticism and superstition from Islam on the island .
In 1833 a large earthquake on the west coast of Sumatra struck up a tsunami which destroyed much of Padang . The mosque was one of several buildings which survived the tsunami . Its stone floor was later replaced by a mixture of clam shells and pumice .
= = Modern history = =
The floor had received work beginning in 1900 , when tiles from the Netherlands , ordered through Jacobson van den Berg . The tiles were installed by a company @-@ appointed worker ; installation was completed in 1910 . That year , the Dutch established a cement factory in Indarung , Padang . To transport the cement to the port at Emma Haven , the Dutch built a stone road in front of Ganting Grand Mosque ; this road took up roughly a third of the waqf land the mosque had been built on . As compensation , the Dutch sent the Genie Command Corps of West Sumatra ( an area that includes modern day West Sumatra and Tapanuli ) . The corps expanded the front chamber until it was 20 metres ( 66 ft ) in length ; they also built a Portuguese style façade . The mosque 's floor was replaced with cement imported from Germany . Meanwhile , ethnic Chinese under Captain Lo Chian Ko began working on an octagonal dome , resembling the top of a vihara . The mihrab for the imam to lead prayers and preach was given Chinese @-@ style carvings . In 1921 Abdul Karim Amrullah established the Thawalib Schools in Padang mosques , including Ganting , to better educate the local populace in Islam . The alumni later established the Persatuan Muslim Indonesia ( Permi ) , under the Masyumi Party . The mosque was the location of the first national jamboree of Muhammadiyah 's scouting organisation , Hizbul Wathan , in 1932 .
When the Japanese began occupying the Indies in 1942 , Sukarno – at the time a Dutch prisoner in Bengkulu – was evacuated to Kutacane . However , once they reached Painan they discovered that the Japanese forces had already occupied Bukittinggi ; this quashed hopes of bringing Sukarno to Barus in Tapanuli . The Dutch left Sukarno in Painan . Hizbul Wathan members , at the time based out of Ganting , went to retrieve Sukarno and bring him to Padang by cart . For several days after arriving in Padang , Sukarno slept at the mosque ; he also delivered a speech . During the three @-@ year Japanese occupation the mosque served as the military 's headquarters in central and western Sumatra . It also functioned as a training camp for Gyugun and Heiho soldiers , military units formed by the Japanese which consisted of native soldiers ; the Gyugun was formed by the ulamas , while the Heihos were taken from the santri .
After the Allies landed in Sumatra , many of the Muslim Indian soldiers brought by the English deserted and joined the native revolutionaries . They planned strategy in the mosque , including the assault on a British barracks . One of these Indian soldiers , who had died in the assault , was buried at the mosque . Since 1950 , after Indonesia 's independence was recognised , the Ganting Grand Mosque has hosted numerous statesmen from both Indonesia and abroad , including Vice President Mohammad Hatta , Minister of Defence Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX , and General Abdul Haris Nasution . Foreign dignitaries who have visited the mosque included people from Malaysia , Saudi Arabia , and Egypt .
Construction on the mosque has continued . In 1960 the mosque 's 25 columns , originally constructed from brick , were covered in ceramic tiles ; seven years later , this was followed seven years later by the construction of minarets on the left and right of the dome . In 1995 , the walls of the main chamber were covered in tile .
On 10 April 2005 an aftershock measuring 6 @.@ 7 on the Richter scale struck the west coast of Sumatra two weeks after a larger earthquake struck Nias . This caused crackage to the columns supporting the mosque 's roof . Three years later , the Ganting Grand Mosque was one of 608 places of worship severely damaged when another large earthquake struck the area on 30 September 2009 . The earthquake collapsed part of the mosque 's façade and caused severe structural damage to the interior columns ; as a result , the community feared that the mosque would collapse . Before renovations were completed in 2010 , prayers had to be held in the yard . In 2011 the Ganting Grand Mosque was listed as one of Indonesia 's 100 most beautiful mosques in a book compiled by Andalan Media . The only other mosque from West Sumatra included was Raya Bayur Mosque , Agam Regency .
= = Architecture = =
Ganting Grand Mosque is built on land measuring 102 by 95 @.@ 6 metres ( 335 ft × 314 ft ) ; the mosque itself is 42 by 39 metres ( 138 ft × 128 ft ) . The building has verandas on its front and sites , a mihrab , and a central area . The extra land can hold more people during the Eid prayers , on both Eid ul @-@ Fitr and Eid al @-@ Adha . The courtyard is surrounded by an iron fence , separating it from the busy streets on the eastern and northern sides of the mosque . On the southern side , as well as behind the mosque proper , there are numerous graves , including that of Angku Syekh Haji Uma , one of the mosque 's founders .
The architectural blend of numerous schools shows clearly because of the different cultural groups involved in the mosque 's construction , including the architecture of Europe , the Middle East , China , and the Minangkabau . The mosque 's roof goes upwards in five steps , with the dome at the top ; the first step is square , while the rest are octagonal . Each part of the roof has slits in it for lighting .
= = = Veranda = = =
The mosque proper has two main verandas , at the façade and its side . Both verandas measure 30 by 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 98 ft × 15 ft ) and have two doorways , one of which leads to the rooms for wudu located on the northern and southern sides of the mosque . On the western side of the mosque is a room ( ribat ) for its keeper , measuring 4 @.@ 5 by 3 metres ( 14 @.@ 8 ft × 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . The ribat has a 225 @-@ by @-@ 90 @-@ centimetre ( 89 in × 35 in ) door facing east and a window measuring 90 by 90 centimetres ( 35 in × 35 in ) .
The forward veranda measures 12 by 39 metres ( 39 ft × 128 ft ) and has six doorways to the east and two each to the north and south ; in each doorway hangs an iron grate door . Each of the east facing doorways is decorated with a pair of non @-@ supporting columns . In the center of the veranda is the 220 by 120 by 275 centimetres ( 87 in × 47 in × 108 in ) minbar , which juts out to the front and has an iron grate door . The minbar is only used during Eid prayers . Aside from the doors , the veranda has two windows with iron trellises , one each to the north and south .
On the eastern wall of the front veranda hangs a geometric carving created with square and rectangular panels . There are also arc designs which merge into ring and axehead shapes . The walls measure 34 centimetres ( 13 in ) thick and 320 centimetres ( 130 in ) high . Inside the veranda there are seven double iron @-@ wrought cylindrical columns with a diameter of 45 centimetres ( 18 in ) . These columns rest on concrete pedestals measuring 113 by 70 by 67 centimetres ( 44 in × 28 in × 26 in ) . There are also two square columns on the northern and southern sides , near a central , octagonal room which has one doorway from the east and one window .
= = = Main chamber = = =
The main chamber is a 30 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft × 98 ft ) square , with eight entrances on the east and due each on the north and south . The doors measure 160 by 264 centimetres ( 63 in × 104 in ) and have wooden doors with spread fan carvings on the threshold above . There are two windows with wooden frames on the eastern wall , flanking the doors , as well as three windows on both the north and south walls and eight on the west . These windows measure 1 @.@ 6 by 2 metres ( 5 ft 3 in × 6 ft 7 in ) . As with the doors , the threshold above the windows is decorated with spread fan carvings . The walls are made of concrete covered in ceramic , while the floor is made of white tiles with a flower motif .
This main room includes 25 soko guru , or main columns . They are hexagonal in shape and with diameters ranging from 40 to 50 centimetres ( 16 to 20 in ) . These columns are made of red brick and bound with egg whites , lacking any iron framework . The 25 columns are arranged in 5 rows , representing the 25 prophets in Islam . Each column is covered in marble engraved with the names of the prophets , from Adam to Muhammad . These columns are the main supports for the octagonal roof above .
On the western side of the room is a mihrab flanked by two smaller rooms on its north and south . The mihrab measures 2 by 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 6 ft 7 in × 4 ft 11 in ) . It is 320 centimetres ( 130 in ) tall on the east side and 210 centimetres ( 83 in ) tall on the west side .
= = = Other areas = = =
The Ganting Grand Mosque Masjid has wudu chambers measuring 10 by 3 metres ( 32 @.@ 8 ft × 9 @.@ 8 ft ) on the north and south sides of the side verandas . These enclosed chambers were built as permanent structures in 1967 . The mosque 's library is in a structure on the northern side of the mosque , which is connected to the mosque proper . There are also three smaller structures on the grounds for the consultation of future hajj pilgrims . One of the structures was once part of the a Thawalib school .
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= Ann Dunham =
Stanley Ann Dunham ( November 29 , 1942 – November 7 , 1995 ) was the mother of Barack Obama , the 44th President of the United States , and an American anthropologist who specialized in economic anthropology and rural development . Dunham was known as Stanley Dunham through high school , then as Ann Dunham , Ann Obama , Ann Soetoro , Ann Sutoro ( after her second divorce ) , and finally as Ann Dunham . Born in Wichita , Kansas , Dunham spent her childhood in California , Oklahoma , Texas and Kansas , her teenage years in Mercer Island , Washington , and most of her adult life in Hawaii and Indonesia .
Dunham studied at the East – West Center and at the University of Hawaii at Manoa in Honolulu , where she attained a bachelor 's of anthropology and master 's and PhD in anthropology . She also attended University of Washington at Seattle in 1961 – 1962 . Interested in craftsmanship , weaving and the role of women in cottage industries , Dunham 's research focused on women 's work on the island of Java and blacksmithing in Indonesia . To address the problem of poverty in rural villages , she created microcredit programs while working as a consultant for the United States Agency for International Development . Dunham was also employed by the Ford Foundation in Jakarta and she consulted with the Asian Development Bank in Gujranwala , Pakistan . Towards the latter part of her life , she worked with Bank Rakyat Indonesia , where she helped apply her research to the largest microfinance program in the world .
After her son was elected President , interest renewed in Dunham 's work : The University of Hawaii held a symposium about her research ; an exhibition of Dunham 's Indonesian batik textile collection toured the United States ; and in December 2009 , Duke University Press published Surviving against the Odds : Village Industry in Indonesia , a book based on Dunham 's original 1992 dissertation . Janny Scott , an author and former New York Times reporter , published a biography about Ann Dunham 's life titled A Singular Woman in 2011 . Posthumous interest has also led to the creation of The Ann Dunham Soetoro Endowment in the Anthropology Department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa , as well as the Ann Dunham Soetoro Graduate Fellowships , intended to fund students associated with the East – West Center ( EWC ) in Honolulu , Hawaii .
In an interview , Barack Obama referred to his mother as " the dominant figure in my formative years ... The values she taught me continue to be my touchstone when it comes to how I go about the world of politics . "
= = Early life = =
Dunham was born on November 29 , 1942 at Saint Francis Hospital in Wichita , Kansas , the only child of Madelyn Lee Payne and Stanley Armour Dunham . She was of predominantly English ancestry , with some German , Swiss , Scottish , Irish , and Welsh ancestry . Wild Bill Hickok is her sixth cousin , five times removed .
Ancestry.com announced on July 30 , 2012 , after using a combination of old documents and yDNA analysis , that Dunham 's mother may have been descended from African John Punch , who was an indentured servant / slave in seventeenth @-@ century colonial Virginia .
Her parents were born in Kansas and met in Wichita , where they married on May 5 , 1940 . After the attack on Pearl Harbor , her father joined the United States Army and her mother worked at a Boeing plant in Wichita . According to Dunham , she was named after her father because he wanted a son , though her relatives doubt this story and her maternal uncle recalled that her mother named Dunham after her favorite actress Bette Davis ' character in the film In This Our Life because she thought Stanley , as a girl 's name , sounded sophisticated . As a child and teenager she was known as Stanley . Other children teased her about her name but she used it through high school , " apologizing for it each time she introduced herself in a new town " . By the time Dunham began attending college , she was known by her middle name , Ann , instead . After World War II , Dunham 's family moved from Wichita to California while her father attended the University of California , Berkeley . In 1948 , they moved to Ponca City , Oklahoma , and from there to Vernon , Texas , and then to El Dorado , Kansas . In 1955 , the family moved to Seattle , Washington , where her father was employed as a furniture salesman and her mother worked as vice president of a bank . They lived in an apartment complex in the Wedgwood neighborhood where she attended Nathan Eckstein Junior High School .
In 1956 , Dunham 's family moved to Mercer Island , an Eastside suburb of Seattle . Dunham 's parents wanted their 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter to attend the newly opened Mercer Island High School . At the school , teachers Val Foubert and Jim Wichterman taught the importance of challenging social norms and questioning authority to the young Dunham , and she took the lessons to heart : " She felt she didn 't need to date or marry or have children . " One classmate remembered her as " intellectually way more mature than we were and a little bit ahead of her time , in an off @-@ center way " , and a high school friend described her as knowledgeable and progressive : " If you were concerned about something going wrong in the world , Stanley would know about it first . We were liberals before we knew what liberals were . " Another called her " the original feminist " .
= = Family life and marriages = =
On August 21 , 1959 , Hawaii became the 50th state to be admitted into the Union . Dunham 's parents sought business opportunities in the new state , and after graduating from high school in 1960 , Dunham and her family moved to Honolulu . Dunham soon enrolled at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa .
= = = First marriage = = =
While attending a Russian language class , Dunham met Barack Obama , Sr. , the school 's first African student . At the age of 23 , Obama Sr. had come to Hawaii to pursue his education , leaving behind a pregnant wife and infant son in his home town of Nyang 'oma Kogelo in Kenya . Dunham and Obama Sr. were married on the Hawaiian island of Maui on February 2 , 1961 , despite parental opposition from both families . Dunham was three months pregnant . Obama Sr. eventually informed Dunham about his first marriage in Kenya but claimed he was divorced . Years later , she would discover this was false . Obama Sr. ' s first wife , Kezia , later said she had granted her consent for him to marry a second wife , in keeping with Luo customs .
On August 4 , 1961 , at the age of 18 , Dunham gave birth to her first child , Barack Obama II . Friends in the state of Washington recall her visiting with her month @-@ old baby in 1961 . She took classes at the University of Washington from September 1961 to June 1962 , and lived as a single mother in the Capitol Hill neighborhood of Seattle with her son while her husband continued his studies in Hawaii . When Obama Sr. graduated from the University of Hawaii in June 1962 , he was offered a scholarship to study in New York City , but declined it , preferring to attend the more prestigious Harvard University . He left for Cambridge , Massachusetts , where he would begin graduate study at Harvard in the fall of 1962 . Dunham returned to Honolulu and resumed her undergraduate education at the University of Hawaii with the spring semester in January 1963 . During this time , her parents helped her raise the young Obama . Dunham filed for divorce in January 1964 , which Obama Sr. did not contest . In December 1964 , Obama Sr. married Ruth Baker , a Jewish American of Lithuanian heritage ; they were separated in 1971 and divorced in 1973 after having two sons . In 1965 , Obama Sr. received a MA in economics from Harvard . In 1971 , he came to Hawaii for a month and visited his son Barack , then 10 years old ; it was the last time he would see his son , and their only major personal interaction . In 1982 , Obama Sr. was killed in a car accident .
= = = Second marriage = = =
It was at the East – West Center that Dunham met Lolo Soetoro , a Javanese surveyor who had come to Honolulu in September 1962 on an East – West Center grant to study geography at the University of Hawaii . Soetoro graduated from the University of Hawaii with an M.A. in geography in June 1964 . In 1965 , Soetoro and Dunham were married in Hawaii , and in 1966 , Soetoro returned to Indonesia . Dunham graduated from the University of Hawaii with a B.A. in anthropology on August 6 , 1967 , and moved in October the same year with her six @-@ year @-@ old son to Jakarta , Indonesia , to rejoin her husband .
In Indonesia , Soetoro worked first as a low @-@ paid topographical surveyor for the Indonesian government , and later in the government relations office of Union Oil Company . The family first lived at 16 Kyai Haji Ramli Tengah Street in a newly built neighborhood in the Menteng Dalam administrative village of the Tebet subdistrict in South Jakarta for two and a half years , with her son attending the nearby Indonesian @-@ language Santo Fransiskus Asisi ( St. Francis of Assisi ) Catholic School for 1st , 2nd , and part of 3rd grade , then in 1970 moved two miles north to 22 Taman Amir Hamzah Street in the Matraman Dalam neighborhood in the Pegangsaan administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict in Central Jakarta , with her son attending the Indonesian @-@ language government @-@ run Besuki School one and half miles east in the exclusive Menteng administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict for part of 3rd grade and for 4th grade . On August 15 , 1970 , Soetoro and Dunham had a daughter , Maya Kassandra Soetoro .
In Indonesia , Dunham enriched her son 's education with correspondence courses in English , recordings of Mahalia Jackson , and speeches by Martin Luther King Jr . In 1971 , she sent the young Obama back to Hawaii to attend Punahou School starting in 5th grade rather than having him stay in Indonesia with her . Madelyn Dunham 's job at the Bank of Hawaii , where she had worked her way up over a decade from clerk to becoming one of its first two female vice presidents in 1970 , helped pay the steep tuition , with some assistance from a scholarship .
A year later , in August 1972 , Dunham and her daughter moved back to Hawaii to rejoin her son and begin graduate study in anthropology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa . Dunham 's graduate work was supported by an Asia Foundation grant from August 1972 to July 1973 and by an East – West Center Technology and Development Institute grant from August 1973 to December 1978 .
Dunham completed her coursework at the University of Hawaii for an M.A. in anthropology in December 1974 , and after having spent three years in Hawaii , Dunham , accompanied by her daughter Maya , returned to Indonesia in 1975 to do anthropological field work . Her son chose not to go with them back to Indonesia , preferring to finish high school at Punahou School in Honolulu while living with his grandparents . Lolo Soetoro and Dunham divorced on November 5 , 1980 ; Lolo Soetoro married Erna Kustina in 1980 and had two children , a son , Yusuf Aji Soetoro ( born 1981 ) , and daughter , Rahayu Nurmaida Soetoro ( born 1987 ) . Lolo Soetoro died , age 52 , on March 2 , 1987 , due to liver failure .
Dunham was not estranged from either ex @-@ husband and encouraged her children to feel connected to their fathers .
= = Professional life = =
From January 1968 to December 1969 , Dunham taught English and was an assistant director of the Lembaga Persahabatan Indonesia Amerika ( LIA ) – the Indonesia @-@ America Friendship Institute at 9 Teuku Umar Street in the Gondangdia administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict in Central Jakarta – which was subsidized by the U.S. government . From January 1970 to August 1972 , Dunham taught English and was a department head and a director of the Lembaga Pendidikan dan Pengembangan Manajemen ( LPPM ) – the Institute of Management Education and Development at 9 Menteng Raya Street in the Kebon Sirih administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict in Central Jakarta .
From 1968 to 1972 , Dunham was a co @-@ founder and active member of the Ganesha Volunteers ( Indonesian Heritage Society ) at the National Museum in Jakarta . From 1972 to 1975 , Dunham was crafts instructor ( in weaving , batik , and dye ) at the Bishop Museum in Honolulu .
Dunham then had a career in rural development , championing women 's work and microcredit for the world 's poor and worked with leaders from organizations supporting Indonesian human rights , women 's rights , and grass @-@ roots development .
In March 1977 , Dunham , under the supervision of agricultural economics professor Leon A. Mears , developed and taught a short lecture course at the Faculty of Economics of the University of Indonesia ( FEUI ) in Jakarta for staff members of BAPPENAS ( Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional ) — the Indonesian National Development Planning Agency .
From June 1977 through September 1978 , Dunham carried out research on village industries in the Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta ( DIY ) — the Yogyakarta Special Region within Central Java in Indonesia under a student grant from the East – West Center . As a weaver herself , Dunham was interested in village industries , and moved to Yogyakarta City , the center of Javanese handicrafts .
In May and June 1978 , Dunham was a short @-@ term consultant in the office of the International Labour Organization ( ILO ) in Jakarta , writing recommendations on village industries and other non @-@ agricultural enterprises for the Indonesian government 's third five @-@ year development plan ( REPELITA III ) .
From October 1978 to December 1980 , Dunham was a rural industries consultant in Central Java on the Indonesian Ministry of Industry 's Provincial Development Program ( PDP I ) , funded by USAID in Jakarta and implemented through Development Alternatives , Inc . ( DAI ) .
From January 1981 to November 1984 , Dunham was the program officer for women and employment in the Ford Foundation 's Southeast Asia regional office in Jakarta . While at the Ford Foundation , she developed a model of microfinance which is now the standard in Indonesia , a country that is a world leader in micro @-@ credit systems . Peter Geithner , father of Tim Geithner ( who later became U.S. Secretary of the Treasury in her son 's administration ) , was head of the foundation 's Asia grant @-@ making at that time .
From May to November 1986 and from August to November 1987 , Dunham was a cottage industries development consultant for the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan ( ADBP ) under the Gujranwala Integrated Rural Development Project ( GADP ) . The credit component of the project was implemented in the Gujranwala district of the Punjab province of Pakistan with funding from the Asian Development Bank and IFAD , with the credit component implemented through Louis Berger International , Inc . Dunham worked closely with the Lahore office of the Punjab Small Industries Corporation ( PSIC ) .
From January 1988 to 1995 , Dunham was a consultant and research coordinator for Indonesia 's oldest bank , Bank Rakyat Indonesia ( BRI ) in Jakarta , with her work funded by USAID and the World Bank . In March 1993 , Dunham was a research and policy coordinator for Women 's World Banking ( WWB ) in New York . She helped WWB manage the Expert Group Meeting on Women and Finance in New York in January 1994 , and helped the WWB take prominent roles in the UN 's Fourth World Conference on Women held September 4 – 15 , 1995 in Beijing , and in the UN regional conferences and NGO forums that preceded it .
On August 9 , 1992 , she was awarded PhD in anthropology from the University of Hawaii , under the supervision of Prof. Alice G. Dewey , with a 1 @,@ 043 @-@ page dissertation titled Peasant blacksmithing in Indonesia : surviving and thriving against all odds . Anthropologist Michael Dove described the dissertation as " a classic , in @-@ depth , on @-@ the @-@ ground anthropological study of a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ year @-@ old industry " . According to Dove , Dunham 's dissertation challenged popular perceptions regarding economically and politically marginalized groups , and countered the notions that the roots of poverty lie with the poor themselves and that cultural differences are responsible for the gap between less @-@ developed countries and the industrialized West . According to Dove , Dunham :
found that the villagers she studied in Central Java had many of the same economic needs , beliefs and aspirations as the most capitalist of Westerners . Village craftsmen were " keenly interested in profits " , she wrote , and entrepreneurship was " in plentiful supply in rural Indonesia " , having been " part of the traditional culture " there for a millennium .
Based on these observations , Dr. Soetoro concluded that underdevelopment in these communities resulted from a scarcity of capital , the allocation of which was a matter of politics , not culture . Antipoverty programs that ignored this reality had the potential , perversely , of exacerbating inequality because they would only reinforce the power of elites . As she wrote in her dissertation , " many government programs inadvertently foster stratification by channeling resources through village officials " , who then used the money to strengthen their own status further .
= = Illness and death = =
In late 1994 , Dunham was living and working in Indonesia . One night , during dinner at a friend 's house in Jakarta , she experienced stomach pain . A visit to a local physician led to an initial diagnosis of indigestion . Dunham returned to the United States in early 1995 and was examined at the Memorial Sloan – Kettering Cancer Center in New York City and diagnosed with uterine cancer . By this time , the cancer had spread to her ovaries . She moved back to Hawaii to live near her widowed mother and died on November 7 , 1995 , 22 days short of her 53rd birthday . Following a memorial service at the University of Hawaii , Obama and his sister spread their mother 's ashes in the Pacific Ocean at Lanai Lookout on the south side of Oahu . Obama scattered the ashes of his grandmother ( Madelyn Dunham ) in the same spot on December 23 , 2008 , weeks after his election to the presidency .
Obama talked about Dunham 's death in a 30 @-@ second campaign advertisement ( " Mother " ) arguing for health care reform . The ad featured a photograph of Dunham holding a young Obama in her arms as Obama talks about her last days worrying about expensive medical bills . The topic also came up in a 2007 speech in Santa Barbara :
I remember my mother . She was 52 years old when she died of ovarian cancer , and you know what she was thinking about in the last months of her life ? She wasn 't thinking about getting well . She wasn 't thinking about coming to terms with her own mortality . She had been diagnosed just as she was transitioning between jobs . And she wasn 't sure whether insurance was going to cover the medical expenses because they might consider this a preexisting condition . I remember just being heartbroken , seeing her struggle through the paperwork and the medical bills and the insurance forms . So , I have seen what it 's like when somebody you love is suffering because of a broken health care system . And it 's wrong . It 's not who we are as a people .
Dunham 's employer @-@ provided health insurance covered most of the costs of her medical treatment , leaving her to pay the deductible and uncovered expenses , which came to several hundred dollars per month . Her employer @-@ provided disability insurance denied her claims for uncovered expenses because the insurance company said her cancer was a preexisting condition .
= = Posthumous interest = =
In September 2008 , the University of Hawaii at Mānoa held a symposium about Dunham . In December 2009 , Duke University Press published a version of Dunham 's dissertation titled Surviving against the Odds : Village Industry in Indonesia . The book was revised and edited by Dunham 's graduate advisor , Alice G. Dewey , and Nancy I. Cooper . Dunham 's daughter , Maya Soetoro @-@ Ng , wrote the foreword for the book . In his afterword , Boston University anthropologist Robert W. Hefner describes Dunham 's research as " prescient " and her legacy as " relevant today for anthropology , Indonesian studies , and engaged scholarship " . The book was launched at the 2009 annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association in Philadelphia with a special Presidential Panel on Dunham 's work ; The 2009 meeting was taped by C @-@ SPAN .
In 2009 , an exhibition of Dunham 's Javanese batik textile collection ( A Lady Found a Culture in its Cloth : Barack Obama 's Mother and Indonesian Batiks ) toured six museums in the United States , finishing the tour at the Textile Museum of Washington , D.C. in August . Early in her life , Dunham explored her interest in the textile arts as a weaver , creating wall hangings for her own enjoyment . After moving to Indonesia , she was attracted to the striking textile art of the batik and began to collect a variety of different fabrics .
In December 2010 Dunham was awarded the Bintang Jasa Utama , the highest civilian award in Indonesia .
A lengthy major biography of Dunham by former New York Times reporter Janny Scott , titled A Singular Woman , was published in 2011 .
The University of Hawaii Foundation has established the Ann Dunham Soetoro Endowment , which supports a faculty position housed in the Anthropology Department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa , and the Ann Dunham Soetoro Graduate Fellowships , providing funding for students associated with the East – West Center ( EWC ) in Honolulu , Hawaii .
In 2010 the Stanley Ann Dunham Scholarship was established for young women graduating from Mercer Island High School , Ann 's alma mater . In its first six years the scholarship fund has awarded eleven college scholarships .
On January 1 , 2012 , President Obama and family visited an exhibition of his mother 's anthropological work on display at the University of Hawaii .
Filmmaker Vivian Norris 's feature length biographical film of Ann Dunham entitled Obama Mama ( La mère d 'Obama @-@ French title ) premiered on May 31 , 2014 as part of the 40th annual Seattle International Film Festival , not far from where Dunham grew up on Mercer Island .
= = Personal beliefs = =
In his 1995 memoir Dreams from My Father , Barack Obama wrote , " My mother 's confidence in needlepoint virtues depended on a faith I didn 't possess ... In a land [ Indonesia ] where fatalism remained a necessary tool for enduring hardship ... she was a lonely witness for secular humanism , a soldier for New Deal , Peace Corps , position @-@ paper liberalism . " In his 2006 book The Audacity of Hope Obama wrote , " I was not raised in a religious household ... My mother 's own experiences ... only reinforced this inherited skepticism . Her memories of the Christians who populated her youth were not fond ones ... And yet for all her professed secularism , my mother was in many ways the most spiritually awakened person that I 've ever known . " " Religion for her was " just one of the many ways — and not necessarily the best way — that man attempted to control the unknowable and understand the deeper truths about our lives , " Obama wrote .
Dunham 's daughter , Maya Soetoro @-@ Ng , when asked later if her mother was an atheist , said , " I wouldn 't have called her an atheist . She was an agnostic . She basically gave us all the good books — the Bible , the Hindu Upanishads and the Buddhist scripture , the Tao Te Ching — and wanted us to recognize that everyone has something beautiful to contribute . " " Jesus , she felt , was a wonderful example . But she felt that a lot of Christians behaved in un @-@ Christian ways . " On the other hand , Maxine Box , Dunham 's best friend in high school , said that Dunham " touted herself [ then ] as an atheist , and it was something she 'd read about and could argue . She was always challenging and arguing and comparing . She was already thinking about things that the rest of us hadn 't . "
In a 2007 speech , Obama contrasted the beliefs of his mother to those of her parents , and commented on her spirituality and skepticism : " My mother , whose parents were nonpracticing Baptists and Methodists , was one of the most spiritual souls I ever knew . But she had a healthy skepticism of religion as an institution . "
Obama also described his own beliefs in relation to the religious upbringing of his mother and father :
My father was from Kenya and a lot of people in his village were Muslim . He didn 't practice Islam . Truth is he wasn 't very religious . He met my mother . My mother was a Christian from Kansas , and they married and then divorced . I was raised by my mother . So , I 've always been a Christian . The only connection I 've had to Islam is that my grandfather on my father 's side came from that country . But I 've never practiced Islam .
= = Publications = =
Dunham , S Ann ( 1982 ) . Civil rights of working Indonesian women . OCLC 428080409 .
Dunham , S Ann ( 1982 ) . The effects of industrialization on women workers in Indonesia . OCLC 428078083 .
Dunham , S Ann ( 1982 ) . Women 's work in village industries on Java . OCLC 663711102 .
Dunham , S Ann ( 1983 ) . Women 's economic activities in North Coast fishing communities : background for a proposal from PPA . OCLC 428080414 .
Dunham , S Ann ; Haryanto , Roes ( 1990 ) . BRI Briefing Booklet : KUPEDES Development Impact Survey . Jakarta : Bank Rakyat Indonesia .
Dunham , S Ann ( 1992 ) . Peasant blacksmithing in Indonesia : surviving against all odds ( Thesis ) . Honolulu : University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa . OCLC 608906279 , 607863728 , 221709485 .
Dunham , S Ann ; Liputo , Yuliani ; Prabantoro , Andityas ( 2008 ) . Pendekar @-@ pendekar besi Nusantara : kajian antropologi tentang pandai besi tradisional di Indonesia [ Nusantara iron warrior @-@ warrior : anthropological studies of traditional blacksmiths in Indonesia ] ( in Indonesian ) . Bandung , Indonesia : Mizan . ISBN 9789794335345 . OCLC 778260082 .
Dunham , S Ann ( 2010 ) [ 2009 ] . Dewey , Alice G ; Cooper , Nancy I , eds . Surviving against the odds : village industry in Indonesia . Foreword by Maya Soetoro @-@ Ng ; afterword by Robert W. Hefner . Durham , NC : Duke University Press . ISBN 9780822346876 . OCLC 492379459 , 652066335 .
Dunham , S Ann ; Ghildyal , Anita ( 2012 ) . Ann Dunham 's legacy : a collection of Indonesian batik . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia . ISBN 9789834469672 . OCLC 809731662 .
= = Ancestry = =
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= New Jersey Route 49 =
Route 49 is a state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 53 @.@ 80 mi ( 86 @.@ 58 km ) from an interchange with the Delaware Memorial Bridge extension of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 295 and U.S. Route 40 ) in Deepwater , Salem County , where it continues north as U.S. Route 130 southeast to Route 50 and County Route 557 in Tuckahoe , Cape May County . The route serves Salem , Cumberland , Atlantic , and Cape May Counties , passing through rural areas and the communities of Salem , Bridgeton , and Millville along the way . It is a two @-@ lane , undivided road for most of its length .
Route 49 was established in 1927 to run from Salem to Clermont , running along its present alignment between Salem and Millville , following current Route 47 between Millville and South Dennis , and running along present @-@ day Route 83 between South Dennis and Clermont . It replaced a branch of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 between Salem and Bridgeton and a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 15 between Bridgeton and South Dennis . In 1953 , Route 49 was routed onto its current alignment , replacing a part of Route 44 between Salem and Deepwater and following the former alignment of Route 47 between Millville and Tuckahoe . In the 1960s , a freeway was planned for Route 49 between Deepwater and Millville ; it was never built . In the 2000s , many improvements have been or are being made to bridges along Route 49 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Salem County = = =
Route 49 heads south on Broadway from an interchange with the Delaware Memorial Bridge extension of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 295 / U.S. Route 40 ) in the community of Deepwater in Pennsville Township , Salem County . North of here , the road continues to the north as U.S. Route 130 . Route 49 passes through residential areas of Pennsville and intersects County Route 630 ( Fort Mott Road ) , continuing into farmland . Route 49 then intersects the southern terminus of County Route 551 ( Hook Road and County Route 632 ( Lighthouse Road ) . It crosses the Salem River into Salem and becomes Front Street .
In Salem , the route intersects County Route 657 ( Griffith Street ) and makes a right turn . It turns left onto Broadway and forms the main business district of the town . In downtown Salem , Route 49 intersects County Route 625 ( Chestnut Street ) , the southern terminus of Route 45 ( Market Street ) , and County Route 665 ( Walnut Street ) . It crosses County Route 658 ( Keasbey Street / York Street ) and enters Quinton Township , becoming Main Street and heading into agricultural areas . Route 49 heads east , meeting County Route 650 ( Hancocks Bridge Road ) and County Route 653 ( Action Station Road ) . It crosses the Alloway Creek into the community of Quinton , where it intersects the southern terminus of County Route 581 ( Quinton Alloway Road ) and County Route 654 ( Sickler Street ) . The route leaves Quinton and intersects County Route 626 ( Jericho Road ) , continuing southeast into wooded areas , where Route 49 crosses County Route 667 ( Pecks Corner Road ) and County Route 647 ( Telegraph Road / Jericho Road ) .
= = = Cumberland County = = =
Route 49 crosses a stream , Sarah Run , into Stow Creek Township , Cumberland County and heads into farmland as Shiloh Pike . Here , it crosses County Route 624 ( Jericho Road ) and County Route 617 ( Columbia Highway ) . The route then intersects County Route 635 ( Old Cohansey Road ) and continues south along the border of Stow Creek Township to the west and Hopewell Township to the east , entering Shiloh at the intersection with Mill Road . In Shiloh , Route 49 meets County Route 620 ( Roadstown Road ) and County Route 753 ( East Avenue / West Avenue ) in the center of town and heads southeast , crossing County Route 695 ( Maple Avenue / Randolph Road ) . The route enters Hopewell Township and intersects County Route 661 ( Barretts Run Road ) .
Past this intersection , Route 49 enters a more suburban landscape , crossing County Route 621 ( W. Park Drive ) . The route enters Bridgeton and becomes Broad Street . In Bridgeton , it intersects County Route 607 ( West Avenue ) , County Route 650 ( Fayette Street ) , and County Route 697 ( Atlantic Street ) . Route 49 crosses the Cohansey River and comes to an intersection with Pearl Street , which heads to the north as Route 77 and to the south as County Route 609 . Past Pearl Street , Route 49 crosses County Route 670 ( Commerce Street / Buckshutem Road ) and Route 49 continues to the east on Commerce Street . It crosses County Route 638 ( N. Burlington Road ) and enters Fairfield Township .
Route 49 continues east through a mix of woods and farms , intersecting County Route 553 ( Gouldtown @-@ Woodruff Road ) and County Route 675 ( Fordville @-@ Gouldtown Road ) . It enters Millville and becomes Main Street , intersecting County Route 682 ( Sugarman Avenue ) and County Route 634 ( Nabb Avenue ) . It intersects three more county routes , County Route 714 ( Morias Avenue ) , County Route 625 ( Hogbin Road ) , and County Route 712 ( Reick Road ) , before heading into the city . It intersects County Route 608 ( Carmel Road ) and County Route 698 ( Beech Street ) , County Route 667 ( Sharp Street ) , and County Route 610 ( Brandriff Avenue ) before meeting County Route 555 ( Cedar Street ) , which it forms a concurrency with . The route crosses the Maurice River and enters downtown Millville , where it intersects Route 47 ( Second Street ) . Past Route 47 , County Route 555 splits from Route 49 by turning north onto Third Street . Route 49 heads east through the eastern part of Millville , intersecting County Route 678 ( Wade Boulevard ) and interchanging with Route 55 . Past Route 55 , Route 49 heads southeast into woodland and crosses into Maurice River Township . In Maurice River Township , Route 49 intersects County Route 671 ( Union Road ) , County Route 646 ( Port Elizabeth @-@ Cumberland Road ) , and County Route 644 ( Hesstown Road ) . Route 49 eventually forms the border of Maurice River Township to the north and Upper Township , Cape May County to the south .
= = = Atlantic and Cape May Counties = = =
Route 49 crosses the Tuckahoe River into Estell Manor , Atlantic County . It runs a short distance to the north of the Tuckahoe River and intersects County Route 649 ( Aetna Avenue ) and County Route 666 ( Cape May Avenue ) . The route crosses the Tuckahoe River into Upper Township , Cape May County and intersects the eastern terminus of County Route 548 ( Tuckahoe Road ) , heading to the east . It intersects County Route 632 ( Marshallville Road ) and then comes to County Route 617 ( Woodbine Road ) , which heads south to provide access to County Route 557 . Route 49 continues east into Tuckahoe , where it intersects County Route 659 ( Railroad Avenue ) and ends at Route 50 and County Route 557 .
= = History = =
Route 49 was legislated in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering to run from Route 45 in Salem to Route 4 ( now U.S. Route 9 ) in Clermont . The route replaced a branch of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 between Salem and Bridgeton and a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 15 between Bridgeton and South Dennis . A spur route of Route 49 , Route S49 , was created in 1927 to run from Route 49 in South Dennis to Route 4 in Rio Grande along the remainder of pre @-@ 1927 Route 15 . Route S49 was extended to Wildwood in 1938 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 49 was extended west along what was a part of Route 44 to Deepwater to end at U.S. Route 40 and U.S. Route 130 near the Delaware Memorial Bridge . The eastern part of the route was realigned to head from Millville east to Route 50 in Tuckahoe , replacing what had been the southern part of Route 47 . Meanwhile , Route 47 was realigned to head south from Millville , replacing Route 49 from Millville to South Dennis and the length of Route S49 . The portion of Route 49 from South Dennis to Clermont became Route 83 .
A freeway was proposed for Route 49 in the early 1960s , running from Interstate 295 and U.S. Route 40 at the Delaware Memorial Bridge to Route 55 in Millville . However , this freeway was canceled by 1967 as it closely paralleled the planned Route 60 freeway , which itself was never built .
In the 2000s , construction has occurred to replace many bridges along Route 49 . The drawbridge over the Salem River was replaced by a fixed span in the mid @-@ 2000s . On October 1 , 2008 , the bridge over the railroad line in Tuckahoe was closed for reconstruction and is expected to reopen in June 2009 . The bridge over the Cohansey River in Bridgeton is also being reconstructed . Construction on this bridge started in October 2008 and is expected to be completed in July 2009 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Thomas S. Hinde =
Thomas Spottswood Hinde ( April 19 , 1785 – February 9 , 1846 ) was an American newspaper editor , opponent of slavery , author , historian , real estate investor , Methodist minister and a founder of the city of Mount Carmel , Illinois . Members of the Hinde family were prominent in Virginia , Kentucky , Ohio , and Illinois . His sons Charles T. Hinde became a shipping magnate and Edmund C. Hinde an adventurer . He was the father @-@ in @-@ law of judge Charles H. Constable .
Hinde was an active businessman , pursuing real estate , construction , and publishing opportunities in Kentucky , Ohio and Illinois . In his early years , Hinde publicly opposed slavery . He also used his newspaper , The Fredonian , in Chillicothe , Ohio between 1806 @-@ 1808 , to highlight issues about Indian treaties and the conspiracy of Aaron Burr . He served in the War of 1812 . In later years he was a pioneer in the settlement of Indiana and Illinois , and the expansion of the Methodist Church in these areas . He contributed to the Madoc Tradition and was a noted historian and biographer . Hinde cofounded the Wabash Navigation Company , which engaged in real estate speculation and dam construction . The company dammed the Wabash River next to Hinde 's property , creating the Grand Rapids Dam . The dam was abandoned by the Federal government in 1931 .
Hinde was an ordained Methodist minister and traveled extensively to advance the interests of the church . He was a pioneering circuit rider in the early 1800s in Kentucky , Indiana , Illinois , and Missouri . Hinde wrote and published religious articles in many leading publications . Francis Asbury , one of the first two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States , considered Hinde important to the church . He frequently met with him and mentioned him in his journals . Historian Lyman Draper spent more than twenty years collecting documents by and about the Hinde family , along with papers of other important figures of the Trans @-@ Allegheny West . The Draper Manuscript Collection at the Wisconsin Historical Society holds 47 volumes of Hinde 's personal papers , donated by his family after his death .
= = Early years = =
Thomas S. Hinde was born April 19 , 1785 in Hanover County , Virginia , to Dr. Thomas Hinde ( 1737 – 1828 ) and Mary Todd Hubbard ( 1734 – 1830 ) , as the seventh of eight children . His father was an English doctor who served as a physician to Patrick Henry and General James Wolfe . Little is known about Hinde 's early years except that the family moved from Virginia to Newport , Kentucky , in 1797 when his father was awarded a land grant of 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 km2 ) for his services in the American Revolutionary War . In a letter to President James Madison many years later , Hinde related that while walking to school in the wilderness of Kentucky , he once successfully fought off a wolf and a panther . Daniel Boone and Simon Kenton were neighbors of the Hinde family while they lived in Kentucky , and the three men grew up as colleagues . One of Hinde 's sisters married Richard Southgate ; his nephews William Wright Southgate and William Taylor became prominent lawyers and politicians .
After a conversion by his mother Mary and older sister Susannah in 1798 , all of Hinde 's family , including his father , converted to Christianity as Methodists . Thomas delayed a while . Shortly afterward the younger Hinde became close friends with Francis Asbury , who became a prominent bishop in the church . Hinde later described the conversion of his youngest sister , Martha Harrison Hinde , in an 1827 article published in the Methodist Review under his pen name , Theophilus Arminius . Hinde recounted Bishop Asbury visiting his father 's home in 1803 and telling Martha that she had better find God , because before he could meet her again she would be dead . The bishop 's prophecy came true when Martha died in 1811 without having seen Asbury again . Hinde said she had converted before her death and tried to convert the nonbelievers in the room while on her deathbed . He shared a letter in which his sister had tried to convert her close friends . Hinde named his first daughter after his late sister Martha . Hinde did not immediately convert but attended Methodist camp meetings of the period . During his life , he frequently wrote about the importance of the camp meeting in bringing Christianity and democracy to the west .
In 1801 , Hinde got a job as deputy clerk for the Kentucky Court of Appeals . William Kavanaugh , the husband of Hinde 's older sister Hannah , assigned him to Achilles Sneed of Frankfort . He received a good legal education with Sneed , who was Clerk of the Court of Appeals . During this time , Hinde became acquainted with many of the state 's leading men , and acquired a knowledge of the law . He also developed a reputation as one of Kentucky 's most efficient businessmen . Hinde wrote to Henry Clay that he was the first lawyer whom Hinde heard address a court . Hinde resided in a boarding house , shared with many of the leading judges and politicians of the day , where he strengthened his personal and political contacts .
= = Newspaper publisher = =
From an early age , Hinde opposed slavery . Although their parents owned slaves , he and his siblings repudiated slavery on religious grounds . Hinde 's opposition increased and eventually he and other friends became outspoken critics of the institution in Kentucky , where slavery was commonplace in the middle and western parts of the state . In the Great Awakening , Methodists were prominent among those who opposed slavery , although they also converted slaves and welcomed them into congregations . In Kentucky Hinde joined other Methodist ministers in the abolitionist movement .
In a letter to President Madison , Hinde attributed his opposition to slavery to the influence of his mother . He wrote :
In 1805 , Messrs. Wood and Street , from Richmond , Va . , found their way to Kentucky . Friendly considerations led me to patronize them . This was done through the solicitations of a young friend from Virginia . They commenced a paper , published in 1806 , called the ' Western World . ' Imbibing strong prejudices against slavery , perhaps from my mother 's repeating , in my infancy , the nurse 's songs composed by Cowper , designed to make such impressions . In June 1806 , to the great astonishment of my friends , I left Kentucky , with all the flattering prospects a youth could have , and hastened to Ohio . Connecting circumstances , and from hints that fell from Wood and others , a deep impression had been made on my mind , that an eventful period was fast approaching .
Because of the slavery issue , in 1806 Hinde moved from Kentucky to Chillicothe in the free state of Ohio . In partnership with his brother @-@ in @-@ law R.D. Richardson , beginning in 1806 , he edited and published a newspaper titled the Fredonian . Fredonian was a sonorous name for ' a citizen of the United States . ' In later years it was applied to an American @-@ inspired rebellion to separate Texas from Mexico .
From early in his career , Hinde fought the projects of Aaron Burr . He collected and published material in The Fredonian related to what he said was Burr 's conspiracy to overthrow the US government . Hinde sent the evidence to Henry Clay , a longtime friend of his family and later secretary of state , but the papers disappeared .
While working at the Kentucky Court of Appeals , Hinde had developed a close relationship with George Madison and his nephew John Madison . In 1829 Hinde wrote to their relation , President James Madison , to provide him with information about the Burr conspiracy for a political history the president was said to be writing . Madison denied the project , but asked Hinde to send copies of The Fredonian to include in his presidential papers . Hinde sent newspaper issues dealing with the Burr Conspiracy . The copies of the newspaper were filed with the President 's papers .
After moving to Ohio , Hinde was unanimously elected by the Ohio House of Representatives to the position of clerk pro tempore . He held the position for three years before shifting to focus on his successful speculation in military lands .
= = Marriages and family = =
On October 19 , 1809 , with minister William Lynes officiating , Hinde at the age of 24 married Belinda Bradford , the daughter of the late James Bradford , in Hamilton County , Ohio . His father @-@ in @-@ law was a descendant of William Bradford of Plymouth Colony . He had been killed in 1791 in St. Clair 's Defeat , and buried in Fort Recovery .
Hinde and Belinda had three children : James B. , John Madison , and Martha . The second son was named after Hinde 's friend Dr. John Madison , a nephew of George Madison and a relative of James Madison . The daughter Martha married Charles H. Constable , who became a prominent Illinois politician . He is notable for his decision as judge to allow four Union deserters to go free during the Civil War . Belinda died in 1827 .
In 1828 , Hinde married Sarah Neal ( Daugherty ) Cavileer . They had three children : Edmund C. , Charles T. and Belinda . Edmund was a pioneer who participated in the California Gold Rush ; after his death , his journals were published . Charles became a business tycoon in Southern California , playing a pivotal role in its development through his shipping expertise . Belinda married Jacob Zimmerman , a successful newspaper editor and owner who in later years held a number of political offices in Illinois .
= = Conversion to Methodism = =
Hinde was involved with the newspaper for less than two years . He converted from Deism to Methodism and decided that operating a political journal conflicted with his new religious views . After retiring from the newspaper business , he engaged in locating military lands and in land speculation . For the rest of his life , Hinde published editorials in newspapers and religious publications . He organized several camp meetings with other preachers , saying that the camp meeting could unite the different Protestant denominations .
At times , Francis Asbury ventured into the wilderness to visit Hinde . An 1856 account states ,
In 1810 Bishop Asbury visited an obscure part of the western country ( Kanawha ) which was then a wilderness , and pleasantly told the Rev. Thomas S. Hinde that he had visited the region in order that the people might see and know their superintendent ; remarking , " The shepherd ought to know the flock , and the flock the shepherd : they ought to know what man it is that governs them , and I have come nearly one hundred miles out of my way to see them . " The writer exclaims , " O Asbury , the inhabitants of these hills and mountains will long make mention of thee ! "
Hinde is thought to have received his license to preach sometime around 1810 . His first sermon was in Chillicothe in either 1807 or 1808 , and people were so eager to hear him that they filled the church . The sermon was described as having " ... no coherence in his discourse . " During the sermon , Hinde repeatedly stated , " My bowels , my bowels ! "
According to a 19th @-@ century account ,
As a preacher , he was rather eccentric . He was not very fluent and gifted as a speaker , but had the power of engaging the attention of his hearers , and was very successful and useful in a revival of religion . He entertained rather singular views on the subject of the orders in the ministry , objecting to the order of deacons , and holding that the eldership is the only true order . In consequence of these peculiar views , he would never consent to be ordained a deacon , and therefore never entered into orders at all .
Hinde became a circuit rider in the early 1800s . While his circuit varied over the years , he served large portions of Kentucky , Indiana , Illinois , and Missouri . Much of the territory he covered was generally lawless , violent and dangerous . Circuit riders served numerous churches and were supposed to plant new ones in new or underserved communities . They were critical to the development of the frontier .
An avid writer , Hinde wrote mostly about Methodism and church songs . He wrote a popular hymnal entitled The Pilgrams ' songster ; or , A choice collection of spiritual songs , which was said to have sold more than 10 @,@ 000 copies . Rev. Thomas S. Hinde was said to be , " ... exceedingly earnest , and very zealous in promoting the interests of the Church and of religion and morality . His zeal , however , was rather of the ascetic kind ; and he usually took prominent part in the arraignment and trial of brethren accused of offenses . " He was quoted as saying that he was , " ... doing God service . "
= = Indian affairs = =
Growing up in Kentucky in the late 1790s , Hinde learned of the danger of Indian attacks . After moving to Chillicothe , he became interested in prehistoric Indian sites . In a letter to President James Madison , he mentioned taking friends to Windship 's mound ( now the Hopewell Culture National Historical Park ) , but focused on his opposition to slavery , saying he called
their attention to the surrounding scenery , my former pursuits , my friends , my country , my prospects — all these had been abandoned for the pride of opinion , against the entailment and perpetuation of slavery upon the rising generation ! I remember their looks when I remarked , that after all , ( pointing to the sun eclipsed , ) I spoke of the gloom that overshadowed my future prospects !
Hinde purchased property from William Mc 'Intosh near the Wabash River , an area that had been a Piankashaw Indian campground . It contained numerous earthwork mounds built by cultures that predated the Piankashaw .
Hinde met the Shawnee chief Tecumseh in Chillicothe and in Vincennes , Indiana , during either the 1810 or the 1811 meeting between Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison at Grouseland . Hinde also met prominent Shawnee Blue Jacket and reported on him for the local newspapers . One source says that Hinde played a crucial role in negotiating early Indian treaties signed with the United States government , without defining his actions .
= = War of 1812 = =
Hinde served in the U.S. Army in the War of 1812 under William Henry Harrison , then governor of the Indiana Territory . Both from Virginia families , the two men were close in age . Hinde was made responsible for prisoners of war starting in 1813 , when he was about 27 or 28 years old .
Hinde served under Captain Oliver Hazard Perry , who was the commander at the Battle of Lake Erie . Captain Perry 's decisive victory ensured American control of the lake , improved American morale after a series of defeats , and compelled the British to fall back from Detroit . In 1813 , Hinde was placed in charge of prisoners captured at this battle .
= = Founding Mount Carmel = =
In the early 1800s , Hinde purchased large land holdings in what would become Wabash County , Illinois . In 1817 , he , William McDowell and William Beauchamp collectively founded the city of Mount Carmel , Illinois . All three men were ministers . They chose the Biblical name " Mount Carmel " , because it meant " the garden of the Lord " and was a historic city in Palestine . According to one source :
The site chosen for the town was a point on the west bank of the Wabash opposite the mouth of the White River , and twenty @-@ four miles southwest of Vincennes . This point was selected because of the available water power and of the likelihood that main roads from east to west would pass here . The town became a railroad and manufacturing center and justified the wisdom of its founders . An elaborate circular , called the " Articles of Association for the City of Mount Carmel , " was issued at Chillicothe in 1817 . The purpose of the association was announced to be " to build a city on liberal and advantageous principles , and to constitute funds for the establishment of seminaries of learning and for religious purposes . " The proprietors reserved for themselves one @-@ fourth of the lots , these being called " proprietors ' lots ; " one @-@ fourth were called " private donation lots . " The plan of survey and sale was described as follows : " The in @-@ lots are six poles in front , and eleven and a half in back ; containing each sixty @-@ eight perches , nearly half an acre . The most of the out @-@ lots contain four acres and eight square poles ; some of them more , ( five and six acres on the back range ) ; and a few of them less . There are 748 in @-@ lots , and 331 out @-@ lots --1079 in the whole .
Hinde donated the majority of the land for the city . Shortly after it was incorporated , he gave permission for city residents to use part of his land near the Wabash River as a " commons " for livestock . Hinde , Beauchamp and McDowell were granted permission by the legislature to establish a ferry on Hinde 's land at the river . During this time Hinde did the primary survey work for the Grand Rapids Dam on the river . According to a local history published in 1883 , he was believed to reside in a house located on the " bluff " in Mount Carmel . In letters to Congress written in the 1820s , Hinde said that he resided near the Grand Rapids Dam . He wrote a poem about Mount Carmel and had it published in Ohio .
Originally , Mount Carmel was located in Edwards County . After a drought in 1820 killed a majority of the settlers , the county seat was moved from Palmyra , Illinois to Albion . At that time Albion was settled primarily by English immigrants . The Americans from Mount Carmel and surrounding settlements were resentful and tried to return the county seat to Mount Carmel by force . During the bickering for the county seat location , Hinde ran for county commissioner in 1821 against John Buckles , receiving only two votes against Buckles ' 151 . In 1822 Hinde ran for the office of Illinois House of Representatives and narrowly lost to Gilbert T. Pell . On December 24 , 1824 the Illinois Legislature resolved the county seat issue by creating Wabash County from the eastern half of Edwards County .
Based on newspaper accounts , the lots held by Hinde did not sell quickly . More than 27 years after having developed the plans for Mount Carmel , Hinde was still advertising lots for sale there in national newspapers . In one advertisement Hinde said , " The place I offer is midway between St. Louis and Louisville and the next improvement will be the completion of the railroad connecting the two places , and a dam across the Great Wabash , at the Grand Rapids , at the junction of the White , Patoka , and Wabash , giving the greatest water power in the great West . "
Another source notes that Hinde and other founders " ... may have been over zealous and puritanical in the construction of their laws ... no theater or play @-@ house shall ever be built within the boundary of the city ; no person shall be guilty of drunkenness , profanity , sabbath @-@ breaking , and many other offenses of greater magnitude , etc . , he shall be subject to trial by the court of Mayor and on conviction , was disqualified from holding any office in the city , or the bank ; was disqualified to vote ; ostracism was to continue for three years after the commission of the so @-@ called crimes . "
Around 1825 , Hinde settled in Mount Carmel , leaving the Methodist circuit to focus on religious and historical writing , and business . He founded one of the first churches in the town and occasionally held Methodist gatherings at his home . On September 20 , 1827 more than 27 Methodist ministers met in the upper room of his house . It was one of the largest gatherings of the time .
= = Real estate disputes = =
After his father died in 1828 , Hinde inherited real estate in Kentucky . Shortly thereafter , he began investing in real estate in Ohio . Property titles were frequently complicated in this period due to turnover of military lands , as well as issues related to acquisition of former Native American lands . Several of his Ohio property disputes reached the Supreme Court of the United States , including Hinde v. Vattier and Mallow v. Hinde .
= = = Johnson v. M 'Intosh = = =
William M 'Intosh was a former Revolutionary War veteran who had become a fur trader and investor in military lands along the Wabash River . Hinde and M 'Intosh lived on adjoining tracts of land near what would become the site of the Grand Rapids Dam .
M 'Intosh became associated with the Supreme Court Case of Johnson v. M 'Intosh . Chief Justice John Marshall , an acquaintance of Hinde and his father , used the case to establish the " Discovery Doctrine , " which ruled that the discovering people gain title over the indigenous peoples in respect to land title . Hinde also knew Associate Justice Thomas Todd , a justice on the Kentucky Court of Appeals when Hinde served as the court 's clerk . In the case , in which Johnson and M 'Intosh were claiming title to the same property , the Supreme Court ruled that private citizens could not purchase land from Native Americans , and therefore the plaintiff Johnson 's land purchases were invalid . M 'Intosh 's land purchases from the Federal government were affirmed as legal .
Hinde purchased a portion of M 'Intosh 's litigated property not long after the litigation . Correspondence between Hinde and M 'Intosh discussing land sales form part of the Hinde documents at the Lyman Draper Manuscripts Collection in the Wisconsin Historical Society . Due to the favorable ruling in the case , Hinde benefited greatly because of his large land holdings in the area . After the ruling had settled ownership issues between the Indians and settlers , Hinde founded the towns of Mt . Carmel , Powhaten , and Selima in the Illinois territory .
= = = Hinde v. Vattier = = =
One of Hinde 's own real estate disputes was based on property he owned in Cincinnati . The dispute was between the Hinde family and Charles Vattier . Vattier was a known scam artist and underworld giant in Cincinnati . One source described Vattier as owning " ... a gambling empire , including grog shops , Bawdy houses and taverns . " Vattier was involved in a number of other fraudulent real estate schemes with other people in Ohio . In 1807 Vattier was convicted of burglary and larceny for stealing large sums of money from James Findlay , Receiver of Public Monies for the District of Cincinnati . Hinde knew Findlay since they were both involved in exposing the Burr conspiracy and both were prominent in Ohio .
Allegedly , Vattier had tried to take title to a piece of property in Cincinnati already owned by the Hinde family . Hinde challenged Vattier in court . Henry Clay represented Hinde in the Ohio State Court proceedings . Hinde claimed that Vattier tried to use the lot to pay Findlay by claiming to have a bill of sale and title that was superior to the Hinde family . After more than fifteen years , the case reached the United States Supreme Court in 1833 . The Court ruled that Vattier took title to the property illegally and that the property belonged to Hinde and his children . Originally owned by Hinde 's father @-@ in @-@ law , James Bradford , after his death the property passed to Hinde 's wife , Belinda ( Bradford ) Hinde .
= = Wabash Navigation Company = =
In 1825 , Hinde joined the Wabash Navigation Company . Seventeen members of the company came from prominent families in Indiana and Illinois . The company had capital of more than $ 1 million . Hinde was one of the company 's first nine directors and remained active until his death . The company charter was eventually approved by both the Illinois and Indiana legislatures . The company built a dam next to land Hinde owned .
In a letter to Congress in 1842 , Hinde stated that his goal was to connect the Wabash River with the Maumee River that flowed to Lake Erie . He cited in support the opinion of unnamed hunters and traders and George Washington 's hope of connecting the waters of the east with the Ohio and Mississippi rivers . Hinde also declared , " ... I have seen the whole wilderness of the West subdued and savages and wild beasts or prey receding before civilization and enterprise . " He said that , on the Wabash from the Grand Rapids to Terre Haute , steamboats could navigate almost all year ; therefore it was essential to connect the river to the Ohio . He also suggested that an armory should be built by the U.S. Government next to the proposed dam .
Dr. John Lescher was a business partner and friend of Thomas S. Hinde . Both men invested in the Wabash Navigation Company . Lescher later joined Hinde 's children in a lawsuit against the company . Not long after the death of Hinde , his son James and his son @-@ in @-@ law Charles H. Constable joined with Lescher and sued the Company for entering their land and taking timber and other materials for the construction of dam . But , the company 's charter permitted them to enter the land and take construction material without the owner 's consent , forcing the owner to seek legal redress . The court ordered compensation .
A letter written by Jacob Lescher in 1841 and submitted to Congress in support of the Grand Rapids Dam project and the building of a U.S. Armory , stated that he and Hinde owned more than 1 @,@ 200 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 km2 ) acres of land around the proposed dam site . Additional information submitted to Congress stated that the town of Powhatan was owned by Hinde and Lescher and was a " river addition " to Mount Carmel . The location of the town of Selima was not clearly stated , but was near the dam . Hinde did the original surveying for Grand Rapids Dam .
The wooden timber dam deteriorated and needed to be replaced in the late nineteenth century . On September 19 , 1890 , Congress appropriated money for the construction of a new dam , to be built by the Army Corps of Engineers . The report stated that the old dam had partially washed away and that the new dam would raise the water level by 11 @.@ 5 feet . According to an annual report to the Secretary of War in 1908 , the mid @-@ 19th century lock and dam were " ... not of a substantial character .... , " and " ... rapidly deteriorated and became useless . " The same report said that by March 31 , 1881 expenditures for the dam were $ 317 @,@ 845 @.@ 44 and the government was forced to pay the Wabash Navigation Company an additional $ 7 @,@ 000 to extinguish their franchise and purchase their property .
= = Later years and legacy = =
Hinde settled in Mount Carmel toward the end of his life . During Hinde 's final years , he was an active letter writer and watched over his many business and real estate interests . Hinde was prominent in church and Illinois society and compiled many documents and interviews . During his later years , he shared much of this information with various writers and publications .
In his later writings , Hinde espoused some questionable theories such as the Hollow Earth theory and the Madoc tradition . Hinde was published in the Methodist Magazine , the " Short Sketches of Revivals of Religion in the Western Country " ( incomplete ) , the Advocate and Journal ( New York ) and the Western Christian Advocate ( Cincinnati ) . His writings have been described as , " ... abound [ ing ] in vague philosphical and religious reflections-- this is especially true of his diaries-- thus making them of slight value .... "
Hinde dedicated a substantial amount of time to investigating the Madoc Tradition in North America . Madoc or Madog ab Owain Gwynedd was , according to folklore , a Welsh prince who sailed to America in 1170 , more than 300 years before Christopher Columbus 's voyage in 1492 . Hinde interviewed hundreds of individuals on the topic . In 1824 , Hinde wrote a letter to John S. Williams , editor of The American Pioneer regarding the Madoc Tradition . He claimed to have testimony from numerous sources that said Welsh people under Owen Ap Zuinch had come to America in the twelfth century , over 300 years before Christopher Columbus . Hinde claimed that in 1799 , the remains of six soldiers had been dug up near Jeffersonville , Indiana with breastplates containing Welsh coats of arms . In 1799 , John Sevier , the first governor of Tennessee , also wrote of the alleged discovery of six skeletons in brass armor bearing Welsh coat @-@ of @-@ arms . Hinde claimed that M 'Intosh recounted that American Indians and Welshmen living on the Mississippi River were conversing in Welsh in the late 1700s .
In an 1842 letter Hinde stated , " I have just returned from the East , having visited the Atlantic cities generally for the first time , after forty @-@ five years pioneering in the wilderness of the West . I have been three time a citizen of Kentucky , twice of Ohio , and twice of Illinois . " After returning from the visit , Hinde claimed that eastern ministers were unsuccessful because they underrated the people of the West . He said ,
" If we expect to find on crossing the mountains a people either illiterate or ignorant as a body , we will assuredly , in many instances be disappointed . It too often happens , that one puffed up with self @-@ importance , and possesses a conceited and heated imagination , will form wild conjectures as to men and things . We have been amused at the bewildered minds of such , with the ' whys ' and ' wherefores ' ; and one of the most ridiculous whims of some , is to endeavor to press every thing into their own mould ; and shape it , be it what it may , if possible , after their own manner , custom , or operation , forgetting that ' we have to take the world as it is , and not as we would have it to be . ' "
A large collection of Hinde 's diaries are held among the Lyman Draper Manuscripts in the Wisconsin Historical Society . In his diaries Hinde stated that he supported the Hollow Earth theory . Throughout his life Hinde maintained correspondence with many of the prominent men of the day . His correspondents included James Madison , George Madison , Thomas Jefferson , Henry Clay , Simon Kenton , Daniel Boone , and John Marshall .
= = = Death = = =
Hinde was sick a few days before dying from " winter fever . " Hinde is buried in Sandhill Cemetery in Mount Carmel next to his daughter Belinda and his second wife , Sarah Doughty Cavileer Neal . The wrought iron fence surrounding their graves was paid for by his son Charles in the early 1900s . Since he died at a relatively early age and his wife died shortly after him , his orphaned children were forced to live with other relatives or fend for themselves . Martha married Judge Charles H. Constable ; together they looked after many of her younger siblings until they married or found work . Her brother Charles Hinde became a successful businessman and riverboat captain . One of Captain Hinde 's accomplishments was investing in the Hotel del Coronado in San Diego , California . Hinde 's grandson , Frederick Zimmerman , built the Grand Rapids Hotel on the Hinde family farm in Mount Carmel near the Grand Rapids Dam and Hanging Rock .
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= Cyrus K. Holliday =
Colonel Cyrus Kurtz Holliday ( April 3 , 1826 – March 29 , 1900 ) was one of the founders of the township of Topeka , Kansas , in the mid 19th century ; and was Adjutant General of Kansas during the American Civil War . The title Colonel , however , was honorary . He was the first president of the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway , as well as one of the railroad 's directors for nearly 40 years , up to 1900 . A number of railway locomotives have been named after him .
= = Education and early career = =
He was born on April 3 , 1826 , to David and Mary ( Kennedy ) Holliday , in Kidderminster , Pennsylvania ( near Carlisle ) . The younger Holliday received a public school education , graduating from Allegheny College in Meadville , Pennsylvania , where he studied law , in 1852 . Although he moved to Kansas in 1854 , Allegheny College 's alumni records show Holliday receiving a master 's degree in 1855 .
While he was still in Meadville , he was asked to prepare legal documentation for a new railroad that would connect to the city . The proposed railroad ( likely the Pittsburgh and Erie Railroad which was sometimes known as " The Meadville Line " ) would almost connect with a larger nearby system ( the Atlantic and Great Western Railroad ) , which meant that it could become a feeder route to the larger railroad . Holliday saw the potential of the line and instead of asking for a standard fee to create the documents , he asked for and was granted a partnership in the new railroad . When this railroad was purchased by the larger system , Holliday earned $ 20 @,@ 000 from the sale .
After the sale was completed , he married Mary Dillon Jones . He soon followed the many others making the migration to settle land west of the Mississippi River , but Mary stayed behind in Pennsylvania . The two were reunited later in Kansas after the births of their children , Lillie and Charles King .
= = Founding Topeka and military service = =
In 1854 he moved to Kansas , leaving his wife behind in Pennsylvania to follow later . He first settled in Lawrence in October 1854 . On December 10 , 1854 , after helping to find a location for the new townsite of Topeka , he wrote a letter to his wife saying :
" I am now thirty miles above Lawrence on the Kansas River assisting in starting a new town . We are just about in the central portion of the " settled " Territory and with perhaps the best landing and the most eligible site for a city in the entire country . ... So I think it must be , and in a few years when civilization by its magic influence shall have transformed this glorious country from what it is now to the brilliant destiny awaiting it , the Sun in all his course will visit no land more truly lovely and desirable than this . Here , Mary , with God 's kind permission , we will make our home ; and I have every reason to believe a home it will truly be . "
In 1855 Holliday received the honorary title of Colonel for supervising a regiment during the Wakarusa War . He also served as the Adjutant General of Kansas during the Civil War from May 2 , 1864 to March 31 , 1865 . Although his Colonel title was only honorary , he continued to use it long after his military service .
In 1861 , Holliday served in the Kansas State Senate , and although he ran for Congress in 1874 , he was defeated in that election . He was a Republican .
Holliday had broad interests in developing the natural resources of Kansas . In the 1890s he became mistakenly convinced that Ellis and Trego counties in central Kansas contained mineral deposits of tin , zinc , and gold . In 1899 his son Charles K. Holliday founded Smoky Hill City , Kansas near the supposed mineral deposits .
= = The Santa Fe Railroad = =
Once Topeka was founded , it needed transportation to connect it to the rest of the country . Holliday 's legal skills were called on again to create the paperwork for a new railroad . In 1859 he singlehandedly wrote the charter for the Atchison and Topeka Railroad Company , which would connect the two cities by rail following the route of the Santa Fe Trail . Kansas Territory governor Samuel Medary approved the charter on February 11 , 1859 . Holliday was named a director and president of the new railroad on September 17 , 1860 , which was renamed in 1863 to the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad . During his tenure as president , Holliday secured land grants from the federal government that would soon be used by the railroad to populate the western portion of Kansas in order to build a customer base for the railroad . He stepped down from the presidency at the end of 1863 , but remained on the board of directors until July 27 , 1865 . He rejoined the board on September 24 , 1868 , this time serving until his death on March 29 , 1900 .
= = Legacy = =
Holliday is buried in Topeka Cemetery , Topeka , Kansas . He is memorialized for his contributions to Kansas and the Santa Fe :
Cyrus K. Holliday , Locomotive # 1 , a vintage locomotive was displayed by the A , T & SF into the 1960s .
He is portrayed in the 1940 movie " Santa Fe Trail " by Henry O 'Neill as a promoter of commerce and development in the American West of his time .
In World War II , the United States liberty ship SS Cyrus K. Holliday was named in his honor .
Locomotive # 1 on the Disneyland Railroad bore the name " C.K. Holliday " since the park 's opening in 1955 .
Locomotive # 2 of the Paris Disneyland Railroad was also named C.K. Holliday in his honor .
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= Adrian Crowley =
Adrian Crowley is a singer @-@ songwriter from Galway , based in Dublin and was born in Sliema , Malta .
Beginning his career at the age of 25 , Crowley has released six albums , with his debut A Strange Kind arriving in 1999 . He followed this with When You Are Here You Are Family ( 2002 ) , A Northern Country ( 2004 ) , Long Distance Swimmer ( 2007 ) , Season of the Sparks ( 2009 ) and " I See Three Birds Flying " ( 2012 ) In a 2005 Rolling Stone interview , Ryan Adams cited Crowley when asked " Who 's the best songwriter that no one 's heard of " . The Irish Times placed this artist at number eight in a list of " The 50 Best Irish Acts Right Now " published in April 2009 .
Crowley has won the Choice Music Prize for Irish Album of the Year on one occasion for Season of the Sparks and been nominated on two another occasion for Long Distance Swimmer and " I See Tree Birds Flying " .
= = Early life = =
Crowley is from a multicultural background , ( his father is Irish and mother is Maltese ) He was born in Sliema in Malta but reared in Galway . Crowley 's parents met in Africa and the family spent time in Sierra Leone , Cameroon and Malta . After his birth his family departed Malta for Cameroon . Crowley has been based in Dublin since the 1990s but has also spent time living in France .
= = Career = =
Crowley was a late developer as a musician , having originally spent time on other pursuits , such as studying architecture , painting and photography . Alongside this he wrote songs but did not perform his first show until the age of 25 , some days after finding material he had written in the early 1990s in his attic . He departed from a career in photography around 2004 to enter the music profession on a full @-@ time basis .
Crowley released his debut album A Strange Kind independently in 1999 . The song " Capricorn " was played regularly on No Disco that year . When You Are Here You Are Family followed in 2002 , being recorded at the Electrical Audio studios of one of his heroes , Steve Albini , in Chicago . This successful spell in the United States inspired him to begin communicating with American record labels .
He joined the label Ba Da Bing who were keen to produce his next two albums . A Northern Country was due for release in on 2 July 2004 , though was delayed before appearing on a smaller label with little publicity . Crowley later referred to A Northern Country as " the least ceremonious album of them all " .
Long Distance Swimmer was released as soon as it was recorded as , according to Crowley , he became " fed up waiting " . It was recorded with engineer Stephen Shannon . The record received positive reviews and was nominated for the Choice Music Prize . The NME said it was " a lo @-@ furnished , snug , auburn @-@ tinged folk album which calls to mind Bill Callahan , Johnny Cash , and Edwyn Collins " . The Irish Independent 's John Meagher named it his favourite album of 2007 and sixteenth best Irish album of the decade , while his colleague Eamon Sweeney suggested Crowley 's record was one of the few Irish albums preventing that year from being " an absolute stinker " . It was around this time that Crowley began working with The Fence Collective and members of Halfset . He featured on the edition of 12 March 2008 of the sixth series of Other Voices . Also that month , he performed a residency at Whelan 's .
Season of the Sparks was released on 24 April 2009 and featured an expanded palette of instruments including marxophone , shruti box , upright harmonium , viola de gamba , baroque viola . It was generally well received by critics in both and Ireland and the UK , and , so pleased was the reviewer with the French magazine Les Inrockuptibles that he wrote a letter of thanks to Crowley . He was also one of the first acts to be announced for Electric Picnic 2010 .
= = Other work = =
Crowley collaborated with Estel on " Electric Eels " , a track from the 2003 album A Guide in Time of Great Danger . He performed at the Elliott Smith Memorial Tribute Show in Dublin on 19 January 2004 . He has performed with James Yorkston on several occasions . The pair have recorded an eight track mini @-@ album as a tribute to Daniel Johnston . Crowley also curates the Homelights Festival in Dublin . He is also interested in film and has composed a number of scores . He is responsible for scoring the Irish feature film , ' Where The Sea Used To Be ' directed by Paul Farren . His song , ' The Wishing Seat ' prominently features in the award winning feature film , ' Love Eternal ' ( 2014 ) directed by Brendan Muldowney and stars Pollyanna Mackintosh and Robert de Hoog .
= = Style = =
Crowley 's style has been compared to that of Bill Callahan , Nick Drake and Tim Buckley , while Irish Independent reviewer Eamon Sweeney has said the singer is " a master of understatement " . The vocals of Noah and the Whale 's Charlie Fink are said to be reminiscent of Crowley 's . As well as singing Crowley plays the electric guitar and the Rhodes piano ; he never plays the acoustic guitar . He experiences music while he sleeps :
= = Discography = =
Adrian Crowley has released seven albums .
A Strange Kind ( 1999 )
When You Are Here You Are Family ( 2002 )
A Northern Country ( 2004 )
Long Distance Swimmer ( 2007 )
Season of the Sparks ( 2009 )
I See Three Birds Flying ( 2012 )
Some Blue Morning ( 2014 )
= = Band members = =
The following have performed with Crowley .
Mary Barnecutt -Cello
Katie Kim - vocals
Jeff Martin – Guitar
Steven Shannon – Bass guitar
Cillian Mc Donnell – Drums
Kevin Murphy – Cello
Marja Tuhkanen Gaynor – Viola , violin , viola de gamba , viol
Adem Ilhan – Harmonium , vocals , percussion
Kate Ellis – Cello
Thomas Haugh – Drums , zither
Andrew Bushe – Drums
Sarah Fox – Bass guitar , double bass , vocals
Emma Smith – Violin , vocals
Vince Sipprell – Viola
Cameron Miller – Bass guitar , double bass , vocals
Sarah Jones – Drums
Christopher Mayo – Bass guitar
James Yorkston – Concertina , guitar , vocals
Alex Neilson – Drums
Otto Hauser – Drums
Jesse Sparhawk – Bass guitar
Viking Moses
Dave Hingerty - drums
Bill Blackmore - flugelhorn , trumpet
= = Awards = =
The Irish Times placed Crowley at number eight in a list of " The 50 Best Irish Acts Right Now " published in April 2009 , noting his " majestic songs , rich voice and subtle blend of atmospherics and master @-@ level wordplay " .
In a 2005 Rolling Stone interview , Ryan Adams cited Crowley when asked " Who 's the best songwriter that no one 's heard of " .
= = = Choice Music Prize = = =
Long Distance Swimmer was nominated for the Choice Music Prize for Irish Album of the Year 2007 but lost to Super Extra Bonus Party 's Super Extra Bonus Party LP .
Season of the Sparks won the Choice Music Prize for Irish Album of the Year 2009 . Crowley received a prize of € 10 @,@ 000 cheque . He described himself as " totally flabbergasted " , adding " I didn 't really think it was the sort of record that was going to win awards " . Crowley promised to use the money to fund his music . He was one of eight nominees who performed at the awards ceremony . He is a friend of fellow nominee Valerie Francis .
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= Curse of Enchantia =
Curse of Enchantia is a graphic adventure game developed and released by the British video game company Core Design for the PC DOS and Amiga in 1992 . The game tells the comic fantasy story of Brad , a teenage boy from modern Earth who was magically abducted to the world of Enchantia by an evil witch @-@ queen . Brad needs to escape and take on the forces of darkness to find a way back to his own dimension .
Curse of Enchantia was Core Design 's first attempt in the adventure genre as they set up to compete with LucasArts and Sierra On @-@ Line . The game features several highly unconventional and controversial game mechanics and design choices for an adventure title from that era , including having many simple action game style sequences and being practically devoid of in @-@ game text and conversations .
Nevertheless , Curse was generally well received upon its release , especially by the Amiga magazines , where the game 's graphics and animation received particular praise even as its illogical puzzles and unusual design choices were often criticized . A direct sequel was briefly planned but eventually turned into a spiritual successor game titled Universe and released in 1994 .
= = Gameplay = =
Curse of Enchantia uses a point and click style user interface , similar to Sierra 's Creative Interpreter from the King 's Quest series . The player character is commanded with an icon based control bar that is accessible by pressing the right mouse button , which also pauses the game . The control bar features seven main actions : inventory , pick up / take , manipulate / use ( opening up a sub @-@ menu with eight further actions : unlock , insert , push / pull , eat , wear , throw , give and combine ) , look , talk ( only either " Help ! " or " Hi ! " ) , attack , and jump . Usually , the protagonist has to stand in the immediate vicinity to the game 's objects and characters , which then appear as icons in a separate bar , in order to interact with them . A joystick or computer keyboard input can also be used .
The game does not feature text @-@ based object descriptions or conversations , as its few short scenes of rudimentary communication with friendly non @-@ player characters use only a minimalist system of pictograms in comic book @-@ style speech balloons , usually displaying the objects that the characters need to be delivered . Instead , the game features several action @-@ style sequences , such as dodging hazards or timing the use of items . However , the character is never at risk of dying , being effectively ' immortal ' no matter the dangers , and thus every such task can be repeated until successfully completed , risking only losing a few points from the score . Jewels , gold coins , and other objects of value can be collected throughout the game for a higher score .
= = Plot = =
In a parallel universe , a fantasy world of Enchantia is suffering under the terrible rule of a powerful coven of wicked witches . Their queen , who managed to surpass the rest in her boundless cruelty and depravity , frantically seeks a live male child from another dimension as the main ingredient of her desired spell of eternal youth . Having borrowed magic powers from all the other witches in Enchantia on the promise to make them too young forever , she created an invisible portal connection to Earth . One day in our world in the 1990s , an American young teenager named Brad plays a baseball practice with his sister Jenny when the witch spots him through the portal and incants a summoning spell , making him suddenly vanish in a flash of light . The game begins as Brad , dressed in medieval @-@ style clothing , wakes up in a dungeon cell . But the boy soon manages to escape , and then sets out on a journey to return home safely . In the course of his surreal adventure , he braves various dangers , meets a host of friendly and hostile characters , and rises to become a reluctant hero who just might break the titular curse and bring down the evil 's reign .
After breaking out from his prison , Brad falls into a moat before coming to a halt in a maze of an underground cavern . Reaching the surface , he arrives at a nearby village ; this location is repeatedly revisited throughout the game , as Brad comes back there after traveling to the various corners of the land , encountering bizarre characters and experiencing absurd adventures : the Edge of the World cliff , the Ice Palace , and the Valley of the Lost ( a place where all kinds of things lost on Earth have gone to ) , all while searching for an unlikely set of items that would help him emerge victorious from the game 's final showdown ( including a fire extinguisher and an mechanical fan ) . In the end , the boy enters the evil Queen 's castle to find and defeat her once and for all . Once she is no more , he gets instantly transported back to the baseball field where it all had started .
= = Development = =
Core Design 's original concept for the game was to make it more like an action @-@ adventure , before the project has evolved into a more classic adventure game . The game was supposed to be " an adventure for people who hadn 't played that kind of game before . " The protagonist 's effective invincibility was a late demand by the executive producer Jeremy Heath @-@ Smith , resulting in a series of minor plot changes . The game 's co @-@ designer and the Amiga version 's chief programmer Rob Toone said that their idea was to make these parts of the game " interesting without being difficult . " Co @-@ designer and the PC version programmer Ian Sabine stated that the lack of text " speeds up gameplay " . Regarding the decision to keep the onscreen text to a minimum , Toone said that " too much reading can slow the game or kill it , like The Adventures of Willy Beamish , " with the main artist Rolf Mohr adding that " hopefully , a picture will say a thousand words and make this system easy to use . " According to Toone , " Lucasfilm gets most of its humour out of its text , whereas we hopefully get ours from comical animations and daft happenings . "
The both versions of the game , for the PC and the Amiga , were developed separately and simultaneously , in order to make the best possible product for each platform rather than a quick port from one system to another . A version for the Amiga CD32 had also been planned . The game mixes backgrounds hand @-@ drawn with acrylic paint and then digitized by the Mohr , and sprite bitmap graphics made in Deluxe Paint and Brilliance on the Amiga with some rotoscoped animations . The animators Billy Allison and Stuart Atkinson created " huge " DPaint @-@ made character sequences but they had to implement them in game in more efficient way due to computer memory limitations . In addition , the PC version used the full 8 @-@ bit color of a 256 color palette , but the Amiga version had to be downscaled to only 32 colors ( including 24 colors for the background and eight colors for the main character ; the other characters had to be drawn with these colors ) . The game also uses various digitized sound effects . Allison said , " there were whole sections that never made it in , like a roller skating frankenstein , that shattered into loads of tiny versions of him if you ' killed ' him , I did the sprites etc , it just never made it to the game . "
It took a month for the project to be completely storyboarded before any programming work started on it . While the game 's design evolved over time , its original plot remained largely intact . Several revisions resulted in some of the already made some graphics and other content being cut from the game , in particular in the final area of the castle 's interior ( which at first was intended to be much longer and to feature monsters that would guard it , but in the end was reduced to a small area with the task basically limited to finding a secret chamber ) . The game 's story and elements were partially inspired by The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , The Wonderful Wizard of Oz , The Snow Queen , and Disney animated films , and relies heavily on surreal humor and slapstick . It contains several Easter egg pop culture references , including the shop called " Benn 's Costume Shop " ( complete with a costume of Batman ) , a band named " The Slugs " ( consisting of four humanoid slugs ) , getting into a frozen realm through a wardrobe , and encountering the wreck of Marie [ sic ] Celeste . Curse of Enchantia was described by Stuart Campbell as " a funny version of Lure of the Temptress with a different plot . " He was not the only one who noted the both games ' similarities to each other . Its working title was initially Zeloria , which later caused some confusion as several video game magazines continued to use " Zeloria " as the name of the world in the game ( some other magazines also incorrectly assumed Enchantia to be the name of the game 's antagonist , who is actually unnamed ) . Some articles featured an earlier and slightly different version of the plot , which involved a castle of three witches , who needed to drink a special potion every hundred years or else they would turn to dust , and the protagonist Brad 's original task involved a rescue of his captured sister Jenny .
