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= Banksia attenuata =
Banksia attenuata , commonly known as the candlestick banksia , slender banksia or biara as known by the Nyoongar Aboriginal people , is a species of plant in the proteaceae family . Commonly a tree , it reaches 10 m ( 33 ft ) high , but is often a shrub in dryer areas 0 @.@ 4 to 2 m ( 1 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high . It has long narrow serrated leaves and bright yellow inflorescences , or flower spikes , held above the foliage , which appear in spring and summer . The flower spikes age to grey and swell with the development of the woody follicles . It is found across much of the southwest of Western Australia , from north of Kalbarri National Park down to Cape Leeuwin and across to Fitzgerald River National Park .
John Lindley had named material collected by James Drummond Banksia cylindrostachya in 1840 , but this proved to be the same as the species named Banksia attenuata by Robert Brown 30 years earlier in 1810 , and thus Brown 's name took precedence . Within the genus Banksia , the close relationships and exact position of B. attenuata is unclear .
The candlestick banksia is pollinated by and provides food for a wide array of vertebrate and invertebrate animals in summer months . Several species of honeyeater visit the flower spikes , as does the honey possum , which has an important role as a pollinator . It regenerates from bushfire by regrowing from its woody base known as a lignotuber , or from epicormic buds within its trunk . Plants may have a lifespan of 300 years . It has been widely used as a street tree and for amenities planting in urban Western Australia , though its large size generally precludes use in small gardens . A dwarf form is commercially available in nurseries .
= = Description = =
Banksia attenuata is generally encountered as a tree up to 10 m ( 30 ft ) tall . In the north of its range as the climate becomes warmer and dryer , it is often a stunted multistemmed shrub 0 @.@ 4 to 2 m ( 1 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . Both forms occur in the vicinity of Hill River but there is otherwise a marked demarcation . In the Wheatbelt and east of the Stirling Range , it is a stunted tree . Tree forms have a solid trunk , generally wavy or bent , with 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick crumbly orange @-@ grey bark which is a red @-@ brown underneath . It regenerates from fire via lignotuber or epicormic buds from its fire @-@ tolerant trunk . It has long narrow shiny green linear leaves 4 to 27 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 10 @.@ 6 in ) long and 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 to 0 @.@ 63 in ) wide . The leaf margins have v- or u @-@ shaped serrations along their length . The new growth is a pale grey @-@ green , and occurs mainly in the late spring and summer , often after flowering . The brilliant yellow inflorescences ( flower spikes ) occur from spring into summer and are up 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide and up to 25 – 30 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) tall . They are made up of many small individual flowers ; a study at Mount Adams 330 km ( 210 mi ) north of Perth revealed a count of 1933 ( ± a standard error of 88 ) flowers per inflorescence , and another in the Fitzgerald River National Park yielded a count of 1720 ( ± 76 ) flowers . Anthesis proceeds up the flower spike over about 10 to 20 days , and is asynchronous . That is , a plant produces flower spikes over a several week period and will thus have spikes at different stages of development over the flowering season . Often bright green in bud stage , they are terminal , occurring at the ends of one- to three @-@ year @-@ old branches , and displayed prominently above the foliage . The smell of the open flowers has been likened to a peppery Shiraz wine . Over time , the spikes fade to brown and then grey , and the individual flowers shrivel and lie against the spikes . This coincides with the development of dark furry oval follicles , which measure 2 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 38 in ) long , 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) high , and 1 @.@ 4 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 55 – 0 @.@ 79 in ) wide . However , only a very small percentage ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) of flowers develop into follicles ; the field study at Mount Adams yielded a count of 3 @.@ 6 ± 1 @.@ 2 per cone . The follicles develop and mature over seven to eight months , from February to December , while seed development occurs over four months from September to December .
= = Taxonomy = =
Banksia attenuata was first collected by Robert Brown from King George Sound in December 1801 , and published by him in 1810 . The specific epithet is the Latin adjective attenuatus " narrowed " , and refers to the leaves narrowing towards the base . The species has had a fairly uneventful taxonomic history . It has only two synonyms , and no subspecies or varieties have been published ; George reviewed the variation in form in the species , and felt that the tree and shrub forms differed only in size and hence were not distinct enough to represent separate taxa . In 1840 , John Lindley published a putative new species , Banksia cylindrostachya , in his A Sketch of the Vegetation of the Swan River Colony ; this has now be shown to be a taxonomic synonym of B. attenuata . In 1891 , Otto Kuntze made a failed attempt to transfer Banksia to the new generic name Sirmuellera . In the process he published the name Sirmuellera attenuata , which is now considered a nomenclatural synonym of B. attenuata . Common names include slender banksia , candle banksia and candlestick banksia . Piara ( alternately spelled biara ) is an aboriginal name from the Melville region of Perth .
The relationships of Banksia attenuata within the genus are unclear . When Carl Meissner published his infrageneric arrangement of Banksia in 1856 , he placed B. attenuata in section Eubanksia because its inflorescence is a spike rather than a domed head , and in series Salicinae , a large series that is now considered quite heterogeneous . This series was discarded in the 1870 arrangement of George Bentham ; instead , B. attenuata was placed in section Cyrtostylis , a group of species which did not fit easily into one of the other sections .
In 1981 , Alex George published a revised arrangement that placed B. attenuata in the subgenus Banksia because of its flower spike , section Banksia because its styles are straight rather than hooked , and the series Cyrtostylis , a large and rather heterogenous series of twelve species . He conceded its large emarginate cotyledons ( having a notch in their apex ) were quite different from other members , and that it had similarities in flower architecture to another anomalous member B. elegans . He felt B. attenuata to have affinities to B. lindleyana and B. media .
George 's arrangement remained current until 1996 , when Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published an arrangement informed by a cladistic analysis of morphological characteristics . They calculated B. attenuata to lie at the base of a large B. attenuata – B.ashbyi clade , but conceded further work was needed before its relationships could be determined , and left it as incertae sedis ( i.e. Its exact placement is unclear . ) . Questioning the emphasis on cladistics in Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement , George published a slightly modified version of his 1981 arrangement in his 1999 treatment of Banksia for the Flora of Australia series of monographs . To date , this remains the most recent comprehensive arrangement . The placement of B. attenuata in George 's 1999 arrangement may be summarised as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Banksia
B. sect . Banksia
B. ser . Cyrtostylis
B. media
B. praemorsa
B. epica
B. pilostylis
B. attenuata
B. ashbyi
B. benthamiana
B. audax
B. lullfitzii
B. elderiana
B. laevigata
B. laevigata subsp. laevigata
B. laevigata subsp. fuscolutea
B. elegans
B. lindleyana
Since 1998 , American botanist Austin Mast and co @-@ authors have been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae , which then comprised genera Banksia and Dryandra . Their analyses suggest a phylogeny that differs greatly from George 's taxonomic arrangement . Banksia attenuata resolves as a basal member of and next closest relative , or ' sister ' , to a clade containing B. elegans and , within that , a monophyletic B. subg . Isostylis . An Eocene fossil cone named Banksia archaeocarpa , around 50 million years old , resembles that of B. attenuata .
Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele rearranged the genus Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and published B. subg . Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; thus B. subg . Banksia was redefined as encompassing taxa lacking spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. attenuata is placed in B. subg . Banksia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The most widely distributed of all western banksias , Banksia attenuata occurs across a broad swathe of southwest of Western Australia , from Kalbarri National Park and the Murchison River ( with an outlying population in Zuytdorp National Park ) southwards right to the southwestern corner of the state at Augusta and Cape Leeuwin , and then eastwards across the south to the western edge of Fitzgerald River National Park . Along the eastern border northwards it is found at Lake Grace , Lake Magenta north of Jerramungup , and the Wongan Hills . It is restricted to various sandy soils , including white , yellow or brown sands , and sand over either laterite or limestone . It forms an important component of open Eucalyptus woodland as a dominant or understory tree or tall shrub . To the north , it is a shrubby component of shrubland . It does not grow on heavy ( clay @-@ based ) soils , and is hence only found in sandy pockets . Within open woodland , it is found alongside B. menziesii , B. ilicifolia , B. prionotes , Allocasuarina fraseriana , Eucalyptus marginata , or E. gomphocephala . The annual rainfall within its distribution varies from 300 to 900 mm ( 12 to 35 in ) .
= = Ecology = =
Like many plants in south @-@ west Western Australia , B. attenuata is adapted to an environment in which bushfire events are relatively frequent . Most Banksia species can be placed in one of two broad groups according to their response to fire : reseeders are killed by fire , but fire also triggers the release of their canopy seed bank , thus promoting recruitment of the next generation ; resprouters survive fire , resprouting from a lignotuber or , more rarely , epicormic buds protected by thick bark . Bearing epicormic buds and a lignotuber , B. attenuata is one of the latter group , with follicles that may open spontaneously or by fire . It is moderately serotinous , storing only one tenth the number of seeds in its seed bank as the reseeding B. hookeriana which it coexists with on sand dunes in scrub at Eneabba north of Perth . Even then , many of its follicles do not release seed after a fire , but instead after successive autumn rains . An experiment simulating wet weather following a fire saw a series of Banksia attenuata cones with follicles subjected to twice weekly immersions in water after being heated in a ring Bunsen flame to around 500 – 600 ° C ( 932 – 1 @,@ 112 ° F ) for two minutes . Cones that had been exposed to water for more weeks had more seed released from follicles over time ; around 40 % released at three weeks , increasing steadily to almost 90 % at ten weeks , compared with a series of controls ( which were kept dry ) of which fewer than 10 % of seed released . Thus , the seed remains in the follicles until successive rains result in seed dispersal in the wetter winter ( instead of dryer summer ) , increasing the chance of survival . After the follicle is split , the seed and separator are exposed to the elements . The wings of the woody separator are hygroscopic , and move together when wet , and spread and curl apart when dry . The seed is gradually drawn out by the movement with each wetting . Once released , seed germinates at temperatures between 15 and 20 ° C ( 59 and 68 ° F ) to optimise timing with autumn and winter rains and hence maximise chance of survival . Still , many seedlings die off in the hot and dry summer months . Seedling survival for the species is lower than for banksias which regenerate by seeding over time . Despite this , the longevity of mature plants allows for maintenance of population until favourable years enable better survival of young plants . As they mature , plants are less likely to perish , and estimated to live for 300 years or more . Analyzing the seed bank and longitudinal results over fifteen years on the Eneabba sandplain showed that B. attenuata would become more abundant over time with fire intervals averaging between 6 and 20 years , peaking with intervals around 10 to 12 years , compared with longer intervals for the reseeders B. hookeriana and B. prionotes . Placed against its rivals , B. attenuata would be dominant between 8 and 10 or 11 years , but at longer intervals is outcompeted by B. hookeriana . Variability in the timing between fires allows all three species to coexist . Exaggerated good and bad weather conditions favours B. attenuata over the reseeding species , which suffer more .
Despite having relatively heavy seed , seed from Banksia attenuata has a high rate of long distance dispersal . A genetic study of populations in Eneabba showed that over 5 % of plants had originated up to 2 @.@ 6 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) away ( similar rates to Banksia hookeriana , the seed of which only weighs half as much ) . The mechanism for this is unclear , although Byron Lamont has proposed the short @-@ billed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus latirostris ) as a vector ; the species seeks out Banksia attenuata cones after bushfire , possibly because the large seeds and greater chance of grubs in the cone make them more nutritious . Flowering has been recorded one to two years after a bushfire .
Many bird species were recorded by the national Banksia Atlas survey , including the New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) , brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta ) , singing honeyeater ( Lichenostomus virescens ) , western spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus superciliosus ) , twenty @-@ eight parrot ( Barnardius zonarius semitorquatus ) and red @-@ tailed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus banksii ) . Black cockatoos have been observed feeding upon the seed of B. attenuata , although it is not clear which species of black cockatoo was observed , the short @-@ billed or long @-@ billed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus baudinii ) . At a site near Jandakot , short @-@ billed black cockatoos were observed selecting immature infructescences which bore signs of infestation by the weevil Alphitopis nivea , the larvae of which tunnel in banksia spikes and eat the seed . They extract the larvae and drop the cones .
A 1978 field study conducted around Albany found the honey possum ( Tarsipes rostratus ) was a major pollinator of Banksia attenuata , both feeding directly on the pollen and drinking the nectar . The flower structure is suited to passing pollen onto the possum as it feeds , unlike honeyeaters whose bills are too long for this to occur readily . Coupled with the flower spike 's musky odour , these findings suggest Banksia attenuata is highly adapted to be pollinated primarily by this mammal species . Furthermore , Petroc Sumner and colleagues have investigated the cone photoreceptor cells of honey possums and compared them with the colour changes of B. attenuata . They found that the possum is trichromatic ( like humans and possibly many marsupials ) and propose that its L ( long wavelength ) cones help it discern B. attenuata flower spikes , and the M ( or medium wavelength ) cones could help it distinguish ripe inflorescences with nectar from recently finished spikes ( a difficult task for human vision ) . There is some evidence for other mammals as pollinators ; B. attenuata @-@ like pollen was recovered from museum skins of dunnarts ( Sminthopsis spp . ) and pygmy possums ( Cercartetus spp . ) , and the sugar glider ( Petaurus breviceps ) visited flower spikes in captivity .