= = Release = =
Curse of Enchantia was officially revealed under this title at the European Computer Trade Show ( ECTS ) in April 1992 . The game was originally planned to be released in September 1992 , but got delayed two months to November 1992 . It was the first adventure game by Core Design as well as one of the first CD @-@ ROM adventure games . Virgin Games bundled it with many of the earliest PC CD @-@ ROM drives in 1993 . It was also re @-@ released on CD as part of Encore Multipack , together with Heimdall and Thunderhawk . The game 's original release was accompanied by a promotional campaign with valuable prizes ( computers and money ) in some magazines such as France 's Joystick . Owners of computers with newer PC operating systems need to run it using DOSBox .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of Curse of Enchantia was mostly positive , especially in regard to its graphics and animation . However , the game was derided by some for its confusing user interface system , often illogical puzzle solutions and what some reviewers thought was a lack of quality humor , plot development and atmosphere , attributing it to the absence of text and dialogue .
British reviewers in particular have often praised the Amiga version of the game . Brian Sharp of Amiga Action gave this " well @-@ made and cleverly constructed package " the Amiga Action Accolade award , calling it " flawless " and " easily the best adventure game on the Amiga to date . " It hinted that using a joystick for control may make certain sections of the game " less annoying to play . " Amiga Computing gave it the Gamer Gold award , calling the game " excellent " , " down @-@ right bloody enchanting " and Core Design 's " easily greatest and most impressive game yet , " and even advising to " buy it today because if you don 't you will more than likely commit suicide , it 's that good . " Tony Gill of CU Amiga gave the game the CU Gold Screen award and said that while " some of the puzzles are a bit illogical , the further into the game you get the more luxurious it becomes . Around each bend the graphics get better and better . " Les Ellis of Amiga Power said it was one of funniest games he has ever played and called it " a classic adventure , which with a few tweaks could have easily beaten the Monkey Island [ series ] and a worthy addition to any collection and will stand as a challenge to any adventurer . " According to Amiga Power one year later , " with such a high degree of humour this adventure is well on its way to becoming a classic . It 's slightly overpriced and some of the puzzles are a little obscure but these are minor quibbles . Overall this is a great game . " Atari ST User even called it a " contender for the best game of the year . "
There was also much positive reception in the gaming press elsewhere in the English world . The " absolutely enchanted " Ken Simpson from Australia 's ACAR said the game 's " delightful " graphics and animation " are among the most tastefully executed [ he has ] ever seen , " but noted the problems with its interface system and difficulty . One preview in North American magazine Computer Gaming World called it " a pretty looking product " of " a Loom / KQV / Legend of Kyrandia approach , " even as another called it " actually more of a multi @-@ screen puzzle game than a traditional animated adventure , " adding that " gamers with a strong penchant for puzzle should find it entertaining " despite its " a bit clumsy " interface . Bill Holder of Australia 's OZ Amiga called it " a light @-@ hearted and funny adventure that appeals to almost everyone " and " one of the better releases of 1993 . "
On the other hand , Ed Ricketts of Amiga Format called Curse of Enchantia " light years behind " Monkey Island with " no comparison " to Monkey Island 2 , as " the textless interface just doesn 't work - despite the designers ' belief , you do need words " and there is " no humour to speak of , no genuinely amusing humour , anyway . " Even as a preview in The One Amiga called it a " game set to rival even the mightiest of American adventures , " the magazine 's David Upchurch wrote that " the game lacks real humour and atmosphere . This may be partly due to the lack of text in the game - it 's hard to relate to the characters you meet , " and " although entertaining , Curse of Enchantia is to Monkey Island 2 what Smash is to mashed potato , " that is " just a weaker substitute . " Lee Perkins of The Age opined that " Curse of Enchantia might be seen as a mite disappointing by fantasy gamers with moderately sophisticated tastes . " PC Gamer UK described it an " average generic fare " as " the graphics are pretty " but the game " lacks atmosphere and feels too much like a succession of annoyingly vague puzzles rather than an adventure story . "
In France , Curse of Enchantia was given the high ratings of 84 % in Génération 4 ( PC ) and 90 % ( Amiga ) / 91 % ( PC ) in Joystick . The game also received a score of 79 % from Sweden 's Datormagazin . Nevertheless , German magazine PC Player gave it only 38 % , saying that the game may make the players " nostalgic for Sierra titles . " It received better scores from other German magazines , including 53 / 60 in ASM , 79 % in Amiga Joker , 81 % in Power Play ( DOS ) , 68 % in both PC Joker and PC Games , and 70 % ( DOS ) and 71 % ( Amiga ) in Power Play . Italian magazines The Games Machine and K gave scores of 91 % and 802 / 1000 , respectively . Reception was also strong in Poland , where Curse of Enchantia was positively reviewed in C & A ( 95 % ) and Secret Service ( 77 % ) , and featured among " the best adventure games " of 1992 ( alongside Alone in the Dark , Indiana Jones IV and The Legend of Kyrandia ) by Computer Studio . However , in a 1993 ranking of graphic adventures games by Spanish magazine PCmanía , Curse of Enchantia received only three stars out of six due to its " strange " design and despite Core Design 's " trademark " good graphics . A 1996 retro review by France 's PC Soluces gave it three stars out of five , stating that the game 's interesting characters , surrealist feel and varied graphics were dragged down by " a bit weak " plot and an interface that was not intuitive enough .
Retrospectively , the website GamersHell found the lack of any text messages and dialogue in the game to be " an interesting design element . " However , Gry @-@ Online included the lack of even partial descriptions of objects among the reasons why Curse of Enchantia failed to become an outstanding game , along with a too many user interface icons and " useless " features . Wirtualna Polska ranked it as the 27th best Amiga game , but noted that " proponents of adventure genre 's purity " to this day dislike the game for its " unwise flirt " with action @-@ adventure , as well as the 19th best adventure game in history , opining that the lack of written text " perfectly " fits with the game 's story and specific type of humor . It was also ranked as the 26th best Amiga game by Polish console gaming magazine PSX Extreme , noted for its strong playability . Curse of Enchantia was also the first Amiga video game owned by Ben " Yahtzee " Croshaw , who in 2012 made a Let 's Play video of the PC version of the game , saying it had " great graphics , great animation , appalling game design . " Yahtzee said , " it was a game I had difficulty putting down , with beautiful scenery and a great sense of humour , although I understand it 's looked down upon by modern standards . " An advertisement for Curse of Enchantia was featured in GamesRadar 's humor article about " what game ads looked like when the SNES was alive " .
= = Legacy = =
A direct sequel for the game was briefly planned by Core Design . Few details were made available , but it would continue Brad 's fight against the witches but his sister Jenny was considered to play a much larger role . However , it was never released ( in part because of Robert Toone 's departure from the company ) , as the new game " has grown up so much during the development that it has simply became a follow up . " Its working title has still remained " Curse of Enchantia 2 " , but only " for practical reasons " . This spiritual successor game ultimately became known as Universe . Released in 1994 , the game uses an upgraded game engine of Curse of Enchantia and a similar user interface . Responding to some of the criticism of directed at Curse of Enchantia , Core Design described Universe as being " a lot " more logical and less linear than their first adventure game . They also described the text @-@ based system as an improvement over the use of only icons , its benefits including allowing conversations between characters . They also acknowledged that Curse of Enchantia has " suffered considerably " due to inclusion of action sequences , something that " adventure gamers don 't want in their games . " The game 's plot premise has remained similar to that of Curse of Enchantia , featuring a young man ( the protagonist 's name was changed from Brad to Boris , but he also has a sister named Jenny ) who is transported to another world which has to save from an evil overlord . But Universe is more serious in its tone , as the game 's humor only serves as comic relief and " it was never intended to be as silly as Enchantia . "
Simon the Sorcerer , a 1994 adventure game similarly featuring a modern boy protagonist transported to a fantasy world where he has to vanquish an evil wizard , which was partially inspired by Curse of Enchantia , and a similar cover art was used for King 's Quest VII . The game has also inspired the name of the Polish reggae band Enchantia , who chose this name because they thought it " feels warm " . The game 's chief artist Rolf Mohr said the cover art for Disney 's 2007 film Enchanted could have been inspired by his cover art for Curse of Enchantia . He called it " a case of Art imitating Disney imitating Art , " since he has been himself " definitely " inspired by Disney while working on the game . The " magical world of Enchantia " is the setting of the video game Enchantia : Wrath of the Phoenix Queen , but it does not appear to be otherwise related . Curse of Enchantia was also a " pretty big " influence on Yahtzee 's own adventure games .
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= Tenacious D =
Tenacious D is an American comedy rock duo that was formed in Los Angeles , California in 1994 . Composed of lead vocalist and guitarist Jack Black and lead guitarist and vocalist Kyle Gass , the band has released three albums – Tenacious D ( 2001 ) , The Pick of Destiny ( 2006 ) and Rize of the Fenix ( 2012 ) . Tenacious D 's studio releases , and ( as of 2006 ) its live performances , feature a full band lineup , including such musicians as guitarist John Konesky and bassist John Spiker . Drummer Dave Grohl ( Foo Fighters , Nirvana ) has played on every studio release .
The band first gained popularity in 1997 when they starred in their eponymous television series and began to support large rock acts . In 2001 , they released Tenacious D , their debut album featuring a full band . The first single , " Tribute , " was the band 's most successful achieving their only Top 10 in any chart , until they released " The Metal " , which was shown on Saturday Night Live . In 2006 , they starred in , and recorded the soundtrack for , the film Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny . In support of the film , the band went on a world tour , appearing for the first time with a full band . They released their newest album Rize of the Fenix on May 15 , 2012 .
Tenacious D 's music showcases Black 's theatrical vocal delivery and Gass ' acoustic guitar playing abilities . Critics have described their fusion of vulgar absurdist comedy with rock music as " mock rock " . Their songs discuss the duo 's purported musical and sexual prowess , as well as their friendship and cannabis usage in a style that music critics have compared with the storyteller @-@ style lyrics of rock opera .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Jack Black and Kyle Gass initially met in Los Angeles in 1985 , both members of the theatre troupe , The Actors ' Gang . Black admits the duo did not see eye to eye due to animosity between the two as Gass — who was the main musician for the Actor 's Gang - felt threatened by Black . This all changed in 1989 in Edinburgh , Scotland , during the Edinburgh Fringe of 1989 . They were performing Tim Robbins ' and Adam Simon 's play Carnage . After arriving home from the trip , the two became very close friends and Black would regularly visit Gass 's Cochran Avenue studio apartment in the deal that Gass would teach Black guitar in return for food from fast food chain Jack in the Box . They would also work on productions at the theater group together regularly too .
The two were just friends between 1989 and 1994 and did not play any concerts or record any music . Gass and Black wrote their first song " Mellisa " in 1994 after Black had been dumped by a girlfriend , this song was scrapped aside from the pair playing it at later Tenacious D concerts as a joke and referencing it in interviews . Their second song came about when Black was listening to Metallica 's " One " in 1994 and told Gass that it was the " best song in the world " . Gass told Black that they couldn 't write the best song in the world but Black put a twist on it and said they could write a tribute . Gass played an A minor chord at his apartment and the two spent three full days crafting the song , when it was done Gass mentioned " they knew they had something " . The song was comedic and evolved their comedy music persona .
At their first concert , at Al 's Bar ( now an apartment complex ) , the band only played their one song " Tribute " and the duo also gave the audience the chance to vote for their name . Black and Gass gave them the choice between " Pets or Meat " , " Balboa 's Biblical Theatre " and " The Axe Lords Featuring Gorgazon 's Mischief " ( Gass ' personal favorite ) . " Tenacious D " — a basketball term used by commentators to describe robust defensive positioning in basketball — did not get the majority of votes , however , but according to Black " we forced it through " . The venue had become a hotbed for upcoming bands due to the success of Nirvana and the Red Hot Chili Peppers , so much so that in attendance was David Cross who later cast Jack Black in his sketch comedy television series , Mr. Show . Black and Gass recorded their songs " Tribute " , " Kyle Quit the Band " , " Krishna " and " History " and released them in a demo tape called Tenacious Demo , in the early @-@ to @-@ mid 1990s with Andrew Gross and distributed it to various record companies until HBO offered them a TV show based upon the tape and Black 's work on Mr. Show .
= = = Television series ( 1997 – 2000 ) = = =
Cross , with Mr. Show writer Bob Odenkirk , continued his involvement with Tenacious D by producing three half @-@ hour shows based on the band . The series , entitled Tenacious D , premiered on HBO in 1997 , immediately following an episode of Mr. Show . While a total of three episodes consisting of two shorts each , ten to twelve minutes in length , were produced , only the first was aired that year ; the final two episodes did not air until the summer of 2000 . According to Gass , the series was cancelled after HBO requested ten episodes with the stipulation that he and Black would have to relinquish their role as executive producers , and only write songs . After the series aired , the band continued to perform live . At a show at the Viper Room in Los Angeles , they met Dave Grohl , who remarked that he was impressed with their performance ; this led to their cameo in the Foo Fighters ' " Learn to Fly " music video . The popularity of Tenacious D further increased as they began to open for high @-@ profile acts , including Beck , Pearl Jam and Foo Fighters .
= = = First album Tenacious D ( 2001 – 03 ) = = =
In May 2000 , Tenacious D signed to Epic Records . As Black 's profile increased due to his roles in films such as High Fidelity the band worked on recording their first album with producers the Dust Brothers . In 2001 , they released their debut Tenacious D. It peaked at # 33 on the Billboard 200 on October 13 , 2001 . While Tenacious D usually appears as a duo , the album was backed by a full band , consisting of Dave Grohl on drums and guitar , keyboardist Page McConnell of Phish , guitarist Warren Fitzgerald of The Vandals , and bassist Steven Shane McDonald of Redd Kross . According to Black , they chose to use a band because " no one 's ever heard us with a band " . The majority of songs on the album were performed previously on their short @-@ lived television series .
Although the critical reaction varied , by November 2005 , the album had achieved platinum status in the US . Entertainment Weekly described the release as " hilarious " , and " no mere comedy record " . AllMusic wrote that the album " rocks so damn hard " , but lamented the absence of some of the songs from the television show . Flak Magazine criticised the band 's use of skits between songs , describing them as " distracting " and a " nuisance " . In addition , The Independent remarked that the album was full of " swearing and scatology " and was " bereft of even the slightest skidmark of humour " .
The first single from the album was " Tribute " : a tribute to the " greatest song in the world " which , in the song , Tenacious D claimed they had performed in order to save their souls from a demon . A music video , directed by Liam Lynch , was shot for the song . The video achieved success and was voted the fifth best music video ever by Kerrang ! readers . This was followed by the second single , " Wonderboy " , the music video of which was directed by Spike Jonze . A third video , an animation depicting Black and Gass as cherubs , was made for " Fuck Her Gently " , directed by Ren and Stimpy @-@ creator John Kricfalusi .
The album also included " Dio " , a song written as a tribute to rock singer Ronnie James Dio , which mocked him somewhat for being too old . Dio liked the song enough to ask the band to appear in the music video for his song , " Push " . An EP entitled D Fun Pak was released in 2002 . It featured a skit and acoustic versions of " Jesus Ranch " and " Kyle Quit The Band " , as well as a megamix by Mocean Worker . The Complete Masterworks , a music DVD featuring the entire run of their TV series , music videos , and a live performance from London 's Brixton Academy recorded in 2002 , was released on November 9 , 2003 .
= = = The Pick of Destiny ( 2003 – 08 ) = = =
On November 7 , 2000 , Tenacious D had just finished writing the rough first script for a movie . This script was later scrapped for a plot line about the two searching for a sacred guitar pick .
In October 2003 Black announced that the screenplay for The Pick of Destiny — a fictional portrayal of the band 's formation — had been completed . Again working with director Liam Lynch , the film was initially to be written and developed by Working Title Films , but Black and Gass decided to assume creative control when they were not satisfied with the writers ' ideas . Filming had been expected to take place by the end of 2003 ; however , it was delayed by almost a year due to Black being cast in Peter Jackson 's big budget remake of King Kong . The band started recording songs for the soundtrack of the film , their second studio album , The Pick of Destiny . The album had John Konesky and John Spiker from Trainwreck on electric guitar and bass respectively . Dave Grohl again played drums , and further lent vocals to " Beelzeboss ( The Final Showdown ) " as well as acting in the film , as Satan .
The film had its premiere at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles on November 9 , 2006 . Many of the actors who had cameos in the film were in attendance ; including Ronnie James Dio , Dave Grohl , and Ben Stiller . The film was released worldwide on November 22 . The soundtrack had been released just over a week earlier , on November 14 . Tenacious D in the Pick of Destiny grossed US $ 8 @,@ 334 @,@ 575 in the US and Canada and a total of US $ 13 @,@ 426 @,@ 450 worldwide , falling well short of its US $ 20 million production budget and US $ 40 million in estimated marketing costs . Financially , it is regarded as a box office bomb . The soundtrack reached # 8 on the Billboard 200 in the US as well as topping the iTunes chart , and # 10 in the UK . The film was released globally on DVD on February 27 , 2007 . In an interview on the Daily Show on November 30 , 2006 , Black admitted the film had " bombed " , but has recently said that DVD sales have shown that the film has picked up a cult audience .
Kevin Crust of the Los Angeles Times said that the film " might best be enjoyed in an enhanced state of consciousness , a herbal supplement , and we aren 't talking ginkgo biloba . " Stephen Rae of The Philadelphia Inquirer said that the frequent drug @-@ use in the film gives " the term potty humor a new meaning . " Michael Phillips criticized the frequency of the drug @-@ use by saying : " This may be the problem . Pot rarely helped anybody 's comic timing . " Stephen Holden of The New York Times suggested that the film could be viewed as a " jolly rock ' n ' roll comedy " , but he also described the progression of the film as being a " garish mess . "
The soundtrack was produced by John King of the Dust Brothers , but the reviews were less favourable than for the band 's first album . Rolling Stone comments that the soundtrack " never quite takes off " . It criticises the reliance the album makes on a knowledge of the film , and some songs ' existence only to " advance the plot " . It summarizes by saying the album is inferior to the band 's previous effort . Allmusic also describes the follow @-@ up as less " satisfying " than Tenacious D , noting that the songs feel like " narrative filler " . Blender continues the criticism of the songs being plot devices calling them " plot @-@ nudging song @-@ sketches " . The Guardian views the album more positively , describing the album as a meeting of " old school riffology " and " schoolboy humour " .
To coincide with the release of their new film and album , Tenacious D embarked on their 2006 – 07 tour of the US , Canada , UK , Australia , and New Zealand . This tour included the band 's first appearance at New York City 's Madison Square Garden . Unlike other tours , this one featured a full backing band . Konesky and Spiker resumed their roles from the album , and Brooks Wackerman was added as drummer . Each member used a pseudonym ; Konesky as the Antichrist , Spiker as Charlie Chaplin , and Wackerman as Colonel Sanders . JR Reed also toured as Satan . Black has said that the band lost money on the tour due to the cost of touring with a full band for the first time .
= = = Rize of the Fenix and touring ( 2008 – 2015 ) = = =
In November 2006 , Black expressed wishes to take a year @-@ long break from acting , though Gass hinted a desire for Tenacious D to end at their current highpoint . However , Black confirmed that a third album would be recorded by announcing that a new song has been written for it entitled " Deth Star " . He said that the album would likely be released in 2010 , but on other occasions had mentioned the year 2012 . In early 2008 , Black announced that the band was working on a new album , and a DVD titled The Complete Masterworks Part 2 . The DVD was released later that year , and included a documentary of their world tour entitled D Tour : A Tenacious Documentary . The film focuses on the tour Tenacious D made in support of the film and soundtrack and the consequences of their film 's poor showing at the box office . Kyle has commented that the new album only has " one to one and a half " songs written for it , and would like to write between twelve and fifteen .
The band played the main stage at the 2008 Reading and Leeds Festivals in the UK , playing Leeds on Friday , August 22 and Reading on Sunday , August 24 . In addition to this , the band provided support for Metallica at Marlay Park , Dublin in Ireland on August 20 . They headlined the last night of the 2009 Outside Lands Festival in Golden Gate Park , San Francisco , on Sunday August 30 , 2009 . Music magazine Billboard quoted Black as revealing that " We just laid down a hot [ ... ] we 're calling it the bomb track . It 's a very powerful recording called " Deth Starr " [ ... ] so it has nothing to do with the Star Wars [ Death Star ] , " adding that " It 's kind of sci @-@ fi , doomsday rock . " Jack Black also stated on the Late Show with David Letterman that he had an idea for a song called " Rize of the Fenix " , which he described as a " rise from the ashes " workout song similar to " Eye of the Tiger " . He performed a vocal sample of the song along to keyboards . Tenacious D played the main stage at Bonnaroo music festival in 2010 , which featured the band playing the song " Dio " as a tribute to the late Ronnie James Dio .
Gass has hinted that the band 's third album may be called Tenacious D 3 @-@ D , reasoning that " It 's the third record , so it should probably be ' Tenacious 3 @-@ D. ' There 's going to be a ' 3' and a ' D , ' so you have to connect them . " Dave Grohl has confirmed that he will appear as the drummer on the album , after performing on both Tenacious D and The Pick of Destiny . In an interview with Spinner.com in December 2010 , Black revealed that the band was " about halfway through the writing process " for its new album , telling fans to expect the release of new material " at the end of 2011 " . In terms of lyrical themes for the new songs , Black noted that " We 're gonna be talking about love , there are gonna be some songs about sex and there 's gonna be songs about food " .
In a May 2011 interview at Attack of the Show , Black announced that three songs on their upcoming album would be named " Rize of the Fenix " , distinguishable by either letter or number . Also in the same interview , he named another song called " Señorita " . John Konesky estimated that the new album would come out " in spring 2012 " . Tenacious D also played at Download Festival . In February 2012 it was revealed that the title of the album would in fact be spelled Rize of the Fenix and will be released on May 15 , 2012 .
On March 26 , 2012 a 6 @-@ minute film was uploaded to the Tenacious D VEVO channel on YouTube . The mockumentary , titled ' Tenacious D - To Be the Best ' , documents the uncertain future Tenacious D faced after the box @-@ office failure of The Pick of Destiny , KG 's subsequent breakdown and incarceration in " an institution " , and Jack 's embracing of an indulgent Hollywood lifestyle . The film shows a deranged Kyle escaping the facility and attempting to kill Jack and then himself , before they each realize their importance to each other and revive the band . They produce a new album in 75 minutes in the studio , described as " awful " , but try again and emerge with another new album , described at the end of the film as " the greatest album recorded by anyone , ever " . The film features numerous cameo appearances , including Maria Menounos , Val Kilmer , Dave Grohl , Yoshiki Hayashi , Josh Groban , Richard Ghagan , Mike White , Tim Robbins and Jimmy Kimmel .
The band released the album on April 28 , 2012 in its entirety on their Soundcloud account . Rize of the Fenix was officially released on May 15 , 2012 with mostly positive reviews from music critics .
On the Rize of the Fenix commentary on Spotify , Black stated , " We 'll be coming out with another album probably in 2017 " .
Tenacious D provided a cover of " The Last in Line " on the Dio tribute album This Is Your Life . The recording won a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance .
= = = Fourth album and touring ( 2015 – present ) = = =
In early 2015 , Black confirmed that after Tenacious D 's " Unplugged and Unprotected " European tour , the band would work on their fourth album , though no release date was announced . Prior to this confirmation , Gass and Black teased a 2015 release date the previous year in an interview . Also , it was announced that the band would perform at the Boston Calling Music Festival in May , the Amnesia Rockfest in June and Riot Fest in Chicago in September .
In December 2015 , Black and Gass auctioned off props and costumes in support of the Sweet Stuff Foundation in response to the November 2015 Paris attacks where an Eagles of Death Metal concert was attacked . Tenacious D 's 2014 Festival Supreme concert featured Eagles of Death Metal as an act on the main stage . The props auctioned include costumes worn on MTV 's Total Request Live in 2003 , JR Reed 's The Metal from The Pick of Destiny tour , the costumes from the Low Hangin ' Fruit music video and more .
The European tour will cover territories from Germany , Denmark , and Sweden in early summer 2016 .
In addition to playing their own European tour , the band has confirmed playing in two international festivals . The first one , is The Rosklide Festival in Denmark , which is hosted on June 30 , 2016 . In addition to this festival , the artists announced playing at the Bravalla Festival in Norrkoping , Sweden , only days after , on July 1 , 2016 .
On February 5 , 2016 , Black was a guest on BBC Radio 2 's Chris Evans Breakfast Show . When asked about the status of the band , Black confirmed that they were working on a new album . Stating that they were " very slow , " Black suggested that it would likely be completed in 2018 . Black also mentioned that so far they just had a few song titles .
= = Musical style = =
Satire and comedy are a major aspect of Tenacious D 's lyrical content . Gass said of their approach : " I 'd love to do the straight music thing , but that 's kind of against our mission , which is to rebel against the serious singer @-@ songwriter mentality . " Their songs evoke heavy metal clichés of bands like Iron Maiden and Judas Priest . In particular , the song " Dio " pokes fun at the idea of a torch being passed . Songs like " Friendship " parody the lack of real friendship , as well as point out the [ bromance ] traits in rock groups with the lyric " As long as there 's a record deal , we 'll always be friends " . Tenacious D also employs the technique of deliberate backmasking on " Karate " , a technique employed by other metal bands like Slayer , who recorded a message in Hell Awaits .
= = = Influences = = =
Black has said that the first song he enjoyed was ABBA 's " Take a Chance on Me " . His style was distinctly shaped by " big dinosaurs of rock " such as The Who and Led Zeppelin . In addition , Gass lists his influences as being Tom Waits and Tony Robbins . The band claimed that the inspiration for the song " Tribute " came after Black played Metallica 's " One " for Gass , describing it as " the best song in the world " , leading to an attempt to themselves write an even better song .
Gass has described Tenacious D 's comic assertion that they are the best band as being " ridiculous because it 's a matter of opinion " . Black characterizes Tenacious D 's comic nature as an antidote to " the masculinity of rock " , adding " There 's also something funny about the macho @-@ ness of rock . Like the bands that are the fucking hardest rocking are like , ' We 'll fucking kick your ass , dude ... with our rock . ' " Russell Brand , All Shall Perish , The Lonely Island , and Kanye West have in turn been influenced by the work of Tenacious D.
= = Appearances = =
= = = Film and television = = =
Black and Gass first performed together in Bio @-@ Dome ( 1996 ) , followed by The Cable Guy ( 1996 ) , Bongwater ( 1997 ) , Cradle Will Rock ( 1999 ) , Saving Silverman ( 2001 ) , Shallow Hal ( 2001 ) , School of Rock ( 2003 ) and Year One ( 2009 ) . Black has starred in a number of films himself , and he has provided voices for animated films . In 2006 , Tenacious D starred in their own film , Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny , in which they set out to become the greatest rock band in the world , by means of a guitar pick with mystic powers .
Black and Gass have made several television appearances performing songs from their first album . On June 16 , 2001 , Tenacious D were featured as puppets performing " Friendship " on an episode of Crank Yankers . They were guest starred when they were taught by Zorak how to perform in an episode of the Cartoon Network / Adult Swim series Space Ghost Coast to Coast . In 2002 they guest starred on MADtv playing the songs " Tribute " , & " Lee " with Foo Fighters frontman Dave Grohl on drums . Later , Tenacious D made an appearance in the first episode of Tom Goes to the Mayor televised on Adult Swim .
In the run up to the release of the film The Pick of Destiny , Tenacious D performed the " Pick of Destiny " at the 2006 American Music Awards and on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . Tenacious D was a musical guest on Saturday Night Live for the first time , although they had previously appeared as an uncredited musical guest on May 2 , 1998 . They also opened the 2006 Spike TV Video Game Awards with a performance of " The Metal " , and played " Friendship " at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards . The band 's first television appearance of 2008 was in support of the Who at the VH1 Rock Honors .
= = = Internet = = =
Black and Gass were interviewed on August 29 , 2012 , by Tony Hawk as part of the " Dissent " series on the web channel , Ride . The interview was conducted in the Sirius / XM studios as part of the Hawk 's " Demolition Radio " program . The interview 's topics include comedy rock and Upland Skatepark .
= = = Live = = =
In 2001 , Tenacious D started their second nationwide concert tour , performing at larger venues , many of which sold out . Until 2006 , Tenacious D usually performed only with acoustic guitars , rarely with a full backing band . The band has also staged two international concert tours as well as numerous domestic tours , though they have rarely played in non @-@ English speaking countries . Black says this is because foreign concerts are " a little funky " because " the subtleties do get lost in translation " . In addition , he comments on the angst they experience before concerts saying : " We 're always looking for a loophole . Pretty much every concert we 've ever done , we 're trying to find a way to cancel the show at the last minute . " The band permits live recording during concerts if the venue allows recording . Many of these recordings have been recorded and released through Live Music Archive and are available for free digital download .
The band uses an electronic musical toy saxophone called a Sax @-@ A @-@ Boom on @-@ stage . Each of its keys plays a clip of music that sounds almost like a saxophone .
In August 2008 , the band performed on the main stages of the Reading and Leeds Festivals . The band played a Guns N ' Roses cover .
On October 23 , 2010 , the band performed live at the BlizzCon 2010 convention in Anaheim , California . The performance , featured the debut of new songs , and was viewed via an online stream ( BlizzCon Virtual Ticket ) at blizzcon.rayv.com and on DIRECTV as a Pay Per View event .
On Friday , June 11 , 2010 , Tenacious D was in the middle of their " One Day Tour " in Manchester , TN for the annual Bonnaroo Music Festival . The band opened for ' Kings of Leon ' , the first headliner of Bonnaroo 2010 .
Throughout November and December 2011 , the band supported Foo Fighters during their Wasting Light tour of Australia and New Zealand .
In June 2012 , Tenacious D played at the Rock am Ring music festival in Germany . This is the biggest event that Tenacious D have ever played with 86 @,@ 500 people in attendance .
On Saturday 9 June 2012 , Tenacious D played the main stage at Download Festival at Donington Park in Derbyshire , England .
On Sunday 11 August 2013 , Tenacious D played at a theme park Gröna Lund in Stockholm , Sweden . The area holding 17 @,@ 000 fans was quickly full , forcing Gröna Lund to close the gates 3 hours before the concert . Over 5000 fans were left outside with no chance to see Tenacious D. The Swedish Police called it " chaos " and some fans were even seen swimming into the theme park via the water entrance . Lots of fans also rented peddle boats to see the show from the water This is the biggest show that Tenacious D have ever played that has not been a collaboration with other artists such as a festival .
On November 27th 2015 , Tenacious D released their first live album , compiling some of their 2012 @-@ 2013 live performances , to vinyl and on January 15th 2016 , to all digital platforms , including iTunes , Spotify , Amazon , and Google Play . The live performances album is called Tenacious D Live , and contains music from all 3 albums .
= = Political activity = =
Tenacious D are supporters of cannabis legalization . They have also performed at a NORML benefit concert . Black described his view that allowing drug use would remove the stigma of feeling " naughty " attached to users , making the activity mundane and less attractive . Black was the executive producer for a documentary about Randy Credico entitled Sixty Spins Around the Sun . It calls for the so @-@ called Rockefeller drug laws to be repealed . Black said of it , " They 're populating our prisons with people , you know , first time drug offenders — single mothers that have a little bit of coke end up going to prison for 20 years or something . It 's just cruel and unusual punishment . "
In 2004 , Tenacious D supported John Kerry 's US presidential election campaign by playing a benefit concert for him . Black and Gass were also outspoken critics of George W. Bush 's presidency . The band performed a benefit concert for Barack Obama 's presidential campaign on November 2 , 2008 in Milwaukee . Other performers included Ben Harper and Relentless7 , David Crosby and Graham Nash , and the Beastie Boys . Tenacious D guested with Crosby and Nash on " Find the Cost of Freedom " which concluded the Crosby @-@ Nash set . In 2010 , Tenacious D agreed to boycott Arizona due to laws passed there concerning illegal immigration . In 2012 , Tenacious D performed at the House of Blues in Cleveland and did a surprise gig at Kent State University earlier on that day too to encourage voting . Tenacious D supported Barack Obama that year .
= = Other projects = =
Tenacious D have appeared in numerous music videos by other bands , including " Push " by Dio , and " Photograph " by Weezer . Black has appeared on his own in many music videos , including a cameo alongside Dave Grohl in the music video for the Eagles of Death Metal song " I Want You So Hard ( Boy 's Bad News ) " , alongside Grohl again in the music video for the Foo Fighters ' songs " Low " and " Learn to Fly " and a cameo in the music video for the song " Sexx Laws " by Beck .
In addition to appearing in videos , Black and Gass sang backup vocals on the 2002 Styx album Cyclorama , on the song " Kiss Your Ass Goodbye " . Tenacious D lent backing vocals to The Vandals album Look What I Almost Stepped In ... , on the song " Fourteen " . Tenacious D appeared on KROQ @-@ FM 's twelfth full @-@ length Christmas compilation , Swallow My Eggnog , with Sum 41 , on a song entitled " Things I Want " .
Gass appeared in the Good Charlotte music video for the song " Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous " . Gass also performed lead acoustic guitar and vocals for the band Trainwreck , under the pseudonym " Klip Calhoun " . The band also featured JR Reed under the pseudonym " Darryl Donald " , as well as John Konesky and John Spiker , who played lead guitar and bass , respectively , on The Pick of Destiny album . They have released a live album , Trainwreck Live , and were working on recording a studio album with producer John King . Black occasionally appeared with the band under the name " Tuffy McFuckelby " . Trainwreck has broken up as of early 2011 .
Gass also has a YouTube series called " Guitarings " , co @-@ hosted by Tenacious D touring and session guitarist John Konesky , in which they interview musicians , give guitar lessons and discuss a range of topics related to guitars , such as video lessons on the band 's songs such as the widely popular " Beelzeboss " from the album " The Pick of Destiny " . Jack Black , co @-@ founder of the band , has also appeared as a guest on the successful webseries a number of times before .
= = Band members = =
Official members
Jack Black – lead vocals , rhythm guitar ( 1994 – present )
Kyle Gass – lead guitar , backing vocals ( 1994 – present )
Additional members
John Konesky – electric guitar , backing vocals ( session and touring ) ( 2005 – present )
John Spiker – bass , backing vocals ( session and touring ) ( 2005 – present )
Brooks Wackerman – drums ( occasional session and touring ) ( 2006 – present )
Scott Seiver – drums , percussion ( occasional session and touring ) ( 2011 – present )
Dave Grohl – drums , percussion ( session and occasional live performances ) ( 2001 – present )
Former additional members
Page McConnell – keyboards ( session and occasional live performances ) ( 2001 – 2002 )
Warren Fitzgerald – electric guitar ( session and occasional live performances ) ( 2001 – 2002 )
Steve McDonald – bass ( session and occasional live performances ) ( 2001 – 2002 )
= = Discography = =
Tenacious D ( 2001 )
The Pick of Destiny ( 2006 )
Rize of the Fenix ( 2012 )
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= Holy Jesus Hospital =
The Holy Jesus Hospital is a working office Newcastle upon Tyne , England , in the care of the National Trust .
The site of the hospital has been in use for 700 years helping the townspeople . There was an Augustinian friary on the site from the thirteenth century , then an almshouse for housing retired freemen , then a soup kitchen was built next to Almshouse in the nineteenth century , before the site acquired its current function as a working office . The building also serves as the basis of the Inner City Project of the National Trust . This project takes people of ages 12 – 25 and over 50 out to the countryside in order to increase appreciation of the city 's natural surroundings .
The building is of architectural interest because it still retains architectural elements from many previous centuries , including a 14th @-@ century sacristy wall and 16th @-@ century tower connected with the King 's Council of the North . It is also one of only two intact 17th @-@ century brick buildings that survive in the city , the other being Alderman Fenwick 's House .
= = Augustinian Friary ( 1291 – 1539 ) = =
In the 13th century , Newcastle upon Tyne had a population of around 4 @,@ 000 ; and it was difficult for the four parish churches to care for the needs of such a large population . The priests were expected to be educators , doctors and counsellors , as well as meeting the spiritual needs of their parishioners . Therefore , in 1291 land was donated by William Baron of Wark on Tweed to found an Augustinian friary on the land on which the museum now stands .
The Augustinian Friars were originally an order of hermits in northern Italy who Pope Alexander IV first congregated into a single body in 1256 . The Order spread to France and then to England after being invited by Richard de Clare , 6th Earl of Hertford , to found Clare Priory in Suffolk , by the River Stour . On 3 September 1249 , de Clare was able to obtain a writ of protection for the friars from the King . The brethren were clothed in black and observed the rule of St Augustine of Hippo . Augustianian friars had been in England since 1250 and they helped by preaching and healing in the community .
The friary was also used as a lodgings house because it was on one of the main roads to the north . On the day that King Edward I passed through Newcastle in December 1299 the brethren each received three shillings and four pence ( 3s . 4d ) . In 1306 , the King also granted the monastery additional lands to enlarge the burial ground . Richard II directed the bailiffs of the city to issue a proclamation against dumping waste near the site . Apparently some local people threw " excrements , filth , and garbage , in a certain way that led near to the house of the Austin Friars , to their great annoyance and peril . "
It is possible that the site was used by English kings before its later use as a temporary seat for the Council of the North after the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Henry Bourne , an 18th @-@ century historian of Newcastle Upon Tyne wrote of the site : " the Kings of England since the Conquest , kept house in it , whence they came with an Army Royal against Scotland , and since the Suppression of the Monasteries , made a Magazine and Store @-@ house for the North Parts . "
Bourne also suggests that the use of the site as a religious centre might predate the friary . He wrote , " the same authority tells us also , that there was an ancient Religious House founded by the Kings of Northumberland and that several of them were buried here ; but it cannot be true that they built any Thing for the St Austin Fryers , for they came not into England ' till long after the Conquest , in the year 1252 . "
= = Dissolution of the Monasteries ( 1539 ) = =
In 1539 , the friary was seized by the crown along with five others in the area including the Dominican monastery of Blackfriars . At the time of its capture the friary had seven brethren and three novices including the prior , Andrew Kell . The monks and nuns were pensioned and the friars received gratuities . Some took jobs as chantry priests or accommodation in parish livings . Those nuns who were of good birth returned to their families . The bells , lead plate and vestments were turned over to the crown . Most of the building and lands were sold to the lesser gentry , new nobility , and town merchants or to borough corporations . At the time of the Dissolution there were a prior , ten friars and three novices .
In 1537 , Thomas Cromwell was asked if the Austin Friary site could be left intact after the dissolution , to be used as northern headquarters of the King 's Council of the North when it was not sitting at York . It was rarely used for this purpose ( Elizabeth I decreed that the council spend 20 days a year there ) . It appears that in 1551 the site was granted to John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland " as parcel of Tynemouth Monastery . " In 1553 , Richard Benson occurs as keeper of this house for the crown for a fee of 40s per annum . In the map of the city by John Speed in 1610 , the site appears as ' Kings Manour ' . It was much dilapidated by 1595 . During the confused period of the English Civil War , it passed into the hands of the Corporation . The area became known as Kings Manor which was a short lived counterpart to the famous King ’ s Manor at York . Military drills were performed by the townspeople at an area called the artillery ground . All that remains of the friary is part of the sacristy wall , though a model in the interpretation room gives a possible layout of some of the friary buildings .
= = = The tower = = =
The tower was constructed sometime between the Dissolution and the Union of the Crowns but the exact date is not known . It was probably constructed as a strong room to store munitions or provide a secure location if the city walls were breached . This turned the ground floor room into a lock up where troublesome citizens would be thrown until they came before the law to be punished . Much about the tower has changed . The wall to the right of the door is 13th @-@ century , while the dividing wall including the door is 18th @-@ century .
= = Private ownership ( 1605 – 1646 ) = =
In 1605 , the tower and friary buildings were given by James I of England to George Home , 1st Earl of Dunbar . In the same year , Home was also made a Knight of the Garter and received his Earldom of Dunbar . Bourne quotes one of his sources as saying , " a Scot did beg it ( the Hospital ) of King James ; after that took the lead off it and sold it ; but it was cast away before it came to its market . " Also in 1605 , Home consolidated all the lands given to him into a free Earldom , Lordship of Parliament and Barony of Dunbar . The site was one of many Home acquired under the patronage of the king including the Manor and Castle of Norlan and the Castle of St Andrews . Home died in Whitehall , London , in 1611 without a male heir and thus his Earldom and Barony became extinct . A Captain Dykes became the next owner of the land . Bourne wrote ' He ( George Home ) sold also some stones to Sir Peter Riddel , who with them built the south end of his fine house ; but now it belongs to Captain Dykes , and his posterity hath no right . ' The site disappears from the historical record until 1646 when it is recorded as being owned by the council .
= = The Hospital ( 1646 – 1825 ) = =
The Holy Jesus Hospital was built in 1681 by public subscription to house retired Freemen , their widows or unmarried sons or daughters . The hospital was commonly known by local people as the " Freeman 's Hospital " and the " Town 's Hospital " but on 26 March 1684 the building was incorporated by the name of the master , brethren , and sisters of the Hospital of the holy Jesus . The Mayor , alderman and Common Council of Newcastle were appointed as visitors and charged with setting the rules for the hospital . Shortly afterwards the founders bought a quay and garden , in the Close for £ 700 and an estate in Edderly , County Durham for £ 1610 , and another estate at Whittle , Northumberland for £ 1300 and the master and brethren of the hospital were settled across these properties . The building itself was constructed using brick construction which was then a relatively new method ( brick was usually used as an infill for timber @-@ framed buildings ) . Indeed the structure is one of only two 17th @-@ century brick buildings in Newcastle upon Tyne , the other being nearby Alderman Fenwick ’ s House in Pilgrim Street . To be allocated a room , one had to meet the committee ’ s criteria and once were admitted one had to abide by the master ’ s rules . It remained in use until 1937 , when the new hospital was built at Spital Towers . Strict rules governed the " inmates " including being locked in their rooms at 9 pm and having their doors unlocked again at 6 am . There were no children allowed , and the inmates were instructed to attend church each week and take the sacrament . Each year the residents would have been given a free suit of clothing , a measure of coal and , if the charity allowed it , some pocket money ( Alms ) .
The first master of the house was a man named Thomas Lewen , a merchant by trade . The master 's seal had a cross engraved on it and bore the words " Sigillum Hospitalis Sancti Jesu in Novo Castro . " The original allowance for the inmates of the hospital was 20 shillings per ' quarterly ' , while the master would get 30 shillings . On 2 January 1752 , the council decreed that forty ' fothers ' of coal be given to the hospital annually and , on 18 December 1769 , the master was required to be paid £ 8 , and each inmate sister £ 6 per annum . By the early 19th century this allowance had increased to £ 13 for each inmate per annum , four fothers of ' best Benwell ' coals as well as providing clothing . In addition to this the inmates were required to see the Mayor at the Guildhall once each quarter where grievances would be heard . The inmates could also receive money from charities , and this was often called escutcheon money .
In 1705 , the inmates of the Newcastle House of Correction were commissioned to produce ' purple and grey cloth ' for the uniforms of the widows of the Holy Jesus Hospital .
There is an inscription in Latin on the front on the building . Roughly translated it reads ;
" Hospital for poor people by the expense of the citizens and leaders of Newcastle upon Tyne in the year of salvation 1683 . Built by Timothy Robson , Mayor , John Squire Sheriff , but now only remains the three of Faith Hope and Charity , and the greatest of these is Charity . "
In 1646 , the council allowed the Barber Surgeons to build their hall just east of the site : this agreement was given on 15 March 1647 . In 1648 , the plot of land was leased to the barber surgeons on condition that they constructed their hall within two years and that part of the site was to be laid out as a garden for medicinal herbs . A second hall built in 1730 disappeared under the railway viaduct in the 1840s . The most aged claimants were preferred for placements at the Hospital and on 22 March 1779 , the Mayor and common council of Newcastle ordered that several candidates produce certificates to prove their respective ages , to be filed in the town @-@ clerk 's office .
= = Nineteenth century = =
While the modern site is heavily enclosed by modern constructions , particularly Swan House roundabout , Mackenzie , in 1827 , portrays a much more open space :
A soup kitchen was built in 1880 , replacing the police station which adjoined the hospital on the west side , by public subscription and dispensed soup to the ‘ deserving poor ’ until 1891 . The soup was not free : it cost half a pence per pint . People who had donated each had a number of tickets which they could give to those people who they believed qualified for the ration . The deserving poor in Victorian times were those unable to work during the winter months . Those individuals classed as undeserving were those whose poverty was deemed to be caused by indolence and alcoholism . A recent article has suggested that the soup provided by the kitchen was highly nutritious . The kitchen was open from December to March , seven days a week , weather permitting . Advertisements were placed in local newspapers such as the Daily Chronicle and The Journal and Courant to solicit donations for the kitchen . The donations were used to pay the kitchen staff and buy the provisions for the soup . The names of prominent contributors were also listed in those newspapers and annual receipts and expenditures were also published in the press . The kitchen was run by a committee of prominent townsmen , including Thomas Pumphrey , Henry E Armstrong , James Joicey and the banker Thomas Hodgkin .
Lynn Redhead , customer services administrator at the Holy Jesus Hospital , has described what the kitchen would have looked like in the following way :
" People wanting soup came in through an 18 @-@ inch wide brick @-@ lined corridor one at a time to be served from troughs . Nine copper boilers were on the first floor of the building with storage below where raw materials were weighed to be hoisted up . They were making 100 gallons of soup at a time , that ’ s 800 people all queuing at the back of the building . "
In 1881 , the committee from the Discharged Prisoner ’ s Aid Society asked to use the building when it was not in use for discharged female convicts from the prison at Carliol Square ( 1828 – 1925 ) to do laundry work and the Society continued to use it for this purpose until the turn of the century . Between 1882 and 1883 City Road was built over the front lawn of the Hospital .
The soup kitchen closed in 1891 . The building was leased to pork butcher F.G Thompson , who made alterations to the building presumably to separate his business from the laundry and ex @-@ convicts . Urwins Chemical Factory operated on the site from 1913 , producing industrial and domestic chemicals and pharmaceuticals as well as filing first aid boxes until 1961 when it moved to Stepney bank in Ouseburn . In 1937 , the Council decided that the hospital was no longer fit to house people because the area around the almshouse was very unhealthy . Therefore a new hospital was built at Spital Tongues . Some of the building 's original fixtures were moved to the new site at this time .
= = = The Peoples Kitchen = = =
The 19th @-@ century soup kitchen inspired ' The People 's Kitchen ' , a 20th @-@ century charity organization dedicated to helping Newcastle 's homeless . The People 's Kitchen was founded by 76 @-@ year @-@ old Alison Kay who was moved to help the homeless after finding an unidentified man dead under a bush in Newcastle . First she held a " friendship picnic " attended by four homeless men in which she delivered flasks of tea and sandwiches prepared in her own kitchen . Then , after liaising with the police and social services she inaugurated The People 's Kitchen . After occupying temporary premises in Blenheim Street , the people 's hospital moved its headquarters to Bath Lane , Newcastle , in 1997 and distributes clothing and equipment to the homeless .
= = The first museum ( 1950 – 1993 ) = =
In the late 1960s , the Museum Board was looking to have more museums in Newcastle and thought the Holy Jesus Hospital could be used . The fact that the building had stood empty for decades meant that the condition of the building had suffered greatly . The restoration cost £ 67 @,@ 000 , the money coming from the John George Joicey bequest and a new roof was needed . During the restoration some of the original fabric of the building such as door frames , doors and walls on the top floor were lost . In 1970 John George Joicey Museum opened . During this time the soup kitchens were joined to the Holy Jesus Hospital . The first floor rooms were used for teaching the history of Newcastle from the Roman period to the present date . There were period rooms illustrating living styles from the early Stuart to late Victorian periods . Much of the collection was donated by bequest by John George Joicey , a Gateshead businessman and owner of the mining company James Joicey & Co. ltd , and after whom the museum was named . Joicey was also a prominent donor to the Laing Art Gallery . The tower of the hospital had the Alnwick Armoury and the Shotley Bridge Sword makers displays on the first and second floors . The Shotley Bridge Sword makers were sword makers and knifemakers from Solingen , Germany who settled in Shotley Bridge , Durham , in 1690 . The soup kitchen was mainly used as a Victorian schoolroom where children were dressed and taught as Victorian children would have been . There were also audio @-@ visual presentations that illustrated the Tyne Flood of 1771 and the Great Fire of 1854 . Part of the museum was devoted to the Northumberland Hussars and the 15th and 19th Regiments of the King 's Royal Hussars . The museum 's location combined with the city ’ s underpasses and roads system made access to the museum difficult and it was little visited . In 1993 , the museum closed and all artifacts were taken to the Discovery Museum on Blandford Street . These included the effigy of a knight from the 15th century that was found next to the sacristy wall outside the tower .
= = The Inner City Project ( 2000 ) = =
The Holy Jesus Hospital has been the centre of the National Trust ’ s Inner City Project . By August 2004 , £ 800 @,@ 000 had been spent on renovating the building . Funds for the restoration of the site came from the Heritage Lottery Fund and the Tyne and Wear Partnership . The project been running since 1987 in the east end of Newcastle working with young people from 12 @-@ 25 and with the over 50s , taking them out to the countryside . The National Trust needed a central office to expand their work into other inner city areas , so a 25 @-@ year lease was negotiated with the council . The Exhibition Room on the site features touch screens and 3D models to help teach people about the site 's history of helping the townspeople . In the book The Remains of Distant Times : Archaeology and the National Trust , Priscilla Boniface criticizes what she believes to be the National Trust 's lack of interest in operating in urban environments but praises the Inner City Project as a step towards rectifying this . She wrote " Its occasional ventures - such as the Newcastle Inner City Project ... by their frequent mention in National Trust communications , merely serve to underline how few of their type the Trust has to call on for report . " She argues that although the aim of introducing town dwellers to the countryside is " laudable " , the " respectful and serious suggestion might be made , though , that a person or person 's might be usefully employed also with the objective of raising National Trust people 's understanding of and confidence in their ability to visit and enjoy , or at least encounter , the city . " However , Collins and Kay cite research suggesting that the scheme has been effective in promoting " social inclusion " . They note , however , that the project has been limited by the funds made available to it .
= = Notable visitors to the site = =
Princess Margaret Tudor – daughter of Henry VII spent four days there in 1503 on her journey north to marry James IV of Scotland
Thomas Howard , 4th Duke of Norfolk , stayed there in 1560 . As a result , £ 67 was spent on materials and repairs : the walls were re @-@ pointed , roof lead re @-@ laid , gutters and broken windows repaired , a chimney rebuilt , dining chamber on the Great Hall enlarged , two doors cut through a wall and the construction of a new stone window . Materials purchased included 4000 bricks and a considerable amount of glass from Hartlepool . Norfolk was imprisoned nine years later by Elizabeth I for plotting to marry Mary , Queen of Scots .
Eric XIV of Sweden visited in 1561 for which the Great Hall was whitewashed and hung with borrowed tapestries for his visit .
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= 39th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 39th Battalion was an infantry unit of the Australian Army . It was originally raised in February 1916 for service during World War I as part of First Australian Imperial Force . Making up part of the 10th Brigade , it was attached to the 3rd Division and served on the Western Front in France and Belgium before being disbanded in March 1919 . Following the re @-@ organisation of the Australian Army in 1921 , the battalion was raised again as a unit of the Citizens Force , known as the " Hawthorn – Kew Regiment " . In 1937 , it was amalgamated with the 37th Battalion to become the 37th / 39th Battalion . Later it was delinked with the 37th and amalgamated with the 24th Battalion to form the 24th / 39th Battalion , before being raised again as a single unit in October 1941 . During World War II the battalion was sent to New Guinea in 1942 and between July and August of that year the unit was heavily engaged in the defence of the Kokoda Trail during which time they fought several desperate actions against the Japanese as they attempted to hold out until further reinforcements could be brought up from Port Moresby . Such was their involvement in the battle that by the time they were withdrawn they could only muster 32 men and following its return to Australia , the unit was disbanded in early July 1943 .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Formation = = = =
The 39th Battalion was first formed on 21 February 1916 at the Ballarat Showgrounds , in Victoria , for service during World War I. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Robert Rankine , the battalion was raised as part of an expansion of the First Australian Imperial Force ( 1st AIF ) that took place at the conclusion of the Gallipoli Campaign . The majority of the battalion 's recruits came from the Western District of Victoria , and together with the 37th , 38th and 40th Battalions , it formed the 10th Brigade , which was part of the 3rd Division . Following a brief period of training in Ballarat , the 39th Battalion marched through Melbourne on 15 May as the city farewelled the unit and they subsequently embarked upon HMAT Ascanius on 27 May 1916 , bound for the United Kingdom . Sailing via Cape Town , the battalion landed at Plymouth on 18 July 1916 , and moved by train to Amesbury , before marching to Larkhill on Salisbury Plain , where they undertook a period of four months training before being sent to France in November . After completing the Channel crossing on 23 / 24 November , they landed at Le Havre and moved to the front by train . On the night of 10 December , the battalion took its place in the trenches along the Western Front , relieving its sister battalion , the 37th , around Houplines in the Armentieres sector . They remained at the front for the next week , as part of their introduction to trench warfare , during which time the battalion repelled a small German raid and sent out patrols into " no man 's land " .
= = = = Western Front = = = =
After having endured a long winter in Flanders serving in mainly a defensive role , the battalion 's first major engagement came at Messines , in Belgium in early June 1917 . The battle began badly for the 39th . Near Ploegsteert Corner , during the march to the line of departure , the battalion suffered a high number of casualties following a German gas attack which subsequently resulted the 39th only being able to muster about a third of its manpower for the attack , amounting to an assault force of only 120 men . Despite this , the 39th was quickly reorganised into a single wave , and attacking on the 10th Brigade 's right , it subsequently overcame the initial German opposition facing them and then , during the second phase of the battle advanced south of Douve , on the southern edge of the Messines Ridge . It was involved in further fighting north of Grey Farm , where they were initially held up by German machine @-@ gun fire , but after this was overcome they continued to advance to their final objective , eventually digging @-@ in 100 yards ( 91 m ) beyond the farm , having managed to capture all of its objectives . Later , in October , the 39th Battalion took part in two other major attacks in that same sector , firstly at Broodseinde and then at Passchendaele , the first of which was a brilliant success , while the second was a disastrous failure .
During the fighting around Broodseinde on 4 October , the 39th formed the third wave of the 10th Brigade 's attack , which went in around 6 : 00 am . Following up the 37th and 38th Battalions , they advanced against strongly held pill @-@ boxes towards the Gravenstafel Switch . After digging @-@ in , a party from the 39th joined the 40th Battalion as it launched the final wave in the brigade 's attack . As the 40th came up against stiff opposition , more men from the 39th were pushed forward and the objective was finally secured around 11 : 00 am . After the battle , the 39th remained in the line until 6 October , when it was withdrawn back to Morbecque for reorganisation and rest . A couple of days later , the battalion was recommitted to the fighting and ordered to advance towards Passchendaele Ridge , attacking on the morning of 12 October despite heavy rain the previous evening . In the heavy fighting that followed , the battalion managed to secure its first objective , but was forced to withdraw when its flanks became threatened as neighbouring units had been unable to advance with them through the thick mud .
Over the course of the next five months , the 39th Battalion rotated between the front line and rear areas , holding the line in Belgium throughout winter . In the spring of 1918 , when the German Army launched its last effort at victory , known as the Spring Offensive , the 39th was among the many Australian battalions that were hurriedly moved south to France in order to stem the tide of the German onslaught towards Amiens ; fighting a series of defensive actions in the Somme between late March and early June . When the Allies launched their own offensive – the Hundred Days Offensive – on 8 August 1918 , the battalion along with the rest of the 10th Brigade , was serving as the divisional reserve and they did not participate in the advance that has since become known as one of the greatest days for the Allies on the Western Front . On 10 August , the battalion was committed to battle once more , undertaking an attack on the village of Proyart , but this attack was ill @-@ conceived and ultimately failed . Despite this , the battalion remained in the line throughout August and early September as the 3rd Division advanced through the Somme Valley .
The battalion undertook its last major action of the war at the end of September 1918 when , serving alongside the Americans , they breached parts of the Hindenburg Line along the St Quentin Canal . During this final battle , the battalion 's long serving commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Robert Henderson , who had taken command in February 1917 before the battalion 's first major battle , was killed in action . Late on 2 October , while around Gillemont Crescent , the 39th was relieved and the battalion was removed from the line to undertake training and reorganisation . In the middle of October , the 39th was bolstered by a company of reinforcements from the 37th , which had been disbanded to help make up losses in the other 10th Brigade units . Nevertheless , the 39th did not see action again and they were still at the rear when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918 . With the fighting over , the process of demobilisation began and slowly the men began marching out for repatriation to Australia . Finally , in March 1919 , the 39th Battalion was disbanded . At this point , the battalion 's remaining personnel were amalgamated with other units to form the 10th Demobilisation Regiment , with the last of its soldiers returning to Australia in May .
During the course of the war the 39th Battalion suffered 405 men killed , while a further 1 @,@ 637 were wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) , two Distinguished Service Orders ( DSOs ) , 14 Distinguished Conduct Medals ( DCMs ) , 14 Military Crosses ( MCs ) , 78 Military Medals ( MMs ) with three bars , and 22 Mentions in Dispatches ( MIDs ) . For their involvement in the fighting on the Western Front , the 39th Battalion were awarded 14 battle honours in 1927 .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
At the end of World War I there was a wholesale disbandment of units of the Australian Army as the wartime Army was disbanded and its personnel demobilised . In 1921 , it was decided that there was a need to raise a part @-@ time military force , known as the Citizens Force , which would take responsibility for the defence of the Australian mainland . This force was organised along the same lines of the 1st AIF , and the units raised kept the same numerical designation as the 1st AIF battalions . The AIF ceased to exist officially on 1 April 1921 , and the Citizens Force was reorganised the following month on 1 May , adopting the numerical designations and structures of the AIF . As a part of this , the 39th Battalion was raised in 1921 in Melbourne . Upon formation , the battalion was attached to the 10th Brigade , 3rd Division , and the battalion drew personnel from the 22nd and 24th Infantry Regiments and the 29th Light Horse .
In 1927 , territorial designations were adopted and the battalion assumed the title of the " Hawthorn Regiment " . Three years later this was changed to the " Hawthorne – Kew Regiment " . It assumed the motto of Factis Non Verbis in 1927 . Initially , the battalion was kept up to strength with volunteers and men serving under the terms of the compulsory training scheme , but in 1929 the scheme was suspended by the newly elected Scullin Labor government and the Citizen Forces were renamed the Militia . The combination of the end to compulsory training and the financial hardships of the Great Depression meant that there were few volunteers available as men could not risk losing their jobs to undertake training and as a result throughout the 1930s a number of units were amalgamated or disbanded as the size of the Army was reduced . In 1937 , the 39th Battalion was merged with the 37th Battalion , before later being delinked with the 37th and being amalgamated with the 24th Battalion , becoming the 24th / 39th Battalion . An alliance with the Dorsetshire Regiment was approved in 1930 .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = Formation = = = =
On 1 October 1941 , the Australian Military Board issued an order re @-@ raising the 39th Battalion as a single battalion of the Australian Military Forces , as Militiamen were called up for national service . The intent was to raise the battalion to relieve the Queensland @-@ based 49th Battalion , which was serving as a garrison force around Port Moresby , and from the outset the battalion was formed from men who were transferred from a variety of infantry and light horse units , including the 24th / 39th Battalion that had been deployed at Nagambie Road , in Seymour , Victoria , as well as elements from the Militia 2nd Cavalry and 3rd and 4th Infantry Divisions . Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Conran became the battalion 's new commanding officer , having previously served with the 23rd Battalion during World War I , and in the Citizens Military Force after the war .
The battalion headquarters was opened at Darley Camp , near Bacchus Marsh , and by 8 October 1941 , a nucleus of officers and senior non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) , many of whom had experience from World War I , had prepared the battalion for the arrival of the soldiers or other ranks ( ORs ) that would bring it up to its required establishment . On 10 October 1941 , the first draft of nine officers and 523 men from the 3rd Infantry Division assembled at Caulfield Racecourse Transit Camp and were transported by rail to Darley Camp . The following day numbers increased further with the arrival of another seven officers and 400 men from the 2nd Cavalry and 4th Infantry Divisions . Later , in June 1942 , after it had arrived in New Guinea , the battalion 's strength was bolstered with the transfer of 16 officers from the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , including a new commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel William Owen .
On 21 November 1941 , the 39th Battalion paraded through the streets of Melbourne with weapons . It had taken 52 days to form the battalion and while the battalion had still been understrength , they were declared ready for training . In the end , however , as events in the Pacific unfolded , this training was cut short and the battalion was only able to undertake one training exercise in this time . This exercise was code named the " Battle of Corangamite " , and was conducted in the Victorian Western District , at the end of October .
Two days after the Japanese attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor and the British in Malaya , on 9 December 1941 the battalion was ordered to " prepare to move " as it was mobilised for war service . The threat of invasion by the Japanese changed the strategic situation and with it the planning forecasts of the Australian high command . As such , instead of relieving the 49th Battalion , the 39th was combined with the 49th and the New South Wales @-@ based 53rd Battalion to form the 30th Brigade , and plans were made for the entire formation to deploy to New Guinea . Christmas Day 1941 was spent in camp , before the 39th Battalion was loaded onto two trains the following day for a rapid move north . One train went straight to Albury and the other departed from Spencer Street Station , Melbourne , two hours later . Both trains arrived in Sydney at 10 : 40 hours , on 27 December 1941 . The battalion then detrained and moved by ferry to Woolloomooloo Wharf where the 1 @,@ 068 officers , NCOs and men of the battalion boarded the passenger ship the Aquitania bound for New Guinea .
= = = = Kokoda Track = = = =
Initially upon their arrival in New Guinea in January 1942 the 39th Battalion was used to defend the airfield at Seven Mile Aerodrome near Port Moresby and to carry out various other garrison tasks such as building defences and unloading stores at the wharf . In May 1942 , the battalion 's commanding officer , Conran , was deemed medically unfit for service and on 24 May he relinquished command . In June 1942 , as the military situation in New Guinea deteriorated further , the battalion received orders to move up the Kokoda Track in order to act as a blocking force against the possibility of a Japanese advance overland from the north . In order to counter this threat , Maroubra Force composed of troops the 39th Battalion and the Papuan Infantry Battalion ( PIB ) were sent to Kokoda , arriving there on 15 July . This move proved prescient as a large Japanese force landed at Gona only a week later , and they quickly began to move inland towards Kokoda .
The first clash occurred at Awala on 23 July , when a platoon from ' B ' Company , under the command of Captain Sam Templeton , having destroyed the footbridge over the Kumusi River , engaged the Japanese on the far side of the river . The Australians were forced to withdraw , however , when hundreds of Japanese marines began crossing the river under a barrage of mortar and machine gun fire . They withdrew only a few miles , before Templeton set up a successful ambush for the advancing Japanese on the banks of the Gorari Creek . Nevertheless , they were forced back further towards the high ground at Oivi where they attempted to make a stand while Templeton tried to make contact with battalion headquarters and the rest of the battalion who were spread out further along the track , in order to get more reinforcements .
On the evening of 29 July the Japanese attacked the main position Kokoda . There were only 80 men from ' B ' Company left at that time , and armed only with small arms and a few Bren light machine guns , they were no match for the assaulting Japanese . Casualties on both sides were high as the Australians resorted to hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , and the battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel William Owen , who had flown in to take over the battalion following Templeton 's death , was killed while organising the withdrawal . It became clear that Kokoda was lost and the following morning , under the cover of a dense mist , with the PIB 's commanding officer , Major William Watson , assuming temporary command , the survivors abandoned the position and fell back towards the village of Deniki , a mile or so back along the Kokoda Track towards Isurava .
The remnants of ' B ' Company regrouped at Deniki , but they were in a bad state and when on 4 August , Major Allan Cameron , brigade major of the 30th Brigade , arrived to take command of Maroubra Force , most of them were sent back to Isurava in disgrace as he was under the mistaken belief that they had run away from the fighting . Nevertheless , on 8 August the rest of the 39th Battalion , now without the only troops who had any experience fighting the Japanese , launched a counterattack at Kokoda . They managed to secure one side of the airfield , but due to the close proximity of the Japanese on the other side , relief aircraft were unable to land and short of food and ammunition , they were forced to fall back to Deniki once again after almost two days of fighting . They eventually managed to halt the Japanese advance and on 14 August Maroubra Force fell back to Isurava .
At this point the fighting ceased for almost two weeks and during this time the 39th was joined by the 53rd and the 30th Brigade headquarters ; and Lieutenant Colonel Ralph Honner arrived from Ilolo to take command . Reaching the battalion at Isurava on 16 August , he subsequently began organising the battalion 's defence of Isurava . On 23 August Brigadier Arnold Potts took over command of Maroubra Force and further reinforcements arrived as first the 2 / 14th , 2 / 16th and later the 2 / 27th Battalions from the 7th Division 's 21st Brigade also reached the area . Despite this , the situation remained bleak as the supply issue was becoming a serious problem for the Australians and the reinforcements that had arrived were also in a state of disarray having been committed to the battle in a piecemeal fashion and suffering badly from hunger and disease .
Although the Japanese were experiencing similar problems in relation to supplies , they began their advance once again on 26 August and despite several rugged defensive actions the Australians were forced back again , first to Eora Creek on 30 August , then Templeton 's Crossing on 2 September , and finally to Efogi three days later . Exhausted from their efforts and no longer able to be considered an effective fighting force , the 39th was relieved and sent down the track to Koitaki to rest . They had done the job that was required of them , having stalled the Japanese advance in order to allow reinforcements to be brought up . These reinforcements came in the shape of the 25th Brigade , comprising the 2 / 25th , 2 / 31st and 2 / 33rd Battalions . Bitter fighting ensued and the Australians withdrew once again on 17 September , this time to Imita Ridge ; however , the Japanese had reached their limit and on 24 September began to withdraw . By 2 November , Kokoda was back in Australian hands .
= = = = Fighting around Gona and disbandment = = = =
Following the 39th Battalion 's withdrawal from the line in September 1942 , they spent a month at Koitaki before being sent back to Port Moresby in mid @-@ October , where they were detailed to prepare defensive positions . In November , they were attached to the 21st Brigade , and throughout December the 39th Battalion was involved in further fighting as the brigade fought around Gona . During this time the 39th suffered heavy casualties , but the fighting continued and having captured the Gona Mission , the battalion moved to the Sanananda Track on 21 December , taking up a forward position at Huggins ' Road Block . In the New Year the battalion was withdrawn to Soputa and returned to the 30th Brigade . They had suffered heavy casualties and in January 1943 , when it was flown back to Port Moresby , it had a frontage of only seven officers and 25 men . In February , the 39th was ordered to prepare for operations in the Wau area , in anticipation of a further Japanese attack , but this attack did not eventuate and on 12 March the 39th Battalion embarked for the return journey to Australia .
Following the 39th Battalion 's return to Australia , the men were given a period of leave before 30th Brigade was reconstituted on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland . Initially , the plan was to reorganise the brigade and rebuild it prior to returning it to New Guinea , but in July it was decided that the 30th Brigade , along with its component battalions — the 39th , 49th , and 3rd Battalions — would be disbanded and used to reinforce the 6th Division , with reinforcements being sent to the 16th and 19th Brigades . This came into effect on 3 July 1943 and as a result of this decision , the Militiamen that had been called up for service were transferred to the 36th Battalion , a Militia battalion from New South Wales , while those who had volunteered for overseas service were sent to the 2 / 2nd Battalion ; both of these units later saw further service in New Guinea .
At the end of the battalion 's involvement in the fighting in New Guinea , 1 @,@ 666 men had served in its ranks . The battalion suffered 403 combat casualties , which consisted of 118 killed in action , 13 died of wounds , five died other causes , and 266 wounded in action . Illness and disease also took a heavy toll and as a result , after six months of combat the 39th Battalion 's muster roll was only seven officers and 25 other ranks . For their service during World War II members of the 39th Battalion received the following decorations : two MBEs , one DSO , four DCMs , seven MCs , 10 MMs , one US Distinguished Service Cross and 11 MIDs . The 39th received eight battle honours for the war in 1961 ; it was the only Australian unit to receive the " Kokoda Trail " battle honour .
= = Battle honours = =
The 39th Battalion received the following battle honours :
World War I : Messines 1917 , Ypres 1917 , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Somme 1918 , Ancre 1918 , Amiens , Albert 1918 , Mont St Quentin , Hindenburg Line , St Quentin Canal , France and Flanders 1916 – 18 .
World War II : South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 43 , Kokoda Trail , Kokoda – Deniki , Isurava , Eora Creek – Templeton 's Crossing I , Buna – Gona , Sanananda Road , Amboga River .
= = Commanding Officers = =
World War I
Lieutenant Colonel Robert Rankine ;
Lieutenant Colonel Robert Henderson ;
Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Thomas Paterson .
World War II
Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Marcell Conran ;
Lieutenant Colonel William Taylor Owen ;
Lieutenant Colonel Ralph Hyacinth Honner .
= = Legacy = =
Since the end of the war , the 39th Battalion 's involvement in the fighting around Kokoda has become a significant part of the narrative surrounding the Anzac legend and Australia 's emergence as a modern nation . The battalion 's actions were first shown in Damien Parer 's 1942 film Kokoda Front Line , and more recently in the 2006 Australian movie Kokoda , which was based partly on Victor Austin 's To Kokoda and Beyond .
After the war when Australia 's part @-@ time military forces were reformed in 1948 , while many battalions that had been disbanded during the war were re @-@ raised , the 39th was not . On 8 August 2006 , the Australian Army raised the 39th ( Personnel Support ) Battalion ( later re @-@ designated the 39th Operational Support Battalion ) , adopting the 39th 's numerical designation in order to perpetuate them on the order of battle . During the ceremony that was held at the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne , the Governor General , Major General Michael Jeffery , described the 39th Battalion as some of " Australia 's most gallant soldiers " , stating that the Australian nation was indebted to them for " their heroic service " .
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= Killing Time ( Star Trek novel ) =
Killing Time is a Star Trek : The Original Series novel written by Della Van Hise and published by Pocket Books in 1985 . The original manuscript had Kirk / Spock slash fiction elements , and these were requested to be removed by Paramount . However , they were not removed , and 250 @,@ 000 copies were printed . These romantic undertones between Spock and James T. Kirk were brought to the attention of the office of the creator of Star Trek , Gene Roddenberry , who made Pocket Books recall the first edition . This edition subsequently became a collector 's item , with more than fifty changes made to a revised version .
= = Plot = =
The USS Enterprise is on patrol near the Romulan neutral zone and the crew is experiencing unusual dreams . Captain James T. Kirk and Science Officer Spock both confess that they are having dreams that Spock is Captain of the ship and Kirk is an Ensign . Kirk informs Spock that Starfleet intelligence has discovered that the Romulans are attempting to use time travel and are sending more ships to investigate . Captain Kirk goes to sleep , and awakes as Ensign Kirk on the VSS ShiKahr , which appears to otherwise be the Enterprise . The Ensign is a drug addled ex @-@ convict who has been on board for only a day .
The Romulans had attempted to travel back in time and destroy the Federation , but they instead created a Federation dominated by Vulcans . They shielded a ship from the changes and compare the differences , realising that it needs to be reversed . Meanwhile , Captain Spock begins to act protectively of Ensign Kirk , but the Captain is injured on an away mission . After Doctor McCoy conducts a series of mental scans , the crew of the ShiKahr realise that history has been altered . The Romulans plot to use Kirk to force Spock to impersonate their leader . Spock mindmelds with Kirk , each realising their personas from the main timeline .
Romulan agents board the ShiKahr and capture Kirk . Spock agrees to their demands and travels with them . Whilst en route , Spock enters pon farr and finds that he is linked to Kirk , but mates with the Romulan Thea to allow it to pass . They retrieve Kirk , and discover that taking Kirk and Spock was a ploy to have them both travel back in time to stop the Romulan agents from preventing the formation of the Federation . They travel back in time and disable the agents , but Spock is seriously injured and dying . Kirk and Spock mindmeld as reality shifts once more and restores the original timeline .
= = Development = =
The original manuscript of Killing Time included Kirk / Spock based slash fiction overtones . The foundation of this genre of writing dated back to the 1970s with fan created fiction about Kirk and Spock . This has since become a term typically used for same @-@ sex unofficial fiction . Author Della van Hise had previously written these types of stories about those characters . When that manuscript was sent by Pocket Books for approval by Paramount Studios , the pages with the slash fiction were marked to be edited out of the eventual novel . It was returned , but at the time Pocket Books were between editors as Mimi Panich had just left , and her replacement Karen Haas had not yet arrived . At some point , someone went through the manuscript and marked the pages which Paramount had asked to be removed with the letters " STET " , which is a Latin term used by proofreaders to tell the printer to disregard earlier changes .
Pocket Books published 250 @,@ 000 copies of Killing Time in the first print run . After the publishing , Gene Roddenberry 's assistant , Richard Arnold , received a letter from a reader stating that the book was suggesting a romantic link between Kirk and Spock . This was passed to Roddenberry , the creator of Star Trek , who reportedly " became livid " . Following his complaints to Pocket Books , the first print run of the novel was recalled and destroyed . Pocket Books had already shipped between 100 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 copies of the book to retailers . When the news broke , fans began purchasing the novels before they could be removed from the shelves as the first edition was expected to become a collector 's item . Van Hise later said of that version of the novel , " If someone went looking for ' questionable material ' , in Killing Time , they could find it ... Just as beauty is in supposedly in the mind of the beholder , so is questionable material . " More than fifty changes were made to the novel before it was republished as a second edition .
Following the issues with the publishing of Killing Time , there was increased oversight by Roddenberry 's staff regarding the novels published by Pocket Books . This was delegated to Arnold , and would later cause confusion for Pocket Books as comments would be sent back and it was sometimes unclear whether they were from Roddenberry or Arnold . These comments rejected plot developments in the novels where they were stepping out of the bounds set by the television series . Rumours subsequently spread that there was an alternative version of the manuscript with more explicit Kirk / Spock slash details , something that Van Hise later denied .
= = Critical reception = =
Ellen Cheeseman @-@ Meyer , writing for Tor.com in February 2013 , said that Killing Time was " incredibly romantic " . She stated that it reminded her of 18th century literary Romanticism , " which suggested that morality lay in nature and civilization was a corrupting influence " . She said that whilst it could be considered " a trivial piece of fluff tossed off by a fan writer and published when Pocket Books wasn ’ t paying much attention " , it could also be seen to be a " call to action that requires readers to examine their relationships and their actions " . In Elizabeth Woledge 's article for Extrapolation , entitled " From Slash to the Mainstream : Female Writers and Gender Blending Men " , she describes Killing Time as " erotic but not sexual " and said that Spock and Kirk both " combine masculine and feminine imagery " . She suggested that it was not the romantic overtones that caused the reaction , but rather that it was this gender @-@ blending that was the issue .
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= Round Church , Preslav =
The Round Church ( Bulgarian : Кръгла църква , Kragla tsarkva ) , also known as the Golden Church ( Златна църква , Zlatna tsarkva ) or the Church of St John ( църква " Свети Йоан " , tsarkva " Sveti Yoan " ) , is a large partially preserved early medieval Eastern Orthodox church . It lies in Preslav , the former capital of the First Bulgarian Empire , today a town in northeastern Bulgaria . The church dates to the early 10th century , the time of Tsar Simeon I 's rule , and was unearthed and first archaeologically examined in 1927 – 1928 .
Considered to be one of the most impressive examples of medieval Bulgarian architecture , the Round Church takes its name from the distinctive shape of one of its three sections , the cella ( naos ) , which is a rotunda that serves as a place of liturgy . The church 's design also includes a wide atrium and a rectangular entrance area , or narthex , marked by two circular turrets .
The church has been likened to examples of religious architecture from the late Roman ( Early Christian ) period , the Caucasus , and the Carolingian Pre @-@ Romanesque of Charlemagne because of its characteristic plan , which is significantly different from contemporaneous Bulgarian or Byzantine buildings . The church 's alternative name , the Golden Church , stems from its possible and popular identification with a " new golden church " in Preslav referenced in a medieval literary source .
The Round Church 's rich interior decoration , which makes ample use of mosaics , ceramics and marble details , distinguishes it from other churches in Preslav . Its interior features hundreds of drawings depicting ships , fauna , and Christian figures . Medieval inscriptions on the walls range from names of saints in Byzantine Greek to separate letters and short texts in the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets .
= = Background = =
Founded in 681 as a pagan state , Bulgaria was formally Christianised by Byzantine clergy in the 860s , under Prince Boris ( r . 852 – 889 ) . The right to convert Bulgaria to Christianity was the subject of a political dispute between Byzantium and the Papacy . With the conversion to Christianity , Boris hoped to solve internal ethnic issues and improve the foreign relations of his state , which was not treated equally by the Christian rulers of Europe .
The Round Church was constructed during the rule of Boris ' son and successor , Simeon ( r . 893 – 927 ) , whose successful campaigns established Bulgaria 's temporary superiority over Byzantium , at times threatening the Byzantine capital at Constantinople . He extended the territory of the First Bulgarian Empire over most of the Balkans , to the Adriatic and the Aegean . Simeon also conquered the lands of modern Serbia and Montenegro and efficiently eliminated the Magyar threat from the north . Counted among Bulgaria 's greatest leaders , Simeon was a benefactor of literature and the arts ; his reign is considered the " Golden Age " of medieval Bulgarian culture because of Bulgaria 's literary influence over contemporary Slavic Europe .
The city of Preslav was made the capital of Bulgaria early in Simeon 's reign , partly because of the former capital Pliska 's association with pre @-@ Christian paganism . Simeon turned Preslav into a cultural centre , a true rival to Constantinople . Some of the most eminent scholars of Bulgaria 's Golden Age worked at the Preslav Literary School . Intended more as a royal residence and a showcase of cultural power than a fortress , the city boasted impressive architecture , including a large number of characteristic palaces and dozens of churches . Among them the Round Church , regarded as " one of the most impressive monuments of medieval Bulgarian architecture " and an " expression of the highest achievements of Old Bulgarian culture " , stood out .
= = Identification and history = =
The Round Church is popularly identified with the " new golden church " referenced in a colophon to an Old Bulgarian translation of Athanasius of Alexandria 's Orations Against the Arians . The text says that the translation was done on the order of Prince Simeon by Constantine of Preslav and copied by Theodore Dox , " at the mouth of the Ticha in the [ Byzantine ] year 6415 indiction 14 [ 907 AD ] , where the same prince had the holy new golden church built " . It is uncertain whether the " mouth of the Ticha " refers to a narrow section of the river , to the Ustie pass near the city , or possibly to a certain location next to the outer city walls and in the direct vicinity of the Round Church ruins . This problem aside , if " golden " is to be taken literally , the source is also unclear as to whether the church is the new one among the city 's golden churches , or the single golden one among the new churches in Preslav . Scholar Stancho Vaklinov considers the identification of the Round Church as the " new golden church " from literature " incontestable " , while art historian Nikola Mavrodinov is of the opinion that it is probable . On the other hand , historian A. P. Vlasto believes this identification to be " not absolutely certain " .
If the church from the marginal note is equated with the Round Church , then it can be conclusively dated to no more than a few years before 907 . While the church can be ascribed to no later than the 10th century , some scholars have suggested that it may have been constructed directly on top of a much earlier late Roman basilica due to its antiquated plan . A possible donor ( ktetor ) of at least part of the church 's construction is a high @-@ ranking church official ( chartophylax ) named Paul , who is mentioned in an inscription inside the church . The main part of the work was likely funded by Simeon , who may have acted as a chief sponsor .
There is debate in Bulgarian academic circles as to whether the church was built as a monastery church or as a separate cathedral . If the buildings neighbouring the church are interpreted as the residential part of a monastery , it was most probably established after the construction of the Round Church , during the rule of Tsar Peter I ( r . 927 – 969 ) . The absence of entrances on these buildings on the sides facing the church and the presence of a large atrium make it unlikely . Another argument against the Round Church being a monastery church is its location , isolated from other buildings yet accessible to the public outside the inner city . Scholar Bistra Nikolova considers it a city cathedral and compares it in function to the Great Basilica in Pliska . Another researcher , Krastyu Miyatev , sees it as a royal church of Simeon , but art historian Nikola Mavrodinov and archaeologist Totyu Totev insist it belonged to a monastery from the beginning .
The earliest excavations of the site were carried out in 1927 – 1928 by archaeologists from the National Archaeological Museum in Sofia and the Bulgarian Antiquities Society under the direction of Yordan Gospodinov . A second effort headed by Krastyu Miyatev resulted in a much more in @-@ depth study , and archaeological research at the site is ongoing . In 1927 , the Round Church , along with the entirety of medieval Preslav , was proclaimed a historical and archaeological reserve and placed under state protection as a national antiquity . In 1970 , it was individually included in the list of monuments of culture of national importance with a publication in that year 's State Gazette , issue 46 . As part of the Veliki Preslav architectural reserve , the Round Church is listed as No. 98 among the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria .
The Church of St Petka in Ruse , opened in 1944 , was built as a reconstruction of the Round Church in Preslav . The Round Church underwent partial restoration in the late 1990s and early 2000s . In December 2009 , plans were announced to reconstruct the church in its entirety , without demolishing or altering any of the original structural remains . A monument dedicated to Tsar Simeon was unveiled in the immediate vicinity of the Round Church on 27 May 2007 to honour the 1080th anniversary of his death . Despite not being an active church , it is regularly used for baptisms and weddings .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Location and style = = =
The Round Church was built outside Preslav 's inner city , which mostly included the royal palace and its associated buildings such as the Royal Basilica . It was still within the outer city limits , and lay in Preslav 's southeastern part , some 250 metres ( 820 ft ) from the South Gate of the inner city . It was situated on a high terrace . Today the Round Church , along with the other ruins of medieval Preslav , lie not far from the modern town of Veliki Preslav , which is the administrative centre of a municipality in Shumen Province , northeastern Bulgaria .