Seventeen species from several orders of slime molds ( myxomycetes ) have been isolated from the bark of Banksia attenuata . Over half ( nine ) were from the order Stemonitales , and Echinosteliales and Liceales were also common . The abundance of the first two orders may be due to the acidity of the bark . Another order , the Physarales , was unusually rare — other studies have demonstrated that the order is typically abundant on the bark of various species of tree around the world .
All banksias have developed proteoid or cluster roots in response to the nutrient @-@ poor conditions of Australian soils ( particularly lacking in phosphorus ) . These have been measured in Eneabba extending to a depth of 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) below the soil surface . The plant develops masses of fine lateral roots which form a mat @-@ like structure underneath the soil surface , and enable it to extract nutrients as efficiently possible out of the soil . A study of three co @-@ occurring species in Banksia woodland in southwestern Australia — Banksia menziesii , B. attenuata and B. ilicifolia — found that all three develop fresh roots in September after winter rainfall , and that the bacteria populations associated with the root systems of B. menziesii differ from the other two , and that they also change depending on the age of the roots . Another study on root architecture of Banksia hookeriana , B. menziesii and B. attenuata found the overall structure of all three to be similar , with proteoid mats more active and growing in wetter months ( winter @-@ spring ) . Plants send out several sinker roots which descend to reach the water table , and the original tap root may or may not have died off . Along with B. menziesii , B. attenuata is a facultative phreatophyte . The two species are less strictly tied to the water table and hence able to grow in a wider variety of places within Banksia woodland habitat around Perth than the co @-@ occurring B. ilicifolia and B. littoralis . A study at a rehabilitation site on a sand mine north of Perth found that the broadleaved species B. attenuata and B. hookeriana were harder to establish than the fine @-@ leaved B. leptophylla there , due to increased impedance of the disturbed soil . Analysis of native plant species at a remnant of banksia woodland in suburban Perth which had been invaded by two herbaceous weed species ( Ehrharta calycina and Pelargonium capitatum ) found increased phosphorus levels in native foliage . Although B. attenuata leaves did not have increased phosphorus , they did have reduced levels of manganese — an element which is absorbed into the plant by its proteoid roots , the formation of which can be inhibited by raised levels of phosphorus .
In a 1985 study inoculating cultivated plants , Banksia attenuata showed moderate to high susceptibility to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback ; and at least some field and cultivation evidence points to it being highly susceptible . P. cinnamomi spreads from plant to plant via lateral roots , advancing at a rate of around a metre a year . The symptoms of infection in Banksia attenuata include yellowing of the leaves in the tree crown , and lesions at the base of the trunk . The red healthy roots become discoloured brown . A study of Banksia attenuata woodland 400 km ( 250 mi ) southeast of Perth across 16 years and following a wave of P. cinnamomi infestation showed that B. attenuata populations still existed but were significantly reduced in diseased areas . Injecting a solution of phosphite into the trunks of affected B. attenuata trees at a disease front in Banksia woodland can delay morbidity from dieback for five years . Injecting and spraying phosphite also reduces the rate of spread of a dieback front for around five years . A bushfire did not influence this slowing . A 2003 study found that drenching the soil with 0 @.@ 50 mM benzoic acid significantly reduced the size of P. cinnamomi lesions . Research into dieback in Western Australia has identified a new species , P. multivora , isolated from ailing eucalypts and B. attenuata in 2009 .
= = Cultivation and cultural use = =
The well @-@ displayed bright yellow spikes are an attractive feature , with shrubby dwarf forms more versatile horticulturally . All forms of Banksia attenuata require good drainage , sandy soil and a sunny position to do well , with a pH between 5 @.@ 5 and 7 @.@ 0 . They are sensitive to dieback , and do not fare well in humid climates . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 16 to 49 days to germinate . Seedlings are highly vulnerable to damping off . Plants take from four to six years to flower from seed . There has been little success with other methods of improving adaptability to humid climates such as grafting . -- > Flower spikes in late bud are used in the cut flower industry , primarily in Western Australia .
Aboriginal people , particularly the Nyoongar and Yamatji , placed the flower spike in a paperbark @-@ lined hole filled with water to make a sweet drink . Both this species and B. aemula have been credited with the inspiration behind May Gibbs ' Big Bad Banksia Men ; this species was familiar to Gibbs in her childhood and likely gave her the initial inspiration , although the depictions resemble the latter species . Artist Marianne North produced a highly regarded painting of B. attenuata during her stay in Australia in 1880 – 81 .
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= Murphy Pakiam =
Tan Sri Datuk Murphy Nicholas Xavier Pakiam ( born 6 December 1938 ) is the third metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia .
Pakiam was born in Tapah , Perak and was ordained into the priesthood on 10 May 1964 . He was appointed metropolitan archbishop of Kuala Lumpur on 24 May 2003 , and was installed five days later . Pakiam is the former president of the Catholic Bishops ' Conference of Malaysia , Singapore and Brunei ; and the publisher of the Catholic weekly newspaper , The Herald .
In 2007 , Pakiam filed for a judicial review after The Herald was ordered to stop using the Arabic word " Allah " in its publication by the Malaysian government . In 2009 , the High Court overturned the government 's ban of the word . In 2010 , he accepted the public apology of Al @-@ Islam magazine , which had sent two reporters to a Catholic church the year before , where they desecrated the Eucharist .
= = Background = =
Pakiam was born in Tapah , Perak , on the feast day of the popular saint of children , St. Nicholas . Educated at the Sultan Yusuf School in Batu Gajah , he entered the minor seminary in 1955 and started his priestly formation at the College General in Penang three years later . Pakiam was ordained a priest on 10 May 1964 , and served as assistant priest at the Church of St. Louis , Taiping . The following year , he was posted to the Church of St. Francis Xavier in Penang and became the Parish Priest of the Church of Our Lady of Lourdes , Silibin , Ipoh from 1970 – 72 .
Pakiam completed his studies for a Masters in Moral Theology ( Ethics ) at the Lateran University in Rome in 1974 , and upon his return to Malaysia , became a lecturer at Penang 's College General . In 1978 , he was appointed Rector of the College General and served two terms . In 1989 , he received his Masters in Guidance and Counselling from the De La Salle University , Manila , Philippines . He then served as Parish Priest of the Church of the Nativity in Butterworth from 1989 – 95 .
He was appointed as the auxiliary bishop of Kuala Lumpur and titular bishop of Chunavia on 1 April 1995 , and ordained titular bishop of Chunavia , Epirus Nova , known as an Episcopal Ordination , on 4 October 1995 at the College General in Penang .
On 24 May 2003 , Pakiam succeeded Anthony Soter Fernandez , who resigned due to poor health , as metropolitan archbishop of Kuala Lumpur . His installation took place five days later , on 29 May 2003 . His principal consecrator was Archbishop Anthony Fernandez and principal co @-@ consecrators were Bishop James Chan Soon Cheong and Bishop Anthony Selvanayagam . He was the president of the Catholic Bishops ' Conference of Malaysia , Singapore and Brunei .
On 13 December 2013 , the Pope accepted the resignation of Archbishop Pakiam upon his 75th birthday . In practice , the Bishop of Rome may decide to immediately accept the resignation letter , or keep the bishop in service until a successor is chosen . The Pope decided to accept Archbishop Pakiam 's resignation as soon as he received it even though his successor , Archbishop Julian Leow Beng Kim , was only appointed on 3 July 2014 .
= = Coat of arms = =
Hat & Tassels : Symbols of an Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Church.Cross on yellow background : Symbol of Jesus , the Light of the world.Blue wavy lines : Symbol of the Holy Spirit , the river of Living Waters.Chalice & Host : The Sacraments of the Church.Bible : The Word of God.The letter ' M ' : Mary , Mother of the Church , representing all the saints.Keys : Symbol of the Apostolic authority in the Church.Green background : Symbolises the new life obtained through the Mercy and Peace of God .
= = Allah judicial review = =
By virtue of his position as archbishop of Kuala Lumpur , Pakiam is the publisher of The Herald , a weekly Catholic newspaper . In 2007 , The Herald and Pakiam , as its publisher , filed for a judicial review after it was ordered to stop using the Arabic word " Allah " in its publication by the Malaysian Ministry of Home Affairs . Malaysia 's home minister has the power to impose prohibition as a condition under the Printing Presses and Publication Act of 1984 . In the case of The Herald , Home Minister Datuk Seri Syed Hamid Albar prohibited the usage of the word " Allah " on the grounds of national security and to avoid misunderstanding and confusion among Muslims .
On 31 December 2009 , the High Court overturned the government ban on the use of the word " Allah " by The Herald . Justice Lau Bee Lan quashed the Home Minister 's prohibition against The Herald to use the word " Allah " , declaring the order as " illegal , null and void " . She declared that under Article 3 ( 1 ) of the Federal Constitution , applicant Archbishop Tan Sri Pakiam had the constitutional right to use " Allah " in The Herald in the exercise of his right that religions other than Islam might be practised in peace and harmony in the country .
= = Al @-@ Islam magazine = =
In 2009 , two Muslim reporters from Al @-@ Islam , a small Malaysian magazine , participated in a Catholic Mass and received Holy Communion , which they then spat out and photographed . The resulting photo was then published in their May 2009 edition . The magazine , which is owned by Utusan Karya , part of the Utusan Malaysia Group , sent its reporters including one Muhd Ridwan Abdul Jalil , to two churches in the Klang Valley , as part of a special investigative report . The act of desecration occurred at St Anthony 's Church in Jalan Robertson , Kuala Lumpur .
Pakiam , the Catholic Lawyers Society , as well as numerous editorials in the media , criticised the Attorney @-@ General for its failure to take any action on the desecration .
Nine months later , in March 2010 , Al @-@ Islam published an apology to the Roman Catholic Church and Christians for the article . The public apology was posted on the website of its publisher . Pakiam accepted the apology and said that no further legal action would be taken against the magazine or its publishers .
= = Honours = =
In 2005 , the King of Malaysia , the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin , made Pakiam a Member of the Order for Important Services or " Panglima Jasa Negara " ( PJN ) , which carries the title " Datuk " . In 2008 , the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin made him Commander of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia , or Panglima Setia Mahkota ( PSM ) , which allows the recipients to use the title " Tan Sri " . This title is the second most senior federal title in Malaysia , and there may only be up to a maximum of 250 living PSM holders at any time .
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= Eleanor Norcross =
Eleanor Norcross , born Ella Augusta Norcross ( 1854 – 1923 ) , was an American painter who studied under William Merritt Chase and Alfred Stevens . She lived the majority of her adult life in Paris , France as an artist and collector and spent the summers in her hometown of Fitchburg , Massachusetts . Norcross painted Impressionist portraits and still lifes , and is better known for her paintings of genteel interiors .
Her father provided her a comfortable living , under the proviso that she would not sell her paintings . With a life mission to provide people from her hometown the ability to view great works of art , Norcross collected art , made copies of paintings of Old Masters , and systematically documented decorative arts from the 12th through the 19th century . Her funding and art collection were used to establish the Fitchburg Art Museum .
In 1924 , her works were shown posthumously in Paris at the Louvre and Salon d 'Automne , where Norcross was the first American to have had a retrospective . Her works were also shown the following year at the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston .
= = Early life = =
Ella Augusta Norcross was born in Fitchburg , Massachusetts , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) west of Boston , to Amasa Norcross and Susan Augusta Norcross . Her father was an attorney , Fitchburg 's first mayor , state senator , and United States representative . Her mother , Susan , had been a school teacher in the Fitchburg area and during the Civil War was a leader of the Ladies ' Soldiers Aid Society , which provided clothing , blankets , and other supplies to soldiers from Fitchburg and other locations in the state of Massachusetts . In 1863 , her three @-@ year @-@ old brother Nelson died of scarlet fever , and when she was 14 , her mother died of consumption . Norcross and her father , the remaining household members , had a close relationship .
Norcross was afforded a privileged education that was not available to many young ladies of her generation . At 16 years of age , she graduated from Fitchburg High School , and , beginning in 1870 , she attended Wheaton Female Seminary , now Wheaton College . When she was 16 and 17 years old she wrote essays for Rushlight , the school 's literary journal . The nature of her essays provide insight into the woman she would become : one who would successfully operate in a male @-@ oriented society , had an interest in bettering the plight of others , and appreciated historical things . She graduated in 1872 . Frances Vose Emerson was a classmate at Wheaton , good friend from childhood , and ultimately a trustee for the Fitchburg Art Museum .
= = Education and early career = =
Norcross studied at Boston 's Massachusetts Normal Art School , now the Massachusetts College of Art and Design , to prepare to teach art . Living in Fitchburg , she commuted by train to the school in Boston . Norcross earned her teaching certificate by 1876 and taught drawing in the Fitchburg schools for a year . Norcross moved with her father to Washington when he was elected to the House of Representatives . A " witty and lively conversationalist " , she acted as his hostess in the capital and beginning in 1878 , Norcross studied art in New York City under William Merritt Chase at the Art Students League of New York for up to five years . In June 1883 , she sailed for Paris to study with Alfred Stevens at Chase 's suggestion . She and a few other women studied with the Belgian artist during the winters of 1883 and 1884 .
= = Career = =
= = = Father 's influence = = =
Her father provided financial support that allowed Norcross to live comfortably . She exhibited her works in salons , according to the agreement with her father that she would not sell any of them ; he believed that women should give their works away and not enter into the male @-@ oriented business world . Any paintings that she wanted to give away , Mr. Norcross offered to have " handsomely framed " .
She lived in Paris for 40 years , and traveled throughout Europe . Her father lived with her during the winters after his retirement and until 1898 , when he died . Joined by his daughter , Amasa Norcross spent his summers in Fitchburg .