While no church from this age in the Slavic @-@ populated parts of the Balkans was up @-@ to @-@ date with contemporary Byzantine architecture , the Round Church differs markedly because of its centralized , circular plan , which is unique in medieval Bulgarian architecture . The rounded and dynamic nature of its shapes is in contrast with the sharp rectangular designs of that period . It is most likely based on the abundant examples of late Roman or early Byzantine buildings that lay ruined in the Bulgarian lands . The layout , particularly the rotunda , resembles churches from the time of Justinian I such as the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna , the Little Hagia Sophia in Constantinople ( today Istanbul ) , and the Rotunda of Galerius in Thessaloniki . Even if the plan is unusual , the technology and principles employed in its construction are contemporary to the 10th century and in accord with other monuments in Preslav .
Byzantine churches are not the only source of inspiration that researchers attribute to the Round Church . Some scholars link its design to an Armenian influence , perhaps brought to Bulgaria by craftsmen from the Caucasus . In general , churches with such an antiquated plan in the Balkans are associated with the migration of Cappadocian , Armenian , or Georgian monks . Another possible model for the Round Church in Preslav may well be found in Carolingian architecture from the time of Charlemagne , and particularly the Palatine Chapel in Aachen , western Germany , with which it shares some characteristics . At the time of the Round Church 's construction , Bulgaria was in direct contact with the Frankish Empire . One trait of the Round Church that is claimed by scholars to be a very recognisable Carolingian influence is the presence of a monumental westwork .
= = = Description = = =
The Round Church includes three sections : the wide atrium ( or courtyard ) , the narthex and the cella ( also naos or , due to its shape , rotunda ) , each serving as a premise to the other . The sections were not necessarily built at the same time , and it is generally accepted that a reconstruction of the church was carried out some time after its completion . Mavrodinov and archaeologist Karel Škorpil believe the narthex and cella comprised the first building period , while the atrium was added very shortly after that and by the same architect .
The church has a total length of 38 @.@ 5 m ( 126 ft ) , including the atrium . It was mostly built of rectangular limestone blocks sparingly joined with mortar . Inside the apse , the mortar is red @-@ coloured . The floor was covered by marble and stone tiles glued on top of red mortar in the narthex and white mortar elsewhere . Red and yellow bricks and pieces of bricks were used for the atrium , the arches , and possibly the dome ; some brick pieces were used to fill spaces between the stones on the walls .
= = = = Atrium = = = =
The outermost part of the Round Church is its atrium , the flanked open space leading into the narthex . It is accessed by means of three gates ( one on each wall ) , of which the entrance on the main west wall is the most elaborate and grandest in appearance . The atrium is almost square in shape and measures 12 @.@ 20 m × 14 @.@ 30 m ( 40 @.@ 0 ft × 46 @.@ 9 ft ) . A water well was constructed in the middle of the courtyard ; it was linked to a water conduit .
The sides of the atrium are decorated by a multitude of vaults with piers in between . In total , there are fourteen vaults : four on each of the courtyard 's three walls and one each where the west wall meets the sides . The atrium includes an equal number of round limestone columns each standing opposite one of the piers , 0 @.@ 60 m ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) apart .
= = = = Narthex = = = =
The rectangular narthex constitutes the middle part of the building , between the atrium and the cella , and serves as the lobby of the church . It lies directly east of the atrium , through a wide gate flanked by a couple of high circular turrets . Mavrodinov likens the narthex of the Round Church to similar structures in the churches of Mount Athos , because of its depth .
Together with the north and south wall , the entrance of the narthex effectively isolates two smaller parts of the atrium , similar in plan and accessible through doors . The north part includes a small necropolis , while the south part was probably a baptistery , as it features a square installation with a clay pipe that resembles a baptismal font . However , Nikolova considers its shape much too unusual and its depth unsuitable for baptism , and believes it may instead have been designed as a vessel for dispensing holy water .
Measuring 5 m × 9 @.@ 50 m ( 16 @.@ 4 ft × 31 @.@ 2 ft ) , the narthex is the part of the Round Church which has survived in best shape , as some of its walls reach 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Its two turrets have a diameter of 3 @.@ 20 m ( 10 @.@ 5 ft ) ; each has an entrance facing the interior of the narthex and three windows . The higher reaches of the towers were reached via spiral stairways , archaeological remains of which have been unearthed in the north turret . There are two pairs of columns inside the narthex , supporting its second floor , which is accessible from the north tower . The columns divide the narthex into three naves and mark the way from the narthex entrance to the gates of the rotunda .
= = = = Rotunda = = = =
The round cella is the easternmost and most important part of the church , as it was where the liturgy was performed . The diameter of the rotunda is 10 @.@ 50 m ( 34 @.@ 4 ft ) . It is accessed through three gates , all from the narthex . It was entirely covered by a dome . Twelve vaults , semicircular as seen from the inside and pentagonal on the outer wall , were constructed north and south of the rotunda 's eastern part , the apse , which itself fits into one of the vaults . Large buttresses reinforce the structure both inside and outside . A circle of ten or twelve white marble columns was inscribed inside the rotunda , 0 @.@ 55 m ( 1 @.@ 8 ft ) from the interior buttresses . The capitals of the columns are similar to those of the royal palace in Preslav . A copper @-@ plated wooden coffin lay in a burial chamber by one of the vaults near the apse .
The semicircular apse fits naturally with the other vaults of the rotunda despite being larger , and features vaults on its north and south walls . The marble ambon was situated in the middle of the circle of columns and of the whole rotunda , directly under the dome 's centre , as evidenced by a mortar padding . Stairs from the east and west , aligned with the apse , used to lead up to the ambon . The bishop 's throne or cathedra probably lay near one of the south vaults , which was likely enlarged for the purpose .
= = Decoration = =
The interior was lavishly decorated with colourful Byzantine @-@ style mosaics , cornices , and ceramics . With the exception of the Corinthian and Doric column capitals , which are of Roman or Byzantine origin , the rest of the decoration was created specifically for and during the church 's construction . Vlasto finds a Proto @-@ Bulgarian flavour in the church 's interior and a relationship with the art of Persia or Central Asia . Thus , he believes that it is not based on Byzantine examples of that age . Of a contrary opinion is Miyatev , who points out significant similarities between the decoration of the Round Church and that of the Church of the Mother of God ( now part of the Fenari Isa Mosque ) from 908 in Constantinople . Mavrodinov goes a step further to claim that the architect of the Round Church was directly inspired by ancient examples , citing in particular the rich sculptural decoration .
The Round Church was unmatched in its ceramic decoration by any church in Preslav , and was the only known building in the city to rely heavily on polychrome ceramic tiles . Ceramic and mosaic icons were a highlight of the interior ; they ranged in size from almost life @-@ sized to miniature . While the ceramic images were constructed out of clay tiles , the mosaic icons were more varied in their material , which included clay , glass , and stone of various shades on a gold @-@ coloured background . Among the portrayed saints and biblical figures are Charalampus and perhaps Joel . Some of the images were enclosed in ellipses .
The Round Church featured marble and limestone cornices . These included a large number of intertwined ornaments and details , such as palmettes , grape clusters , leaves , and chamfers . Besides classic ornamental shapes , the cornices feature some that are entirely new in character or well @-@ known yet redesigned motifs . Floral decoration dominates the cornices . Tiles found inside the church ruins depict birds and other animals in addition to geometric shapes and floral motifs , all glazed in either brown , yellow , green , blue , or blue @-@ green . The walls were covered in polished marble facing with encrusted shapes .
= = Epigraphy = =
The Round Church contains many medieval inscriptions , both official and scratched on its walls as graffiti . One study counted a total of 193 signs and 30 drawings , the vast majority bearing some kind of Christian symbolism . As a whole , the epigraphy of the Round Church dates from the 10th century , and three alphabets are represented : the Greek , the Glagolitic , and the Cyrillic , as well as two languages : Byzantine Greek and Old Bulgarian ( the eastern Bulgarian recension of Old Church Slavonic ) . The Glagolitic inscriptions of the Round Church bear evidence that the use of that alphabet in Preslav continued alongside Cyrillic .
Perhaps the most famous and valuable writing on the walls of the church is a Cyrillic inscription on the south wall of the premises south of the narthex , conventionally known as the baptistery . The inscription was clumsily written on top of a mortar putty and says in translation : " Church of Saint John , built by chartophylax Paul " . Despite being dated to the 10th century and its mention of the church 's dedication and its potential donor , it cannot be described a classic donor 's inscription because of its unnatural location and clumsy writing . Nikolova considers it more likely that the author of the inscription was a literate person who served under chartophylax Paul and desired to spread his fame . She believes the text may refer to the construction of the narthex only rather than the whole church , because she is of the opinion that the narthex may have been added after the building of the rotunda .
Other examples of the epigraphy of the Round Church include several short Glagolitic and Cyrillic texts and separate letters . Among the Glagolitic inscriptions is the Preslav Abecedarium , a liturgical text including the first thirteen letters of that alphabet ; some of the Cyrillic texts were written on ceramic tiles . The names and descriptions attached to the icons are in Greek , while there are also bilingual inscriptions in Greek and Bulgarian . Individual letters inscribed on the walls illustrate the way Greek and simplified Glagolitic letterforms were combined to form the early Cyrillic alphabet . On the walls of the church are graffiti of Christian crosses , animals , and up to 11 depictions of ships . At least one epitaph has been discovered , inscribed on the tombstone of a woman described as " God 's servant Tudora " .
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= Music of the Final Fantasy Tactics series =
The music of the Final Fantasy Tactics series , composed of Final Fantasy Tactics , Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift , and Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions , was primarily composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto . He was assisted by Masaharu Iwata in composing the music for Final Fantasy Tactics . The Final Fantasy Tactics Original Soundtrack , a compilation of almost all of the music in the game , was released by DigiCube in 1997 , and re @-@ released by Square Enix in 2006 . No separate soundtrack has been released for Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions . The soundtrack was well received by critics , who found it to be astounding and one of the best video game music soundtracks in existence at the time of its release .
The music of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance was again composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto , with assistance from Nobuo Uematsu , Kaori Ohkoshi , and Ayako Saso . The Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Original Soundtrack , a compilation of almost all of the music in the game , was released by DigiCube in 2003 . A new age arrangement album entitled White : Melodies of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , a selection of musical tracks from the game arranged by Yo Yamazaki , Akira Sasaki , and Satoshi Henmi , was released by SME Visual Works in 2003 . Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Original Soundtrack was well received by critics , who praised the album 's composition . Critics did not react as well to the White : Melodies of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance album , finding it to be a mediocre album with poor arrangements .
The music for Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift was also composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto , this time with the assistance of composers from his company Basiscape . The music was released as Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift Original Soundtrack by Square Enix in 2007 . It was enjoyed by reviewers , who found it to be pleasant and rewarding .
= = Albums = =
= = = Final Fantasy Tactics Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy Tactics Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of video game music from Final Fantasy Tactics , and was composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto and Masaharu Iwata . Sakimoto composed 46 tracks for the game , and Iwata composed the other 25 . The album was first released on two Compact Discs by DigiCube on June 21 , 1997 bearing the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10008 , and was re @-@ released by Square Enix on March 24 , 2006 with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10066 @-@ 7 . It spans two discs and 71 tracks , covering a duration of 2 : 31 : 03 .
The Final Fantasy Tactics Original Soundtrack reached # 62 on the Japan Oricon charts and received positive reviews from critics such as Patrick Gann of RPGFan , who says " It is the best soundtrack I own , and I don 't believe that any other soundtrack known to man surpasses it yet as a whole . " Ryan of Square Enix Music Online praised the way that the two composers ' pieces blended together , and termed the album " one of the greatest soundtracks ever made and a true work of inspiration . "
Track list
= = = Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of video game music from Final Fantasy Tactics Advance . The album contains the musical tracks from the game , composed mainly by Hitoshi Sakimoto , with assistance from Nobuo Uematsu , Kaori Ohkoshi , and Ayako Saso . It spans 74 tracks and covers a duration of 2 : 05 : 27 . The first disk includes every piece of music from the game , as it sounds through the Game Boy Advance hardware . The second disk contains synthesized versions of 32 of the same 42 tracks . The album was released on February 19 , 2003 , by DigiCube . The release bears the catalog numbers SSCX @-@ 10083 @-@ 4 or SQEX @-@ 10070 @-@ 1 ( reprint ) .
The album reached # 130 and was received favorably by critics ; Richard Vardaro of RPGFan found it to be " beautifully composed " and compared it favorably to the soundtrack to Final Fantasy Tactics . However , he questioned the inclusion of the Game Boy Advance version of the soundtrack , finding it to be " tinny and raspy " . Chris of Square Enix Music Online also enjoyed the soundtrack , seeing it as " creative , appealing , and mature " and " a must @-@ have " .
Track list
= = = White : Melodies of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance = = =
White : Melodies of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance is an arranged album of music from Final Fantasy Tactics Advance . The album contains the musical tracks from the game , composed mainly by Hitoshi Sakimoto , with assistance from Nobuo Uematsu , Kaori Ohkoshi , and Ayako Saso , and arranged by Yo Yamazaki , Akira Sasaki , and Satoshi Henmi . It spans 11 tracks and covers a duration of 46 : 10 . It was released on February 26 , 2003 , by SME Visual Works . The release bears the catalog number SVWC @-@ 7172 .
White was not received well by critics , with Patrick Gann finding it to be a mediocre album and saying that he felt " very disappointed " with it . He found the " new @-@ age " style to be poorly chosen and the arrangements to be sub @-@ par . Zeugma of Square Enix Music Online was more approving of the album , saying that it conveyed the " quiet mood " it promised , but finding it to sometimes be " dangerously close to muzak " with too many synthesized instruments and too little variation .
= = = Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of music from Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift . The album contains the musical tracks from the game , composed mainly by Hitoshi Sakimoto , with assistance of composers from Basiscape , his composing studio . Several compositions were also taken from the scores of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance and Final Fantasy XII . It spans 56 tracks across two disks and covers a duration of 2 : 13 : 10 . It was released on November 28 , 2007 by Square Enix . The release bears the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 710102 @-@ 3 .
The album received positive reviews from critics , with Vincent Chorley of RPGFan terming it " one of the most rewardingly pleasant soundtracks this year . " Ovelia of Square Enix Music Online also enjoyed the soundtrack , saying that it was " mature yet still playful " , but worried that it hinted at a stagnation in Sakimoto 's musical style .
Track list
= = Legacy = =
A radio drama based on Final Fantasy Tactics Advance was broadcast starting in January 2003 , preceding the release of the game . The shows were compiled in a series of four of CDs entitled Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Radio Edition vol . 1 @-@ 4 . The CDs were released by DigiCube on February 26 , 2003 , March 26 , 2003 , April 23 , 2003 , and May 21 , 2003 , with the catalog numbers SSCX @-@ 10082 , SSCX @-@ 10088 , SSCX @-@ 10092 , and SSCX @-@ 10094 , respectively . Additionally , a single was released by Sony Records on November 27 , 2002 with the catalog number SRCL @-@ 5513 containing the song " Shiroi hana " , performed by Zone , which was used as an image song for commercials for Final Fantasy Tactics Advance . A medley of pieces from Final Fantasy Tactics A2 was played at the Fantasy Comes Alive concert in Singapore on April 30 , 2010 . Selections of music from the Final Fantasy Tactics series have also appeared on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
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= 1995 Football League Cup Final =
The 1995 Football League Cup Final was a football match played between Liverpool and Bolton Wanderers on 2 April 1995 at Wembley Stadium , London . It was the final match of the 1994 – 95 Football League Cup , the 35th staging of the Football League Cup , a football competition for the 92 teams in the Premier League and The Football League . Liverpool were appearing in their seventh final , they had previously won four and lost twice . Bolton were appearing in their first final .
Both teams entered the competition in the second round . The majority of Liverpool 's matches were close affairs , with the exception of a 4 – 1 victory over Burnley in the second round . Otherwise , their biggest margin of victory was by two goals over Blackburn Rovers in the fourth round . Bolton 's matches were equally close . Their biggest margin of victory was three goals in the second round against Ipswich Town , while they beat Norwich City by a single goal in the quarter @-@ finals .
Watched by a crowd of 75 @,@ 595 , Bolton controlled the early exchanges in the match , but it was Liverpool who took the lead in the 37th minute when Steve McManaman scored . McManaman scored again in the 68th minute to extend Liverpool 's lead to two goals . However , a minute later , Alan Thompson scored for Bolton to reduce the deficit to one goal . Despite repeated attacks , Bolton did not score an equaliser and Liverpool won the match 2 – 1 .
Liverpool 's victory was their fifth in the competition . McManaman was named as man of the match and awarded the Alan Hardaker Trophy . His performance was praised by both managers , as was the performance of both teams . Liverpool 's win qualified Liverpool to play in European competition the following season , while Bolton would win promotion to the Premier League following a 4 – 3 victory in the First Division play @-@ off final .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool entered the competition in the second round , where they drawn against First Division team Burnley . The tie was played over two legs , with the first leg held at Liverpool 's home ground Anfield . Goals from defender John Scales and striker Robbie Fowler secured a 2 – 0 victory for Liverpool . The second leg was held at Burnley 's home ground Turf Moor , which Liverpool won 4 – 1 to progress to the third round courtesy of a 6 – 1 aggregate victory .
First Division team Stoke City were the opposition in the third round , with the match held at Anfield . Striker Ian Rush put Liverpool ahead in the fourth minute , but Stoke striker Paul Peschisolido equalised in the 40th minute . A further goal from Rush in the second half secured a 2 – 1 victory for Liverpool . Liverpool 's opposition in the fourth round were fellow Premier League team Blackburn Rovers , at whose ground , Ewood Park , the match was held at . Three goals from Rush gave Liverpool a 3 – 1 victory and progression to the quarter @-@ finals .
Fellow Premier League team Arsenal were the opposition in the quarter @-@ finals . A goal from Rush in the 59th minute secured a 1 – 0 victory . Liverpool 's opponents in the semi @-@ finals , which were held over two legs , was First Division team Crystal Palace . The first leg , held at Anfield , was goalless until the 90th minute when striker Fowler scored . The second leg was held at Palace 's home ground , Selhurst Park . A goal from Fowler in the 27th minute secured victory and a 2 – 0 aggregate win meant Liverpool progressed to the final .
= = = Bolton Wanderers = = =
Bolton entered the competition in the second round , where they faced Premier League team Ipswich Town . The first leg , held at Ipswich 's home ground Portman Road , was won 3 – 0 by Bolton . Bolton won the second leg 1 – 0 at their home ground , Burnden Park , to progress to the third round courtesy of a 4 – 0 aggregate victory . Fellow First Division team Sheffield United were the opposition in the third round . The march held at United 's home ground , Bramall Lane , was won 2 – 1 by Bolton .
Bolton were drawn against Premier League team West Ham United in the fourth round . The match held at West Ham 's home ground , The Boleyn Ground , was won 3 – 1 by Bolton as they progressed to the quarter @-@ finals . Their opposition were Norwich City of the Premier League . Bolton won 1 – 0 at Burnden Park to progress to the semi @-@ finals .
Fellow First Division side Swindon Town were the opposition in the semi @-@ finals . Swindon won the first leg at their home ground , the County Ground 2 – 1 . Bolton recovered in the second leg to win 3 – 1 , which meant they progressed to the final courtesy of a 4 – 3 aggregate victory .
= = = Results = = =
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
Liverpool were appearing in their seventh final . They had won four ( 1981 , 1982 , 1983 , 1984 ) and lost two ( 1978 , 1987 ) . Bolton were appearing in their first final , they had previously reached the semi @-@ finals during the 1976 – 77 Football League Cup . The last meeting between the two sides was on 13 January 1993 , in a replay of their third round tie in the 1992 – 93 FA Cup . Bolton won the match 2 – 0 .
Despite their history in the competition , Liverpool manager Roy Evans , felt this would not count for anything in the final : " Our players haven 't really got that much Wembley experience , certainly not in terms of finals . It will be good for us to have Ian Rush and John Barnes out there . " Striker Rush had picked up a hamstring injury while playing for the Welsh national team against Bulgaria , but was expected to be fit . Midfielder Mark Kennedy would not feature in the final as he was ineligible .
Bolton defender Alan Stubbs was confident Bolton could cause Liverpool problems : " I think if you look round the team we have got good quality everywhere and that 's why we are doing so well , we have also got good players in reserve who can come in and do a job . We have played together for a long time and we are strong both mentally and physically this year . And if the forwards have not been scoring , the midfield and wingers have . "
= = = First half = = =
Bolton had the best chances in the first part of the first @-@ half . Midfielder David Lee caused trouble for Liverpool defender Stig Inge Bjørnebye in the opening minutes , while fellow defender Phil Babb was shown a yellow card in the 20th minute for tripping Lee . The Bolton midfielder came close to opening the scoring in the 30th minute . A lofted pass by Jason McAteer sent him clear of the Liverpool defence , he subsequently beat Liverpool goalkeeper David James to the ball , but his shot 30 yards ( 27 m ) from goal went wide of the goal . Bolton had another chance four minutes later . Midfielder Alan Thompson received the ball from a Jimmy Phillips thrown in , but his volleyed shot 25 yards ( 23 m ) from goal was pushed onto the crossbar by James .
Despite their strong first half up to that point , Bolton went a goal behind in the 37th minute . Liverpool midfielder Steve McManaman received the ball from John Barnes , he ran past Bolton defender Alan Stubbs , then past Scott Green . His subsequent shot was not powerful , but Bolton goalkeeper Keith Branagan could not stop the ball from going into the goal , giving Liverpool a 1 – 0 lead .
= = = Second half = = =
Bolton started the second half on the attack . Bolton were awarded a free @-@ kick , following a foul on Thompson , by Liverpool defender Rob Jones , who was shown a yellow card . From the subsequent free @-@ kick , Bolton striker John McGinlay received the ball , keeping it from the onrushing James , his pass into the Liverpool penalty area found Mixu Paatelainen whose volleyed shot went wide of the Liverpool goal . Bolton had another attack almost immediately . A pass by McAteer found Thompson on the right side of the pitch , but his shot went across the face of the Liverpool goal . Liverpool began to assert more pressure following the attack . A pass by striker Ian Rush in the 52nd minute found Bjørnebye , whose subsequent shot hit the post . Another Liverpool attack was stopped by Bolton defender Mark Seagraves as he intercepted a cross from Bjørnebye to Rush , but his interception went towards the Bolton goal and was only stopped by Branagan .
Liverpool 's pressure paid off in the 68th minute as McManaman scored a second goal . From the left side of the pitch , McManaman went past Green , then McAteer , before he got in front of Seagraves and scored with a shot into the Bolton goal . Bolton replied immediately . Liverpool defender Neil Ruddock 's clearance was played back into the Liverpool penalty area by Guðni Bergsson who had replaced Green . Paatelainen headed the ball onto Thompson , whose shot went into the Liverpool goal . Bolton continued to pressure Liverpool in search of the equaliser but were unable to score and Liverpool won the match 2 – 1 to claim their fifth League Cup victory .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post match = =
Liverpool captain Rush collected the trophy from the Royal box at Wembley Stadium . Liverpool 's victory meant Rush won the competition for the fifth time in his career , which is a record . McManaman was awarded the Alan Hardaker Trophy as man of the match . McManaman praised the performance of the Bolton players : " Give Bolton their due , they battled back in the second half like we knew they would but it was a great team effort by our lads and I was just happy to get two goals like that . " Liverpool manager Roy Evans praised the performance of McManaman stating : " The two goals were fantastic . Sometimes he does need a kick up the backside , but they were really two great goals . " Evans was also delighted to have won his first trophy as Liverpool manager : " We believed that we 've always had a decent squad with players of outstanding ability . The way the lads have worked this season is outstanding . This cup is the first step . We are in Europe and we are delighted . "
Despite his team 's defeat , Bolton manager Bruce Rioch praised the performance of Liverpool : " I 'm delighted for Roy , if you 're going to lose in a cup final then the winner couldn 't have gone to a better club . " Rioch also stated that the final " was great for the town and great for the people . " Bolton would return to Wembley in May when they progressed to the First Division play @-@ off final . A 4 – 3 win secured promotion to the Premier League for the following season . Liverpool 's victory earned them qualification into European competition , the 1995 – 96 UEFA Cup . They would finish the 1994 – 95 season in fourth place in the Premier League , 15 points behind eventual winners Blackburn Rovers .
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= John Lymburn =
John Farquhar Lymburn ( September 25 , 1880 – November 25 , 1969 ) was a Canadian politician who served as Attorney @-@ General of Alberta from 1926 until 1935 .
Born and educated in Scotland , he came to Canada in 1911 and practiced law in Edmonton . In 1925 , John Edward Brownlee became Premier of Alberta , and sought a lawyer without partisan affiliation to succeed him as attorney @-@ general . Lymburn accepted the position , and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in the 1926 election .
As attorney @-@ general , Lymburn took part in negotiations between the Alberta and federal governments over natural resource rights , prepared Alberta 's submission in the Persons case , and played a minor role in the sex scandal that forced Brownlee from office .
In the 1935 provincial election , Lymburn and all other United Farmers of Alberta candidates were defeated , as William Aberhart led the Social Credit League to victory . Lymburn briefly returned to prominence during the Bankers ' Toadies incident , and made an strong but unsuccessful attempt to return to the legislature in 1942 , before dying in 1969 .
= = Early life = =
Lymburn was born in Ayr , Scotland to William and Margaret ( Farquhar ) Lymburn . He attended Ayr Grammar School and Ayr Academy before studying law at Glasgow University . After graduating , he apprenticed with Dougall , Gouldie , and Douglas ; he qualified as a solicitor in 1903 . In 1911 he emigrated to Canada , settling in Edmonton where he joined Short , Cross , and Biggar . Two years later , he co @-@ founded Lymburn , Mackenzie , and Cooke ( later renamed Lymburn , Reid , and Cobbledick ) . In the interim , he had married fellow Scot Isabella Marguerite Clark on July 19 , 1912 . The couple would have three daughters : Marguerite Dormer , Mary Doreen Farquhar , and Constance Clark . John Lymburn was made King 's Counsel in 1926 .
= = Attorney @-@ general = =
In 1925 , attorney @-@ general John Edward Brownlee succeeded Herbert Greenfield as the leader of the United Farmers of Alberta ( UFA ) ' s provincial caucus and Premier of Alberta . Brownlee was the only lawyer in the UFA caucus , which was dominated by farmers . In appointing an attorney @-@ general to replace himself , he looked outside his caucus and appointed Lymburn , in part because of his lack of affiliation with any provincial political party . By convention , cabinet ministers , including attorneys @-@ general , were expected to sit in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta . Accordingly , Lymburn ran in the 1926 provincial election in Edmonton as a UFA candidate . He finished first of eighteen candidates in Edmonton , and became one of Edmonton 's five Members of the Legislative Assembly ( MLAs ) .
As attorney @-@ general , Lymburn was involved in many of the Brownlee government 's most important initiatives . He was a major figure in securing the transfer of resource rights from the federal government to the Alberta government . Once the Great Depression proved fertile breeding ground for labour militancy , at Brownlee 's request he prepared a list of Communist leaders so that the government could take action to deport the non @-@ naturalized residents among them , ( although no deportations were ordered ) . Alberta was the only provincial government to support the appellants in the " Persons case " , and Lymburn was responsible for its submission .
He was also involved in scandal : the former head of the Liquor Investigation Bureau made allegations against him after Lymburn eliminated the Bureau to save money , though the charges had little effect either in the legal system or in the public eye . During the John Brownlee sex scandal , in which Brownlee was sued for the seduction of a family friend , Lymburn became the focus of controversy after his department hired a private investigator to look into claims that a Liberal lawyer had offered a young woman money to " put Mr. Brownlee in such a position that Mrs. Brownlee could get a divorce " . Taking the stand during the trial , Lymburn stated that the investigation had been initiated not to aid in the premier 's defense , but because the alleged solicitation was a criminal offense . He noted further that Brownlee had insisted on refunding to the government the cost of the investigator .
When the scandal forced Brownlee 's resignation as premier , Lymburn stayed on as attorney @-@ general in the short @-@ lived government of Richard Gavin Reid . The popularity of the Reid government faltered during the Great Depression due to its inability to take radical action to ensure employment and a reasonable standard of living for all Alberta residents , while radical economic theories , most notably the version of social credit espoused by Calgary evangelist William Aberhart , gained support among the public . The government 's position was that Aberhart 's proposals were beyond the legal authority of the provincial government , since they involved banking , which the Constitution of Canada makes a responsibility of the federal government . As attorney @-@ general , Lymburn played a major role in defending this position . When Lymburn 's UFA government brought Social Credit leader C. H. Douglas from the United Kingdom as an advisor , Lymburn provided him with a copy of one of Aberhart 's speeches and asked him to critique it ; Douglas concluded that Aberhart 's proposals did not align with " Douglasite " social credit , and that many of them would not have the desired effect .
= = Later life = =
In the 1935 provincial election , the UFA was wiped out of the legislature by Aberhart 's upstart Social Credit League . As historian Franklin Foster has noted , " it was an ironic footnote to the demise of the most politically successful farmers ' group in history that the one UFA candidate who came closest to re @-@ election was lawyer John Lymburn in the City of Edmonton . "
After defeat , Lymburn remained active in community life as an elder in Edmonton 's First Presbyterian Church , chairman of the Advisory Board of the Students ' Christian Movement , chairman of the Board of Directors of the Beulah Home for unmarried mothers , and president of the Edmonton Scottish Society . He was also a long @-@ standing member of the Mayfair Golf and Country Club . He was an aficionado of the work of fellow Ayrshire native Robbie Burns , whose poetry he could recite in Gaelic , and often spoke at Burns suppers .
Lymburn briefly re @-@ entered the public eye in 1937 , when he was named in a Social Credit @-@ produced pamphlet as one of eight " Bankers ' Toadies " who should be " exterminated " ; Social Credit whip Joseph Unwin was convicted of criminal libel in relation to the pamphlet .
In 1942 , Lymburn contested a by @-@ election in Edmonton ; In the initial vote count , he finished third of five candidates . After subsequent re @-@ distribution of the votes as per the STV system in use , he came in second in the final vote count , with Elmer Roper of the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation emerging victorious .
Marguerite Lymburn died in 1958 . John Lymburn died eleven years later , on November 25 , 1969 .
= = Electoral record = =
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= The Apartment ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Apartment " is the fifth episode of the second season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and the show 's tenth episode overall . In the episode , protagonist Jerry Seinfeld ( Jerry Seinfeld ) gets his ex @-@ girlfriend Elaine Benes ( Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) an apartment above his , but regrets this after realizing it might be uncomfortable living so close together . Meanwhile , Jerry 's friend George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) wears a wedding ring to a party to see what effect this will have on women .
The episode was written by Peter Mehlman and directed by Tom Cherones . Series co @-@ creators Seinfeld and Larry David asked Mehlman to write an episode for the show after they read a few articles he wrote for newspapers and magazines . Mehlman originally had the idea of Elaine moving away from Jerry , but David and Seinfeld felt it would be funnier if Elaine moved closer to Jerry instead . " The Apartment " was first broadcast in the United States on April 4 , 1991 on NBC , and was watched in 15 @.@ 7 million homes , making it the ninth most @-@ watched program of the week it was broadcast . The episode gained mostly positive responses from critics .
= = Plot = =
While Elaine is depressed about the low quality of her apartment , Jerry overhears Harold ( Glenn Shadix ) and Manny ( Tony Plana ) , the managers of his apartment building , discussing a death that makes an apartment available . Shocked by the low rent , Jerry immediately tells Elaine that he will be able to get her the apartment above his . She is extremely excited to hear this , as she will be able to live near Jerry . Though excited at first , Jerry later realizes how intrusive Elaine might become , and that living with her might get annoying . He discusses his problem with George , but the topic of their conversation changes and they eventually talk about wearing a wedding ring to a party , to see how women will react . George dislikes the idea at first , but eventually borrows one from Jerry 's neighbour Kramer ( Michael Richards ) to experiment .
Jerry still worries about Elaine , but Harold and Manny inform him that someone else has bid higher than Elaine and will get the apartment unless Elaine is able to pay $ 5 @,@ 000 . Elaine is very disappointed when she hears the news . However , Kramer convinces Jerry to lend Elaine the money . When Elaine , Jerry and George go to a party of a friend of Elaine , Elaine asks Jerry if it would be uncomfortable for them to live so close to each other , but Jerry says he does not worry . George 's wedding ring plan backfires , as he discovers that wearing the ring is actually causing women who would otherwise date him to reject him . Jerry feels stupid for not telling Elaine the truth , but , the following day , Kramer informs him that he found somebody who is willing to pay $ 10 @,@ 000 for the apartment . However , Kramer 's friend , a musician , plays loud music all day long , and Jerry regrets not letting Elaine rent the apartment .
= = Production = =
" The Apartment " was written by Peter Mehlman and directed by Tom Cherones . Seinfeld and co @-@ creator Larry David contacted Mehlman and asked him to write an episode for the show after reading a few articles Mehlman had written for The New York Times and Esquire . Mehlman noted that , prior to Seinfeld , he had " barely written any dialogue in [ his ] life " . He first conceived the idea of an episode in which Elaine would move away from Manhattan and Jerry had to confront his feelings about her . He discussed the idea with Seinfeld , David and staff writer Larry Charles , who felt that it would be funnier if Elaine would move closer to Jerry instead . After their meeting , Mehlman was told to write the episode , which surprised him , describing it as " unlike any other show , where they would have given beat for beat for beat . " As Mehlman was writing the script , he came up with the idea of George wearing a wedding ring to a party to see how women would react . Though the wedding ring idea was not included in the approved script , Seinfeld and David decided to keep it as it suited George well .
The first table read of the episode was held on January 9 , 1991 . The episode was filmed in front of a live audience on January 15 , 1991 . Filming of the episode took place at the CBS Studio Center in Studio City , Los Angeles , California , where , starting with the season premiere " The Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , filming of all the show 's episodes took place . A few scenes were changed prior to the filming of the episode . The scene in which Jerry informs George he told Elaine about the apartment initially showed them standing in line for the movies , talking about sitting in the front of the theatre . George would tell Jerry that he once pretended to have a grotesque physical impairment while he was standing in line to get a ticket for The Exorcist ( 1973 ) , and people would let him go in front of them without saying anything . The location of this scene , however , was changed to Monk 's Cafe , a regular hangout for the show 's main characters , and George and Jerry 's dialogue was shortened . In the original script , Jerry , instead of George , proclaimed himself " lord of the idiots " , but this was changed during rehearsals .
" The Apartment " featured the only appearance of Harold and Manny , the two building superintendents . Veteran actors Glenn Shadix and Tony Plana portrayed Harold and Manny respectively . Their part in the episode was originally smaller , but they were written into the final scene of the episode . Harold was set to return in the season two episode " The Revenge " , in which he would tell the show 's central characters that Jerry 's suicidal neighbour Newman jumped from the building , but an awning broke his fall . However , the Newman sub plot in the episode was significantly reduced during production and Harold 's part was cut . Theresa Randle , Patricia Ayame Thomson and Leslie Neale guest starred as women George flirts with unsuccessfully when he is wearing his wedding ring . Louis @-@ Dreyfus ' half @-@ sister Lauren Bowles appeared as an extra at the party George , Jerry and Elaine attend . Bowles would continue to appear regularly throughout the series ' run , frequently as a waitress at Monk 's Cafe . Additionally , David Blackwood , who appeared as a guest at the party , would also continue to make small appearances on the show . Assistant director Joan Van Horn appeared as a woman feeding her baby at Monk 's Cafe .
The episode marks the first time Elaine does her trademark " Get Out ! " shove ; the catchphrase was not in the original script , but was added at Louis @-@ Dreyfus ' suggestion . It became one of the show 's popular catchphrases . " The Apartment " is the first episode in which Jerry 's apartment number is 5A ; it had been changed a few times prior to the broadcast of this episode , but would remain 5A until the end of the show . It is also contains one of the few references to Kramer 's father , who remained unseen throughout the show 's run .
= = Reception = =
The episode was first aired in the United States on NBC on April 4 , 1991 as part of a Thursday night line @-@ up that also included Cheers and L.A. Law . " The Apartment " gained a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 9 and an audience share of 28 , meaning that 16 @.@ 9 % of American households watched the episode , and that 28 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . Nielsen also estimated that 15 @.@ 7 million homes were tuned into the episode , making Seinfeld the ninth most @-@ watched show in the week the episode was broadcast , while 20 @.@ 5 million homes tuned into Cheers . Seinfeld 's ability to keep a large number of Cheers ' audience eventually helped the show get a third season order .
Ocala Star @-@ Banner critic Jon Burlingame praised the episode for its " smart humor " and stated the show could be a perfect fit between Cheers and L.A. Law . Mike Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling of Entertainment Weekly reacted very positively to the episode and praised Alexander 's performance in particular , stating " George 's profound self @-@ hatred is now in full bloom ( ' Please , a little respect , for I am Costanza , Lord of the Idiots ! ' ) . Kramer 's input , meanwhile , remains limited to off @-@ the @-@ wall , often annoying cameos . Which reminds us : Why in the world has Alexander been denied an Emmy , while Richards has scored two ? " Schilling and Flaherty graded the episode with a B + . However , The Kitchener @-@ Waterloo Record critic Bonnie Malleck gave the episode a particular negative review , comparing Seinfeld to It 's Garry Shandling 's Show , she stated " Seinfeld isn 't neurotic enough to be as funny as [ Garry Shandling ] . So , instead of being nervously funny , he 's just nervously dull " .
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= The One with Ross 's Wedding =
" The One with Ross 's Wedding " is the two @-@ part fourth season finale of the American television sitcom Friends , comprising the 96th and 97th episodes of the series overall . Originally broadcast by NBC on May 7 , 1998 , the episode features Ross , Monica , Joey , Chandler and later Rachel travelling to England to attend the wedding of Ross Geller ( David Schwimmer ) to his fiancée Emily ( Helen Baxendale ) in London . Ross and Emily 's wedding vows are ruined when Ross accidentally says " I , Ross , take thee Rachel " ; as the registrar asks Emily if he should continue , the episode ends on a cliffhanger until the season 5 premiere " The One After Ross Says Rachel " .
The episode 's teleplay was written by Shana Goldberg @-@ Meehan & Scott Silveri from a story by Michael Borkow ( part one ) and Jill Condon & Amy Toomin ( part two ) . The episode 's genesis came during the break between seasons three and four , when Channel 4 , the British first @-@ run broadcaster of Friends proposed an episode set in the United Kingdom to the series producers . The proposal fitted neatly with a storyline already being planned , whereby the character of Ross would be married at the end of the fourth season . The episode was filmed in March 1998 under the direction of executive producer Kevin S. Bright on locations in London , and in front of a live studio audience at The Fountain Studios . Scenes featuring Lisa Kudrow 's character Phoebe Buffay were filmed on the show 's sets in Burbank , California , as Kudrow was too pregnant to fly to London with the rest of the cast . Kudrow gave birth to her son on the day of the episode 's original airing .
" The One with Ross 's Wedding " features supporting roles from Tom Conti , Jennifer Saunders , Elliott Gould , Christina Pickles and Olivia Williams , and cameos by Richard Branson , Sarah , Duchess of York , Hugh Laurie and June Whitfield . The episode received good critical feedback in the US on its first broadcast , and is often cited as one of the series ' best episodes ; however , when it aired in the United Kingdom it was poorly received , with criticism focused on the one @-@ dimensional portrayal of Britain and the British .
= = Plot = =
Part 1 begins as the group heads off to Ross 's wedding in London leaving behind a heavily @-@ pregnant Phoebe ( Lisa Kudrow ) , and Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) , who has declined the invitation . In London , Joey ( Matt LeBlanc ) and Chandler ( Matthew Perry ) go see the sights in a musical montage featuring The Clash 's song " London Calling " , with Joey filming everything on his camcorder . Chandler becomes embarrassed by his friend 's enthusiasm , and after Joey buys a large Union Flag hat from a vendor ( played by guest star Richard Branson ) , they part company . They reunite in their hotel room and Chandler apologizes . Joey impresses him with a video recording of Sarah , Duchess of York ( who played herself ) . Emily takes and Ross to the hall where the wedding will be , but they discover it is being demolished earlier than originally scheduled . Monica later suggests Emily postpone the wedding until everything is perfect . She passes the thought on to Ross , angering him ; he tells her people have flown from America to be there and that it is " now or never " ; she chooses " never " . Monica berates Ross for his insensitivity and Ross apologizes to Emily , showing her the ceremony can still take place in the half @-@ demolished hall that he has tidied up . She agrees . In New York , Rachel realizes she still loves Ross , and flies to London to tell him .
In Part 2 , Phoebe tries to contact someone by phone to warn them about Rachel , eventually getting through to Joey at the hotel and stirring up homesickness in him . At the rehearsal dinner , Ross introduces his parents , Jack and Judy ( Elliott Gould and Christina Pickles ) to Emily 's , Steven and Andrea ( Tom Conti and Jennifer Saunders ) . Jack and Judy have volunteered to pay for half of the wedding expenses but when they discover extravagant costs Ross spends much of the evening trying to bargain down his future in @-@ laws . Chandler makes a toast that is not well received by the guests and Monica is taken aback when a drunken guest mistakes her for Ross 's mother . She and Chandler console each other over alcohol and wake up in bed together the next morning . Rachel eventually boards a plane , after forgetting her passport , and annoys other passengers ( including guest star Hugh Laurie ) by telling them about her relationship with Ross . At the hall , she sees how happy Ross is with Emily and just wishes him luck . Phoebe phones Joey to hear the wedding , to the annoyance of Ross . As Ross says his vows , he accidentally says Rachel 's name rather than Emily 's , registrar to ask Emily if he should continue , while the camera shoots from character to character , settling on a shocked Rachel .
= = Production = =
During the summer hiatus of 1997 the producers were contacted by Channel 4 , the British first @-@ run broadcaster of Friends , with a proposal to film an episode in London . Producer Greg Malins is quoted as saying " We had to come up with a storyline that would cause all the Friends to go to London [ ... ] and that ended up being Ross getting married , because they would all have to go to his wedding " .
The episode featured numerous supporting roles from British actors . For her role as Andrea Waltham , Saunders " heard Joan Collins ' voice in [ her ] head " . Her Absolutely Fabulous co @-@ star June Whitfield appeared in cameo as the housekeeper . Felicity , the bridesmaid who Joey entices , is played by Olivia Williams . Further cameos were made by Sarah Ferguson as herself , Richard Branson as the vendor who sells Joey a hat , and Hugh Laurie as the man sitting next to Rachel on the plane . Lisa Kudrow did not join the others in London as she was too heavily pregnant to fly , like her character Phoebe . Elliott Gould inadvertently revealed to the public that Rachel was to turn up at the wedding , upsetting Marta Kauffman .
Scenes not involving the main apartments were all filmed in London during the week beginning March 30 , 1998 . Location shooting was done mostly for scenes featuring Joey and Chandler ; outside the London Marriott , Grosvenor Square , and the top of an open @-@ top London bus as it crosses Tower Bridge ( this scene was excised from the final cut but features in the opening titles of the next episode ) . Interiors , such as the restaurant , the Waltham 's hallway and the hotel rooms , were all filmed on purpose @-@ built sets at The Fountain Studios , Wembley . The reaction from the audience when Monica came out from under Chandler 's bed covers meant the actors had to hold their position for 27 seconds . When filming ran late one evening , the production team ordered pizzas for the audience .
The episode was a coup for Channel 4 , who erected crush barriers outside their building to hold back fans when the cast arrived for a press conference ( though no fans actually turned up ) . The broadcaster also commissioned a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes program from Princess Productions . Hosted by British television personality Johnny Vaughan , The One Where Johnny Makes Friends features comedic tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek interviews with all six main cast ( Vaughan contacted Kudrow by payphone , claiming that he couldn 't make international calls from his dressing room ) and was broadcast on Channel 4 on May 6 , 1998 .
Two brief behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes were filmed , titled Friends Goes to London and Friends on Location in London , which were included on the DVD releases of seasons four and five . A tie @-@ in book , Making Friends in the UK ( ISBN 0752221949 ) was published by Channel 4 Books in November 1998 . Said book was bundled into a gift pack entitled " The One with the Whole London Wedding " , which featured an extended cut of this episode merged with the next episode .
Ross and Emily 's marriage was originally planned to last , but Helen Baxendale did not wish to remain in America while pregnant . The writers could not script a convincing story for why Emily would not be seen , despite being married to Ross , so Baxendale was written out in the next season , making only three cameo appearances after the season premiere .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing , " The One with Ross 's Wedding " finished third in ratings for the week of May 4 – 10 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 21 @.@ 2 , equivalent to approximately 20 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on NBC that week , following Seinfeld and ER – all of which aired on the network 's Thursday night Must See TV lineup . The episode aired in the Republic of Ireland on RTÉ on May 25 , 1998 , six days earlier than in the United Kingdom on Sky1 . It also aired on Channel 4 on December 11 , 1998 and was watched by 6 @.@ 49 million viewers , making Friends the highest rated show on the channel for the week ending December 13 , 1998 .
Entertainment Weekly gives the episode an A rating , calling it a " near @-@ perfect finale that finds everyone at the top of their game " with a " tantalizing cliff @-@ hanger , and , in Chandler and Monica , a relationship that will have reverberations for seasons to come " . The authors of Friends Like Us : The Unofficial Guide to Friends state there are " too many ' best moments ' to list in detail " , but single out Rachel describing the perfect wedding to Ross , and Sarah Ferguson 's cameo ( though they call Branson 's " embarrassing " ) . Following the broadcast of the episode in the UK , The Independent was critical , saying " Twice the length of a normal episode , last night 's offering was approximately half as funny " and suggested the cast were behaving out of character . Many British viewers regarded the episode as an ill @-@ informed and patronising caricature of the UK and its people , causing the episode to be labelled " The One Where They Insult the English " .
David Schwimmer has expressed dissatisfaction that Ross was married again , saying it was " a mistake " and that Ross was not given " enough credit " . He says that Ross 's " taking on the world would just be shattered " following the character 's and that he wouldn 't have risked another . David Crane has said that filming in front of a different audience " energized the actors and writers " . The hall where the wedding ceremony took place would inspire the location for the wedding of David and Victoria Beckham . The events of this episode are revisited in the seventh season episode " The One with the Truth About London " , where flashbacks reveal how Monica and Chandler ended up in bed together . The hotel room set was recreated for those scenes .
In 2013 , TV Guide ranked the beginning of the Monica @-@ Chandler affair as the third greatest twist of all time .
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= Mantra @-@ Rock Dance =
The Mantra @-@ Rock Dance was a counterculture music event held on January 29 , 1967 , at the Avalon Ballroom in San Francisco . It was organized by followers of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ) as an opportunity for its founder , A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada , to address a wider public . It was also a promotional and fundraising effort for their first center on the West Coast of the United States .
The Mantra @-@ Rock Dance featured some of the most prominent Californian rock groups of the time , such as the Grateful Dead and Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin , as well as the then relatively unknown , Moby Grape . The bands agreed to appear with Prabhupada and to perform for free ; the proceeds were donated to the local Hare Krishna temple . The participation of countercultural leaders considerably boosted the event 's popularity ; among them were the poet Allen Ginsberg , who led the singing of the Hare Krishna mantra onstage along with Prabhupada , and LSD promoters Timothy Leary and Augustus Owsley Stanley III .
The Mantra @-@ Rock Dance concert was later called " the ultimate high " and " the major spiritual event of the San Francisco hippie era . " It led to favorable media exposures for Prabhupada and his followers , and brought the Hare Krishna movement to the wider attention of the American public . The 40th anniversary of the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance was commemorated in 2007 in Berkeley , California .
= = Background = =
A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada ( also referred to as " Bhaktivedanta Swami " or " Prabhupada " ) , a Gaudiya Vaishnava sannyasi and teacher , arrived in New York City from his native India in 1965 and " caught the powerful rising tide " of a counterculture that was fascinated with his homeland and open to new forms of " consciousness @-@ expanding spirituality . " After establishing his first American temple in New York City at 26 Second Avenue , Prabhupada requested his early follower Mukunda Das and his wife Janaki Dasi to open a similar ISKCON center on the West Coast of the United States .
Mukunda and Janaki met up with friends from college , who would later come to be known as Shyamasundar Das , Gurudas , Malati Dasi , and Yamuna Dasi . Teaming up with them , Mukunda rented a storefront in the San Francisco Haight @-@ Ashbury neighborhood , which at that time was turning into the hub of the hippie counterculture , and stayed to take care of the developing new center .
= = Preparation and promotion = =
To raise funds , gain supporters for the new temple , and to popularize Prabhupada 's teachings among the hippie and countercultural audience of the Haight @-@ Ashbury scene , the team decided to hold a charitable rock concert and invited Prabhupada to attend . Despite his position as a Vaishnava sannyasi and some of his New York followers objecting to what they saw as an inappropriate invitation of their guru to a place full of " amplified guitars , pounding drums , wild light shows , and hundreds of drugged hippies , " Prabhupada agreed to travel from New York to San Francisco and take part in the event . Using their acquaintance with Rock Scully , manager of the Grateful Dead , and Sam Andrew , founding member and guitarist of the Big Brother and the Holding Company – who were among the most prominent rock bands in California at the time – Shyamasundar and Gurudas secured their consent to perform for charity at the concert , charging only the " musicians ' union minimum " of $ 250 . Malati Dasi happened to hear Moby Grape , a relatively unknown group at the time , and she convinced the other team members to invite the band to play at the concert as well .
Another leading countercultural figure , the beatnik poet Allen Ginsberg , was a supporter of Prabhupada . He had met the swami earlier in New York and assisted him in extending his United States visa . Despite disagreeing with many of Prabhupada 's required prohibitions , especially the ones pertaining to drugs and promiscuity , Ginsberg often publicly sang the Hare Krishna mantra , which he had learned in India . He made the mantra part of his philosophy and declared that it " brings a state of ecstasy . " He was glad that Prabhupada , an authentic swami from India , was now trying to spread the chanting in America . Along with other countercultural ideologues like Timothy Leary , Gary Snyder , and Alan Watts , Ginsberg hoped to incorporate Prabhupada and the chanting of Hare Krishna into the hippie movement . Ginsberg agreed to take part in the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance concert and to introduce the swami to the Haight @-@ Ashbury hippie community .
As for the choice of venue , the team considered both the Fillmore Auditorium and the Avalon Ballroom , finally settling on the latter as its impresario , Chet Helms , appeared to be " more sympathetic to the spirit of the concert " and agreed to let it be used for a charity event . Artist Harvey Cohen , one of the first ISKCON followers , designed a Stanley Mouse @-@ inspired promotional poster with a picture of Prabhupada , details of the event , and a request to " bring cushions , drums , bells , cymbals . " To generate interest among members of the countercultural community of Haight @-@ Ashbury , Mukunda published an article entitled " The New Science " in the San Francisco Oracle , a local underground newspaper specializing in alternative spiritual and psychedelic topics . He wrote :
The Haight @-@ Ashbury district is soon to be honored by the presence of His Holiness , A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami , who will conduct daily classes in the Bhagavad Gita , discussions , chanting , playing instruments , and devotional dancing in a small temple in the neighborhood . ... Swamiji 's use of the Hare Krishna Mantra is already known throughout the United States . Swamiji 's chanting and dancing is more effective than Hatha or Raja Yoga or listening to Ali Akbar Khan on acid or going to a mixed media rock dance .
Ginsberg helped plan and organize a reception for Prabhupada , who was scheduled to arrive from New York on January 17 , 1967 . When the swami arrived at the San Francisco Airport , 50 to 100 hippies chanting " Hare Krishna " greeted him in the airport lounge with flowers . A few days later the San Francisco Chronicle published an article entitled " Swami in the Hippie Land " in which Prabhupada answered the question , " Do you accept hippies in your temple ? " by saying , " Hippies or anyone – I make no distinctions . Everyone is welcome . "
= = Event = =
The Mantra @-@ Rock Dance was scheduled on Sunday evening , January 29 , 1967 – a day of the week that Chet Helms deemed odd and unlikely to generate substantial attendance . Admission was fixed at $ 2 @.@ 50 and limited to door sales . Despite the apprehensions of the organizers , by the beginning of the concert at 8 PM an audience of nearly 3 @,@ 000 had gathered at the Avalon Ballroom , filling the hall to its capacity . Latecomers had to wait outside for vacancies in order to enter . Participants were treated on prasad ( sanctified food ) consisting of orange slices and , regardless of the prohibition on drugs , many in the crowd were smoking marijuana and taking other intoxicants . However , the atmosphere in the hall was peaceful . Strobe lights and a psychedelic liquid light show , along with pictures of Krishna and the words of the Hare Krishna mantra , were projected onto the walls . A few Hells Angels were positioned in the back of the stage as the event 's security guards . Prabhupada 's biographer Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami thus describes the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance audience :
Almost everyone who came wore bright or unusual costumes : tribal robes , Mexican ponchos , Indian kurtas , " God 's @-@ eyes , " feathers , and beads . Some hippies brought their own flutes , lutes , gourds , drums , rattles , horns , and guitars . The Hell 's Angels , dirty @-@ haired , wearing jeans , boots , and denim jackets and accompanied by their women , made their entrance , carrying chains , smoking cigarettes , and displaying their regalia of German helmets , emblazoned emblems , and so on – everything but their motorcycles , which they had parked outside .
The evening opened with Prabhupada 's followers – men in " Merlin gowns " and women in saris – chanting Hare Krishna to an Indian tune , followed by Moby Grape . When the swami himself arrived at 10 PM , the crowd of hippies rose to their feet to greet him respectfully with applause and cheers . Gurudas , one of the event 's organizers , describes the effect that Prabhupada 's arrival had on the audience , " Then Swami Bhaktivedanta entered . He looked like a Vedic sage , exalted and otherworldly . As he advanced towards the stage , the crowd parted and made way for him , like the surfer riding a wave . He glided onto the stage , sat down and began playing the kartals . "
Ginsberg welcomed Prabhupada onto the stage and spoke of his own experiences chanting the Hare Krishna mantra . He translated the meaning of the Sanskrit term mantra as " mind deliverance " and recommended the early @-@ morning kirtans at the local Radha @-@ Krishna temple " for those coming down from LSD who want to stabilize their consciousness upon reentry , " calling the temple 's activity an " important community service . " He introduced Prabhupada and thanked him for leaving his peaceful life in India to bring the mantra to New York 's Lower East Side , " where it was probably most needed . "
After a short address by Prabhupada , Ginsberg sang " Hare Krishna " to the accompaniment of sitar , tambura , and drums , requesting the audience to " [ j ] ust sink into the sound vibration , and think of peace . " Then Prabhupada stood up and led the audience in dancing and singing , as the Grateful Dead , Big Brother and the Holding Company , and Moby Grape joined the chanting and accompanied the mantra with their musical instruments . The audience eagerly responded , playing their own instruments and dancing in circles . The group chanting continued for almost two hours , and concluded with the swami 's prayers in Sanskrit while the audience bowed down on the floor . After Prabhupada left , Janis Joplin took the stage , backed by Big Brother and the Holding Company , and continued the event with the songs " The House of the Rising Sun " and " Ball ' n ' Chain " late into the night .
= = Reaction and effect = =
The LSD pioneer Timothy Leary , who made an appearance at the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance along with Augustus Owsley Stanley III and even paid the entrance fee , pronounced the event a " beautiful night " . Later Ginsberg called the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance " the height of Haight @-@ Ashbury spiritual enthusiasm , the first time that there had been a music scene in San Francisco where everybody could be part of it and participate , " while historians referred to it as " the ultimate high " and " the major spiritual event of the San Francisco hippy era . "
Moby Grape 's performance at the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance catapulted the band onto the professional stage . They subsequently had gigs with The Doors at the Avalon Ballroom and at the " First Love Circus " at the Winterland Arena , and were soon signed to a contract with Columbia Records .
The Mantra @-@ Rock Dance helped raise around $ 2 @,@ 000 for the temple and resulted in a massive influx of visitors at the temple 's early morning services . Prabhupada 's appearance at the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance made such a deep impact on the Haight @-@ Ashbury community that he became a cult hero to most of its groups and members , regardless of their attitudes towards his philosophy or the life restrictions that he taught . The Hare Krishna mantra and dancing became adopted in some ways by all levels of the counterculture , including the Hells Angels , and provided it with a " loose commonality " and reconciliation , as well as with a viable alternative to drugs . As the Hare Krishna movement 's popularity with the Haight @-@ Ashbury community continued to increase , Prabhupada and followers chanting and distributing prasad became a customary sight at important events in the locale .
At the same time , as the core group of his followers continued to expand and become more serious about the spiritual discipline , Prabhupada conducted new Vaishnava initiations and named the San Francisco temple " New Jagannatha Puri " after introducing the worship of Jagannath deities of Krishna there . Small replicas of these deities immediately became a " psychedelic hit " worn by many hippies on strings around their necks .
Since the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance brought the Hare Krishna movement to the wider attention of the American public , Prabhupada 's increased popularity attracted the interest of the mainstream media . Most notably , he was interviewed on ABC 's The Les Crane Show and lectured on the philosophy of Krishna consciousness on a KPFK radio station program hosted by Peter Bergman . Prabhupada 's followers also spoke about their activities on the San Francisco radio station KFRC .
On August 18 , 2007 , a free commemorative event dedicated to the 40th anniversary of the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance was held at the People 's Park in Berkeley , California .
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= The Yes Album =
The Yes Album is the third studio album by the English progressive rock band Yes , released on 19 February 1971 by Atlantic Records . It is their first album with guitarist Steve Howe who replaced Peter Banks in 1970 , and their last in the 1970s to feature keyboardist Tony Kaye .
The album was the first by the group not to feature any cover versions , which had been a staple of their material until that point . The band spent mid @-@ 1970 writing and rehearsing new material at a farmhouse in South Molton , Devon , and the new songs were recorded at Advision Studios in the autumn . While the album retained close harmony singing , Kaye 's Hammond organ and Chris Squire 's melodic bass , as heard on earlier releases , the new material also covered further styles including jazz piano , funk and acoustic music , with all band members contributing ideas , and tracks were extended in length to allow music to develop . Howe contributed a variety of guitar styles , including a Portuguese guitar , and recorded a solo acoustic guitar piece , " Clap " , live at the Lyceum Theatre , London .
The album was a critical success and a major commercial breakthrough for Yes , who had been at risk of being dropped by Atlantic Records due to the commercial failures of their first two albums . It reached # 4 in the UK and # 40 in the US , and was later certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling over one million copies . The album has been reissued on CD several times , and in 2014 was given a Blu @-@ ray release , remixed by Steven Wilson .
= = Background = =
Yes had already recorded two albums for Atlantic by mid @-@ 1970 , but neither had been commercially successful and the label was considering dropping them . They had replaced founding member Banks with Howe , who enjoyed playing a wider variety of styles , including folk and country music , and played a mix of electric and acoustic guitars . Singer Jon Anderson later said that Howe could " jump from one thing to the other , very fast , very talented . " After some warm @-@ up gigs with Howe , the band moved to a farm in South Molton , Devon , to write and rehearse new material . Howe in particular enjoyed working on the farm , and eventually bought it . Following rehearsals , the band booked Advision Studios in London with producer Eddie Offord and spent the autumn recording . The band enjoyed the sessions , and soon had enough material ready for an album .
In November 1970 , the group were involved in a car accident returning from a gig in Basingstoke . The band all suffered shock , and Kaye broke a foot . He had to do the next few gigs , and the album cover 's photo shoot , with it in plaster .
Howe mostly used a Gibson ES @-@ 175 semi @-@ acoustic guitar and a Martin OO @-@ 18 acoustic for recording , though he did attempt to play a variety of styles with the two instruments . Kaye 's main instruments were the Hammond organ and piano , including a solo on " A Venture " . Kaye had previously played the Hammond M @-@ 100 , but for this album used the B @-@ 3 , a move which he saw as " a turning point " . He was not interested in playing electronic keyboards , which had started to appear on the market . This proved to be a problem with the other members of the band , and Kaye thought his style conflicted too much with Howe 's . He left the group during rehearsals for the follow @-@ up album in mid @-@ 1971 , to be replaced by Rick Wakeman .
= = Songs = =
Yes had started their career being a covers band , performing radical re @-@ arrangements of hit songs , and their first two albums included covers in this vein . However , The Yes Album was the first to feature group @-@ written material in its entirety . Some familiar elements remained ; Anderson , Howe and Squire sang three @-@ part vocal harmony throughout the record , while Squire 's melodic bass and Bill Bruford 's spacious drumming made up their unique rhythm section .
" Yours Is No Disgrace " originated from some lyrics written by Anderson with his friend David Foster . This was combined with other short segments of music written by the band in rehearsals . Howe worked out the opening guitar riff on his own while the rest of the band took a day 's holiday . The backing track was recorded by the group in sections , then edited together to make up the final piece .
Howe 's solo acoustic tune , " Clap " ( wrongly written as " The Clap " in original album pressings ) , was influenced by Chet Atkins and Mason Williams ' " Classical Gas " . The piece was written to celebrate the birth of Howe 's son Dylan on 4 August 1969 . The version that appears on the album was recorded live at the Lyceum Theatre in London on 17 July 1970 .
The spacey , electronic @-@ sounding effect in " Starship Trooper " was achieved by running the guitar backing track through a flanger . Anderson wrote the bulk of the song , while Squire wrote the " Disillusion " section in the middle . The closing section , " Würm " is a continuous cadenza of chords ( G @-@ E ♭ -C ) played ad lib . It evolved from a song called " Nether Street " by Howe 's earlier group , Bodast .
" I 've Seen All Good People " is a suite of two tunes . Anderson wanted the piece to start quietly and develop , leading into a large church organ sound , before moving into the funky second movement . The band had difficulty recording the initial " Your Move " section , which was resolved by making a tape loop of bass and drums , over which Howe overdubbed a Portuguese 12 @-@ string guitar , miscrediting it as a " vachalia " on the album 's credits . Gnidrolog 's Colin Goldring played recorder on the track .
Anderson wrote " A Venture " in the studio , which was arranged by the rest of the band . Kaye played piano on the track , contributing a jazzy solo towards the end . Howe played a guitar solo on the original recording , but it was left off the final mix , which faded out just as it started . The song was never played live by the original group , but an arrangement was worked out when Yes decided to play the whole album live in 2013 .
The lyrics for " Perpetual Change " were inspired by the view of the countryside from the farm in South Molton . The middle of the track features a polyrhythmic structure , where two pieces of music in different time signatures are playing simultaneously .
= = Cover = =
The front cover was shot by Phil Franks the day after the Basingstoke gig accident . Franks had already taken some photos from the Lyceum gig , but felt he needed something more for the front cover . The band showed up late having been in hospital earlier that day , and only 30 minutes were available for a shoot . Unable to get a satisfactory photo in the studio , Franks took the band round to his flat , grabbed a polystyrene mannequin head from a bin , put a 1000 watt bulb in the kitchen light fitting , and improvised the shot . Franks credited the sleeve designer , Rolling Stone art director Jon Goodchild , for making the cover a success . When Yes performed a live version of " Yours is No Disgrace " for the German television series Beat @-@ Club in April 1971 , footage of the band was combined with that of another mannequin head spinning over a chair , mimicking the cover 's concept .
The inside of the album 's gatefold sleeve shows Kaye playing a Hammond organ , while the front cover showed his leg in plaster , following the accident . Anderson is credited as " John Anderson " on the album but he had dropped the " h " from his first name by the next album , Fragile .
= = Release = =
The Yes Album was released in the UK in February 1971 . It was a commercial success and was the band 's breakthrough album , reaching No. 4 in the UK. and number 40 in the US . It has been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling over one million copies .
Squire later said a key reason for the success was that there was a postal strike which prevented chart returns being sent , and reducing the available ones to a few retailers in London . Yes had the largest fanbase in these stores , and that allowed a good chart position . By the time the strike had ended , the album had started to sell well due to its initial apparent success .
The 1971 Italian issue of the album differs from the original UK issue in two respects . The title on the front cover is " The Yes " instead of " The Yes Album " , although the spine bears the correct title ; and the track " The Clap " appears as the third track on the second side .
= = = Reception = = =
The album had a positive reception from critics . John Koegel , writing for Rolling Stone , praised the instrumental unity between Squire , Howe and Kaye , but missed the cover versions present in earlier releases . The album is one of three by Yes to appear in the book 1 @,@ 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die . Author Tom Moon preferred the group unity that he felt was missing on later releases and gave a positive impression of Anderson 's vocals , saying the melodies in " I 've Seen All Good People " were " instantly singable and still somehow deep . "
Anderson was worried about the initial response to the album , but after about a month noticed that fans started singing along at concerts , and concluded that this musical style could be developed and still remain popular . Kaye concluded that overall it was " quite a simple album , considering where Yes went onto from there . " Rush singer and bassist Geddy Lee included The Yes Album among his favourite albums . Genesis keyboardist Tony Banks has said it his favourite Yes album and preferred the band when Kaye was a member . " It was the addition of Steve Howe 's guitar pyrotechnics that finally allowed Yes to find their true identity . The Yes Album is a giant leap forward , " wrote J.D. Considine in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide
= = = Reissues = = =
The Yes Album was remastered and reissued in 2003 by Rhino Records with several bonus tracks , including a studio version of " Clap " , entitled as Howe intended . In 2014 , Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree created a new stereo mix and a 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mix , available as either a DVD or Blu @-@ ray Disc . It was released on 21 April with bonus tracks including the studio version of " Clap " , an extended version of " A Venture " , and an alternate version of the album with live tracks , single edits , and an extended mix . The Blu @-@ ray version also features an instrumental version of the album , a needle drop sample of the original vinyl release , and additional live tracks .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Yes
John Anderson – lead vocals , percussion
Chris Squire – bass guitar , vocals
Steve Howe – electric and acoustic guitars , vachalia , vocals
Tony Kaye – piano , organ , Moog
Bill Bruford – drums , percussion
Additional musicians
Colin Goldring – recorders on " Your Move "
Production
Yes and Eddie Offord – production
Eddie Offord – engineering
Brian Lane – co @-@ ordination
Phil Franks – photography
Barry Wentzell – photography
Jon Goodchild – design
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= Ethiopian Airlines =
Ethiopian Airlines ( Amharic : የኢትዮጵያ አየር መንገድ ( Yäitəyop ̣ əya äyärə mänəgädə ) ; የኢትዮጵያ ( Yäitəyop ̣ əya ) ? in short ) , formerly Ethiopian Air Lines ( EAL ) and often referred to as simply Ethiopian , is Ethiopia 's flag carrier and is wholly owned by the country 's government . EAL was founded on 21 December 1945 and commenced operations on 8 April 1946 , expanding to international flights in 1951 . The firm became a share company in 1965 , and changed its name from Ethiopian Air Lines to Ethiopian Airlines . The airline has been a member of the International Air Transport Association since 1959 , and of the African Airlines Association ( AFRAA ) since 1968 . Ethiopian is a Star Alliance member , having joined in December 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 12 ) .
Its hub and headquarters are at Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa , from where it serves a network of 82 passenger destinations — 19 of them domestic — and 23 freighter ones . Ethiopian flies to more destinations in Africa than any other carrier . It is one of the fastest @-@ growing companies in the industry , and is among the largest on the African continent . It is also one of the few profitable airlines in the Sub @-@ Saharan region . The airline 's cargo division was awarded The African Cargo Airline of the Year in early 2011 . Recently , Ethiopian won the Best Regional Airline of the Year award at the 41st Annual Airline Industry Achievement Awards by Air Transport World ( ATW ) , held in Washington , D.C. on 25 February 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = The 1940s : early years = = =
After the liberation of Ethiopia , Emperor Haile Selassie I asked the United States , the United Kingdom , and France to help him to establish an airline as part of his modernisation effort . According to the BBC News it is possible that the Emperor intended the creation of a quality national airline to help dispel impressions of Ethiopian poverty . In 1945 , the Ethiopian government began negotiations with both Transcontinental Air Transport and Western Air Express ( later merged into TWA ) . On 8 September 1945 , TWA signed an agreement with the American historian and foreign affairs advisor to Ethiopia John H. Spencer to establish a commercial aviation company in Ethiopia .
The carrier , originally called Ethiopian Air Lines ( EAL ) , was founded on 21 December 1945 , with an initial investment of ETB 2 @,@ 5 million , divided in 25 @,@ 000 shares that were entirely held by the government . The company was financed by the Ethiopian government but managed by TWA . At the beginning , it relied upon American pilots , technicians , administrators and accountants ; even its General Managers were from TWA . Minister of Works and Communications Fitawrari Tafasse Habte Mikael became EAL 's first president and chairman , whereas H. H. Holloway — who was American — was appointed by TWA as general manager . The board held the first meeting on 26 December 1945 ( 1945 @-@ 12 @-@ 26 ) , with a key point of the agenda being the deposit of E £ 75 @,@ 000 in a bank in Cairo for the acquisition of aircraft and spare parts . Shortly afterwards , the airline was in negotiations for landing rights with Aden , Egypt , French Somaliland , Saudi Arabia and Sudan , and five Douglas C @-@ 47s were bought ; these aircraft were flown to Addis Ababa in February 1946 ( 1946 @-@ 02 ) .
The new airline had its maiden flight to Nairobi carrying a shipment of East African currency equivalent to US $ 3 @.@ 7 million in February 1946 ( 1946 @-@ 02 ) , but it was on 8 April 1946 ( 1946 @-@ 04 @-@ 08 ) that the carrier had its first revenue scheduled service ; it travelled the Addis Ababa – Asmara – Cairo route using one of five Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrains acquired from the US Government . This route later operated on a weekly basis . The Skytrains were initially intended for military use , although Ethiopian operated them in a mixed passenger @-@ cargo configuration . Soon afterwards , the carrier launched services to Aden and Djibouti , as well as a domestic flight to Jimma . The main five routes in the early years were Addis Ababa – Asmara , Addis Ababa – Djibouti – Aden , Addis Ababa – Khartoum , Addis Ababa – Cairo ( routed via Jeddah or Khartoum ) and Asmara – Khartoum .
Henry Bruce Obermiller replaced Holloway as a general manager in June 1946 ( 1946 @-@ 06 ) . In July the same year , four more Skytrains were incorporated into the fleet . New scheduled services to Sheikh Othman and Nairobi were launched in July 1946 ( 1946 @-@ 07 ) and June 1947 ( 1947 @-@ 06 ) , respectively . In 1947 , Waldon Gene Golien became the carrier 's general manager , and the company started operating charter flights to Jeddah during the Hajj season . That year in February , three more Douglas C @-@ 47s were acquired to operate new international routes . A service to Mukalla was inaugurated in June 1947 ( 1947 @-@ 06 ) . In September , Port Sudan was added to the route network — it had been previously served as a technical landing on the route to Cairo — , Lydda was incorporated as a scheduled destination in October and charter flights to Bombay were launched in November . Services to Lydda and Mukalla were discontinued in February and April 1948 ( 1948 @-@ 04 ) , respectively . In September , the route to Bombay started being flown on a scheduled basis in cooperation with BOAC , with EAL carrying passengers as far as Aden , and the British enterprise flying them on the Aden – Bombay sector . The route also included stops at Mesirah Island in Oman and Karachi . For a brief period until April 1948 ( 1948 @-@ 04 ) , Mesirah Island was used as a refuelling stop ; since then , services to French Somaliland and Aden started on a twice @-@ weekly basis . EAL was allowed to fly to Aden using Sheik ' Othman Airport , located 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) away from the city , whereas BOAC used the Khormaksar Airport facilities , just 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away from the city . Aden was under British rule at the time as also was Sudan , and the British empìre denied EAL landing rights at Khartoum , forcing the airline to move the refuelling stop on the Aden route to Port Sudan . The carrier recorded a £ 40 @,@ 000 profit for 1949 .
= = = The 1950s : start of long @-@ haul routes = = =
Services to Bombay were withdrawn in July 1950 ( 1950 @-@ 07 ) . Also this year , a US $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 9 @,@ 835 @,@ 408 in 2015 ) loan granted from the Ex @-@ Im Bank enabled the carrier to incorporate Convair CV @-@ 240s , aimed at operating international routes . Two CV @-@ 240s , named ″ Eagle of Ethiopia ″ and ″ Haile Selassie I ″ , entered the fleet in December 1950 ( 1950 @-@ 12 ) ; starting January 1951 ( 1951 @-@ 01 ) , these aircraft were subsequently deployed on the Addis Ababa – Cairo , Addis Ababa – Nairobi , and Addis Ababa – Jeddah – Dhahran – Karachi routes , with Dhahran and Sharjah being incorporated to the route network on 20 February . In April 1952 ( 1952 @-@ 04 ) , the airline was appointed general sales agent for TWA in Kenya , Tanganyka , Uganda and Zanzibar , and by May the same year the fleet consisted of two Convair @-@ Liner 240s and nine Douglas DC @-@ 3s or their subtypes , operating a route network that was 7 @,@ 000 miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) long . Services to India and Sharjah were discontinued in 1953 . On 14 Jul , a new agreement with TWA that succeeded the original one was signed . Unlike other companies , the airline 's preamble stated that it was ″ the ultimate aim that EAL shall eventually be operated entirely by Ethiopian personnel ″ .
A new service to Athens via Khartoum and Wadi Halfa was launched on 3 April 1954 ( 1954 @-@ 04 @-@ 03 ) . A third Convair CV @-@ 240 ( ″ The Spiritual Power ″ ) was purchased from Sabena in 1955 for US $ 560 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 4 @,@ 946 @,@ 783 in 2015 ) . These aircraft were equipped with rocket @-@ assisted take @-@ off devices . This was a common practice for a small number of airlines in the World that EAL had abandoned by April 1956 ( 1956 @-@ 04 ) . Also in 1955 , Ethiopian inaugurated a self @-@ owned maintenance facility . That year , Vic Harrell succeeded Swede Golien as general manager of the company . The carrier was in need of newer and larger aircraft , and three different aircraft types — two from the Lockheed Corporation , the Constellation and the Electra , and the Douglas DC @-@ 6 — were considered for the fleet renewal programme . Two Douglas DC @-@ 6Bs were eventually ordered in 1956 for US $ 4 million , including spares ; an option for a third machine was also taken . Another loan obtained from the Ex @-@ Im Bank , a GB £ 8 @,@ 5 million one dating back to 1955 , was partly used to finance the two purchased aircraft .
Benghazi was briefly served between 7 November 1956 ( 1956 @-@ 11 @-@ 07 ) and 15 January 1957 ( 1957 @-@ 01 @-@ 15 ) . During 1957 , a third DC @-@ 6B was purchased . Likewise , that year the airline had been asked to take a Lockheed L @-@ 749 that had been given as a gift to the Emperor , who declined it . Ethiopian paid US $ 1 @.@ 6 million for this airframe , and it was incorporated into the fleet on 4 June ; the aircraft was destroyed by fire on 10 Jul in an accident in Sudan . Two Yemeni cities , Hodeida and Taiz were first served on 1 September 1957 ( 1957 @-@ 09 @-@ 01 ) . On 23 May 1958 ( 1958 @-@ 05 @-@ 23 ) , flights to Wadi Halfa were terminated . The incorporation of three Douglas DC @-@ 6Bs took place between May and July , and EAL started a new link between Addis Ababa and Athens , via Cairo , using these recently delivered aircraft . On 21 Jun , the route was extended both to the north and to the south so that Frankfurt and Nairobi became linked by the same corridor , operated with DC @-@ 6Bs . By this time , the Convairs were redeployed to serve domestic and regional routes . Given that radio operators were no longer required as part of flight crews , they were assigned other tasks with the airline . Swissair handled the pilot training for the DC @-@ 6B aircraft at Zurich . The suspension of fifth freedom rights between Djibouti and Aden prompted the discontinuance of the route that linked them . EAL joined the International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) on 1 January 1959 ( 1959 @-@ 01 @-@ 01 ) . During the year , two Boeing 720Bs were ordered and scheduled for delivery in December 1961 ( 1961 @-@ 12 ) , two more DC @-@ 6Bs entered the fleet , services to Nairobi were suspended once more and the airline 's list of domestic destinations saw the incorporation of Bulchi , Dodollo , Lalibela and Masawa .
= = = The 1960s and 1970s : the jet age = = =
Port Sudan was removed from the list of destinations on 1 March 1960 ( 1960 @-@ 03 @-@ 01 ) . The airline had its first fatal accident on 15 July when a DC @-@ 3 crashed en route from Bulchi to Jimma , killing the pilot . A Convair 240 was sold to Allied Stores of Israel on 18 July . On 12 August , an order with Boeing for two Boeing 720B aircraft was placed . EAL 's general manager had already brought the idea of acquiring two jet aircraft for long @-@ haul operations up already in February , suggesting the Boeing 720B . The Sud SE @-@ 210 Caravelle , the de Havilland D.H.106 Comet 4 and the Boeing 720B were all taken into account . Hot and high condition of some EAL operations made the Caravelle inappropriate , whereas the Comet was considered obsolete . The first East – West link made by an African airline started on 8 November , when the Addis Ababa – Accra – Lagos – Monrovia route was launched using DC @-@ 6B equipment .
The second fatal accident took place on 5 September 1961 when another DC @-@ 3 crashed shortly after takeoff from Sendafar ; a flight attendant and four passengers lost their lives in the accident . The event urged the Civil Aviation Department to investigate the accidents . It was found that the lack of infrastructure at many airfields , marginal even for DC @-@ 3 operations , was a major contribution . Landing sites at Gore , Mizan Teferi and Tippi were included in the list of airfields that would require closure . On 13 January 1962 , the crew and four passengers lost their lives in another accident involving a DC @-@ 3 — registration ET @-@ T @-@ 1 , EAL 's first aircraft of the type — , this time the crash taking place at Tippi while the aircraft was taking off . The event prompted the government to decide the closure of the airfields at both Mizan Teferi and Tippi . In March 1962 ( 1962 @-@ 03 ) , two more DC @-@ 3s were acquired , and registered ET @-@ ABE and ET @-@ ABF . During the year , the ″ ET @-@ T- ″ registration would change to simply ″ ET- ″ . Jack B. Asire became general manager in April 1962 ( 1962 @-@ 04 ) .
It was also decided to build a new airport to replace the Lideta Airfield , unable to accommodate the Boeing 720 jetliner the company intended to acquire . This was the birth of Bole International Airport , where the company set its headquarters . In December 1962 ( 1962 @-@ 12 ) , the arrival of two Boeing 720s ordered directly from Boeing marked the carrier 's entrance into the jet age . These two aircraft were registered ET @-@ AAG and ET @-@ AAH and were named ″ Blue Nile ″ and ″ White Nile ″ , respectively . The first jet service took place on 15 January 1963 ( 1963 @-@ 01 @-@ 15 ) when one of these aircraft was deployed on the route to Nairobi . The following day , a new service to Madrid was flown using the new jet equipment , with Frankfurt joining the jet network soon afterwards . On 1 April , the Boeing 720 replaced the DC @-@ 6B on the Addis Ababa – Athens route ; during that month , the West African corridor also benefited from jet operations . The airline entered into a pool agreement with Aden Airways and Sudan Airways on the Khartoum – Asmara – Aden service . A new flight to Conakry was launched on 8 May 1963 ( 1963 @-@ 05 @-@ 08 ) . Kano , which had been served since 18 March 1962 ( 1962 @-@ 03 @-@ 18 ) , was removed from the list of destinations that day . On 30 November 1963 , the airline lost another DC @-@ 3 ( ET @-@ AAT ) in a test flight at Addis Ababa ; the crew of three suffered minor injuries . Rome became served for the first time on 5 June 1964 ( 1964 @-@ 06 @-@ 05 ) on a weekly basis ; the flight was routed via either Khartoum or Athens as part of a pool agreement with Alitalia .
Also in the early 1960s , the carrier provided some initial aviation support to the Ethiopia @-@ United States Mapping Mission in its operation to acquire topographic maps of Ethiopia . The firm changed from a corporation to a share company in 1965 , and changed its name from Ethiopian Air Lines to Ethiopian Airlines . By 1966 , the contractual relationship with TWA was adjusted to reflect the transfer of management with the appointment of an Ethiopian deputy general manager . Two Boeing 720s were in operation and a Boeing 707 @-@ 320C was due to be phased in by March 1968 ( 1968 @-@ 03 ) , when the carrier ordered a second -320C .
In 1970 , the fifth renewal of the original 1945 contract changed TWA 's role from manager to adviser . On its 25th anniversary in 1971 , the company was ready to continue without foreign assistance . Since then , Ethiopian Airlines has been managed and staffed by Ethiopian personnel . The first Ethiopian General Manager was Col. Semret Medhane , appointed in 1971 .
Two Boeing 720Bs were acquired from Continental Airlines in 1973 . In 1975 , the carrier ordered five Dash 7s . By then , Ethiopian Airlines had ended its 30 @-@ year relationship with TWA . The airline became a new customer for the Boeing 727 in 1978 , ordering two . The 727s arrived in the late 1970s as a replacement for the oldest Boeing 720s .
= = = The 1980s and 1990s = = =
The DHC @-@ 5 Buffalo entered Ethiopian 's fleet in the early 1980s . In 1982 , Ethiopian became the first African carrier in ordering the Boeing 767 , as well as the first airline to order the Boeing 767 @-@ 200ER . On 1984 @-@ 6 @-@ 1 , the first of these aircraft set a new distance record for a twinjet , flying 7 @,@ 500 miles ( 12 @,@ 100 km ) non @-@ stop from Washington , D.C. to Addis Ababa , on delivery to the company . The Boeing 767 @-@ 200ERs came to replace the remaining Boeing 720s . ATR @-@ 42s and Twin Otters were incorporated into the fleet in the mid @-@ 1980s , with the first of six Twin Otters entering the fleet in early 1985 . The Boeing 737 @-@ 200 joined the fleet in late 1987 .
In 1990 , Ethiopian became the first passenger airline in taking delivery of the Boeing 757 Freighter , receiving the first of five Boeing 757 @-@ 200s a year later . By 1996 the airline was flying to Bangkok , Beijing , Durban and Johannesburg ; routes to Ivory Coast and Senegal were also being operated . Furthermore , the Fokker 50 entered the fleet to operate domestic routes ; actually , Ethiopian became the last company in taking delivery of this aircraft in 1997 , just after the collapse of Fokker due to financial problems . In the late 1990s the carrier saw the incorporation of Copenhagen and Maputo to its international network , as well as New York City and Washington as transatlantic destinations ; the frequent flyer programme , named " Sheba Miles " after the legendary Queen of Sheba , was launched too . In 1998 , the airline disrupted their flights to the Eritrean capital Asmara after a war erupted between the two countries .