= = = Style and paintings = = =
Norcross painted portraits and still lifes , and she made copies of Old Masters . Her portraits and later interiors were executed with " delicate brush strokes " . She had an adept sense of color and the ability to portray reflections and textures , like metal 's gleam , satin 's sheen , and velvet 's texture . The compositions of her interiors are positioned in a way that leads the viewer to consider what might be through a door or around a corner , as in Carpeaux Sevres .
Her painting , Woman in a Garden , reflects influences of Chase , Monet and French Impressionism combined with the skill to draw with a paintbrush learned from Alfred Stevens . Reminiscent of Chase 's en plein air paintings , the dark background contrasts with the enigmatic , illuminated woman . My Studio ( 1891 ) — which depicts her father in an room with " elaborately patterned textiles " , antique and oriental furnishings , and flowers — is " the most impressive " of her works at the Fitchburg Art Museum . It was also her image of an " ideal home " . Of it , Ann H. Murray writes :
... the painting itself is reminiscent of Chase in the informality and candidness that pervade the composition . The vacant chair , the mirror reflecting spaces not directly perceivable , and the abundance of rectangular units that impose a geographic organization on the wall — all these features occur also in Chase 's paintings , as well as in those of Degas and Cassatt who were , along with Monet , Renoir and Rodin , among her personal acquaintances .
She exhibited from 1887 until her death in Champ de Mars ' Société Nationale des Beaux @-@ Arts , which was made possible through her close friendship with Puvis de Chavannes . Her works were also shown in Boston , Chicago , and New York City . Norcross shared a studio with Alix d 'Anethan , whose paintings , influenced by Puvis , were of pastoral and contemporary life .
Norcross began to collect historical European artwork , particularly to be shown in public places in or near her hometown . After 1905 , she made copies of paintings by great artists , like Hals , Velázquez , and Botticelli . At roughly the same time , she began making paintings of French decorative art from 12th century Gothic art through the 19th century that she saw in galleries , including interior scenes of the Louvre . Norcross 's interiors provided insight into European decorative arts :
Her gift was for mellow , loving , quiet observation of cozy spaces that close out the rest of the world . She wasn 't merely recording decor , though . Her surfaces are loose and brushy , clearly influenced by Impressionism .
The 1914 Musée des Arts Décoratifs ( in the Louvre ) was to have exhibited her works , but the show was cancelled due to the commencement of World War I. She was known for being welcoming to art students from the United States and lived in the Rue de Bellchase the final 12 years of her life .
= = = Collection = = =
She began purchasing art objects with the intention of sending them to America , so that people that were not afforded the luxury of traveling to Europe could view good works of art . Norcross collected furniture , textiles , porcelains , and other objects during visits to quiet French villages .
Works from her collection were given to Wheaton College in 1922 during her 50th @-@ year reunion , including an oil sketch by Alix d 'Anethan and a seascape by Alfred Stevens . She loaned her paintings to the Worcester Art Museum , and the Fitchburg Public Library was a beneficiary of photographs , prints , engravings , textiles , dishes , and furniture . She was involved in the placement of art at the library so that visitors to every department would have the opportunity to view the works of art , including European prints and rare engravings that span several centuries .
= = Museum = =
To implement her plan to establish a cultural center in Fitchburg , Norcross shipped works of art from her collection to her hometown and left $ 10 @,@ 000 or $ 100 @,@ 000 in her will , with the provision that the town raise an equal amount to provide a healthy endowment , otherwise the monies would go to Wheaton Seminary .
[ Norcross ] was an artist , collector , and philanthropist who sought to inspire , educate , and improve society through cultural enrichment in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries .
Friends Frances Vose Emerson and Providence art teacher Sophia Lord Pitman were identified in the will as trustees for the museum . An old brick stable was purchased in 1924 and was remodeled by Howe , Manning & Almy , Inc . , a Boston firm of women architects , into a French Provincial building . In 1929 , the Fitchburg Art Center opened , it was later renamed Fitchburg Art Museum . Most of the collection and the building were destroyed in a fire in 1934 . The museum now has 20 @,@ 000 square feet of exhibition space over four buildings and works of art from the pre @-@ Columbian era to the 20th century . The works of art — which include paintings , prints , illustrated books , drawings and photographs — originated in Europe , the Americas , Asia , and Africa . The Fitchburg Art Museum has a collection of Norcross 's work , along with works of John Singer Sargent , William Merritt Chase , and other American and European artists . Traute M. Marshall , author of Art Museums Plus , said , " [ S ] he stands up well against the more famous competition . "
= = Death = =
Norcross died of kidney failure on October 19 , 1923 .
= = Posthumous exhibitions = =
Shows of her paintings were held after her death . The memorial exhibition at the Louvre , opened by American ambassador Myron T. Herrick , included 53 of her paintings in 1924 . The Louvre retained two paintings Norcross made of the Musée des Arts Décoratifs 's interior . Sixteen of her works were exhibited at the Salon d 'Automne the same year ; Norcross was the first American to have had a retrospective of her work there . A show was also held at the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston in 1925 .
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= Fanny Imlay =
Frances " Fanny " Imlay ( 14 May 1794 – 9 October 1816 ) , also known as Fanny Godwin and Frances Wollstonecraft , was the daughter , born out of wedlock , of the British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft and the American commercial speculator Gilbert Imlay . Fanny 's mother wrote about her frequently in her later works , and Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a poem on her death . Fanny grew up in the household of anarchist political philosopher William Godwin , and her half @-@ sister Mary later wrote Frankenstein and married Percy Bysshe Shelley , a leading Romantic poet .
Although Gilbert Imlay and Mary Wollstonecraft lived together happily for brief periods before and after the birth of Fanny , he left Wollstonecraft in France in the midst of the French Revolution . In an attempt to revive their relationship , Wollstonecraft travelled to Scandinavia on business for him , taking the one @-@ year @-@ old Fanny with her , but the affair never rekindled . After falling in love with and marrying the philosopher William Godwin , Wollstonecraft died soon after giving birth in 1797 , leaving the three @-@ year @-@ old Fanny in the hands of Godwin , along with the newborn Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin ( the future author of Frankenstein ) .
Four years later , Godwin remarried and his new wife , Mary Jane Clairmont , brought two children of her own into the marriage , most significantly — from Fanny Imlay and Mary Godwin 's perspective — Claire Clairmont . Wollstonecraft 's daughters resented the new Mrs Godwin and the attention she paid to her own daughter . The Godwin household became an increasingly uncomfortable place to live as tensions rose and debts mounted . The teenage Mary and Claire escaped by running off to the Continent with the Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in 1814 . Fanny , left behind , bore the brunt of her stepfather 's anger . She became increasingly isolated from her family and committed suicide in 1816 .
= = Life = =
= = = Birth = = =
Fanny Imlay was the daughter of the British feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft and the American entrepreneur Gilbert Imlay . Both had moved to France during the French Revolution , Wollstonecraft to practise the principles laid out in her seminal work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) and Imlay to engage in speculative business ventures . The two met and fell in love . At one point during Wollstonecraft and Imlay 's relationship , the couple could meet only at a tollbooth between Paris and Neuilly , and it was there that their daughter was conceived ; Fanny was therefore , in Godwin 's words , a " barrier child " . Frances " Fanny " Imlay , Wollstonecraft 's first child , was born in Le Havre on 14 May 1794 , or , as the birth certificate stated , on the 25th day of Floreal in the Second Year of the Republic , and named after Fanny Blood , her mother 's closest friend . Although Imlay never married Wollstonecraft , he registered her as his wife at the American consulate to protect her once Britain and France went to war in February 1793 . Most people , including Wollstonecraft 's sisters , assumed they were married — and thus , by extension , that Fanny was legitimate — and she was registered as such in France .
= = = Infancy and early childhood = = =
Initially , the couple 's life together was idyllic . Wollstonecraft playfully wrote to one friend : " My little Girl begins to suck so manfully that her father reckons saucily on her writing the second part of the R [ igh ] ts of Woman " [ emphasis in original ] . Imlay soon tired of Wollstonecraft and domestic life and left her for long periods of time . Her letters to him are full of needy expostulations , explained by most critics as the expressions of a deeply depressed woman but by some as a result of her circumstances — alone with an infant in the middle of the French Revolution .
Wollstonecraft returned to London in April 1795 , seeking Imlay , but he rejected her ; the next month she attempted to commit suicide , but he saved her life ( it is unclear how ) . In a last attempt to win him back , she embarked upon a hazardous trip to Scandinavia from June to September 1795 , with only her one @-@ year @-@ old daughter and a maid , in order to conduct some business for him . Wollstonecraft 's journey was daunting not only because she was travelling to what some considered a nearly uncivilized region during a time of war , but also because she was travelling without a male escort . When she returned to England and realized that her relationship with Imlay was over , she attempted suicide a second time . She went out on a rainy night , walked around to soak her clothes , and then jumped into the River Thames , where a stranger rescued her .
Using her diaries and letters from her journey to Scandinavia , Wollstonecraft wrote a rumination on her travels and her relationship — Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark ( 1796 ) — in which , among other things , she celebrated motherhood . Her maternal connection to her daughter prompted her to reflect on a woman 's place in the world :
You know that as a female I am particularly attached to her — I feel more than a mother 's fondness and anxiety , when I reflect on the dependent and oppressed state of her sex . I dread lest she should be forced to sacrifice her heart to her principles , or principles to her heart . With trembling hand I shall cultivate sensibility , and cherish delicacy of sentiment , lest , whilst I lend fresh blushes to the rose , I sharpen the thorns that will wound the breast I would fain guard — I dread to unfold her mind , lest it should render her unfit for the world she is to inhabit — Hapless woman ! what a fate is thine !
Wollstonecraft lavished love and attention on her daughter . She began two books , drawn from her own experience , related to Fanny 's care : a parenting manual entitled " Letters on the Management of Infants " and a reading primer entitled " Lessons " . In one section of " Lessons " , she describes weaning :
When you were hungry , you began to cry , because you could not speak . You were seven months without teeth , always sucking . But after you got one , you began to gnaw a crust of bread . It was not long before another came pop . At ten months you had four pretty white teeth , and you used to bite me . Poor mamma ! Still I did not cry , because I am not a child , but you hurt me very much . So I said to papa , it is time the little girl should eat . She is not naughty , yet she hurts me . I have given her a crust of bread , and I must look for some other milk .
In 1797 , Wollstonecraft fell in love with and married the philosopher William Godwin ( she had become pregnant with his child ) . Godwin grew to love Fanny during his affair with Wollstonecraft ; he brought her back a mug from Josiah Wedgwood 's pottery factory with an " F " on it that delighted both mother and daughter . Wollstonecraft died in September of the same year , from complications giving birth to Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin , who survived . Three @-@ year @-@ old Fanny , who had been scarred from smallpox , was unofficially adopted by her stepfather and given the name of Godwin . Her copy of Wollstonecraft 's only completed children 's book , Original Stories from Real Life ( 1788 ) , has the initials " F. G. " written in large print in it . According to the dominant interpretation of Godwin 's diary , it was not until Fanny turned twelve that she was informed in an important conversation with Godwin that he was not her natural father . In the only biography of Fanny , Janet Todd disputes this reading , arguing instead that the conversation was about Fanny 's future . She finds it unlikely that Fanny would have been unaware of her origins in the open and liberal Godwin household .
After Wollstonecraft 's death , Godwin and Joseph Johnson , Wollstonecraft 's publisher and close friend , contacted Fanny 's father , but he was uninterested in raising his child . ( Neither Wollstonecraft nor her daughter ever saw Gilbert Imlay after 1796 . ) Wollstonecraft 's two sisters , Eliza Bishop and Everina Wollstonecraft , Fanny 's only two living female relatives , were anxious to care for her ; Godwin , disliking them , turned down their offer . Several times throughout Fanny 's childhood Wollstonecraft 's sisters asked Godwin to allow them to raise their niece and each time he refused . Godwin himself did not seem particularly ready for parenthood and he now had two small children to raise and no steady source of income . However , he was determined to care for them . During these early years of Fanny 's life , Joseph Johnson served as an " unofficial trustee " for her as he had occasionally for her mother . He even willed her £ 200 , but Godwin owed Johnson so much money upon his death in 1809 that Johnson 's heirs demanded Godwin pay the money back as part of his arrears .
= = = Childhood = = =
Although Godwin was fond of his children , he was , in many ways , ill @-@ equipped to care for them . As Todd explains , he was constantly annoyed by their noise , demanding silence while he worked . However , when he took a trip to Dublin to visit Wollstonecraft 's sisters , he missed the girls immensely and wrote to them frequently .
On 21 December 1801 , when Fanny was seven , Godwin married Mary Jane Clairmont , a neighbour with two children of her own : three @-@ year @-@ old Claire and six @-@ year @-@ old Charles . She had never been married and was looking , like Godwin , for financial stability . Although Clairmont was well @-@ educated and well @-@ travelled , most of Godwin 's friends despised her , finding her vulgar and dishonest . They were astonished that Godwin could replace Mary Wollstonecraft with her . Fanny and her half @-@ sister Mary disliked their stepmother and complained that she preferred her own children to them . On 28 March 1803 , baby William was born to the couple .