= = = 2000 – onwards = = =
A fleet renewal started in the early 2000s , with the incorporation of the Boeing 737 – 700 and the Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER ; The airline discontinued its service to Newark in favour of serving Washington in 2004 .
In the late 2000s the airline announced it would be the launch customer of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner , and placed orders to acquire brand new Airbus A350 @-@ 900s , Boeing 777 @-@ 200LRs and Bombardier equipment .
In late September 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 09 ) , Ethiopian Airlines was officially invited to join Star Alliance under the mentoring of Lufthansa . The carrier became a member of the alliance in December 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 12 ) , the third Africa @-@ based carrier in doing so — following EgyptAir and South African Airways — and the 28th member worldwide .
= = Corporate affairs = =
= = = Management and ownership = = =
As of July 2016 , the CEO of Ethiopian Airlines was Tewolde Gebremariam ; he replaced Girma Wake in 2011 . The airline , which is wholly owned by the Government of Ethiopia , has traditionally been unfettered by government intervention , even during times of significant turmoil and domestic hardship . Whereas many African state owned airlines were and remain often poorly run , with staffings often serving nepotistic purposes , and business decisions being made on political grounds , Ethiopian Airlines remained professionally run and managed , leading the Christian Science Monitor to term it in 1988 a " capitalist success in Marxist Ethiopia " .
The Derg , after expanding the airline 's workforce , which had resulted in a decline in service quality and revenues , allowed the airline to be run on a " strictly commercial basis " . Captain Mohammed Ahmed was appointed CEO in 1980 , and slashed the workforce by 10 % . The airline continued the acquisition of Western , rather than Soviet aircraft , despite the links between the communist government and the Soviet Union , purchasing the Boeing 727 in 1979 and the Boeing 767 in 1984 . Despite famine , unfavorable exchange rates , and general economic disarray , the airline managed to retain its reputation , particularly in the provision of maintenance and training . The Financial Times noted that it managed to remain one of the most profitable airlines in Africa throughout the decade .
Despite the violent overthrow of the communist government by the Ethiopian People 's Revolutionary Democratic Front in 1991 , the airline managed to post a profit for the fiscal year . The market @-@ oriented policies of the new government meant that the airline would remain operationally independent , and under Captain Bisrat Nigatu the airline remained fiscally sound , despite disruptions caused by the Eritrean @-@ Ethiopian War .
= = = Head office = = =
Ethiopian Airlines currently has its head office at Bole International Airport , Addis Ababa , but intends to build a new head office facility . A contest for the design was held in 2009 , but none of those plans were proceeded with . On 16 February 2011 it held a second round , and in September 2011 it was announced that BET Architect Plc won the contest . The airline stated that the estimated Br300 million complex will be constructed on a 50 @,@ 000 m2 ( 540 @,@ 000 sq ft ) plot at Bole International Airport . The company that received 4th place in the competition 's second round has threatened to take legal action , accusing the airline of not giving due consideration to the proposed design .
= = = Business trends = = =
Performance figures for the government @-@ owned Ethiopian Airlines are available in Annual Accounts and occasional press reports . Available trends are ( as at year ending 30 June ) :
= = = Strategic ambitions and landmarks = = =
The airline was featured by The Economist as an example of excellence in late 1987 , and economist Paul B. Henze recognised it in 2000 as being " one of the most reliable and profitable airlines in the Third World " . In July 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 07 ) , Ethiopian was named Africa 's most profitable airline for the year 2010 by Air Transport World , and it has also been praised by AFRAA for its sustained profitability over recent years .
As a long term company policy , in addition to the carrier 's main activities , revenues are also generated by providing aircraft maintenance to foreign airlines , and specialist training for both Ethiopian and foreign trainees . Every year , pilots and technicians graduate from both the Pilot School , inaugurated in 1964 , and the Aviation Maintenance Technician School , established in 1967 . The American Federal Aviation Administration accredited the airline 's maintenance division with license No . ETIY 102F .
Ethiopian Airlines started “ Vision 2010 ” in 2005 , which aimed to increase passenger traffic to 3 million , revenue to US $ 1 billion and employees to 6 @,@ 000 by 2010 . By the year 2010 Ethiopian had exceeded all goals set in “ Vision 2010 ” , and the company 's net profit for the fiscal year ended 2010 @-@ 6 @-@ 30 was US $ 121 @.@ 4 million . The results were attributed in part to an aggressive marketing campaign and major cost cutting measures .
In 2010 Ethiopian adopted " Vision 2025 " , a 15 @-@ year development strategy , under which the airline anticipates increasing its fleet to 120 , the number of destinations to 90 , carrying more than 18 million passengers and 720 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 710 @,@ 000 long tons ; 790 @,@ 000 short tons ) of cargo , with 17 @,@ 000 employees . ″ Vision 2025 ″ also considers a fourfold expansion of the capacity building for trainees in the airline 's aviation academy .
Ethiopian signed in July 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 07 ) a deal for the acquisition of 49 % of the Malawian carrier Air Malawi . The new airline will be named Malawian Airlines . The remaining shareholding will be held by the government of Malawi and private Malawian investors . Malawian Airlines started operations in January 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 01 ) . For the operation year 2013 @-@ 14 , Ethiopian Airlines was ranked the most profitable airline in Africa and 18th most profitable airline in the world with a profit of $ 228 million .
= = Destinations = =
As of September 2014 , the passenger network comprises 83 international destinations and 20 domestic ones , including 49 cities in Africa ( excluding Ethiopia ) , 13 in Europe and the Americas and 21 in the Middle East and Asia ; the cargo network serves 24 destinations , including 15 in Africa , seven in the Middle East and Asia and two in Europe . Ethiopian serves more destinations in Africa than any other airline . As of April 2013 , the carrier 's five densest routes were Addis Ababa – Dubai , Addis Ababa – Johannesburg , Addis Ababa – Guangzhou , Addis Ababa – Nairobi and Addis Ababa – Beijing .
In late April 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 04 ) , the airline said it planned to start serving the Latin American market but no firm dates were disclosed . In August that year , Abuja , Accra , Douala , Dubai , Entebbe , Frankfurt , Johannesburg , Harare , Kilimanjaro , Lagos , Lomé , London , Luanda , Lusaka , Malabo , Maputo , Mombasa , Mumbai , Nairobi and Rome would be served on an rotational basis with the first Boeing 787 Dreamliner , and that upon delivery of the second aircraft of the type these would be assigned on fixed scheduled routes .
In February 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 02 ) , unofficial reports disclosed the carrier 's plans to launch new services to Ho Chi Minh City , Manila and Seoul starting in June the same year , as well as the company 's intention to start flying the 9 @,@ 899 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 18 @,@ 333 km ; 11 @,@ 392 mi ) -long São Paulo – Lomé – Addis Ababa – Guangzhou run in July 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 07 ) . In June 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 06 ) , unofficial sources reported that the launch of flights to both Ho Chi Minh City and Manila were cancelled , and that they will be replaced with a flight to Singapore starting in September 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 09 ) ; as announced , flights to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo commenced in July the same year . Flights to Singapore were launched in December 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 12 ) . A new link to Shanghai was launched in March 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 03 ) , while new services to Vienna started in June 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 06 ) and to Doha in December the same year .
Tokyo @-@ Narita was added on 20 April 2015 . Other new destinations are Los Angeles ( the carrier 's fifth point to be served in the Americas ) and Dublin . A new service to Manila was launched in July 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 07 ) . The Addis Ababa – Lomé – Newark run is set to commence on 3 July 2016 ( 2016 @-@ 07 @-@ 03 ) .
= = = Alliances and codeshare agreements = = =
= = = = Alliances = = = =
In October 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 10 ) , Ethiopian Airlines ' frequent flyer programme Shebamiles and Lufthansa 's Miles & More entered into partnership , allowing members of each programme to earn and spend miles on both airlines ' networks . In July 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 07 ) , the carrier entered a strategic partnership with Lomé @-@ based start @-@ up airline ASKY Airlines , in which Ethiopian holds a 40 % stake . Ethiopian Airlines is responsible for aircraft maintenance and operational management . The plan is to turn Lomé into Ethiopian Airline 's regional hub for the West African market . ASKY started operations in January 2010 and became profitable after a few months . Ethiopian officially joined Star Alliance in December 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 12 ) .
= = = = Codeshare agreements = = = =
As of June 2014 , the Ethiopian Airlines has codeshare agreements with the following airlines :
= = Fleet = =
= = = Recent developments = = =
In February 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 02 ) , Ethiopian Airlines signed a preliminary agreement to buy up to ten Boeing 787 Dreamliner aircraft ( five firm orders plus five options ) , becoming the first African carrier to order this kind of equipment . On 31 May 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 05 @-@ 31 ) , Boeing announced that Ethiopian had exercised its purchase rights and confirmed a firm order for ten aircraft . The carrier also became the first African airline to order the Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR , and the first of these aircraft Ethiopian took possession of , in November 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 11 ) , was the 900th model of the type delivered by Boeing . Furthermore , upon delivery Ethiopian became the first African airline to operate the type .
The company ordered eight Bombardier Q400s for US $ 242 million in November 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 11 ) and took options on four additional aircraft of the type . During the 2009 Dubai Air Show , Ethiopian placed an order for 12 Airbus A350 @-@ 900s , initially scheduled for delivery between 2016 and 2019 . To date , this order is the largest placed by the airline , and it evidenced the company 's dissatisfaction with Boeing for the delays in the delivery of the Dreamliners , initially scheduled to enter the fleet in June 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 06 ) . In January 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 01 ) , Ethiopian Airlines announced a firm order for ten Boeing 737 – 800 Next Generation aircraft in a deal worth US $ 767 million . The first 78 @-@ seater Q400 entered the fleet in March ; in August , Ethiopian and the Ex @-@ Im Bank signed an agreement worth US $ 1 @.@ 6 billion for a loan to finance the acquisition of the ten Dreamliners — the first of them scheduled for delivery in mid @-@ August 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 08 ) — , and the five Boeing 777s the carrier already has in the fleet .
In October 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 10 ) , the company announced an order for four Boeing 777Fs in a deal worth US $ 1 @.@ 1 billion ; the move positioned Ethiopian Airlines as the first African carrier in ordering the type . These four aircraft will join another two ones of the same type the airline will lease from GECAS . Ethiopian received the first of these aircraft in mid September 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 09 ) .
Five Q400 NextGens were ordered in February 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 02 ) for US $ 160 million at list prices , whereas in July 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 07 ) , an additional Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR was ordered in a deal worth US $ 276 million . In August 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 08 ) , the first Dreamliner was delivered to the company , which became the first airline outside Japan in operating the type on scheduled flights , after All Nippon Airways and Japan Airlines . Also in October 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 10 ) , the first Q400 NexGen was delivered , and in November the same year the airline confirmed that three additional Dreamliners will be leased from ILFC , the first of them entering service in 2015 .
In April 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 04 ) , Air Lease Corporation and Ethiopian Airlines announced the lease of two Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs , with deliveries in May and June 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 06 ) . In early July the same year , it was informed that the Ex @-@ Im Bank approved around US $ 130 million for Boeing in order for this aircraft manufacturer to support the development of GE90 @-@ equipped long @-@ haul aircraft for Ethiopian Airlines . The airline took delivery of its first Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER in November 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 11 ) . That month , during the Dubai Air Show , Palma Holding signed a letter of intent with Bombardier for eight Q400s to be leased to Ethiopian ; the order was firmed up in February 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 02 ) . In September 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 09 ) the carrier announced a firm order for 20 Boeing 737 MAX 8s plus commitments for 15 more aircraft of the type . At January 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 01 ) , Ethiopian Airlines was the largest African carrier in terms of fleet size . In 2015 the airline planned to buy 15 to 20 of Boeing 's new 777X planes worth about $ 7 @.@ 4 billion at list prices . Although the airline had initially planned buying Airbus ' A350 @-@ 1000 planes , it switched to the Boeing 777X as the aircraft is more suitable for operations at their high @-@ altitude hub in Addis Ababa . It became the first airline in Africa to acquire a Boeing 787 full @-@ flight simulator .
The airline received its first Airbus A350 XWB in late June 2016 ( 2016 @-@ 06 ) .
= = = Current fleet = = =
As of June 2016 , the Ethiopian Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft :
Aside from the equipment shown above , the airline uses a number of DA40NGs for training purposes . Ethiopian Airlines had the largest dedicated cargo fleet in Africa , as of December 2013 .
= = = Historic fleet = = =
Following is a list of equipment previously operated by Ethiopian . Helicopters and light aircraft were available for leasing to Government agencies as well as to be used on natural resources projects .
= = Services = =
Cloud Nine and Economy Class are the two classes available on most of Ethiopian Airlines ' flights , with the exception of those operated with Dash 8 equipment , for some of these aircraft are configured in an all @-@ economy layout .
= = = Food and drinks = = =
On all flights , passengers are provided with food and complimentary beverages on board , in both classes . The food service consists of hot meals , hot or cold snacks , or light refreshments , depending on the length of the flight and the time of the day . The choice of acquiring complementary drinks at an extra cost is available too . The airline also offers assorted menus for passengers having special meal requirements .
= = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = =
= = = = Cloud Nine = = = =
Ethiopian Airlines ' Business Class is named Cloud Nine . Passengers travelling in this class are provided with onboard amenities and a wide variety of reading material . On routes operated with Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR equipment passengers are provided with sleeper seats and on @-@ demand audio and video services , with 85 channels on 15 @.@ 4 inch IFE screens .
= = = = Economy Class = = = =
A variety of meals — ranging from light snacks to hot dishes — and amenities are provided to passengers flying on this class , both depending upon the length of the flight . Reclining seats and on @-@ demand audio and video , with 80 channels and 8 @.@ 9 @-@ inched screens , are available on Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR services .
= = = Lounges = = =
Ethiopian Airlines passengers are offered two lounges at Bole International Airport . Cloud Nine passengers can wait for the departure of flights at the Cloud Nine Lounge , where they are provided with a wide variety of amenities , as well as personal computers or wireless connection . Likewise , ShebaMiles cardholders with Gold or Silver status can make use of the Sheba Miles Lounge facilities . Customer Service agents are available at both lounges in order to assist passengers with any query regarding their flights .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
According to the Aviation Safety Network , Ethiopian Airlines records 60 accident / incident events since 1965 , plus six more for Ethiopian Air Lines , the airline 's former name . As of January 2013 , the number of people that lost their lives in occurrences related to either carrier aircraft totals 337 . The company suffered several hijacking episodes throughout its history , with one of them ending up in the carrier 's deadliest accident , when the plane plunged into the Indian Ocean due to fuel starvation in 1996 . The second most deadly accident took place in 2010 , when an aircraft crashed into the Mediterranean Sea , shortly after it departed Beirut – Rafic Hariri International Airport , killing all 90 people on board . The crash of a Boeing 737 – 200 that took place in 1988 and led to 35 fatalities ranks as the third worst deadly accident experienced by the company . Despite this , Ethiopian Airlines has a good safety record , in contrast to other African airlines .
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= New Jersey Route 64 =
Route 64 is a 0 @.@ 32 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 51 km ) long state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It is a state @-@ maintained bridge over Amtrak and New Jersey Transit 's Northeast Corridor line in West Windsor . Route 64 begins at an intersection with County Route 526 and County Route 571 in West Windsor . It heads along the bridge to an intersection with County Route 615 , where Route 64 ends . County routes 526 and 571 , which are unofficially concurrent with Route 64 , continues to Hightstown .
Route 64 was designated originally as an alignment of Route 31A , a spur off of State Highway Route 31 ( currently U.S. Route 206 ) from Princeton eastward to Hightstown , where it met State Highway Route 33 . The state planned on turning the alignment into a full @-@ fledged expressway for several decades , including constructing the alignment that Route 64 currently uses in 1939 . The route was amended in 1941 , and was renumbered from Route 31A to Route 64 in the 1953 renumbering . Route 64 was proposed to become part of the Princeton – Hightstown Bypass ( later designated New Jersey Route 92 ) , but completion never occurred . Currently , the route remains the bridge over the Northeast Corridor . However , it is not currently planned that Route 64 will receive an extension of sorts from the proposed Penns Neck Bypass to U.S. Route 1 , a proposed realignment of County routes 526 and 571 .
= = Route description = =
Route 64 begins at an intersection with County Route 526 , County Route 571 , and Mercer County Route 615 in the community of West Windsor . From this point , County Routes 526 and 571 continue along the right @-@ of @-@ way towards U.S. Route 130 . The route heads north crosses over the Amtrak and New Jersey Transit @-@ used Northeast Corridor Line and passes to the north of a local bus depot . Route 64 continues westward for a short distance , crossing through a local woodland and behind several local homes . The route makes a gradual curve to the west off the railroad bridge and passes behind a couple of homes before heading to the south slightly at an intersection . Route 64 reaches its northern terminus and County Route 526 and County Route 571 make a right turn to head northwest toward U.S. Route 1 and Princeton .
= = History = =
= = = Route 31A and the original freeway = = =
In the late @-@ 1920s , the state proposed a bypass along the alignment . In 1938 , the New Jersey State Highway Department and New Jersey General Assembly put forth a proposal detailing that a highway from State Highway Route 31 ( co @-@ signed with U.S. Route 206 ) in the city of Princeton eastward through Mercer County onto current @-@ day County Route 571 . From there , it would follow an alignment of highway to the intersection with State Highway Route 33 in the community of Hightstown . The original proposal for the highway was to turn the road into a limited @-@ access freeway along its entirety . The route was designated as State Highway Route 31A , a suffixed spur of State Highway Route 31 that year . A portion of the highway was constructed in 1939 , when a bridge over the Pennsylvania Railroad was constructed from Washington Road 's former alignment to the current intersection with Route 615 . This new , 104 @.@ 00 feet ( 31 @.@ 70 m ) long bridge replaced the at @-@ grade crossing on Washington Road , which is now a dead @-@ end . The state highway law was amended just three years later , with the freeway option removed and the extensions remaining .
The new bridge remained in place along Route 31A , however , no new portions of the freeway were constructed in terms of creating the Route 31A Freeway , as proposed in 1938 . In 1950 , then @-@ governor of New Jersey , Alfred E. Driscoll , cited the need for the expressway as an important truck and passenger car highway from Trenton to the Jersey Shore . Route 31A itself was decommissioned in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , and replaced by the designation of Route 64 . The route was truncated from both ends toward Princeton and Hightstown , leaving just the bridge in West Windsor . Route 31A remained in the state highway statutes for several decades after decommissioning , with a bill in 1991 being proposed . The bill passed , and Route 31A was stripped from the statutes on January 18 , 1992 .
= = = Route 92 and future changes to CR 571 = = =
Route 64 , after designation in 1953 , remained a short bridge along the highway . However , the need for an expressway from Trenton to the Jersey Shore remained , and in the late 1950s , the State Highway Department brought about plans for the Princeton – Hightstown Bypass , a four @-@ lane freeway that would head for 14 miles ( 23 km ) from U.S. Route 206 in Montgomery Township to New Jersey Route 33 in Hightstown . In the length , the freeway was to interchange with U.S. Route 1 , U.S. Route 130 and New Jersey Route 27 . The route was re @-@ designated as Route 92 , and remained a high priority project for several decades . Even after changes in alignment , Route 64 was still an alternative . However , Route 92 was shelved on December 1 , 2006 in favor of widening the New Jersey Turnpike mainline , and only New Jersey Route 133 was constructed for the proposal .
As part of the proposed Penns Neck Bypass on U.S. Route 1 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation plans on realigning County Route 571 and Route 526 from the western terminus of Route 64 to a northerly route to Route 1 . Although Route 571 and Route 526 are proposed to be realigned onto the new alignment , there is no designated change proposed for Route 64 . On the contrary to this , one state figure shows Route 64 running along Washington Road , where the two county routes currently run .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in West Windsor , Mercer County .
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= The Shape of Things to Come ( Lost ) =
" The Shape of Things to Come " is the 81st episode of the American Broadcasting Company 's Lost and is the ninth episode of the fourth season . It aired on April 24 , 2008 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Drew Goddard and co @-@ producer Brian K. Vaughan in late February 2008 and directed by executive producer Jack Bender in mid @-@ March . The narrative centers on Ben Linus ( played by Michael Emerson ) as he and the Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 crash survivors at the Barracks come under attack in December 2004 , while flashforwards to late 2005 show him recruiting Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) as a hitman and confronting his enemy Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) .
" The Shape of Things to Come " is one of a few Lost episodes to contain footage filmed outside Hawaii . The episode aired as the first of the second batch of fourth season episodes that were originally planned to air uninterrupted by a hiatus with the rest of the season ; however , the 100 @-@ day 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike paused production and caused the writers to condense the second half of the season , which aired after a four @-@ week break . " The Shape of Things to Come " received positive critical reviews and the original broadcast was watched by 14 million Americans . Much praise was directed at Emerson 's acting skills , particularly in his reaction to the execution of his character 's daughter Alex ( Tania Raymonde ) . His performance in this specific episode received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards ; the episode was also nominated in the category of Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series .
= = Plot = =
The episode is set on December 27 , 2004 , the survivors ' 97th day on the island . At the beach camp , the corpse of Ray ( Marc Vann ) , the freighter Kahana 's doctor , washes ashore . Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) calls the freighter and asks what happened to Ray via morse code . Daniel lies about the response , saying that rescue helicopters will be sent soon ; however , Bernard Nadler ( Sam Anderson ) calls him on this and correctly interprets the freighter 's message : " What are you talking about ? The doctor is fine . " Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) , who suffers from stomach pains throughout the day , forces Daniel to reveal that it was never their intention to rescue the survivors .
Meanwhile , Alex is captured by Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) and others from the freighter . As they take her to the Barracks , she sets off an alarm heralding the arrival of Ben 's enemies . Ben , John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , and Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) fortify Ben 's house , while James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) goes to retrieve the other survivors in the Barracks . He is partially successful , as he saves Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) from her exploded and burning house , but three survivors ( portrayed by extras ) are shot to death by the mercenaries . Keamy finds and frees Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) , giving him a walkie @-@ talkie to take to Ben . Ben communicates with Keamy , who threatens to kill Alex if Ben does not surrender . Ben attempts to negotiate and is shocked when Keamy executes Alex . Locking himself in the house 's secret room , Ben enters a hidden chamber to summon the smoke monster . Ben emerges covered in soot and the monster attacks Keamy 's henchmen . The survivors flee for the forest , with Ben lingering briefly to grieve over Alex 's body . Afterward , Ben and Locke depart to locate Jacob for further instructions . Sawyer , Hurley , Claire and Aaron turn to return to the beach with Miles , but Locke holds them at gunpoint , successfully demanding that Hurley goes with him ( as he has found Jacob 's cabin before ) .
Flashforwards show Ben on three continents in autumn 2005 . Ben is startled when he wakes up in the Sahara Desert wearing a winter jacket and with a large cut on his upper arm ; challenged by two armed locals , he kills one of them ( Nick Hermz ) and knocks the other ( Sammy Sheik ) unconscious and travels on horseback to Tozeur , Tunisia on October 24 , 2005 . Ben journeys to Tikrit , Iraq , where the funeral of Sayid 's wife Nadia Jazeem ( Andrea Gabriel ) is taking place . Ben tells Sayid that Widmore ordered Ishmael Bakir ( Faran Tahir ) to kill Nadia . Ben lures Bakir into a trap to be killed by Sayid , who shoots Bakir repeatedly . Ben recruits him to become his assassin , and leaves for London , England , where he breaks into Widmore 's penthouse ; although he cannot kill Widmore , he states that he is going to kill Widmore 's daughter Penelope ( Sonya Walger ) in retribution for Alex 's death . In their conversation , Widmore claims that the island is his and that he will take it back from Ben one day .
= = Production = =
The Writers Guild of America went on strike on November 4 , 2007 , by which time only eight of the planned sixteen episodes of Lost 's fourth season had been written . These episodes aired from January to March 2008 . After the strike ended on February 12 , 2008 , the writers found that there was only enough time to produce five episodes , although the fifth episode would later be expanded to two episodes — and they proceeded to compress most of the storylines of the planned eight episodes into six , with some carrying over into the fifth season . Executive producer / head writer Damon Lindelof stated that " we are going to execute our full story plan for season four . This simply requires a shift from high @-@ octane storytelling to superhigh @-@ octane storytelling . It requires no cramming , only a slightly heavier foot on the gas pedal ... so , hold on to your hats . Those of you waiting for the long @-@ anticipated [ Jin Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) ] and Hurley Ping @-@ Pong tournament , however , will be very disappointed . " The writers expressed interest to air the eighth episode with the second batch of episodes , but ABC did not comply and " The Shape of Things to Come " served as the mid @-@ season premiere . The writers realized some advantages to the strike : they were able to use actors whose shows had been canceled during the strike , and they were able to respond to confusion from the audience . They would later even conclude that the season was better as a result of the strike , as they were able to discard " languid , contemplative material " and felt " recharged [ with ] a real energy to attack [ the ] last six episodes " . The first three seasons were broadcast on Wednesdays in the United States and Canada ; the pre @-@ strike fourth season episodes aired on Thursdays at 9 : 00 p.m. , a time @-@ slot normally occupied by Grey 's Anatomy . " The Shape of Things to Come " and the following three episodes were broadcast on Thursdays at 10 : 00 p.m. after Grey 's Anatomy .
" The Shape of Things to Come " was written alongside " Something Nice Back Home " and " Cabin Fever " in February and March 2008 . Its title is derived from the 1933 science fiction novel of the same name by H.G. Wells . Co @-@ executive producer / writer Drew Goddard called the episode " maybe my favorite thing I 've done on Lost , and I 've been lucky with all the episodes I 've gotten so far " . Shooting began on March 10 and continued through March 25 , alongside filming of " Something Nice Back Home " . The scene where Ben confronts Widmore was actually filmed in London , England , because actor Alan Dale was unable to fly to Hawaii as he had been appearing in a production of the play Spamalot . Several crew members and Michael Emerson flew to London to film the scene . A scene in which Claire has a prophetic vision was produced ; however , it was cut due to runtime constraints .
A shoot @-@ out early in the episode sees the end of the three background survivors who joined Locke in his trip to the Barracks in the early fourth season . One of them , Doug , played by Sean Douglas Hoban received credit as a co @-@ star for the first time in his run on the show , having been cast in the pilot as " Passenger # 4 " . Hoban later also acted as a stunt double for Dominic Monaghan , who plays Charlie Pace , a major character in the first three seasons . Hoban has one line in " The Shape of Things to Come " and he had to audition for it against the other background actors .
The episode 's flashforwards commence with Ben waking up alarmed in the Sahara with a wounded right arm and vapor rising from him . The Dharma Initiative parka that he wears was codenamed " Dharka " by the writers . A couple Easter eggs are present in this scene : Ben 's parka has a name tag that indicates that it was formerly owned by Edgar Halliwax ( François Chau ) and it displays the first appearance of the logo for a Dharma station called the " Orchid " that would not be seen until the episode titled " There 's No Place Like Home " . Another Easter egg is glimpsed in the next scene , when Ben reveals his forged Canadian passport previously seen in " The Economist " for his alias Dean Moriarty , which is also the name of the central character in the Jack Kerouac 's 1951 novel On the Road . Among the most frequent questions that the writers are asked is whether they have planned out future storylines , so the writers try to allude to future plot points , such as with the Dharka scene , that they can later call on as proof that they do know where the story is headed . Director Jack Bender described the scene , which was filmed in a Hawaiian rock quarry , as especially hard to shoot because the actors had to ride horses and use guns , the crew had to relocate due to rocks present that were unsuitable for the scene , and Bender walked head @-@ first into a crane . Emerson stated that the set is " definitely a no @-@ glamour zone ... I thought we would ease into things . Instead , I get this all @-@ Ben extravaganza : combat , riding horses , foreign languages . And piano playing ! All waaaay outside my comfort zone . How can you work two weeks and feel like you need a vacation already ? "
= = Reception = =
" The Shape of Things to Come " was viewed live or watched within five hours of broadcast by 12 @.@ 075 million Americans , ranking Lost as the fourteenth most watched program of the week . A total of 14 @.@ 067 million Americans watched the episode live or within seven days ; this number was factored into the season 's average . This was an improvement over the previous Lost episode that had aired six weeks earlier . Lost also improved its Canadian ratings with 1 @.@ 443 million viewers . In Australia , " The Shape of Things to Come " was watched by only 683 @,@ 000 viewers , but Lost was nominated in the same week for two Sun @-@ Herald Bogie Awards — a parody of the Australian Logie Awards — in the categories of " Most Underrated " series and " Most Jerked Around by the Networks " .
The Shape of Things to Come received critical acclaim . Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune gave " The Shape of Things to Come " an " A + . " Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly called " The Shape of Things to Come " " one of those deliciously dense episodes in which the nourishment of revelation is mixed with huge chunks of sugary intrigue " and speculated that the scene in which Alex is executed will be " sitting very high on this ranking of all @-@ time pivotal Lost moments " by the series ' May 2010 end . Before the season finale aired , Jensen ranked this as the second best moment of the season and put the scene in which the monster attacks the mercenaries in ninth place . Dan Kois and Lane Brown of New York magazine thought that this " episode didn 't exactly feel like the usual moderately paced , secret @-@ revealing drama Lost usually is ; it felt like an action movie ... it was like watching Die Hard on an island " . Chris Carabott of IGN gave the episode a 9 @.@ 3 / 10 , concluding that " if ' The Shape of Things to Come ' is any indication of the level of quality that [ the audience ] should expect from here on out then we are in for some incredible storytelling " and " Alex 's death will probably be remembered as one of the more pivotal scenes in the entire series [ because ] it is such a phenomenally shot , edited and acted moment ... it would be incredibly hard not to feel for [ Ben ] here . " Upon grading the best episodes of the first five seasons , the episode ranked second , beating episodes like " Through the Looking Glass " and " Pilot " and losing to " The Constant . " Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad summed up " The Shape of Things to Come " as " a brilliant episode ... [ with ] tons of action , several big revelations , and more questions to ponder " . Don Williams of BuddyTV decided that the episode was " worth waiting five weeks for " and " so jam packed that I need to give my brain time to rest " . Williams 's colleague Oscar Dahl ranked the scene in which Alex is killed as the fifth best moment of the season , noting that " it was perfectly paced ... and provided a huge shock ... and some of the best acting you 'll ever see " . Jay Glatfelter of The Huffington Post wrote that " ' The Shape of Things to Come ' was the perfect episode to get everyone back into the swing of Lost . It wasn 't a mindfuck à la ' The Constant ' . It was an edge @-@ of @-@ your @-@ seat thrill ride , which to me matched the ' Pilot ' ' s bombastic grandeur " .
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that the episode " was overflowing with manna from post @-@ strike heaven : lots of action , lots of intrigue [ and ] the odd answer or three " ; however , he criticized the deaths of the three 815 survivors played by extras and survival of main characters , saying that " that sequence with Sawyer dodging bullets was supposed to be tense and frightening ; instead , it was funny " . Kristin Dos Santos of E ! agreed with Sepinwall 's latter assessment . Although Jamie Poniewozik of Time worried about the show 's direction in which Widmore is suddenly the antagonist and Ben travels the globe to seek revenge . He said that it " looks a little too much like Alias " ; Poniewozik enjoyed the island drama . Daniel of TMZ called " The Shape of Things to Come " " another solid episode of Lost " , grading it as a " B " and claiming that " I enjoyed it the whole way through , even if it never gave me that ' OH MY GOD ! ! ! ! ' moment , though I loved the Alex execution scene . "
Before the episode began shooting , Michael Emerson had already decided to submit his performance in this episode for consideration in the drama supporting actor category of the Primetime Emmy Awards because of the script 's strength . He received his second consecutive Emmy nomination for this role ; however , he lost to Željko Ivanek of the FX series Damages . Emerson would win the next year for the episode " Dead is Dead " . Kevin Thompson of The Palm Beach Post wrote that " with those big ol ' eyes of his , [ Emerson ] could always say more with a lengthy stare than he could with twenty pages of dialogue .... [ He has ] , once again , proved why he has become Lost 's star as well as its heart and soul .... an Emmy should belong to [ him ] . " Jennifer Godwin of E ! wrote that " no one has ever done better work humanizing a supervillain . " Among those who also praised Emerson 's performance as Ben were Robert Bianco of USA Today , Matt Roush of TV Guide , Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy , who gave the episode a perfect rating of five stars , John Kubicek of BuddyTV and aforementioned critics from The Star @-@ Ledger , The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune , Time , Entertainment Weekly , IGN and TV Squad .
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= Youngstown , Ohio =
Youngstown is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Mahoning County . It also extends into Trumbull County . The municipality is on the Mahoning River , approximately 65 miles ( 105 km ) southeast of Cleveland and 61 miles ( 100 km ) northwest of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Youngstown has its own metropolitan area , but is often included in commercial and cultural depictions of the Pittsburgh Tri @-@ State area and Greater Cleveland . Youngstown lies 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of the Pennsylvania state line , midway between New York City and Chicago via Interstate 80 .
The city was named for John Young , an early settler from Whitestown , New York , who established the community 's first sawmill and gristmill . Youngstown is in a region of the United States that is often referred to as the Rust Belt . Traditionally known as a center of steel production , Youngstown was forced to redefine itself when the U.S. steel industry fell into decline in the 1970s , leaving communities throughout the region without major industry . Youngstown also falls within the Appalachian Ohio region , among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains . The 2010 census showed that Youngstown had a total population of 66 @,@ 982 , making it Ohio 's ninth largest city . The city has experienced a decline of over 60 % of its population since 1959 .
According to the 2010 Census , the Youngstown @-@ Warren @-@ Boardman , OH @-@ PA Metropolitan Statistical Area ( MSA ) contains 565 @,@ 773 people and includes Mahoning and Trumbull counties in Ohio , and Mercer County in Pennsylvania . The Steel Valley area as a whole has 763 @,@ 207 residents .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Youngstown was named for New York native John Young , who surveyed the area in 1796 and settled there soon after . On February 9 , 1797 , Young purchased the township of 15 @,@ 560 acres ( 6 @,@ 300 ha ) from the Western Reserve Land Company for $ 16 @,@ 085 . The 1797 establishment of Youngstown was officially recorded on August 19 , 1802 .
The area constituting present @-@ day Youngstown was part of the Connecticut Western Reserve , a section of the Northwest Territory reserved for settlers from the state of Connecticut . While many of the area 's early settlers came from Connecticut , Youngstown attracted a significant number of Scots @-@ Irish settlers from neighboring Pennsylvania . The first European Americans to settle permanently in the area were Pittsburgh native James Hillman and wife Catherine Dougherty . By 1798 , Youngstown was the home of several families who were concentrated near the point where Mill Creek meets the Mahoning River . Boardman Township was founded in 1798 by Elijah Boardman who was a member of the Connecticut Land Company . Also founded in 1798 was Austintown by John McCollum who was a settler from New Jersey .
As the Western Reserve 's population grew , the need for administrative districts became apparent . In 1800 , territorial governor Arthur St. Clair established Trumbull County ( named in honor of Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull ) , and designated the smaller settlement of Warren as its administrative center , or " county seat " . In 1813 , Trumbull County was divided into townships , with Youngstown Township comprising much of what became Mahoning County . The village of Youngstown was incorporated in 1848 , and in 1867 Youngstown was chartered as a city . It became the county seat in 1876 , when the administrative center of Mahoning County was moved from neighboring Canfield . Youngstown has been Mahoning County 's county seat to this day .
= = = Industrial age = = =
The discovery of coal by the community in the early 19th century paved the way for the Youngstown area 's inclusion on the network of the famed Erie Canal . The Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal Company was organized in 1835 , and the canal was completed in 1840 . Local industrialist David Tod , who was later Ohio governor during the Civil War , persuaded Lake Erie steamboat owners that coal mined in the Mahoning Valley could fuel their vessels if canal transportation were available between Youngstown and Cleveland . The arrival of the railroad in 1856 smoothed the path for further economic growth .
Youngstown 's industrial development changed the face of the Mahoning Valley . The community 's burgeoning coal industry drew hundreds of immigrants from Wales , Germany , and Ireland . With the establishment of steel mills in the late 19th century , Youngstown became a popular destination for immigrants from Eastern Europe , Italy , and Greece . In the early 20th century , the community saw an influx of immigrants from non @-@ European countries including what is modern day Lebanon , Palestine / Israel , and Syria . By the 1920s , this dramatic demographic shift produced a nativist backlash , and the Mahoning Valley became a center of Ku Klux Klan activity . The situation reached a climax in 1924 , when street clashes between Klan members and Italian and Irish Americans in neighboring Niles led Ohio Governor A. Victor Donahey to declare martial law . By 1928 the Klan was in steep decline ; and three years later , the organization sold its Canfield , Ohio , meeting area , Kountry Klub Field .
The growth of industry attracted people from within the borders of the United States , and from Latin America . By the late 19th century , African Americans were well represented in Youngstown , and the first local congregation of the African Methodist Episcopal Church was established in 1871 . In the 1880s , local attorney William R. Stewart was the second African American elected to the Ohio House of Representatives . A large influx of African Americans in the early 20th century owed much to developments in the industrial sector . During the national Steel Strike of 1919 , local industrialists recruited thousands of workers from the South , many of whom were Black . This move inflamed racist sentiment among local Whites , and for decades , African @-@ American steelworkers experienced discrimination in the workplace . Migration from the South rose dramatically in the 1940s , when the mechanization of southern agriculture brought an end to the exploitative sharecropping system , leading onetime farm laborers to seek industrial jobs .
The city 's population became more diverse after the end of World War II , when a seemingly robust steel industry attracted thousands of workers . In the 1950s , the Latino population grew significantly ; and by the 1970s , St. Rose of Lima Roman Catholic Church and the First Spanish Baptist Church of Ohio were among the largest religious institutions for Spanish @-@ speaking residents in the Youngstown metropolitan area . While diversity is among the community 's enduring characteristics , the industrial economy that drew various groups to the area collapsed in the late 1970s . In response to subsequent challenges , the city has taken well @-@ publicized steps to diversify economically , while building on some traditional strengths .
= = = Redevelopment = = =
Downtown Youngstown has seen modest levels of new construction . Recent additions include the George Voinovich Government Center and state and federal courthouses : the Seventh District Court of Appeals and the Nathaniel R. Jones Federal Building and U.S. Courthouse . The latter features an award @-@ winning design by the architectural firm , Robert A. M. Stern Architects .
In 2005 , Federal Street , a major downtown thoroughfare that was closed off to create a pedestrian @-@ oriented plaza , was reopened to through traffic . The downtown area has seen the razing of structurally unsound buildings and the expansion or restoration of others .
In 2004 , construction began on a 60 @-@ home upscale development called Arlington Heights , and a grant from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development allowed for the demolition of Westlake Terrace , a sprawling and dilapidated public housing project . Today , the site features a blend of senior housing , rental townhouses and for @-@ sale single @-@ family homes . Low real @-@ estate prices and the efforts of the Youngstown Central Area Improvement Corporation ( CIC ) have contributed to the purchase of several long @-@ abandoned downtown buildings ( many by out @-@ of @-@ town investors ) and their restoration and conversion into specialty shops , restaurants , and eventually condominiums . Further , a nonprofit organization called Wick Neighbors is planning a $ 250 million New Urbanist revitalization of Smoky Hollow , a former ethnic neighborhood that borders the downtown and university campus . The neighborhood will eventually comprise about 400 residential units , university student housing , retail space , and a central park . Construction for the project began in 2006 .
New construction has dovetailed with efforts to cultivate business growth . One of the area 's more successful business ventures in recent years has been the Youngstown Business Incubator . This nonprofit organization , based in a former downtown department store building , fosters the growth of fledgling technology @-@ based companies . The incubator , which boasts more than a dozen business tenants , has recently completed construction on the Taft Technology Center , where some of its largest tenants will locate their offices .
In line with these efforts to change the community 's image , the city government , in partnership with Youngstown State University , has organized an ambitious urban renewal plan known as Youngstown 2010 . The stated goals of Youngstown 2010 include the creation of a " cleaner , greener , and better planned and organized Youngstown " . In January 2005 , the organization unveiled a master plan prepared by Urban Strategies Inc. of Toronto , which had taken shape during an extensive process of public consultation and meetings that gathered input from citizens . The plan , which included platforms such as the acceptance of a reduced population and an improved image and quality of life , received national attention and is consistent with efforts in other metropolitan areas to address the phenomenon of urban depopulation . Youngstown 2010 received an award for public outreach from the American Planning Association in 2007 .
= = Geography and climate = =
= = = Geography = = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 34 @.@ 60 square miles ( 89 @.@ 61 km2 ) , of which 33 @.@ 96 square miles ( 87 @.@ 96 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 64 square miles ( 1 @.@ 66 km2 ) is water .
Located in the Cleveland tri @-@ state area , Youngstown is in the Mahoning Valley on the Glaciated Allegheny Plateau . At the end of the last Ice Age , the glaciers left behind a uniform plain with valleys eroded by the Mahoning River crossing the plain . Lakes created by glaciers that dammed small streams were eventually drained , leaving behind fertile terrain .
= = = Climate = = =
Youngstown has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb ) , typical of the Midwest , with four distinct seasons , and lies in USDA hardiness zone 6a . Winters are cold and dry but typically bring a mix of rain , sleet , and snow with occasional heavy snowfall and icing . January is the coldest month with an average mean temperature of 25 @.@ 8 ° F ( − 3 @.@ 4 ° C ) , with temperatures on average dropping to or below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) on 4 @.@ 1 days and staying at or below freezing on 43 days per year . Snowfall averages 62 @.@ 7 inches ( 159 cm ) per season , significantly less than the snowbelt areas closer to Lake Erie . The snowiest month on record was 53 @.@ 1 inches ( 135 cm ) in December 2010 , while winter snowfall amounts have ranged from 118 @.@ 7 in ( 301 cm ) in 2010 – 11 to 25 @.@ 2 in ( 64 cm ) in 1948 – 49 . Springs generally see a transition to fewer weather systems that produce heavier rainfall . Summers are typically very warm and humid with temperatures exceeding 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on 7 @.@ 7 days per year on average ; the annual count has been as high as 40 days in 1943 , while the most recent year to not reach that mark is 2014 . July is the warmest month with an average mean temperature of 70 @.@ 5 ° F ( 21 ° C ) . Autumn is relatively dry with many clear warm days and cool nights .
The all @-@ time record high temperature in Youngstown of 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) was established on July 10 , 1936 , which occurred during the Dust Bowl , and the all @-@ time record low temperature of − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) was set on January 19 , 1994 . The first and last freezes of the season on average fall on October 10 and May 6 , respectively , allowing a growing season of 156 days ; freezing temperatures have been observed in every month except July . The normal annual mean temperature is 49 @.@ 0 ° F ( 9 @.@ 4 ° C ) . Normal yearly precipitation based on the 30 @-@ year average from 1981 – 2010 is 38 @.@ 91 inches ( 988 mm ) , falling on an average 160 days . Monthly precipitation has ranged from 10 @.@ 66 in ( 271 mm ) in June 1986 to 0 @.@ 16 in ( 4 @.@ 1 mm ) in October 1924 , while for annual precipitation the historical range is 54 @.@ 01 in ( 1 @,@ 372 mm ) in 2011 to 23 @.@ 79 in ( 604 mm ) in 1963 .
= = Demographics = =
The 2010 United States Census population estimate was 65 @,@ 062 people . The Steel Valley area as a whole has 763 @,@ 207 residents .
The United States Census Bureau 's 2011 American Community Survey estimated a median household income of $ 24 @,@ 006 . A 2007 report by CNNMoney.com stated that Youngstown has the lowest median income of any U.S. city with more than 65 @,@ 000 residents . Between 1960 and 2010 , the city 's population declined by over 60 % . Youngstown 's vacant @-@ housing rate is twenty times that of the national average .
= = = 2010 census = = =
According to the 2010 Census , Youngstown has 26 @,@ 839 households and 15 @,@ 150 families in the city . The population density is 755 @.@ 2 / km ² ( 1958 @.@ 5 / sq mi ) . There are 33 @,@ 123 housing units at an average density of 968 @.@ 5 per square mile ( 373 @.@ 4 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 47 @.@ 0 % White , 45 @.@ 2 % African American , 0 @.@ 4 % Native American , 0 @.@ 4 % Asian , 0 @.@ 02 % Pacific Islander , 3 @.@ 3 % of some other race , and 3 @.@ 7 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9 @.@ 3 % of the population . Among the White population , 10 @.@ 8 % were of Italian , 10 @.@ 8 % Irish , 10 @.@ 0 % German , and 4 @.@ 2 % English ancestries . Among the Hispanic population , 5 @.@ 7 % are Puerto Rican , 1 @.@ 9 % Mexican , 0 @.@ 1 % Cuban , and 0 @.@ 7 % some other Hispanic or Latino .
Records suggest that 28 @.@ 6 % of the households have children under the age of 18 . Of these , 25 @.@ 6 % are married couples living together , 24 @.@ 8 % have a female householder with no husband present , and 43 @.@ 6 % are non @-@ families . Meanwhile , 37 @.@ 8 % of all households comprise a single person , and 14 @.@ 5 % of households comprise a person over 65 years of age living alone . The average household size is 2 @.@ 28 and the average family size is 3 @.@ 02 .
The population is spread out with 22 @.@ 8 % under the age of 18 , 10 @.@ 8 % from 18 to 24 , 24 @.@ 3 % from 25 to 44 , 26 @.@ 2 % from 45 to 64 , and 15 @.@ 8 % who are 65 years of age or older . The median age is 38 years . For every 100 females there are 96 @.@ 9 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there are 95 males .
= = Economy = =
= = = History = = =
Endowed with large deposits of coal and iron as well as " old growth " hardwood forests needed to produce charcoal , the Youngstown area eventually developed a thriving steel industry , starting with the area 's blast furnace in 1803 by James and Daniel Heaton . By the mid @-@ 19th century , Youngstown was the site of several iron industrial plants , and because of easy rail connections to adjacent states , the iron industry continued to expand in the 1890s despite the depletion of local natural resources . At the turn of the 20th century , local industrialists began to convert to steel manufacturing , amid a wave of industrial consolidations that placed much of the Mahoning Valley 's industry in the hands of national corporations .
In the late 1930s , the community 's steel sector gained national attention once again , when Youngstown became a site of the so @-@ called " Little Steel Strike " , an effort by the Steel Workers Organizing Committee , a precursor to United Steelworkers , to secure contract agreements with smaller steel companies . On June 21 , 1937 , strike @-@ related violence in Youngstown resulted in two deaths and 42 injuries . Despite the violence , historian William Lawson observed that the strike transformed industrial unions from " basically local and ineffective organizations into all @-@ encompassing , nationwide collective bargaining representatives of American workers " .
Between the 1920s and 1960s , the city was known as an important industrial hub that featured the massive furnaces and foundries of such companies as Republic Steel and U.S. Steel . At the same time , Youngstown never became economically diversified , as did larger industrial cities such as Chicago , Pittsburgh , Akron , or Cleveland . Hence , when economic changes forced the closure of plants throughout the 1970s , the city was left with few substantial economic alternatives . The September 19 , 1977 , announcement of the closure of a large portion of Youngstown Sheet and Tube , an event still referred to as " Black Monday " , is widely regarded as the death knell of the old area steel industry in Youngstown . In the wake of the steel plant shutdowns , the community lost an estimated 40 @,@ 000 manufacturing jobs , 400 satellite businesses , $ 414 million in personal income , and from 33 to 75 percent of the school tax revenues . The Youngstown area has yet to fully recover from the loss of jobs in the steel sector .
= = = Current economy = = =
Youngstown is the site of several steel and metalworking operations , though nothing on the scale seen during the " glory days " of the " Steel Valley " . The largest employer in the city is Youngstown State University ( YSU ) , an urban public campus that serves about 15 @,@ 000 students , located just north of downtown .
The blow dealt to the community 's industrial economy in the 1970s was slightly mitigated by the presence of auto production plants in the metropolitan area . In the late 1980s , the Avanti , an automobile with a fiberglass body originally designed by Studebaker to compete with the Corvette , was manufactured in an industrial complex on Youngstown 's Albert Street . This company moved away after just a few years . A mainstay of Youngstown 's industrial economy has long been the GM Lordstown plant . The General Motors ' Lordstown Assembly plant is the largest industrial employer in the area . One of the nation 's largest auto plants in terms of square feet , the Lordstown facility was home to production of the Chevrolet Impala , Vega , and Cavalier . It was recently expanded and retooled with a new paint facility .
The largest industrial employers within the Youngstown city limits are Vallourec Star Steel Company ( formerly North Star Steel ) , in the Brier Hill district , and Exal Corporation on Poland Avenue . The latter has recently expanded its operations .
Youngstown 's downtown , which once underscored the community 's economic difficulties , is a site of new business growth . The Youngstown Business Incubator ( YBI ) , in the heart of the downtown , houses several start @-@ up technology companies that have received office space , furnishings , and access to utilities . Some companies supported by the incubator have earned recognition , and a few are starting to outgrow their current space . One such company – Turning Technologies – has been rated by Inc . Magazine as the fastest @-@ growing privately held software company in the United States and 18th fastest @-@ growing privately held company overall . In an effort to keep such companies downtown , the YBI secured approval to demolish a row of vacant buildings nearby to clear space for expansion . The project will be funded by a $ 2 million federal grant awarded in 2006 . In 2014 , the YBI was ranked as the number 1 university associated business incubator in the world by the Swedish UBII ( University Business Incubator Index ) . In 2015 , the YBI was the top University Associated Incubator in North America , and came in second to the Dublin Enterprise & Technology Centre , also known as the Guinness Enterprise Centre , in Dublin .
Extensive coverage of Youngstown 's economic challenges has overshadowed the city 's long entrepreneurial tradition . A number of products and enterprises introduced in Youngstown later became national household names . Among these is Youngstown @-@ based Schwebel 's Bakery , which was established in neighboring Campbell in the 20th century . The company now distributes bread products nationally . In the 1920s , Youngstown was the birthplace of the Good Humor brand of ice cream novelties , and the popular franchise of Handel 's Homemade Ice Cream & Yogurt was established there in the 1940s . In the 1950s , Youngstown @-@ born developer Edward J. DeBartolo , Sr. established one of the country 's first modern shopping plazas in the suburb of Boardman . The fast @-@ food chain , Arby 's , opened the first of its restaurants in Boardman in 1964 , and Arthur Treacher 's Fish & Chips was headquartered in Youngstown in the late 1970s . More recently , the city 's downtown hosted the corporate headquarters of the now @-@ defunct pharmacy chain store Phar @-@ Mor , which had been established by Youngstown native Mickey Monus .
= = Government = =
Youngstown is governed by a mayor who is elected every four years and limited to a maximum of two terms . Mayors are traditionally inaugurated on or around January 2 . The city has tended to elect Democratic mayors since the late 1920s because of the local unions ' support for Democratic candidates for office . Youngstown 's current mayor is John McNally IV . Jay Williams was the city 's first African @-@ American mayor and its first independent mayor since 1922 . Williams belonged to the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition , a bi @-@ partisan group with the stated goal of " making the public safer by getting illegal guns off the streets " . He left his position in Youngstown to become President Barack Obama 's auto czar , directing the Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry .
Residents elect an eight @-@ member city council composed of representatives of the city 's seven wards and a council president . The council , in turn , appoints a city clerk . The council traditionally meets every first and third Wednesday of the month . City council meetings are generally held from the third week in September to the third week in June . Meanwhile , the board of control oversees contracts for public projects within the municipal limits . The Youngstown Police Department and Youngstown Fire Department fall under the board 's supervision , as do the parks , civil service , community development , health , planning , and water departments .
Youngstown 's finance department oversees all municipal finances and supervises the departments of economic development and income tax . The city 's department of public works has sweeping supervisory responsibilities and oversees the departments of engineering , building inspection , building and grounds , signal and sign , demolition and housing , litter and recycling , street , and water waste treatment . The city 's law department represents the city on all legal issues , serving as counsel to all municipal departments .
= = Crime = =
Crime has been a lingering problem in many of the Rust Belt 's big and small urban communities , hampering economic recovery . In the late 1950s and early 1960s , Youngstown was nationally identified with gangland slayings that were often committed with car bombs . The town gained the nicknames " Murdertown , USA " and " Bomb City , USA , " while the phrase " Youngstown tune @-@ up " became a nationally popular slang term for car @-@ bomb assassination . The image of Youngstown 's association with crime was reinforced by the construction of prisons inside the metropolitan area . As of 2012 , three adult correctional facilities continue to operate within city limits : the Mahoning County Justice Center the Northeast Ohio Correctional Center , and the Ohio State Penitentiary .
For decades , Youngstown was a haven for organized crime , and related corruption was ingrained into the fabric of its society . A 2000 publication in The New Republic listed a " chief of police , the outgoing prosecutor , the sheriff , the county engineer , members of the local police force , a city law director , several defense attorneys , politicians , judges , and a former assistant U.S. attorney " as controlled by the Mob . The city accelerated measures to limit the influence of organized crime upon all sectors of municipal life . The climax of this ongoing effort was the arrest , trial , and 2002 conviction of former U.S. Representative James A. Traficant , Jr . ( D ) , on bribery , tax fraud , and racketeering charges . Although this has since been cleaned up somewhat , in 2006 , Youngstown was ranked by Morgan Quitno Press , a Kansas @-@ based publishing and research company , as the 9th most dangerous city in the United States .
= = Education = =
= = = Primary and secondary = = =
The Youngstown City School District manages all public education within the city . As of 2007 , the school district was engaged in a process of reconfiguration , consolidating existing schools while building some new ones . District high schools once included South , North , Chaney , Rayen , East , Woodrow Wilson , Youngstown Early College , and Choffin Career and Technical Center . This roster has changed ; Chaney expanded , North , South , and the original East were closed , and Rayen and Wilson were closed to make way for a newly built and re @-@ opened East High School . Youngstown City School District participate in an " Early College " program , in cooperation with Youngstown State University . This program enables high school students to attend classes on campus and earn college credit .
The Diocese of Youngstown once oversaw more than 20 schools within the city limits . As a result of dwindling enrollment , only three Catholic schools continue to operate within Youngstown proper . These include one elementary school – St. Christine 's – and two secondary schools , Ursuline and Cardinal Mooney . ( The two high schools share a heated and longstanding rivalry in athletics . ) Several additional Catholic schools operate in Mahoning , Trumbull , Columbiana , Portage , Stark , and Ashtabula counties .
Youngstown hosts a small number of private schools . These include Valley Christian School , a nondenomenational K @-@ 12 school located on the south side of the city ; Akiva Academy , a progressive K @-@ 8 school located in the Jewish Community Center ; and the Montessori School of the Mahoning Valley , which offers alternative learning environments for students ranging from preschool to eighth grade .
Youngstown has a high school graduation rate of 65 %
= = = Higher education = = =
Youngstown State University , the primary institution of higher learning in the Youngstown @-@ Warren metropolitan area , traces its origins to a local YMCA program that began offering college @-@ level courses in 1908 . YSU joined the Ohio system of higher education in 1967 . The university consists of six colleges : The College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences ( CLASS ) ; The College of Science , Technology , Engineering and Math ( STEM ) ; The Willamson College of Business ; The Bitonte College of Health and Human Services ; The College of Fine and Performing Arts ( FPA ) , and the College of Education . Once regarded as a commuter school , YSU serves about 13 @,@ 000 students , many from outside the Youngstown area . The campus is just north of the city 's downtown and south of Youngstown 's historic Fifth Avenue district , a neighborhood of Tudor- , Victorian- , and Spanish Colonial Revival @-@ style homes .
YSU offers tuition rates that are lower than the average of other public universities in Ohio , at $ 3 @,@ 856 per semester for undergraduates . The university 's assets include the Dana School of Music , an All @-@ Steinway school . The Dana School of Music is one of the six oldest continuously operating schools of music in the United States . Youngstown State 's Engineering programs are accredited through ABET , making it one of the best Engineering Schools in the country , many graduates from the school have gone on to become the founders and heads for various Fortune 100 companies .
= = Attractions = =
In 2012 , Forbes.com ranked Youngstown , Ohio 4th among the best cities in the U.S. for raising a family . The article included the city 's schools , current low crime , cost @-@ of @-@ living , and property rates in its decision .
= = = Covelli Centre = = =
Despite the impact of regional economic decline , Youngstown offers an array of cultural and recreational resources . Moreover , the community 's range of attractions has increased in recent years . The newest addition is the Covelli Centre , a venue for Tier I Jr . A hockey games , concerts , " on ice " shows , and other forms of entertainment .
= = = Theater = = =
The community 's culture center is Powers Auditorium , a former Warner Brothers movie palace that serves as the area 's primary music hall while providing a home for the Youngstown Symphony Orchestra . This downtown landmark is one of five auditoriums within the city limits . Ford Recital Hall was built in 2006 as an addition to newly renovated Powers Auditorium . Imposing and neo @-@ classical Stambaugh Auditorium , on the city 's north side , has served for decades as a site of concerts and is often rented for private events . The facility also hosts the Stambaugh Youth Concert Band . Bruce Springsteen , who sang about the decline of Youngstown 's steel industry and its adverse effects on local workers in his ballad " Youngstown " , played at Stambaugh Auditorium on January 12 , 1996 , as part of his solo Ghost of Tom Joad Tour .
Oakland Center for the Arts , in the downtown area , is a venue for locally produced plays . This institution is complemented by the Youngstown Playhouse on the city 's south side . The Youngstown Playhouse , Mahoning County 's primary community theater , has served the area for more than 80 years , despite intermittent financial problems . Well known theatrical personalities from the Youngstown area include comedic actor Joe Flynn , screen actress Elizabeth Hartman , singer and Broadway performer Maureen McGovern , and television and screen actor Ed O 'Neill .
= = = Museums = = =
The Butler Institute of American Art is on the northeastern edge of the Youngstown State University campus . This institution was established by industrialist Joseph G. Butler , Jr . , in 1919 as the first museum in the country dedicated to American art . Across the street from the Butler Institute stands the McDonough Museum of Art , YSU 's University Art Museum and the Mahoning Valley 's center for contemporary art . The McDonough , established in 1991 , features regular changing exhibitions by regional , national and international artists and provides public access to the work of students , faculty and alumni from the Department of Art . The Clarence R. Smith Mineral Museum , also on the YSU campus , is operated by the university 's geology department and housed in a campus building .
To the immediate north of YSU is the Arms Family Museum of Local History . The museum , housed in a 1905 Arts & Crafts style mansion on the main artery of Wick Avenue , is managed by the Mahoning Valley Historical Society . Once the estate of a local industrialist , the museum maintains period rooms that showcase the original contents of the household , including furnishings , art objects , and personal artifacts . The museum mounts rotating exhibits on topics related to local history . Recently , the museum opened the " Anne Kilcawley Christman Hands @-@ on History Room " . The MVHS Archival Library operates in the estate 's former carriage house , near the back of the site .
The Youngstown Historical Center of Industry and Labor sits south of the YSU campus on a grade overlooking the downtown area . This museum , owned and operated by the Ohio Historical Society , focuses on the Mahoning Valley 's history of steel production . Other museums include the Children 's Museum of the Valley , an interactive educational center in the downtown area , and the Davis Education and Recreation Center , a small museum that showcases the history of Youngstown 's Mill Creek Park . On the city 's north side the Youngstown Steel Heritage Foundation is constructing the Tod Engine Heritage Park , featuring a collection of steel industry equipment and artifacts . The main exhibit is a 1914 William Tod Co. rolling mill steam engine that was built in Youngstown and used at the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Brier Hill Works . The Tod Engine is one of three remaining rolling mill engines in the United States and is a Mechanical and Materials Engineering Landmark .
Youngstown 's most popular resource is Mill Creek Park , a five @-@ mile ( 8 km ) -long stretch of landscaped woodland reminiscent of Rock Creek Park in Washington , D.C. Mill Creek Park is the oldest park district in Ohio , established as a township park in 1891 . The park 's highlights include the restored 19th century Lanterman 's Mill , the rock formations of Bear 's Den , scores of nature trails , the Fellows Riverside Gardens and Education Center , the " Cinderella " iron link bridge , and two 18 hole Donald Ross golf courses .
Mill Creek Park encompasses approximately 2 @,@ 600 acres ( 1 @,@ 100 ha ) , 20 miles ( 32 km ) of drives and 15 miles ( 24 km ) of foot trails . Its attractions include gardens , streams , lakes , woodlands , meadows , and wildlife .
Fellows Riverside Gardens ' popular lookout point offers visitors contrasting views of the area . From the south side , the canopied woodlands overlooking Lake Glacier are visible ; from the north side , visitors are presented with a view of downtown Youngstown . The park features two 18 @-@ hole golf courses . The North Course is on rolling terrain , while the South Course features narrow , tree @-@ lined fairways . Other features include playgrounds , athletic fields , and picnic areas .
In 2005 , Mill Creek Park was placed on the National Register of Historic Places . A plaque commemorating this event is near a memorial statue of Volney Rogers , the Youngstown attorney who set aside land for the creation of Mill Creek Park .
A smaller recreational area called Wick Park is on the historic North side . Wick Park 's periphery is lined with early 20th @-@ century mansions built by the city 's industrialists , business leaders , and professionals during Youngstown 's " boom " years . Stambaugh Auditorium , a popular venue for concerts and other public events , is near the park 's southwestern edge . Another small recreational area called Crandall Park is also on the North side . Crandall Park offers well @-@ maintained and landscaped homes , tree @-@ lined streets , and walkable access to shopping and recreations . Several cemeteries ( notably historic Oak Hill Cemetery ) and small recreational spaces are scattered throughout the city . Some of those recreational spaces include Homestead Park , John White park , Lynn park , Borts Pool , and the Northside Pool .
= = Sports = =
Youngstown has enjoyed a long tradition of professional and semi @-@ professional sports . In earlier decades , the city produced scores of minor league baseball teams , including the Youngstown Ohio Works , Youngstown Champs , Youngstown Indians , Youngstown Steelmen , Youngstown Browns , Youngstown Gremlins , and Youngstown Athletics . Local enthusiasm for baseball was such that the community hosted championship games of the National Amateur Baseball Federation throughout the 1930s and 1940s . The area 's minor league baseball teams were supplemented by semi @-@ professional football teams , including the Youngstown Patricians , who won the 1915 championship of the informal " Ohio League " ( a direct predecessor to the National Football League ) , and the Youngstown Hardhats , who competed in the Middle Atlantic Football League in the 1970s and early 1980s . For three seasons , Youngstown was home to the Mahoning Valley Thunder of the now @-@ defunct af2 , the minor league for the Arena Football League until 2009 when the franchise ceased operations . Local minor league basketball teams included the Youngstown Pride of the WBA from 1987 to 1992 ) , the Youngstown Hawks of the IBA in 1999 , and the Mahoning Valley Wildcats of the IBL in 2005 . Covelli Centre ( known then as the Chevrolet Centre ) was the home of the Youngstown SteelHounds hockey team that played in the Central Hockey League until May 2008 .
The community has a lengthy tradition of collegiate sports . The Youngstown State University Penguins , a major regional draw , compete in the Missouri Valley Football Conference . The Penguins , noted participants in FCS ( I @-@ AA ) football , play their games at Stambaugh Stadium and enjoy one of the more supportive fan bases . All other YSU athletic teams compete in the Horizon League . The Youngstown State men and women 's basketball teams hold their games at Youngstown State 's Beeghly Center . The teams average about 2 @,@ 500 fans per game , a number that has been on the rise the past two seasons with a new style of play under Head Coach Jerry Slocum . In addition , the YSU baseball and softball teams have enjoyed local support and success . The baseball team reached the NCAA super @-@ regionals in 2005 , and the softball team did so in 2006 .
Youngstown has produced a significant number of boxing champions , including bantamweight Greg Richardson , lightweights Ray " Boom Boom " Mancini and Harry Arroyo , and middleweight Kelly Pavlik .
One of the city 's most recent sports @-@ related attractions is the Covelli Centre , which was funded primarily through a $ 26 million federal grant . Located on the site of an abandoned steel mill , the large , high @-@ tech facility opened in October 2005 . It was formerly called the Chevrolet Center , and during planning it was known as the Youngstown Convocation Center . The Centre 's main tenants are the Youngstown Phantoms , who play in the United States Hockey League . Previously , it was home to the Youngstown Steelhounds hockey team , who played in the CHL . The city plans to develop vacant land adjacent to the Centre for a park , a riverwalk ( the Mahoning River flows through the site ) , an amphitheater , or an athletic stadium for the city 's public and private high schools .
These investments reflect wide appreciation of Youngstown 's athletic tradition , which has produced noted figures in a variety of sports . Prominent athletes with connections to the city include former world boxing champions Greg Richardson , IBF lightweight champion Harry Arroyo , College Football Hall of Fame end Bob Dove , Hall of Fame umpire Billy Evans , major league pitcher Dave Dravecky , NFL quarterback Bernie Kosar , IBF cruiserweight champion Jeff Lampkin , WBA lightweight champion Ray " Boom Boom " Mancini , major league manager Jimmy McAleer , WBC and WBO middleweight champion Kelly Pavlik , legendary baseball trainer " Bonesetter " Reese , major league outfielder George Shuba , and Heisman Trophy recipient Frank Sinkwich .
= = Neighborhoods = =
= = Transportation = =
The Youngstown area is served by the Western Reserve Transit Authority ( WRTA ) bus system , which is supported through Mahoning County property and sales taxes . WRTA , whose main terminal is in the downtown area , provides service throughout the city and into surrounding Mahoning and Trumbull counties . The downtown terminal serves as the Youngstown area 's Greyhound terminal .
In the vicinity of the WRTA terminal is a former Baltimore and Ohio Railroad station . The historic terminal building has now been converted into a banquet hall , served Amtrak 's Three Rivers as a train station from 1995 to 2005 . The local railroads now serve freight trains exclusively .
The Youngstown @-@ Warren Regional Airport is currently served by three airlines ( Allegiant Air , Sun Country Airlines and Via Air , in order of market share ) , five rental car agencies Alamo , National , Enterprise , Budget , Avis , and has direct non @-@ stop flights to Orlando ( Allegiant ) , Fort Myers ( Allegiant ) , Tampa ( Allegiant ) , Atlantic City ( Via Air ) , Tunica ( Via Air , Sun Country ) , and Gulfport ( Sun Country ) . Additional seasonal service includes flights to Myrtle Beach , SC ( Allegiant ) .
On June 23 , 2016 , Uber launched its services in Youngstown , covering all of Mahoning County and most of Trumbull County . Before the launch , Youngstown had been the largest city in the United States that had never had Uber in some capacity .
= = Media = =
Youngstown features diverse media , including television , print and radio . Newspapers include The Buckeye Review ( bi @-@ monthly / African @-@ American ) , The Business Journal ( bi @-@ monthly / business ) , The Catholic Exponent ( bi @-@ monthly / religious ) , Daily Legal News ( daily / legal ) , The Jambar ( bi @-@ weekly / college ) , The Jewish Journal ( monthly / Jewish ) , The Metro Monthly ( monthly / news , features , calendar ) , Morning Journal ( daily / Columbiana County news ) , The Review ( weekly / news , features ) , Senior News ( monthly / seniors ) , The Journal ( weekly / Struthers , Campbell and Lowellville ) , Parent Magazine ( monthly / children 's ) , Peace Action Youngstown ( quarterly / peace activism ) , The Town Crier ( weekly / suburban news ) , Record Courier ( daily / Portage County news ) , Akron Beacon Journal ( daily / regional news ) , The Plain Dealer ( daily / regional news ) , Pittsburgh Post Gazette ( daily / regional news ) , Warren Tribune Chronicle ( daily / regional news ) , and the The Vindicator ( daily / regional news ) , The News Outlet ( university based media collaborative )
Youngstown is served by 10 television stations , three of which are repeaters of TV stations in other cities , and a fourth coming in the near future from Pittsburgh NBC affiliate WPXI in nearby New Castle , Pennsylvania , that would easily penetrate Youngstown pending FCC approval . This is unusual for a mid @-@ sized city near large metro areas such as Cleveland and Pittsburgh . Nearby Akron , with a larger population than Youngstown and Warren combined , has no local television stations and relies on Cleveland for its local news . The community 's 273 @,@ 480 television households make the Youngstown market the nation 's 106th largest , according to Nielsen Media Research .
The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including : WFMJ @-@ TV ( channel 21 , NBC ) , WYTV ( channel 33 , ABC ) , WYFX @-@ LD ( channel 17 / 62 & 27 @.@ 2 on WKBN @-@ DT2 , Fox ) , WKBN @-@ TV ( channel 27 , CBS ) , MY @-@ YTV ( channel 33 @.@ 2 , MNTV ) , and WBCB ( channel 21 @.@ 2 , The CW ) . WFMJ @-@ TV and its digital subchannel WBCB are both locally owned & operated by the Maag family , owners of The Vindicator . The rest of Youngstown 's commercial television stations are either owned and operated by Media General or operated by MG through a shared services agreement . Western Reserve Public Media airs on channel 45 ( WNEO ) from Alliance , Ohio , and channel 49 ( WEAO ) from Akron is a member of PBS .
Youngstown is served by 37 different radio stations in the metropolitan area making it the 119th largest radio market in the United States . Stations include 17 on the AM band and 20 on the FM band . The majority of the most powerful and popular radio stations in the Youngstown @-@ Warren market are divided between two national media companies : Clear Channel and Cumulus Media .
= = Sister cities = =
Spišská Nová Ves , Slovakia , since 1991
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= 2015 Tirreno – Adriatico =
The 2015 Tirreno – Adriatico was the 50th edition of the Tirreno – Adriatico stage race . It took place from 11 to 17 March and was the third race of the 2015 UCI World Tour . The race is one of the most important races in the early part of the cycling season and is used by riders preparing both for the Grand Tours and for the classics season .
The route of the 2015 edition started and finished with individual time trials , one of which was rescheduled from a team time trial shortly before the race began . In between , the race consisted of two stages suitable for sprinters , one for puncheurs and two for climbers . The key stage of the race was stage 5 , which involved a summit finish on Monte Terminillo . The defending champion from the 2014 edition was Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , who was expected to be challenged by three of the strongest stage racers in the world , Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) , Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) and Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) . Froome , however , pulled out shortly before the race .
The first individual time trial was won by Adriano Malori ( Movistar Team ) , who kept the lead for the first two stages . Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) and Wout Poels ( Team Sky ) won the next two stages , each taking the race lead for one day . The queen stage to Monte Terminillo was won by Quintana , who took the overall lead and was able to defend it to the end of the race . Bauke Mollema ( Trek Factory Racing ) finished second , 18 seconds behind Quintana , with Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) third .
Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) won the points classification , after he won one stage and finished in the top ten on three others . The mountains classification was won by Carlos Quintero ( Colombia ) , while Nairo Quintana won the young riders classification as well as the overall race victory .
= = Teams = =
As Tirreno @-@ Adriatico is a UCI World Tour event , all 17 UCI WorldTeams were invited automatically and were obliged to send a squad . Five Professional Continental teams received wildcard invitations .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The key stages on the general classification were expected to be the time trials and the summit finish . The race was originally expected to be the first contest of the season between the four riders expected to contest the Tour de France : the 2014 Tirreno – Adriatico champion Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , the 2013 Tirreno – Adriatico champion Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) , Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) and Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) . Shortly before the race , however , Froome withdrew on account of a chest infection ( he had also withdrawn at the last minute in 2013 ) . Following Froome 's withdrawal , Contador was seen as the main favourite for the race ; he had demonstrated his form when he and Froome fought a close battle in the Vuelta a Andalucía a weeks earlier . Nibali , however , had not yet shown good form in the 2015 season , while Quintana had not raced for several weeks following a crash . Other riders considered to have a chance in the general classification included Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) , Dan Martin ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Thibault Pinot ( FDJ ) .
As well as losing Froome from the general classification battle , the race also lost one of the riders expected to challenge for stage wins . Marcel Kittel ( Giant – Alpecin ) withdrew from the race with a virus . The principal sprinters left in the race were Mark Cavendish ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , Elia Viviani ( Team Sky ) , Tyler Farrar ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Sam Bennett ( Bora – Argon 18 ) . The race was also notable as the first time when Peter Sagan raced alongside Contador in the Tinkoff – Saxo team ; Sagan was expected to feature both on the sprint stages and on the uphill finish on stage 3 .
= = Route = =
The Tirreno – Adriatico is an important race in the early part of the road cycling season . It is the third UCI World Tour race of the year , running at the same time as Paris – Nice . The two races are sometimes seen as being in competition for prestige and for the best riders . Tirreno – Adriatico is an important test as part of riders ' preparations both for the Grand Tours and for the classics races , such as Milan – San Remo . The race generally takes the riders east across central Italy , from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Adriatic Sea ; the race is therefore sometimes known as the " race of the two seas " and the Italian names of the seas give the name Tirreno – Adriatico .
The race was originally intended to begin with a 22 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 7 mi ) team time trial around Lido di Camaiore . This was expected to be a difficult test and to result in significant gaps in the general classification . Heavy wind and rain in the week before the race , however , forced the race organisers , RCS Sport , to change this stage . Though the start and finish lines were unchanged , the stage was shortened , first to 5 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) , then to 5 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) ; it was also changed to be an individual time trial . This was expected to result in smaller gaps ; it was a particular blow to the Orica – GreenEDGE team , who had based most of their squad around the team time trial .
Stage 2 was a fairly flat stage , expected to suit the sprinters preparing for Milan – San Remo . Stage 3 was also unlikely to change the general classification , though it included a steep uphill finish . The key stages , however , came on the weekend . Stage 4 was a difficult , mountainous stage with a downhill finish . The following day 's route had a summit finish on the 16 km ( 10 mi ) climb of Monte Terminillo . Stage 6 was another fairly flat stage and the race ended on the Adriatic coast with another individual time trial in San Benedetto del Tronto .
= = Stages = =
= = = Stage 1 = = =
11 March 2015 – Lido di Camaiore , 5 @.@ 4 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) ( ITT )
Stage 1 was originally intended to be a 22 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 14 @.@ 1 mi ) team time trial , but bad weather ( high wind and torrential rain ) in the week leading up to the event made this impossible . The race organisers reduced the race to a 5 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) individual time trial ; on the day of the race , this was shortened by a further 300 metres ( 980 ft ) . The course was based in the Lido di Camaiore holiday resort on the Tyrrhenian coast and was entirely flat . The out @-@ and @-@ back course meant that the riders had a tailwind on the first half of the course and a headwind on the second .
The early benchmark time was set by Daniel Oss ( BMC Racing Team ) , who completed the course in 6 ' 08 " . A good time was also set by Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , whose time was 6 ' 10 " and who was the best young rider in the prologue . Sagan did well to set such a good time , since he hit a pavement early in his ride and nearly fell . Oss kept the lead for a long time , but was eventually overtaken by Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) . Brändle , however , was immediately overtaken by Adriano Malori ( Movistar Team ) , the Italian national time trial champion , who had two previous stage wins in Tirreno – Adriatico time trials . Malori 's time was 6 ' 04 " . Maciej Bodnar ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Steve Cummings ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) all came close to Malori 's time , but were unable to beat it . The principal favourite for the stage , former world time trial champion Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , finished one second behind Malori , who therefore won the stage , winning both the blue jersey of the overall leader of the race and the red jersey of the points classification leader .
Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) was the fastest of the general classification contenders , finishing 19th on the stage , 10 " behind Malori . Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) was the first of the three major favourites for the race , one second behind Urán . Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) and Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) both lost time .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
12 March 2015 – Camaiore to Cascina , 153 km ( 95 @.@ 1 mi )
The second stage of the race was a 153 @-@ kilometre ( 95 mi ) route from Camaiore , the location of stage 1 , to Cascina . The course started with one and a half laps of a circuit around Camaiore , including the only two categorised climbs of the day , before heading south @-@ east towards the city of Lucca . After leaving Lucca , the course turned west , then headed north to enter Cascina . In Cascina , the riders completed two laps of a 20 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 12 @.@ 9 mi ) finishing circuit . Although the final circuit was flat , there were three roundabouts , a sharp turn and a bridge in the final 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) .
An early breakaway was formed on the circuit around Camaiore . This was made up of seven riders : Edoardo Zardini ( Bardiani – CSF ) , Danilo Wyss ( BMC Racing Team ) , Cristiano Salerno and Patrick Konrad ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Jorge Camilo Castiblanco , Carlos Quintero ( both Colombia ) and Martijn Keizer ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) . The breakaway built up a lead of over six minutes and took all the mountains classification points . Wyss won the first ahead of Quintero ; Quintero beat Wyss on the second climb . Danilo Wyss went on to take the jersey for the leader of the mountains classification thanks to his better general classification standing after the stage . The breakaway was carefully controlled by the sprinters ' teams − principally Etixx – Quick @-@ Step and Tinkoff – Saxo − and with 91 kilometres ( 57 mi ) remaining the breakaway had less than three minutes ' lead . The gap was reduced to less than 90 seconds as the peloton entered the finishing circuit with 41 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 25 @.@ 7 mi ) remaining .
About 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) later , Zardini attacked and was followed by Quintero and Salerno . These three riders continued alone ; they had less than a minute 's lead as they entered the final lap of the circuit with 20 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 12 @.@ 9 mi ) remaining and were caught soon afterwards . There was a crash in the peloton 11 kilometres ( 7 mi ) from the finish , which eliminated Matteo Pelucchi ( Lampre – Merida ) from contention , as well as causing some delay for Orica – GreenEDGE 's general classification rider Adam Yates .
Going into the final kilometres of the race , several teams were competing at the front of the peloton . MTN – Qhubeka , Tinkoff – Saxo and Etixx – Quick @-@ Step all tried to set up their sprinters , with Zdeněk Štybar particularly prominent . MTN – Qhubeka led the group under the flamme rouge with 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) remaining , as Edvald Boasson Hagen attempted to lead out his teammate Tyler Farrar . In the final few hundred metres , however , there was a large crash . Mark Cavendish ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) suddenly moved right , clashing wheels with Elia Viviani ( Team Sky ) . Cavendish was unable to continue sprinting , while Viviani was thrown from his bike while riding at over 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) . Several other riders were brought down in the incident , including Sacha Modolo ( Lampre – Merida ) and Luka Mezgec ( Giant – Alpecin ) . This crash left a small group of 12 riders to contest the stage finish . Jens Debusschere ( Lotto – Soudal ) , riding in the colours of the Belgian national champion , outsprinted Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) on the line ; Sam Bennett ( Bora – Argon 18 ) finished third .
It was revealed after the stage that Cavendish 's sudden movement had been caused by his chain falling off the big chainring . The loss of power caused him to swerve right and Viviani was unable to avoid him . Viviani suffered cuts and abrasions from the crash , though he avoided any broken bones and was able to complete the stage . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step were keen to investigate the incident , as Tom Boonen had suffered a similar problem in the Tour of Qatar .
Thanks to the time bonus he won for coming second , Sagan moved up into second place overall , on the same time as Malori . Debusschere , meanwhile , moved into the lead of the points classification .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
13 March 2015 – Cascina to Arezzo , 203 km ( 126 @.@ 1 mi )
Stage 3 took the riders on a 203 @-@ kilometre ( 126 @.@ 1 mi ) route from Cascina to Arezzo . The route was very similar to stage 3 of the previous year 's race , with a long route east , including two categorised climbs , and a finishing circuit in Arezzo . In the 2015 edition , the riders did five laps of a 15 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) circuit . The final 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) of the circuit was difficult : it was uphill , with one section of 11 % , there was a narrow gate and one section of road was cobbled . On the previous year 's stage , Peter Sagan had beaten Michał Kwiatkowski ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) in the sprint .
The early breakaway was formed by Nicola Boem ( Bardiani – CSF ) , Carlos Quintero ( Colombia ) , Chad Haga ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Danilo Wyss ( BMC Racing Team ) and Rick Flens ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) . Wyss , the leader of the mountains classification , won both mountain sprints , with Quintero behind him both times . With 95 kilometres ( 59 mi ) left to race , the breakaway had a five @-@ minute lead . Sagan 's Tinkoff – Saxo team , however , controlled the race carefully : Matteo Tosatto and Christopher Juul @-@ Jensen both put in long efforts on the front of the peloton to bring the group back . The lead was less than a minute with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) left to race and the breakaway split . 18 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 11 @.@ 5 mi ) from the end , Boem and Haga were the last riders of the group to be caught .
Tinkoff – Saxo controlled the peloton in the following kilometres , with BMC Racing Team , Team Sky and IAM Cycling close behind . Sagan 's teammates , however , were quickly running out and , with 4 kilometres ( 2 mi ) remaining , he only had Maciej Bodnar left to support him . BMC , meanwhile , had several riders left to support Greg Van Avermaet . Van Avermaet was therefore perfectly positioned as the climb began and attacked towards the top . He won a small gap ahead of Zdeněk Štybar ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and was able to hold on to his lead to take the stage victory . Sagan was the quickest in the final metres , but he had started too far back ; although he was able to pass Stybar to finish second on the stage , he was unable to catch Van Avermaet . Sagan did , however , take the lead in the points classification . Van Avermaet took over the lead in the general classification thanks to the bonus seconds he won on the stage .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
14 March 2015 – Indicatore ( Arezzo ) to Castelraimondo , 226 km ( 140 @.@ 4 mi )
The fourth stage of the race was the longest stage of the race at 226 kilometres ( 140 @.@ 4 mi ) . The route took the riders from Arezzo east , with intermediate sprints in Gubbio and Fabriano and two classified climbs . The riders then entered a 11 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) finishing circuit around the town of Castelraimondo . The riders did two laps of the circuit , each of which included the climb of the Crispiero , a 3 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometre ( 2 mi ) climb with an average gradient of over 9 % . Following the climb , there was a technical 6 @-@ kilometre ( 4 mi ) descent into the stage finish .
The early breakaway was formed by two riders from Orica – GreenEDGE , Mathew Hayman and Luke Durbridge . The two riders built up a lead of over seven minutes ahead of the main peloton , though it seemed that both riders had crashed at some point on the route , away from the view of the television cameras . Two separate chasing groups formed : one was made up of Nathan Haas ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Carlos Quintero ( Colombia ) ; the other was formed by Walter Pedraza , Miguel Ángel Rubiano ( both Colombia ) and Manuel Quinziato ( BMC Racing Team ) . Neither of the chase groups was successful , however , and the lead pair stayed clear until Durbridge tired with 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) remaining . Hayman was caught soon afterwards .
On the first climb of the Crispiero , Giovanni Visconti ( Movistar Team ) attacked along with Michele Scarponi ( Astana ) and Julián Arredondo ( Trek Factory Racing ) . Visconti was the first to cross the summit , with Daniel Moreno ( Team Katusha ) catching the group on the descent . The riders were caught , however , on the flat section between the two climbs , with approximately 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) still to race . The peloton was led at this point by Tinkoff – Saxo .