Although Godwin admired Wollstonecraft 's writings , he did not agree with her that women should receive the same education as men . Therefore , he occasionally read to Fanny and Mary from Sarah Trimmer 's Fabulous Histories ( 1786 ) and Anna Laetitia Barbauld 's Lessons for Children ( 1778 – 79 ) , but , according to Todd , he did not take great pains with their educations and disregarded the books Wollstonecraft had written for Fanny . William St Clair , in his biography of the Godwins and the Shelleys , argues that Godwin and Wollstonecraft spoke extensively about the education they wanted for their children and that Godwin 's writings in The Enquirer reflect these discussions . He contends that after Wollstonecraft 's death Godwin wrote to a former pupil to whom she had been close , now Lady Mountcashell , asking her advice on how to raise and educate his daughters . In her biography of Mary Shelley , Miranda Seymour agrees with St Clair , arguing that " everything we know about his daughter 's [ Mary 's and presumably Fanny 's ] early years suggests that she was being taught in a way of which her mother would have approved " , pointing out that she had a governess , a tutor , a French @-@ speaking stepmother , and a father who wrote children 's books whose drafts he read to his own first . It was the new Mrs Godwin who was primarily responsible for the education given to the girls , but she taught her own daughter more , including French . Fanny received no formal education after her stepfather 's marriage . Yet , the adult Imlay is described by C. Kegan Paul , one of Godwin 's earliest biographers , as " well educated , sprightly , clever , a good letter @-@ writer , and an excellent domestic manager " . Fanny excelled in drawing and was taught music . Despite Godwin 's atheism , all of the children were taken to an Anglican church .
The Godwins were constantly in debt , so Godwin returned to writing to support the family . He and his wife started a Juvenile Library for which he wrote children 's books . In 1807 , when Fanny was 13 , they moved from the Polygon , where Godwin had lived with Wollstonecraft , to 41 Skinner Street , near Clerkenwell , in the city 's bookselling district . This took the family away from the fresh country air and into the dirty , smelly , inner streets of London . Although initially successful , the business gradually failed . The Godwins also continued to borrow more money than they could afford from generous friends such as publisher Joseph Johnson and Godwin devotee Francis Place .
As Fanny Imlay grew up , her father increasingly relied on her to placate tradespeople who demanded bills be paid and to solicit money from men such as Place . According to Todd and Seymour , Imlay believed in Godwin 's theory that great thinkers and artists should be supported by patrons and she believed Godwin to be both a great novelist and a great philosopher . Throughout her life , she wrote letters asking Place and others for money to support Godwin 's " genius " and she helped run the household so that he could work .
= = = Teenage years = = =
Godwin , never one to mince words , wrote about the differences he perceived between his two daughters :
My own daughter [ Mary ] is considerably superior in capacity to the one her mother had before . Fanny , the eldest , is of a quiet , modest , unshowy disposition , somewhat given to indolence , which is her greatest fault , but sober , observing , peculiarly clear and distinct in the faculty of memory , and disposed to exercise her own thoughts and follow her own judgment . Mary , my daughter , is the reverse of her in many particulars . She is singularly bold , somewhat imperious , and active of mind . Her desire for knowledge is great , and her perseverance in everything she undertakes is almost invincible . My own daughter is , I believe , very pretty ; Fanny is by no means handsome , but in general prepossessing .
The intellectual world of the girls was widened by their exposure to the literary and political circles in which Godwin moved . For example , during former American vice @-@ president Aaron Burr 's self @-@ imposed exile from the United States after his acquittal on treason charges , he often spent time with the Godwins . He greatly admired the works of Wollstonecraft and had educated his daughter according to the precepts of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . He was anxious to meet the daughters of the woman he revered and referred to Fanny , Mary , and Claire as " goddesses " . He spent most of his time talking with Imlay about political and educational topics . Burr was impressed by the Lancastrian teaching method and took Fanny to see a model school in 1811 .
= = = = Percy , Mary , and Claire = = = =
It was not Burr , but the Romantic poet and writer Percy Bysshe Shelley who had the greatest impact on Imlay and her sisters ' lives . Impressed by Godwin 's Political Justice , Shelley wrote to him and the two started corresponding . In 1812 , Shelley asked if Imlay , then 18 and the daughter of one of his heroes , Mary Wollstonecraft , could come live with him , his new wife , and her sister . Having never actually met Shelley and being sceptical of his motivations ( Shelley had eloped to marry his wife , Harriet ) , Godwin refused . When Shelley finally came to visit the Godwins , all three girls were enamoured of him , particularly Imlay . Both Shelley and Imlay were interested in discussing radical politics ; for example , Shelley liked to act as if class were irrelevant , but she argued that it was significant in daily affairs .
In 1814 , Shelley spent a considerable amount of time at the Godwins ' and he and Imlay may have fallen in love . Later , Claire Clairmont claimed that they had been . Imlay was sent to Wales in May of that year ; Todd speculates that Godwin was trying to separate her from Shelley while Seymour hints that Mrs Godwin was trying to improve her despondent mood . Meanwhile , the Godwin household became even more uncomfortable as Godwin sank further into debt and as relations between Mary and her stepmother became increasingly hostile . Mary Godwin consoled herself with Shelley and the two started a passionate love affair . When Shelley declared to Godwin that the two were in love , Godwin exploded in anger . However , he needed the money that Shelley , as an aristocrat , could and was willing to provide . Frustrated with the entire situation , Mary Godwin , Shelley , and Claire Clairmont ran off to Europe together on 28 June 1814 . Godwin hurriedly summoned Imlay home from Wales to help him handle the situation . Her stepmother wrote that Imlay 's " emotion was deep when she heard of the sad fate of the two girls ; she cannot get over it " . In the middle of this disaster , one of Godwin 's protégés killed himself , and young William Godwin ran away from home and was missing for two days . When news of the girls ' escapade became public , Godwin was pilloried in the press . Life in the Godwin household became increasingly strained .
When Mary Godwin , Claire Clairmont , and Shelley returned from the Continent in September 1814 , they took a house together in London , enraging Godwin still further . Imlay felt pulled between the two households : she felt loyal both to her sisters and to her father . Both despised her decision not to choose a side in the family drama . As Seymour explains , Imlay was in a difficult position : the Godwin household felt Shelley was a dangerous influence and the Shelley household ridiculed her fear of violating social conventions . Also , her aunts were considering her for a teaching position at this time , but were reluctant because of Godwin 's shocking Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1798 ) . Seymour writes , the " few timid visits Fanny made to see Mary and [ Claire ] in London were acts of great courage ; she got little thanks for them " . Although instructed by Godwin not to speak to Shelley and her sisters , Imlay warned them of creditors who knew of Shelley 's return ( he also was in debt ) . Her attempts to persuade Clairmont to return to the Godwins ' convinced Shelley that she was of Godwin 's party and he began to distrust her . Imlay was also still responsible for soliciting money from Shelley in order to repay her father 's debts ; despite Shelley 's essential elopement with two of his daughters , Godwin agreed to accept £ 1 @,@ 200 from Shelley . When Mary Godwin gave birth to a daughter in February 1815 , she immediately sent for Imlay , particularly as both she and the infant were ill . Godwin chastised Imlay for disobeying his orders not to see her half @-@ sister and her misery increased . After the death of the child , Imlay paid more frequent visits to the couple .
Soon after , Clairmont became a lover of the Romantic poet Lord Byron , and Mary Godwin and Shelley had a second child on 24 January 1816 , who was named William after Godwin . In February , Imlay went to visit the Shelleys , who had settled in Bishopsgate . Godwin 's debts continued to mount , and while he demanded money from Shelley , Godwin still refused to see either him or his daughter . At this time , Charles Clairmont ( Imlay 's step @-@ brother ) , frustrated with the tension in the Godwin household , left for France and refused to help the family any further . At around the same time , Claire Clairmont , Mary Godwin , and Shelley left for the Continent , seeking Byron . Godwin was aghast . He relied on Shelley 's money , and the stain on his family 's reputation only increased when the public learned that the group had left to join the rakish Byron .
Amidst all of this family turmoil , Imlay still found time to ponder larger social issues . The utopian socialist Robert Owen came to visit Godwin in the summer of 1816 and he and Imlay discussed the plight of the working poor in Britain . She agreed with many of Owen 's proposals , but not all of them . She decided , in the end , that his utopian scheme was too " romantic " , because it depended heavily on the goodwill of the rich to sacrifice their wealth . That same summer , George Blood — the brother of Fanny Imlay 's namesake — came to meet her for the first time and told her stories of her mother . After this meeting she wrote to Mary Godwin and Shelley : " I have determined never to live to be a disgrace to such a mother ... I have found that if I will endeavour to overcome my faults I shall find being 's [ sic ] to love and esteem me " [ emphasis in original ] .
Before Mary Godwin , Clairmont , and Shelley had left for the Continent , Imlay and Mary had had a major argument and no chance to come to a reconciliation . Imlay attempted in her letters to Mary to smooth over the relationship , but her sense of loneliness and isolation in London was palpable . She wrote to Mary of " the dreadful state of mind I generally labour under & which I in vain endeavour to get rid of " . Many scholars attribute Imlay 's increasing unhappiness to Mrs Godwin 's hostility towards her . Kegan , and others , contend that Imlay was subject to the same " extreme depression to which her mother had been subject , and which marked other members of the Wollstonecraft family " . Wandering amongst the mountains of Switzerland , frustrated with her relationship with Shelley , and engrossed by the writing of Frankenstein , her sister was unsympathetic .
The group returned from the Continent , with a pregnant Clairmont , and settled in Bath ( to protect her reputation , they attempted to hide the pregnancy ) . Imlay saw Shelley twice in September 1816 ; according to Todd 's interpretation of Fanny 's letters , Fanny had earlier tried to solicit an invitation to join the group in Europe and she repeated these appeals when she saw Shelley in London . Todd believes that Imlay begged to be allowed to stay with them because life in Godwin 's house was unbearable , with the constant financial worries and Mrs Godwin 's insistent haranguing , and that Shelley refused , concerned with anyone learning about Clairmont 's condition , most of all someone he believed might inform Godwin ( Shelley was being sued by his wife and was worried about his own reputation ) . After Shelley left , Todd explains that Imlay wrote to Mary " to make clear again her longing to be rescued " .
= = Death = =
= = = Theories = = =
In early October 1816 , Imlay left Godwin 's house in London and committed suicide on 9 October by taking an overdose of laudanum at an inn in Swansea , Wales ; she was 22 . The details surrounding her death and her motivations are disputed . Most of the letters regarding the incident were destroyed or are missing . In his 1965 article " Fanny Godwin 's Suicide Re @-@ examined " , B. R. Pollin lays out the major theories that had been put forward regarding her suicide and which continue to be used today :
Imlay had just learned of her illegitimate birth .
Mrs Godwin became more cruel to Imlay after Mary Godwin and Claire Clairmont ran off with Percy Shelley .
Imlay had been refused a position at her aunts ' school in Ireland .
Imlay was depressive , and her condition was aggravated by the state of the Godwin household .
Imlay was in love with Percy Shelley and distraught that Mary and he had fallen in love .
Pollin dismisses the first of these , as have most later biographers , arguing that Imlay had access to her mother 's writings and Godwin 's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman which openly discuss the circumstances of her birth . Imlay herself even makes this distinction in letters to her half @-@ sister Mary Godwin .
Pollin is also sceptical of the second explanation , pointing to Imlay 's letter to Mary of 3 October 1816 in which she defended her step @-@ mother : " Mrs. Godwin would never do either of you a deliberate injury . Mamma and I are not great friends , but always alive to her virtues , I am anxious to defend her from a charge so foreign to her character . "
Pollin finds no evidence that Imlay had been refused a position at her aunts ' school , only that such a scheme may have been " in contemplation " , as Godwin later wrote , although Seymour grants this explanation some plausibility . St Clair claims that Imlay was on her way to join her maternal aunts in Ireland when she decided to commit suicide . He believes that it was to be a probationary visit , to see if she could be a teacher in their school . Godwin 's modern biographer , Richard Holmes , dismisses this story .
In his survey of the letters of the Godwins and the Shelleys , Pollin comes to the conclusion that Imlay was not depressive . She is frequently described as happy and looking toward the future and describes herself this way . The mentions of melancholia and sadness are specific and related to particular events and illness . Richard Holmes , in his biography of Percy Shelley , argues that " her agonizing and loveless suspension between the Godwin and Shelley households was clearly the root circumstance " of her suicide . Locke argues that " most probably because she could absorb no more of the miseries of Skinner Street , her father 's inability to pay his debts or write his books , her mother 's unending irritability and spitefulness " , all of which she blamed on herself , she committed suicide .
Pollin largely agrees with Todd , speculating that Imlay saw Percy Shelley in Bath and he " somehow failed her " , causing her to commit suicide . Seymour and others speculate that Shelley 's only failure was to live up to his financial promises to Godwin and it was this that helped push Imlay over the edge ; she was convinced , like her father , " that the worthy have an absolute right to be supported by those who have the worth to give " . Todd , on the other hand , agrees with Pollin and speculates that Imlay went to see Mary Godwin and Shelley . Todd argues that Imlay had affection for Shelley and felt that his home was her only haven . Relying on scraps of poetry that Shelley may have written after Imlay 's death , Todd concludes that Shelley saw her in Bath and rejected her pleas because he needed to protect Claire 's reputation as well as his own at this time . Todd also notes that Imlay had worn her mother 's stays , which were embroidered with the initials " M.W. " , and the nicest clothes she owned . She had adorned herself with a Swiss gold watch sent to her from Geneva by the Shelleys and a necklace , in order to make a good impression . After Shelley rejected her , Todd concludes , Imlay decided to commit suicide .
= = = Suicide and aftermath = = =
On the night of 9 October , Imlay checked into the Mackworth Arms Inn in Swansea and instructed the chambermaid not to disturb her . The same night Mary Godwin , staying in Bath with Shelley , received a letter Imlay had mailed earlier from Bristol . Her father in London also received a letter . The alarming nature of the letters prompted both Godwin and Shelley to set out for Bristol at once ( although they travelled separately ) . By the time they tracked her to Swansea on 11 October , they were too late . Imlay was found dead in her room on 10 October , having taken a fatal dose of laudanum , and it was only Shelley who stayed to deal with the situation . Imlay left behind an unaddressed note , describing herself as " unfortunate " , perhaps referring to Mary Wollstonecraft 's description of her as " my unfortunate girl " in the note she wrote on " Lessons " before she herself attempted suicide :
I have long determined that the best thing I could do was to put an end to the existence of a being whose birth was unfortunate , and whose life has only been a series of pain to those persons who have hurt their health in endeavouring to promote her welfare . Perhaps to hear of my death will give you pain , but you will soon have the blessing of forgetting that such a creature ever existed as
The note appears to have originally been signed , but the name was torn off or burned off so that her body could not be identified . When the announcement was printed in the local newspaper , The Cambrian , therefore , it did not refer to Imlay specifically .
At the inquest , Imlay was declared " dead " , rather than a suicide or an insanity victim , which saved her body from various indignities . Todd speculates that Shelley arranged for Imlay to be declared " dead " ( an appellation more common for the well @-@ to @-@ do ) and removed any identifying items , such as her name on the note . She also concludes that to protect the rest of the family , he refused to claim her body . No one else claimed Imlay 's body and it was probably buried in a pauper 's grave . In fact , Godwin wrote to Percy Shelley :
Do nothing to destroy the obscurity she so much desired , that now rests upon the event . It was , as I said , her last wish ... Think what is the situation of my wife & myself , now deprived of all our children but the youngest [ William ] ; & do not expose us to those idle questions , which to a mind in anguish is one of the severest trials .
We are at this moment in doubt whether during the first shock we shall not say she is gone to Ireland to her aunts , a thing that had been in contemplation ... What I have most of all in horror is the public papers ; & I thank you for your caution as it might act on this .
Because suicide was considered scandalous , disreputable , and sinful at the time , which might have damaged Godwin 's business , the family told various stories regarding Imlay 's death in order to cover up the truth , including that she had gone on vacation , that she had died of a cold in Wales , that she had died of an " inflammatory fever " , that she was living with her mother 's sisters , or , if forced to admit suicide , that Imlay killed herself because Shelley loved Mary Godwin and not her . Neither Percy nor Mary mention Imlay 's death in their surviving letters from this time . Claire Clairmont claimed in a letter to Byron that Percy became ill because of her death , but as Holmes notes , there is no other evidence for this assertion . Yet Locke writes that Shelley told Byron he felt " a far severer anguish " over Imlay 's suicide than over Harriet 's ( his wife 's ) suicide just two months later .
While there is no known image of Imlay , a few months after her death , Shelley penned the poem quoted at the beginning of this article . As Seymour writes , " [ p ] ublished by Mary without comment , it has always been supposed to allude to his last meeting with her half @-@ sister . "
= = Family tree = =
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= Chinese Indonesians =
Chinese Indonesians ( Indonesian : Orang Tionghoa @-@ Indonesia ; Chinese : trad 印度尼西亞華人 , simp 印度尼西亚华人 , pin Yìndùníxīyà Huárén ) , are Indonesians descended from various Chinese ethnic groups , particularly Han .
Chinese came to Indonesia as workers both directly and through Maritime Southeast Asia . Their population grew rapidly during the colonial period when workers were contracted from their home provinces in southern China . Under the Dutch ethnic classification policy , Chinese Indonesians were considered " foreign orientals " ; as such , they struggled to enter the colonial and national sociopolitical scene , despite successes in their economic endeavors .
Evidence of discrimination against Chinese Indonesians can be found throughout the history of Indonesia , although government policies implemented since 1998 have attempted to redress this . Resentment of ethnic Chinese economic aptitude grew in the 1950s as native Indonesian merchants felt they could not remain competitive . In some cases , government action only propagated the stereotype that ethnic Chinese @-@ owned conglomerates were corrupt . Although the 1997 Asian financial crisis severely disrupted their business activities , reform of government policy and legislation removed a number of political and social restrictions on Chinese Indonesians .
Indonesia 's 2010 census reported more than 2 @.@ 8 million self @-@ identified ethnic Chinese : 1 @.@ 20 percent of the country 's population . However other source stated that there are about 10 to 12 million Chinese living in the country , mostly are half Chinese like Peranakan , Straits Chinese , etc. and other Indonesians who have Chinese descendant , making up 5 @-@ 6 % of Indonesia population .
The development of local Chinese society and culture is based upon three pillars : clan associations , ethnic media , and Chinese @-@ language schools . These flourished during the period of Chinese nationalism in the final years of China 's Qing Dynasty and through the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War ; however , differences in the object of nationalist sentiments brought about a split in the population . One group supported political reforms in mainland China , while others worked towards improved status in local politics . The New Order government ( 1967 – 1998 ) dismantled the pillars of ethnic Chinese identity in favor of assimilation policies as a solution to the " Chinese Problem " . Patterns of assimilation and ethnic interaction can be found in Indonesia 's literature , architecture , and cuisine .
The Chinese Indonesian population of Java accounts for nearly half of the group 's national population . Although they are generally more urbanized than Indonesia 's indigenous population , significant rural and agricultural communities exist throughout the country . Declining fertility rates have resulted in an upward shift in the population pyramid , as the median age increases . Emigration has contributed to a shrinking population , and communities have emerged in more industrialized nations in the second half of the 20th century . Some have participated in repatriation programs to the People 's Republic of China , while others emigrated to Western countries to escape anti @-@ Chinese sentiment . Among the overseas residents , their identities are noticeably more Indonesian than Chinese .
= = History = =
= = = Early interactions = = =
The first recorded movement of people from China into Maritime Southeast Asia was the arrival of Mongol forces under Kublai Khan that culminated in the invasion of Java in 1293 . The Mongols introduced Chinese technologies to the island , including shipbuilding and coinage . Their intervention hastened the decline of the classical kingdoms such as Singhasari and precipitated the rise of the Majapahit empire . Some Chinese and Portuguese sources indicate that Chinese traders were the first to arrive on Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to buy cloves , but they were later driven out by Javanese traders as Majapahit expanded .
Chinese Muslim traders from the eastern coast of China arrived at the coastal towns of Indonesia and Malaysia in the early 15th century . They were led by the mariner Zheng He , who commanded several expeditions to southeastern Asia between 1405 and 1430 . In the book Yingya Shenglan , his translator Ma Huan documented the activities of the Chinese Muslims in the archipelago and the legacy left by Zheng He and his men . These traders settled along the northern coast of Java , but there is no documentation of their settlements beyond the 16th century . The Chinese Muslims were likely to have been absorbed into the majority Muslim population . Between 1450 and 1520 , the Ming Dynasty 's interest in southeastern Asia reached a low point and trade , both legal and illegal , rarely reached the archipelago . The Portuguese made no mention of any resident Chinese minority population when they arrived in Indonesia in the early 16th century . Trade from the north was re @-@ established when China legalized private trade in 1567 through licensing 50 junks a year . Several years later silver began flowing into the region , from Japan , Mexico , and Europe , and trade flourished once again . Distinct Chinese colonies emerged in hundreds of ports throughout southeastern Asia , including the pepper port of Banten .
Chinese traders boycotted Portuguese Malacca after it fell to the Portuguese in the 1511 Capture of Malacca . The Chinese engaged in business with Malays and Javanese instead of the Portuguese . Some Chinese in Java assisted in Muslim attempts to reconquer the city using ships . The Javanese – Chinese participation in retaking Malacca was recorded in " The Malay Annals of Semarang and Cerbon " .
= = = Colonial attitudes ( 1600 – 1900 ) = = =
By the time the Dutch arrived in the early 17th century , major Chinese settlements existed along the north coast of Java . Most were traders and merchants , but they also practiced agriculture in inland areas . The Dutch contracted many of these immigrants as skilled artisans in the construction of Batavia ( Jakarta ) on the northwestern coast of Java . A recently created harbor was selected as the new headquarters of the Dutch East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost @-@ Indische Compagnie , VOC ) in 1609 by Jan Pieterszoon Coen . It grew into a major hub for trade with China and India . Batavia became home to the largest Chinese community in the archipelago and remains so in the 21st century . Coen and other early Governors @-@ General promoted the entry of Chinese immigrants to new settlements " for the benefit of those places and for the purpose of gathering spices like cloves , nutmeg , and mace " . The port 's Chinese population of 300 – 400 in 1619 had grown to at least 10 @,@ 000 by 1740 . The Dutch , however , introduced a racial classification system that separated residents of Chinese ancestry from those of other ancestry .
Most of those who settled in the archipelago had already severed their ties with the mainland and welcomed favorable treatment and protection under the Dutch . Some became " revenue farmers " , middlemen within the corporate structure of the VOC , tasked with collecting export – import duties and managing the harvest of natural resources ; although this was highly profitable , it earned the enmity of the pribumi population . Others worked as opium farmers . Following the 1740 Batavia massacre and ensuing war , in which the Chinese rebelled against the Dutch , the Dutch attempted to place a quota on the number of Chinese who could enter the Indies . Amoy was designated as the only immigration port to the archipelago , and ships were limited to a specified number of crew and passengers depending on size . This quota was adjusted at times to meet demand for overseas workers , such as in July 1802 when sugar mills near Batavia were in need of workers .
When the VOC was nationalized on 31 December 1799 , many freedoms the Chinese experienced under the corporation were eliminated by the Dutch government . Among them was the Chinese monopoly on the salt trade which had been granted by the VOC administration . An 1816 regulation introduced a requirement for the indigenous population and Chinese traveling within the territory to obtain a travel permit . Those who did not carry a permit faced arrest by security officers . The Governor @-@ General also introduced a resolution in 1825 which forbade " foreign Asians in Java such as Malays , Buginese and Chinese " from living within the same neighborhood as the native population . Following the costly Java War ( 1825 – 1830 ) the Dutch introduced a new agrarian and cultivation system that required farmers to " yield up a portion of their fields and cultivate crops suitable for the European market " . Compulsory cultivation restored the economy of the colony , but ended the system of revenue farms established under the VOC .
The Chinese were perceived as temporary residents and encountered difficulties in obtaining land rights . Europeans were prioritized in the choice of plantation areas , while colonial officials believed the remaining plots must be protected and preserved for the indigenous population . Short @-@ term and renewable leases of varying lengths were later introduced as a temporary measure , but many Chinese remained on these lands upon expiration of their contracts and became squatters . In the second half of the 19th century the colonial government began experimenting with the idea of an " Ethical Policy " to protect the indigenous population , casting the Chinese as the " foremost enemy of the state " . Under the new policy the administration increased restrictions on Chinese economic activities , which they believed exploited the native population .
In western Borneo the Chinese established their first major mining settlement in 1760 . Ousting Dutch settlers and the local Malay princes , they joined into a new republic known as Lanfang . By 1819 they came into conflict with the new Dutch government and were seen as " incompatible " with its objectives , yet indispensable for the development of the region . The Bangka – Belitung Islands also became examples of major settlements in rural areas . In 1851 28 Chinese were recorded on the islands and by 1915 the population had risen to nearly 40 @,@ 000 and fishing and tobacco industries had developed . Coolies brought into the region after the end of the 19th century were mostly hired from the Straits Settlements owing to recruiting obstacles that existed in China .
= = = Divided nationalism ( 1900 – 1949 ) = = =
The Chinese revolutionary figure Sun Yat @-@ sen visited southeast Asia in 1900 , and later that year the socio @-@ religious organization Tiong Hoa Hwe Koan ( 中華 會館 ) , also known as the Chinese Association , was founded . Their goal was to urge ethnic Chinese in the Indies to support the revolutionary movement in China . In its effort to build Chinese @-@ speaking schools the association argued that the teaching of the English and Chinese languages should be prioritized over Dutch , to provide themselves with the means of taking , in the words of Phoa Keng Hek , " a two or three @-@ day voyage ( Java – Singapore ) into a wider world where they can move freely " and overcome restrictions of their activities . Several years later the Dutch authorities abandoned its segregation policies , abolished travel permits for the ethnic Chinese , and allowed them to freely move throughout the colony . The 1911 Xinhai Revolution and the 1912 founding of the Republic of China coincided with a growing Chinese @-@ nationalist movement within the Indies .
Although there was no recognizable nationalist movement among the indigenous population until 1908 , Dutch authorities feared that nationalist sentiments would spread with the growth of ethnically mixed associations , known as kongsi . In 1911 some Javanese members of the Kong Sing association in Surakarta broke away and clashed with the ethnic Chinese . This incident led to the creation of Sarekat Islam , the first organized popular nationalist movement in the Indies . Indigenous groups saw the Chinese nationalist sentiment as " haughty " , leading to mutual antagonism . The anti @-@ Chinese sentiment spread throughout Java in 1918 and led to mass violence orchestrated by members of Sarekat Islam on the ethnic Chinese in Kudus . Following this incident the left @-@ wing Chinese nationalist daily Sin Po called on both sides to work together to improve living conditions because it considered most ethnic Chinese , like most of the indigenous population , to be poor .