After the group was caught , AG2R La Mondiale came forwards in support of Domenico Pozzovivo . Alexis Vuillermoz led the peloton into the foot of the final climb , dropping Van Avermaet , the race leader , with about 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) left . Giampaolo Caruso ( Team Katusha ) was the next to attack . As he was approaching the summit and looking at the group behind , Wout Poels ( Team Sky ) attacked and came past on Caruso 's left .
Poels therefore entered the descent off the Crispiero alone , with several seconds lead over the main group . The main favourites for the general classification hesitated before taking up the chase , allowing Poels to build a lead . Eventually , Katusha attempted to chase him down , but Poels was able to make the most of the difficult descent and built a 20 @-@ second lead . Although this was reduced on the way to the finish , Poels held on to take the win , his first for Team Sky . He also moved into the overall lead of the race , with a 17 @-@ second advantage over Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , who had won the sprint for second place in the group behind .
Poels , who was leading Sky in the absence of Chris Froome , expressed hope after the stage that he would be able to defend his race lead on the summit finish the following day . In the other classifications , Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ ) moved into the lead of the young riders competition , as he moved up to fourth place in the general classification . Carlos Quintero , having been part of the breakaway for the third day running , took enough mountain points on the stage to move into the lead of the mountains classification .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
15 March 2015 – Esanatoglia to Monte Terminillo , 199 km ( 123 @.@ 7 mi )
Stage 5 was the queen stage of the 2015 Tirreno − Adriatico and the only summit finish of the race . It took the riders on a 199 @-@ kilometre ( 123 @.@ 7 mi ) course from Esanatoglia . The peloton first travelled south , crossing three significant climbs in the first 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) . The middle of the stage was flat , as the riders travelled southwest towards Terni , but the final part of the stage was difficult . The route first passed through Rieti , then turned east towards the summit finish at a ski station on Monte Terminillo . The final climb was 16 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 0 mi ) in length , with an average gradient of 7 @.@ 3 % and a total ascent of 1 @,@ 175 metres ( 3 @,@ 855 ft ) . The steepest sections were in the first part of the climb ( one section had a gradient of 12 % ) ; the rest of the climb had a steady incline , except for the final few hundred metres of false flat . The stage took place in cold , difficult conditions with temperatures below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) . There were rumours before the stage that it would have to be cancelled , but these were refuted by the race organisers and the stage took place as planned .
The day 's main breakaway was formed early on by Maxime Monfort ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Michele Scarponi , Andriy Hrivko ( both Astana ) , Alessandro De Marchi ( BMC Racing Team ) , Matteo Montaguti ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Paul Voss ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Angel Vicioso ( Team Katusha ) and Jesus Herrada ( Movistar Team ) . They built up a lead of over seven minutes after 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) of racing . Monteguti won both mountain sprints early in the stage , with Scarponi second on both occasions . After the two climbs , the main peloton made an effort to reduce the breakaway 's lead and the gap was reduced to two minutes at the base of the final climb of the day .
The breakaway disintegrated on the final climb , with Scarponi , De Marchi and Monfort forming a lead group . In the peloton , Vasil Kiryienka ( Team Sky ) and Ivan Basso ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) were setting the pace . Scarponi pulled clear of De Marchi and Monfort to lead the race solo , as Roman Kreuziger and Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) briefly pulled clear of the main pack . As the riders entered the final 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) , snow began to fall . As Contador drifted back in the pack , Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) attacked and immediately broke clear of the pack . Contador tried to respond but was unable to take Quintana 's wheel . Contador ended up in a group of about 15 riders chasing Quintana . Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) was dropped at this point , while Quintana quickly caught up to Scarponi .
Contador twice made attacks on the chasing group , but on both occasions was unable to break free , although the race leader , Wout Poels ( Team Sky ) was dropped . Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) also made an unsuccessful attack . Finally , Bauke Mollema ( Trek Factory Racing ) put in a successful attack and dropped the group behind . Contador did most of the work in a group of five riders , including Urán , Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) , Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ ) and Adam Yates ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) . The group did not keep up a steady pace , however , and Quintana was able to reach the finish line with a lead of 41 seconds over Mollema and 55 seconds over Contador 's group . Quintana therefore moved into the lead of the overall classification , 39 seconds ahead of Mollema and over a minute ahead of Contador . Poels , meanwhile , finished 16th on the stage , 1 ' 37 " behind Quintana , and dropped to tenth in the general classification .
After the stage , several riders expressed displeasure with the extreme weather conditions . Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) was prominent among them , as he had been in a dispute over hot weather at the 2015 Tour of Oman , with Filippo Pozzato ( Lampre – Merida ) and Luca Paolini ( Team Katusha ) expressing similar concerns . The conditions were particularly difficult for the riders in the gruppetto , as the conditions they faced in the final kilometres were significantly worse than those faced by the race leaders . Cancellara and other riders called for an extreme @-@ weather policy to govern racing in such conditions .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
16 March 2015 – Rieti to Porto Sant 'Elpidio , 210 km ( 130 @.@ 5 mi )
The sixth stage was the final road stage of the race . It took the riders from the city of Rieti , at the foot of Monte Terminillo , northeast to finish on the Adriatic coast at Porto Sant 'Elpidio . The stage was 210 km ( 130 @.@ 5 mi ) in length . The first part was a 181 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 112 @.@ 6 mi ) route , which took the riders from the startline and across some medium mountains . The most difficult climb was at Montelparo and came 78 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 49 @.@ 0 mi ) from the finish line . Once the riders had reached Porto Sant 'Elpidio , they entered a 14 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 9 mi ) finishing circuit . They first rode the final 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) of the circuit and crossed the finish line ; this was the final intermediate sprint of the day . They then completed two complete laps of the circuit . The final 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 0 mi ) were entirely straight . The stage took place in rainy conditions .
An early breakaway formed at 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) , involving Yukiya Arashiro ( Team Europcar ) , Stijn Devolder ( Trek Factory Racing ) and Alessandro Vanotti ( Astana ) . They were caught , however , on the climb at Montelparo , as Tinkoff – Saxo increased the pace in the peloton . Their team leader , Alberto Contador , was one of the riders to set the pace on behalf of Peter Sagan . On this climb , several of the race 's main sprinters were unable to stay with the peloton . These included Mark Cavendish ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Luka Mezgec ( Giant – Alpecin ) . The breakaway 's advantage had been reduced to 1 ' 30 " and , soon after the summit of the climb , Devolvder sat up and was caught . Arashiro and Vanotti were caught soon after , with 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) still to race .
Vanotti , however , attacked again and built a 40 @-@ second gap to the peloton , which was still led by Tinkoff – Saxo . He was joined in the lead by Alexis Vuillermoz ( AG2R La Mondiale ) . The two riders rode together until there were 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) remaining , when Vuillermoz attacked . Tinkoff – Saxo were joined by Lotto – Soudal at the front of the pack and Vuillermoz was caught with 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining . Throughout this time , the group containing the main sprinters in the race had been unable to reduce the advantage , which was 4 ' with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) to race . Cavendish , along with his entire sprint train , pulled out of the race at they crossed the finish line for the first time in order to rest ahead of Milan – San Remo .
As the main peloton approached the finish line , it was led by MTN – Qhubeka , who still had several riders in the main pack . Tinkoff – Saxo had no riders left to support Sagan . He therefore positioned himself behind the final MTN – Qhubeka rider , Gerald Ciolek , who was being led out by Edvald Boasson Hagen . Sagan passed Ciolek in the final 150 metres ( 490 ft ) win the stage . Ciolek finished second , with Jens Debusschere ( Lotto – Soudal ) in third . This was Sagan 's first win in nine months , when he won a stage of the 2014 Tour de Suisse .
All the general classification riders finished in the main group , so the standings were unchanged .
= = = Stage 7 = = =
17 March 2015 – San Benedetto del Tronto to San Benedetto del Tronto , 10 @.@ 05 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) ( ITT )
The seventh and final stage of the 2015 Tirreno – Adriatico was another individual time trial . This stage was 10 @.@ 05 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) in length and took place entirely in the resort of San Benedetto del Tronto on the Adriatic seafront . The course was an out @-@ and @-@ back route . It first headed south , through an intermediate time check after 4 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) , to a pair of 90 @-@ degree right hand turns halfway through the course . The course then headed north on almost entirely straight roads . The stage was flat throughout with no significant climbs .
The early lead was taken by Maciej Bodnar ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , who set a time of 11 ' 39 " . His time was soon beaten , however , by Adriano Malori ( Movistar Team ) , the winner of stage 1 and the Italian national time trial champion . Malori 's time was 11 ' 27 " . Although Vasil Kiryienka ( Team Sky ) came close , he was five seconds behind at the finish . Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , who had come second to Malori on stage 1 , set off as Malori was finishing . Cancellara was a second off Malori 's time at the intermediate checkpoint , but he was five seconds quicker over the second part of the course and took the stage lead by four seconds . Cancellara 's time would not be beaten by any of the remaining riders and he won the stage , with Malori in second and Kiryienka in third .
Though the general classification riders did not have a chance of victory on the stage , there were still positions to be won and lost . The best time from the general classification riders was that of Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , 31 seconds behind Cancellara , and he stayed in fifth place overall . Wout Poels ( Team Sky ) , Steve Cummings ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ ) all put in good times , with Poels and Cummings moving up in the top ten and Pinot defending his fourth place ahead of Contador . Bauke Mollema ( Trek Factory Racing ) also put in a strong ride , finishing ahead of Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , who was seen as the better time triallist of the two . Mollema therefore defended his second place overall . He was not , however , able to catch the race leader . Quintana finished 55 " behind Cancellara in 55th place ; he took the overall race victory ahead of Mollema by 18 " .
Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , the leader of the points competition , only had to finish the stage within the time limit to win the classification . He came very close to failing : he was the slowest rider in the stage , finishing 2 ' 59 " behind Cancellara . It was , however , just enough to prevent his exclusion and to allow him the classification victory .
= = Classifications = =
There were four main classifications in the 2015 Tirreno – Adriatico . The first and most important of these was the general classification . This was calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage . Time bonuses were awarded to the first three finishers on road stages ( stages 2 – 6 ) : the stage winner won a ten @-@ second bonus , with six and four seconds for the second and third riders respectively . Bonus seconds were also awarded to the first three riders at intermediate sprints ( three seconds for the winner of the sprint , two seconds for the rider in second and one second for the rider in third . The leader of the general classification received a blue jersey and the winner of the classification was considered the overall winner of the race .
The second classification was the points classification . On each stage of the race , points were awarded to the top 10 riders . The winner won 12 points , with 10 for the second @-@ placed rider , 8 for the third @-@ placed rider and then one point fewer for each place down to tenth place . Points were also awarded to the top four riders at intermediate sprints , with five points for the winner of the sprint and three , two and one points for the riders in second , third and fourth places respectively . It was originally intended that points would not be awarded on stage 1 as it was a team time trial . After this was changed to an individual time trial , however , points were awarded on the stage , on the same scale as for an intermediate sprint . The winner of the points classification was awarded a red jersey .
The third classification was the mountains classification . On each of the road stages there were classified climbs on the route . The first riders to the top of the climb were awarded points in the mountains classification . For most of the climbs , the first four riders won points , with five , three , two and one points respectively . More points were awarded for the two most difficult climbs of the race . These were the summit finish to Monte Terminillo on stage 5 and the Poggio San Romualdo on stage 4 . On these climbs , the winner won 15 points in the classification , with the next six riders also winning points . The rider with the most points was awarded the green jersey .
The final classification was the young riders classification . This was based on the general classification : the highest placed rider born after 1 January 1990 was the leader of the classification and was awarded a white jersey .
= = Classification standings = =
= = = Team classification = = =
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= Anky van Grunsven =
Theodora Elisabeth Gerarda " Anky " van Grunsven ( born 2 January 1968 ) is a Dutch dressage champion who holds the record for the most Olympic medals won by any equestrian athlete and is the only rider to record three successive Olympic wins in the same event . Along with her Olympic successes , she has won numerous medals at the World Equestrian Games ( WEG ) , and is the only rider to have competed at every WEG since they began in 1990 . Between 1990 and 2006 , she competed at the Games in dressage , but in 2010 she was named as part of the Dutch reining team , marking a major change in discipline .
In addition to her Olympic and World Equestrian Games successes , van Grunsven holds the record for the most wins at the Dressage World Cup , winning the event nine times between 1995 and 2008 . She has also competed numerous times at the European Dressage Championships , winning seven individual medals and eight team medals between 1991 and 2009 . Although van Grunsven has ridden many horses over her career , she won the majority of her top events on two horses : Bonfire and Salinero . Bonfire , upon whom she had many of her early successes , was retired in 2002 . Salinero quickly took over as van Grunsven 's top horse , and remained in that position until his retirement in 2013 , after making a major comeback to compete in the 2012 Olympic Games . Van Grunsven has been closely linked with the controversial training method rollkur , although she has moved to distance herself from the practice after it was banned from international competition .
= = Personal life = =
Van Grunsven was born in Erp , North Brabant . She began training in dressage at the age of 12 , after her horse Prisco ( who she would later ride at the Olympics and World Equestrian Games ) performed poorly in show jumping .
Van Grunsven is married to Dutch national equestrian coach Sjef Janssen , with whom she has two children . She was pregnant with her first child , Yannick , when she competed at the 2004 Olympic Games , and gave birth in November of that year . Van Grunsven and Janssen married in Las Vegas in late 2005 , and in March 2007 had her second child , Ava Eden .
In 1999 , van Grunsven , " frustrated by the lack of fashion in the equestrian world " , developed a line of equestrian clothing , now sold internationally .
= = Competitive career = =
= = = Olympics and World Equestrian Games = = =
Van Grunsven holds the record for winning the most Olympic medals by an equestrian , with nine medals , and is the only person to have won any equestrian event in three successive Olympics . She is also the only person to compete at seven successive Olympics in dressage . She has competed in every Olympic Games between 1988 and 2012 , winning a total of three gold medals , five silvers and one bronze . At the 1988 Summer Olympics , riding Prisco , she was eliminated in the qualifying rounds of the individual dressage , and was the lowest @-@ scoring member of the fifth @-@ place Dutch team , meaning her score was not used to determine the team 's standing . At the 1992 Summer Olympics , her performance improved , and riding Bonfire she took fourth individually and won her first silver medal in the team competition . At the 1996 Games , again riding Bonfire , she won double silver in the individual and team dressage competitions .
With her last Olympic ride on Bonfire , at the 2000 Summer Olympics , she won her first gold in the individual competition , while helping the Dutch team to their third consecutive silver . In 2004 in Athens , on her new mount , Salinero , she won her second gold in individual competition , while the Dutch team came in fourth . The 2008 Olympic Games , again riding Salinero , brought her her third consecutive individual gold , while the Dutch team returned to the medal podium with a silver . Riding Salinero in 2012 in London , van Grunsven slipped to sixth place individually , but helped the Dutch team to her first bronze medal . Van Grunsven was originally not expected to compete in the 2012 Olympics , as the horse she was riding at the beginning of 2012 , IPS Upido , was injured . However , in April , she announced that she planned to compete for a spot on the Dutch Olympic team with the then @-@ 18 @-@ year @-@ old Salinero , who had staged what the media called a " comeback " after previous injuries .
Along with her Olympic successes , van Grunsven has also won numerous medals at the World Equestrian Games . After competing in the 2010 World Equestrian Games , she became the only equestrian to have competed in every World Equestrian Games , which have been held every four years since 1990 , and which include three sections of dressage competition , two individual and one team . At the 1990 World Equestrian Games , riding Prisco , she finished 23rd individually . Van Grunsven rode Bonfire at the 1994 and 1998 World Equestrian Games , winning individual gold and team silver at the first and double silver ( one individual and one team ) at the second . She was unhappy with the judging at the 1998 Games , held in Rome , and said that she " thought [ she ] would quit dressage " , despite her high finish placement .
At the 2002 World Equestrian Games , riding Krack C , she finished 11th individually and rode to 5th place with the Dutch team . Her best finish was at the 2006 Games , riding Salinero , where she won an individual gold and two silvers , one individually and one team . At the 2010 Games , after her top horse Salinero was injured and second @-@ best horse Painted Black was sold , she competed as part of the Dutch reining team , marking a major change in discipline . Riding Whizashiningwalla BB , she was eliminated in the qualifying rounds . At the Games , she also performed a reining demonstration at the presentation of the team dressage medal and participated in an exhibition of freestyle reining . Van Grunsven began riding reining horses around 2000 , but only became a serious competitor in the sport after the 2008 Olympics .
= = = Other competition = = =
Van Grunsven has won the Dressage World Cup nine times , in 1995 , 1996 , 1997 , 1999 , 2000 , 2004 , 2005 , 2006 and 2008 . She took second in 1998 and third in 2009 . The World Cup features freestyle dressage ( also called Kur Grand Prix ) , and her record number of wins has won van Grunsven the nickname " Queen of the Kur " . She has also collected five gold medals , eight silver and two bronze at the European Dressage Championships . At the bi @-@ annual European Championships , there is one team competition and three individual events : Individual Dressage , Kur Grand Prix and Special Grand Prix . Van Grunsven took first in the Individual Dressage portion in 1999 and 2005 , and second in 1995 and 1997 . In the Kur competition , she took first in 2007 and third in 2009 . The Special Grand Prix has historically been her weakest event , only taking second in 2007 . She has taken the greatest number of medals in the team competition , with the Dutch team taking first in 2007 and 2009 ; second in 1995 , 1997 , 1999 , 2001 and 2005 ; and third in 1991 .
In 2002 , Bonfire was retired , after a nine @-@ year international career . The pair 's gold @-@ medal @-@ winning freestyle dressage performance at the 1994 World Equestrian Games marked the first the time event had been held at the Games , and " changed the world of dressage forever " , according to fellow Olympic gold medalist Carl Hester . A statue was erected in Erp to mark Bonfire 's achievements . In October 2013 , he was euthanized following illness . After Bonfire 's retirement , Van Grunsven stated that she never thought she would find another horse as good as he was ; however , his successor Salinero proved to be even more successful . In March 2013 , Salinero was retired . Van Grunsven and Salinero have been called the " pioneers of the modern freestyle test " , and were the first pair to have music written specifically for their performances . A horse known for his power and ability , he was also sensitive and , early in his career , prone to becoming tense , making him a more difficult horse to ride . Despite this , he was a star of the dressage world , winning numerous international competitions .
In January 2003 , van Grunsven sustained a fracture of a bone in her upper leg in a fall from a horse in training , and required surgery . A metal plate was embedded in her leg to immobilize the bone during the healing process , and van Grunsven recovered , winning the 2003 Dutch Dressage Championships in June . In September , she underwent a second surgery to have the plate removed . In 2004 , she became the first Dutch rider to win the CHIO Aachen dressage competition , a top international competition .
= = Rollkur = =
Van Grunsven was closely linked with the controversial training method rollkur , and advocated use of the method as recently as 2007 . She has since moved to distance herself with the method since the International Federation for Equestrian Sports ( FEI ) declared in February 2010 that this method " is seen as an aggressive way of a deep moving horse . This is forbidden as well as any head @-@ neck position which is obtained in an aggressive way . "
In a lawsuit announced on 24 August 2010 , van Grunsven claimed to have been defamed by journalist Astrid Appels on the website eurodressage.com. A release posted on that website announcing the lawsuit reported that " according to Anky , images of her horses can not be connected to the controversial rollkur training method . " The lawsuit was scheduled to begin 8 September 2010 in ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch but van Grunsven withdrew the case .
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= 2016 Paris – Nice =
The 2016 Paris – Nice was a road cycling stage race that took place in France between 6 and 13 March 2016 . It was the 74th edition of the Paris – Nice and was the second event of the 2016 UCI World Tour .
The race took place over eight stages , travelling south from Conflans @-@ Sainte @-@ Honorine to finish on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice , although one stage was cancelled due to weather conditions . After a prologue individual time trial , the first few stages were suited to sprinters . The decisive stages came on the final two days , with routes taking the riders through the Alps . The favourites for victory were therefore the climbers , including the defending champion Richie Porte ( BMC Racing Team ) , Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff ) and Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) .
Michael Matthews ( Orica – BikeExchange ) won the prologue and took the leader 's yellow jersey . He kept the jersey through the next five days , winning one more of the stages in a sprint . He lost the jersey on the summit finish on Stage 6 to Thomas , who in turn came close to losing it on the final day . After he was dropped by Contador on the final climb of the race , the Col d 'Èze , he had to chase back on . At the end of the race , Thomas beat Contador by four seconds , with Richie Porte third a further eight seconds back . Matthews won the points classification and Antoine Duchesne ( Direct Énergie ) the mountains classification ; Movistar won the team classification .
= = Route = =
The route of the 2016 Paris – Nice was announced on 17 December 2015 . The race began with a 6 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) prologue individual time trial in Conflans @-@ Sainte @-@ Honorine , near Paris , on Sunday 6 March and continued for the following seven days . The remaining stages were all road stages , with no other time trials . Stage 1 included two dirt tracks in the final part of the stage , with exposed roads made a possibility . Stage 3 was scheduled to finish on Mont Brouilly , a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) climb at a 7 @.@ 7 % gradient . Stage 5 included part of the climb of Mont Ventoux , but this came towards the beginning of the stage and was followed by more than 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) of roads to the finish . The crucial stages were expected to be the final two : Stage 6 finished on the Madone d 'Utelle , a 15 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 5 mi ) climb at 5 @.@ 7 % . The final stage included six categorised climbs , with the Col d 'Èze the final climb before the descent into Nice for the finish on the Promenade des Anglais .
While Stage 3 was underway , the weather conditions became very poor , with snow on the final climb . After attempting to restart the race , the race organisers cancelled the stage , with Amaury Sport Organisation 's Christian Prudhomme saying " The road was very slippery and safe conditions could not be assured . "
= = Participating teams = =
The race organisers invited 22 teams to participate . The 18 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited and obliged to send a squad . The race organisers also invited four UCI Professional Continental teams as wildcards . These were all French teams : Cofidis , Direct Énergie , Delko – Marseille Provence KTM and Fortuneo – Vital Concept .
Each team could include up to eight riders . All the teams except Lotto – Soudal filled all eight slots ; Lotto – Soudal 's team of seven meant that the peloton at the start of the race included 167 riders . Lotto – Soudal also chose to compete under a different name from the rest of the season : they became Lotto – Fix ALL , taking the name of one of a product made by Soudal , their normal sponsor . They also wore grey and white jerseys in place of their normal red and white .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
Stages 1 , 2 and 4 were expected to favour the sprinters , with the other stages likely to be decisive for the general classification . There were a large number of climbers present for Paris – Nice , but the overwhelming favourite was Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff ) , racing in what was possibly his final season in the peloton . Contador had won the race on two previous occasions , but this was his first participation since 2010 . Contador had shown some form with a stage win in the Volta ao Algarve . Contador was the only one of the top four Grand Tour contenders to start Paris – Nice : Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) was riding Tirreno – Adriatico , while Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) and Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) opted to wait until the Volta a Catalunya to begin their European seasons .
The defending champion was Richie Porte ( BMC Racing Team ) who had won the 2015 Paris – Nice after winning the individual time trial on the final day ; he had also won the 2013 edition . Since his 2015 victory , Porte had moved from Team Sky to BMC . In the absence of the traditional Col d 'Èze time trial , the route was expected to favour him less than previous editions , but his strength in the mountains meant that he was still one of the major favourites . After a strong beginning to the season at the Tour Down Under , Porte had struggled in the Tour of Oman . Porte was replaced as Team Sky 's leader for the race by Geraint Thomas , who had finished fifth the previous year . Thomas had won the Volta ao Algarve and was expected to perform strongly in the prologue time trial .
The other major general classification riders included Tom Dumoulin ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Jon Izagirre ( Movistar Team ) , Andrew Talansky and Pierre Rolland ( both Cannondale – Drapac ) and Romain Bardet ( AG2R La Mondiale ) .
Among the sprinters , the biggest name was Marcel Kittel ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , who had won four stages so far in the season as well as the overall title in the Dubai Tour . Other prominent sprinters included André Greipel ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) and Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) .
= = Stages = =
= = = Prologue = = =
6 March 2016 — Conflans @-@ Sainte @-@ Honorine , 6 @.@ 1 km ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) individual time trial ( ITT )
The prologue was a 6 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) individual time trial in Conflans @-@ Sainte @-@ Honorine . It began on the bank of the Seine with a 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) straight road . There was then a sharp left @-@ hand turn as the road turned away from the river ; there were then several more corners and two roundabouts before the end of the stage . The riders set off at one @-@ minute intervals with Porte , the defending champion , the last to set off .
The riders who started earlier in the day were affected by rain . As the final riders set off , Cannondale 's Patrick Bevin was in the lead , with a time of 7 ' 41 " . Tom Dumoulin beat this by one second , but was in turn beaten by one second by Michael Matthews , the seventh @-@ last rider to take to the course . The final riders , including Porte and Geraint Thomas , were unable to beat Matthews 's time . Thomas finished seventh , losing seven seconds to Matthews , with Porte eleventh , a further three seconds back . Contador finished 27th , sixteen seconds behind Matthews , with Talansky and Bardet finishing even further behind . Matthews described it as " very special " to beat Dumoulin , one of the best time @-@ triallists in the world , and said that he hoped to stay in the yellow jersey of the race leader " as long as possible " .
= = = Stage 1 = = =
7 March 2016 — Condé @-@ sur @-@ Vesgre to Vendôme , 198 km ( 123 @.@ 0 mi )
Stage 1 was a broadly flat stage that covered a 198 @-@ kilometre ( 123 mi ) route from Condé @-@ sur @-@ Vesgre to Vendôme . There were no classified climbs in the first 173 kilometres ( 107 mi ) . The final 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) , however , followed a circuit around Vendôme that included both climbs and gravel roads . The riders entered the circuit half @-@ way round . They crossed the first gravel sector , the Chemin de Tourteline , then the Chemin du Tertre de la Motte . The second sector included a third @-@ category climb . There were just over 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the finish line at the end of the second sector . The riders then rode a complete lap of the circuit , crossing both gravel roads and the climb a second time , before reaching the stage finish . The stage took place in difficult conditions , with snow , rain , wind and cold temperatures .
The stage began with a four @-@ man breakaway , formed by Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Steven Tronet ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept ) , Thierry Hupond ( Delko – Marseille Provence KTM ) and Perrig Quéméneur ( Direct Énergie ) . With the peloton not trying hard to chase them , they built a ten @-@ minute lead by the middle of the stage . In the second half of the stage , there was some sunshine , but also strong crosswinds : with Sky , Tinkoff and Etixx – Quick @-@ Step working hard at the front of the peloton , there were splits in the group . Alexander Kristoff was in the second group on the road , but he was able to get back to the front as the groups came together .
On the first gravel section , the breakaway 's lead had been reduced to ten seconds and they were soon caught with Sky 's Luke Rowe working at the front of the peloton . Pierre @-@ Luc Périchon ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept ) attacked on the first time over the climb ; he was caught by work from Orica – GreenEDGE as the riders rode through Vendôme . On the second lap , Marcel Kittel was dropped on the final climb and , despite an attack from Tony Gallopin ( Lotto – Soudal ) that was followed by Geraint Thomas , a large group crossed the final climb together . Around 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the finish , Edward Theuns ( Trek – Segafredo ) attacked and went under the flamme rouge alone . He was caught , however , by Sky . Sky 's Ben Swift was the first to sprint and came close to taking the victory , but he was passed by Démare in the final metres , with Bouhanni finishing third .
Michael Matthews increased his lead by winning two bonus seconds at an intermediate sprint . After finishing fifth at the end of the stage , he retained the yellow jersey ; there were no significant changes to the general classification . Démare said that the stage victory was " an immense relief " after he had failed to win any races in 2015 .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
8 March 2016 — Contres to Commentry , 213 @.@ 5 km ( 132 @.@ 7 mi )
The second road stage was held on a 213 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 132 @.@ 7 mi ) route from Contres in Loir @-@ et @-@ Cher to Commentry in Allier . The route was flat for almost the entire stage , with only one third @-@ category climb that came 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from the finish line . After the peloton reached Commentry , there was a lap of a 17 @-@ kilometre ( 11 mi ) circuit with a small , uncategorised climb . The final kilometres were slightly uphill , with a 90 @-@ degree turn at a roundabout 500 metres ( 550 yd ) from the finish line .
There was again a four @-@ main breakaway at the beginning of the stage , with Evaldas Šiškevičius ( Delko – Marseille Provence KTM ) , Anthony Delaplace ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept ) , Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) and Tsgabu Grmay ( Lampre – Merida ) earning a 10 @-@ minute lead by the time they had raced 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) . This was quickly reduced to under four minutes , however , by Etixx – Quick @-@ Step and Orica – GreenEDGE . On the climb , Delaplace won the maximum points . Grmay dropped out of the break with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) remaining and as the riders reached Commentry the breakaway had just a 40 @-@ second lead .
Šiškevičius and Brändle attacked at the start of the final lap , with Delaplace unable to follow , but with 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining they were caught by the peloton . In the final 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , Cofidis came to the front on behalf of Bouhanni and gave him a good lead @-@ out . Bouhanni followed the wheel of Christophe Laporte and opened his sprint with 200 metres ( 220 yd ) remaining . He was on the right @-@ hand side of the road , with Michael Matthews coming up on his left . In the final 100 metres ( 330 ft ) , Bouhanni drifted to the left and leaned into Matthews ; the two riders nearly crashed . Bouhanni crossed the line first , with Matthews just beating Niccolò Bonifazio ( Trek – Segafredo ) for second place , but the result was changed shortly after the stage . Bouhanni was relegated to third place after the jury decided that he had driven the sprint dangerously , giving Matthews the stage victory and putting Bonifazio into second . Alexander Kristoff led the rest of the field home , one second behind . Marcel Kittel , one of the favourites for the stage victory , finished 65th .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
9 March 2016 — Cusset to Mont Brouilly , 168 km ( 104 @.@ 4 mi )
The third stage was scheduled to follow a 168 @-@ kilometre ( 104 mi ) route that took the riders east from Cusset in Allier to the climb of Mont Brouilly in Rhône . The route crossed five categorised climbs in the first 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) , then entered a circuit that took the riders on two climbs of Mont Brouilly , a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) climb at 7 @.@ 7 % with the final 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) at 9 @.@ 3 % .
A group of sixteen riders escaped early in the stage . Alexis Gougeard ( AG2R La Mondiale ) attacked along with Laurent Didier ( Trek – Segafredo ) and Alexey Lutsenko ( Astana ) . They were joined by Jesús Herrada ( Movistar Team ) and Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) as the rest of the group was caught by the peloton . The stage took place in cold , wintry conditions , with increasing quantities of snow falling and temperatures as low as − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) recorded . At the top of the third climb of the day was the feedzone and the racing was suspended there . It was initially intended to restart some way down the road , but several minutes later the decision was taken to neutralise the stage . The results did not count for the general classification , but points were awarded for the intermediate sprints and mountains that had already been contested .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
10 March 2016 — Juliénas to Romans @-@ sur @-@ Isère , 195 @.@ 5 km ( 121 @.@ 5 mi )
Stage 4 took the peloton 195 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 121 @.@ 5 mi ) south from Juliénas in Rhône to Romans @-@ sur @-@ Isère in the Drôme department . There were three categorised climbs in the stage : two third @-@ category and one second @-@ category . The final climb came 22 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) from the finish .
The early breakaway included four riders . These were Thomas Voeckler ( Direct Énergie ) , Matthew Brammeier ( Dimension Data ) , Florian Vachon ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept ) and Evaldas Siskevicius ( Delko – Marseille Provence KTM ) . They were not allowed to build a large advantage , with the peloton keeping them just a few minutes ahead . The main action of the day came on the second @-@ category final climb . In the breakaway , now just a minute ahead , Voeckler attacked and dropped the other breakaway riders . Nathan Haas ( Dimension Data ) attacked the peloton at the top of the climb , but made a mistake on a corner and ended up in a field . On the climb , Marcel Kittel and Arnaud Démare were dropped , with Démare then pulling out of the race . Geraint Thomas was one of several riders to crash on the climb , but he was able to return to the peloton .
After the climb , with Voeckler being caught , Sylvain Chavanel ( Direct Énergie ) , Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) and Delio Fernández ( Delko – Marseille Provence KTM ) attacked and built a lead ; with 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining they had a 15 @-@ second lead . Katusha and Cofidis rode very hard in the peloton to bring them back , but the breakaway was finally caught with less than 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) remaining . Cofidis again gave Bouhanni a strong lead @-@ out and he comfortably won the sprint . Edward Theuns ( Trek – Segafredo ) finished second , with Greipel third . Matthews finished fifth to retain his lead of both the general and points classifications . Bouhanni said after the stage that his victory made up for his disqualification on stage 3 .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
11 March 2016 — Saint @-@ Paul @-@ Trois @-@ Châteaux to Salon @-@ de @-@ Provence , 198 km ( 123 @.@ 0 mi )
The fifth road stage followed a 198 @-@ kilometre ( 123 mi ) route from Saint @-@ Paul @-@ Trois @-@ Châteaux to Salon @-@ de @-@ Provence in Bouches @-@ du @-@ Rhône . The stage included five climbs , the most significant of which was the partial climb of Mont Ventoux . This was a first @-@ category climb , taking the riders 9 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) at an average gradient of 9 @.@ 3 % . Rather than riding all the way to the summit , the riders descended after Chalet Reynard . This climb came with more than 125 kilometres ( 78 mi ) remaining in the stage . Before Mont Ventoux was a third @-@ category climb ; afterwards there were three second @-@ category climbs . The last of these came with 38 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 9 mi ) to the finish line ; this last section was mostly flat , although there were two sharp left @-@ hand turns in the final 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) .
The early breakaway included Stijn Vandenbergh ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , Arnaud Courteille ( FDJ ) , Lars Boom ( Astana ) , Wouter Wippert ( Cannondale ) , Edward Theuns ( Trek – Segafredo ) , Matthias Brändle ( IAM ) , Antoine Duchesne ( Direct Énergie ) and Jesús Herrada ( Movistar ) . In the first 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) , their lead extended to over eleven minutes . On the climb of Mont Ventoux , Brändle was dropped from the breakaway , while Bouhanni , Kittel and Greipel were among those dropped from the peloton . Greipel was among seven riders to drop out during the stage . Wippert and Theuns were next to be dropped from the breakaway ; Boom and Vandenbergh were also temporarily dropped but were able to rejoin the front group , although the group 's lead was reduced to just over three minutes by the third climb of the day . Herrada won the first two climbs of the day and came second on the following two to take the lead in the mountains classification , then dropped back to the peloton .
Duchesne attacked on the penultimate climb , the Côte de la Roque @-@ d 'Anthéron , and had a 33 @-@ second lead over the peloton . On the descent from the final climb , Alexey Lutsenko ( Astana ) attacked from the peloton and came across to Duchesne . Lutsenko quickly dropped him and , with 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining , had built a 39 @-@ second lead , putting him into the virtual lead of the race . The chase only began in earnest in the final 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) , with Katusha chasing on behalf of Alexander Kristoff , but the peloton were unable to catch Lutsenko and he crossed the line for a solo victory , 21 seconds ahead of the chasing group . Kristoff won the sprint for second , with Matthews finishing third . Lutsenko moved into second place overall , six seconds behind Matthews .
After the stage , Matthews said that he felt he could win the overall general classification . He said , " I think if I can survive Saturday [ Stage 5 ] , I can win . With the way I ’ ve been climbing , I think it ’ s possible . " Contador , meanwhile , said that the final climb of Stage 6 was not very steep and that it might be difficult to put significant time into Matthews .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
12 March 2016 — Nice to Madone d 'Utelle , 177 km ( 110 @.@ 0 mi )
The penultimate stage of the race took the riders 177 kilometres ( 110 mi ) through the Alpes @-@ Maritimes . The route started on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice , then left the city to the north for a course that included seven categorised climbs . The first 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) of racing crossed two second @-@ category climbs , which were followed by a 35 @-@ kilometre ( 22 mi ) section of flat roads and descents . This was followed by another second @-@ category climb and a first @-@ category climb , the 8 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) Côte d 'Ascros with its average gradient of 5 @.@ 4 % . After a long descent came two more second @-@ category climbs , bringing the riders to Utelle . They had a summit finish at the shrine of the Madone d 'Utelle above the city , with a 15 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 5 mi ) climb at an average gradient of 5 @.@ 7 % . The climb was fairly regular , but had two sections above 9 % , including the final 300 metres ( 330 yd ) .
The day 's breakaway included nine riders . These were Antoine Duchesne ( Direct Énergie ) , Florian Vachon ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept ) , Niki Terpstra ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , Cyril Gautier ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Grégory Rast ( Trek – Segafredo ) , Evaldas Šiškevičius ( Delko – Marseille Provence KTM ) , Tsgabu Grmay ( Lampre – Merida ) , Andrew Talansky ( Cannondale ) and Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) . The gap never exceeded two and a half minutes , with Tinkoff chasing hard on behalf of Contador and , with 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) remaining , was just one minute . De Gendt won the first four climbs to move into second in the mountains classification , while Rast and Šiškevičius were dropped . Talansky crashed on one of the descents and abandoned the race with a wrist injury . Vachon and Duchesne dropped the rest of the breakaway and continued alone , but with 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) Duchesne was left alone , just over a minute ahead of the peloton . He won the fifth and sixth climbs of the day and moved into the lead of the mountains classification .
As the riders approached the final climb of the day , Sky came to the front of the peloton . With 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining , Duchesne was caught , and the peloton was reduced to 30 riders . Matthews , the race leader , was among those dropped from the leading group . With 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining , Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff ) attacked , with Contador following ; this caused the group to halve in size and Sky were reduced to two riders , Thomas and Sergio Henao . Porte , Dumoulin , Izagirre , Bardet and Katusha 's Ilnur Zakarin were among those left in the group . With 5 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) remaining , Majka pulled off and a group of five leaders formed : Contador , Thomas , Henao , Porte and Zakarin . Contador and Porte attempted attacks but were unable to escape the group , with Henao supporting Thomas . In the final kilometre , Porte was dropped and Zakarin accelerated . Thomas and Contador followed , but Zakarin took the stage victory . Thomas finished second , on the same time as Zakarin , and Contador was a second back in third . Thomas therefore moved into the race lead , fifteen seconds ahead of Contador .
= = = Stage 7 = = =
13 March 2016 — Nice to Nice , 134 km ( 83 @.@ 3 mi )
The final stage was a 134 @-@ kilometre ( 83 mi ) loop that started and ended on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice . The route took the riders out of Nice to the north . They crossed two third @-@ category climbs , then came back south for two second @-@ category climbs . The final 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) included two first @-@ category climbs . The first was the Côte de Peille , a 6 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) climb at 6 @.@ 9 % . The riders then descended into the outskirts of Nice . Here they turned back inland for a final climb , the 7 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 8 mi ) of the Col d 'Èze at an average gradient of 5 @.@ 7 % . They then descended back into Nice , where the final 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) were fairly flat , before ended on the Promenade des Anglais at the Albert I Garden .
The stage began with an 18 @-@ rider breakaway within the first five minutes of racing . This included Contador 's teammate Robert Kišerlovski and this group was joined shortly afterwards by several more riders , including Yuri Trofimov , another Tinkoff rider , while others were dropped and returned to the peloton . Thomas De Gendt and Antoine Duchesne were again in the breakaway ; Duchesne won the first four climbs of the day , with De Gendt second on each occasion . Duchesne won enough points to secure victory in the mountains classification .
On the Côte de Peille , Contador attacked in the peloton . He quickly built an advantage , with Kiserlovski and Trofimov dropping back from the breakaway to assist him . They built a lead of around a minute , but Team Sky pulled the lead back and Contador 's group was caught by the foot of the Col d 'Èze , with only Tim Wellens ( Lotto – Soudal ) ahead . Romain Bardet attacked , but Contador chased him down . Contador himself attacked several times , with Sky 's Sergio Henao and the Orica – GreenEDGE team chasing him down ; Thomas appeared to be struggling . In the final part of the climb , Contador got away , initially with Majka and then with Richie Porte . At the top of the climb , they caught Wellens and had a 30 @-@ second advantage over the chasing group .
Thomas had been dropped not only by Contador but also by the first chasing group , which included Ilnur Zakarin . Thomas was joined , however , by Sergio Henao . The two Sky riders then joined up with Tony Gallopin ( Lotto – Soudal ) and chased hard throughout the 15 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) descent . They caught the first chasing group on the descent , forming a ten @-@ man group behind Contador , Porte and Wellens . The gap was gradually reduced and was just five seconds by the finish . Wellens won the three @-@ man sprint , with Contador second and Porte third . Gallopin won the sprint for fourth place . Thomas therefore won the overall general classification , beating Contador by four seconds .
= = Post @-@ race analysis = =
Thomas said after the race that his victory demonstrated that he could compete with the top stage racers in the world . He said that Henao 's presence had been crucial to his victory and that , before the stage , he had chosen a 54 @-@ tooth chainring to help him chase back on if he was dropped on the final climb . He also said that he owed Gallopin " a few beers " for his assistance in chasing back to the leading groups on the final stage . Gallopin , meanwhile said that he had been happy to contribute to the chase of the second group on the final stage in order to have both a man in the leading group and in the chasing group . He added that he was also glad to help Thomas as the two men were friends and exchanged text messages whenever Thomas 's Wales played Gallopin 's France at rugby .
Contador 's approach to Stage 7 was described by Cycling Weekly as a " tactical masterpiece " . Contador himself said that the team had executed their strategy perfectly . His directeur sportif , Sean Yates , said that the team were " nearly there " in their attempt to take the overall victory and suggested that the cancellation of Stage 3 may have prevented Contador from winning the race . Richie Porte said that his performance , especially in the final stage , had given him confidence going into the rest of the season . He said that he had not been sure of his form going into the stage and that it was a good sign for the future , as Paris – Nice had been very difficult .
= = = UCI World Tour standings = = =
Porte 's third @-@ place finish was his second consecutive podium place in the season @-@ long UCI World Tour competition , following his second @-@ place finish at the Tour Down Under . He moved up into first place overall , while Henao moved up from third to second , with the previous leader , Simon Gerrans ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) dropping to third . Thomas moved into fourth and Contador into fifth , with Zakarin and Izagirre also moving into the top ten . Australia remained top of the nations ' ranking , while Sky moved to the top of the teams ' ranking .
= = Classification leadership table = =
In the 2016 Paris – Nice , three jerseys were awarded . The general classification was calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage . Time bonuses were awarded to the first three finishers on road stages ( Stages 1 – 7 ) : the stage winner won a ten @-@ second bonus , with six and four seconds for the second and third riders respectively . Bonus seconds were also awarded to the first three riders at intermediate sprints ( three seconds for the winner of the sprint , two seconds for the rider in second and one second for the rider in third ) . The leader of the general classification received a yellow jersey .
The second classification was the points classification . Riders were awarded points for finishing in the top ten in a stage . Unlike in the points classification in the Tour de France , the winners of all stages were awarded the same number of points . Points were also won in intermediate sprints ; three points for crossing the sprint line first , two points for second place , and one for third . The leader of the points classification was awarded a green jersey .
There was also a mountains classification , in which points were awarded for reaching the top of a climb before other riders . Each climb was categorised as either first , second , or third @-@ category , with more points available for the more difficult , higher @-@ categorised climbs . For first @-@ category climbs , the top seven riders earned points ; on second @-@ category climbs , five riders won points ; on third @-@ category climbs , only the top three riders earned points . The leadership of the mountains classification was marked by a white jersey with red polka @-@ dots .
There was also a classification for teams , in which the times of the best three cyclists in a team on each stage were added together ; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest cumulative time .
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= John Chrysostom =
John Chrysostom ( / ˈkrɪsəstəm , krɪˈsɒstəm / ; Greek : Ἰωάννης ὁ Χρυσόστομος ) , c . 349 – 407 , Archbishop of Constantinople , was an important Early Church Father . He is known for his preaching and public speaking , his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders , the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom , and his ascetic sensibilities . The epithet Χρυσόστομος ( Chrysostomos , anglicized as Chrysostom ) means " golden @-@ mouthed " in Greek and denotes his celebrated eloquence .
He is honored as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches , as well as in some others . The Eastern Orthodox , together with the Byzantine Catholics , hold him in special regard as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs ( alongside Basil the Great and Gregory of Nazianzus ) . The feast days of John Chrysostom in the Eastern Orthodox Church are 13 November and 27 January . In the Roman Catholic Church he is recognized as a Doctor of the Church and commemorated on 13 September . Other churches of the Western tradition , including some Anglican provinces and some Lutheran churches , also commemorate him on 13 September . However , certain Lutheran churches and Anglican provinces commemorate him on the traditional Eastern feast day of 27 January . The Coptic Church also recognizes him as a saint ( with feast days on 16 Thout and 17 Hathor ) .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
John was born in Antioch in 349 to Greco @-@ Syrian parents . Different scholars describe his mother Anthusa as a pagan or as a Christian , and his father was a high @-@ ranking military officer . John 's father died soon after his birth and he was raised by his mother . He was baptised in 368 or 373 and tonsured as a reader ( one of the minor orders of the Church ) .
As a result of his mother 's influential connections in the city , John began his education under the pagan teacher Libanius . From Libanius , John acquired the skills for a career in rhetoric , as well as a love of the Greek language and literature .
As he grew older , however , John became more deeply committed to Christianity and went on to study theology under Diodore of Tarsus , founder of the re @-@ constituted School of Antioch . According to the Christian historian Sozomen , Libanius was supposed to have said on his deathbed that John would have been his successor " if the Christians had not taken him from us " .
John lived in extreme asceticism and became a hermit in about 375 ; he spent the next two years continually standing , scarcely sleeping , and committing the Bible to memory . As a consequence of these practices , his stomach and kidneys were permanently damaged and poor health forced him to return to Antioch .
= = = Diaconate and service in Antioch = = =
John was ordained as a deacon in 381 by Saint Meletius of Antioch who was not then in communion with Alexandria and Rome . After the death of Meletius , John separated himself from the followers of Meletius , without joining Paulinus , the rival of Meletius for the bishopric of Antioch . But after the death of Paulinus he was ordained a presbyter ( priest ) in 386 by Evagrius , the successor of Paulinus . He was destined later to bring about reconciliation between Flavian I of Antioch , Alexandria , and Rome , thus bringing those three sees into communion for the first time in nearly seventy years .
In Antioch , over the course of twelve years ( 386 – 397 ) , John gained popularity because of the eloquence of his public speaking at the Golden Church , Antioch 's cathedral , especially his insightful expositions of Bible passages and moral teaching . The most valuable of his works from this period are his Homilies on various books of the Bible . He emphasised charitable giving and was concerned with the spiritual and temporal needs of the poor . He spoke against abuse of wealth and personal property :
Do you wish to honour the body of Christ ? Do not ignore him when he is naked . Do not pay him homage in the temple clad in silk , only then to neglect him outside where he is cold and ill @-@ clad . He who said : " This is my body " is the same who said : " You saw me hungry and you gave me no food " , and " Whatever you did to the least of my brothers you did also to me " ... What good is it if the Eucharistic table is overloaded with golden chalices when your brother is dying of hunger ? Start by satisfying his hunger and then with what is left you may adorn the altar as well .
His straightforward understanding of the Scriptures – in contrast to the Alexandrian tendency towards allegorical interpretation – meant that the themes of his talks were practical , explaining the Bible 's application to everyday life . Such straightforward preaching helped Chrysostom to garner popular support . He founded a series of hospitals in Constantinople to care for the poor .
One incident that happened during his service in Antioch illustrates the influence of his homilies . When Chrysostom arrived in Antioch , Flavian , the bishop of the city had to intervene with Emperor Theodosius I on behalf of citizens who had gone on a rampage mutilating statues of the Emperor and his family . During the weeks of Lent in 387 , John preached more than twenty homilies in which he entreated the people to see the error of their ways . These made a lasting impression on the general population of the city : many pagans converted to Christianity as a result of the homilies . As a result , Theodosius ' vengeance was not as severe as it might have been .
= = = Archbishop of Constantinople = = =
In the autumn of 397 , John was appointed Archbishop of Constantinople , after having been nominated without his knowledge by the eunuch Eutropius . He had to leave Antioch in secret due to fears that the departure of such a popular figure would cause civil unrest .
During his time as Archbishop he adamantly refused to host lavish social gatherings , which made him popular with the common people , but unpopular with wealthy citizens and the clergy . His reforms of the clergy were also unpopular . He told visiting regional preachers to return to the churches they were meant to be serving — without any payout .
His time in Constantinople was more tumultuous than his time in Antioch . Theophilus , the Patriarch of Alexandria , wanted to bring Constantinople under his sway and opposed John 's appointment to Constantinople . Theophilus had disciplined four Egyptian monks ( known as " the Tall Brothers " ) over their support of Origen 's teachings . They fled to John and were welcomed by him . Theophilus therefore accused John of being too partial to the teaching of Origen . He made another enemy in Aelia Eudoxia , wife of Emperor Arcadius , who assumed that John 's denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at herself . Eudoxia , Theophilus and other of his enemies held a synod in 403 ( the Synod of the Oak ) to charge John , in which his connection to Origen was used against him . It resulted in his deposition and banishment . He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately , as the people became " tumultuous " over his departure , even threatening to burn the royal palace . There was an earthquake the night of his arrest , which Eudoxia took for a sign of God 's anger , prompting her to ask Arcadius for John 's reinstatement .
Peace was short @-@ lived . A silver statue of Eudoxia was erected in the Augustaion , near his cathedral . John denounced the pagan dedication ceremonies . He spoke against her in harsh terms : " Again Herodias raves ; again she is troubled ; she dances again ; and again desires to receive John 's head in a charger " , an allusion to the events surrounding the death of John the Baptist . Once again he was banished , this time to the Caucasus in Abkhazia .
Around 405 , Chrysostom began to lend moral and financial support to Christian monks who were enforcing the emperors ' anti @-@ Pagan laws , by destroying temples and shrines in Phoenicia and nearby regions .
= = = Death and canonization = = =
Faced with exile , John Chrysostom wrote an appeal for help to three churchmen : Pope Innocent I , the Bishop of Milan , Venerius , and the third to the Bishop of Aquileia , Chromatius . In 1872 , church historian William Stephens wrote , " The Patriarch of the Eastern Rome appeals to the great bishops of the West , as the champions of an ecclesiastical discipline which he confesses himself unable to enforce , or to see any prospect of establishing . No jealousy is entertained of the Patriarch of the Old Rome by the Patriarch of the New Rome . The interference of Innocent is courted , a certain primacy is accorded him , but at the same time he is not addressed as a supreme arbitrator ; assistance and sympathy are solicited from him as from an elder brother , and two other prelates of Italy are joint recipients with him of the appeal . "
Pope Innocent I protested John 's banishment from Constantinople to the town of Cucusus in Cappadocia , but to no avail . Innocent sent a delegation to intercede on behalf of John in 405 . It was led by Gaudentius of Brescia ; Gaudentius and his companions , two bishops , encountered many difficulties and never reached their goal of entering Constantinople .
John wrote letters which still held great influence in Constantinople . As a result of this , he was further exiled from the Caucasus ( where he stayed from 404 to 407 ) to Pitiunt ( Pityus ) ( in modern Abkhazia ) where his tomb is a shrine for pilgrims . He never reached this destination , as he died at Comana Pontica on 14 September 407 during the journey . His last words are said to have been " δόξα τῷ θεῷ πάντων ἕνεκεν " ( Glory be to God for all things ) .
John came to be venerated as a saint soon after his death . Three decades later , some of his adherents in Constantinople remained in schism . Saint Proclus , Patriarch of Constantinople ( 434 – 446 ) , hoping to bring about the reconciliation of the Johannites , preached a homily praising his predecessor in the Church of Hagia Sophia . He said , " O John , your life was filled with sorrow , but your death was glorious . Your grave is blessed and reward is great , by the grace and mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ O graced one , having conquered the bounds of time and place ! Love has conquered space , unforgetting memory has annihilated the limits , and place does not hinder the miracles of the saint . "
These homilies helped to mobilize public opinion , and the patriarch received permission from the emperor to return Chrysostom 's relics to Constantinople , where they were enshrined in the Church of the Holy Apostles on 28 January 438 . The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him as a " Great Ecumenical Teacher " , with Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian . These three saints , in addition to having their own individual commemorations throughout the year , are commemorated together on 30 January , a feast known as the Synaxis of the Three Hierarchs .
There are several feast days dedicated to him :
27 January , Translation of the relics of St John Chrysostom from Comana to Constantinople
30 January , Synaxis of the Three Great Hierarchs
14 September , Repose of St John Chrysostom
13 November , St John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople
= = Writings = =
= = = Homilies = = =
= = = = Paschal Homily = = = =
The best known of his many homilies , the Paschal Homily ( Hieratikon ) , is rather brief . In the Eastern Orthodox Church it is traditionally read in full each year at the Paschal Divine Liturgy ( eucharistic ) service following the midnight Orthros ( or Matins ) .
= = = = General = = = =
Chrysostom 's extant homiletical works are vast , including many hundreds of exegetical homilies on both the New Testament ( especially the works of Saint Paul ) and the Old Testament ( particularly on Genesis ) . Among his extant exegetical works are sixty @-@ seven homilies on Genesis , fifty @-@ nine on the Psalms , ninety on the Gospel of Matthew , eighty @-@ eight on the Gospel of John , and fifty @-@ five on the Acts of the Apostles .
The homilies were written down by stenographers and subsequently circulated , revealing a style that tended to be direct and greatly personal , but formed by the rhetorical conventions of his time and place . In general , his homiletical theology displays much characteristic of the Antiochian school ( i.e. , somewhat more literal in interpreting Biblical events ) , but he also uses a good deal of the allegorical interpretation more associated with the Alexandrian school .
John 's social and religious world was formed by the continuing and pervasive presence of paganism in the life of the city . One of his regular topics was the paganism in the culture of Constantinople , and in his homilies he thunders against popular pagan amusements : the theatre , horseraces , and the revelry surrounding holidays . In particular , he criticized Christians for taking part in such activities :
" If you ask [ Christians ] who is Amos or Obadiah , how many apostles there were or prophets , they stand mute ; but if you ask them about the horses or drivers , they answer with more solemnity than sophists or rhetors " .
One of the recurring features of John 's homilies is his emphasis on care for the needy . Echoing themes found in the Gospel of Matthew , he calls upon the rich to lay aside materialism in favor of helping the poor , often employing all of his rhetorical skills to shame wealthy people to abandon conspicuous consumption :
" Do you pay such honor to your excrements as to receive them into a silver chamber @-@ pot when another man made in the image of God is perishing in the cold ? "
= = = = Homilies on Jews and Judaizing Christians = = = =
During his first two years as a presbyter in Antioch ( 386 – 387 ) , John denounced Jews and Judaizing Christians in a series of eight homilies delivered to Christians in his congregation who were taking part in Jewish festivals and other Jewish observances . It is disputed whether the main target were specifically Judaizers or Jews in general . His homilies were expressed in the conventional manner , utilizing the uncompromising rhetorical form known as the psogos ( Greek : blame , censure ) .
One of the purposes of these homilies was to prevent Christians from participating in Jewish customs , and thus prevent the perceived erosion of Chrysostom 's flock . In his homilies , John criticized those " Judaizing Christians " , who were participating in Jewish festivals and taking part in other Jewish observances , such as the shabbat , submitted to circumcision and made pilgrimage to Jewish holy places .
John claimed that synagogues were full of Christians on the shabbats and Jewish festivals , especially of Christian women , because they loved the solemnity of the Jewish liturgy and enjoyed listening to the shofar on Rosh Hashanah , and applauded famous preachers in accordance with the contemporary custom . A more recent theory is that he instead tried to persuade Jewish Christians , who for centuries had kept connections with Jews and Judaism , to choose between Judaism and Christianity .
In Greek the homilies are called Kata Ioudaiōn ( Κατὰ Ιουδαίων ) , which is translated as Adversus Judaeos in Latin and Against the Jews in English . The original Benedictine editor of the homilies , Bernard de Montfaucon , gives the following footnote to the title : " A discourse against the Jews ; but it was delivered against those who were Judaizing and keeping the fasts with them [ the Jews ] . "
According to Patristics scholars , opposition to any particular view during the late 4th century was conventionally expressed in a manner , utilizing the rhetorical form known as the psogos , whose literary conventions were to vilify opponents in an uncompromising manner ; thus , it has been argued that to call Chrysostom an " anti @-@ Semite " is to employ anachronistic terminology in a way incongruous with historical context and record . This does not preclude assertions that Chrysostom 's theology was a form of Anti @-@ Jewish supersessionism .
= = = Treatises = = =
Apart from his homilies , a number of John 's other treatises have had a lasting influence . One such work is John 's early treatise Against Those Who Oppose the Monastic Life , written while he was a deacon ( sometime before 386 ) , which was directed to parents , pagan as well as Christian , whose sons were contemplating a monastic vocation . Chrysostom wrote that , already in his day , it was customary for Antiochenes to send their sons to be educated by monks .
Other important treatises written by John include On the Priesthood ( written 390 / 391 , it contains in Book 1 an account of his early years and a defence of his flight from ordination by Bishop Meletios of Antioch , and then proceeds in later books to expound on his exalted understanding of the priesthood ) , Instructions to Catechumens , and On the Incomprehensibility of the Divine Nature . In addition , he wrote a series of letters to the deaconess Olympias , of which seventeen are extant .
= = = Liturgy = = =
Beyond his preaching , the other lasting legacy of John is his influence on Christian liturgy . Two of his writings are particularly notable . He harmonized the liturgical life of the Church by revising the prayers and rubrics of the Divine Liturgy , or celebration of the Holy Eucharist . To this day , Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches of the Byzantine Rite typically celebrate the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom as the normal Eucharistic liturgy , although his exact connection with it remains a matter of debate among experts .
= = Legacy and influence = =
During a time when city clergy were subject to criticism for their high lifestyle , John was determined to reform his clergy in Constantinople . These efforts were met with resistance and limited success . He was an excellent preacher whose homilies and writings are still studied and quoted . As a theologian , he has been and continues to be very important in Eastern Christianity , and is generally considered the most prominent doctor of the Greek Church , but has been less important to Western Christianity . His writings have survived to the present day more so than any of the other Greek Fathers .
= = = Influence on the Catechism of the Catholic Church and clergy = = =
John 's influence on church teachings is interwoven throughout the current Catechism of the Catholic Church ( revised 1992 ) . The Catechism cites him in eighteen sections , particularly his reflections on the purpose of prayer and the meaning of the Lord 's Prayer :
Consider how [ Jesus Christ ] teaches us to be humble , by making us see that our virtue does not depend on our work alone but on grace from on high . He commands each of the faithful who prays to do so universally , for the whole world . For he did not say " thy will be done in me or in us " , but " on earth " , the whole earth , so that error may be banished from it , truth take root in it , all vice be destroyed on it , virtue flourish on it , and earth no longer differ from heaven .
Christian clerics , such as R.S. Storr , refer to him as " one of the most eloquent preachers who ever since apostolic times have brought to men the divine tidings of truth and love " , and the 19th @-@ century John Henry Newman described John as a " bright , cheerful , gentle soul ; a sensitive heart . "
= = = Music and literature = = =
John 's liturgical legacy has inspired several musical compositions . Particularly noteworthy are Sergei Rachmaninoff 's Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom , Op. 31 , composed in 1910 , one of his two major unaccompanied choral works ; Pyotr Tchaikovsky 's Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom , Op. 41 ; and Ukrainian composer Kyrylo Stetsenko 's Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom . Arvo Pärt 's Litany sets Chrysostom 's twenty @-@ four prayers , one for each hour of the day , for soli , mixed choir and orchestra .
James Joyce 's novel Ulysses includes a character named Mulligan who brings ' Chrysostomos ' into another character ( Stephen Dedalus ) ' s mind because Mulligan 's gold @-@ stopped teeth and his gift of the gab earn him the title which St. John Chrysostom 's preaching earned him , ' golden @-@ mouthed ' : " [ Mulligan ] peered sideways up and gave a long low whistle of call , then paused awhile in rapt attention , his even white teeth glistening here and there with gold points . Chrysostomos " .
= = = The legend of the penance of St. John Chrysostom = = =
A late medieval legend ( not included in the Golden Legend ) relates that , when John Chrysostom was a hermit in the desert , he was approached by a royal princess in distress . The Saint , thinking she was a demon , at first refused to help her , but the princess convinced him that she was a Christian and would be devoured by wild beasts if she were not allowed to enter his cave . He therefore admitted her , carefully dividing the cave in two parts , one for each of them . In spite of these precautions , the sin of fornication was committed , and in an attempt to hide it , the distraught saint took the princess and threw her over a precipice . He then went to Rome to beg absolution , which was refused . Realising the appalling nature of his crimes , Chrysostom made a vow that he would never rise from the ground until his sins were expiated , and for years he lived like a beast , crawling on all fours and feeding on wild grasses and roots . Subsequently the princess reappeared , alive , and suckling the saint 's baby , who miraculously pronounced his sins forgiven . This last scene was very popular from the late 15th century onwards as a subject for engravers and artists . The theme was depicted by Albrecht Dürer around 1496 , Hans Sebald Beham and Lucas Cranach the Elder , among others . Martin Luther mocked this same legend in his Die Lügend von S. Johanne Chrysostomo ( 1537 ) . The legend was recorded in Croatia in the 16th century .
= = = Relics = = =
John Chrysostom died in the city of Comana in the year 407 on his way to his place of exile . There his relics remained until 438 when , thirty years after his death , they were transferred to Constantinople during the reign of the Empress Eudoxia 's son , the Emperor Theodosius II ( 408 – 450 ) , under the guidance of John 's disciple , St. Proclus , who by that time had become Archbishop of Constantinople ( 434 – 447 ) .
Most of John 's relics were looted from Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204 and taken to Rome , but some of his bones were returned to the Orthodox Church on 27 November 2004 by Pope John Paul II . They are now enshrined in the Church of St. George , Istanbul .
The skull , however , having been kept at the monastery at Vatopedi on Mount Athos in northern Greece , was not among the relics that were taken by the crusaders in the 13th century . In 1655 , at the request of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich , the skull was taken to Russia , for which the monastery was compensated in the sum of 2000 rubles . In 1693 , having received a request from the Vatopedi Monastery for the return of St John 's skull , Tsar Peter the Great ordered that the skull remain in Russia but that the monastery was to be paid 500 rubles every four years . The Russian state archives document these payments up until 1735 . The skull was kept at the Moscow Kremlin , in the Cathedral of the Dormition of the Mother of God , until 1920 , when it was confiscated by the Soviets and placed in the Museum of Silver Antiquities . In 1988 , in connection with the 1000th Anniversary of the Baptism of Russia , the head , along with other important relics , was returned to the Russian Orthodox Church and kept at the Epiphany Cathedral , until being moved to the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour after its restoration .
Today , the monastery at Vatopedi posits a rival claim to possessing the skull of John Chrysostom , and there a skull is venerated by pilgrims to the monastery as that of St John . Two sites in Italy also claim to have the saint 's skull : the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence and the Dal Pozzo chapel in Pisa . The right hand of St. John is preserved on Mount Athos , and numerous smaller relics are scattered throughout the world .
= = = Collected works = = =
Widely used editions of Chrysostom 's works are available in Greek , Latin , English , and French . The Greek edition is edited by Sir Henry Savile ( eight volumes , Eton , 1613 ) ; the most complete Greek and Latin edition is edited by Bernard de Montfaucon ( thirteen volumes , Paris , 1718 – 38 , republished in 1834 – 40 , and reprinted in Migne 's " Patrologia Graeca " , volumes 47 – 64 ) . There is an English translation in the first series of the Nicene and Post @-@ Nicene Fathers ( London and New York , 1889 – 90 ) . A selection of his writings has been published more recently in the original with facing French translation in Sources Chrétiennes .
= = = Works = = =
Works by or about John Chrysostom at Internet Archive
Works by John Chrysostom at LibriVox ( public domain audiobooks )
The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom
Study Text of the Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom ( Ruthenian Edition , with Scriptural references )
Writings of Chrysostom in the Christian Classics Ethereal Library edition of the Nicene and Post @-@ Nicene Fathers :
On the Priesthood , Ascetic Treatises , Select Homilies and Letters , Homilies on the Statues
Homilies on the Gospel of St. Matthew '
Homilies on the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Romans
Homilies on First and Second Corinthians
Homilies on the Epistles to the Galatians , Ephesians , Philippians , Colossians , Thessalonians , Timothy , Titus , and Philemon
Homilies on the Gospel of St. John and the Epistle to the Hebrews
The Hieratikon Easter Sermon of St. John Chrysostom
Eight Homilies Against the Jews
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes
The Auxiliary Resources page on the Electronic Manipulus florum Project Website provides digital transcriptions of the Latin translations of De laudibus sancti Pauli homeliae ( PG 50 , 473 – 514 ) , Dialogus de sacerdotio ( PG 48 , 623 – 91 ) , and In epistolam ad Hebraeos homeliae ( PG 63 , 9 – 236 ) , as well as the Latin text of the Pseudo @-@ Chrysostom Opus imperfectum in Mattheum ( PG 56 , 611 – 946 ) . It also provides digital transcriptions of Anianus of Celeda 's prologue on the homilies on Matthew and his Latin translations of the first eight homilies ( PG 58 , 975 – 1058 ) and also Anianus of Celeda 's prologue and his Latin translations of Chrysostom 's homelies 1 – 25 on Matthew from the editio princeps published in Venice in 1503 .
Ps.Chrysostom Homily 2 on Christmas at Tertullian.org and here at Archive.org.
= = = Orthodox feast days = = =
27 January , Translation of the relics of St John Chrysostom to Constantinople
30 January , Synaxis of the Three Great Hierarchs
14 September , Repose of St John Chrysostom
13 November , St John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople
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= Clydesdale horse =
The Clydesdale is a breed of draught horse derived from the farm horses of Clydesdale , Scotland , and named after that region . Although originally one of the smaller breeds of draught horses , it is now a tall breed . Often bay in color , they show significant white markings due to the presence of sabino genetics . The breed was originally used for agriculture and haulage , and is still used for draught purposes today . The Budweiser Clydesdales are some of the most famous Clydesdales , and other members of the breed are used as drum horses by the British Household Cavalry . They have also been used to create and improve other draught breeds .
The breed was developed from Flemish stallions imported to Scotland and crossed with local mares . The first recorded use of the name " Clydesdale " for the breed was in 1826 , and by 1830 a system of hiring stallions had begun that resulted in the spread of Clydesdale horses throughout Scotland and into northern England . The first breed registry was formed in 1877 . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , thousands of Clydesdales were exported from Scotland and sent throughout the world , including to Australia and New Zealand , where they became known as " the breed that built Australia " . However , during World War I population numbers began to decline due to increasing mechanization and war conscription . This decline continued , and by the 1970s , the Rare Breeds Survival Trust considered the breed vulnerable to extinction . Population numbers have increased slightly in the intervening time , but they are still thought to be vulnerable .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The conformation of the Clydesdale has changed greatly throughout its history . In the 1920s and 1930s , it was a compact horse smaller than the Shire , Percheron , and Belgian . Beginning in the 1940s , breeding animals were selected to produce taller horses that looked more impressive in parades and shows . Today , the Clydesdale stands 16 to 18 hands ( 64 to 72 inches , 163 to 183 cm ) high and weighs 1 @,@ 800 to 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 820 to 910 kg ) . Some mature males are larger , standing taller than 18 hands and weighing up to 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) . The breed has a straight or slightly convex facial profile , broad forehead and wide muzzle . It is well muscled and strong , with an arched neck , high withers , and a sloped shoulder . Breed associations pay close attention to the quality of the hooves and legs , as well as the general movement . Their gaits are active , with clearly lifted hooves and a general impression of power and quality . Clydesdales are energetic , with a manner described by the Clydesdale Horse Society as a " gaiety of carriage and outlook " . Clydesdales have been identified to be at risk for chronic progressive lymphedema , a disease with clinical signs that include progressive swelling , hyperkeratosis , and fibrosis of distal limbs that is similar to chronic lymphedema in humans .
Clydesdales are usually bay in colour , but roan , black , grey , and chestnut also occur . Most have white markings , including white on the face , feet , legs and occasional body spotting ( generally on the lower belly ) . They also have extensive feathering on their lower legs . Roaning , body spotting and extensive white markings are thought to be the result of sabino genetics . Some Clydesdale breeders want white face and leg markings without the spotting on the body . To attempt getting the ideal set of markings , they often breed horses with only one white leg to horses with four white legs and sabino roaning on their bodies . On average , the result is a foal with the desired amount of white markings . Clydesdales do not have the SB1 ( Sabino 1 ) gene responsible for causing sabino expressions in many other breeds , and researchers theorise that several other genes are responsible for these patterns . Many buyers pay a premium for bay and black horses , especially those with four white legs and white facial markings . Specific colours are often preferred over other physical traits , and some buyers even choose horses with soundness problems if they have the desired colour and markings . Roan horses are not preferred by buyers , despite one draught @-@ breed writer theorizing that they are needed to keep the desired coat colours and texture . Breed associations , however , state that no colours are bad , and that horses with roaning and body spots are increasingly accepted .
= = History = =
The Clydesdale takes its name from Clydesdale , the old name for Lanarkshire , noted for the River Clyde . In the mid @-@ 18th century , Flemish stallions were imported to Scotland and bred to local mares , resulting in foals that were larger than the existing local stock . These included a black unnamed stallion imported from England by a John Paterson of Lochlyloch and an unnamed dark @-@ brown stallion owned by the Duke of Hamilton . Another prominent stallion was a 16 @.@ 1 hands ( 65 inches , 165 cm ) coach horse stallion of unknown lineage named Blaze . Written pedigrees were kept of these foals beginning in the early 19th century , and in 1806 a filly , later known as " Lampits mare " after the farm name of her owner , was born that traced her lineage to the black stallion . This mare is listed in the ancestry of almost every Clydesdale living today . One of her foals was Thompson 's Black Horse ( known as Glancer ) , who was to have a significant influence on the Clydesdale breed . The first recorded use of the name " Clydesdale " in reference to the breed was in 1826 at an exhibition in Glasgow . Another theory of their origin , that of them descending from Flemish horses brought to Scotland as early as the 15th century , was also promulgated in the late 18th century . However , even the author of that theory admitted that the common story of their ancestry is more likely .
A system of hiring stallions between districts existed in Scotland , with written records dating back to 1837 . This program consisted of local agriculture improvement societies holding breed shows to choose the best stallion , whose owner was then awarded a monetary prize . The owner was then required , in return for additional monies , to take the stallion throughout a designated area , breeding to the local mares . Through this system and by purchase , Clydesdale stallions were sent throughout Scotland and into northern England .
Through extensive crossbreeding with local mares , these stallions spread the Clydesdale type throughout the areas where they were placed , and by 1840 , Scottish draught horses and the Clydesdale were one and the same . In 1877 , the Clydesdale Horse Society of Scotland was formed , followed in 1879 by the American Clydesdale Association ( later renamed the Clydesdale Breeders of the USA ) , which served both U.S. and Canadian breed enthusiasts . The first American stud book was published in 1882 . In 1883 , the short @-@ lived Select Clydesdale Horse Society was founded to compete with the Clydesdale Horse Society . It was started by two breeders dedicated to improving the breed , who also were responsible in large part for the introduction of Shire blood into the Clydesdale .
Large numbers of Clydesdales were exported from Scotland in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , with 1 @,@ 617 stallions leaving the country in 1911 alone . Between 1884 and 1945 , export certificates were issued for 20 @,@ 183 horses . These horses were exported to other countries in the British Empire , as well as North and South America , continental Europe and Russia . World War I saw the conscription of thousands of horses for the war effort , and after the war breed numbers declined as farms became increasingly mechanised . This decline continued between the wars . Following World War II the number of Clydesdale breeding stallions in England dropped from more than 200 in 1946 to 80 in 1949 . By 1975 , the Rare Breeds Survival Trust considered them vulnerable to extinction , meaning there were fewer than 900 breeding females in the UK .
Many of the horses exported from Scotland in the 19th and 20th centuries went to Australia and New Zealand . In 1918 , the Commonwealth Clydesdale Horse Society was formed as the association for the breed in Australia . Between 1906 and 1936 , Clydesdales were bred so extensively in Australia that other draught breeds were almost unknown . By the late 1960s it was noted that " Excellent Clydesdale horses are bred in Victoria and New Zealand ; but , at least in the former place , it is considered advisable to keep up the type by frequent importations from England . " Over 25 @,@ 000 Clydesdales were registered in Australia between 1924 and 2008 . The popularity of the Clydesdale led to it being called " the breed that built Australia " .
In the 1990s , the breed 's popularity and numbers began to rise . By 2005 , the Rare Breeds Survival Trust had moved the breed to " at risk " status , meaning there were fewer than 1 @,@ 500 breeding females in the UK . However , by 2010 they had been moved back to vulnerable . The Clydesdale is considered to be at " watch " status by the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy , meaning that as of 2010 fewer than 2 @,@ 500 horses are registered annually in the USA and fewer than 10 @,@ 000 exist worldwide . As of 2010 , there are estimated to be around 5 @,@ 000 Clydesdales worldwide , with around 4 @,@ 000 in the US and Canada , 800 in the UK and the rest in other countries , including Russia , Japan , Germany and South Africa .
= = Uses = =
The Clydesdale was originally used for agriculture , hauling coal in Lanarkshire and heavy hauling in Glasgow . Today , Clydesdales are still used for draught purposes , including agriculture , logging and driving . They are also shown and ridden , as well as kept for pleasure . Some of the most famous members of the breed are the teams that make up the hitches of the Budweiser Clydesdales . These horses were first owned by the Budweiser Brewery at the end of Prohibition in the United States , and have since become an international symbol of both the breed and the brand . The Budweiser breeding program , with its strict standards of colour and conformation , have influenced the look of the breed in the United States to the point that many people believe that Clydesdales are always bay with white markings . As well as being driven , some Clydesdales are used for riding and can be shown under saddle . Clydesdales and Shires are used by the British Household Cavalry as drum horses , leading parades on ceremonial and state occasions . The horses are eye @-@ catching colours , including piebald , skewbald and roan . To be used for this purpose , a drum horse must stand a minimum of 17 hands ( 68 inches , 173 cm ) high . They carry the Musical Ride Officer and two silver drums weighing 56 kilograms ( 123 lb ) each .
In the late 19th century , Clydesdale blood was added to the Irish draught breed in an attempt to improve and reinvigorate that declining breed . However , these efforts were not seen as successful , as Irish Draught breeders thought the Clydesdale blood made their horses coarser and prone to lower leg defaults . The Clydesdale was instrumental in the creation of the Gypsy Vanner horse , developed in Great Britain . The Clydesdale , along with other draught breeds , was also used to create the Australian Draught Horse . In the early 20th century , they were often crossed with Dales ponies , creating mid @-@ sized draught horses useful for pulling commercial wagons and military artillery .
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= Fort Jackson ( Virginia ) =
Fort Jackson was an American Civil War @-@ era fortification in Virginia that defended the southern end of the Long Bridge , near Washington , D.C. Long Bridge connected Washington , D.C. to Northern Virginia and served as a vital transportation artery for the Union Army during the war . Fort Jackson was named for Jackson City , a seedy suburb of Washington that had been established on the south side of the Long Bridge in 1835 . It was built in the days immediately following the Union Army 's occupation of Northern Virginia in May 1861 . The fort was initially armed with four cannon used to protect the bridge , but these were removed after the completion of the Arlington Line , a line of defenses built to the south . After 1862 , the fort lacked weapons except for small arms and consisted of a wooden palisade backed by earthworks . Two cannon were restored to the fort in 1864 following the Battle of Fort Stevens . The garrison consisted of a single company of Union soldiers who inspected traffic crossing the bridge and guarded it from potential saboteurs .
Following the final surrender of the Confederate States of America in 1865 , Fort Jackson was abandoned . The lumber used in its construction was promptly salvaged for firewood and construction materials and , due to its proximity to the Long Bridge , the earthworks were flattened in order to provide easier access to Long Bridge . In the early 20th century , the fort 's site was used for the footings and approaches to several bridges connecting Virginia and Washington . Today , no trace of the fort remains , though the site of the fort is contained within Arlington County 's Long Bridge Park , and a National Park Service 2004 survey of the site indicated some archaeological remnants may still remain beneath the park .
= = Occupation of Arlington = =
Before the outbreak of the Civil War , Alexandria County ( renamed Arlington County in 1920 ) , the county in Virginia closest to Washington , D.C. , was a predominantly rural area . Part of the original ten @-@ mile @-@ square District of Columbia , the land now comprising the county was retroceded to Virginia in a July 9 , 1846 , act of Congress that took effect in 1847 . Most of the county is hilly , and at the time , most of the county 's population was concentrated in the city of Alexandria , at the far southeastern corner of the county . In 1861 , the rest of the county largely consisted of scattered farms , the occasional house , fields for grazing livestock , and Arlington House , owned by Mary Custis , wife of Robert E. Lee . The county was connected to nearby Washington via the Long Bridge , which spanned the Potomac River . On the river flats of the Virginia side of the river was Jackson City , a seedy entertainment district named after President Andrew Jackson and home to several racetracks , gambling halls , and saloons .
Following the surrender of Fort Sumter in Charleston , South Carolina , on April 14 , 1861 , President Abraham Lincoln declared that " an insurrection existed " , and called for 75 @,@ 000 troops to be called up to quash the rebellion . The move sparked resentment in many other southern states , which promptly moved to convene discussions of secession . The Virginia State Convention passed " an ordinance of secession " and ordered a May 23 referendum to decide whether or not the state should secede from the Union . The U.S. Army responded by creating the Department of Washington , which united all Union troops in the District of Columbia and Maryland under one command .
Brigadier General J.F.K. Mansfield , commander of the Department of Washington , argued that Northern Virginia should be occupied as soon as possible in order to prevent the possibility of the Confederate Army mounting artillery on the hills of Arlington and shelling government buildings in Washington . He also urged the erection of fortifications on the Virginia side of the Potomac River to protect the southern terminuses of the Chain Bridge , Long Bridge , and Aqueduct Bridge . His superiors approved these recommendations , but decided to wait until after Virginia voted for or against secession .
On May 23 , 1861 , Virginia voted by a margin of 3 to 1 in favor of leaving the Union . That night , U.S. Army troops began crossing the bridges linking Washington , D.C. to Virginia . The march , which began at 10 p.m. on the night of the 23rd , was described in colorful terms by the New York Herald two days later :
There can be no more complaints of inactivity of the government . The forward march movement into Virginia , indicated in my despatches last night , took place at the precise time this morning that I named , but in much more imposing and powerful numbers .
About ten o 'clock last night four companies of picked men moved over the Long Bridge , as an advance guard . They were sent to reconnoitre , and if assailed were ordered to signal , when they would have been reinforced by a corps of regular infantry and a battery ....
At twelve o 'clock the infantry regiment , artillery and cavalry corps began to muster and assume marching order . As fast as the several regiments were ready they proceeded to the Long Bridge , those in Washington being directed to take that route .
The troops quartered at Georgetown , the Sixty @-@ ninth , Fifth , Eighth and Twenty @-@ eighth New York regiments , proceeded across what is known as the chain bridge , above the mouth of the Potomac Aqueduct , under the command of General McDowell . They took possession of the heights in that direction .
The imposing scene was at the Long Bridge , where the main body of the troops crossed . Eight thousand infantry , two regular cavalry companies and two sections of Sherman 's artillery battalion , consisting of two batteries , were in line this side of the Long Bridge at two o 'clock .
The occupation of Northern Virginia was peaceful , with the exception of the town of Alexandria . There , as Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth , commander of the New York Fire Zouaves ( 11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment ) , entered a local hotel to remove the Confederate flag flying above it , he was shot and killed by James Jackson , the proprietor . Ellsworth was one of the first men killed in the American Civil War .
= = Planning and Construction = =
Over 13 @,@ 000 men marched into northern Virginia on May 25 , bringing with them " a long train of wagons filled with wheelbarrows , shovels , & c . " These implements were put to work even as thousands of men marched further into Virginia . Engineer officers under the command of then @-@ Colonel John G. Barnard accompanied the army and began building fortifications and entrenchments along the banks of the Potomac River in order to defend the bridges that crossed it . By sunrise on the morning of the 24th , ground had already been broken on the first two forts comprising the Civil War defenses of Washington — Fort Runyon and Fort Corcoran . Within a week , other , smaller forts had sprung up as supporting works . Fort Jackson , built to the northeast of Fort Runyon , and armed with four cannon , was one of these .
Owing to its large physical size and extensive armament , Fort Runyon was intended to be the primary fort defending the Long Bridge . Fort Jackson , located at the southern end of the bridge , received four cannon and was intended as a guard post for soldiers inspecting civilian traffic crossing the bridge and to detour any Confederate saboteurs that might attempt to destroy the bridge . To man the fort 's four guns , 60 artillerymen were assigned , bringing the total garrison to 200 men .
= = Wartime use = =
On July 14 , 1861 , Company E of the 21st New York Volunteer Infantry was assigned to garrison Fort Jackson . On August 31 , the 21st New York was ordered to Fort Cass , Virginia , and was later involved in the Second Battle of Bull Run . No information exists on the unit that replaced it in garrisoning Fort Jackson .
Following the completion of the Arlington Line , which was built several miles to the southwest of Fort Jackson , atop the heights of Arlington , the maintenance of Forts Jackson and Runyon was neglected . The two forts had largely been made redundant by the newer , stronger works atop the hills , and it was believed that neither played a crucial role any longer in the defenses of Washington . Fort Jackson was kept in service only as an inspection station for traffic crossing Long Bridge .
= = = Railroad and rebuilding = = =
In 1863 , a new railroad bridge was constructed adjacent to the Long Bridge as part of a plan to strengthen the logistics of the Army of the Potomac as it operated in northern Virginia . An extension of the Orange and Alexandria Railroad , the bridge would be used until the turn of the century before being replaced . Owing to the weight of the railroad and the weak strength of the bridge , no locomotives were allowed on the bridge . Prior to crossing the Potomac , the train would detach its locomotive and be pulled across the bridge by a team of horses .