Sin Po first went into print in 1910 and began gaining momentum as the leading advocate of Chinese political nationalism in 1917 . The ethnic Chinese who followed its stream of thought refused any involvement with local institutions and would only participate in politics relating to mainland China . A second stream was later formed by wealthy ethnic Chinese who received an education at Dutch @-@ run schools . This Dutch @-@ oriented group wished for increased participation in local politics , Dutch education for the ethnic Chinese , and the furthering of ethnic Chinese economic standing within the colonial economy . Championed by the Volksraad 's Chinese representatives , such as Hok Hoei Kan , Phoa Liong Gie and Loa Sek Hie , this movement gained momentum and reached its peak with the Chung Hwa Congress of 1927 and the 1928 formation of the Chung Hwa Hui party , which elected Kan as its president . The editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Madjallah Panorama news magazine criticized Sin Po for misguiding the ethnic Chinese by pressuring them into a Chinese @-@ nationalist stance .
In 1932 pro @-@ Indonesian counterparts founded the Partai Tionghoa Indonesia to support absorption of the ethnic Chinese into the Javanese population and support the call for self @-@ government of Indonesia . Members of this group were primarily peranakan . This division resurfaced at the end of the period of Japanese occupation ( 1942 – 1945 ) . Under the occupation ethnic Chinese communities were attacked by Japanese forces , in part owing to suspicions that they contained sympathizers of the Kuomintang as a consequence of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . When the Dutch returned , following the end of World War II , the chaos caused by advancing forces and retreating revolutionaries also saw radical Muslim groups attack ethnic Chinese communities .
Although revolutionary leaders were sympathetic toward the ethnic Chinese , they were unable to stop the sporadic violence . Those who were affected fled from the rural areas to Dutch @-@ controlled cities , a move many Indonesians saw as proof of pro @-@ Dutch sentiments . There was evidence , however , that Chinese Indonesians were represented and participated in independence efforts . Four members of the Committee for the Investigation of the Preparation for Indonesian Independence ( Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia , BPUPKI ) and one member on the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence ( Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia , PPKI ) had Chinese names .
= = = Loyalty in question ( 1950 – 1966 ) = = =
The Netherlands relinquished its territorial claims in the archipelago ( with the exception of West Papua ) following the 1949 Round Table Conference , which is the same year that the Kuomintang retreated to Taiwan , allowing the Communist Party of China to take control of mainland China . Most Chinese Indonesians considered a communist China less attractive than a newly independent Indonesia , but in the archipelago their loyalties were questioned . Ethnic Chinese born in the Dutch East Indies whose parents were domiciled under Dutch administration were regarded as citizens of the new state according to the principle of jus soli , or " right of the soil " . However , Chinese law considered a person as a Chinese citizen according to the principle of jus sanguinis , or right of blood . This meant that all Indonesian citizens of Chinese descent were also claimed as citizens by the People 's Republic of China . After several attempts by both governments to resolve this issue , Indonesia and China signed a Dual Nationality Treaty on the sidelines of the 1955 Asian – African Conference in Bandung . One of its provisions was the ability to renounce Chinese citizenship for those who wished to solely remain Indonesian citizens .
As many as 390 @,@ 000 ethnic Chinese , two @-@ thirds of those with rightful claims to Indonesian citizenship renounced their Chinese status when the treaty came into effect in 1962 . On the other hand , an estimated 60 @,@ 000 ethnic Chinese students left for the People 's Republic of China in the 1950s and early 1960s . The first wave of students were almost entirely educated in Chinese @-@ language schools , but were not able to find opportunities for tertiary education in Indonesia . Seeking quality scientific professions , they entered China with high hopes for their future and that of the mainland . Subsequent migrations occurred in 1960 as part of a repatriation program and in 1965 – 1966 following a series of anti @-@ communist violence that also drew anger toward the ethnic Chinese . As many as 80 percent of the original students who entered the mainland eventually became refugees in Hong Kong . Under the programs of China 's Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 1976 ) , the returned overseas Chinese were questioned for their loyalty because of their foreign connections . As most had grown up in an urban environment they were sent to the countryside , told to " rebel against their own class background " , and eventually lost contact with their families . They were attacked as " imperialists " , " capitalists " , " spies " , " half @-@ breeds " , and " foreign devils " .
In 1959 , following the introduction of soft @-@ authoritarian rule through Guided Democracy , the Indonesian government and military began placing restrictions on alien residence and trade . These regulations culminated in the enactment of Presidential Regulation 10 in November 1959 , banning retail services by non @-@ indigenous persons in rural areas . Ethnic Chinese , Arab , and Dutch businessmen were specifically targeted during its enforcement to provide a more favorable market for indigenous businesses . This move was met with protests from the Chinese government and some circles of Indonesian society . Javanese writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer later criticized the policies in his 1961 book Hoakiau di Indonesia . An integrationist movement , led by the Chinese @-@ Indonesian political party Baperki ( Badan Permusjawaratan Kewarganegaraan Indonesia ) , began to gather interest in 1963 , including that of President Sukarno . However , a series of attacks on ethnic Chinese communities in West Java in May proved it to be short @-@ lived , despite the government 's condemnation of the violence . When Baperki was branded a communist organization in 1965 the ethnic Chinese were implicated by association ; this was exacerbated in the public mind by the People 's Republic of China 's communism . As many as 500 @,@ 000 people , the majority of them Javanese Abangan Muslims and Balinese Indonesians but including a minority of several thousand ethnic Chinese , were killed in the anti @-@ communist purge which followed the failed coup d 'état , suspected as being communist @-@ led , on 30 September 1965 .
= = = Managing the " Chinese Problem " ( 1967 – 1998 ) = = =
When the New Order government of General Suharto came into power in 1966 – 1967 , it introduced a political system based only on the Pancasila ( five principles ) ideology . To prevent the ideological battles that occurred during Sukarno 's presidency from resurfacing , Suharto 's " Pancasila democracy " sought a depoliticized system in which discussions of forming a cohesive ethnic Chinese identity were no longer allowed . A government committee was formed in 1967 to examine various aspects of the " Chinese Problem " ( Masalah Cina ) and agreed that forced emigration of whole communities was not a solution : " The challenge was to take advantage of their economic aptitude whilst eliminating their perceived economic dominance . " The semi @-@ governmental Institute for the Promotion of National Unity ( Lembaga Pembina Kesatuan Bangsa , LPKB ) was formed to advise the government on facilitating assimilation of Chinese Indonesians . This process was done through highlighting the differences between the ethnic Chinese and the indigenous pribumi , rather than seeking similarities . Expressions of Chinese culture through language , religion , and traditional festivals were banned and the ethnic Chinese were pressured to adopt Indonesian @-@ sounding names .
During the 1970s and 1980s Suharto and his government brought in Chinese Indonesian businesses to participate in the economic development programs of the New Order , while keeping them highly vulnerable to strengthen the central authority and restrict political freedoms . Patron @-@ client relationships , mainly through the exchange of money for security , became an accepted norm among the ethnic Chinese as they maintained a social contract through which they could claim a sense of belonging in the country . A minority of the economic elite of Indonesian society , both those who were and were not ethnic Chinese , secured relationships with Suharto 's family members and members of the military for protection , while small business owners relied on local law enforcement officials . Stereotypes of the wealthy minority became accepted as generalized facts , but failed to acknowledge that said businessmen were few in number compared to the small traders and shop owners . In a 1989 interview conducted by scholar Adam Schwarz for his book A Nation in Waiting : Indonesia 's Search for Stability , an interviewee stated that , " to most Indonesians , the word ' Chinese ' is synonymous with corruption " . The economic role of the ethnic Chinese was contradictory because it did not translate to acceptance of their status in the greater society . They were politically weak and often faced social harassment .
Anti @-@ Chinese sentiment gathered intensity through the 1990s . President Suharto gathered the most powerful businessmen — mostly Chinese Indonesians — in a nationally televised 1990 meeting at his private ranch , calling on them to contribute 25 percent of their shares to cooperatives . Commentators described the spectacle as " good theatre " , as it only served to reinforce resentment and suspicion of the ethnic Chinese among the indigenous population . Major riots broke out in Situbondo ( October 1996 ) , Tasikmalaya ( December 1996 ) , and Rengasdengklok ( January 1997 ) .
When Suharto entered his seventh term as president , following an uncontested election on 10 March 1998 , Indonesian students began a series of major demonstrations in protest of the New Order regime which continued for weeks and culminated in the shootings of four students by security forces at Trisakti University in May . The incident sparked major violence in several cities during 12 – 15 May . Property and businesses owned by Chinese Indonesians were targeted by mobs , and over 100 women were sexually assaulted ; this aspect of the riots , though generally accepted as true , has been denied by several Indonesian groups . In the absence of security forces , large groups of men , women , and children looted and burned the numerous shopping malls in major cities . In Jakarta and Surakarta over 1 @,@ 000 people — both Chinese and non @-@ Chinese — died inside shopping malls . Tens of thousands of ethnic Chinese fled the country following these events , and bankers estimated that US $ 20 billion of capital had left the country in 1997 – 1999 to overseas destinations such as Singapore , Hong Kong , and the United States .
= = = Social policy reforms ( 1999 – present ) = = =
Suharto unexpectedly resigned on 21 May 1998 , one week after he returned from a Group of 15 meeting in Cairo , which took place during the riots . The reform government formed by his successor Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie began a campaign to rebuild the confidence of Chinese Indonesians who had fled the country , particularly businessmen . Along with one of his envoys James Riady , son of financial magnate Mochtar Riady , Habibie appealed to Chinese Indonesians seeking refuge throughout East Asia , Australia , and North America to return and promised security from various government ministries as well as other political figures , such as Abdurrahman Wahid and Amien Rais . Despite Habibie 's efforts he was met with skepticism because of remarks he made , as Vice President and as President , which suggested that the message was insincere . One special envoy described Chinese Indonesians as the key to restoring " badly needed " capital and economic activity , prioritizing businessmen as the target of their pleas . Others , including economist Kwik Kian Gie , saw the government 's efforts as perpetuating the myth of Chinese economic domination rather than affirming the ethnic Chinese identity .
Symbolic reforms to Chinese Indonesian rights under Habibie 's administration were made through two Presidential Instructions . The first abolished the use of the terms " pribumi " and " non @-@ pribumi " in official government documents and business . The second abolished the ban on the study of Mandarin Chinese and reaffirmed a 1996 instruction that abolished the use of the SBKRI to identify citizens of Chinese descent . Habibie established a task force to investigate the May 1998 violence , although his government later dismissed its findings . As an additional legal gesture Indonesia ratified the 1965 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination on 25 May 1999 . In 2000 the newly elected President Wahid abolished the ban on public displays of Chinese culture and allowed Chinese traditions to be practised freely , without the need of a permit . Two years later President Megawati Sukarnoputri declared that the Chinese New Year ( Imlek ) would be marked as a national holiday from 2003 . In addition to Habibie 's directive on the term " pribumi " , the legislature passed a new citizenship law in 2006 defining the word asli ( " indigenous " ) in the Constitution as a natural born person , allowing Chinese Indonesians to be eligible to run for president . The law further stipulates that children of foreigners born in Indonesia are eligible to apply for Indonesian citizenship .
The post @-@ Suharto era saw the end of discriminatory policy against Chinese Indonesians . Since then , numbers of Chinese Indonesians began to took parts in the nation 's politics , government and administrative sector . Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono presidency ( 2004 @-@ 2014 ) saw the first female Chinese Indonesian minister Mari Elka Pangestu as Minister of Trade ( 2004 @-@ 2011 ) and Minister of Tourism and Creative Economy ( 2011 @-@ 2014 ) . Another notable Chinese Indonesian in Indonesian politics is Basuki Cahaya Purnama or popularly known as Ahok . Former Regent of East Belitung ( 2005 @-@ 2006 ) and the first Chinese Indonesian Governor of Jakarta ( 2014 – present ) .
= = Origins = =
Chinese immigrants to the Indonesian archipelago almost entirely originated from ethnic Han groups of what are now the Fujian and Guangdong provinces in southern China , areas known for their regional diversity . Large numbers of Han Chinese , the largest ethnic group in the world , live in Southeast Asia . Nearly all Chinese Indonesians are either patrilineal descendants of these early immigrants , or new immigrants born in mainland China .
As the first group of Chinese people to settle in large numbers , the Hokkien of southern Fujian became the dominant immigrant group until the middle of the 19th century . Their maritime @-@ mercantile culture comes from their trade occupations whilst in Indonesia . Descendants of Hokkiens are the dominant group in eastern Indonesia , Central and East Java , and the western coast of Sumatra . Teochews , southern neighbors of the Hokkien , are found throughout the eastern coast of Sumatra , in the Riau Archipelago , and in western Borneo . They were preferred as plantation laborers in Sumatra , but have become traders in regions where the Hokkien are not well represented .
The Hakka , unlike the Hokkien and the Teochew , originate from the mountainous inland regions of Guangdong and do not have a maritime culture . Owing to the unproductive terrain of their home region , the Hakka emigrated out of economic necessity in several waves from 1850 to 1930 and were the poorest of the Chinese immigrant groups . Although they initially populated the mining centers of western Borneo and Bangka Island , Hakkas became attracted to the rapid growth of Batavia and West Java in the late 19th century .
Cantonese people , like the Hakka , were well known throughout Southeast Asia as mineworkers . Their migration in the 19th century was largely directed toward the tin mines of Bangka , off the east coast of Sumatra . Notable traditionally as skilled artisans , the Cantonese benefited from close contact with Europeans in Guangdong and Hong Kong by learning about machinery and industrial success . They migrated to Java about the same time as the Hakka , but for different reasons . In Indonesia 's cities they became artisans , machine workers , and owners of small businesses such as restaurants and hotel @-@ keeping services . The Cantonese are evenly dispersed throughout the archipelago , and number far less than the Hokkien or the Hakka . Consequently , their roles are of secondary importance in the Chinese communities .
= = Demographics = =
Indonesia 's 2000 census reported 2 @,@ 411 @,@ 503 citizens ( 1 @.@ 20 percent of the total population ) as ethnic Chinese . An additional 93 @,@ 717 ( 0 @.@ 05 percent ) ethnic Chinese living in Indonesia were reported as foreign citizens , mostly those of the People 's Republic of China and Republic of China , who may not be able to pay the cost of becoming an Indonesian citizen . Because the census employed the method of self @-@ identification , those who refused to identify themselves as ethnic Chinese , or had assumed the identity of other ethnic groups , were recorded as non @-@ Chinese . It is also likely that some did not identify themselves for fear of repercussions in the wake of anti @-@ Chinese violence in 1998 . According to 2010 population census , the self @-@ identified Chinese Indonesian population is 2 @,@ 832 @,@ 510 . There is a growth of 17 @.@ 5 % from 2000 census .
Past estimates on the exact number of Chinese Indonesians relied on the 1930 Dutch East Indies census , which collected direct information on ethnicity . This census reported 1 @.@ 23 million self @-@ identified ethnic Chinese living in the colony , representing 2 @.@ 03 percent of the total population , and was perceived to be an accurate account of the group 's population . Ethnic information would not be collected again until the 2000 census and so was deduced from other census data , such as language spoken and religious affiliation , during the intermediate years . In an early survey of the Chinese Indonesian minority , anthropologist G. William Skinner estimated that between 2 @.@ 3 million ( 2 @.@ 4 percent ) and 2 @.@ 6 million ( 2 @.@ 7 percent ) lived in Indonesia in 1961 . Former foreign minister Adam Malik provided a figure of 5 million in a report published in the Harian Indonesia daily in 1973 . Many media and academic sources subsequently estimated between 4 and 5 percent of the total population as ethnic Chinese regardless of the year . Estimates during the 2000s have placed the figure between 6 and 7 million , and the Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission of the Republic of China estimated a population as high as 7 @.@ 67 million in 2006 .
According to 2010 population census , 22 @.@ 3 percent of Chinese Indonesians lived in the capital city of Jakarta , located on the island of Java . When the island 's other provinces — Banten , West Java , Central Java , Yogyakarta , and East Java — are included , this population accounted for around half ( 51 @.@ 8 percent ) of all Chinese Indonesians . This data doesn 't count the number of ethnic Chinese that has foreign citizenship . West Kalimantan have about 8 @.@ 15 percent of population is ethnic Chinese , followed by Bangka – Belitung Islands ( 8 @.@ 14 percent ) , Riau Islands ( 7 @.@ 66 percent ) , Jakarta ( 6 @.@ 58 percent ) , North Sumatra ( 2 @.@ 62 percent ) , Riau ( 1 @.@ 84 percent ) . In each of the remaining provinces , Chinese Indonesians account for 1 percent or less of the provincial population . Most Chinese Indonesians in North Sumatra lived in the provincial capital of Medan , but they constituted only a small percentage because of the relatively large population of the province . Bangka – Belitung , West Kalimantan , and Riau are grouped around the hub of ethnic Chinese economic activity in Singapore and , with the exception of Bangka – Belitung , these settlements existed long before Singapore 's founding in 1819 .
The ethnic Chinese population in Indonesia grew by an average of 4 @.@ 3 percent annually between 1920 and 1930 . It then slowed owing to the effects of the Great Depression and many areas experienced a net emigration . Falling growth rates were also attributed to a significant decrease in the number of Chinese immigrants admitted into Indonesia since the 1950s . The population is relatively old according to the 2000 census , having the lowest percentage of population under 14 years old nationwide and the second @-@ highest percentage of population over 65 . Their population pyramid had a narrow base with a rapid increase until the 15 – 19 age group , indicating a rapid decline in total fertility rates . This was evidenced by a decline in the absolute number of births since 1980 . In Jakarta and West Java the population peak occurred in the 20 – 24 age group , indicating that the decline in fertility rates began as early as 1975 . The upper portion of the pyramid exhibited a smooth decline with increasing population age . It is estimated that 60 @.@ 7 percent of the Chinese Indonesian population in 2000 constitute the generation which experienced political and social pressures under the New Order government . With an average life expectancy of 75 years , those who spent their formative years prior to this regime will completely disappear by 2032 .
= = = Emigrant communities = = =
New migrants began moving from Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries to more industrialized regions around the world in the second half of the 20th century . Although these migrants possess a Chinese heritage , they often were not identified as such ; this trend has continued into the modern day . There have been several independent estimates made on the Chinese Indonesian population living in other countries . James Jupp 's The Australian People encyclopedia estimated that half of over 30 @,@ 000 Indonesians living in Australia in the late 1990s are ethnic Chinese , and they have since merged with other Chinese communities . In New Zealand , many migrants reside in the suburbs of Auckland after some 1 @,@ 500 sought asylum from the 1998 upheaval , of which two @-@ thirds were granted residency .
Australian scholar Charles Coppel believes Chinese Indonesian migrants also constitute a large majority of returned overseas Chinese living in Hong Kong . Though it is impossible to accurately count this number , news sources have provided estimates ranging from 100 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 .
Of the 57 @,@ 000 Indonesians living in the United States in 2000 , one @-@ third were estimated to be ethnic Chinese . Locally knowledgeable migrants in Southern California estimate that 60 percent of Indonesian Americans living in the area are of Chinese descent . Their families usually resided in Indonesia for several generations and may have intermarried with " pribumi " . In Canada , only a minority of the emigrant Chinese Indonesian community speak Chinese . Although families are interested in rediscovering their ethnic traditions , their Canadian @-@ born children are often reluctant to learn either Indonesian or Chinese .
= = Society = =
It may be stated as a general rule that if a given area of Indonesia was settled by Chinese in appreciable numbers prior to this [ 20th ] century , Chinese society there is in some degree dichotomous today . In one sector of the society , adults as well as children are Indonesia @-@ born , the orientation toward China is attenuated , and the influence of the individual culture is apparent . In the other sector of the society , the population consists of twentieth @-@ century immigrants and their immediate descendants , who are less acculturated and more strongly oriented toward China . The significance and pervasiveness of the social line between the two sectors varies from one part of Indonesia to another .
Scholars who study Chinese Indonesians often distinguish members of the group according to their racial and sociocultural background : the " totok " and the " peranakan " . The two terms were initially used to racially distinguish the pure @-@ blooded Chinese from those with mixed ancestry . A secondary meaning to the terms later arose that meant the " totok " were born in China , and anyone born in Indonesia was considered " peranakan " . Segmentation within " totok " communities occurs through division in speech groups , a pattern that has become less apparent since the turn of the 20th century . Among the indigenized " peranakan " segmentation occurs through social class , which is graded according to education and family standing rather than wealth .
= = = Gender and kinship = = =
Kinship structure in the " totok " community follows the patrilineal , patrilocal , and patriarchal traditions of Chinese society , a practice which has lost emphasis in " peranakan " familial relationships . Instead , kinship patterns in indigenized families have incorporated elements of matrilocal , matrilineal , and matrifocal traditions found in Javanese society . Within this community , both sons and daughters can inherit the family fortune , including ancestral tablets and ashes . Political , social , and economic authority in " peranakan " families is more evenly distributed between the two genders than in " totok " families . Kin terms do not distinguish between maternal and paternal relatives , and polygyny is strongly frowned upon . Western influence in " peranakan " society is evidenced by the high proportion of childless couples . Those who did have children also had fewer of them than " totok " couples .
Despite their break from traditional kinship patterns , " peranakan " families are closer to some traditional Chinese values than the " totok " . Because the indigenized population have lost much of the connection to their ancestral homes in the coastal provinces of China , they are less affected by the 20th @-@ century modernization patterns that transformed the region . The " peranakan " have a stricter attitude toward divorce , though the separation rates among families in both segments are generally lower than other ethnic groups . Arranged marriages are more common in " peranakan " families , whose relationships tend to be more nepotistic . Secularization among the " totok " meant that their counterparts carry out ancestral rituals to a higher degree , and " peranakan " youth tend to be more religious . Through education provided by high @-@ quality Catholic and Protestant schools , these youth are much more likely to convert to Christianity .
In the 21st century the conceptual differences of " totok " and " peranakan " Chinese are slowly becoming outdated as some families show a mixture of characteristics from both cultures . Interracial marriage and cultural assimilation often prevent the formation a precise definition of Chinese Indonesians in line with any simple racial criterion . Use of a Chinese surname , in some form or circumstance , is generally a sign of cultural self @-@ identification as ethnic Chinese or alignment with a Chinese social system .
= = = Identity = = =
Ethnic Chinese in the 1930 Dutch East Indies census were categorized as foreign orientals , which led to separate registration . Citizenship was conferred upon the ethnic Chinese through a 1946 citizenship act after Indonesia became independent , and it was further reaffirmed in 1949 and 1958 . However , they often encountered obstacles regarding the legality of their citizenship . Chinese Indonesians were required to produce an Indonesian Citizenship Certificate ( Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia , SBKRI ) when conducting business with government officials . Without the SBKRI they were not able to make passports and identity cards ( Kartu Tanda Penduduk , KTP ) ; register birth , death , and marriage certificates ; or register a business license . The requirement for its use was abolished in 1996 through a presidential instruction which was reaffirmed in 1999 , but media sources reported that local authorities were still demanding the SBKRI from Chinese Indonesians after the instructions went into effect .
Other terms used for identifying sectors of the community include peranakan and totok . The former , traditionally used to describe those born locally , is derived from the root Indonesian word anak ( " child " ) and thus means " child of the land " . The latter is derived from Javanese , meaning " new " or " pure " , and is used to describe the foreign born and new immigrants . A significant number of Chinese Indonesians also live in the People 's Republic of China and Hong Kong ; they are considered part of the population of " returned overseas Chinese " ( 歸 國 華僑 ) . To identify the varying sectors of Chinese Indonesian society , Tan contends they must be differentiated according to nationality into those who are citizens of the host country and those who are resident aliens , then further broken down according to their cultural orientation and social identification . In her doctoral dissertation , Aimee Dawis notes that such definitions , based on cultural affinity and not nation of origin , have gained currency since the early 1990s , although the old definition is occasionally used .
Sociologist Mely G. Tan asserts that scholars studying ethnic Chinese emigrants often refer to the group as a " monolithic entity " : the overseas Chinese . Such treatment also persists in Indonesia ; a majority of the population referred to them as orang Cina or orang Tionghoa ( both meaning " Chinese people " , 中華 人 ) , or hoakiau ( 華僑 ) . They were previously described in ethnographic literature as the Indonesian Chinese , but there has been a shift in terminology as the old description emphasizes the group 's Chinese origins , while the more recent one , its Indonesian integration . Aimee Dawis , citing prominent scholar Leo Suryadinata , believes the shift is " necessary to debunk the stereotype that they are an exclusive group " and also " promotes a sense of nationalism " among them .
= = = Economic aptitude = = =
Members of the " totok " community are more inclined to be entrepreneurs and adhere to the practice of guanxi , which is based on the idea that one 's existence is influenced by the connection to others , implying the importance of business connections . In the first decade following Indonesian independence their business standing strengthened after being limited to small businesses in the colonial period . By the 1950s virtually all retail stores in Indonesia were owned by ethnic Chinese entrepreneurs , whose businesses ranged from selling groceries to construction material . Discontentment soon grew among indigenous merchants who felt unable to compete with ethnic Chinese businesses . Under pressure from indigenous merchants , the government enacted the Benteng program and Presidential Regulation 10 of 1959 , which imposed restrictions on ethnic Chinese importers and rural retailers . Ethnic Chinese businesses persisted , owing to their integration into larger networks throughout Southeast Asia , and their dominance continued despite continuous state and private efforts to encourage the growth of indigenous capital . Indonesian Chinese businesses are part of the larger bamboo network , a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties .
Government policies shifted dramatically after 1965 , becoming more favorable to economic expansion . In an effort to rehabilitate the economy , the government turned to those who possessed the capability to invest and expand corporate activity . Ethnic Chinese capitalists , called the cukong , were supported by the military , which emerged as the dominant political force after 1965 . Indigenous businessmen once again demanded greater investment support from the government in the 1970s , but legislative efforts failed to reduce ethnic Chinese dominance . In a 1995 study published by the East Asia Analytical Unit of Australia 's Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade , approximately 73 percent of the market capitalization value of publicly listed companies ( excluding foreign and state @-@ owned companies ) were owned by Chinese Indonesians . Additionally , they owned 68 percent of the top 300 conglomerates and nine of the top ten private sector groups at the end of 1993 . This figure propagated the general belief that ethnic Chinese — then estimated at 3 percent of the population — controlled 70 percent of the economy . Although the accuracy of this figure was disputed , it was evident that a wealth disparity existed along ethnic boundaries . The image of an economically powerful ethnic Chinese community was further fostered by the government through its inability to dissociate itself from the patronage networks . The Hokchia group dominated the ethnic Chinese business scene during the Suharto government , although other groups emerged after 1998 .