In order to provide space for the railroad tracks , the gates of Fort Jackson had to be removed . These were eventually replaced , but the wide opening needed for the tracks proved to have a detrimental effect on the fort 's defensive ability . An 1864 report by Lt. Col. Barton S. Alexander , the aide de camp to Gen. John Gross Barnard , chief engineer of the defenses of Washington , described the way Fort Jackson had been allowed to fall into disrepair :
The defense of the bridge is very imperfect , owing to the dilapidation and decay of Fort Jackson . The railroad cuts through the parapet and there are no gates except at turnpike entrance . The railroad crosses the ditch of the fort on a bridge which is not floored , but an enemy could soon cover it so as to make it passable . Cavalry could also ride around to the lower side of the fort and come in on the bridge .
To fix the problems at Fort Jackson , Alexander recommended the addition of an artillery section , a second company of infantry , and various improvements to the fort itself . Spurred in part by the Confederate attack on Fort Stevens north of Washington , several improvements were made , including the restoration of gates that had been removed when the railroad line was constructed . Gen. Christopher Columbus Augur , commander of the Department of Washington , recommended that Fort Jackson be assigned two light guns as armament during the reconstruction .
= = Post @-@ war use = =
After the surrender of General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia on April 9 , 1865 , the primary reason for manned defenses protecting Washington ceased to exist . Initial recommendations by Colonel Barton S. Alexander , then @-@ chief engineer of the Washington defenses , were to divide the defenses into three classes : those that should be kept active ( first @-@ class ) , those that should be mothballed and kept in a reserve state ( second @-@ class ) , and those that should be abandoned entirely ( third @-@ class ) . Due to its rear @-@ area nature and the fact that inspections were no longer needed to protect the Long Bridge against sabotage , Fort Jackson fell into the third @-@ class category .
The lumber used in the construction of Fort Jackson was either sold for salvage or scavenged by squatters , most of whom were freed slaves traveling north in a search for new lives following the ending of slavery in the United States . Many settled in the area of the former Fort Runyon , and it seems likely that the lumber of Fort Jackson would have been a ready source of firewood .
All the forts around or overlooking the city are dismantled , the guns taken out of them , the land resigned to its owners . Needy negro squatters , living around the forts , have built themselves shanties of the officers ' quarters , pulled out the abatis for firewood , made cord wood or joists out of the log platforms for the guns , and sawed up the great flag @-@ staffs into quilting poles or bedstead posts ... The strolls out to these old forts are seedily picturesque . Freedmen , who exist by selling old horse @-@ shoes and iron spikes , live with their squatter families where , of old , the army sutler kept the canteen ; but the grass is drawing its parallels nearer and nearer the magazines . Some old clothes , a good deal of dirt , and forgotten graves , make now the local features of war . "
By the turn of the century , the site of Fort Jackson had become the footings for a new railroad bridge , constructed in 1903 . Three years later , a road bridge was constructed just to the west . A brickworks was also located nearby , sometimes utilizing the clay that formed the bastions of Fort Runyon as raw material for the bricks that would later go into the walls of Washington homes . These projects obliterated what little trace there was of Fort Jackson .
Today , a CSX Corporation railroad bridge runs through the site of Fort Jackson , and the Potomac shoreline just south of the bridge is being studied by the National Park Service as one possible site for an Arlington County boathouse . Just south of the federal George Washington Memorial Parkway , between the CSX tracks and I @-@ 395 , is Arlington County 's Long Bridge Park . The northern end of the park , not yet developed for recreational use , may include part of the site of Fort Jackson . A National Park Service study commissioned during the ongoing review of potential boathouse sites included an observation that historical artifacts from Fort Jackson may still be present at the site .
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= Roadrunners ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Roadrunners " is the fourth episode of the eighth season and the 165th episode overall of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . " Roadrunners " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode first aired in the United States on November 26 , 2000 on Fox and on March 1 , 2001 on Sky1 in the United Kingdom and Ireland . It was written by Vince Gilligan and directed by Rod Hardy . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 3 and was watched by 13 @.@ 6 million households . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Scully , working alone , pursues a cult that worship a slug @-@ like organism and believe it to be the Second Coming of Jesus Christ ; but in her efforts to save an injured stranger , she discovers she is in over her head .
The episode was written by Gilligan to be intentionally " creepy " . Furthermore , Gilligan wanted to show the audience that John Doggett was a good person and an ally of Scully 's . The parasitic creature that was used in the episode was designed to look like a banana slug and was created via animatronics . Several of the scenes were so gruesome that producer Paul Rabwin later noted that some of the cameramen " start [ ed ] to lose it " during filming .
= = Plot = =
In the desert near Cedar City , Utah , a hitchhiker catches a ride from a passing bus , which soon stops without explanation . The hitchhiker watches a man with crutches leave the bus , joined by the other passengers . Following them , he sees them stone the man to death . They later surround the hitchhiker as he futilely tries to escape .
FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) goes to investigate the murder . The victim , a twenty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old backpacker , now shows signs of body decay usually associated with old age . Later , at a pay @-@ phone , she asks her partner , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , to check the X @-@ Files for cases mentioning glycoproteins . While discussing the case with Doggett , the bus passes her , and she follows it to a gas station in the middle of the desert . A man with an injured hand learns that she is a medical doctor and fills her car with gasoline laced with water . Scully returns to the gas station and is told that rain got into the gas canisters .
The attendant tells Scully that Mr. Milsap is the only person with a working phone , but she discovers that the line is dead . Mr. Milsap offers Scully a room at the local boarding house , but Scully tries the rest of the town only to be ignored by everyone ; they are all too engrossed in Bible study groups . Disturbed by the turn of events , she keeps her gun close at hand . The next morning , Mr. Milsap tells Scully that there is a man who needs help downstairs . She goes with him and finds the hitchhiker from the teaser having a seizure . She advises them to take him to the hospital , but they pretend that they do not have any cars . While examining the man , Scully discovers a strange circular wound on his back . Meanwhile , Doggett calls the local sheriff and learns that Scully has not arrived yet , and so he sets out to find her .
The sick man begins to recover and Scully talks to him while the townspeople are gone . He does not seem to know who he is or how he arrived . She inspects his wound again and finds a lump moving along the man 's spine ; digging into the open wound , she pulls out a piece of a large worm . Scully talks with the hitchhiker , whose name is revealed to be Hank , about the creature and thinks she cannot get it out without killing him . Scully goes to find a car but , moments after leaving , Hank immediately tells the townspeople what she is up to and that " another swap " is needed . Concurrently , Doggett arrives in Utah and informs the Sheriff about a series X @-@ Files involving similar back wound and death by stoning .
Scully is eventually captured by the townspeople and the worm is inserted into her body . Eventually , Doggett finds Scully , cuts the worm out of her , and shoots the creature dead . Later , Scully is packing her things in the hospital when Doggett comes in to inform her about the trial of the cult members ; they are offering little defense except that they claim that they are being persecuted for their religious beliefs . Scully muses that they thought the worm was the Second Coming of Jesus Christ . She apologizes to Doggett for going out on the mission alone and promises to never do it again .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Roadrunners " was written by Vince Gilligan and was inspired by the 1955 thriller film Bad Day at Black Rock . The script , called " uncharacteristically brutal " for Gilligan — who had been noted for his comedic episodes like " Bad Blood " and " X @-@ Cops " — was written with the expressed intent to make , according to Gilligan , " a really all @-@ out scary , creepy , get under @-@ your @-@ skin — literally and figuratively — X @-@ File . " Furthermore , the episode was written to show the audience of The X @-@ Files that John Doggett was on the side of the heroes . Gilligan explained , " I wanted this gangbusters episode , one that showed Doggett was a good guy ; someone to be counted on . " Many fans were unhappy with Doggett 's condescension towards Scully during her apology . Robert Patrick , the actor who portrayed Doggett , however , had a different interpretation : " The whole essence of the scene was , ' Look , I 'm here for you . I 've got your back . We 're partners now . ' And you give that the weight of a marine saying to someone , ' I 'll jump on a grenade for you , so you can trust me . ' The idea was to really assure the fans that the show was continuing on . "
Several of the characters in the episode were named after real @-@ life individuals . The character of Hank was named after the brother of Vince Gilligan 's girlfriend , Holly . Mr. Milsap was named for famed singer @-@ songwriter Ronnie Milsap . Finally , Sheriff Ciolino was named after Gilligan 's mortgage broker .
= = = Directing = = =
The episode was directed by Rod Hardy , making it his first credit for the series . Hardy was offered the role after an unknown individual working at The X @-@ Files saw his TBS remake of the film High Noon . The parasitic creature that was used in the episode was created via animatronics and was designed to look like a banana slug . During the scene where the creature is inserted into Scully 's back , the production crew created a false fiberglass back for Gillian Anderson . To create the illusion that the creature was crawling up the body , the fiberglass was pressed against . Anderson later described the scene as " fun to shoot . " However , she did notice that the scene " was exhausting , though , struggling on that bed for so long . Not hogtied , but tied down , my arms to the headboard and my legs to the footboard . Paul Rabwin later noted that he had several cameramen " start to lose it " during the scene .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Roadrunners " first aired in the United States on Fox on November 26 , 2000 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 3 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 3 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 37 million households , and 13 @.@ 6 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 38th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending November 26 . In the United Kingdom and Ireland , the episode made its first appearance on television on March 1 , 2001 on Sky1 . " Roadrunners " was the seventh most watched program that week and received 0 @.@ 67 million viewers . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " A desolate town . A bizarre cult . A horrifying ritual . And Scully may be the next victim . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" Roadrunners " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson named the episode the " finest stand @-@ alone episode " of the show 's eighth season . Harrisson praised the character development in " Roadrunners " and noted that the episode " effectively brings [ Scully and Doggett ] together as partners . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two note that , " for the first half @-@ hour , this works as a slow burn horror story ... It 's the transition of Gillian Anderson 's performance from wry exasperation to outright paranoia ... which makes this so effective . " Shearman and Pearson did , however , slightly criticize the cutting of John Doggett 's role to a minimum . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " A – " and wrote that it " is an episode that ’ s dedicated to helping us move past the Mulder era . " He praised the creepiness of Gilligan 's script , as well as the characterization of Scully , writing that even though she is in a situation that is over her head , she is still smart in her attempts to escape ; he also praised Anderson 's acting . However , VanDerWerff was more critical of the final scene , noting that it made Doggett come across as " kind of an asshole " . Paul Spragg of Xposé wrote positively of the episode , saying it features a " return to the body horror stories that had worked so well in the early seasons " . Spragg added that " Roadrunners " is " certainly close " to the highly acclaimed first season episode " Ice " .
Not all reviews were positive . George Avalos and Michael Liedtke of the Knight Ridder Tribune wrote that the episode 's slug " continued the series ' fine tradition of monsters that made us queasy as we squirmed in our seats " . Despite enjoying the gore and the reality of Scully 's isolation , the two were critical of the cult 's motivations , writing that " we were given absolutely no clue as to why the Utah cult members believed the slug represented the Second Coming of Jesus Christ . " The two ultimately concluded that " Roadrunners " fell " well short of a classic . " Sarah Stegall highly criticized the episode , calling it " a bad mix of The Fly and The Kindred , with plenty of X @-@ Files classic paranoia but none of the finesse we 've seen before . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a scathing review and awarded it no stars out of four . She heavily derided the plot , sarcastically referring to Doggett as a " man 's man " and the parasite a " phallic @-@ shaped giant slug " . Furthermore , she criticized Scully 's actions to go off on an assignment without telling her partner . Dave Golder from SFX criticized the episode and called it a retread of the first season episode " Ice " .
= = = Work cited = = =
Hardy , Rod ( 2005 ) , " Vienen " : Commentary ( DVD ) , The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers : 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment
Hurwitz , Matt ; Knowles , Chris ( 2008 ) . The Complete X @-@ Files . Insight Editions . ISBN 1 @-@ 933784 @-@ 80 @-@ 6 .
Shearman , Robert ; Pearson , Lars ( 2009 ) . Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen . Mad Norwegian Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 9759446 @-@ 9 @-@ X.
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= Christian Ramsay =
Christian Ramsay , Countess of Dalhousie informally Lady Dalhousie , née Broun ; 28 February 1786 – 22 January 1839 was a Scottish botanist and natural historian . She married the 9th Earl of Dalhousie and travelled with him when he was appointed Governor General of Canada and India . While travelling , she collected and catalogued many species of plants , presented scientific papers to societies and donated multiple collections to different botanical groups .
Lady Dalhousie was made an honorary member of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh and was its only female honorary member until her death . A genus of tropical plant , Dalhousiea , was named after her .
= = Family = =
Lady Dalhousie was born Christian Broun on 28 February 1786 at Coalstoun , the ancestral home of the Broun family near Haddington , East Lothian . She was the only child of Charles and Christian Broun . The Broun family had a history in the legal profession ; her father was an advocate and his father a judge , George Broun , Lord Coalstoun . On 14 May 1805 , she married the 9th Earl of Dalhousie and was styled Countess of Dalhousie .
Lady Dalhousie and her husband had three sons . Their eldest , George , was born 3 August 1806 , a captain in the 26th ( Cameronian ) Regiment of Foot , he died on 25 October 1832 . Their second son , Charles , died at nine years old . Their youngest , James , born 22 April 1812 , inherited his father 's title in 1838 and was created Marquess of Dalhousie in 1849 .
= = Scientific work = =
Lady Dalhousie was a keen botanist ; she catalogued plants on herbarium sheets , fully identified and complete with collection dates , notes on habitats and some with watercolour pictures she had painted . In 1824 , Lord Dalhousie co @-@ founded the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec . Lady Dalhousie 's catalogue of Canadian plants was included in the first issue of the society 's Transactions in 1829 . Lady Dalhousie presented a paper to them and donated her collection of Nova Scotian specimens as part of a herbarium in 1824 .
Lady Dalhousie donated her entire East Indian Herbarium to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh . The society noted its quality and made Lady Dalhousie an honorary member in 1837 ; at the time of her death she was the only female honorary member . Records of correspondence with Kew botanist , Sir William Hooker , include large collections of plants from Simla and Penang in 1831 . Her collections were included when Joseph Dalton Hooker compiled his Flora Indica .
= = Travels = =
When her husband was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia , she travelled with him and their three sons to Canada on the frigate HMS Forth . The family lived in Halifax , Nova Scotia for four years from 1816 to 1820 . Whilst there , Lady Dalhousie spent her time in the promotion of science . She toured the countryside with her husband , recommended improvements to farming and collected botanical items . She sent seeds to Dalhousie Castle for the gardens .
In 1820 , the family moved to Quebec , when her husband was appointed Governor General of British North America . Lady Dalhousie took on the traditional role of a governor 's wife , that of " Patron of literature and the arts " . She spent much time in high society and was known for her wit and satirical caricatures of society members . Once established , Lady Dalhousie and her friends started focusing on natural history and in particular cataloguing local botany .
In 1824 , the family returned to Dalhousie Castle and began plans for an extensive garden . Their gardener , Joseph Archibald , wrote of her that " few ... attained such proficiency as her ladyship in the science " . Plans for the garden were cut short as the family suffered severe financial losses when their agent went bankrupt . Although the garden was not completed , many of the North American plants had been planted and flowered for the first time in Great Britain . The family moved to a modest farm house in Sorel in 1826 and remained there until Lord Dalhousie was appointed Governor General and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of India in 1829 .
On the journey to India , the family stopped at Madeira , St. Helena and the Cape of Good Hope . At each place , Lady Dalhousie took time to collect plants and made a detailed catalogue of them . In 1831 she visited the foothills of Simla , along with Penang , near the Malay Peninsula .
= = Death and legacy = =
Lady Dalhousie died suddenly on 22 January 1839 in the home of Dean Ramsay aged 52 . One report mentions that she was so dedicated to her studies that she died with a list of plants in her hand . The collection that she and her husband had made was sold in 1985 ; parts went to the Nova Scotia Museum , the National Gallery of Canada , the Library and Archives Canada and the Provincial Archives of New Brunswick .
For her work in the classification of Indian botany , Robert Graham named a genus of Fabaceae , a flowering plant native to India , after her – Dalhousiea . One of the plants she sent to Graham was a new discovery , so he named the plant Asplenium dalhousiae after her . Sir William Hooker dedicated a volume of Curtis 's Botanical Magazine to her . Julia Catherine Beckwith , who is credited as Canada 's first writer of fiction , dedicated her first novel to her . Lady Dalhousie was the first owner of one of the " Philiadelphia " copies of Jane Austen 's Emma .
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= Teresa Hsu Chih =
Teresa Hsu Chih ( 7 July 1898 – 7 December 2011 ) , or commonly known as Teresa Hsu ( Chinese : 许哲 ; pinyin : Xǔ Zhe ) was a Chinese @-@ born Singaporean social worker , known affectionately as " Singapore 's Mother Teresa " , in recognition for her active lifelong devotion in helping the aged sick and destitutes locally . The retired nurse was the founder of the non @-@ profit charities — Heart to Heart Service and the Home for the Aged Sick , one of the first homes for the aged sick in Singapore . She had been a social worker in China and Paraguay and a nurse in England , before coming to Singapore to start similar non @-@ profit charities since 1961 . As a supercentenarian , Hsu was still involved in charity work and was one of very few supercentenarians who were recognised for reasons other than their longevity . She had spent almost all her savings on feeding and housing the poor and the elderly , all of whom are younger than she was , but she herself led a simple and humble lifestyle . In 2005 , she received the Special Recognition Award from the Singapore government in recognition of her contribution to the country .
= = Early years = =
Hsu was reportedly born on 7 July 1898 , in Shantou prefecture of China , during the reign of the Manchu Qing Dynasty , although this has never been independently verified . When Hsu was young , her father walked out on the family for another woman . Her mother , who was illiterate , had to fend for the three girls and one brother singlehandedly . At 16 , her family moved to Penang in Malaya , where they worked as cleaners in a convent . As she did not want to be a cleaner all her life , Hsu asked the nuns there to allow her to study with the children , and they agreed . Combining study with work , she passed her Senior Cambridge examinations four years later . Equipped with a basic education , she ventured to Hongkong to work and , later , to Chongqing , China , where she became a secretary and bookkeeper at a German news agency in the 1930s . She quit her job to become a volunteer , helping the injured during the Sino @-@ Japanese War .
Recalling her inability to help the wounded people whom she saw during the Second World War , Hsu decided to become a nurse . As she was overaged at 47 , she wrote a request to the chief matron of the Nursing Council in London . Touched by Hsu 's sincerity and dedication , her application was accepted . She spent eight years in England doing nursing and another eight in Paraguay as a member of the German charity group Bruderhof , to start hospitals and homes for the aged there . In her mid @-@ 50s , she decided to return home to Penang to be with her mother . In Malaysia , she assisted her brother in starting the Assunta Foundation for the Poor in Ipoh . She also played a key role in the startup of three homes for the elderly and two homes for young girls and neglected children in Ipoh .
= = Home for the Aged Sick = =
In 1961 , she came to Singapore to live with her older sister , Ursula , late principal of the Convent of the Holy Infant Jesus in Bukit Timah . On seeing her dedication and commitment in helping the poor and sick , Ursula bought her a 0 @.@ 6 @-@ hectare piece of land at Jalan Payoh Lai in 1965 , so that Hsu could open the first home for the aged sick in Singapore . The two sisters ran the Home for the Aged Sick for five years . Ursula financed its operations with her pay , while Hsu managed it and made some extra cash by selling the harvest of 10 coconut trees and a dozen banana trees in the backyard .
The sisters converted a servants ' quarters and a bungalow into wards for their patients , but it became increasingly difficult to cope with the numbers . In 1970 , with about 100 patients , they approached the Rotary Club for funds . The Rotary Club agreed to finance the home on condition that the club take over the running of it . The sisters handed the deeds over to the Society for the Aged Sick , an association formed by the Rotary Club members . The society built three blocks to house the increasing number of residents and Hsu remained the home 's matron until 1980 , when she was asked to retire at 83 . Hsu moved into a three @-@ room apartment on the rooftop of the Home , built by the society . After her sister died , she left Hsu a sum of money which she was able to buy flats with — five in Singapore and two in Malaysia for those people who had no money and who were asked to move . When asked where all her compassion and deep caring came from , Hsu replied :
I must have got it from my mother because she was totally dedicated to the job she chose to do and that was looking after the family . I think that trait was passed down to us . I 've no family , so I look after everybody else . I choose to serve everybody else who comes to me — that is my job ... The world is my home , all living beings are my family , selfless service is my religion .
= = Heart to Heart Service = =
Shortly after she retired , Hsu set up the Heart to Heart Service with Sharana Yao , her co @-@ social worker , a non @-@ profit , non @-@ government aided welfare service which provides food , clothes and monthly cash contributions to those in need . With the help of volunteers who drive her around , she brought necessities to the homes of elderly women and destitutes in their 80s and 90s on public assistance , such as rice , sugar , biscuits , beverages and monthly cash allowances of between S $ 20 and S $ 180 . She got her rations and funds from various sources — merchants , people in the neighbourhood , church friends , and their friends . The needy get on Heart @-@ to @-@ Heart 's list based on good faith by word of mouth . In 2000 , a Straits Times reader wrote to comment on her selfless contributions to the society and urged the young to follow her example :
As we admire the grit , good humour and faith that Ms Hsu has , might we also ponder over a certain dilemma : Where are the Teresa Hsus of today ? Ms Hsu is at an age where most would have long retired , but she takes it upon herself to be of service to others , to those who are less fortunate than her . A society like Singapore requires a lot more individuals like this and we need them now ... We need to have more youths as volunteers or pursuing a career in social work as they will be the core of our society ... More publicity and attention must be drawn to volunteer opportunities and more must be done to recognise dedicated people like Ms Hsu . We cannot continue in our efforts of building a gracious society without strengthening volunteerism as a culture . There is little to be gained by being more cultured if we do not take the plight of the less fortunate into consideration .
= = Lifestyle = =
Hsu was still actively involved in charity work after turning 110 . An advocate of healthy living , Hsu often gave public talks at schools , welfare homes , and hospitals in Singapore and overseas about health and service to the needy . When asked about the secret of her good health and longevity , Hsu attributed her good health to a spartan lifestyle , vegetarian diet , and to her positive attitude towards life .
I prefer to laugh than to weep . Those people who cry to me , I always tell them it is better to laugh than to use tissue paper , as laughing is free but tissue paper still cost five @-@ cent . ' Ha ha ha ' cost no cents .
I saw fishes swimming happily in the water , and I ’ ve no rights to take their life to fill my stomach . When I was small , my parents said that fish was good to me . But they are already not around and I ’ m still here .
She would start her day at 4 am with calisthenics , meditation and an hour of yoga exercises . At night , she would do yoga again , then read until midnight . She picked up yoga at age 69 , when she bought a book titled Forever Young , Forever Healthy . She also taught yoga to the young and old at temples , associations , hospitals and schools . She ate sparely ; her breakfast was a glass of water or milk . Lunch was often milk and salad , unless " people bring me food " , and it was milk or yogurt for dinner . At home , she had a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ volume private library she called Prema , which in Sanskrit means " divine love " . Her final days were kept busy with trips to help needy senior citizens , reading and yoga practice at her sparsely @-@ furnished single @-@ storey house attached to the Society for the Aged Sick .
= = Death = =
Hsu died on Wednesday , 7 December 2011 , peacefully at home and was cremated on the same day without any rites , as instructed by her . She was probably the oldest living person in Singapore at the time of her death although the case of 114 years old Fadilah Noor Abbe appeared soon after the passing of Hsu .
= = Commendation = =
2009 aged 111 : Public Service Star
2006 aged 108 : Received the National Volunteer and Philanthropy Centre 's Special Recognition Award from Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar .
2005 aged 107 : A photography exhibition was held to honour Hsu 's life and work at the Mica Building , from 6 July till 18 July , titled OneZeroSeven Photography Exhibition : Teresa Hsu Chih .
2004 aged 106 : Received the Sporting Singapore Inspiration Award from Dr Vivian Balakrishnan , Acting Minister for Community Development , Youth and Sports , for her devotion to the teaching of yoga .
2003 aged 105 : Honorary doctorate degree conferred by the University of Southern Queensland , Australia .
2003 aged 105 : Received the Active Senior Citizen of the Year Award from Chan Soo Sen , Minister of State ( Education , Community Development and Sports ) .
2002 aged 104 : Received a Honorary Doctorate Degree from the University of Southern Queensland , Australia .
1999 aged 101 : Received a one @-@ off Special Award at the Woman of the Year 1999 awards ceremony at the Raffles Hotel organised by Her World magazine .
1997 aged 99 : Named ' Hero for Today ' by the Chinese @-@ edition of the Reader 's Digest .
1994 aged 96 : Received the Community Service Award awarded by the Life Insurance Association for her contribution to community service .
1988 aged 90 : Guinness Stout Effort Award .
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= October 2008 Central America floods =
The October 2008 Central America floods were caused by a series of low pressure areas including Tropical Depression Sixteen , a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone in the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season that made landfall in Honduras . Heavy rainfall began in early October 2008 while a tropical wave passed through the region . On October 14 , Tropical Depression Sixteen formed just off the northeast coast of Honduras , and at the same time a low pressure system was on the Pacific coast . Both systems increased rainfall across the region , although the depression dropped heavy rainfall close to its center when it moved ashore on October 15 . Although Tropical Depression Sixteen quickly dissipated over land , its remnants persisted for several days . Another low pressure area interacted with a cold front on October 21 , adding to the rainfall in the region .
Heavy rainfall extended from Costa Rica to southeastern Mexico , causing what was considered the worst natural disaster in the region since Hurricane Mitch in 1998 . In the former country , rainfall totaled 2 @,@ 100 mm ( 83 in ) over several weeks , making the week ending October 17 the wettest in San José since 1944 . Floods in Costa Rica damaged 32 bridges and roads in 174 locations , while 1 @,@ 396 homes were damaged , killing seven people . In Nicaragua to the north , weeks of heavy rainfall killed 16 people and damaged or destroyed 1 @,@ 333 houses . In Honduras where the tropical depression made landfall , rainfall reached 1 @.@ 2 m ( 4 ft ) in some areas , although the highest official total there related to the depression was 360 mm ( 14 @.@ 19 in ) on the offshore Roatán over six days . About 40 % of municipalities in the country experienced flooding , forcing over 50 @,@ 000 people to leave their homes . The floods damaged about 50 % of roads in Honduras , and over 10 @,@ 000 houses were damaged or destroyed . Damage totaled about 3 billion lempiras ( HNL , $ 225 million USD ) , and there were 60 deaths .
In northern Guatemala , the floods damaged about 67 @,@ 000 ha ( 170 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields , accounting for Q128.9 million ( 2008 GTQ , $ 16 @.@ 8 million USD ) in crop damage . There were 17 deaths and about 4 @,@ 000 damaged houses in Guatemala . In neighboring El Salvador , the rains contributed to October 2008 being the third wettest month across the country , after Hurricane Stan in 2005 and Hurricane Mitch in 1998 . One person died , and hundreds were forced to evacuate their houses . In Belize , the rains flooded about 1 @,@ 000 homes , forcing the evacuation of one entire town due to health reasons . The rains caused additional flooding following Tropical Storm Arthur striking the country in May , damaging a bridge that was rebuilt after Arthur . Nationwide , the floods caused BZ $ 54 @.@ 1 million ( BZD , $ 27 @.@ 1 million USD ) in damage and two deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
Widespread rainfall occurred throughout Central America in early October 2008 due to the passage of a tropical wave through the region . Later , another tropical wave approached the region , which was believed to have left the west coast of Africa on September 17 . The wave developed a low pressure area on October 10 in the southwestern Caribbean , with sporadic convection . On October 13 , the system consisted of a large area of convection drifting northward offshore eastern Central America , and Dvorak classifications began , indicating gradual organization . At that time , there was another low pressure area on the Pacific coast , and both systems were producing rainfall across Central America .
At 1200 UTC on October 14 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) indicated that Tropical Depression Sixteen developed about 85 km ( 50 mi ) northeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios , a point where the border of Nicaragua and Honduras meet the Caribbean . In the hours after the depression 's formation , the convection decreased , and Hurricane Hunters indicated that the small low @-@ level circulation was rotating around a broader circulation . Shortly after 1200 UTC on October 15 , the weak tropical depression made landfall just west of Punta Patuca in northern Honduras , with a broad and ill @-@ defined circulation . Continuing west @-@ southwestward over land , the circulation dissipated on October 16 over the mountains of central Honduras , although the depression 's remnants continued to produce rainfall across the region for several days . On October 21 , a cold front was moving through the Yucatán peninsula , interacting with a newly formed low in the Gulf of Honduras to produce additional rainfall .
= = Preparations = =
Around the time when the NHC began issuing advisories on the depression , officials issued a tropical storm warning for northern Honduras that eventually covered the country 's entire coastline . A tropical storm warning was also issued for the coast of Belize . When the NHC began issuing advisories on the depression , the agency anticipated the depression would intensify into a strong tropical storm , based on low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures ; however , the agency noted uncertainty in the track . A ridge to the north was expected to steer the nascent depression westward , and two tropical cyclone forecast models predicted the storm would continue west @-@ northwestward to strike Belize . Other models forecast a more immediate landfall , which would limit intensification . While the storm was active , officials in Honduras issued a yellow alert for seven departments where heavy rainfall had occurred . A nationwide yellow alert was also issued for El Salvador , meaning there was potential for flooding and landslides , although alerts were dropped on October 21 when the threat of rainfall diminished .
= = Impact = =
Although a weak tropical cyclone , the depression and its remnants dropped heavy rainfall across Central America for several days , spreading into Nicaragua , Honduras , Guatemala , and Belize . In Honduras where it made landfall , rainfall peaked at 360 mm ( 14 @.@ 19 in ) on the offshore Roatán over six days . A member from Mercy Corps estimated the rainfall in October to have totaled around 1 @.@ 2 m ( 4 ft ) in some areas . On the mainland , rainfall reached 266 mm ( 10 @.@ 47 in ) at El Empalme . In El Salvador , the depression dropped heavy rainfall , mainly in the southern coastal portion , with a 24 ‑ hour peak of 239 mm ( 9 @.@ 40 in ) in Puerto Parada en La Unión . Over a period of eight days , rainfall in Belize reached 547 mm ( 21 @.@ 52 in ) at Baldy Beacon . Rainfall extended as far north as southeastern Mexico . Throughout the region , the flooding destroyed about 10 @,@ 000 homes and left about 250 @,@ 000 people homeless . News agencies considered the flooding the worst in the region since Hurricane Mitch in 1998 .
According to Costa Rica 's National Meteorology Institute , the week ending on October 17 was the wettest in San José since 1944 . Over a period of several weeks , rainfall reached about 2 @,@ 100 mm ( 83 in ) . The influence between the precursor to the depression and a low pressure area in the eastern Pacific caused flooding in Costa Rica that killed seven people . In Guanacaste Province , a landslide covered three cars , and in Monteverde , another landslide knocked over a power line that killed two people . In Parrita , an ambulance carrying four people was struck by a fallen tree , while in Puntarenas , another vehicle was struck by a tree , killing one of its occupants . Transport was disrupted in widespread areas in the north and south of the country due to landslides blocking roads . Across the country , the floods compromised roads in 174 locations and damaged 32 bridges . Flooding isolated about 6 @,@ 900 people in 75 communities , and about 77 @,@ 000 people were forced to leave their homes . Power outages affected 89 communities , and 424 water wells along the Pacific coast were polluted . Nationwide , the floods damaged 1 @,@ 396 houses and 39 schools .
In early October , heavy rainfall began affecting Nicaragua , causing mudslides and flooding . The tropical depression added to weeks of heavy rainfall that killed 16 people , many caused by people attempting to cross swollen rivers . Toward the end of October 2008 , Lake Managua overflowed , causing flooding in the capital city of Managua . Across the country , 2 @,@ 273 people evacuated to storm shelters after the floods damaged or destroyed 1 @,@ 333 houses . Transportation was disrupted when the floods wrecked four bridges and 154 mi ( 248 km ) of highways . Classes were canceled in León and Chinandega departments . The crops in the latter department were almost entirely destroyed .
Following months of drought conditions , the heavy rainfall in Honduras caused flooding , initially in the southern and central portions , although the entire country experienced rainfall , with 40 % of municipalities experiencing flooding . The rains caused widespread landslides , particularly in the western and central portions . In the capital city Tegucigalpa , the rainfall in October was estimated to have been twice the average annual total . In two locations , the Pan @-@ American Highway was disrupted by either landslide or flooding , and widespread areas were isolated nationwide by flooded roads . According to Reuters , about 50 % of the roads in Honduras were damaged during the floods , with 227 roads and 106 bridges damaged . A landslide near Corquín blocked a river and created a natural dam , forcing hundreds of nearby residents to leave . In Colón Department , the Tocoa River overflowed , while flooding in Atlántida damaged crop lands . A total of 101 @,@ 107 ha ( 249 @,@ 840 acres ) of crops were damaged , mostly in Comayagua Department . 14 water systems were damaged , and 150 @,@ 000 people lost power in Olancho Department . Landslides in Tegucigalpa killed six and displaced about 500 people . In El Progreso , 375 inmates from a jail had to be evacuated to another facility . A total of 50 @,@ 676 people were forced to evacuate in the country , most of whom stayed in shelters . 2 @,@ 474 homes were destroyed in Honduras , with another 8 @,@ 688 damaged or flooded . In addition , at least nine schools were damaged or destroyed . Nationwide , the floods killed 60 people , and damage was estimated at about 3 billion lempiras ( HNL , $ 225 million USD ) . The low death toll compared to Hurricane Mitch was largely due to the widespread evacuations .
Floods in Guatemala overflowed rivers and caused landslides in Izabal and Petén departments , blocking many roads . The rising rivers damaged about 175 houses , forcing hundreds of people to leave their homes . About 67 @,@ 000 ha ( 170 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields were damaged or destroyed , including corn , rice , and beans , and crop damage nationwide was estimated at Q128.9 million ( 2008 GTQ , $ 16 @.@ 8 million USD ) . About 2 @.@ 5 % of the national corn crop and 3 @.@ 7 % of the rice crop were wrecked during the floods . Nationwide , about 4 @,@ 000 houses and 82 roads were damaged or destroyed , and 17 people died in the country from the floods . In neighboring El Salvador , floods affected the houses of about 600 families . High levels forced officials to release water from several dams , causing urban flooding . Along the coastline , the floods damaged maize and bean crops . The average rainfall across El Salvador for the month of October was 475 mm ( 14 @.@ 76 in ) . This was the third highest for October since such record keeping began in 1971 , after 2005 when Hurricane Stan struck and 1998 when Hurricane Mitch crossed the area . The tropical depression killed one person in the country .
In Belize , the rainfall in one week represented the average monthly values at some stations . Heavy rainfall from the depression caused levels to rise along rivers and creeks . A bridge that had been rebuilt following earlier Tropical Storm Arthur was flooded , prompting the Belize Defence Force to assist in crossings . This isolated much of Cayo District from the rest of the country until the bridge was repaired . On the western portion of the district , flooding along the Macal River damaged a bridge crossing into northern Guatemala , which restricted traffic only to people returning home . Levels along the Macal and the Belize River were higher than the floods of Hurricane Mitch in 1998 , but less than that of Hurricane Keith in 2000 . The floods caused residents to evacuate after over 1 @,@ 000 homes were flooded ; 311 people stayed in shelters , while the remainder stayed with families and relatives . Of the affected houses , 12 were destroyed and 802 were severely damaged . Most of the affected population was in rural areas of western Belize . One village in Orange Walk District had to be quarantined due to the health threat from the floods for 25 days . Many roads were closed , and there were widespread school closures . Overall , the floods killed two people in the country and caused BZ $ 54 @.@ 1 million ( BZD , $ 27 @.@ 1 million USD ) in damage . Most of the damage was agricultural , accounting for BZ $ 28 @.@ 2 million ( BZD , $ 14 @.@ 1 million USD ) , or 25 % of the country 's agricultural gross domestic product . Other damage included BZ $ 11 @.@ 7 million ( BZD , $ 6 @.@ 3 million USD ) to roads and bridges . The ongoing floods caused BZ $ 2 @.@ 7 million ( BZD , $ 1 @.@ 5 million USD ) in tourism losses , due to closed facilities and water damage .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the floods in Costa Rica , the country 's Red Cross opened shelters to house storm victims . The government advised residents not to drink water out of fear it could be polluted from the flooding . A state of emergency was declared on October 18 due to the effects in Costa Rica . In Nicaragua , officials deployed about 3 @,@ 000 soldiers to assist in flood operations . The World Food Programme provided about 8 tons of food to families in El Salvador affected by the flooding . Then @-@ president of Honduras Manuel Zelaya declared a national state of emergency on October 19 . In Honduras , pre @-@ positioned supplies from UNICEF quickly diminished due to the widespread distribution of blankets and medical kits , raising fears for the spread of disease . The World Food Programme provided about 58 tons of food to 5 @,@ 500 families in Honduras . Residents returned home as floodwaters gradually receded . The Mercy Corps later provided corn and bean seeds to 1 @,@ 300 Honduran farmers to regrow the damaged crops . In May 2009 , the World Bank provided $ 25 million ( USD ) to Honduras to rebuild damaged roads and bridges . Workers in Guatemala airlifted food to storm victims due to residual flooding . The Guatemalan government provided $ 6 @.@ 6 million to residents in the northern portion of the country , including medical supplies and seeds to regrow crops . A state of emergency was declared for Cayo District in Belize . Search and rescue teams were deployed to the district , and medical crews visited several towns , providing help to 3 @,@ 000 people . The Belize National Emergency Management Organization provided meals to about 9 @,@ 000 people following the floods .
Across the affected areas , the Red Cross spent about $ 247 @,@ 000 to provide food and blankets . In the weeks and months following the flooding , various international groups provided aid totaling nearly $ 11 million . The United States donated $ 622 @,@ 732 worth of assistance , mainly to help with logistical work and relief efforts . The United States military also worked to purify drinking water in Honduras . Canada donated $ 412 @,@ 201 worth of assistance , including providing shelter in Honduras and rebuilding schools . The country of Brazil donated about $ 1 @.@ 68 million worth of food . The Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department of the European Commission provided nearly $ 2 @.@ 2 million for relief efforts . Other European country donations included nearly $ 500 @,@ 000 from Ireland for hygiene and food supplies , $ 675 @,@ 675 from the Netherlands for general relief efforts , $ 154 @,@ 570 from Spain through the World Food Programme , $ 159 @,@ 559 from Germany for shelters , and $ 892 @,@ 468 from Sweden . Several Asian countries donated to the relief efforts , including $ 123 @,@ 810 from Japan to Honduras to purchase emergency goods , $ 22 @,@ 000 from South Korea , and $ 10 @,@ 000 from Singapore to Honduras . Non @-@ governmental organizations and other groups providing aid included $ 1 @.@ 5 million from the Central Emergency Response Fund , $ 300 @,@ 000 from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , $ 120 @,@ 000 from Catholic Relief Services , and $ 289 @,@ 000 from ACT Alliance .
In November , weeks after the tropical depression struck Honduras , Tropical Storm Paloma formed in the western Caribbean and caused additional rainfall in the region .
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= Jack the Bulldog =
Jack the Bulldog is the official mascot of the Georgetown University Hoyas athletic teams . Jack has been the name of at least five live Bulldogs since 1962 , when the name first came into use , though Georgetown counts seven official bulldog mascots including the two living ones . The current incarnation of Jack is an English Bulldog born in 2013 whose full name is John B. Carroll .
A puppy born in 2012 named Jack Junior , or J.J. , began assisting Jack in April 2012 , allowing the older Jack to retire after the 2012 – 13 school year and transfer his duties to Jack Junior . However , university administrators determined in July 2013 that J.J. would not be the school 's mascot going forward . By the end of August 2013 , a new puppy had been identified from the same breeders , and John B. Carroll was introduced to the campus in October 2013 .
Jack was not always the name of the Georgetown Hoyas ' mascot , nor was the mascot always a bulldog , as other types of dogs , particularly bull terriers , were associated with the sports teams before 1962 . In 2009 , the American Kennel Club ranked Jack as the 8th most popular dog in American culture . Today , Georgetown is among thirty @-@ nine American universities to use a bulldog as their mascot , with Georgia , Butler , Mississippi State , Yale and James Madison being the only others with a live bulldog . Jack is also portrayed by a costumed character Bulldog mascot , a tradition dating to 1977 .
= = Early dogs = =
Dogs have been associated with the school 's sports teams on an unofficial basis since the late nineteenth century . Early dog mascots may have included a mutt called Hoya around 1900 , a Borzoi named Richmond Jack in 1906 , a bulldog named Hoya in 1907 , and a Boston Bull Terrier in 1911 . At that time , most mascots were primarily associated with the school 's football team , and were cared for by students or individual sports teams , rather than the administration .
Sergeant Stubby , a part bull terrier and a decorated World War I war dog , came to campus in 1921 with J. Robert Conroy who was attending Georgetown Law at the time . The school football team used Stubby as a popular halftime show where he would push a football across the field , which established him as a campus celebrity . After Stubby died in 1926 , the team then chose a female bull terrier named Jazz Bo , who had been brought to campus by Georgetown College student Paul Van Laanen . Jazz Bo was retitled " Hoya " by the students , after the traditional " Hoya Saxa " school cheer . The athletic teams are possibly named , in turn , for this dog . When " Hoya " gave birth to a daughter , students named the puppy " Saxa " .
Other bull terriers like Saxa filled in as mascot until World War II , when athletics at the school paused during the war . After the war , a series of Great Danes , named Bo , Butch , and Hobo , served as mascot . William Peter Blatty , author of The Exorcist , was one of the students to care for Butch . During this time period mascot abductions by rival schools became a common threat to the animal 's safety . A bull terrier costume was also briefly used by the school , but in 1951 , the school suspended the football program as part of a larger backlash against university sports . This left the school without a mascot .
= = Royal Jacket = =
In 1962 , with the resumption of football , students Stan Samorajczyk and John Feldmann , editors of The Hoya campus newspaper , founded a committee to raise money for the purchase of a new mascot dog in time for the first new games in 1964 . This committee chose a purebred English Bulldog as the dog which would represent Georgetown students because of their " tenacity . " Samorajczyk also followed the sports team jerseys , which may have previously had an image of a bulldog on them . Around this time the school also adopted as the official logo of the athletics program a new drawing in blue and gray school colors of the bulldog . This logo dog wears a cap typical of the beanie which other freshman at the time had to wear .
For $ 150 the committee bought a two @-@ year @-@ old blue @-@ ribbon @-@ champion show dog named " Lil @-@ Nan 's Royal Jacket , " named because the colors of his coat looked like a jacket . This dog was to be renamed " Hoya " like his 1926 predecessor , but refused to respond to any name other than his call name " Jack . " Jack lived outside New South Hall in a heated doghouse . In 1967 , Royal Jacket retired and was replaced by a second bulldog who continued under the simple name " Jack . " In 1977 , as the basketball program gained popularity , the costumed mascot took over duties as Jack . The costume , first worn by student Pat Sheehan , has been updated numerous times , most recently in 2013 . Other live bulldogs owned by students at times joined the costumed Jack , including one named Rocky from 1982 to 1985 and one named Daisy in 1997 .
= = John P. Carroll = =
In 1998 , Michael Boyle , Austin Martin , and Kathleen Long , co @-@ founders of the Hoya Blue fan club began a campaign to revive the tradition of an official live mascot with the assistance of English professor Father Scott R. Pilarz , S.J. The " Bring Back Jack " Campaign initially sought to find a suitable dog among the students and faculty , as the university did not want to use school funds for the purchase . Ultimately , Hoya Blue raised $ 1 @,@ 500 to purchase a new puppy named Jack ( officially , John P. Carroll ) and placed him in the care of Father Pilarz on February 16 , 1999 . However , after four years , Jack left Georgetown with Pilarz , who was named president of the University of Scranton in Pennsylvania in 2003 , and then president of Marquette University in 2011 . John P. Carroll died on September 16 , 2011 at the home of Pilarz 's parents in Voorhees Township , New Jersey , at the age of 12 .
Donations from Hoya Blue , the Hoya Hoop Club , the Office of the President , and alumni allowed for the purchase of the current third incarnation of Jack ( born 2003 ) .
= = John S. Carroll = =
Jack was born May 3 , 2003 at Brookhollow Kennel in Freehold Township , New Jersey as a litter of one . He was the son of champion bulldog Copper Kid and a relation of Rocky the 1983 mascot . He was brought to campus on July 19 , 2003 and placed in the care of Father Christopher Steck , S.J. , a theology professor . His official name , as registered with the American Kennel Club was Brookhollow 's John S. Carroll , which allows for the nickname Jack . This referred to Georgetown founder John Carroll , while " S. " stood for Steck . Similarly the previous mascot was officially John P. Carroll , for Pilarz . He was also infrequently referred to as Jack IV , as the school was unsure of the exact number of dogs used as Jack in the 1970s .
Jack lived with Father Christopher Steck in New South Hall , but spent time in Wolfington Hall Jesuit Residence . In 2003 , Father Steck started the " Jack Crew " , a six @-@ student organization of Jack 's walkers and caretakers . Crew members were required to be able to show their school spirit and their ability to control Jack , including being aware of his affinity for orange traffic cones . Jack had both an email address , a Facebook profile , a student ID card , and a local phone number , and the campus directory listed him as part of the theology faculty , like Father Steck .
Jack attended home basketball games at the Verizon Center , where he entertained fans by attacking a cardboard box decorated with opponents ' logos . This tradition developed after Steck discovered Jack 's propensity for attacking boxes of brownie mix , and he originally decorated boxes for the games himself . Jack wore a leather collar studded with Georgetown pins , and occasionally wore a team jersey sporting the number one , which Steck purchased at the school bookstore . On campus , Jack attended student meetings and could be booked for social functions . He weighed 55 pounds ( 25 kg ) and his color was described as " red fawn . " Jack 's personality was described as very social , but imperious and stubborn with " a sense of entitlement . "
On March 11 , 2012 , Jack tore his ACL , and had to have surgery to repair it on April 23 , 2012 . In March 2013 , school announced that Jack would " retire " from gameday duties after the end of the 2012 – 13 basketball season , and officially take a smaller role . Jack continued to live on campus with Steck until his death on June 2 , 2015 .
= = Jack Junior = =
On March 30 , 2012 , Georgetown announced the donation of a new bulldog puppy from San Diego breeders Janice and Marcus Hochstetler , whose children Nathan and Rachel attend the school . The school named the puppy Jack Junior , or " J.J. " , and his father was a breed champion , while his mother , named Treasure , and grandmother still live with the Hochstetler family . The puppy , who has been described as " laid back , " was introduced to the community at a ceremony on April 13 , 2012 .
Students discovered during Homecoming 2012 that J.J. has an affinity for balloons , and during Midnight Madness he attacked blue and orange balloons , colors of Georgetown 's arch @-@ rival , Syracuse University . He had his debut at the Verizon Center on January 26 , 2013 during a men 's basketball victory over the Louisville Cardinals . On February 8 , 2013 , Jack and J.J. met with Butler University 's mascots , Blue II and Blue III , who were in town on a goodwill tour to Atlantic 10 Conference members .
However , during the summer 2013 , trainers at the school determined that , given the " exciting and hectic " life required of the school 's mascot , it would be best for J.J. to return to a home environment , announcing their decision on July 31 , 2013 . An incident involving a small child during the fall 2012 semester , and a subsequent settlement with the child 's family , may have contributed to the school 's decision , though Georgetown spokesperson Rachel Pugh said it wasn 't the only factor . Caretaker Rev. Christopher Steck , S.J. was surprised by the schools decision , and published a letter expressing his disappointment . In an editorial in The Hoya , Steck also lamented the school 's choice not to involve the Bulldog Advisory Committee , which began meeting earlier in the summer , in its decision . After a search by Steck , J.J. was adopted by a family close to the Georgetown campus on August 18 , 2013 .
= = John B. Carroll = =
On August 30 , 2013 , Pugh announced the arrival of a new puppy , also from the Hochstetler family and an offspring of Treasure , J.J. ' s mother , though they come from different litters . Officially named Compatible 's John B. Carroll , the dog 's middle name stands for " Bulldog " , unlike his predecessors , where the middle name referred to the caretaker 's name . He was born on June 29 , 2013 and was introduced on campus in late October 2013 with appearances at a men 's soccer game against DePaul on October 23 , and around Copley Lawn and Leo J. O 'Donovan Hall . Jack weighs 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) and his color is described as " fawn . "
In early October 2013 , the school announced that Steck would not be the new mascot 's caretaker , but that another , not necessarily a Jesuit , would be selected from the Georgetown community . On November 5 , 2013 , the school choose 2013 graduate McKenzie Stough as the bulldog 's caretaker . Besides being an alumna , McKenzie works as a Communications Specialist in the university 's Office of Communications . Responding to criticism , the school involved the fourteen @-@ member Bulldog Advisory Committee in the replacement process and selection of the caretaker . The Jack Crew will also be downsized from twenty students to " four or five " with the selection of this new caretaker .
Starting in December 2014 , Jack began performing at home basketball games by riding a skateboard across the court . For the opening game of the 2015 – 16 season , the school produced bobblehead dolls of Jack on a skateboard , wearing jersey number 89 in honor of the year of the school 's founding , 1789 .
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= Quantitative precipitation forecast =
The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast ( abbreviated QPF ) is the expected amount of melted precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area . A QPF will be created when precipitation amounts reaching a minimum threshold are expected during the forecast 's valid period . Valid periods of precipitation forecasts are normally synoptic hours such as 0000 , 0600 , 1200 and 1800 GMT . Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail . Starting in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1990s , QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States . Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer , or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere , which decreases with height . QPF can be generated on a quantitative , forecasting amounts , or a qualitative , forecasting the probability of a specific amount , basis . Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image . The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements , weather radar estimates , or a combination of both . Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast .
= = Use of radar = =
Algorithms exist to forecast rainfall based on short term radar trends , within a matter of hours . Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image .
= = Use of forecast models = =
In the past , the forecaster was responsible for generating the entire weather forecast based upon available observations . Today , meteorologists ' input is generally confined to choosing a model based on various parameters , such as model biases and performance . Using a consensus of forecast models , as well as ensemble members of the various models , can help reduce forecast error . However , regardless how small the average error becomes with any individual system , large errors within any particularly piece of guidance are still possible on any given model run . Professionals are required to interpret the model data into weather forecasts that are understandable to the lay person . Professionals can use knowledge of local effects which may be too small in size to be resolved by the model to add information to the forecast . As an example , terrain is considered in the QPF process by using topography or climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail . Using model guidance and comparing the various forecast fields to climatology , extreme events such as excessive precipitation associated with later flood events lead to better forecasts . While increasing accuracy of forecast models implies that humans may no longer be needed in the forecast process at some point in the future , there is currently still a need for human intervention .
= = = Nowcasting = = =
The forecasting of the precipitation within the next six hours is often referred to as nowcasting . In this time range it is possible to forecast smaller features such as individual showers and thunderstorms with reasonable accuracy , as well as other features too small to be resolved by a computer model . A human given the latest radar , satellite and observational data will be able to make a better analysis of the small scale features present and so will be able to make a more accurate forecast for the following few hours . However , there is now expert systems using those data and mesoscale numerical model to make better extrapolation , including evolution of those features in time .
= = = Ensemble forecasting = = =
The detail that can be given into a forecast decreases with time as these errors increase . There becomes a point when the errors are so large that the forecast has no correlation with the actual state of the atmosphere . Looking at a single forecast model gives no indication of how likely that forecast is to be correct . Ensemble forecasting entails the production of many forecasts in order to reflect the uncertainty in the initial state of the atmosphere ( due to errors in the observations and insufficient sampling ) . The uncertainty in the forecast can then be assessed by the range of different forecasts produced . Ensemble forecasts are increasingly being used for operational weather forecasting ( for example at European Centre for Medium @-@ Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) , National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) , and the Canadian forecasting center ) . Ensemble mean forecasts for precipitation have the same problems associated with their use in other fields , as they average out more extreme values , and therefore have limited usefulness for extreme events . In the case of the SREF ensemble mean , used within the United States , this decreasing usefulness starts with values as low as 0 @.@ 50 inches ( 13 mm ) .
= = Probability approach = =
In addition to graphical rainfall forecasts showing quantitative amounts , rainfall forecasts can be made describing the probabilities of certain rainfall amounts being met . This allows the forecaster to assign the degree of uncertainty to the forecast . This technique is considered to be informative , relative to climatology . This method has been used for years within National Weather Service forecasts , as a period 's chance of rain equals the chance that 0 @.@ 01 inches ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) will fall in any particular spot . In this case , it is known as probability of precipitation . These probabilities can be derived from a deterministic forecast using computer post @-@ processing .
= = Entities which generate rainfall forecasts = =
= = = Australia = = =
The Bureau of Meteorology began a method of forecasting rainfall using a combination , or ensemble , of different forecast models in 2006 . It is termed The Poor Man 's Ensemble ( PME ) . Its forecasts are more accurate over time than any of the individual models composing the ensemble . The PME is quick to produce , and is available through their Water and the Land page on their website .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
The Hong Kong Observatory generates short term rainstorm warnings for systems which are expected to accumulate a certain amount of rainfall per hour over the next few hours . They use three levels of warning . The amber warning indicates that a rainfall intensity of 30 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) per hour is expected . The red warning indicates rainfall amounts of 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) per hour are anticipated . The black warning indicates that rainfall rates of 70 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) are possible .
= = = United States = = =
Within the United States , the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center , River Forecast Centers , and local forecast offices within the National Weather Service create precipitation forecasts for up to five days in the future , forecasting amounts equal to or greater than 0 @.@ 01 inches ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) . Starting in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1990s , QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact of rainfall on river stages .
= = Verification = =
Rainfall forecasts can be verified a number of ways . Rain gauge observations can be gridded into areal averages , which are then compared to the grids for the forecast models . Weather radar estimates can be used outright , or corrected for rain gauge observations .
Several statistical scores can be based on the observed and forecast fields . One , known as a bias , compares the size of the forecast field to the observed field , with the goal of a score of 1 . The threat score involves the intersection of the forecast and observed sets , with a maximum possible verification score of 1 . The probability of detection , or POD , is found by dividing the overlap between the forecast and observed fields by the size of the observed field : the goal here is a score of 1 . The critical success index , or CSI , divides the overlap between the forecast and observed fields by the combined size of the forecast and observed fields : the goal here is a score of 1 . The false alarm rate , or FAR , divides the area of the forecast which does not overlap the observed field by the size of the forecasted area . The goal value in this measure is zero .
With tropical cyclones which impact the United States , the GFS global forecast model performed best in regards to its rainfall forecasts over the last few years , outperforming the NAM and ECMWF forecast models .
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= The Emancipation of Mimi =
The Emancipation of Mimi is the tenth studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released through Island Records on April 12 , 2005 . The Emancipation of Mimi was considered Carey 's " comeback album " by critics and became her highest @-@ selling release in the US in a decade . In composing the album , the singer collaborated with many songwriters and producers throughout 2004 , including Jermaine Dupri , Snoop Dogg , Twista , Nelly , Pharrell Williams , and James " Big Jim " Wright , many of whom appeared as featured guests on select tracks .
Carey opted to use her personal nickname ' Mimi ' in the title , revealing a more intimate side of the singer , as seen in the album 's declarative theme of emancipation from her personal and commercial setbacks . Although it has similar vocal production to her previous works and an inclination towards her signature ballads , the album encompasses dance @-@ oriented and uptempo styles in keeping with its celebratory motif . Critics noted the theme of independence and lack of restraint , dubbing the album a " party " record . In contrast to the R & B and pop @-@ rock music styles that framed her previous releases , The Emancipation of Mimi showcases a wider range of genres , exploring R & B @-@ related styles , such as 1970s retro gospel and soul .
The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with the highest first @-@ week sales of Carey 's career at the time . It entered in the top five on the albums charts in Canada , Denmark , France and Japan . The Emancipation of Mimi was the best @-@ selling album of 2005 in the US , and the second @-@ best seller worldwide . By April 2008 , it had sold 12 million copies .
" It 's Like That " became one of her highest @-@ charting songs in years , reaching the top twenty in several countries . " We Belong Together " accumulated 14 weeks at number one in the US , and was later hailed " song of the decade " by Billboard . It reached number one in Australia , number two in New Zealand , and achieved top @-@ five positions in several European countries . To promote the album , Carey performed at the 48th Grammy Awards , the MTV Movie Awards 2005 , the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards and the American Music Awards of 2005 . In 2006 , she embarked on her sixth concert tour , The Adventures of Mimi .
= = Background = =
In 2001 , Carey had experienced critical , commercial , personal , and professional struggles , following the poor reception to her debut film Glitter ( 2001 ) . The picture was panned by critics and earned less than eight million dollars at the box office . After posting a personally expressive letter on her official site , Carey checked into a hospital in Connecticut because of an " emotional and physical breakdown " . Following the film 's and soundtrack 's poor performance , Virgin Records America bought out Carey 's unprecedented $ 100 million recording contract . The company paid her $ 50 million to part ways . Carey flew to Capri , Italy , after her two @-@ week hospitalization . During her five @-@ month stay , she began to write a new studio album , using experiences she had gone through in recent months as inspirational themes . After being signed by Island Records and starting her own imprint , MonarC Entertainment , Carey released her intended " comeback " album Charmbracelet . Critics deemed it a strong improvement over Glitter , but not something that would re @-@ establish her popularity as in the early stages of her career .
After enduring three years of " carping " from critics , Carey planned her return to music . On November 18 , 2004 , she revealed on her website that the name of the album would be The Emancipation of Mimi . While Carey was recording the album , Island Records executive L.A. Reid had learned that close friends referred to the singer as " Mimi " . He had told Carey , " I feel your spirit on this record . You should use that name in the title , because that 's the fun side of you that people don 't get to see – the side that can laugh at the diva jokes , laugh at the breakdown jokes , laugh at whatever they want to say about you and just live life and enjoy it . " Carey explained that Mimi is a " very personal nickname " only used by those in her inner circle , and thus the title meant she was letting her guard down and inviting her fans to be that much closer to her . She thought that naming her album The Emancipation of Mariah Carey would be " obnoxious " .
= = Writing and recording = =
During a visit to a recording studio , Carey was given a beat by The Legendary Traxster . On a later date , she met with American rapper Twista backstage after a show . When Carey mentioned the track , Twista told her that the beat had been originally intended for him , and that he had already written lyrics for it . They decided to collaborate on the track , which later was titled " One and Only " . In the following months , Carey wrote and co @-@ produced several songs including " Say Somethin ' ( with Snoop Dogg and The Neptunes ) , " To the Floor " ( with Nelly ) , and " Fly Like a Bird " with James " Big Jim " Wright . By November , she felt that she had composed enough good material for The Emancipation of Mimi . After Reid listened to the album , however , he suggested the singer compose a few more " strong " singles to ensure the project 's commercial success . Based on his recommendation , Carey met with Jermaine Dupri in Atlanta for a brief studio session , since Reid felt she had written some of her best work with him . During this two @-@ day trip , Carey and Dupri wrote and produced " Shake It Off " and " Get Your Number " , which were released as the album 's third and fourth singles . Following this recording session , " Shake It Off " was briefly selected as the album 's lead single , replacing the other contenders , " Stay The Night " and " Say Somethin ' " . Carey later returned to Atlanta for a second meeting with Dupri ; they then penned the last two songs for the album : " We Belong Together " and " It 's Like That " . In an interview for Billboard , Carey described her sentiments regarding " It 's Like That " during the production stage :
I had the chills . I had a great feeling about it when we finished writing the song , and I was flying back from Atlanta at some crazy hour of the morning ... But we were listening to it on the plane ride on the way home , and even from the demo version , I really felt something very special .
Carey and her management then decided to release " It 's Like That " as the album 's lead single , calling it " the right fire @-@ starter " . The singer has praised Dupri for being " focused " , and felt that together they had composed some of her favorite songs on the album . She has told MTV , " The album is not about making the older executives happy by making a bring @-@ down @-@ the @-@ house , tearjerker ballad , or [ something ] steeped in the media dramas of my life . What I tried to do was keep the sessions very sparse , underproduced , like in ' 70s soul music ... " According to Reid , Carey intended for the album to feature a more unpolished sound than her previous releases . The singer had been frustrated with the overproduction on many of her previous records , due to the inclusion of what she considered unnecessary " bells and whistles " . She opted to record the majority of The Emancipation of Mimi live , alongside the band . Reid agreed with this decision and felt that the live vocals made the album sound more authentic .
= = Musical style = =
The Emancipation of Mimi was Carey 's most expressive album to that point according to Fox News ; it signified her creative freedom , as she had been oppressed by the expectations of record executives in the past . They noted the album 's motif of professional and cultural emancipation throughout many songs . In an interview with the Hartford Courant , Carey spoke about the album 's lack of creative restraint she felt was not featured on Charmbracelet . The latter album harbored on reviving Carey 's popularity among the adult contemporary radio audience , following her decline with Glitter , which found the singer sampling 1980s melodies . While featuring ballads similar to those on Charmbracelet , the songs on The Emancipation of Mimi drew influence from R & B and hip hop , and were composed at an elevated tempo . According to Dimitri Ehrlich , an editor from Vibe , the album includes many musical facets :
Mimi pulls Carey in two opposite directions . Most of the tracks find her paired with the hottest hip hop producers of the day ; there , she exercises restraint and settles into a groove . But on the rest , she does what comes most naturally to her — belting to her heart 's desire , perhaps to mollify those who don 't care much for her detours into raunchier rap territory .
The Emancipation of Mimi explores various genres ; Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune felt that the album effectively combines " elements of hip @-@ hop and rhythm and blues into pop songs that appeal to a broad cross @-@ section of listeners . " Aside from the ballads and uptempo tracks , The Emancipation of Mimi incorporates elements of soul and 1970s @-@ inspired genres , evident on the gospel @-@ tinged closing track , " Fly Like a Bird " . While most tracks derive instrumentation from live bands and musical instruments , some of the uptempo songs feature computerized arrangements and synthesizers . Stylistically , critics considered the album Carey 's most diverse record in years , and one that highlighted many different production choices and techniques .
= = Songs = =
" It 's Like That " was written and produced by Carey and Jermaine Dupri . It features hand claps and whistles , as well as ad @-@ libs and verses from Dupri and Fat Man Scoop . The song 's bassline and chord progression are aligned with piano and string notes . Its lyrics are arranged to portray the singer during a celebration : " I came to have a party / Open off that Bacardi ... Purple taking me higher / I 'm lifted and I like it . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised its lyrics and beat , and felt the song prepares listeners for the album 's " party theme " . Lyrically , " We Belong Together " was described as a " broken @-@ hearted lament for love " ; it features finger @-@ snaps , kick drums , and a piano @-@ driven melody . Carey composed the gospel @-@ influenced ballad " Fly Like a Bird " with James Wright . The lyrics are in the form of a prayer that conveys a message of unconditional love for God . The song features a verbal recording of Carey 's pastor , Clarence Keaton , who reads two verses from the Bible . The singer wrote the album 's fifth cut " Say Somethin ' " , which features rap verses from Snoop Dogg and was produced by The Neptunes . Vibe writer Dimitri Ehrlich described it as " a musical oddity " , and characterized the production as " strange instrumentation , weird melodic shifts , hectic drum patterns and a bed of synths . " Lyrically , the protagonist makes sexual advances to a romantic interest with the line " If it 's worth your while , do something good to me . " When interpreting the lyrics in the female role , Cummings noted " a shy woman who doesn 't need to say anything at all to get a man 's attention . "
Carey wrote " Mine Again " alongside producer James Poyser . The ballad has electronic keyboard notes , a rhythmic vinyl sound , and melodies from gospel and R & B genres . " Stay the Night " was produced by Carey and Kanye West , and samples a piano loop from Ramsey Lewis 's 1971 cover version of " Betcha by Golly , Wow " . In the lyrics , the protagonist faces the dilemma of spending the night with an ex @-@ lover , although he is in another relationship . " Get Your Number " samples the hook from British band Imagination 's 1982 single " Just an Illusion " , and derives its production from " ' 80s @-@ esque synthesizers " and computerized musical instruments . Lawrence Ferber from the Windy City Times described " Shake It Off " as a " playful approach to bitterness — and , more specifically , a cheatin ' bad apple " , with lyrics such as " I gotta shake you off / Just like a Calgon commercial " . In an interview with Ferber , Carey described the track as her favorite from The Emancipation of Mimi : " ' Shake It Off ' can apply to anything . Whatever personal dramas we go through , put that song on and you lose the anxiety or intensity of the moment . I 'll listen to that song when I 've just come out of an annoying meeting . I gotta shake this off . " Editor Jon Pareles from The New York Times felt that the album follows a formula that was most apparent on " Shake It Off " : " On this album , the verses stay in a narrow range , the choruses glide higher , and at the ends of some songs , Ms. Carey gives herself a few of her old sky @-@ high notes as a background flourish . "
= = Release and promotion = =
The Emancipation of Mimi was released by The Island Def Jam Music Group for download and as a CD in Mexico on March 30 , 2005 . On April 4 , 2005 , the album was released in Australia and New Zealand . In the United Kingdom , The Emancipation of Mimi was distributed through Mercury Records . The following day , the album was made available in Canada through the Universal Music Group . On April 12 , 2005 , it became available in France , Japan , and the United States , and was released on May 11 , 2005 , in China . On British and Japanese versions of the album , " Sprung " and " Secretlove " were included as bonus tracks .
A special edition of The Emancipation of Mimi , titled the Ultra Platinum Edition , was released on November 15 , 2005 , to accompany the premiere of Carey 's single " Don 't Forget About Us " . The album was released in two versions . The first was a CD with four bonus tracks : " Don 't Forget About Us " ( co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Carey with Jermaine Dupri ) , the album 's only single ; " Makin ' It Last All Night ( What It Do ) " , featuring Dupri ; the " We Belong Together " remix , featuring American rappers Styles P and Jadakiss ; and a new version of the 2006 single " So Lonely " by Twista ( which originally featured Carey ) , in which she sings an additional verse . The second version of the album was a limited @-@ edition set of the CD and a DVD , which includes the videos from The Emancipation of Mimi that had then been released ( " It 's Like That " , " We Belong Together " , " Shake It Off " , and " Get Your Number " ) , along with the then @-@ recently filmed video for " Don 't Forget About Us " . The album became the first domestic release of the video for " Get Your Number " , which had previously been released only in Europe .
Carey began a promotional tour in support of the album , beginning on April 2 , 2005 at the German Echo Awards . Two days later , she performed " It 's Like That " on the game show Wetten , dass .. ? . In the UK , the singer filmed a two @-@ part appearance on the British music program Top of the Pops , performing the album 's first three singles . Carey launched the stateside release of the album on Good Morning America with an interview and a five @-@ piece outdoor concert . Taking place in Times Square and attracting the largest crowd to the plaza since the 2004 New Year 's Eve celebration , the concert featured the first three singles from the album in addition to " Fly Like a Bird " and " Make It Happen " ( 1991 ) . During the following week , she performed " We Belong Together " at the 2005 BET Awards , and appeared at the annual VH1 Save the Music special , which was broadcast live on April 17 . Throughout May , Carey performed " We Belong Together " on the Late Show with David Letterman ( May 5 ) , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno ( May 11 ) , The Ellen DeGeneres Show ( May 13 ) and on The Oprah Winfrey Show ( May 24 ) .
During the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards , Carey performed at the National Hotel in South Beach . Accompanied by Dupri , she sung " Shake It Off " and the official remix version of " We Belong Together " . She was a headlining performer at the 2005 Fashion Rocks , in Monaco . On November 15 , 2005 , Carey performed " Shake It Off " and her newly released single from the album 's re @-@ release , " Don 't Forget About Us " , during half @-@ time of the Thanksgiving game between the Detroit Lions and the Atlanta Falcons . On November 22 , 2005 , she opened the 33rd annual American Music Awards with " Don 't Forget About Us " . Two months later , she placed as the featured performer at the Times Square Ball drop on New Year 's Eve in New York . At the 48th Grammy Awards , on February 8 , 2006 , Carey returned to the Grammy stage for the first time since 1996 . Her performance began with a pre @-@ taped video in which she discussed the importance of God and religion in her life . She then came to the stage , and sang a shortened version of " We Belong Together " , followed by " Fly like a Bird " . The performance induced the only standing ovation that night , and earned praise from critics .
= = = Singles = = =
" It 's Like That " was released as the album 's lead single on January 7 , 2005 . Critics predicted that the song would re @-@ ignite Carey 's popularity among MTV viewers . It became her highest @-@ charting song internationally in years , and peaked at number sixteen on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
" We Belong Together " , the album 's second single , became one of the biggest hits of Carey 's career . It became her sixteenth chart topping single in the US , spending fourteen weeks on the Hot 100 's peak ; the longest stay of any song during the 2000s . Aside from breaking several Nielsen BDS records , the song was named " song of the 2000s decade " by Billboard . " We Belong Together " topped the singles charts in Australia , New Zealand , and the Netherlands , and attained a top @-@ five peak in Denmark , Spain , Switzerland , and the UK .
" Shake It Off " was the third single released from The Emancipation of Mimi . It peaked at number two on the Hot 100 , being barred from the top position by Carey 's previous single , " We Belong Together " . It became the first and only time in Billboard history that a female artist occupied the top two spots on the chart as a lead artist . It was released as a double A @-@ side with " Get Your Number " in the UK and Australia , where it reached the top ten .
" Don 't Forget About Us " was the fourth release from the album and the first from the Ultra Platinum Edition . The song became Carey 's seventeenth chart topper in the US , tying her with Elvis Presley for the most number @-@ one singles by a solo artist ( a record she surpassed in 2008 with " Touch My Body " ) . " Say Somethin ' " was released as the fifth single from the album in the US , at the same time " Fly Like a Bird " ' s was released as a promotional single . " Mine Again " was not released as a single , but peaked at number 73 on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart due to sales .
= = = Tour = = =
Sixteen months after the release of the album , Carey announced her first headlining tour in three years , named The Adventures of Mimi : The Voice , The Hits , The Tour after a " Carey @-@ centric fan 's " music diary . Beginning on July 22 , 2006 and ending on October 28 , the tour spanned forty stops , with thirty @-@ two in the US and Canada , two in Africa , and six in Japan . The tour featured the singer 's long @-@ time friend Randy Jackson as the musical director . In an interview for the Associated Press , Carey described the tour 's direction , as well as the music she would perform :
With this tour , I 'm going to be working on some different arrangements for some of the older songs , to ... give it a little more life to them . That 's not to say they 're going to sound totally different and to freak anybody out ... I love re @-@ singing songs to different music . I genuinely want to tour with these new songs , as well as older hits . These new songs mean so much to me , this time of my life has been so wonderful for me , and I want to experience that with my fans .
The tour received a generally mixed reception from critics ; while the singer 's vocals were deemed a highlight , reviewers felt the show 's excesses , such as the singer 's frequent costume changes and pre @-@ filmed clips , were distracting . In Tunis , Carey played to 80 @,@ 000 people during two concerts . Midway through the tour , she booked a two @-@ night concert in Hong Kong , scheduled for after her Japanese shows . The performances were cancelled after tickets went on sale ; Carey 's then @-@ manager Benny Medina said the cancellation was because the concert promoter refused to pay the agreed compensation . The promoter blamed poor ticket sales ( allegedly , only 4 @,@ 000 tickets had sold ) and " Carey 's outrageous demands " . Medina later disputed the promoter 's ticket sales figure , saying that 8 @,@ 000 tickets had been sold . He said Carey would have performed as long as she was compensated , regardless of attendance . Carey ultimately sued the promoter , claiming one million in damages for the concert 's abrupt cancellation .
= = Critical reception = =
The Emancipation of Mimi received a 64 out of 100 ( indicating " generally positive reviews " ) on Metacritic , a website that averages professional reviews from critics into a numerical score . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called the album a " highly crafted piece of dance @-@ pop " and " relative comeback " for Carey , although it is not as " catchy " as he thought it should have been . Erlewine voiced a common criticism of the album : that Carey 's voice seemed " damaged " in comparison to her " glory years " in the 1990s . He commented that in the belted songs such as " Fly Like a Bird " and " I Wish You Knew " , Carey 's voice sounded " as airy , thin , and damaged as it did on Charmbracelet " . Michael Paoletta from Billboard was less critical of her vocals , writing that " while her voice has lost some of the power through the years , Mimi deftly showcases her still @-@ considerable pipes with strong lyrics and slick production . " Paoletta praised The Emancipation of Mimi as Carey 's best album since Butterfly ( 1997 ) . Michael Dougall Bell from the Calgary Sun called Carey 's voice " very impressive " . He concluded : " While Emancipation may not send Carey 's stock or star back up to where it once was and where that voice deserves to be , at least she 's not plummeting – she 's merely levelled off . " Entertainment Weekly editor Tom Sinclair noted that almost every song " showcases Carey 's undeniable vocal strengths " . Reviewing " Fly Like a Bird " , Sinclair concluded , " It 's so moving that we 'll resist the temptation to be crass and interpret the song as a plea for heightened record sales . Help from above is always welcome , but Emancipation sounds like it just might do fine all on its own . "
Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News considered the album 's title to be influenced by Janet Jackson 's Damita Jo , which was also based on an alternate persona . According to Jenson Macey from BBC News , The Emancipation of Mimi was Carey 's strongest effort from the 2000s ; he said that the album " took her straight back to the top of the A @-@ List . " Caroline Sullivan from The Guardian gave the album four stars out of five , calling it " cool , focused and urban . " The New York Times 's , Jon Pareles , complimented how Carey wrote all of the album 's material . He felt the record 's sound was fresh and innovative : " on The Emancipation of Mimi , she disciplines herself into coherence , using fewer tricks and sounding more believable . She also finds what lesser singers can take for granted : a certain lightness that eases her constant sense of control . " Cummings from PopMatters gave the album seven stars out of ten , claiming it to be Carey 's redemption from the manacles of her previous two releases . He praised the album 's singles , but called some of its music " corny " and " unnecessarily overproduced " . Todd Burns from Stylus Magazine gave the album a B − , admiring its assortment of beats and tempos . Burns , however , called some of The Neptunes and Dupri 's production " ill @-@ advised " . He called some of Carey 's vocals " strained , thin and airy " . While considering it as an improvement over her previous releases of the decade , he concluded that it " suffers from the fact that her vocals have deteriorated – a simple fact of the ravages that her voice has undergone in the past fifteen years . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave The Emancipation of Mimi three and a half stars out of five , calling it " redemption " . He complimented its array of beats and its production . Critic Andre Meyer of CBS News thought the material on the album was " stronger " than on Charmbracelet , and described it as a move in Carey 's long @-@ term plan for pop domination , while giving off the " jittery R & B vibe that made Destiny 's Child so potent . " He added that " Mariah has returned to singing – while still pushing the limits of good taste with her barely there outfits . "
= = Commercial performance = =
The Emancipation of Mimi became Carey 's highest @-@ selling album in the US since Daydream ( 1995 ) . In its first week of release , it debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with 404 @,@ 000 copies sold , the highest first @-@ week sales in Carey 's career , until E = MC ² opened with 463 @,@ 000 in 2008 . It became her fifth number @-@ one album in the country and her third album to debut at the top . It remained in the top ten for many months before dropping to number eleven on September 28 , 2005 . The album remained in the top twenty for thirty @-@ one consecutive weeks . It returned to the top five after the release of the Ultra Platinum Edition , which helped the album rebound to number four , with sales of 185 @,@ 000 units . The Emancipation of Mimi was the best @-@ selling album in the US in 2005 , with nearly five million units sold . By the last full week of the year , the album outsold 50 Cent 's The Massacre , which had been released more than six weeks earlier . It was the first album by a solo female artist to become the year 's best @-@ selling album since Alanis Morissette 's Jagged Little Pill in 1996 . Ten months after its release , the album was certified six @-@ times platinum by the RIAA , and it reached its 6 million sales mark in the US in 2013 .
The Emancipation of Mimi entered the Australian Albums Chart on April 17 , 2005 , at number 13 . During the following week , it peaked at and spent one week at number six . The album spent a total of forty @-@ six weeks on the chart . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) – denoting shipments of 70 @,@ 000 unit – and finished at number twenty @-@ seven on the End of Year Chart . In Canada The Emancipation of Mimi debuted and peaked at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart , with first @-@ week sales of 11 @,@ 000 units . The album was certified triple platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for shipments of 240 @,@ 000 units . The Emancipation of Mimi debuted at number seven on the UK Albums Chart dated April 6 , 2005 . On July 23 , fourteen weeks after its debut , the album once again reached its peak position of number seven . After one re @-@ entry , the album spent a combined forty @-@ three weeks in the albums chart , being certified double @-@ platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 600 @,@ 000 copies . By May 2008 , the album 's British sales stood at 621 @,@ 352 units .
In France the album debuted at its peak position of number four on April 9 , 2005 . The record spent a total of fifty @-@ one weeks in the chart , and was certified gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , signifying shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . Eight months after its release in Europe , the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) certified The Emancipation of Mimi platinum , denoting shipments of one million units throughout the continent . In Hong Kong it was awarded a Gold Disc Award , which is issued to the ten best @-@ selling foreign albums each year . The Emancipation of Mimi debuted at number two on the Japanese Albums Chart , and was certified platinum ( 250 @,@ 000 units shipped ) by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . At the end of 2005 , the IFPI reported that The Emancipation of Mimi had sold 7 @.@ 7 million copies globally , and was the second best @-@ selling album of the year , after Coldplay 's X & Y. It was the best @-@ selling album by a solo and female artist . By April 2008 , The Emancipation of Mimi had sold 12 million copies worldwide .
= = Accolades = =
The Emancipation of Mimi received many awards and award nominations . It earned ten Grammy Award nominations in 2006 – 07 : eight in 2006 for the original release ( the most received by Carey in a single year ) , and two in 2007 for the Ultra Platinum Edition . In 2006 , Carey won Best Contemporary R & B Album for The Emancipation of Mimi , as well as Best Female R & B Vocal Performance and Best R & B Song for " We Belong Together " . Carey was nominated for , but did not win , Album of the Year ( The Emancipation of Mimi ) , Record of the Year ( " We Belong Together " ) , Song of the Year ( " We Belong Together " ) , Best Female Pop Vocal Performance ( " It 's Like That " ) , and Best Traditional R & B Vocal Performance ( " Mine Again " ) . In 2007 , " Don 't Forget About Us " was nominated for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance and Best R & B Song , winning neither .
The Emancipation of Mimi won the 2005 Soul Train Awards for Best R & B / Soul Album and Best Female R & B / Soul Album , and the 2005 Vibe Award for Album of the Year . Rolling Stone ranked the album at number 43 on its 2005 list of the year 's best albums , and Entertainment Weekly ranked it at number 21 on their list of the " Top 100 Best Albums of the past 25 years " . " We Belong Together " won a Teen Choice Award , a World Music Award , five Billboard Music Awards , four Radio Music Awards , and three Bambi Awards . " Shake It Off " and " Don 't Forget About Us " won two additional Bambis . After Carey received the Bambi , the award drew media attention after it was stolen from the singer 's dressing room .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for The Emancipation of Mimi are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Edmund the Martyr =
Edmund the Martyr ( also known as St Edmund or Edmund of East Anglia , died 20 November 869 ) was king of East Anglia from about 855 until his death .
Almost nothing is known about Edmund . He is thought to have been of East Anglian origin and was first mentioned in an annal of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , written some years after his death . The kingdom of East Anglia was devastated by the Vikings , who destroyed any contemporary evidence of his reign . Later writers produced fictitious accounts of his life , asserting that he was born in 841 , the son of Æthelweard , an obscure East Anglian king , whom it was said Edmund succeeded when he was fourteen ( or alternatively that he was the youngest son of a Germanic king named ' Alcmund ' ) . Later versions of Edmund 's life relate that he was crowned on 25 December 855 at Burna ( probably Bures St. Mary in Suffolk ) , which at that time functioned as the royal capital , and that he became a model king .
In 869 , the Great Heathen Army advanced on East Anglia and killed Edmund . He may have been slain by the Danes in battle , but by tradition he met his death at an unidentified place known as Haegelisdun , after he refused the Danes ' demand that he renounce Christ : the Danes beat him , shot him with arrows and then beheaded him , on the orders of Ivar the Boneless and his brother Ubba . According to one legend , his head was then thrown into the forest , but was found safe by searchers after following the cries of a wolf that was calling , " Hic , Hic , Hic " – " Here , Here , Here " . Commentators have noted how Edmund 's death bears resemblance to the fate suffered by St Sebastian , St Denis and St Mary of Egypt .
A coinage commemorating Edmund was minted from around the time East Anglia was absorbed by the kingdom of Wessex and a popular cult emerged . In about 986 , Abbo of Fleury wrote of his life and martyrdom . The saint 's remains were temporarily moved from Bury St Edmunds to London for safekeeping in 1010 . His shrine at Bury was visited by many kings , including Canute , who was responsible for rebuilding the abbey : the stone church was rebuilt again in 1095 . During the Middle Ages , when Edmund was regarded as the patron saint of England , Bury and its magnificent abbey grew wealthy , but during the Dissolution of the Monasteries , his shrine was destroyed . The mediaeval manuscripts and other works of art relating to Edmund that have survived include Abbo 's Passio Sancti Eadmundi , John Lydgate 's 14th @-@ century Life , the Wilton Diptych and a number of church wall paintings .
= = King of the East Angles = =
= = = Accession and rule = = =
Edmund is first mentioned in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle annal for 870 , which was compiled twenty years after his death . By tradition , Edmund is thought to have been born in 841 and to have acceded to the East Anglian throne in around 855 . Nothing is known of his life or reign , as no contemporary East Anglian documents from this period have survived . The devastation in East Anglia that was caused by the Vikings is thought to have destroyed any books or charters that referred to Edmund and the lack of contemporary evidence means that it is not known for certain when his reign began , or his age when he became king . Later medieval chroniclers have provided dubious accounts of his life , in the absence of any real details . The most credible theory for Edmund ’ s parentage suggests Ealhhere , brother @-@ in @-@ law to King Æthelstan of Kent , as Edmund ’ s father and Edith ( Æthelstan ’ s sister ) as Edmund ’ s mother .
Edmund cannot be placed within any ruling dynasty . Numismatic evidence suggests he succeeded Æthelweard . According to the historian Susan Ridyard , Abbo of Fleury 's statement that Edmund was ' ex antiquorum Saxonum nobili prosapia oriundus ' can be taken to mean that he was descended from a noble and ancient race .
It is known that a variety of different coins were minted by Edmund 's moneyers during his reign . The letters AN , standing for ' Anglia ' , only appear on the coins of Edmund and Æthelstan of East Anglia : they appear on Edmund 's coins as part of the phrase + EADMUND REX AN . Later specimens read + EADMUND REX and so it is possible for his coins to be divided chronologically . Otherwise , no chronology for his coins has been confirmed .
= = = Death = = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , which generally described few matters relating to the East Angles and their rulers , is the only source for a description of the events for the year 869 that led to the defeat of Edmund 's army at the hands of the Danes . It relates that " Her rad se here ofer Mierce innan East Engle and wiñt setl namon. æt Đeodforda . And þy wint ' Eadmund cying him wiþ feaht. and þa Deniscan sige naman þone cyning ofslogon. and þæt lond all ge eodon . " – ' here the army rode across Mercia into East Anglia , and took winter @-@ quarters at Thetford ; and that winter King Edmund fought against them , and the Danish took the victory , and killed the king and conquered all that land ' . By tradition the leaders who slew the king were Ivar the Boneless and his brother Ubba .
Along with other forces , the Great Heathen Army then invaded Wessex , perhaps in December 870 ( within a few weeks of killing Edmund ) or after having spent a year pillaging and consolidating their position in East Anglia , before proceeding to attack Mercia and Northumbria .
= = Memorial coinage = =
Edmund 's body was buried in a wooden chapel near to where he was killed , but was later transferred to Beadoriceworth ( modern Bury St Edmunds ) , where in 925 Athelstan founded a community devoted to the new cult . Thirty years after Edmund 's death , he was venerated by the Vikings of East Anglia , who produced a coinage to commemorate him . The coinage was minted from around 895 to 915 ( close to the time when East Anglia was conquered by Edward the Elder of Wessex ) and was based on the design of coins produced during Edmund 's reign . All the pennies and ( more rarely ) half @-@ pennies that were produced read SCE EADMVND REX — ' O St Edmund the king ! ' . Some of them have a legend that provides evidence that the Vikings experimented with their initial design .
The St. Edmund memorial coins were minted in great quantities by a group of more than 70 moneyers , many of whom appear to have originated from the continent : over 1800 individual specimens were found when the great Cuerdale Hoard was discovered in 1840 . The coins would have been widely used within the Danelaw and many single items have mainly been found in the east of England , but the exact locations of the mints where they were made are not known with certainty : scholars have assumed that they were made in East Anglia .
= = Veneration = =
= = = Cult at Bury St Edmunds = = =
During the 11th century a stone church was built in Bury St. Edmunds , which was replaced by a larger church in 1095 , into which Edmund 's relics were translated . The abbey 's power grew upon being given jurisdiction over the growing town in 1028 and the creation in 1044 , of the geographical and political area of the Liberty of Saint Edmund , established by Edward the Confessor , which remained a separate jurisdiction under the control of the abbot of Bury St Edmunds Abbey until the dissolution of the monasteries .
The shrine at Bury St Edmunds soon became one of the most famous and wealthy pilgrimage locations in England . In 1010 , Edmund 's remains were translated to London to protect them from the Vikings , where they were kept for three years before being returned to Bury . For centuries the shrine was visited by various kings of England , many of whom gave generously to the abbey : Sweyn 's son , King Canute , converted to Christianity and rebuilt the abbey at Bury St Edmunds . In 1020 , he made a pilgrimage and offered his own crown upon the shrine as atonement for the sins of his forefathers .
The town arose as the wealth and fame of the abbey grew . After the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , the abbot planned out over 300 new houses within a grid @-@ iron pattern at a location that was close to the abbey precincts . Edmund 's cult was promoted and flourished , but it declined in subsequent years and the saint did not reappear in any liturgical calendars until the appearance of Abbo of Fleury 's Passio Sancti Eadmundi in the 12th century . King John is said to have given a great sapphire and a precious stone set in gold to the shrine , which he was permitted to keep upon the condition that it was returned to the abbey when he died .
Edmund 's shrine was destroyed in 1539 , during the English Reformation . According to a letter ( which now belongs to the Cotton Collection in the British Library ) , the shrine was defaced , and silver and gold to the value of over 5000 marks was taken away . On 4 November 1539 the abbot and his monks were expelled and the abbey was dissolved .
= = = Cult at Toulouse = = =
After the Battle of Lincoln ( 1217 ) , it was traditionally claimed that Edmund 's body was stolen by Count of Melun and subsequently donated to the Basilica of Saint @-@ Sernin in the French city of Toulouse by the Dauphin ( later Louis XIII of France ) . The first record of this is a relic list for Saint @-@ Sernin of around 1425 , which included St Edmund among the basilica 's relics . After the city was saved from the plague in the years from 1628 to 1631 — by the saint 's intercessions — the city built , in 1644 , a new shrine for his relics in gratitude for its deliverance : his cult flourished there for over two centuries . Edmund 's shrine was of silver and adorned with solid silver statues and when his relics were translated to it , the population came for eight days to honour the saint .
= = = Relics at Arundel Castle = = =
In 1901 , the Archbishop of Westminster , Herbert Vaughan , received some relics from the basilica of Saint @-@ Sernin . The relics , believed at the time to be those of St Edmund , were intended for the high altar of London 's Westminster Cathedral , which was then under construction .
The acceptance of the relics required the intercession of Pope Leo XIII , after an initial refusal by the church in France . Upon their arrival in England , they were housed in the Fitzalan Chapel at Arundel Castle , prior to their translation to Westminster . Although the relics had been verified and catalogued in 1644 for interment in the new shrine and in 1874 when two pieces were given to Cardinal Manning , concerns were raised by Dr. Montague James and Dr Charles Biggs about their validity in The Times . They remained at Arundel under the care of the Duke of Norfolk , whilst a historical commission was set up by Cardinal Vaughan and Archbishop Germain of Saint @-@ Sernin . They remain to this day at Arundel . In 1966 , three teeth from the collection of relics from France were donated to Douai Abbey .
= = The Passio Sancti Eadmundi = =
Edmund 's cult re @-@ emerged in the 10th century and the site of his burial grew wealthy as a result of receiving grants of land from royally connected benefactors . In about 986 , the monks of Ramsey Abbey commissioned Abbo of Fleury to write an account of the saint 's life and early cult . In his preface or dedicatory epistle Abbo addresses the work to St Dunstan , Archbishop of Canterbury 960 @-@ 988 . Dunstan himself is the source of the story of the martyrdom , which long before he heard told , in the presence of King Æthelstan , by an old man who swore an oath that he had been Edmund 's own sword @-@ bearer ( armiger ) on the fatal day . Abbo therefore clearly makes Dunstan , then still living and the recipient of his work , the authority for what he has to say .
According to Abbo , Edmund was " ex antiquorum Saxonum nobili prosapia oriundus " . This statement has confused later translators into thinking that Edmund was of continental Old Saxon origin . However the historian Steven Plunkett notes that Abbo , describing the Migration Age settlement of the East Anglian region ( Eastengle ) at the opening of his work , attributed that occupation to ' Saxons ' ( the Jutes and Angles going elsewhere ) : therefore by the use of the term ' of the noble lineage of the old Saxons ' for Edmund , he was not attempting to make a distinction between Edmund 's own ancestry and that of the people over whom he ruled .
In Abbo 's version of events , the king refused to meet the Danes in battle , preferring to die a martyr 's death . The historian Susan Ridyard maintains that Edmund 's martyrdom cannot be proved and the nature of his fate — whether he died fighting or was cruelly murdered in the battle 's aftermath — cannot be read from the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . She notes that the story that Edmund had an armour @-@ bearer implies that he would have been a warrior king who was prepared to fight the Vikings on the battlefield , but she acknowledges the possibility that later accounts belong to " the realm of hagiographical fantasy " .
Abbo named one of Edmund 's killers as Hinguar , who can probably be identified with Ivarr inn beinlausi ( Ivar the Boneless ) , son of Ragnar Lodbrok . After describing the horrific manner of Edmund 's death , the Passio continued the story . His severed head was thrown into the wood . As Edmund 's followers went seeking , calling out " Where are you , friend ? " the head answered , " Here , here , here , " until at last they found it , clasped between a wolf 's paws , protected from other animals and uneaten . The villagers then praised God and the wolf that served him . It walked tamely beside them , before vanishing back into the forest .
The body was buried in a coffin and later translated to Beodericsworth , but Abbo failed to date either events , although from the text it can be seen that he believed that the relics had been taken to Beodericsworth by the time that Theodred became Bishop of London in around 926 . Upon exhumation of the body , a miracle was discovered . All the arrow wounds upon Edmund 's corpse had healed and his head was reattached . The only evidence of decapitation was a line around his neck and his skin was still soft and fresh , as if he had been sleeping . The last recorded inspection of the body whilst at Bury St Edmunds was in 1198 .
The resemblance between the deaths of Saint Sebastian and St Edmund was remarked upon by Abbo : both saints were attacked by archers , although only Edmund is supposed to have been decapitated . His death bears somes resemblance to the fate suffered by other saints : St Denis was whipped and beheaded and the body of Mary of Egypt was said to have been guarded by a lion . Gransden describes Abbo 's Passio as " little more that a hotch @-@ potch of hagiographical commonplaces " and argues that Abbo 's ignorance of what actually happened to Edmund would have led him to use aspects of the Lives of well known saints such as Sebastian and Denis as models for his version of Edmund 's martydom . Gransden acknowledges that there are some aspects of the story — such as the appearance of the wolf that guards Edmund 's head — that do not have exact parallels elsewhere .
Other commentators have suggested that the manner of St Edmund 's death , veneration and culthood define him as a sacral king . It has been argued that St Edmund 's story was informed by common Celtic and Germanic notions of sacred kingship . Comparable kings who also embodied theories of divinely @-@ ordained rule , rightful sovereignty and the binding links between king , land and society , include : Conaire Mór , Cormac mac Cuilennáin , King Dómaldi and Halfdan the Black .
= = Medieval hagiographies and legends = =
De Infantia Sancti Edmundi , a fictitious 12th century hagiography of Edmund 's early life by Geoffrey of Wells , represented him as the youngest son of ' Alcmund ' , a Saxon king of Germanic descent . ' Alcmund ' may never have existed .
Edmund 's fictitious continental origins were later expanded into legends which spoke of his parentage , his birth at Nuremberg , his adoption by Offa of Mercia , his nomination as successor to the king and his landing at Hunstanton on the North Norfolk coast to claim his kingdom . Other accounts state that his father was the king he succeeded , Æthelweard of East Anglia , who died in 854 , apparently when Edmund was a boy of fourteen .
He was said to have been crowned by St Humbert ( Bishop Humbert of Elmham ) on 25 December 855 , at a location known as Burna ( probably Bures St. Mary in Suffolk ) which at that time functioned as the royal capital . Later versions of his life recorded that he was a model king who treated all his subjects with equal justice and who was unbending to flatterers . It was written that he withdrew for a year to his royal tower at Hunstanton and learned the whole Psalter , so that he could recite it from memory .
Edmund may have been killed at Hoxne , in Suffolk . His martyrdom is mentioned in a charter that was written when the church and chapel at Hoxne were granted to Norwich Priory in 1101 . Place @-@ name evidence has been used to link the name of Hoxne with Haegelisdun , named by Abbo of Fleury as the site of Edmund 's martyrdom , but this evidence is dismissed by the historian Peter Warner . The association of Edmund 's cult with the village has continued to the present day . Dernford , Cambridgeshire and Bradfield St Clare ( near Bury St Edmunds ) are other possible sites for where Edmund was martyred .
The ancient wooden church of St Andrew , Greensted @-@ juxta @-@ Ongar , is said to have been a resting place for his body on the way to Bury St Edmunds in 1013
= = Banner = =
In Bernard Burke 's Vicissitudes of Families , published in 1869 , Burke proposed that Edmund 's banner was among those borne during the Norman invasion of Ireland , after which the three crowns on a blue background became the standard for Ireland during the Plantagenet era . Richard de Clare , 2nd Earl of Pembroke , Robert Fitz @-@ Stephen and Raymond le Gros who all featured prominently in the Anglo @-@ Norman invasion , dedicated a chapel of Christ Church Cathedral , Dublin to Edmund . When the Scottish castle at Caevlerlock was taken by Edward I of England in 1300 , the banners of Edmund , St George and Edward the Confessor were displayed by the victorious English from the castle battlements , as " powerful , unifying symbols of the holy guardians and supporters of their cause " . According to the antiquarian Sir Harris Nicolas ' account of the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 , five banners were flown on the English side , one of which was probably that of St Edmund .
In a preface to the Life of the saint written by the poet John Lydgate , in which Edmund 's banners are described , the three crowns are said to represent Edmund 's martyrdom , virginity and kingship .
= = Patronages = =
Edmund is the patron saint of pandemics as well as kings , the Roman Catholic diocese of East Anglia , and Douai Abbey in Berkshire . Churches dedicated to his memory are to be found all over England , including St Edmund the King and Martyr 's Church in London , designed by Sir Christopher Wren during the 1670s . St Edmund King and Martyr 's Church in Godalming , Surrey was dedicated to Edmund because its founder was from Suffolk .
During the Middle Ages , St George replaced Edmund as the patron saint of England when Edward III associated George with the Order of the Garter . In 2006 , a group that included BBC Radio Suffolk and the East Anglian Daily Times failed in their campaign to reinstate Edmund . In 2013 another campaign to reinstate St Edmund as patron saint was begun with the backing of representatives from businesses , Churches , radio and local politicians .
= = St Edmund in the arts = =
The veneration of Edmund throughout the centuries has left a legacy of noteworthy works of art .
A beautifully illustrated copy of Abbo of Fleury 's Passio Sancti Eadmundi , made at Bury St Edmunds in around 1130 is now kept at the Morgan Library in New York .
The copy of John Lydgate 's 15th century Life written for Henry VI of England is now in the British Library . The Wilton Diptych was painted during the reign of Richard II of England and is the most famous representation of Edmund in art . Painted on oak panels , it shows Richard kneeling in front of three saints — one of whom is Edmund — as they present the young king to the Virgin and Child .
The poet John Lydgate ( 1370 – 1451 ) , who lived all his life in Bury St Edmunds , presented his twelve @-@ year @-@ old king Henry VI of England with a long poem ( now known as Metrical Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund ) when Henry came to the town in 1433 and stayed at the abbey for four months . The book is now kept by the British Library in London .
Edmund 's martyrdom features on several medieval wall @-@ paintings to be found in churches across England .
The market town of Bury St Edmunds features several representations of St Edmund , most notably a recently commissioned contemporary artwork designed by Emmanuel O ’ Brien , constructed by Nigel Kaines of Designs on Metal in 2011 .
Edmund appears as a fictional character in Bernard Cornwell 's novel The Last Kingdom .
Edmund is the subject of the song Barbarian by The Darkness on the album Last of Our Kind .
Depictions of St Edmund
The saint features in a romantic poem , Athelston , whose 15th @-@ century author is unknown . In the climactic scene of the poem , Edyff , the sister of King ' Athelston ' of England , gives birth to Edmund after passing through a ritual ordeal by fire .
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= Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle =
Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle ( Japanese : ツバサ @-@ RESERVoir CHRoNiCLE- , Hepburn : Tsubasa : Rezaboa Kuronikuru ) is a shōnen manga series written and illustrated by the manga artist group Clamp . It takes place in the same fictional universe as many of Clamp 's other manga series , most notably xxxHolic . The plot follows how Sakura , the princess of the Kingdom of Clow , loses all her memories and how Syaoran , a young archaeologist who is her childhood friend , goes on a quest to save her . Dimensional Witch Yūko Ichihara instructs him to go with two people , Kurogane and Fai D. Flowright . They search for Sakura 's memories , which were scattered in various worlds in the form as feathers , as gathering them will help save her soul . Tsubasa was conceived when four Clamp artists wanted to create a manga series that connected all their previous works . They took the designs for the main protagonists from their earlier manga called Cardcaptor Sakura .
It was serialized in the Kodansha publication Weekly Shōnen Magazine from May 2003 until October 2009 , and was collected in twenty @-@ eight tankōbon volumes . The manga was adapted into an anime series , Tsubasa Chronicle ( ツバサ ･ クロニクル , Tsubasa Kuronikuru ) , animated by Bee Train , which aired 52 episodes over two seasons during 2005 and 2006 . Production I.G released an interlude film between the first two seasons titled The Princess in the Birdcage Kingdom , as well as five original video animations ( OVAs ) between November 2007 and May 2009 , which acted as a sequel to the second season . Various video games and drama CDs based on the series have been released . A sequel titled Tsubasa : WoRLD CHRoNiCLE started serialization in 2014 .
The manga was licensed for English language release by Del Rey Manga , who has released all of its volumes since April 27 , 2004 . Funimation Entertainment licensed the anime for English release . They published all the TV episodes in DVD volumes as well as the film . The OVAs of Tsubasa were released in North America in January 2011 .
The series has been well received by Japanese and English readers , and it reached high positions on various best @-@ seller lists ; the series has sold over twenty million manga volumes in Japan . Both the manga and anime have had positive response from critics , who praised its connections to previous works and its artwork . The plot twists in later parts of the story have been generally praised for how they affect the overall plot as well as for being surprising . However , they have been criticized for being confusing .
= = Plot = =
The series begins by introducing childhood friends with quite a strong and close friendship : Syaoran , a young archaeologist who is investigating a ruin within the Kingdom of Clow , and Sakura , princess of the Kingdom of Clow and daughter of the late king Clow Reed . When Sakura visits Syaoran in the ruins , her spirit takes on the form of a pair of ghostly feathered wings that disintegrate to other dimensions . As she descends into a catatonic near death state , Syaoran meets the Dimensional Witch , Yūko Ichihara , to whom he begs for help to save Sakura . Yūko is also visited by two others who each have their own wish : Kurogane , a ninja who wishes to return to his home world after being banished from his world by Princess Tomoyo to allow him to learn what true strength is ; and Fai D. Flowright , a magician who wishes to never return to his home world , Celes , to avoid his king , Ashura @-@ ō . In exchange for the ability to travel across dimensions , Yūko demands that each pay with that they value most : Kurogane offers his sword Ginryū ; Fai offers the tattoo that suppresses his enormous magical strength and power ; and Syaoran offers all of Sakura 's memories that involve him . Yūko then presents them with a creature named Mokona Modoki that sends the group on a journey across dimensions in search of Sakura 's feathers . After obtaining the first feathers , Sakura awakens from her catatonic state and starts recovering her memories . During their adventures , the group gradually grows closer to the point that Fai jokingly labels them as relatives . As they travel , they learn that the feathers have their own unique abilities and can bestow several supernatural abilities to those who possess them .
During their journey in Tokyo , the group discovers that Syaoran is in reality a clone imbued with half the heart of the original Syaoran . Several years ago , Fei @-@ Wang Reed , the wizard who caused Sakura to lose her memories , took the original Syaoran prisoner and created the clone to collect Sakura 's feathers . Shortly after the original Syaoran breaks free of Fei @-@ Wang 's hold , the clone loses his heart and becomes an emotionless puppet that follows Fei @-@ Wang 's will , betraying the group . The original Syaoran joins in the group 's journey with Sakura wishing to save the clone . Foreseeing a future in which Fai kills the original Syaoran forced by Fei @-@ Wang 's curse , Sakura gets stabbed in his place , but at the same time splits her body and soul , sending each to different worlds , Seresu and the Dream World , respectively . In the Dream World , the Syaoran clone destroys Sakura 's soul when trying to get the feathers . Before her soul perishes , Sakura reveals that she too is a clone of the original Sakura who was also taken prisoner by Fei @-@ Wang . Fei @-@ Wang then takes Sakura 's body to use its stored power . The group departs to rescue the two Sakuras learning from Yūko that Fei @-@ Wang is in an alternate dimension from the Kingdom of Clow . Such parallel dimension is the result of Syaoran 's wish to save the original Sakura from Fei @-@ Wang 's curse years ago . In order to grant his wish , Syaoran became Fei @-@ Wang 's prisoner and Yūko 's assistant , Kimihiro Watanuki , was used to replace Syaoran within his original world 's history .
The group battles Fei @-@ Wang who destroys the Syaoran clone when he betrays him . He then uses the immeasurably strong ability and strength of the two Sakuras to resurrect Yūko , accidentally frozen in time by Clow Reed himself to halt her death , therein proving himself Clow 's superior . Yūko uses her life and Clow 's magic as payment to make the clones reborn in the past to live together . As the two know all of the series ' events would repeat , the clones seal themselves in Yūko 's shop until the battle against him . The group manages to kill Fei @-@ Wang , who traps Syaoran in a void between time and space , dragging both his clone and Watanuki along as a consequence of their connection . With their creator 's death , both clones of Sakura and Syaoran fade away leaving behind two feathers . Syaoran and Watanuki escape from the void for a price : Syaoran must continue traveling through the dimensions forever , while Watanuki must stay in Yūko 's shop . The group rests in the Kingdom of Clow where Fai , Kurogane , and Mokona decide to join Syaoran once again in hope of finding a way to bring back the clones who still exist as the two feathers . Before departing on their separate ways , Syaoran and Sakura confess their mutually strong , close and pure romantic love for each other as they hope to meet again .
= = Production = =
Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle began with an inspiration of the four @-@ member team , Clamp , to link their works set in a realistic world with their works set in different fantasy worlds . Prior to beginning work on Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle , Clamp had created the manga Cardcaptor Sakura , from which the two main characters are taken . Clamp decided to draw Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle by using a style first conceived by Osamu Tezuka , named the " father of manga " and often credited as the " father of anime " , known as Osamu Tezuka 's Star System . In this system , characters with the same name and design are used in different settings , drawing mostly from the vast character pool of its own works and occasionally from others ' works . Unlike characters under the Star System , three months prior to the release of Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle , the Young Magazine began serializing Clamp 's xxxHolic , a manga whose two main characters , Kimihiro Watanuki and Yūko Ichihara , are two of the same characters used in Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle ; both series run in parallel . Like many of their other works , each member of Clamp had a role different from their other projects instead of retaining set roles . For Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle , Mokona drew the main characters , whereas Tsubaki Nekoi and Satsuki Igarashi drew the side characters and backgrounds ; Nanase Ohkawa was the sole person in charge of the storyline ; the other members of Clamp were not told in advance how the plot would unfold . The word " Tsubasa " was used so that the title would be easy to read . However , believing " Tsubasa " only would be too short , they added the words " Chronicle " and " Reservoir " from Nekoi 's notes .
A special interview with Ohkawa and Kiichiro Sugawara , Clamp 's editor from the Weekly Shōnen Magazine 's Editorial Department , took place after the story of Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle had progressed past the arc from Ōto Country . Ohkawa has stated that the group is very conscious of the fact that Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle is the title in Shōnen Magazine with the youngest readership and that it is their very first foray into the shōnen demographic . Thus , the members of Clamp ensure that they employ a drawing style and dialogue appropriate for young male audiences ; the manga incorporates furigana that makes reading Japanese easier . To aid in this effort , the group holds conferences with Sugawara where they discuss the plot . Ohkawa stated during the interview that the only time the story significantly changed was during Country of Jade arc ; It went from a " horror story with vampires " to a " detective mystery " . Following the story in the Piffle Country , Clamp aimed to make the series darker and more complex , resulting in it receiving elements previously seen in other of their series . The Shura Country 's story was written to introduce the idea that a dead person cannot be revived even if somebody travels back to the past and changes history . This theme would be further explored later in the story .
The members of Clamp had some difficulty adjusting from their typical style after deciding to publish with Weekly Shōnen Magazine . Because their typical thinner lines did not give the desired impact , Ohkawa expressed the group 's desire to make their lines thicker , and to use simpler layouts similar to the other stories already present in Shōnen Magazine . She stated that they used their original artistic style to attract initial readers and then slowly transitioned to a new style . Sometime around when the story arc focused on the Country of Ōto took place , their art style had gradually been changing again ; at this point they were thinking of returning to their original style . They were still adjusting to a weekly schedule ; many of their previous works were on a monthly schedule . Sugawara expressed concerns about the strain on the artists of concurrently doing a weekly issue of Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle linked with xxxHolic , but in the end he whole @-@ heartedly approved . In accordance with Ohkawa 's desire for each to have a well @-@ organized story , Clamp avoids putting references between the two stories too frequently . The main idea was connecting these two series was to have protagonists from two different manga with different personalities and designs . However , during the ending they would be stated to share the same existence , and had to go on different paths . As Tsubasa is connected with xxxHolic , the characters ' designs are also meant to be similar ; Like xxxHolic , the artwork is sometimes influenced by Ukiyo @-@ e art style which leads to the characters have longer limbs . When asked if another series influenced Tsubasa in the concept of parallel worlds , Ohkawa replied that she was not a fan of sci @-@ fi series and pointed that all worlds shown in the series were other works from Tsubasa . At the same time , she wanted to segregate Tsubasa from previous works . She also explained that while some characters are the same , their traits and personalities were modified due to different backstories .
When thinking about including character goods with the volume releases , Sugawara came up with the atypical idea of releasing a deluxe and normal edition of the manga after contemplating the inconsistency of novels getting both a soft @-@ cover and hard @-@ cover release , but manga only received one version . Because it was a new concept , the group experienced several mishaps such as accidentally placing a vertically flipped illustration on the first deluxe edition . The group also decided to use another atypical practice of keeping catchphrases that appeared in the magazine identical to the ones that appear on the frontispieces of the deluxe editions .
= = Themes = =
Tsubasa explores the fragility of human relationships through Sakura losing all of her memories involving her love interest , Syaoran . Despite this tragedy , Syaoran manages to become friends with other characters across his journey . Furthermore , Sakura once again develops feelings for Syaoran who at the same time starts falling for her again . The development of the characters ' relationship demonstrates how while modern society depends on already existing one , a severed one can be reformed if people have the will . At the same time , Syaoran has to say goodbye to the people he met as a result of having to continue travelling . Despite also losing these new founds friends , these actions will help Syaoran grow into a young man .
Another theme in the series is the use of identical people as a result of the characters travelling to parallel worlds where they find alternative versions of people they met before . Despite sharing the same physical appearances , these identical versions have been through different experiences earning their own identities . Syaoran also has his own doppelgänger commonly referred as " The Other Syaoran " who at the same time shares the same identity as the protagonist from xxxHolic , Kimihiro Watanuki . Across the series , these character are developed and choose their own paths to earn their own identities .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Written and illustrated by Clamp , Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle was serialized in Japan in Kodansha 's Weekly Shōnen Magazine between May 2003 and October 2009 . Its 233 chapters , which are called " Chapitre " ( シャピトル , Shapitoru ) , French for " Chapter " , have been compiled into twenty @-@ eight tankōbon volumes by Kodansha , with the first volume released on August 9 , 2003 , and the last one on November 17 , 2009 . All the volumes were also released in deluxe editions containing color pages and new illustrations at the same time as the original release .
In June 2014 , Kodansha 's Magazine Special announced a new manga of Tsubasa would start serialization in August from the same year and that it would be connected to xxxHolic Rei . Titled Tsubasa : WoRLD CHRoNiCLE , the series has also been licensed by Kodansha USA for English release . A single chapter was also serialized in the Weekly Shōnen Magazine in February 2015 .
Tsubasa was one of the first four manga series licensed for English release in North America by Del Rey Manga and was acquired together with Mobile Suit Gundam SEED , Negima ! Magister Negi Magi , and xxxHolic in January 2004 . Del Rey released the first volume of the series on April 27 , 2004 , and the last one on November 23 , 2010 . Kodansha USA is due to rerelease it in omnibus format during 2014 . Tanoshimi , the United Kingdom branch of Random House , published the first 14 volumes as published by Del Rey in the United Kingdom , between August 3 , 2006 , and June 5 , 2008 .
= = = Anime TV series = = =
The animation studio Bee Train adapted the manga series into a two @-@ season anime television series Tsubasa Chronicle ( ツバサ ･ クロニクル , Tsubasa Kuronikuru ) spanning fifty @-@ two episodes in total . Both seasons were written by Hiroyuki Kawasaki and directed by Kōichi Mashimo , with Hiroshi Morioka joining on as co @-@ director for the second season . The music for the series was composed by Yuki Kajiura . The first season aired Saturday nights at 18 : 30 on NHK @-@ E from April 9 , 2005 , to October 15 , 2005 , and spanned 26 episodes . The second season began on April 29 , 2006 , at 18 : 30 and concluded on November 4 , 2006 ; it spanned twenty @-@ six episodes . In Japan , Bandai Visual released the series across fourteen Region 2 DVD compilation volumes between August 26 , 2005 , and February 23 , 2007 . Two DVD box sets were then released on October 26 , 2011 and November 25 , 2011 .
Funimation Entertainment licensed both seasons under the title Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle for English @-@ language release January 2006 . They released the TV series in North America across twelve Region 1 DVD compilation volumes . Funimation released the DVDs in two collections , where each contains six of the DVDs together in a box set , on November 11 , 2008 , and December 29 , 2009 . A DVD box with the first season and the film was released on January 19 , 2010 . It was re @-@ released in Blu @-@ ray format on May 4 , 2010 , in a package that also included the anime 's second season . Funimation also released the first season of Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle in the United Kingdom through Revelation Films beginning on September 17 , 2007 , across six Region 2 DVD compilation volumes . The English dub of the first season was broadcast on the Funimation Channel in the United States . Revelation Films had previously confirmed the release of the second season of Tsubasa Chronicle in the U.K. , although no release dates were ever set .
= = = Film = = =
A film interlude , The Princess in the Birdcage Kingdom , was adapted by the animation studio Production I.G and premiered in Japanese theaters on August 20 , 2005 , in conjunction with xxxHolic : A Midsummer Night 's Dream , between the two seasons of the anime series . Its plot continues the journey from Syaoran 's group for Sakura 's feathers . They locate one at the Country of Birdcages , where they have to confront the world 's king in order to obtain it . It was directed by Itsuro Kawasaki and written by Midori Goto and Junichi Fujisaku . Character designs were provided by Yoko Kikuchi , and music was by Yuki Kajiura . Clamp artist Ageha Ohkawa liked how both films were connected , despite that both have different themes . Shochiku released the DVD for the film on February 25 , 2006 , in Japan in both regular and premium editions . Funimation released the film on a single DVD in English on February 19 , 2009 , in North America as a double feature with the xxxHolic film . It was released alongside a DVD box of the anime 's first season on January 19 , 2010 . It was re @-@ released in Blu @-@ ray format on May 4 , 2010 , in a package that included the anime 's second season .
= = = Original video animations = = =
Two original video animation ( OVA ) series were animated by Production I.G. They were directed by Shunsuke Tada and written by Nanase Ohkawa , with music provided by Yuki Kajiura . A three @-@ episode OVA series titled Tsubasa Tokyo Revelations ( ツバサ TOKYO REVELATIONS ) was released between November 16 , 2007 , and March 17 , 2008 , across three DVDs bundled with limited versions of volumes 21 , 22 , and 23 of the manga . Their plot is set after the anime 's ending , and follows the arrival of Syaoran 's group in a postapocalyptic Tokyo , where the connection between Syaoran and a teenager identical to him is revealed . A two @-@ episode OVA series titled Tsubasa Spring Thunder Chronicles ( ツバサ春雷記 , Tsubasa Shunraiki ) was released across two DVDs . The first was packaged with volume 26 of the manga , which was released on March 17 , 2009 ; and the second was packaged with volume 27 , released on May 15 , 2009 . They are set after the characters ' journey to Seresu as they search for a way to make Sakura 's soul return to her body . In May 2010 , Funimation announced they licensed both series of OVAs . They were released together under the title of " Tsubasa : RESERVoir CHRoNiCLE - OVA Collection " in both DVD and Blu @-@ ray formats on January 4 , 2011 . In June 2011 , Funimation started streaming the five episodes on their official website .
= = = Audio CDs = = =
The original soundtrack for the anime was released in four soundtrack albums titled Future Soundscape I ~ IV . They were released by Victor Entertainment for the anime from July 6 , 2005 , to September 21 , 2006 , each in a normal and a limited edition that featured additional merchandise . Additionally , a compilation album titled Best Vocal Collection was released on December 20 , 2006 , that collected fourteen vocal tracks from the anime . Each release charted on the Oricon charts , and the highest ranking album , Future Soundscape I , peaked at 39th and remained on the charts for three weeks .
Ten music albums have been released , and each contains a single piece of theme music for the various adaptations . For the anime adaptation Tsubasa Chronicle , four maxi singles titled Loop , Blaze , It 's , and Kazemachi Jet / Spica were released between May 10 , 2005 , and July 14 , 2006 . For the anime film Tsubasa Chronicle the Movie : The Princess of the Country of Birdcages , two maxi singles titled Aerial and Amrita were released on August 17 , 2005 , and on August 18 , 2005 . For the OVA adaptations , two maxi singles and two studio albums titled Synchronicity , Saigo no Kajitsu / Mitsubashi to Kagakusha , Kazeyomi , and Everlasting Songs were released between November 21 , 2007 , and February 25 , 2009 . All of the releases charted on the Oricon charts , with the highest ranking single being Loop , which peaked at 7th and remained on the chart for nine weeks .
Victor Entertainment released a series of three drama CDs titled " The Matinée of the Palace " , based on the anime adaptation featuring the same voice actors . The first , subtitled Chapter.1 ~ Coral , the City on the Water ~ , was released on December 16 , 2005 . Chapter.2 ~ Impossible Goal ~ followed on February 1 , 2006 . The final CD , subtitled Chapter.3 ~ Unspeakable Lines ~ , was released on March 24 , 2006 . All of the releases charted on the Oricon charts , with the highest ranking album being Chapter.2 ~ Impossible Goal ~ , peaking at 161st and remaining on the chart for a week . A spin @-@ off series of four drama CDs titled " Private High School Holitsuba " have been released between 2006 and 2009 , and has also had a one @-@ chapter manga adaptation . Set in an alternate universe , the series features characters from Tsubasa and xxxHolic as students and teachers from the fictional school " Holitsuba " .
= = = Video games = = =
A video game titled Tsubasa Chronicle ( ツバサクロニクル ) developed by Cavia , based on the anime adaptation of the same name , was released in Japan for the Nintendo DS on October 27 , 2005 , by Akira . Tsubasa Chronicle is a role @-@ playing game whose gameplay requires the player to navigate the world as Sakura and Syaoran in search of Sakura 's memory fragments . Players can compete with each other wirelessly . A sequel titled Tsubasa Chronicle Volume 2 ( ツバサクロニクル Vol.2 ) was released on April 20 , 2006 , again for the Nintendo DS and shares various gameplay traits with Tsubasa Chronicle .
= = = Art and fanbooks = = =
Two different fanbooks have been released for the anime of Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle . Kodansha released two in Japan by between 2005 and 2006 that contain character illustrations and information , a collection of the theme song videos , and interviews with the voice actors . The first book published was TV Animation Tsubasa Chronicle Official Fanbook ( TV ANIMATION ツバサ ･ クロニクル OFFICIAL FANBOOK ) on May 17 , 2005 . The second book published was TV Animation Tsubasa Chronicle 2nd Season Official Fanbook ( TV ANIMATION ツバサ ･ クロニクル 2nd SEASON OFFICIAL FANBOOK ) on June 16 , 2006 . DH Publishing released one in English on May 25 , 2008 , titled Tsubasa Chronicle Factbook : Mystery , Magic and Mischief , the eighteenth of the Mysteries and Secrets Revealed ! series of books .
Three different artbooks which contain illustrations have been released in Japan by Kodansha between 2006 and 2009 . The first book published was TV Animation Tsubasa Chronicle Best Selection ( TV ANIMATION ツバサ ･ クロニクル BEST SELECTION ) on April 17 , 2006 , bearing an ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 06 @-@ 372138 @-@ 6 . The second book published was Tsubasa Original Illustrations Collection – Album De Reproductions- ( ツバサ原画集 @-@ ALBuM De REProDUCTioNS- ) on April 17 , 2007 , and containing art from the first 14 volumes . An English version of ALBuM De REProDUCTioNS was released on December 8 , 2009 . This contained one of the short stories titled Tsubasa : World of the Untold Story that also featured as omake to the manga volumes . Another artbook , Tsubasa Original Illustrations Collection – Album De Reproductions- 2 ( ツバサ原画集 @-@ ALBuM De REProDUCTioNS- 2 ) , was released on November 17 , 2009 , containing art from the final 14 volumes .
Two character guides were released by Kodansha in Japan and then translated and released in North American by Del Rey Manga . They contain overviews of the worlds , overviews of characters , fan reports , illustrations , and interviews . The Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle Character Guide ( ツバサ CARACTere GuiDE , Tsubasa Caractère Guide ) was released on April 15 , 2005 , covering events from volume 1 to volume 7 . It was released in English on December 26 , 2006 . The Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle Character Guide 2 ( ツバサ CARACTere GuiDE 2 , Tsubasa Caractère Guide 2 ) was released on October 17 , 2006 . It was released in English on October 13 , 2009 . Another related book is Soel and Larg : The Adventures of Mokona Modoki ( ソエルとラーグ ― モコナ = モドキの冒険 , Soel to Larg : Mokona = Modoki no Bōken ) which was released by Kodansha on July 17 , 2004 . It is set prior to the events of xxxHolic and Tsubasa and tells the lives from the two Mokona Modoki ever since their creation by Clow Reed and Yūko Ichihara .
There are two guidebooks focused in the soundtrack used in the anime adaptation of Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle that were published in Japan by Kodansha . The first one , Tsubasa Chronicle Piano Solo Album ( 楽しいバイエル併用 ツバサクロニクル ピアノソロアルバム ) , was released on August 30 , 2005 , and focused on piano sheet music for tracks from the series ' soundtrack album bearing an ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 28 @-@ 510386 @-@ 1 . The second one , Tsubasa Chronicle Piano Solo Album 2 ( 楽しいバイエル併用 ツバサクロニクル ピアノソロアルバム オープニング ・ エンディング ・ 劇中曲を収載 ! ! ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 28 @-@ 510885 @-@ 9 was published on July 24 , 2006 , and it had piano sheet music for several soundtracks .
= = Reception = =
= = = Manga reception = = =
The Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle manga series was well received by Japanese readers , and appeared at various times on lists of best @-@ selling volumes . In September 2009 , it was announced that the first 27 volumes had sold over 20 million copies in Japan , becoming one of Clamp 's best selling titles . In its debut , the first volume of World Chronicle sold 127 @.@ 643 units . After the first volume 's English release on April 27 , 2004 , it sold 2 @,@ 330 copies in May 2004 , placing it at the top end of the top 100 sales of that month . It was fifth on Waldenbooks 's 2004 list , obtaining the highest place ever by a manga volume . It was consistently ranked in the top 10 of the list of Manga Top 50 for every quarterly release of the " ICv2 Retailers Guide to Anime / Manga " , based on sales from both mainstream bookstores and comic book shops , since its release in May 2004 , except for the fourth quarter of 2007 , reaching a top rank of number 3 . By November 2006 , over a million manga volumes from the series had been sold in North America by Del Rey Manga . The series was also listed as the nineteenth best @-@ selling manga from North America in 2010 by ICv2 . In the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation Award from 2009 , Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle was the winner in the category " Best Manga - Action " . About.com placed it twenty @-@ ninth in their article " 36 Great Manga Missed by the Eisner Awards " , while the artbook Tsubasa ALBuM De REProDUCTioNS was third in their 2009 poll " Best Manga Book " . In Mania Entertainment 's " Best Manga Awards For 2005 " , Tsubasa was third in the category " Best Shōnen " . It was a nominee for the American Anime Awards in 2007 , but was one of the last series announced due to an error made by the people in charge .
Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle was fairly well received by reviewers , who described it as a treat for Clamp fans due to the large number of crossover characters in the series . Initial fan response to Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle was that it was " Cardcaptor Sakura for guys " . Fans speculated that the series would conclude one of Clamp 's unfinished series , X , or that it would be a sequel to Cardcaptor Sakura that focused on the character Syaoran Li . Critics described the series as being marked by several plot twists , with About.com writer Katherine Luther labelling it as " perhaps the " twistiest " of twists that we have seen in anime and manga in quite some time " . For the earlier half of the series , Mikhail Koulikov from Anime News Network described the series as settling into a " predictable pattern " that Melissa Harper , also from Anime News Network , described as somewhat slow , and " frankly a bit boring " . However , Michael Aronson from Manga Life found the series appealing and accessible to readers who have not read other Clamp series , and he hoped it would remain this accessible for following volumes . He found that the relation between Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle and xxxHolic would persuade readers to also read the latter series . Mania Entertainment 's Megan Lavey found the introduction to be a " pretty simple love story " , while liking the characters ' personalities . She liked how the series was connected with xxxHolic and hoped that both series would continue crossing over . In a general overview of the manga , Julie Gray from Comic Book Bin gave positive remarks to the characters ' complex personalities and how the plot has been developed throughout its first ten volumes . She recommended that people should buy the series . Active Anime 's Blake Waymire found that the change of settings was well done , and he noted how some story arcs could go from dramatic to charming .
From volume 15 onwards , Clamp unleashed a series of " mind @-@ blowing " plot twists that had been foreshadowed frequently throughout the series . These twists have been described by Anime News Network as " stunning " but confusingly executed due to the sheer number of storylines coming together . Other critics praised the pacing as letting " the story progress at its own natural momentum " , keeping the reader " from being bored by any one literary genre " . The plot twists and the ever @-@ changing relationships between the manga 's main characters were praised ; " few manga creators could pull off this sort of outrageous storytelling stunt " . Active Anime writer Holly Ellingwood called the plot twists as " the most shocking set of events in the Tsubasa Reservoir Chronicles to date ! " , finding that despite such twists , more secrets were brought to readers to persuade them to read the following volumes . Ellingwood also reviewed following volumes and found the last plot revelations intriguing ; she enjoyed that a strong connection is revealed between characters from Tsubasa and xxxHolic . Critics have described the artwork as " keeping up the standards expected of Clamp " with its high level of detail , though perhaps too much detail , especially during action sequences . The artstyle is " stylish " and " dynamic " , characterized by a large number of " sweeping lines curlicues that look unlike anything else in the genre " that help bring the action scenes to life for exciting experiences . Ed Sizemore from Comics Worth Reading highlighted the fact that each dimension that the protagonists visit is characterized by its very own look and feel so that " no two worlds are even remotely similar " . However , the amount of detail and lack of contrast , while beautiful , often render scenes incomprehensible to the point where the reader is left guessing who is attacking . Critics have praised Del Rey 's inclusion of English translation notes that aid in understanding the plot , especially due to its crossover nature . Lavey found the translation a " good read " , liking how some Japanese words were not translated and instead explained in notes .
= = = Anime reception = = =
Critics have described the anime adaptation as having a very slow pace but having a beautiful musical score . Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network faulted the director , Koichi Mashimo , for " downshifting the plot 's energy " and as having " too many flashbacks , too many slow pans over inexpressive eyes " , that create an end @-@ product that is " tediously formulaic " . Active Anime 's Christopher Seaman had mixed feelings , finding the romantic themes mature and the magical themes appealing to younger audiences ; he concluded that " teens would get the most out of the series . " He recommended the series in general , praising its plot and its themes . DVDTalk 's Todd Douglass Jr. ranked the anime DVD box as " Highly Recommended " ; he liked how , despite borrowing elements from other series , it was " entirely self @-@ contained " . Douglas pointed out that following its second season , the anime kept entertaining viewers , and felt they would not find a reason to dislike it . Douglas enjoyed the anime 's storytelling . He liked its characters , but found it sometimes dragging due to its episodic nature . Kimlinger praised the musical score as being beautiful , as Yuki Kajiura 's work has always been . Chris Beveridge from Mania Entertainment made similar comments , praising the series ' score and animation , while commenting on the series ' accessibility . He said that people unrelated with Clamp 's works would like Tsubasa , in contrast to other people who would " get out of the series " . Its episodic nature was praised by Luther , who commented how the main plot was connected to each of the story arcs . The English cast for the anime has been labelled as " done and very solid " . IGN 's Jeffrey Harris felt Christopher Sabat was its best actor . Harris called the anime " a nice looking and at times elegant looking show " , pointing to the traits of the main characters . He criticized the lack of extras in the DVDs releases . Reviewing the anime 's and xxxHolic 's films , IGN writer N.S. Davidson said the Tsubasa film would be appealing to viewers of the series , despite its short length . He liked how both films ' storylines interacted , allowing parts of the plot of Tsubasa to be explained in the xxxHolic film , and he found artistic similarities between the two films . Carlo Santos was more critical of the film but still called it " good art " . In a TV Asahi poll , Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle was ranked as the fifty @-@ ninth most popular anime in Japan . It ranked ninth in Animage 's Anime Grand Prix anime popularity poll from 2005 , while it was also listed as a " Honorable Mention " in IGN 's " Top Ten Anime of 2007 " feature .
Although the Tsubasa OVAs were not the first original animation DVDs ( OADs ) , OVAs published with manga volumes , its release helped to popularize the term . Chris Beveridge from Mania Entertainment considered the OVAs to have better quality than the TV series , mainly because they were developed by Production I.G instead of Bee Train and because they have a darker storyline . In a further review , Beveridge found fascinating the events occurring in the OVAs due to the number of revelations changed the way people viewed the series . The character designs were felt to be more similar to the manga 's ones than the TV series , while the animation has been considered " a notch above that of standard Television " . The themes were noted to be more mature both brutally and mentally ; although the number of changes presented throughout them has been praised , another series of OVAs that would conclude the storyline built in the last episode from Spring Thunder Chronicles has been requested by reviewers .
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= Tweed Water Spaniel =
The Tweed Water Spaniel , or Tweed Spaniel , is a breed of dog extinct since the 19th century . It is best known for being involved in the early development of the modern Curly Coated Retriever and Golden Retriever breeds of dogs . They were described as a generally brown athletic dogs from the area around Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed near the River Tweed and close to the Scottish Borders . A type of water dog , the breed was not well known outside the local area . This breed may have been created by crossing local water dogs with imported St. John 's water dog , another breed which is also now extinct .
= = History = =
The village of Norham , Northumberland , just south of the River Tweed was noted as being " long famous " for a breed of water spaniel of which were " invariably brown " .
In 1816 , Richard Lawrence wrote of the origins of the Tweed Water Spaniel , " Along rocky shores and dreadful declivities beyond the junction of the Tweed with the sea of Berwick , water dogs have derived an addition of strength , from the introduction of a cross with the Newfoundland dog , which has rendered them completely adequate to the arduous difficulties and diurnal perils in which they are systematically engaged . " Although the quote refers specifically to the Newfoundland breed , it is actually more likely to mean the now extinct breed of the St. John 's water dog which was sometimes referred to by its homeland 's location of Newfoundland and Labrador .
Stanley O 'Neil , an expert in Flat @-@ coated Retrievers , wrote of the Tweed Water Spaniel in a letter during the late 19th century , " Further up the coast , probably Alnmouth , I saw men netting for salmon . With them was a dog with a wavy or curly coat . It was a tawny colour but , wet and spumy , it was difficult to see the exact colour , or how much was due to bleach and salt . Whilst my elders discussed the fishing I asked these Northumberland salmon net men whether their dog was a Water @-@ Dog or a Curly , airing my knowledge . They told me he was a Tweed Water Spaniel . This was a new one on me . I had a nasty suspicion my leg was being pulled . This dog looked like a brown Water Dog to me , certainly retrieverish , and not at all spanielly . I asked if he came from a trawler , and was told it came from Berwick . "
Linda P. Case , of the University of Illinois , speculated the Tweed Water Spaniel was so named because it was developed on the estate of Lord Tweedmouth , and in fact was simply the original name for a breed of dog that later became the Golden Retriever . However , this theory is against the documented evidence , as the early development of the Golden Retriever was fully documented and listed the three Tweed Water Spaniels involved specifically by breed .
= = Appearance and temperament = =
The Tweed Water Spaniel had a long tail and a curly , liver @-@ colored coat , and looked similar to the Irish Water Spaniel except it had a heavier muzzle and a pointed skull . The dog also had thick , slightly feathered , hound @-@ like ears , droopy lips , and fore legs that were feathered , but hind legs that were not . Their size was that of a small retriever , with a liver @-@ coloured curly coat . Instances of offspring which were liver @-@ coloured but tan below the knees were noted in Hugh Dalziel 's 1897 work British Dogs : Their Varieties , History , Characteristics , Breeding , Management , And Exhibition , although the author speculated this may have been due to Bloodhound ancestry in one of the parents of the litters .
The breed was known for its intelligence , courage , and sporting ability .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Golden Retriever = = =
Towards the end of the 19th century , Sir Dudley Coutts Majoribanks , Lord Tweedmouth , was developing a breed which was known at the time as a " yellow Retriever " . This was unusual , as typically during this period all Retrievers were black . The main pairing from which the modern Golden Retrievers are said to have descended were from a dog named Nous that was a rare yellow Wavy @-@ coated Retriever , and a female Tweed Spaniel named Belle that was given to Majoribanks by his cousin David Robertson . Four yellow puppies were produced from this pairing , named Ada , Crocus , Primrose and Cowslip .
Belle was not the only Tweed Spaniel in Majoribank 's kennel . A further dog simply named Tweed was kept , although records show he was never bred , as he died at an early age . A second dog named Tweed was bred , to Cowslip from the previous Tweed / Retriever pairing which produced a further yellow puppy named Topsy . The two breeds were only crossbred two or three times , but began the development of the modern Golden Retriever .
= = = Curly Coated Retriever = = =
During the formation of the modern breed known as the Curly @-@ coated Retriever , several breeds were used to bring their characteristics into this new breed . These included Poodles , Wetterhouns , Barbets , Irish Water Spaniels , and breeds that are now extinct , including the Large Rough Water Dog and the Tweed Water Spaniel . The Curly @-@ coated Retriever has been considered purebred since the early 20th century .
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= Linton Park =
Linton Park , formerly Linton Place or Linton Hall , is a large 18th @-@ century country house in Linton , Kent , England . Built by Robert Mann in 1730 to replace an earlier building , the house and estate passed through the ownership of several members of Mann 's family before coming into the Cornwallis family . The house was enlarged to its current size in 1825 .
The house sits in a prominent location , part way down a south @-@ facing slope which provides excellent views of the grounds and the Weald beyond . Gardens close to the house contain formal walks laid out in 1825 with specimen trees planted then and later .
The house is a Grade I listed building and the garden and park is listed Grade II * . Other buildings and structures in the park are also listed .
Linton Park is now the corporate headquarters of Camellia plc , an international agricultural company .
= = History = =
From the late 14th century , a house by the name of Capell 's Court stood on the site of Linton Park . It took its name from a family of local landowners named de Capell who held the property from the late 14th century to the mid @-@ 15th century . It was then sold to the Baysden family who held it until the late 16th century , when it was sold to Sir Anthony Mayney . Mayney 's grandson sold the estate to the judge Sir Francis Wythen . Wythen 's daughter , Catherine , inherited the estate and , following her second marriage to Brigadier @-@ General Sir George Jocelyn , the estate was sold to London merchant Sir Robert Mann .
Around 1730 , Mann demolished Capell 's Court and built the first part of the present house . On his death in 1751 , the house passed to his son Edward Mann . Edward Mann died in 1775 without children and the house passed to his brother the diplomat Sir Horace Mann . Sir Horace had taken the name of the estate as his territorial designation when made a baronet in 1755 , but was permanently resident in Florence . Sir Horace Mann was a friend and long @-@ time correspondent of Horace Walpole . After a visit to Edward Mann at Linton Park in 1757 , Walpole wrote to Sir Horace in Florence that : " the house is fine and stands like the citadel of Kent ; the whole county is its garden . " On the death of Sir Horace in 1786 , the baronetcy and the house passed to his nephew , Sir Horatio Mann MP , of Boughton Place in nearby Boughton Malherbe .
Sir Horatio died in 1814 and the house was inherited by James Cornwallis , Bishop of Lichfield , who was the widowed husband of Mann 's older sister , Catherine . Cornwallis became the fourth Earl Cornwallis on the death of his nephew Charles Cornwallis , 2nd Marquess Cornwallis in 1823 , but died himself in 1824 . The estate passed to his son James , the fifth Earl . On the fifth Earl 's death in 1852 , the property was inherited by his daughter Julia . In 1862 , she married William Amherst , Viscount Holmesdale ( later , after her death in 1883 , the third Earl Amherst ) .
By 1888 , the estate was in the possession of Fiennes Stanley Wykeham Cornwallis MP ( created 1st Baron Cornwallis in 1927 ) , grandson of the fifth Earl Cornwallis 's other daughter Jemima Isabella Mann . He owned the house until his death in 1935 . His first son , Captain Fiennes Wykeham Mann Cornwallis MC , was killed in an IRA ambush near Gort , Galway in 1921 , and so the first baron was succeeded by his second son , Wykeham Stanley Cornwallis . The second baron sold the house in 1937 and it became the property of Olaf Hambro , a member of the Hambro banking family . Following the death of Hambro in 1961 , the house was sold to the Daubeny family . The house and its nearest surrounding land were sold to the Freemasons in 1974 and were briefly operated as a school before passing into corporate ownership .
= = Buildings = =
Robert Mann 's original 1730s house was a two @-@ storey brick building seven bays wide with a break front . This was extended for the fifth Earl Cornwallis in 1825 by Thomas and William Cubitt . The Cubitts ' alterations included adding a third storey to the original house and building two @-@ storey wings four bays wide on each side . The house was also refinished with stucco render . Its hipped roof is covered with slates .
The entrance to the house is on the north side through a single storey portico . The north façade features tall sash windows on the ground and first floors of 12 panes ; the second floor windows to the central section are shorter and of nine panes. moulded stucco cornices run above the ground and first floor windows . The east and west façades are five bays wide with a two @-@ storey projecting bay on the east end and a single @-@ storey projecting bay on the west end .
Due to the slope of the site , the south façade , which overlooks the main part of the grounds , stands on a raised and terraced platform with the ground floor raised to first floor level and the basement becoming the ground floor . Above the terrace , the façade has the same general arrangement as the north façade , but the wings project slightly past the central section , which has a two @-@ storey pedimented portico . Each wing previously had a single @-@ storey bay at its centre but these have been removed .
Internally , a number of rooms feature period wall and ceiling decorations including the entrance hall , which dates from the original 1730s building and features moulded panelling and cornices , a marble fireplace and ornamental plaster ceiling and an arabesque frieze . The stairwell is lit from above with a roof light and features a cantilevered stair with iron balusters from the 1825 adaptation with a later brass handrail .
To the north @-@ east of the house is the estate 's former stable building . This was built around the time of the fifth Earl 's extension of the house and is aligned on a north @-@ south axis . The building comprises three three @-@ storey gable @-@ fronted pavilions separated by a pair of two @-@ storey wings . The façades are of brick , with the west façade painted white and the east unpainted . The roof is of slate with a clock tower in the centre of the east side of the central pavilion . Close to the stables is an underground brick @-@ built ice house accessed by a vaulted tunnel . The ice house dates from 1788 .
The main house is a Grade I listed building and the stables and the ice house are listed Grade II .
= = Park = =
Approached across parkland along a tree @-@ lined drive from a lodge to the north , the house sits in a landscape of approximately 132 hectares ( 330 acres ) of parkland , woodland and farmland part way down a south facing greensand slope overlooking the valley of the River Beult . Although now simplified without the intensive planting used in earlier centuries , elements remain of the formal gardens designed by John Claudius Loudon in 1825 that were previously arranged on the north , south @-@ east , south and west sides of the house .
Immediately to the south of the house is a wide 100 @-@ metre ( 330 ft ) long terrace with a stone balustrade . From the centre of this , aligned with the central portico of the house , stone steps descend in three flights over grass covered terraces to an oval lawn around the perimeter of which runs a gravel path and from which paths run to the east and west . In the centre of the lawn is a sundial . A wide lawn to the south @-@ east of the house is ringed by paths and divided by another on a north @-@ south access . This is interrupted by flights of steps and a fountain pond . Two small temples are positioned amongst trees part way down the slope .
To the west of the house Loudon laid out a flower garden . Later in the 1860s this was replanted with roses , but it is now lawns . At the south end of a walkway through this section of the garden is a water and rock garden known as " Jacobs Well " . From the north end of the walk an avenue of giant sequoias planted in 1864 runs north @-@ west towards the parish church of St Nicholas . Other Giant Sequoia are planted around the gardens . Close to the church , at the end of a paved walk is a small Gothic folly designed by Richard Bentley . South of the avenue is a grass amphitheatre cut into the slope . The southern perimeter of the formal garden is formed by a Ha @-@ Ha . To the south , beyond the formal gardens , the steepness of the slope reduces and the estate continues as open parkland with a tree @-@ fringed lake about 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) south of the house .
The gardens and parkland are listed Grade II * , with a number of features in the garden also individually listed for their group value with the house and park . The north lodge , the steps to the south of the house , the sundial on the oval lawn and the folly are all listed Grade II .
The estate is private property and is not open to the public , but the Greensand Way long distance walk crosses the parkland east @-@ west to the north of the house and a public footpath crosses the southern parkland close to the lake on a similar alignment .
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= Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic =
Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic is the third album by British child singer Connie Talbot . Released 13 October 2009 by AAO Music , it features rerecordings of songs from Talbot 's previous album , Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album , as well as new tracks . The album was released after Talbot was named child ambassador for the Toys for Tots Campaign , and some of the proceeds from the album were given to the organisation . The album was marketed with a tour of the United States , a cross @-@ marketing campaign with Boscov 's , and a television special produced by WVIA , a DVD of which was later released for sale . Reviews of the album were mixed ; while Talbot was called " sweet " and her range was praised , other reviewers considered the album to be " cloying " and " little more than a novelty act " .
= = Production = =
In September 2009 , it was announced that Talbot had been named child ambassador of the Marine Corps Toys for Tots Campaign , a charitable programme which purchases toys for underprivileged American children . It was announced that , in addition to promoting the drive on adverts and on television , Talbot 's forthcoming album , Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , would be dedicated to the campaign . Further , a portion of the proceeds from the sales of the album were to be donated to the charity . Talbot said that upon being declared ambassador , she was " I 'm sad and happy — sad because I 'm learning there are so many children who are not as lucky as I am , and I 'm happy that I 'm able to help them . " Vice @-@ president of the Toys for Tots Foundation Bill Grein said :
The Marine Toys for Tots Foundation is extremely proud and excited to have Connie as our youngest ambassador ever ... She is the perfect person to inform the public of the millions of less fortunate children who may be overlooked this Christmas holiday season , unless people step up to donate a toy or make a cash contribution . Her angelic looks and voice will remind everyone of the innocence of children ... And they all deserve to experience the magic of the holiday season ! I hope she sells lots of CDs and raises a lot of money and awareness for our children .
The track listing of Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic was compiled by people including Talbot 's family and friends , and AAO Music manager Peter Kuys ; of the tracks , Talbot said that her favourite was " When a Child Is Born " . Some of the songs had previously appeared on Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album , and Talbot 's official site describes Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic as " re @-@ launched " . However , Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic also featured three new songs , and the album 's vocals were completely rerecorded .
= = Release and promotion = =
Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic was released on 13 October 2009 , by the Albany @-@ based record label AAO Music . The release was promoted by a United States tour and a television special . The special , entitled Holiday Magic , was taped from 24 – 27 September , and produced by WVIA . Holiday Magic featured performances of all of the songs from Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , and was available to all PBS stations to be shown in November and December . On the special , Talbot performed with a choir from Scranton High School . A 17 @-@ track DVD of the performance , featuring all of the songs from Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , and two additional songs , " What a Wonderful World " and " Over the Rainbow " , was produced . In addition , the DVD featured an interview with Talbot and behind the scenes footage .
Appearances in the United States included performances at the Colonie Center . In addition , Talbot participated in a cross @-@ marketing campaign with Boscov 's ; she received signage and merchandising at Boscov 's stores , and wore Boscov 's clothes . Albert Boscov , of Boscov 's , said " We 're thrilled that Connie — such a talented youngster — is joining us to bring a little holiday magic to everyone this holiday season . " Kuys , of AAO Music , said " We have had a long relationship with Boscov 's over the last decade . This campaign was personally picked by Mr. Boscov , and we feel that both parties can be perfect for each other while adding great value to Connie 's Toys for Tots campaign . "
= = Reception = =
Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic received mixed reviews . Sunny Tse , reviewing the album for the South China Morning Post , said that the album was " just right for the kids " , but added that Talbot 's " stunning rendition of ' Ave Maria ' ... will blow your mind " . Jonathan Takiff , writing for The Philadelphia Daily News , said that " [ l ] istening to her trill through ' Silent Night , ' the calypso @-@ flavored ' Mary 's Boy Child ' and ' Rockin ' Around the Christmas Tree ' might inspire your kids . " He gave the album a B- . David Burger , writing for The Salt Lake Tribune , gave the album a B , and praised Talbot 's range , saying that there were " sweet , playful and jazzy arrangements " . Reviewers also praised the link with the Toys for Tots Foundation , which Tse considered " one more reason why you should grab a copy . "
While Tse described Talbot 's voice as " sweet " and " beautiful " , and Takiff called her " a freak of nature , with a grown @-@ up singing voice in the body of a ( just @-@ turned ) 9 @-@ year @-@ old " , other reviewers were more critical . Jon Bream , of the Minneapolis Star Tribune , called the album " more cloying than cute " , and David Yonke , writing for The Blade , described Talbot 's performance as " little more than a novelty act because of the overly sappy backdrop " . Yonke did praise Talbot for her " impressive vocal skills " , but considered her " earnestness [ as ] wasted on arrangements that sound as if they were ripped from a 1930s Shirley Temple songbook " . Wayne Bledsoe , writing for ScrippsNews , said that Talbot " has a great voice for a kid " , but added that " this album wore me out . Maybe it 's the never @-@ ending vibrato . "
= = Credits = =
= = Track listing = =
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= President Truman 's relief of General Douglas MacArthur =
On 11 April 1951 , U.S. President Harry S. Truman relieved General of the Army Douglas MacArthur of his commands after MacArthur made public statements which contradicted the administration 's policies . MacArthur was a popular hero of World War II who was then the commander of United Nations forces fighting in the Korean War , and his relief remains a controversial topic in the field of civil @-@ military relations .
MacArthur led the Allied forces in the Southwest Pacific during World War II , and after the war was in charge of the occupation of Japan . When North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950 , starting the Korean War , he was designated commander of the United Nations forces defending South Korea . He conceived and executed the amphibious assault at Inchon on 15 September 1950 , for which he was hailed as a military genius . However , when he followed up his victory with a full @-@ scale invasion of North Korea on Truman 's orders , China intervened in the war and inflicted a series of defeats , compelling him to withdraw from North Korea . By April 1951 , the military situation had stabilized , but MacArthur 's public statements became increasingly irritating to Truman , and he relieved MacArthur of his commands . The Senate Armed Services Committee and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee held a joint inquiry into the military situation and the circumstances surrounding MacArthur 's relief , and concluded that " the removal of General MacArthur was within the constitutional powers of the President but the circumstances were a shock to national pride . "
An apolitical military was an American tradition , but one that was difficult to uphold in an era when American forces were employed overseas in large numbers . The principle of civilian control of the military was also ingrained , but the rising complexity of military technology led to the creation of a professional military . This made civilian control increasingly problematic when coupled with the constitutional division of powers between the President as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , and the Congress with its power to raise armies , maintain a navy , and wage wars . In relieving MacArthur for failing to " respect the authority of the President " by privately communicating with Congress , Truman upheld the President 's role as pre @-@ eminent .
= = Background = =
= = = Harry Truman = = =
Harry S. Truman became President of the United States on the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1945 , and won an unexpected victory in the 1948 presidential election . He was the only president who served after 1897 without a college degree . Although not highly educated , Truman was well read . When his high school friends went off to the state university in 1901 , he enrolled in a local business school , but only lasted a semester . He later took night courses at the Kansas City Law School , but dropped out . Truman attempted to gain admission to the United States Military Academy at West Point , but was rejected for his poor eyesight . He was proud of his military service in the artillery during World War I , and held a reserve commission as a colonel .
Truman distrusted regular soldiers and selected two National Guardsmen , Harry H. Vaughan and Louis H. Renfrow , as his military aides . Truman once remarked that he did not understand how the US Army could " produce men such as Robert E. Lee , John J. Pershing , Eisenhower and Bradley and at the same time produce Custers , Pattons and MacArthur . "
During the 1948 Revolt of the Admirals , a number of naval officers publicly disagreed with the administration 's policy over cuts to naval aviation and amphibious warfare capability , resulting in the relief of the Chief of Naval Operations , Admiral Louis Denfeld , and his replacement by Admiral Forrest Sherman . In testimony before the House Armed Services Committee investigation into the affair in October 1949 , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , General Omar Bradley , doubted that there would ever be another large scale amphibious operation .
= = = Douglas MacArthur = = =
In stature and seniority , General of the Army Douglas MacArthur was the Army 's foremost general . The son of Lieutenant General Arthur MacArthur , Jr . , a recipient of the Medal of Honor for action during the American Civil War , he had graduated at the top of his West Point class of 1903 , but never attended an advanced service school except for the engineer course in 1908 . He had a distinguished combat record in World War I , and had served as Chief of Staff of the United States Army from 1930 to 1935 , working closely with Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin Roosevelt , despite occasional clashes over the military budget . He would later compare Roosevelt 's " extraordinary self @-@ control " with Truman 's " violent temper and paroxysms of ungovernable rage " .
Apart from his World War I @-@ era service in Mexico and Europe , his overseas postings had been in Asia and the Pacific . During World War II , he had become a national hero and had been awarded the Medal of Honor for the unsuccessful defense of the Philippines in the Battle of Bataan . He had commanded the Allied armies in the New Guinea Campaign and Philippines Campaign , fulfilling his famous promise to return to the Philippines . In 1944 and 1948 , he had been considered a possible Republican candidate for president . After the war , as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers ( SCAP ) , he had overseen the Occupation of Japan and played an important part in the post @-@ war political and social transformation of that country .
By 1950 , the occupation of Japan was winding down , but MacArthur remained in the country as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Far East ( CINCFE ) , a post to which he had been appointed by Truman in 1945 . MacArthur had to deal with deep cuts in the defense budget that had seen his troop numbers decline from 300 @,@ 000 in 1947 to 142 @,@ 000 in 1948 . Despite his protests , further reductions had followed and , by June 1950 , there were only 108 @,@ 000 troops in his Far East Command . Cuts in funds and personnel produced shortages of serviceable equipment . Of the Far East Command 's 18 @,@ 000 jeeps , 10 @,@ 000 were unserviceable ; of its 113 @,@ 870 2 ½ -ton 6x6 trucks , only 4 @,@ 441 were serviceable . On the positive side , the Far East Command initiated a program of reclaiming and refurbishing war materiel from abandoned stocks throughout the Pacific . This had not only recovered a great deal of valuable stores and equipment , it had also generated a useful repair and rebuilding industry in Japan . Meanwhile , the shift away from occupation duties had permitted a greater focus on training for combat .
= = Events leading up to the relief = =
= = = Korean War = = =
North Korea invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950 , starting the Korean War . In response to an urgent request from the Korean Military Advisory Group for more ammunition , MacArthur , on his own initiative , ordered the transport ship MSTS Sgt. George D Keathley , then in harbor in Yokohama , to be loaded with ammunition and to sail for Pusan . President Truman met with the Joint Chiefs of Staff and other advisors that day at Blair House and approved the actions already taken by MacArthur and Secretary of State Dean Acheson . At another meeting at Blair House held on the evening of 26 June , amid reports of a rapidly deteriorating situation in South Korea , Truman approved the use of air and naval forces against military targets south of the 38th parallel north .
Subsequently , on 27 June , the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 83 , which recommended that " members of the United Nations furnish such assistance to the Republic of Korea as may be necessary to repel the armed attack and to restore international peace and security in the area . " The South Korean capital of Seoul fell on 28 June . The next day , Truman authorized air and naval operations north of the 38th parallel , which MacArthur had already ordered . However it was not until 30 June , following a sobering report on the military situation from MacArthur , that Truman finally authorized the use of ground forces .
On 8 July , on the advice on the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Truman appointed MacArthur as commander of the United Nations Command in South Korea ( CINCUNC ) . He remained CINCFE and SCAP . MacArthur was forced to commit his forces in Japan to what he later described as a " desperate rearguard action . " In July Truman sent the Chief of Staff of the Army , General J. Lawton Collins , and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , General Hoyt S. Vandenberg , to report on the situation . They met with MacArthur and his chief of staff , Major General Edward Almond , in Tokyo on 13 July . MacArthur impressed on them the danger of underestimating the North Koreans , whom he characterized as " well @-@ equipped , well @-@ led , and battle @-@ trained , and which have at times out @-@ numbered our troops by as much as twenty to one . " He proposed to first halt the North Korean advance and then counterattack , enveloping the North Koreans with an amphibious operation , but the timing was dependent on the arrival of reinforcements from the United States .
At a press conference on 13 July , Truman was asked if United States forces would cross the 38th parallel into North Korea , and he replied that he would " make that decision when it becomes necessary to do it . " Some of his advisors , most notably the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs , Dean Rusk , and the Director of the Office of Northeast Asian Affairs , John M. Allison , argued that Security Council Resolution 83 provided a legal basis for the invasion of North Korea . Others , notably George F. Kennan and Paul Nitze , disagreed . In addition to the legality , the administration also had to consider the danger of intervention by the Soviet Union or the People 's Republic of China if United Nations forces approached their borders .
= = = Battle of Inchon = = =
MacArthur 's early ambitions for an amphibious operation against North Korea had to be shelved due to the deteriorating situation in the south , which compelled him to commit the formation earmarked for the assault , the 1st Cavalry Division , to the defence of the Pusan Perimeter , to which the Eighth Army retreated in August . MacArthur then resumed his planning for an amphibious operation , which he tentatively scheduled for 15 September 1950 . Navy and Marine Corps officers like Rear Admiral James H. Doyle , the commander of Amphibious Group One , and Major General Oliver P. Smith , the commander of the 1st Marine Division , were appalled by the proposed landing beaches at Inchon , which featured huge tides , broad mudflats , narrow and treacherous channels , and high seawalls . Omar Bradley called it " the worst possible place ever selected for an amphibious landing . " While the Inchon @-@ Seoul area was a key communications center , the risks of the landing were daunting . Collins and Sherman flew to Tokyo to be briefed on the plans by MacArthur , who declared : " We shall land at Inchon , and I shall crush them . "
MacArthur was invited to speak at the 51st National Encampment of the Veterans of Foreign Wars in Chicago on 26 August 1950 . He declined the invitation , but instead sent a statement that could be read out aloud , in which he contradicted Truman 's policy towards the island of Formosa , saying : " Nothing could be more fallacious than the threadbare argument by those who advocate appeasement and defeatism in the Pacific that if we defend Formosa we alienate continental Asia . " Truman was infuriated by the word " appeasement , " and discussed the possibility of relieving MacArthur with Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson . Johnson responded that MacArthur was " one of the greatest , if not the greatest generals of our generation . " Truman told Johnson to send MacArthur an order withdrawing his statement , which he did ; but it had already been read into Congressional Record . As it turned out , it was not MacArthur who was relieved , but Johnson . Truman had become irritated with Johnson 's conflict with Secretary of State Acheson , and although he had said that Johnson would remain his Secretary of Defense for " as long as I am President , " he asked Johnson for his resignation . Publicly , Johnson received much of the blame for the defense cuts that had led to the lack of preparedness and consequent early defeats in Korea . He was replaced by General of the Army George Marshall .
MacArthur held that his military objective was the destruction of the North Korean Army . That being the case , operations would be necessary north of the 38th parallel , although his Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 2 , Major General Charles A. Willoughby , warned on 31 August that 37 Chinese divisions were grouping on the border between China and North Korea . The Joint Chiefs agreed with MacArthur on this issue . A National Security Council paper endorsed the legality of action north of the 38th parallel . The paper recommended that only South Korean troops be employed in the border regions with China and Russia . Should the Soviet Union intervene , MacArthur was to immediately retreat to the 38th parallel ; but in the case of Chinese intervention , he was to keep fighting " as long as action by UN military forces offers a reasonable chance of successful resistance . " Truman endorsed the report on 11 September , but MacArthur remained in the dark because of the changeover of Secretaries of Defense , and was not informed until 22 September . When Truman was asked at a press conference on 21 September whether he had concluded to conduct operations in North Korea , he replied that he had not .
In the meantime , MacArthur 's amphibious assault at Inchon went ahead on 15 September . " The success of Inchon was so great and the subsequent prestige of General MacArthur was so overpowering , " Collins later recalled , " that the Chiefs hesitated thereafter to question later plans and decisions of the general , which should have been challenged . " In response to a rumor that the Eighth Army planned to halt at the 38th parallel and await United Nations authorization to cross , Marshall sent a message to MacArthur informing him that : " We want you to feel unhampered tactically and strategically to proceed north of 38th parallel . Announcement above referred to may precipitate embarrassment in the UN where evident desire is not to be confronted with necessity of a vote on passage , rather to find you have found it militarily necessary to do so . " A few days later , MacArthur was instructed not to issue an announcement that his forces had crossed the 38th parallel . On 7 October a United Nations General Assembly Resolution was passed that could be broadly construed as permitting the invasion of North Korea .
= = = Wake Island Conference = = =
With the 1950 mid @-@ term elections drawing near , and Truman abstaining from overt campaigning while the troops were fighting in Korea , members of Truman 's staff , most notably George Elsey , came up with another way to garner votes for the Democratic Party . In July 1944 , President Franklin Roosevelt had traveled to Hawaii to meet with MacArthur and Admiral Chester Nimitz . At this meeting , Roosevelt made the decision to attack the Philippines in the final year of the Pacific war . It was a political triumph in an election year , refuting Republican claims that Roosevelt fixated on Europe at the expense of the Pacific .
Truman emulated this by flying to the Pacific to meet MacArthur . Initially , Truman was unenthusiastic about the idea , as he disliked publicity stunts , but in October 1950 , in the wake of the victories at Pusan and Inchon , MacArthur 's star was burning bright . By meeting with him , Truman could emphasize his own part in the victories , as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . A message was sent to MacArthur suggesting a meeting on Hawaii or Wake Island . MacArthur replied that he " would be delighted to meet the President on the morning of the 15th at Wake Island . " When MacArthur discovered that the President would be bringing the news media with him , MacArthur asked if he could bring correspondents from Tokyo . His request was denied .
Truman arrived at Wake Island on 15 October , where he was greeted on the tarmac by MacArthur , who had arrived the day before . MacArthur shook hands with the President rather than salute , which Bradley considered " insulting . " This did not bother Truman ; what did annoy the President , a former haberdasher , was MacArthur 's " greasy ham and eggs cap that evidently had been in use for twenty years . " The meeting , which had no agenda and no structure , took the form of a free @-@ wheeling discussion between the President and his advisors on one hand , and MacArthur and the CINCPAC , Admiral Arthur Radford , on the other . Topics discussed included Formosa , the Philippines and the wars in Vietnam and Korea . MacArthur noted that " No new policies , no new strategy of war or international politics , were proposed or discussed . " Robert Sherrod , who was present as a correspondent felt that he " had witnessed nothing but a political grandstand play . "
However , MacArthur did say things that would later be used against him . When asked by the President about the odds of Soviet or Chinese intervention in Korea , MacArthur replied :
Very little . Had they interfered in the first or second months it would have been decisive . We are no longer fearful of their intervention . We no longer stand hat in hand . The Chinese have 300 @,@ 000 men in Manchuria . Of these probably not more than 100 – 115 @,@ 000 are distributed along the Yalu River . Only 50 – 60 @,@ 000 could be gotten across the Yalu River . They have no Air Force . Now that we have bases for our Air Force in Korea if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang there would be the greatest slaughter .
MacArthur expressed the hope that the Eighth Army could withdraw to Japan by the end of the year . When Bradley asked if a division could be sent to Europe , MacArthur replied that he could make one available in January . In fact , Chinese troops had already begun crossing the Yalu into North Korea , and by November 180 @,@ 000 had done so .
= = = Chinese intervention = = =
When he returned from Wake , MacArthur faced the challenge of turning his promises into reality . On 24 October , he ordered his principal subordinates , Lieutenant General Walton Walker , the commander of the Eighth Army , and Major General Edward Almond of X Corps , to " drive forward with all speed and full utilization of all their force . " He also lifted the prohibition on troops other than South Koreans operating along the borders with China and the Soviet Union . Collins considered this a violation of the orders that the Joint Chiefs had issued on 27 September , but MacArthur pointed out that it was only , in the words of the original directive , " a matter of policy . " He added that the matter had been raised at Wake Island , but no one else recalled this , particularly not Truman , who , unaware of these discussions , told reporters on 26 October that Koreans and not Americans would occupy the border areas . Within days , MacArthur 's forces had encountered the Chinese in the Battle of Onjong and the Battle of Unsan .
Truman did not relieve MacArthur for the military reverses in Korea in November and December 1950 . Truman later stated that he felt that MacArthur was no more to blame than General of the Army Dwight Eisenhower was for the military reverses he had suffered during the Battle of the Bulge . But this did not mean that it did not factor into his decision . " I considered him a great strategist , " Truman later recalled , " until he made the march into North Korea without the knowledge that he should have had of the Chinese coming in . "
In an attempt to slow the Chinese advance , MacArthur ordered the bridges across the Yalu to be bombed . After due consultation with his advisers , Truman declared that he would not approve of such an action , and the Joint Chiefs cancelled the order . When MacArthur protested , the President and the Joint Chiefs authorized the bombings , subject to the caveat that Chinese air space not be violated . Major General Emmett O 'Donnell would later cite this to the Congressional inquiry into MacArthur 's relief as an example of undue political interference in military operations . The Yalu River had many bends , and in some cases there were very restricted lines of approach without overflying the Yalu . This made life easier for the Communist antiaircraft gunners , but correspondingly less so for the aircrew . Within weeks , MacArthur was forced to retreat , and both Truman and MacArthur were forced to contemplate the prospect of abandoning Korea entirely .
= = = Nuclear weapons = = =
MacArthur did not advocate the use of nuclear weapons to recover the situation . In his testimony before the Senate Inquiry , he said that he had never recommended their use . In 1960 , MacArthur challenged a statement by Truman that he had wanted to use nuclear weapons , and Truman issued a retraction , stating that he had no documentary evidence of this claim ; it was merely his personal opinion . According to Major General Courtney Whitney , MacArthur did at one point consider a plan to use radioactive wastes to seal off North Korea , based upon a 1950 proposal by Louis Johnson , but never submitted this to the Joint Chiefs . In 1985 Richard Nixon recalled discussing the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with MacArthur :
MacArthur once spoke to me very eloquently about it , pacing the floor of his apartment in the Waldorf . He thought it a tragedy the bomb was ever exploded . MacArthur believed that the same restrictions ought to apply to atomic weapons as to conventional weapons , that the military objective should always be limited damage to noncombatants ... MacArthur , you see , was a soldier . He believed in using force only against military targets , and that is why the nuclear thing turned him off , which I think speaks well of him .
Bradley had proposed to the Joint Chiefs that nuclear weapons be placed at MacArthur 's disposal in July 1950 , but after consideration of the matter , the Joint Chiefs did not adopt the proposal . However , ten B @-@ 29 bombers were deployed to Guam . While Truman publicly denied that he was considering the use of nuclear weapons , he authorised the transfer to Guam of all their components except for the fissile cores .
At a press conference on 30 November 1950 , Truman was asked about the use of nuclear weapons :
Q. Mr. President , I wonder if we could retrace that reference to the atom bomb ? Did we understand you clearly that the use of the atomic bomb is under active consideration ?
Truman : Always has been . It is one of our weapons .
Q. Does that mean , Mr. President , use against military objectives , or civilian —
Truman : It 's a matter that the military people will have to decide . I 'm not a military authority that passes on those things .
Q. Mr. President , perhaps it would be better if we are allowed to quote your remarks on that directly ?
Truman : I don 't think — I don 't think that is necessary .
Q. Mr. President , you said this depends on United Nations action . Does that mean that we wouldn 't use the atomic bomb except on a United Nations authorization ?
Truman : No , it doesn 't mean that at all . The action against Communist China depends on the action of the United Nations . The military commander in the field will have charge of the use of the weapons , as he always has .
The implication was that the authority to use nuclear weapons had been handed over to MacArthur . Truman was forced to issue a clarification that " only the President can authorize the use of the atom bomb , and no such authorization has been given . " Truman had touched upon one of the most sensitive issues in civil @-@ military relations in the post @-@ World War II period : civilian control of nuclear weapons , which was enshrined in the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 .
On 5 April 1951 , the Joint Chiefs of Staff drafted orders for MacArthur authorizing attacks on Manchuria and the Shantung Peninsula if the Chinese launched airstrikes against his forces originating from there . The next day Truman met with the chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission , Gordon Dean , and arranged for the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs to military control . Dean was apprehensive about delegating the decision on how they should be used to MacArthur , who lacked expert technical knowledge of the weapons and their effects . The Joint Chiefs were not entirely comfortable about giving them to MacArthur either , for fear that he might prematurely carry out his orders . Instead , they decided that the nuclear strike force would report to the Strategic Air Command .
= = = Foreign pressure = = =
The British Prime Minister , Clement Attlee , was particularly disturbed by Truman 's gaffe about nuclear weapons , and sought to revive the wartime Quebec Agreement , under which the United States would not use nuclear weapons without Britain 's consent . The British were concerned that the United States was drifting into a war with China . In a visit to the United States in December 1950 , Attlee raised the fears of the British and other European governments that " General MacArthur was running the show . " As MacArthur 's views about the importance of Asia in world affairs were well known , it was feared that United States would shift its focus away from Europe . In this instance , MacArthur was defended by Bradley , whose anglophobia dated back to World War II .
The British became alarmed in January 1951 when the Americans began talking of evacuating Korea . The British argued that to maintain European faith and unity it was vital to maintain some presence in Korea , even if it was nothing more than a toehold in the Pusan area . Once again , Bradley defended MacArthur , but it was clear that he had become an irritant in the relationship between the two countries . However , the alliance with Britain itself was unpopular in Congress . House Minority Leader Joseph William Martin , Jr. slammed Truman for following Attlee 's Britain to " slavery to government and crippling debt . "
= = = Public statements = = =
On 1 December 1950 , MacArthur was asked by a reporter if the restrictions on operations against Chinese forces on the far side of the Yalu River were " a handicap to effective military operations . " He replied that they were indeed " an enormous handicap , unprecedented in military history . " On 6 December , Truman issued a directive requiring all military officers and diplomatic officials to clear with the State Department all but routine statements before making them public , " and ... refrain from direct communications on military or foreign policy with newspapers , magazines , and other publicity media . " Major General Courtney Whitney gave MacArthur a legal opinion that this applied " solely to formal public statements and not to communiqués , correspondence or personal conversations . " MacArthur made similar remarks in press statements on 13 February and 7 March 1951 .
In February and March 1951 , the tide of war began to turn again , and MacArthur 's forces drove north . Seoul , which had fallen on 4 January , was recaptured on 17 March . This raised hopes in Washington that the Chinese and North Koreans might be amenable to a ceasefire agreement , and Truman prepared a statement to this effect . MacArthur was informed of it by the Joint Chiefs on 20 March , and he warned the new commander of the Eighth Army , Lieutenant General Matthew B. Ridgway , that political constraints might soon impose limits on his proposed operations . On 23 March , MacArthur issued a communiqué about offering a ceasefire to the Chinese :
Of even greater significance than our tactical successes has been the clear revelation that this new enemy , Red China , of such exaggerated and vaunted military power , lacks the industrial capability to provide adequately many critical items necessary to the conduct of modern war . He lacks the manufacturing base and those raw materials needed to produce , maintain and operate even moderate air and naval power , and he cannot provide the essentials for successful ground operations , such as tanks , heavy artillery and other refinements science has introduced into the conduct of military campaigns . Formerly his great numerical potential might well have filled this gap but with the development of existing methods of mass destruction numbers alone do not offset the vulnerability inherent in such deficiencies . Control of the seas and the air , which in turn means control over supplies , communications and transportation , are no less essential and decisive now than in the past . When this control exists , as in our case , and is coupled with an inferiority of ground firepower in the enemy 's case , the resulting disparity is such that it cannot be overcome by bravery , however fanatical , or the most gross indifference to human loss .
These military weaknesses have been clearly and definitely revealed since Red China entered upon its undeclared war in Korea . Even under the inhibitions which now restrict the activity of the United Nations forces and the corresponding military advantages which accrue to Red China , it has been shown its complete inability to accomplish by force of arms the conquest of Korea . The enemy , therefore must by now be painfully aware that a decision of the United Nations to depart from its tolerant effort to contain the war to the area of Korea , through an expansion of our military operations to its coastal areas and interior bases , would doom Red China to the risk of imminent military collapse . These basic facts being established , there should be no insuperable difficulty in arriving at decisions on the Korean problem if the issues are resolved on their own merits , without being burdened by extraneous matters not directly related to Korea , such as Formosa or China 's seat in the United Nations .
The next day , MacArthur authorized Ridgway to advance up to 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of the 38th Parallel . Truman would later report that " I was ready to kick him into the North China Sea ... I was never so put out in my life . " Truman felt that MacArthur 's communiqué , which had not been cleared in accordance with the December directive , had pre @-@ empted his own proposal . He later wrote :
This was a most extraordinary statement for a military commander of the United Nations to issue on his own responsibility . It was an act totally disregarding all directives to abstain from any declarations on foreign policy . It was in open defiance of my orders as President and as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . This was a challenge to the authority of the President under the Constitution . It also flouted the policy of the United Nations . By this act MacArthur left me no choice - I could no longer tolerate his insubordination .
For the moment , however , he did . There had been dramatic confrontations over policy before , the most notable of which was between President Abraham Lincoln and Major General George McClellan , in 1862 . Another example was President James Polk 's recall of Major General Winfield Scott after the Mexican @-@ American War . Before relieving MacArthur , Truman consulted history books on how Lincoln and Polk dealt with their generals . Truman later said that Polk was his favorite president because " he had the courage to tell Congress to go to Hell on foreign policy matters . "
There were genuine differences of opinion over policy between MacArthur and the Truman administration . One was MacArthur 's deep @-@ seated belief that it was not possible to separate the struggle against Communism in Europe from that going on in Asia . This was seen as the result of being stationed for too many years in the Orient , and of his perspective as a theater commander responsible only for part of the Far East . Another important policy difference was MacArthur 's belief that China was not , as Acheson maintained , " the Soviet Union 's largest and most important satellite , " but an independent state with its own agenda that , in MacArthur 's words , " for its own purposes is [ just temporarily ] allied with Soviet Russia . " If MacArthur 's thesis was accepted , then it followed that expanding the war with China would not provoke a conflict with the Soviet Union . The Joint Chiefs emphatically disagreed , although this contradicted their position that it was Europe and not Asia that was the prime concern of the Soviet Union . Even among Republicans , there was little support for MacArthur 's position .
On 5 April , Martin read the text of a letter he had received from MacArthur , dated 20 March , criticizing the Truman administration 's priorities on the floor of the House . In it , MacArthur had written :
It seems strangely difficult for some to realize that here in Asia is where the Communist conspirators have elected to make their play for global conquest , and that we have joined the issue thus raised on the battlefield ; that here we fight Europe ’ s war with arms while the diplomatic there still fight it with words ; that if we lose the war to communism in Asia the fall of Europe is inevitable ; win it and Europe most probably would avoid war and yet preserve freedom . As you pointed out , we must win . There is no substitute for victory .
MacArthur later wrote that Martin had released the letter " for some unexplained reason and without consulting me " , but it had not been marked as being confidential or off the record .
= = = Diplomatic dispatch intercepts = = =
The practice of intercepting and decrypting diplomatic messages of friend and foe alike was a closely held secret in the 1950s . In mid @-@ March 1951 , Truman learned through such intercepts that MacArthur had conversations with diplomats in Spain 's and Portugal 's Tokyo embassies . In these talks , MacArthur had expressed confidence that he would succeed in expanding the Korean War into a major conflict resulting in the permanent disposal of the " Chinese Communist question " and MacArthur did not want either country to be alarmed if this happened . The content of this particular intercept was known by only a very few of Truman 's closest advisers , two being Paul Nitze , Director of the Policy Planning Staff of the State Department and his associate , Charles Burton Marshall . Truman considered MacArthur 's conversations to be outright treachery and concluded that MacArthur had to be relieved , but was unable to act immediately because of MacArthur 's political support and to avoid wider knowledge of the existence of the electronic intercepts of diplomatic messages .
= = = Provoking China = = =
Ridgway had prepared an offensive known as Operation Rugged , and pressed MacArthur for permission to launch it . On 15 March 1951 , the day after Seoul had been recaptured a second time , Truman had responded to a reporter 's question about whether UN forces would again be allowed to move north of the 38th Parallel by saying that it would be " a tactical matter for the field commander " . MacArthur thereupon gave Ridgway permission to launch his attack , setting an objective line north of the 38th Parallel that would secure Seoul 's water supply . He did so without consulting with Washington until after the attack began on 5 April 1951 . It was making steady progress when MacArthur was relieved on 11 April .
Following the completion of flight operations the evening of 7 April 1951 , Task Force 77 , the Seventh Fleet 's fast carrier task force , with the carriers USS Boxer and USS Philippine Sea , departed Korean waters in the Sea of Japan bound for the Straits of Formosa ( Taiwan ) . At 11 : 00 on 11 April , Task Force 77 operating near the west coast of Taiwan , commenced an " aerial parade " along the east coast of mainland China . Concurrently , the destroyer USS John A. Bole arrived at its assigned station 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) offshore from the Chinese seaport of Swatow ( Shantou ) , provoking the Chinese to surround it with an armada of over 40 armed powered junks . Although Task Force 77 was conducting its aerial parade over the horizon to the west , nearly two hours passed before aircraft from the task force appeared over Swatow and made threatening passes at the Chinese vessels and the port city . MacArthur officially received notification of his dismissal shortly after 15 : 00 Tokyo time ( 14 : 00 on the China coast ) , although he had found out about it half an hour before . Two hours later , the Bole retired from its station without hostile action being initiated by either side . Author James Edwin Alexander expressed little doubt that the Bole and its crew were made " sitting ducks " by MacArthur trying to provoke the Chinese into attacking a U.S. warship in an attempt to expand the conflict .
= = Relief = =
On the morning of 6 April 1951 , Truman held a meeting in his office with Marshall , Bradley , Acheson and Harriman to discuss what would be done about MacArthur . Harriman was emphatically in favor of MacArthur 's relief , but Bradley opposed it . George Marshall asked for more time to consider the matter . Acheson was personally in favor of relieving MacArthur but did not disclose this . Instead , he warned Truman that it would be " the biggest fight of your administration . " At a second meeting the next day , Marshall and Bradley continued to oppose relief . On 8 April , the Joint Chiefs met with Marshall in his office . Each of the chiefs in turn expressed the opinion that MacArthur 's relief was desirable from a " military point of view , " but they recognized that military considerations were not paramount . They were concerned that " if MacArthur were not relieved , a large segment of our people would charge that civil authorities no longer controlled the military . " The four advisers met with Truman in his office again on 9 April . Bradley informed the President of the views of the Joint Chiefs , and Marshall added that he agreed with them . Truman wrote in his diary that " it is of unanimous opinion of all that MacArthur be relieved . All four so advise . " Later , before Congress , the Joint Chiefs would insist that they had only " concurred " with the relief , not " recommended " it .
On 11 April 1951 , President Truman drafted an order to MacArthur , which was issued under Bradley 's signature :
I deeply regret that it becomes my duty as President and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the United States military forces to replace you as Supreme Commander , Allied Powers ; Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , United Nations Command ; Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Far East ; and Commanding General , U.S. Army , Far East .
You will turn over your commands , effective at once , to Lt. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway . You are authorized to have issued such orders as are necessary to complete desired travel to such place as you select .
My reasons for your replacement , will be made public concurrently with the delivery to you of the foregoing order , and are contained in the next following message .
In a 3 December 1973 article in Time magazine , Truman was quoted as saying in the early 1960s :
I fired him because he wouldn 't respect the authority of the President . I didn 't fire him because he was a dumb son of a bitch , although he was , but that 's not against the law for generals . If it was , half to three @-@ quarters of them would be in jail .
Although Truman and Acheson accused MacArthur of insubordination , the Joint Chiefs avoided any suggestion of this . MacArthur was not , in fact , relieved for insubordination . Insubordination was a military offense , and MacArthur could have requested a public court martial similar to that of Billy Mitchell in the 1920s . The outcome of such a trial was uncertain , and it might well have found him not guilty and ordered his reinstatement . The Joint Chiefs agreed that there was " little evidence that General MacArthur had ever failed to carry out a direct order of the Joint Chiefs , or acted in opposition to an order . " " In point of fact , " Bradley insisted , " MacArthur had stretched but not legally violated any JCS directives . He had violated the President 's 6 December directive , relayed to him by the JCS , but this did not constitute violation of a JCS order . "
The intention was that MacArthur would be personally notified of his relief by Secretary of the Army Frank Pace , who was touring the front in Korea , at 20 : 00 on 11 April ( Washington , D.C. time ) , which was 10 : 00 on 12 April ( Tokyo time ) . However , Pace did not receive the message due to a signals failure in Korea . Meanwhile , reporters began asking if rumors of MacArthur 's relief were true . Truman then " decided that we could not afford the courtesy of Secretary Pace 's personal delivery of the order , " and called a press conference at which he issued his statement to the press :
With deep regret I have concluded that General of the Army Douglas MacArthur is unable to give his wholehearted support to the policies of the United States Government and of the United Nations in matters pertaining to his official duties . In view of the specific responsibilities imposed upon me by the Constitution of the United States and the added responsibility which has been entrusted to me by the United Nations , I have decided that I must make a change of command in the Far East . I have , therefore , relieved General MacArthur of his commands and have designated Lt. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway as his successor .
Full and vigorous debate on matters of national policy is a vital element in the constitutional system of our free democracy . It is fundamental , however , that military commanders must be governed by the policies and directives issued to them in the manner provided by our laws and Constitution . In time of crisis , this consideration is particularly compelling .
General MacArthur 's place in history as one of our greatest commanders is fully established . The Nation owes him a debt of gratitude for the distinguished and exceptional service which he has rendered his country in posts of great responsibility . For that reason I repeat my regret at the necessity for the action I feel compelled to take in his case .
In Tokyo , MacArthur and his wife were at a luncheon at the American embassy for Senator Warren Magnuson and William Stern , executive vice president of Northwest Airlines , when Colonel Sidney Huff , MacArthur 's aide and one of the " Bataan gang " who had escaped from Corregidor with the general in 1942 , heard about the relief from commercial radio broadcast . Huff promptly informed Mrs. MacArthur , who in turn told the general . Japanese radio stations soon picked up the story , but the official notice would not arrive for another half hour .
= = Issues = =
= = = Civilian control of the military = = =
Civilian control of the military is an American tradition dating back to the founding of the republic . In his 1956 memoirs , Truman wrote :
If there is one basic element in our Constitution , it is civilian control of the military . Policies are to be made by the elected political officials , not by generals or admirals . Yet time and again General MacArthur had shown that he was unwilling to accept the policies of the administration . By his repeated public statements he was not only confusing our allies as to the true course of our policies but , in fact , was also setting his policy against the President 's ... If I allowed him to defy the civil authorities in this manner , I myself would be violating my oath to uphold and defend the Constitution .
Following the relief , most of the avalanche of mail and messages sent to the White House by the public supported MacArthur . On issues like character , integrity , honor and service , they rated MacArthur as the better man . What support Truman garnered was largely based on the principle of civilian control .
" The United States Constitution " , wrote Samuel P. Huntington , " despite widespread belief to the contrary , does not provide for civilian control . " It drew no distinction between civil and military responsibilities , and provided for no subordination of the one to the other . By dividing responsibility for the military between the executive and the legislature , it made control more difficult . Any attempt by one branch to assert control would likely involve a clash with the other . Debates nominally about civilian control were usually , in practice , about which branch would exercise control rather than how control would be exercised . The framers of the constitution did not consider the issue of the management of a distinct and technically sophisticated military profession because no such thing existed at the time . It appeared in the 19th century as a result of social changes brought about by the French Revolution , and technological changes wrought by the industrial revolution . While the framers believed in civilian control of the military , they framed it in terms of a people 's militia in which civilian and military were one and the same .
= = = Apolitical military = = =
Another American tradition is that of an apolitical military , although this custom was of more recent origin , dating back only to the period after the American Civil War . Few officers voted in the 19th century , but not so much from a lack of interest in politics as because frequently moving from state to state and living on Federal land effectively disenfranchised them under the laws of many states . Under General of the Army William T. Sherman , the Commanding General of the United States Army from 1869 to 1883 , who hated politics , this custom of an apolitical military became firmly established .
Nor , unlike their European counterparts , did American generals and admirals have influence on or involvement in foreign policy ; but mainly because in the frontier Army of MacArthur 's youth , there was no requirement to do so . This began to change after the Spanish @-@ American War , when American military forces started to be deployed overseas in the Pacific , Asia and the Caribbean for extended periods of time .
The concept of the theater of war developed during World War II . At such a senior level of command , military and political issues tended to merge . As theater commander in the Southwest Pacific , MacArthur had been accountable to the Australian government as well as his own , making him , in President Roosevelt 's words to him , " an ambassador as well as Supreme Commander . " MacArthur 's less than wholehearted support for the " Europe first " strategy was apt to cause annoyance in Washington when the chain of command was bypassed by MacArthur through the Prime Minister of Australia , John Curtin .
General Marshall expressed this conflict in his testimony before the Senate :
It arises from the inherent difference between the position of a commander whose mission is limited to a particular area and a particular antagonist , and the position of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , the Secretary of Defense and the President , who are responsible for the total security of the United States ... and must weigh the interests and objectives in one part of the world with those in others to attain balance ... There is nothing new in this divergence , in our military history ... What is new and what brought about the necessity for General MacArthur ’ s removal is the wholly unprecedented situation of a local Theater Commander publicly expressing his displeasure at , and his disagreement with , the foreign policy of the United States . [ He ] ... had grown so far out of sympathy with the established policies of the United States that there is grave doubt as to whether he could any longer be permitted to exercise the authority in making decisions that normal command functions would assign to a Theater Commander .
= = = Powers of the President = = =
In The Federalist Papers , Alexander Hamilton argued that :
The President is to be commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army and navy of the United States . In this respect his authority would be nominally the same with that of the king of Great Britain , but in substance much inferior to it . It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces , as first General and admiral of the Confederacy ; while that of the British king extends to the declaring of war and to the raising and regulating of fleets and armies , all which , by the Constitution under consideration , would appertain to the legislature .
But on 26 June 1950 , Truman sent the armed forces into Korea without any such Congressional mandate . The subsequent United Nations Security Council resolution authorized military assistance to South Korea , but the United Nations Participation Act laid down that :
The President shall not be deemed to require the authorization of the Congress to make available to the Security Council on its call in order to take action under article 42 of said Charter and pursuant to such special agreement or agreements the armed forces , facilities , or assistance provided for therein : Provided , That ... nothing herein contained shall be construed as an authorization to the President by the Congress to make available to the Security Council for such purpose armed forces , facilities , or assistance in addition to the forces , facilities , and assistance provided for in such special agreement or agreements .
The Congressional inquiry triggered by MacArthur 's relief ruled that Truman 's actions violated both constitutional and statutory requirements . While presidents had in the past used extra @-@ legal military force , this was in " fights with pirates , landings of small naval contingents on barbarous or semi @-@ barbarous coasts , the dispatch of small bodies of troops to chase bandits or cattle rustlers across the Mexican border , and the like . " Congressman Vito Marcantonio , who opposed the war in Korea , argued that " when we agreed to the United Nations Charter we never agreed to supplant our Constitution with the United Nations Charter . The power to declare and make war is vested in the representatives of the people , in the Congress of the United States . "
Senator William F. Knowland noted that :
Article I of the Constitution gives the power to declare war to the Congress and not to the Executive . We are apparently now drifting into a twilight constitutional zone where the executive can put us into war , the fourth largest in our history , without a Congressional declaration or a Congressional resolution recognizing that a state of war started by others already exists . When Congress acts under its constitutional power , every statement for or against the resolution is part of the Congressional Record , and the press and the public are fully informed . The roll @-@ call vote shows how each Member voted . This is responsible and accountable government .
If five or seven men can meet in a closed session in the Blair House or the White House , and put this nation into the fourth largest war from a casualty standpoint , in our history without their statements and recommendations being recorded or available , and without their positions on this matter being known , we have the war @-@ making power transferred from the Congress , operating in the open , to the Executive , operating en camera . That is not , I submit , either responsible or accountable government .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Responses to the relief = = =
The news of MacArthur 's relief was greeted with shock in Japan . The Diet of Japan passed a resolution of gratitude for MacArthur , and the Emperor Hirohito visited him at the embassy in person , the first time a Japanese Emperor had ever visited a foreigner with no standing . The Mainichi Shimbun said :
MacArthur 's dismissal is the greatest shock since the end of the war . He dealt with the Japanese people not as a conqueror but a great reformer . He was a noble political missionary . What he gave us was not material aid and democratic reform alone , but a new way of life , the freedom and dignity of the individual ... We shall continue to love and trust him as one of the Americans who best understood Japan 's position .
In the Chicago Tribune , Senator Robert A. Taft called for immediate impeachment proceedings against Truman :
President Truman must be impeached and convicted . His hasty and vindictive removal of General MacArthur is the culmination of series of acts which have shown that he is unfit , morally and mentally , for his high office . The American nation has never been in greater danger . It is led by a fool who is surrounded by knaves .
Newspapers like the Chicago Tribune and the Los Angeles Times opined that MacArthur 's " hasty and vindictive " relief was due to foreign pressure , particularly from the United Kingdom and the British socialists in Attlee 's government . The Republican Party whip , Senator Kenneth S. Wherry , charged that the relief was the result of pressure from " the Socialist Government of Great Britain . "
On April 17 , 1951 , MacArthur flew back to the United States , a country he had not seen in years . When he reached San Francisco he was greeted by the commander of the Sixth United States Army , Lieutenant General Albert C. Wedemeyer . MacArthur received a parade there that was attended by 500 @,@ 000 people . He was greeted on arrival at Washington National Airport on April 19 by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and General Jonathan Wainwright . Truman sent Vaughan as his representative. which was seen as a slight , as Vaughan was despised by the public and professional soldiers alike as a corrupt crony . " It was a shameful thing to fire MacArthur , and even more shameful to send Vaughan , " one member of the public wrote to Truman .
MacArthur addressed a joint session of Congress where he delivered his famous " Old Soldiers Never Die " speech , in which he declared :
Efforts have been made to distort my position . It has been said in effect that I was a warmonger . Nothing could be further from the truth . I know war as few other men now living know it , and nothing to me — and nothing to me is more revolting . I have long advocated its complete abolition , as its very destructiveness on both friend and foe has rendered it useless as a means of settling international disputes ... But once war is forced upon us , there is no other alternative than to apply every available means to bring it to a swift end . War 's very object is victory , not prolonged indecision . In war there can be no substitute for victory .
In response , the Pentagon issued a press release noting that " the action taken by the President in relieving General MacArthur was based upon the unanimous recommendations of the President 's principal civilian and military advisers including the Joint Chiefs of Staff . " Afterwards , MacArthur flew to New York City where he received the largest ticker @-@ tape parade in history up to that time . He also visited Chicago and Milwaukee , where he addressed large rallies .
= = = Congressional inquiry = = =
In May and June 1951 , the Senate Armed Services Committee and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee held " an inquiry into the military situation in the Far East and the facts surrounding the relief of General of the Army Douglas MacArthur . " The Senate thereby attempted to avoid a constitutional crisis . Because of the sensitive political and military topics being discussed , the inquiry was held in closed session , and only a heavily censored transcript was made public until 1973 . The two committees were jointly chaired by Senator Richard Russell , Jr . Fourteen witnesses were called : MacArthur , Marshall , Bradley , Collins , Vandenberg , Sherman , Adrian S. Fisher , Acheson , Wedemeyer , Johnson , Oscar C. Badger II , Patrick J. Hurley , and David C. Barr and O 'Donnell .
The testimony of Marshall and the Joint Chiefs rebutted many of MacArthur 's arguments . Marshall emphatically declared that there had been no disagreement between himself , the President , and the Joint Chiefs . However , it also exposed their own timidity in dealing with MacArthur , and that they had not always kept him fully informed . Vandenberg questioned whether the air force could be effective against targets in Manchuria , while Bradley noted that the Communists were also waging limited war in Korea , having not attacked UN airbases or ports , or their own " privileged sanctuary " in Japan . Their judgement was that it was not worth it to expand the war , although they conceded that they were prepared to do so if the Communists escalated the conflict , or if no willingness to negotiate was forthcoming . They also disagreed with MacArthur 's assessment of the effectiveness of the South Korean and Chinese Nationalist forces . Bradley said :
Red China is not the powerful nation seeking to dominate the world . Frankly , in the opinion of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , this strategy would involve us in the wrong war , at the wrong place , at the wrong time , and with the wrong enemy .
The committees concluded that " the removal of General MacArthur was within the constitutional powers of the President but the circumstances were a shock to national pride . " They also found that " there was no serious disagreement between General MacArthur and the Joint Chiefs of Staff as to military strategy . " They recommended that " the United States should never again become involved in war without the consent of the Congress . "
= = = Fallout = = =
Polls showed that the majority of the public still disapproved of Truman 's decision to relieve MacArthur , and were more inclined to agree with MacArthur than with Bradley or Marshall . Truman 's approval rating fell to 23 percent in mid @-@ 1951 , which was lower than Richard Nixon 's low of 25 percent during the Watergate Scandal in 1974 , and Lyndon Johnson 's of 28 percent at the height of the Vietnam War in 1968 . As of 2011 , it remains the lowest Gallup Poll approval rating recorded by any serving president .
The increasingly unpopular war in Korea dragged on , and the Truman administration was beset with a series of corruption scandals . He eventually decided not to run for re @-@ election . Adlai Stevenson , the Democratic candidate in the 1952 presidential election , attempted to distance himself from the President as much as possible . The election was won by the Republican candidate , General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower , whose administration ramped up the pressure on the Chinese in Korea with conventional bombing and renewed threats of using nuclear weapons . Coupled with a more favorable international political climate in the wake of the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 , this led the Chinese and North Koreans to agree to terms . The belief that the threat of nuclear weapons played an important part in the outcome would lead to their threatened use against China on a number of occasions during the 1950s .
As a result of their support of Truman , the Joint Chiefs became viewed as politically tainted . Senator Taft regarded Bradley in particular with suspicion , due to Bradley 's focus on Europe at the expense of Asia . Taft urged Eisenhower to replace the chiefs as soon as possible . First to go was Vandenberg , who had terminal cancer and had already announced plans to retire . On 7 May 1953 , Eisenhower announced that he would be replaced by General Nathan Twining . Soon after it was announced that Bradley would be replaced by Admiral Arthur W. Radford , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the United States Pacific Command , Collins would be succeeded by Ridgway , and Admiral William Fechteler , who had become CNO on the death of Sherman in July 1951 , by Admiral Robert B. Carney .
= = Legacy = =
The relief of MacArthur cast a long shadow over American civil @-@ military relations . When Lyndon Johnson met with General William Westmoreland in Honolulu in 1966 , he told him : " General , I have a lot riding on you . I hope you don 't pull a MacArthur on me . " For his part , Westmoreland and his senior colleagues were eager to avoid any hint of dissent or challenge to presidential authority . This came at a high price . In his 1998 book Dereliction of Duty : Lyndon Johnson , Robert McNamara , the Joint Chiefs of Staff , and the Lies That Led to Vietnam , then @-@ Lieutenant Colonel ( now Lieutenant General ) H. R. McMaster argued that the Joint Chiefs failed in their duty to provide the President , Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara or Congress with frank and fearless professional advice . This book was an influential one ; the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff at the time , General Hugh Shelton , gave copies to every four @-@ star officer in the military .
On the one hand , the relief of MacArthur established a precedent that generals and admirals could be fired for any public or private disagreement with government policy . In 1977 , Major General John K. Singlaub publicly criticized proposed cuts in the size of American forces in South Korea , and was summarily relieved by President Jimmy Carter for making statements " inconsistent with announced national security policy . " During the Gulf War in 1990 , Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney relieved the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , General Michael Dugan , for showing " poor judgment at a very sensitive time " in making a series of statements to the media during a visit to Saudi Arabia . Three years later , Major General Harold N. Campbell was fined $ 7 @,@ 000 and forced to retire after describing President Bill Clinton disrespectfully as a " dope smoking , " " skirt chasing , " " draft dodging " President . General Stanley A. McChrystal was sacked by President Barack Obama in 2009 after McChrystal and his staff made disparaging remarks about senior civilian government officials in an article published in Rolling Stone magazine . This elicited comparisons with MacArthur , as the war in Afghanistan was not going well .
On the other hand , the relief " left a lasting current of popular sentiment that in matters of war and peace , the military really knows best , " a philosophy which became known as " MacArthurism . " In February 2012 , Lieutenant Colonel Daniel L. Davis published a report entitled " Dereliction of Duty II " in which he criticized senior military commanders for misleading Congress about the war in Afghanistan , especially General David Petraeus , noting that :
A message had been learned by the leading politicians of our country , by the vast majority of our uniformed Service Members , and the population at large : David Petraeus is a real war hero - maybe even on the same plane as Patton , MacArthur , and Eisenhower . But the most important lesson everyone learned : never , ever question General Petraeus or you 'll be made to look a fool . In the years following , the " Legend of Petraeus " spread and expanded , as these things often do , and he was given increasing credit for the success .
During the 1992 presidential election , Bill Clinton used endorsements from the former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Admiral William J. Crowe , and 21 other retired generals and flag officers to counter doubts about his ability to serve as Commander in Chief . This became a feature of later presidential election campaigns . During the 2004 presidential election , twelve retired generals and admirals endorsed Senator John Kerry , including former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Admiral William Crowe , and the former Chief of Staff of the Air Force , General Merrill " Tony " McPeak , who also appeared in television advertisements defending Kerry against the Swift Boat Veterans for Truth . During this election campaign , one retired four star General , Tommy Franks , spoke at the Republican National Convention while another , John Shalikashvili , addressed the Democratic National Convention .
In early 2006 , in what was called the " Generals Revolt , " six retired generals , Major General John Batiste , Major General Paul D. Eaton , Lieutenant General Gregory Newbold , Major General John M. Riggs , Major General Charles H. Swannack Jr. and General Anthony C. Zinni , called for the resignation of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld , accusing him of " abysmal " military planning and lack of strategic competence . The ethics of a system under which serving generals felt compelled to publicly support policies that they privately believed were potentially ruinous for the country and cost the lives of military personnel , did not escape critical public comment , and was mocked by political satirist Stephen Colbert at a dinner attended by President George W. Bush and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , General Peter Pace . Rumsfeld resigned in November 2006 . By 2008 , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Admiral Mike Mullen , felt obliged to pen an open letter in which he reminded all servicemen that " The U.S. military must remain apolitical at all times . "
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= Alan Wiggins =
Alan Anthony Wiggins ( February 17 , 1958 – January 6 , 1991 ) was an American professional baseball player . He was a second baseman and outfielder in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the San Diego Padres and Baltimore Orioles between 1981 and 1987 . A speedy leadoff hitter , Wiggins established a Padres single @-@ season record for stolen bases in 1984 , when they won the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) and advanced to the World Series .
Wiggins grew up in California and attended Pasadena City College before being drafted by the California Angels ( known later as the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim ) in 1977 . He played in the minor league systems of the Angels and the Los Angeles Dodgers , setting a professional baseball single @-@ season record with 120 stolen bases in 1980 . He made his major league debut with the San Diego Padres in 1981 , and he became a regular player within two years . In 1983 , he set the Padres ' single @-@ season stolen base record , a mark which he extended the following season . His 1984 stolen bases total ( 70 ) is still a team record as of 2015 .
During his major league career , Wiggins struggled with drug addiction , which resulted in multiple arrests and suspensions from baseball . His drug problems prompted a 1985 trade from San Diego to Baltimore , where Wiggins spent three seasons . After leaving baseball , he was diagnosed with AIDS . He was the first MLB player known to die of AIDS . Long after his death , two of Wiggins ' children — Candice and Alan , Jr . — became professional basketball players .
= = Early life = =
Wiggins was born in Los Angeles , California . His mother , Karla Wiggins , raised him as a single parent . He played baseball with his friends at a park across from the Rose Bowl . As a child , Wiggins was a fan of the Los Angeles Dodgers and he looked up to Maury Wills , a Dodgers player known for stealing bases . He graduated from John Muir High School in Pasadena , California ; the school was also the alma mater of baseball star Jackie Robinson . Gib Bodet , a scout for the Montreal Expos , noticed Wiggins in high school . Wiggins was 6 feet 2 inches ( 188 cm ) , taller than a typical infielder . He was only an average hitter and fielder , but his speed stood out to Bodet .
The California Angels selected Wiggins as the eighth overall pick of the January 1977 MLB amateur draft . In 1977 , Wiggins played junior college baseball at Pasadena City College , where he was teammates with future major leaguers Matt Young and Rod Booker . Bodet , who had moved to the Angels scouting staff just before the draft , joined other Angels staff members and worked out with Wiggins after they selected him . Angels coach Bob Clear told Wiggins that his excellent speed would help him to a high batting average even if his hitting skills were not that strong . " If you can hit .200 , you can run the other eighty points . And if you can hit .280 , you can lead off for anybody , " Clear said . Wiggins signed with the Angels in May for $ 2500 after what Bodet described as " a tough negotiation " . According to Bodet , Wiggins ' mother " did not trust easily " .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Wiggins played minor league baseball in 1977 for the Angels rookie @-@ league affiliate in Idaho Falls , where he hit .271 and had 25 stolen bases in 63 games . In 1978 , with the Class A Quad Cities Angels , Wiggins stole 26 bases in 49 games , but his batting average fell to .201 . However , he had a midseason fight with one of his coaches , and was released by the Angels organization in June 1978 . Wiggins feared that his career was near its end , but he reached out to Los Angeles Dodgers scout Gail Henley . After a workout in front of the Dodgers and manager Tommy Lasorda , Wiggins signed with the team before the 1979 season .
In 95 games for the Class A Clinton Dodgers , Wiggins hit .257 and had 43 steals . After having played exclusively at second base the prior two years , the Dodgers converted him primarily to shortstop that year , but he also appeared in the outfield and at all three of the other infield positions . Playing with the Class A Lodi Dodgers of the California League in 1980 , Wiggins batted .288 and scored 108 runs while stealing 120 bases in just 135 games . His steals established a then professional @-@ baseball single @-@ season record , surpassing the previous minor league mark of 116 set by Allan Lewis in 1966 , as well as Lou Brock 's major @-@ league record of 118 in 1974 . Wiggins caught the eye of San Diego Padres general manager Jack McKeon , who drafted him in the 1980 Rule 5 draft after the Dodgers decided to leave him unprotected . According to the Padres , Wiggins had been arrested for possession of marijuana while with the Dodgers .
= = = San Diego Padres = = =
After having spent most of his minor league career as an infielder , he was used almost exclusively as an outfielder with the Hawaii Islanders of the Pacific Coast League in 1981 . He batted .302 with 73 steals , and received a September call @-@ up to the major leagues . In his first stint with the Padres , he got five hits in 14 at bats . Wiggins began the following season with the Islanders , but he was called up again by the Padres in early May to replace injured outfielder Gene Richards . Wiggins was leading San Diego with 29 stolen bases in 59 games when he was arrested for possession of cocaine in July . He was issued a 30 @-@ day suspension from baseball , and spent a month in a substance abuse treatment facility . The Padres , who were one of the first sports teams to offer an employee assistance program to its players , paid for all of his treatment , and he returned to the team in September . By 1983 , Wiggins had become a regular in the Padres lineup . He batted in the leadoff spot , playing in the outfield for most of the season . Though he was exceptional on defense in left field , he was moved to first base for the last 45 games of the year after Steve Garvey suffered a broken thumb . He hit .276 and picked up 139 hits that year . His 66 stolen bases , good for second in the league , broke the Padres single @-@ season record of 61 set by Richards in 1980 . Wiggins was named the team 's most valuable player that season .
Wiggins was moved to second base in 1984 . That move made room for rookie Carmelo Martínez in the outfield . Until that season , Martínez had been a first baseman , but the Padres already had a strong player there with Garvey , and they wanted to get Martínez 's bat into the lineup to improve their outfield 's home run production . Wiggins retained the leadoff spot in the lineup , hitting ahead of Tony Gwynn . During a May game , Wiggins became the fifth 20th @-@ century MLB player to steal five bases in one game , tying an NL record . In an August game , Wiggins unwittingly became a party to a series of fights . Wiggins was hit with the first pitch of the game by Atlanta Braves pitcher Pascual Pérez . The teams retaliated against each other throughout the game with brushback pitches and beanballs . The tension resulted in three fights and several ejections .
Wiggins finished second in the league in runs scored ( 106 ) , establishing a Padres single @-@ season record and helping the team to their first division championship . He finished the season with 70 steals , extending his team record from the previous season . Benefitting from the higher number of fastballs opposing pitchers threw in response to Wiggins ' speed , Gwynn batted above .400 when his speedy teammate was on base , and hit .351 overall for the first of his eight career batting titles . The duo was one of the biggest reasons behind San Diego 's success . They could score fast with Wiggins getting on first , stealing second , and Gwynn singling him home . Wiggins batted .316 in the 1984 NLCS against the Chicago Cubs , going two @-@ for @-@ three with two runs scored in the fifth and deciding game . In the 1984 World Series against the Detroit Tigers , Wiggins batted .364 and scored twice . His eight hits were the most of any Padres player in the series . The Tigers defeated the Padres in five games . According to manager Dick Williams , Wiggins was " absolutely the most valuable player in the National League in 1984 " .
Before the 1985 season , the Padres signed Wiggins to a four @-@ year contract extension worth nearly $ 3 million . His agent described him as one of the highest @-@ paid NL second basemen . Wiggins missed the last two weeks of spring training after injuring his knee during a double @-@ play attempt on defense when a baserunner slid into him . He was unavailable for the start of the season , but returned to the lineup after being out for five games . Wiggins was batting .054 and without a stolen base two weeks into the season , when he was suspended by the Padres following a relapse into cocaine dependency . After Wiggins completed a drug rehabilitation program , the Padres did not want to reactivate him , but baseball 's joint review board cleared him to return to baseball . In June , Donald Fehr of the Major League Baseball Players Association ( MLBPA ) announced that he intended to file a grievance against the Padres if they did not promptly activate Wiggins . The Padres sought to trade Wiggins , and the Baltimore Orioles showed interest . As the trade deadline approached , however , the Orioles were reportedly only offering two minor league players in exchange for Wiggins .
On June 27 , 1985 , Wiggins was traded to the Orioles for pitchers Roy Lee Jackson and Richard Caldwell . Padres owner Joan Kroc said that the team had warned Wiggins that he would not remain with the team if he had further problems with drugs . She stated that it would have been self @-@ serving to keep Wiggins after his relapse when he could instead pursue a fresh start with another team . Nonetheless , Gwynn felt that Wiggins had been shortchanged by the Padres .
= = = Baltimore Orioles = = =
Wiggins spent a few days in the minor leagues before being called up to Baltimore . In his first game with the Orioles , he started at second base and was the team 's leadoff hitter , reaching base three times , driving in a run and scoring a run . After the game , Wiggins commented that he felt welcome on the team and did not feel like he was starting out with anything to prove . In 76 games for Baltimore that year , Wiggins hit .285 , scored 43 runs and finished eighth in the American League with 30 stolen bases . That year , he was sometimes criticized for perceived laziness . Wiggins later said that he had been depressed because he missed his wife and children , who were still living in San Diego .
In 1986 , Wiggins fell into disfavor with manager Earl Weaver . His contentious behavior had alienated many of his teammates . At the height of his difficulties , Wiggins was tagged out with the hidden ball trick . The next day , he made three errors , two of which occurred in the same inning . After the two @-@ error inning , Baltimore fans booed as portions of his picture were revealed on the scoreboard during a " Who Am I " feature at the ballpark . Wiggins was angered at the response of the fans because he had family members at the game that day . Weaver said that Wiggins " had more chances than anyone who ever wore an Orioles ' uniform " . He batted .251 with 21 stolen bases and 30 runs scored , played only 71 games , and was reassigned to the Triple @-@ A Rochester Red Wings at one point in the season .
The following season , Cal Ripken , Sr. , replaced Weaver as manager of the Orioles . Baltimore signed Rick Burleson to play second base and Ray Knight to play third base . The moves seemed to leave Wiggins battling for an outfield spot , but after he hit .413 during spring training , Ripken made comments that suggested he was thinking of using Wiggins as a utility player . Just before the season started , Wiggins was not happy with Ripken 's idea of using him in a utility role , feeling that his spring performance should have secured him a starting position . He believed that he could be an asset in the leadoff batting slot .
At the start of the 1987 regular season , Wiggins spent some time as a designated hitter ( DH ) and shared second base duties with Burleson . Rookie second baseman Billy Ripken joined the club on July 10 . Burleson was cut , but general manager Hank Peters said , " We 're not bringing [ Billy Ripken ] up here to sit on the bench . " Wiggins was hitting .242 on July 10 , and he played mostly DH after the rookie 's arrival . In early August , Wiggins received a three @-@ day suspension after he got into an altercation with teammate Jim Dwyer and grabbed the shirt of Ripken Sr.
On September 1 , MLB indefinitely suspended Wiggins for a behavior issue . An anonymous Orioles official told the media that the suspension resulted from a positive drug screen . Wiggins was released from the Orioles on September 29 . The Orioles had to pay him two @-@ thirds of his $ 800 @,@ 000 salary for 1988 . He was hitting .232 at the time of his release . MLBPA officials announced that they would not issue grievances related to Wiggins ' suspension or his subsequent release , noting that Wiggins wanted to be released by that point .
= = Later years = =
Though Wiggins did not give up hope for a return to baseball , he began to study the real @-@ estate market after his suspension from the game . In the late 1980s , Wiggins began to suffer from health difficulties related to AIDS , though the diagnosis was not publicly disclosed while he was alive . He was receiving deferred payments from his baseball career , and he began to make plans for the financial future of his children . He told one of his former teammates that he was getting into computer work . Gwynn said that he had seen Wiggins in the spring of 1990 and was struck by his visible weight loss .
In his final months , he sold his home in Poway , California , moving to Pasadena . Though he often stayed with friends , some of his longtime friends felt that he died in seclusion , embarrassed by what had happened with his life . In November 1990 , Wiggins was hospitalized with pneumonia and tuberculosis at Cedars @-@ Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles . After lapsing in and out of consciousness for a month , he died at the hospital on January 6 , 1991 .
Wiggins ' family initially attributed his death to lung cancer that had led to respiratory failure . Family members said that he had gotten sick with a cough and that his condition had worsened quickly . Wiggins weighed under 75 pounds at the time of his death . Several days later , a physician disclosed that Wiggins ' health problems were complications of AIDS . Wiggins stated that he had contracted the disease via intravenous drug use . He became the first baseball player known to have died from AIDS .
After Wiggins died , several well @-@ known baseball figures commented on his death . Longtime Oriole Frank Robinson said , " He was a very bright individual , and you could like the guy . But there was always something there to back you off . " Former Padres player Garry Templeton said that he might have been Wiggins ' closest friend , but he said that he did not know that Wiggins had been ill .
= = Personal life = =
Wiggins met his wife Angela when they were in junior high school , and they both graduated from John Muir High School . Two of Wiggins ' three children became professional basketball players . Candice was an All @-@ American at Stanford University and joined the Los Angeles Sparks as the third overall pick in the 2008 WNBA Draft . She has served as a spokesperson for the Greater Than AIDS campaign . Alan , Jr . , played college basketball at the University of San Francisco and has played professionally in several countries . His oldest daughter , Cassandra , played basketball in college as well at New York University .
The Los Angeles Times reported that Wiggins had experienced marital strife , but that he would not entertain the thought of divorce ; he wanted to ensure that his children did not grow up in a single @-@ parent household like he did . Wiggins and his mother were very close , and her 1983 Alzheimer 's disease diagnosis may have contributed to his drug problems . He was devastated that she would not be able to enjoy his success in the major leagues . In the last few years of Wiggins ' life , he enjoyed a closer relationship with his father , Albert , and he often took his children on visits to see their grandfather . Wiggins had a very difficult time with his father 's death in May 1990 .
Wiggins enjoyed stubbornly engaging in debates with his teammates , particularly Padres teammate Eric Show , just to provoke reactions from them . Tony Gwynn suggested that Wiggins was sometimes misunderstood . " To not like Alan Wiggins , is to not know Alan Wiggins , " Gwynn said . Wiggins ' agent , Tony Attanasio , said that Wiggins became deeply depressed in Baltimore . He had always been reserved and had a difficult time trusting other people . Attanasio said that Orioles players often actively avoided Wiggins . While Wiggins enjoyed reading books and newspapers , Attanasio said that teammates were turned off by his intellect . The Orioles once gave an IQ test , and Wiggins scored higher than everyone except for Weaver . According to Attanasio , players in Baltimore also resented Wiggins because he replaced Rich Dauer , who had been a well @-@ liked member of the team . Lee Lacy was one of his only friends in Baltimore .
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= Gleichwie der Regen und Schnee vom Himmel fällt , BWV 18 =
Gleichwie der Regen und Schnee vom Himmel fällt ( Just as the rain and snow fall from heaven ) , BWV 18 , is an early church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Weimar for the Sunday Sexagesimae , the second Sunday before Lent , likely by 1713 .
The cantata is based on a text by Erdmann Neumeister published in 1711 . It is one of Bach cantata texts of the Weimar period not written by the court poet Salomon Franck . The text cites Isaiah , related to the gospel , the parable of the Sower . The third movement is in the style of a sermon , combined with a litany by Martin Luther . The closing chorale is the eighth stanza of Lazarus Spengler 's hymn " Durch Adams Fall ist ganz verderbt " .
The cantata falls relatively early in Bach 's chronology of cantata compositions . It was possibly composed for 24 February 1715 , but more likely a year or even two earlier . Bach structured the work in five movements , a sinfonia , a recitative , a recitative with chorale , an aria and a closing chorale . He scored it for three vocal soloists , a four @-@ partchoir only in the chorale , and an unusual Baroque instrumental ensemble of four violas , cello , bassoon and basso continuo . When he performed the work again as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , he added two recorders to double viola I and II an octave higher .
= = History and words = =
Bach worked for the court in Weimar from 1708 . On 2 March 1714 Bach was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court capelle of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . As concertmaster , he assumed the principal responsibility for composing new works , specifically cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) , on a monthly schedule . Bach composed this cantata for the second Sunday before Ash Wednesday , called Sexagesima . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the Second Epistle to the Corinthians , " God 's power is mighty in the weak " ( 2 Corinthians 11 : 19 – 12 : 9 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the parable of the Sower ( Luke 8 : 4 – 15 ) .
The cantata is based on a text by Erdmann Neumeister written for the Eisenach court and published in Gotha in 1711 in the collection Geistliches Singen und Spielen ( Sacred singing and playing ) , which had been set to music by Georg Philipp Telemann . It is one of few texts set to music in Weimar which were not written not by the court poet Salomon Franck . The text cites Isaiah in the second movement , " For as the rain cometh down , and the snow from heaven , … So shall my word be ... " ( Isaiah 55 : 10 – 11 ) , related to the Gospel about God 's word compared to seed . In the third movement , the poet combines warnings of the dangers to God 's word in the style of a sermon with four lines of prayer from a litany by Martin Luther . The closing chorale is the eighth stanza of Lazarus Spengler 's hymn " Durch Adams Fall ist ganz verderbt " ( 1524 ) .
The cantata falls relatively early in Bach 's chronology of cantata compositions . It was possibly composed for 24 February 1715 , but more likely a year or two earlier . The Bach scholar Christoph Wolff states : " The original performing material has survived and allows us to date the work to 1713 " . Bach performed the cantata again when he was Thomaskantor in Leipzig in 1724 , with an expanded scoring in a different key . It was then probably performed in the same service as the newly composed Leichtgesinnte Flattergeister , BWV 181 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in five movements , an instrumental sinfonia , a recitative , a recitative with chorale , an aria and a closing chorale . He scored the work , like other cantatas written in Weimar , for a small ensemble of three vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , tenor ( T ) , bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir only in the chorales , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of four violas ( Va ) , cello ( Vc ) , bassoon ( Fg ) and basso continuo . The setting for four violas is unusual . In a similar orchestration , the Brandenburg Concerto No. 6 also omits violins .
The second version of this cantata for a performance in Leipzig adds two recorders , which double viola I and II an octave higher . John Eliot Gardiner compares the effect to a four @-@ foot stop on a pipe organ . The cantata begins in G minor in the Weimar version , in A minor in the Leipzig version . In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys follow the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe for the Leipzig version . The time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , played throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
The keys in this section refer to the Weimar version , although the recording by Masaaki Suzuki , with commentary by Klaus Hofmann , uses the Leipzig keys . Hofmann notes the work 's " Lutheran character " , quoting Luther 's litany inserted in the third movement , and sees it as a " recitative study " , exploring the secco recitative of the Italian opera , introduced by Erdmann Neumeister , and also the accompagnato with rich instrumental accompaniment . Gardiner finds all three cantatas for the occasion , dealing with God 's word , " characterised by his vivid pictorial imagination , an arresting sense of drama , and by music of freshness and power that lodges in the memory " .
= = = 1 = = =
The cantata opens with a sinfonia in G minor , which illustrates falling rain and snow in descending phrases . In da capo form , is reminiscent both of a chaconne and a concerto . The four violas and continuo , with bassoon and cello parts specified , create an unusual sound , termed " magically dark @-@ hued sonority " by Gardiner .
= = = 2 = = =
The quotation from Isaiah , " Gleichwie der Regen und Schnee vom Himmel fällt und nicht wieder dahin kommet " ( ust as the rain and snow fall from heaven and do not return again to it ) , is sung by the bass , the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) , in a secco recitative . This is Bach 's first adaptation of recitative in a church cantata , not following operatic patterns , but " a lucid presentation of the text in a dignified , highly personal style " .
= = = 3 = = =
The central movement , " Mein Gott , hier wird mein Herze sein " ( My soul ’ s treasure is God ’ s word ) , is unique in Bach 's cantatas , the choir soprano interrupts the prayer of the male soloists four times , followed by a conclusion of the full choir " Erhör uns , lieber Herre Gott ! " ( Hear us , dear Lord God ! ) . The recitatives are marked adagio in E @-@ flat major , while the interspersed litany is presented dramatically ( allegro in C minor ) . Gardiner compares the imagery of the recitatives : " all adds up to a vivid , Brueghel @-@ like portrayal of rural society at work – the sower , the glutton , the lurking devil , as well as those pantomime villains , the Turks and the Papists . He compares the movement to Telemann 's setting of the same text and states :
On the other hand here is Bach , seeming to relish the contrast between archaic litany and his new ' modern ' recitative style in which he empowers his two male soloists to voice personal pleas for faith and resolution in the face of multiple provocation [ s ] and devilish guile , with increasingly virtuosic displays of coloratura , ever @-@ wider modulations and extravagant word @-@ painting on ' berauben ' ( to rob ) , ' Verfolgung ' ( persecution ) and ' irregehen ' ( to wander off course ) .
= = = 4 = = =
The only aria , " Mein Seelenschatz ist Gottes Wort " ( My soul ’ s treasure is God ’ s word ) , is set for soprano , accompanied by the four violas in unison .
= = = 5 = = =
The cantata closes with a four @-@ part setting of Spengler 's hymn stanza , " Ich bitt , o Herr , aus Herzens Grund " ( I pray , o Lord , from the bottom of my heart ) , It is Bach 's first of many to come as the typical conclusion of his cantatas .
= = Selected recordings = =
The selection is taken from the listing provided on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large by red background to one voice per part ( OVPP ) by green background , orchestras from large ( red ) to period instruments in historically informed performances ( green ) .
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= Interstate 70 in Maryland =
Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from Cove Fort , Utah to Baltimore , Maryland . In Maryland , the Interstate Highway runs 93 @.@ 62 miles ( 150 @.@ 67 km ) from the Pennsylvania state line in Hancock east to the Interstate 's eastern terminus near its junction with I @-@ 695 at a park and ride in Baltimore . I @-@ 70 is the primary east – west Interstate in Maryland ; the Interstate Highway connects Baltimore — and Washington via I @-@ 270 — with Western Maryland . The Interstate serves Frederick and Hagerstown directly and provides access to Cumberland via its junction with I @-@ 68 at Hancock . I @-@ 70 runs concurrently with its predecessor highway , U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) , from Hancock to Indian Springs in Washington County and from Frederick to West Friendship in Howard County .
I @-@ 70 's route from Frederick to West Friendship was constructed as a divided highway relocation of US 40 in the early to mid @-@ 1950s and a freeway bypass of Frederick in the late 1950s . The first section of the Interstate to be marked as I @-@ 70 was an upgrade of US 40 near Hancock in the early 1960s . The remainder of the Interstate highway in Maryland west of Frederick was built on a new alignment in the mid- to late 1960s . I @-@ 70 was constructed from West Friendship to its present terminus in Baltimore in the late 1960s . The highway from Bartonsville in Frederick County to West Friendship was upgraded to Interstate standards in the mid @-@ 1970s . The final non @-@ limited access portion of I @-@ 70 between Frederick and Bartonsville was eliminated in the mid @-@ 1980s . The Interstate has been upgraded through Frederick in a series of projects that began in the late 1990s .
I @-@ 70 was intended to enter Baltimore as an east – west freeway that had been proposed since the 1940s . Around 1960 , I @-@ 70 was planned passing through a pair of parks and several neighborhoods in West Baltimore to end at an interchange with I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 83 at the Inner Harbor in Downtown Baltimore . A subsequent proposal based on a review of the 1960 plan moved I @-@ 70 to a new alignment that triggered community opposition , which resulted in a new design process in the late 1960s . A new plan was introduced around 1970 that would have moved I @-@ 70 's eastern terminus to Southwest Baltimore . However , community opposition to the Interstate 's planned route through the city parks resulted in I @-@ 70 being removed from city plans in the early 1980s .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 70 has several official designations along its course through Maryland . The Interstate Highway is designated Eisenhower Memorial Highway from the Pennsylvania state line east to I @-@ 270 in Frederick . The highway received this designation from a 1973 act of Congress commemorating the route of the 1919 U.S. Army convoy from Washington to San Francisco in which President Dwight D. Eisenhower participated , an ordeal that served as one of his inspirations for the Interstate Highway System . All of I @-@ 70 in Frederick County was designated the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway by the Maryland General Assembly in 2002 . Large stone markers featuring reliefs of the Korean Peninsula were erected in the median of I @-@ 70 in Myersville and Mount Airy in 2004 . Along its concurrency with US 40 from I @-@ 270 in Frederick to east of West Friendship , I @-@ 70 is known as Baltimore National Pike . The Interstate is unnamed from US 40 near West Friendship to its eastern terminus in Baltimore . Like all mainline Interstates , I @-@ 70 is a part of the National Highway System for its entire length .
= = = Hancock to Hagerstown = = =
I @-@ 70 enters Washington County , Maryland concurrent with US 522 from Fulton County , Pennsylvania north of the town of Hancock . Just south of the state line , the four @-@ lane freeway has a full Y interchange with I @-@ 68 and US 40 , which head west toward Cumberland as the National Freeway . US 40 begins to run concurrently with I @-@ 70 just as US 522 leaves I @-@ 70 at another full Y interchange through which I @-@ 70 curves to the east . US 522 heads south , providing access to downtown Hancock before crossing the Potomac River into West Virginia . I @-@ 70 heads east and gains a lane in each direction to climb a ridge that separates the interchanges from the valley of Tonoloway Creek . The third lane eastbound ends at the top of the ridge and the third lane westbound begins just west of the Interstate 's partial interchange with MD 144 ( Main Street ) , which lacks a ramp from MD 144 to westbound I @-@ 70 .
East of MD 144 , I @-@ 70 parallels the Western Maryland Rail Trail , Chesapeake and Ohio Canal , and the Potomac River while heading east along a narrow corridor between the river and several north – south ridges . Within this corridor , the freeway has a pair of partial interchanges with MD 615 ( Millstone Road ) . West of Indian Springs , the valley opens up and US 40 leaves the Interstate at a partial interchange just west of Licking Creek . I @-@ 70 continues to parallel the canal and rail trail at a distance until its diamond interchange with MD 56 ( Big Pool Road ) at Big Pool , where the freeway curves away from the Potomac River and passes to the south of Stone Quarry Ridge and Boyd Mountain . Just south of Clear Spring , I @-@ 70 crosses Toms Run within its diamond interchange with MD 68 ( Clear Spring Road ) . Signs on westbound I @-@ 70 prior to the MD 68 interchange remind motorists they should remain on I @-@ 70 to access I @-@ 68 .
I @-@ 70 continues east through the Hagerstown Valley , where the highway crosses over Little Conococheague Creek , Meadow Brook Creek , and Conococheague Creek before reaching a diamond interchange with MD 63 ( Greencastle Pike ) south of Huyett . As the Interstate approaches Hagerstown , it crosses a branch of Conococheague Creek and CSX 's Lurgan Subdivision ahead of its cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 81 ( Maryland Veterans Memorial Highway ) . I @-@ 70 heads southeast through the interchange , which has collector @-@ distributor lanes in both directions that separate the individual ramps from the main roadways of both Interstates . The freeway traverses US 11 ( Virginia Avenue ) and the Winchester and Western Railroad before it curves to the east again . The Interstate has partial cloverleaf interchanges with MD 632 ( Downsville Pike ) and MD 65 ( Sharpsburg Pike ) around a crossing of Norfolk Southern Railway 's Hagerstown District rail line . I @-@ 70 crosses over Antietam Creek and US 40 Alternate ( Boonsboro Pike ) south of Funkstown .
= = = Hagerstown to Mount Airy = = =
I @-@ 70 meets US 40 ( National Pike ) at a cloverleaf interchange as the two highways leave the suburban area surrounding Hagerstown . The Interstate curves to the southeast and has a diamond interchange with MD 66 ( Mapleville Road ) near Beaver Creek . I @-@ 70 crosses Beaver Creek and Black Rock Creek and gains an eastbound climbing lane as the highway ascends South Mountain and passes through Greenbrier State Park . At the top of the mountain , the Interstate passes under US 40 and the Appalachian Trail and enters Frederick County . I @-@ 70 has a pair of rest areas on the east side of the mountain , one per direction . The westbound rest area is where the Beltway snipers , John Allen Muhammad and Lee Boyd Malvo , were apprehended by police in October 2002 .
I @-@ 70 's eastbound climbing lane disappears and the Interstate has a westbound climbing lane from the top of the mountain southeast to a diamond interchange with MD 17 ( Myersville Middletown Road ) south of Myersville , where the freeway enters the Middletown Valley . Within the valley , the Interstate crosses Catoctin Creek and Little Catoctin Creek . I @-@ 70 gains an eastbound climbing lane as it climbs Braddock Mountain , on top of which the freeway passes under a concrete arch bridge carrying Ridge Road . Westbound I @-@ 70 has a climbing lane as the highway descends Braddock Mountain and has partial interchanges with US 40 ( National Pike ) and US 40 Alternate ( Old National Pike ) . The first interchange is a pair of flyover ramps from eastbound I @-@ 70 to eastbound US 40 and from westbound US 40 to westbound I @-@ 70 . The second interchange is a half diamond interchange with an exit ramp from westbound I @-@ 70 to US 40 Alternate , and an entrance ramp to eastbound I @-@ 70 .
After entering the Frederick Valley , I @-@ 70 's speed limit drops from 65 to 55 mph ( 105 to 90 km / h ) . The Interstate passes under MD 180 ( Jefferson Pike ) and has a partial interchange with Jefferson National Pike , a freeway that carries US 15 and US 340 ; eastbound I @-@ 70 has ramps to both eastbound and westbound US 15 / US 340 , while westbound I @-@ 70 has only a flyover ramp to westbound Jefferson National Pike . Eastbound I @-@ 70 receives a ramp from MD 180 and Ballenger Creek Pike and crosses over the state highway before reaching a directional interchange with I @-@ 270 and US 40 . I @-@ 270 heads south toward Washington as Eisenhower Memorial Highway , taking over the name from I @-@ 70 , while US 40 ( Frederick Freeway ) exits to the north and joins I @-@ 70 in a concurrency . I @-@ 70 heads east as a six @-@ lane freeway and meets MD 85 ( Buckeystown Pike ) at a single @-@ point urban interchange south of downtown Frederick . MD 85 is used to access MD 355 ( Urbana Pike ) . The Interstate reduces to four lanes before it crosses over the Frederick Branch of CSX 's Old Main Line Subdivision . On the east side of Frederick , I @-@ 70 has a four @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange with South Street and a partial diamond interchange with MD 144 ( Patrick Street ) .
I @-@ 70 heads east from the Frederick area as a six @-@ lane freeway with a speed limit of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . The Interstate crosses over the Monocacy River and Long Spring Branch ahead of a partial interchange with MD 144 ( Old National Pike ) , which includes ramps from westbound I @-@ 70 to westbound MD 144 and eastbound MD 144 to eastbound I @-@ 70 . County @-@ maintained Old National Pike parallels the north side of the Interstate east to Mount Airy via New Market , where I @-@ 70 has a diamond interchange with MD 75 ( Green Valley Road ) . East of New Market , the freeway is also paralleled by the Old Main Line Subdivision as the highways and rail line follow the valley of Bush Creek to just west of Mount Airy . I @-@ 70 veers southeast for its partial cloverleaf interchange with MD 27 ( Ridge Road ) at the top of Parr 's Ridge on the Frederick – Carroll county line .
= = = Mount Airy to Baltimore = = =
I @-@ 70 is closely paralleled by MD 144 ( Frederick Road ) on its eastbound side as the freeway briefly passes through Carroll County . The Interstate enters Howard County when it traverses the South Branch of the Patapsco River near its headwaters . MD 144 leaves the vicinity of I @-@ 70 , which meets MD 94 ( Woodbine Road ) at a diamond interchange in Lisbon and MD 97 ( Roxbury Mills Road ) at another diamond interchange near Cooksville . East of their diamond interchange with MD 32 ( Sykesville Road ) , I @-@ 70 and US 40 split at a partial interchange . I @-@ 70 heads east as a four @-@ lane freeway toward Baltimore while US 40 heads east as four @-@ lane Baltimore National Pike to serve Ellicott City . Just east of the US 40 split , the Interstate has a partial interchange with Marriottsville Road that allows westbound I @-@ 70 to access US 40 .
North of Ellicott City , I @-@ 70 has a cloverleaf interchange with US 29 ( Columbia Pike ) just south of the U.S. highway 's northern terminus at MD 99 ( Old Frederick Road ) and Rogers Avenue , which heads south toward the Ellicott City Historic District . The interchange includes a flyover ramp from westbound I @-@ 70 to southbound US 29 . The Interstate continues east as a six @-@ lane freeway through Patapsco Valley State Park , where the highway crosses the Patapsco River and the Old Main Line Subdivision again and enters Baltimore County . As the freeway approaches the suburb of Woodlawn , the speed limit decreases to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) . The westbound direction has a mileage sign with approximate values for Columbus , St. Louis , Denver , and the small town of Cove Fort , Utah at the opposite end of I @-@ 70 . This sign , which was intended as a test of Clearview typeface , was installed in 2004 .
A sign on eastbound I @-@ 70 correctly informs motorists that I @-@ 70 ends at its four @-@ level stack interchange with I @-@ 695 ( Baltimore Beltway ) . West of the interchange , the freeway has an average annual daily traffic value of 94 @,@ 221 vehicles . East of the interchange , I @-@ 70 formally continued as a four @-@ lane highway for local traffic that averaged 25 @,@ 300 vehicles per day . The Interstate 's speed limit reduces to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and then 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) as it passes through its final interchange , a partial cloverleaf junction with MD 122 ( Security Boulevard ) , which continues southeast into Baltimore as Cooks Lane . Just east of the interchange , I @-@ 70 entered the city of Baltimore and the freeway 's median expands into a park and ride facility that was accessed at the Interstate 's eastern terminus at a U @-@ turn adjacent to Leakin Park . Eastbound I @-@ 70 traffic that wished to access Cooks Lane had to make a U @-@ turn at the terminus and exit from a westbound loop ramp . Westbound access to I @-@ 70 is done via a single entrance ramp off Ingleside Avenue , which is considered part of the MD 122 interchange . The very short section of I @-@ 70 in the city of Baltimore is maintained by the Baltimore City Department of Transportation instead of the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) . The 1 @.@ 95 @-@ mile extension beyond I @-@ 695 to the I @-@ 70 Park and Ride facility was formally dropped from the Interstate system at the AASHTO Spring 2014 meeting .
= = History = =
I @-@ 70 was planned to follow the US 40 corridor from Hancock east to Frederick , where the Interstate Highway designation split . I @-@ 70N would continue following US 40 east to Baltimore while I @-@ 70S would follow US 240 southeast toward Washington . In 1974 , the suffixed designations were eliminated ; I @-@ 70N became an eastward extension of I @-@ 70 while I @-@ 70S was designated I @-@ 270 .
= = = Baltimore National Pike and Frederick Freeway = = =
The first section of I @-@ 70 in Maryland was constructed as Baltimore National Pike , a four @-@ lane divided highway relocation and reconstruction of US 40 from the Pine Orchard community west of Ellicott City west to the east end of Patrick Street in Frederick . US 40 was constructed from Pine Orchard to MD 32 in West Friendship between 1949 and 1951 . An overpass of MD 32 and two @-@ way ramp connection between the two highways were constructed in 1951 and 1952 . An overpass and connecting ramp were also constructed at MD 97 , which was included in the portion of US 40 constructed from West Friendship to Morgan Station Road west of Cooksville between 1950 and 1952 . The third section of Baltimore National Pike was built from Morgan Station Road into Carroll County just west of the Patapsco River in 1952 and 1953 . The next section of relocated US 40 , from west of the Patapsco River through the Ridgeville section of Mount Airy into Frederick County 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) west of MD 27 , broke ground in 1953 and was completed by 1955 . An interchange with MD 27 in Ridgeville was constructed in 1953 and 1954 .
The remainder of Baltimore National Pike from Ridgeville to the Monocacy River was constructed in four sections simultaneously starting in 1953 . The first three sections were from 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) west of the Carroll – Frederick county line to the highway 's crossing of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad 's main line at a site called Plane No. 4 , from there to New Market , and between New Market and Ijamsville Road in Bartonsville . The fourth section was constructed to closely parallel the existing alignment of US 40 from Ijamsville Road in Bartonsville to just east of the Monocacy River . All four sections opened as a divided highway with a macadam surface in 1955 . The following year , Baltimore National Pike from Ridgeville to the Monocacy River was completed with an asphalt surface . The final section of Baltimore National Pike , from east of the Monocacy River to the east end of Patrick Street near modern Exit 56 , was expanded to a divided highway in 1953 with the exception of the Monocacy River crossing . Engineering work on a second bridge across the Monocacy River began in 1954 . The new bridge , which would complement the existing bridge that had been constructed in 1944 to replace the historic Jug Bridge , opened in 1956 , completing the Baltimore National Pike .
The western end of Baltimore National Pike was planned to tie into both Patrick Street and the eastern end of the Frederick Freeway , which would serve as a US 40 freeway bypass of downtown Frederick between its two interchanges with Patrick Street . Construction on the east – west US 40 portion of the Frederick Freeway began in 1954 and was completed by 1958 . Old US 40 through downtown Frederick later became part of MD 144 . The freeway 's original interchanges along what is now I @-@ 70 included a partial interchange with Patrick Street east of Frederick , the present interchange at South Street , folded diamond interchanges at MD 355 and New Design Road , and a partial interchange with Washington National Pike ( now I @-@ 270 ) , where the Frederick Freeway curved north to cloverleaf interchanges with US 340 and the western end of Patrick Street . The north – south portion of the Frederick Freeway was completed in 1959 and became part of US 15 . The Frederick Freeway was marked with exit numbers in 1963 ; the portion that is part of I @-@ 70 started from Exit 1 at MD 144 east of Frederick and went to Exit 4 at New Design Road .
= = = Interstate construction and upgrades = = =
The next section of US 40 and future I @-@ 70 to be upgraded was east of Hancock . US 40 was reconstructed as a divided highway from Tonoloway Creek at the eastern end of Hancock parallel to the Potomac River to the community of Millstone at what is now the southern terminus of MD 615 in 1961 . This piece of highway became the first completed section of highway in Maryland to be marked as I @-@ 70 in 1962 . In 1964 , construction began on I @-@ 70 from the western end of the existing highway to the Pennsylvania state line . This project happened concurrently with the construction of what is now I @-@ 68 west from I @-@ 70 to MD 144 west of Hancock ; both projects were completed in 1966 . Construction of I @-@ 70 from Hancock to Frederick was fully underway in an eastward direction by 1965 . The Interstate opened from MD 615 to MD 56 in 1965 ; from MD 56 to MD 68 in 1966 ; from MD 68 to I @-@ 81 in 1967 ; from I @-@ 81 to US 40 east of Hagerstown in 1968 ; and from US 40 to the Frederick Freeway in 1969 . When the interchange between the Frederick Freeway and Washington National Pike was reconstructed to add I @-@ 70 toward Hagerstown in 1969 , the freeway 's interchange with New Design Road was removed . Exit numbers were added to I @-@ 70 from Hancock to Frederick in 1974 .
I @-@ 70 was constructed on a new alignment from east of West Friendship to Baltimore . The Interstate opened in 1967 from US 29 to I @-@ 695 , concurrent with US 29 's northward extension from US 40 to MD 99 . I @-@ 70 opened from US 40 in West Friendship to US 29 and from I @-@ 695 to Security Boulevard just west of the Baltimore city line in 1969 . I @-@ 70 was upgraded to Interstate standards from Bartonsville to West Friendship around 1974 . Diamond interchanges were constructed to replace at @-@ grade intersections with MD 94 and MD 75 ; for the latter interchange , MD 75 was relocated east of New Market . The existing interchanges at MD 32 and MD 97 were converted from two @-@ way connector ramps to diamond interchanges . I @-@ 70 's interchange with MD 27 was expanded from a four @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf to a six @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf in 1977 . Exit numbers were added east of Frederick in 1978 ; however , these exit numbers were each 2 less than the present numbers , which were marked in 1983 . I @-@ 70 was relocated away from the original alignment of US 40 between its junctions with MD 144 in Frederick and Bartonsville around 1987 ; the old highway became an eastern extension of MD 144 . Outside of the reconstruction of the Interstate through Frederick beginning in the 1990s , there have been two interchanges revised or added , both near Hagerstown . A direct ramp was added from eastbound I @-@ 70 to southbound MD 65 in 1995 ; this interchange had four ramps , including two loop ramps with eastbound I @-@ 70 , from at least 1968 . I @-@ 70 's interchange with MD 632 opened in 1999 .
= = = Reconstruction through Frederick = = =
In 1984 , MDSHA completed the I @-@ 70 Corridor Planning Study , which examined the 5 @.@ 3 miles ( 8 @.@ 5 km ) segment of I @-@ 70 from the Mount Philip Road overpass between Braddock Mountain and Frederick to just east of MD 144 at the western end of the project underway to relocate the Interstate through Bartonsville . The study proposed a series of projects to upgrade I @-@ 70 through Frederick , much of which had been constructed as the Frederick Freeway in the late 1950s , to Interstate standards . The four @-@ lane freeway was plagued with closely spaced interchanges with substandard acceleration and deceleration lanes and curve radii . Many of the interchanges were missing important movements between highways . For instance , travellers aiming to move from southbound US 15 to westbound I @-@ 70 needed to use US 40 through Frederick 's heavily commercialized Golden Mile to join I @-@ 70 at Exit 48 .
The first project involved I @-@ 70 's interchange with US 15 and US 340 , which was constructed with two ramps , one from westbound I @-@ 70 to southbound US 15 and one from northbound US 15 to eastbound I @-@ 70 , in 1969 . In this project completed in 1997 , two ramps were added from eastbound I @-@ 70 to both directions of US 15 ; a long ramp was added that started from northbound US 15 and eastbound US 40 at their interchange to provide access to westbound I @-@ 70 ; and a loop ramp from MD 180 and MD 351 ( Ballenger Creek Pike ) to eastbound I @-@ 70 between I @-@ 70 's interchanges with US 15 and I @-@ 270 . The second project filled in a pair of missing connections to the I @-@ 70 – I @-@ 270 interchange last updated in 1969 . Ramps were added from westbound I @-@ 70 to southbound I @-@ 270 and from northbound I @-@ 270 to eastbound I @-@ 70 ; in addition , New Design Road received a new bridge over I @-@ 70 and I @-@ 270 . After the second project was completed in 2002 , traffic between I @-@ 70 from the east and I @-@ 270 from the south no longer needed to use MD 355 and MD 85 to make the connections .
The third project was the replacement of I @-@ 70 's interchange with MD 355 , a four @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange constructed in 1956 . In 2001 , westbound I @-@ 70 's ramps with MD 355 were closed and replaced with temporary ramps to and from Stadium Drive , which connected the freeway with the state highway . In 2005 , as part of a related project , the MD 85 – MD 355 intersection was reconstructed and MD 85 was extended to a temporary terminus east of MD 355 at a pair of ramps with eastbound I @-@ 70 . Eastbound I @-@ 70 's existing ramps at MD 355 were closed . As part of the project , East Street was extended south from downtown Frederick to I @-@ 70 's single @-@ point urban interchange with MD 85 , which was completed in 2009 . Once the new interchange opened , the temporary ramps between westbound I @-@ 70 and Stadium Drive were removed .
The fourth project to upgrade I @-@ 70 through Frederick , which will upgrade the interchanges at South Street and MD 144 built in 1956 , began in autumn 2010 . Eastbound I @-@ 70 's ramps with Reichs Ford Road , which leads to South Street , will be reconstructed . The westbound ramps serving South Street will be removed . The missing movements on the eastern end of Frederick will be provided by reconstruction of westbound I @-@ 70 's ramps with MD 144 . A ramp from MD 144 to westbound I @-@ 70 will be added ; both that ramp and the exit ramp from westbound I @-@ 70 will meet MD 144 at a roundabout . Once the interchanges are reconstructed , I @-@ 70 will be expanded to six lanes from east of MD 144 to I @-@ 270 . The fifth and final project to upgrade I @-@ 70 through Frederick will expand I @-@ 70 to six lanes between Mount Philip Road and I @-@ 270 .
= = = Future projects = = =
There are two other projects planned for I @-@ 70 and two studies that may lead to projects on the Interstate in the future . In Washington County , MDSHA will reconstruct and widen I @-@ 70 's bridges over Conococheague Creek starting in summer 2012 . In Howard County , as part of the upgrade of MD 32 to a freeway from MD 108 to I @-@ 70 , the state highway 's junction with I @-@ 70 will be reconstructed from a diamond interchange to a partial cloverleaf design that will allow free @-@ flowing traffic from both directions of MD 32 onto I @-@ 70 . In Howard County , a study is underway concerning improvements to the portion of I @-@ 70 between MD 32 and US 29 ; between the US 40 split and US 29 , I @-@ 70 is only four lanes . The study will look at widening the Interstate to six or eight lanes as well as possible improvements on US 29 and Marriottsville Road at their respective interchanges with I @-@ 70 . Finally , in Frederick County , MDSHA will study whether to upgrade I @-@ 70 's partial interchange with MD 144 in Bartonsville , which now only has ramps from westbound I @-@ 70 to westbound MD 144 and from eastbound MD 144 to eastbound I @-@ 70 .
= = Interstate 70 in Baltimore = =
= = = Early freeway plans for Baltimore = = =
Nine plans for a Baltimore city freeway system were put together by Baltimore city planners between 1942 and 1957 . The most influential of these plans was portrayed in the Smith Report of 1945 , which heavily influenced future proposals , including the proposal that would be included in the General Location of National System of Interstate Highways , also known as the Yellow Book , in 1955 . None of the plans gained traction due to either decision makers figuring the freeways were not needed or opposition to the east – west freeway passing straight through the central business district or immediately to the north of the central business district . For instance , a 1957 proposal had the east – west freeway following Biddle Street through the northern part of downtown Baltimore . However , by the late 1950s , Baltimore was starting to suffer from the flight of its commercial and industrial concerns and residents to the suburbs in response to the easy access provided by the developing Baltimore Beltway .
In response to the new sense of urgency , the head of Baltimore 's Department of Planning , Philip Darling , put together a 1960 report titled A Study for an East – West Expressway . Darling proposed I @-@ 70N pass through Leakin Park and Gwynns Falls Park , pass through the Rosemont neighborhood , and head east between Franklin Street and Mulberry Street . The East – West Expressway would turn south near Pine Street and turn east again to follow an elevated highway just south of Pratt Street , between the central business district and the Inner Harbor . At the east end of the Inner Harbor , at approximately the modern intersection of President Street and Eastern Avenue , I @-@ 70N would reach its terminus at a four @-@ way interchange with I @-@ 83 ( Jones Falls Expressway ) and I @-@ 95 ( Southwestern Expressway ) . I @-@ 95 would cross the Inner Harbor on a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) high bridge immediately to the southwest of the interchange .
= = = The 10 @-@ D and 3 @-@ A systems = = =
Darling 's outreach with various civic groups meant there was little opposition to the proposed route of the East – West Expressway . The last obstacle before the freeway could receive federal funding was a review by independent consultants . A group of three consulting firms that came together as Expressway Consultants reviewed Darling 's plan and made major changes without consulting the civic groups Darling had engaged . As a result , when the consultants released their 10 @-@ D System in 1962 , the plan faced widespread opposition . In the 10 @-@ D System , I @-@ 70N would follow roughly the same route as in the Darling Plan east to Fremont Avenue . There , the freeway would follow Fremont Avenue south to a junction with I @-@ 95 at Hamburg Street . The route of the East – West Expressway in the 10 @-@ D System would require condemning a greater number of properties compared to Darling 's plan due to I @-@ 70N and I @-@ 95 passing through several residential neighborhoods south of the central business district . Several of the civic groups with which Darling had compromised opposed Expressway Consultants 's uncompromising position toward their route through Leakin Park .
Despite the major opposition , the initiation of federal funding allowed the city to start acquiring property in the Franklin – Mulberry corridor in 1966 to clear the way for construction of the stretch of freeway that did get built between Pulaski Street and Martin Luther King Jr . Boulevard . That same year , the city of Baltimore decided to resolve the deadlock on the 10 @-@ D System by forming another consulting group , Urban Design Concept Associates , to work with various experts and stakeholders to come up with a new , less disruptive freeway system proposal for Baltimore . In 1969 , the city adopted the group 's proposal for the 3 @-@ A System . I @-@ 70N would pass through Leakin Park and Gwynns Falls Park , then follow Gwynns Falls south to an interchange with the modern alignment of I @-@ 95 east of Caton Avenue . Another freeway , later designated I @-@ 170 , would be constructed in the Franklin – Mulberry corridor to connect I @-@ 70 with the west side of the central business district .
However , many of the civic groups still opposed I @-@ 70 passing through Leakin Park ; the groups used litigation and political will to indefinitely delay the construction of I @-@ 70 through the park . In 1981 , the city cancelled the portion of I @-@ 70 from its current eastern terminus through Leakin and Gwynns Falls parks to the Interstate 's interchange with I @-@ 170 . I @-@ 170 and the portion of proposed freeway south to I @-@ 95 remained part of plans with a new designation for the L @-@ shaped freeway , I @-@ 595 . However , in 1983 , I @-@ 595 was cancelled as well due to escalating costs ; saving funds for the original I @-@ 595 freeway would detract from more pressing needs like maintenance of city streets and rapid transit . I @-@ 595 was later used as an unsigned designation for the upgrade of US 50 between the Capital Beltway and Annapolis . With the abandonment of I @-@ 70 's extension further into the city , the Baltimore City Department of Transportation converted the Interstate 's stub end east of Security Boulevard into a park and ride facility that opened in September 1985 .
= = = Route description of I @-@ 70 in the 3 @-@ A System = = =
Had I @-@ 70 been constructed as planned in the 3 @-@ A System , I @-@ 70 would have continued east from its present terminus just west of the Baltimore city limits near Security Boulevard . The Interstate would curve to the northeast and traverse Dead Run and Franklintown Road , then pass through a short tunnel underneath a hill in Leakin Park . I @-@ 70 would curve east through Gwynns Falls Park , where the freeway would cross over Dead Run and Franklintown Road again just south of the stream 's confluence with Gwynns Falls . The Interstate would parallel Gwynns Falls southeast to an interchange with Hilton Parkway , a four @-@ lane divided highway that connects the portions of Hilton Street on either side of the Gwynns Falls valley . The Directional T interchange would provide access from both directions of I @-@ 70 to northbound Hilton Parkway and from southbound Hilton Parkway to I @-@ 70 . I @-@ 70 would continue south while paralleling Hilton Parkway on the east until the freeway 's underpass of US 40 ( Edmondson Avenue ) .
I @-@ 70 would have continued southeast along Gwynns Falls and what is now CSX 's Hanover Subdivision . The Interstate would have met the western end of I @-@ 170 at a directional T interchange where Baltimore Street and the Amtrak Northeast Corridor cross over Gwynns Falls . I @-@ 170 would have headed northeast closely paralleling the Amtrak Northeast Corridor before veering east at the West Baltimore station on MARC 's Penn Line to join the constructed portion of I @-@ 170 , which is now part of US 40 . I @-@ 70 would have continued southeast to a partial interchange with MD 144 ( Frederick Avenue ) that would have allowed access to and from the direction of I @-@ 95 . The Interstate would have passed under US 1 ( Wilkens Avenue ) before reaching its terminus at I @-@ 95 . I @-@ 70 's junction with I @-@ 95 would have been a directional T interchange constructed over a rail yard on the Mount Clare Branch of CSX 's Baltimore Terminal Subdivision . When I @-@ 95 was completed from Caton Avenue to Russell Street in February 1978 , the highway was paralleled by extended ramps east from the Caton Avenue interchange that would have allowed connections between I @-@ 70 and Caton Avenue ( US 1 Alternate ) and segregated I @-@ 70 and Caton Avenue traffic from the partial interchange with Washington Boulevard just to the east .
= = Exit list = =
= = Auxiliary routes = =
I @-@ 70 has two auxiliary Interstate Highways in Maryland .
= = = Interstate 270 = = =
I @-@ 270 is a 34 @.@ 70 @-@ mile ( 55 @.@ 84 km ) auxiliary Interstate Highway in the U.S. state of Maryland that travels between I @-@ 495 ( Capital Beltway ) just north of Bethesda in Montgomery County and I @-@ 70 in the city of Frederick in Frederick County . It consists of the 32 @.@ 60 @-@ mile ( 52 @.@ 46 km ) mainline as well as a 2 @.@ 10 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 38 km ) spur that provides access to and from southbound I @-@ 495 . I @-@ 270 is known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Highway as well as the Washington National Pike . Most of the southern part of the route in Montgomery County passes through suburban areas around Rockville and Gaithersburg that are home to many biotech firms . This portion of I @-@ 270 is up to twelve lanes wide and consists of a local @-@ express lane configuration as well as high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes that are in operation during peak travel times . North of the Gaithersburg area , the road continues through the northern part of Montgomery County , passing Germantown and Clarksburg as a six- to eight @-@ lane highway with a HOV lane in the northbound direction only . North of here , I @-@ 270 continues through rural areas into Frederick County and toward the city of Frederick as a four @-@ lane freeway .
= = = Interstate 370 = = =
I @-@ 370 is a 2 @.@ 54 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 09 km ) Interstate Highway spur route off I @-@ 270 in Gaithersburg to the western end of MD 200 ( Intercounty Connector ) at an interchange that provides access to the park and ride lot at the Shady Grove station on the Red Line of the Washington Metro . Despite the number , I @-@ 370 does not connect to I @-@ 70 itself . The road continues to the west of I @-@ 270 as Sam Eig Highway , a surface road . Along the way , I @-@ 370 has an interchanges with MD 355 and Shady Grove Road . The freeway was completed in the late 1980s to connect I @-@ 270 to the Shady Grove Metro station . I @-@ 370 was part of the larger Intercounty Connector , but was the only segment to be built at the time . MD 200 east of I @-@ 370 to MD 28 ( Norbeck Road ) opened on February 23 , 2011 , resulting in the truncation of I @-@ 370 to the interchange with MD 200 and the redesignation of the road leading into the Shady Grove Metro station as MD 200A .
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