The top five conglomerates in Indonesia prior to the 1997 Asian financial crisis — the Salim Group , Astra International , the Sinar Mas Group , Gudang Garam , Sampoerna and the Lippo Group — were all owned by ethnic Chinese , with annual sales totaling Rp112 trillion ( US $ 47 billion ) . When the crisis finally hit the country , the rupiah 's plunge severely disrupted corporate operations . Numerous conglomerates lost a majority of their assets and collapsed . Over the next several years , other conglomerates struggled to repay international and domestic debts . Reforms introduced following 1998 were meant to steer the economy away from oligarchic arrangements established under the New Order ; however , plans for reform proved too optimistic . When President B. J. Habibie announced in a 19 July 1998 interview with The Washington Post that Indonesia was not dependent on ethnic Chinese businessmen , the rupiah 's value plunged 5 percent . This unexpected reaction prompted immediate changes in policies , and Habibie soon began enticing conglomerates for their support in the reform plans . Most were initially fearful of democratization , but the process of social demarginalization meant that the ethnic Chinese were regarded as equal members of society for the first time in the nation 's history . Increased regional autonomy allowed surviving conglomerates to explore new opportunities in the outer provinces , and economic reforms created a freer market .
= = = Political activity = = =
Between the 18th and early 20th centuries , ethnic Chinese communities were dominated by the " peranakan " presence . This period was followed by the growth of " totok " society . As part of a resinicization effort by the indigenized ethnic Chinese community , a new pan @-@ Chinese movement emerged with the goal of a unified Chinese political identity . The movement later split in the 1920s when " peranakan " elites resisted the leadership of the " totok " in the nationalist movement , and the two groups developed their own objectives . When it became apparent that unification was being achieved on " totok " terms , " peranakan " leaders chose to align their community with the Dutch , who had abandoned the segregation policies in 1908 . The two communities once again found common ground in opposition to the invading Japanese when the occupying forces treated all Chinese groups with contempt .
The issue of nationality , following independence , politicized the ethnic Chinese and led to the formation of Baperki in 1954 , as the first and largest Chinese Indonesian political party or mass organization . Baperki and its majority " peranakan " membership led the opposition against a draft law that would have restricted the number of ethnic Chinese who could gain Indonesian citizenship . This movement was met by the Islamic Masyumi Party in 1956 when it called for the implementation of affirmative action for indigenous businesses . During the 1955 legislative election , Baperki received 178 @,@ 887 votes and gained a seat on the People 's Representative Council ( DPR ) . Later that year , two Baperki candidates were also elected to the Constitutional Assembly .
Ethnic @-@ based political parties were banned under the government of President Suharto , leaving only the three indigenous @-@ dominated parties of Golkar , the United Development Party ( PPP ) , and the Indonesian Democratic Party ( PDI ) . The depoliticizing of Indonesian society confined ethnic Chinese activities to the economic sector . Chinese Indonesian critics of the regime were mostly " peranakan " and projected themselves as Indonesians , leaving the ethnic Chinese with no visible leaders . On the eve of the 1999 legislative election , after Suharto 's resignation , the news magazine Tempo conducted a survey of likely Chinese Indonesian voters on their political party of choice for the election . Although respondents were able to choose more than one party , 70 percent favored the Indonesian Democratic Party – Struggle ( PDI – P ) , whose image of a nationalist party was considered favorable toward the ethnic Chinese . The party also benefited from the presence of economist Kwik Kian Gie , who was well respected by both ethnic Chinese and non @-@ ethnic @-@ Chinese voters .
New ethnic political parties such as the Chinese Indonesian Reform Party ( Partai Reformasi Tionghoa Indonesia , PARTI ) and the Indonesian Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Party ( Partai Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Indonesia , PBI ) failed to garner much support in the 1999 election . Despite this result , the number of Chinese Indonesian candidates standing in national election increased from fewer than 50 in 1999 to almost 150 in 2004 . Of the 58 candidates of Chinese descent who ran for office as representatives from Jakarta in the 2009 legislative election , two won seats .
= = Culture = =
= = = Language = = =
Four major Chinese @-@ speech groups are represented in Indonesia : Hokkien , Mandarin , Hakka , and Cantonese . In addition to these , the Teochew speak a dialect that is mutually intelligible with the Hokkien . Distinctions between the two , however , are accentuated outside of their regions of origin . There were an estimated 2 million native speakers of various Chinese varieties in Indonesia in 1982 : 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 speakers of Southern Min varieties ( including Hokkien and Teochew dialect ) ; 640 @,@ 000 Hakka speakers ; 460 @,@ 000 Mandarin speakers ; 180 @,@ 000 Cantonese speakers ; and 20 @,@ 000 speakers of the Eastern Min Chinese ( including Fuzhou dialect ) . Additionally , an estimated 20 @,@ 000 spoke varieties of the Indonesian language .
The Chinese along the North @-@ Eastern coast of Sumatra , especially in North Sumatra , Riau , Jambi are predominantly Hokkien speakers , there are also two different variant of Hokkien speaking such as Medan Hokkien who based on the Zhangzhou dialect and Riau Hokkien who based Quanzhou dialect . There are also Hokkien speaker in Java , Sulawesi , Kalimantan . Meanwhile , the Hakka speaker is majority in Aceh , Bangka @-@ Belitung , and West Kalimantan north of Pontianak . Some Hakka speakers live in Java . The Cantonese speakers mainly living in big cities like Medan , Jakarta , Batam , Surabaya , and Pontianak . The Teochew speakers become majority in West Kalimantan especially in Central to Southern area such as Ketapang , Kendawangan , and Pontianak , as well as in Riau Islands surround Batam . There are some Hokchia speakers in East Java , especially in Surabaya .
Many Indonesians , including the ethnic Chinese , believe in the existence of a dialect of Malay language , Chinese Malay , known locally as Melayu Tionghoa or Melayu Cina . The growth of " peranakan " literature in the second half of the 19th century gave rise to such a variant , popularized through silat ( martial arts ) stories translated from Chinese or written in Malay and Indonesian . However , scholars argue it is different from the mixture of spoken Javanese and Malay that is perceived to be " spoken exclusively by ethnic Chinese " .
[ E ] xcept for a few loan words from Chinese , nothing about ' Chinese Malay ' is uniquely Chinese . The language was simply low , bazaar Malay , the common tongue of Java 's streets and markets , especially of its cities , spoken by all ethnic groups in the urban and multi @-@ ethnic environment . Because Chinese were a dominant element in the cities and markets , the language was associated with them , but government officials , Eurasians , migrant traders , or people from different language areas , all resorted to this form of Malay to communicate .
Academic literature discussing Chinese Malay commonly note that ethnic Chinese do not speak the same dialect of Malay throughout the archipelago . Furthermore , although the Dutch colonial government first introduced the Malay orthography in 1901 , Chinese newspapers did not follow this standard until after independence . Because of these factors , the ethnic Chinese play a " significant role " in the development of the modern Indonesian language as the largest group during the colonial period to communicate in a variety of Malay dialects .
= = = Literature = = =
Chinese cultural influences can be seen in local Chinese Malay literature , which dates back to the late 19th century . One of the earliest and most comprehensive works on this subject , Claudine Salmon 's 1981 book Literature in Malay by the Chinese of Indonesia : A Provisional Annotated Bibliography , lists over 3 @,@ 000 works . Samples of this literature were also published in a six @-@ volume collection titled Kesastraan Melayu Tionghoa dan Kebangsaan Indonesia ( " Chinese Malay Literature and the Indonesian Nation " ) .
Kho Ping Hoo or Asmaraman Sukowati Kho Ping Hoo is a beloved Indonesian author of Chinese ethnicity . He is well known in Indonesia for his martial art fiction set in the background of China or Java . During his 30 years career , at least 120 stories has been published ( according to Leo Suryadinata ) . However , Forum magazine claimed at least Kho Ping Hoo had 400 stories with the background of China and 50 stories with the background of Java .
= = = Media = = =
All Chinese @-@ language publications were prohibited under the assimilation policy of the Suharto period , with the exception of the government @-@ controlled daily newspaper Harian Indonesia . The lifting of the Chinese @-@ language ban after 1998 prompted the older generation of Chinese Indonesians to promote its use to the younger generation ; according to Malaysian @-@ Chinese researcher of the Chinese diaspora , Chang @-@ Yau Hoon , they believed they would " be influenced by the virtues of Chinese culture and Confucian values " . One debate took place in the media in 2003 , discussing the Chinese " mu yu " ( 母語 , " mother tongue " ) and the Indonesian " guo yu " ( 國語 , " national language " ) . Nostalgia was a common theme in the Chinese @-@ language press in the period immediately following Suharto 's government . The rise of China 's political and economic standing at the turn of the 21st century became an impetus for their attempt to attract younger readers who seek to rediscover their cultural roots .
During the first three decades of the 20th century , ethnic Chinese owned most , if not all , movie theaters in cities throughout the Dutch East Indies . Films from China were being imported by the 1920s , and a film industry began to emerge in 1928 with the arrival of the three Wong brothers from Shanghai — their films would dominate the market through the 1930s . These earliest films almost exclusively focused on the ethnic Chinese community , although a few examined inter @-@ ethnic relations as a main theme . The later ban on the public use of Chinese language meant that imported films and television programs were required to be dubbed in English with subtitles in Indonesian . When martial arts serials began appearing on national television in 1988 , they were dubbed in Indonesian . One exception was the showing of films from Hong Kong in Chinese — limited to ethnic Chinese districts and their surroundings — because of an agreement between importers and the film censor board .
= = = Religion = = =
There is little scholarly work devoted to the religious life of Chinese Indonesians . The 1977 French book Les Chinois de Jakarta : Temples et Vie Collective ( " The Chinese of Jakarta : Temples and Collective Life " ) is the only major study to assess ethnic Chinese religious life in Indonesia . The Ministry of Religious Affairs grants official status to six religions : Islam , Catholicism , Protestantism , Hinduism , Buddhism , and Confucianism . A 2006 civil registration law does not allow Indonesians to identify themselves as a member of any other religion on their identity cards .
According to the 2000 census data , almost 90 percent of Chinese Indonesians were Buddhist or Christian ( Catholic and Protestant ) . Conversion from the " Chinese religion " to Christianity often occurs in the younger generations , and it is not uncommon to find Christian children whose parents adhere to their traditional religion . The first wave of conversions occurred in the 1950s and 1960s , in response to intolerance against Chinese culture , and the number of ethnic Chinese Catholics during this period quadrupled . The second wave followed after the government withdrew Confucianism 's status as a recognized religion in the 1970s . Roderick Brazier , assistant country representative in Indonesia for the Asia Foundation , reported in 2006 that 70 percent of the ethnic Chinese population was Christian , and that there was active proselytism from international churches . Demographer Aris Ananta reported in 2008 that " anecdotal evidence suggests that more Buddhist Chinese have become Christians as they increased their standards of education " .
In a country where nearly 90 percent of the population are Muslims , the ethnic Chinese Muslims form a small minority of the ethnic Chinese population . The 2000 census counted 5 @.@ 41 percent of Chinese Indonesians were followers of Islam . Associations such as the Organization of Chinese Muslims of Indonesia ( Persatuan Islam Tionghoa Indonesia , PITI ) had been in existence in the late 19th century . PITI was re @-@ established in 1963 as a modern organization , but occasionally experienced periods of inactivity . Confucians were included in the category of other religions in 2000 and accounted for 3 @.@ 91 percent of the Chinese Indonesian population . The Supreme Council for Confucian Religion in Indonesia ( Majelis Tinggi Agama Khonghucu Indonesia , MATAKIN ) estimated that 95 percent of Confucians are ethnic Chinese ; most of the remaining 5 percent are ethnic Javanese converts . Although the government has restored Confucianism 's status as a recognized religion , many local authorities do not abide by it and have refused to allow ethnic Chinese from listing it as a religion on their identity cards . Local officials remained largely unaware that the civil registration law legally allowed citizens to leave the religion section on their identity cards blank .
= = = Architecture = = =
Various forms of Chinese architecture exist throughout Indonesia with marked differences between urban and rural areas and among the different islands . Architectural developments by the Chinese in Southeast Asia differ from those in mainland China . By blending local and European ( Dutch ) design patterns , numerous variations of fusion styles emerged . Chinese architecture in Indonesia has manifested in three forms : religious temples , study halls , and houses . Cities during the colonial period were divided into three racial districts : European , oriental ( Arabs , Chinese , and other Asians ) , and indigenous . There usually were no physical boundaries among the zones , except for rivers , walls , or roads in some cases . Such legal boundaries promoted high growths in urban density within each zone , especially in the Chinese quarters , often leading to poor environmental conditions .
Early settlers did not adhere to traditional architectural practices when constructing houses , but instead adapted to living conditions in Indonesia . Although the earliest houses are no longer standing , they were likely built from wood or bamboo with thatched roofs , resembling indigenous houses found throughout Sumatra , Borneo , and Java . More permanent constructions replaced these settlements in the 19th century . Segregation policies under the Dutch forbade the use of European architectural styles by non @-@ European ethnic groups . The ethnic Chinese and other foreign and indigenous groups lived according to their own cultures . Chinese houses along the north coast of Java were renovated to include Chinese ornamentation . As racial segregation eased at the turn of the 20th century , the ethnic Chinese who had lost their identity embraced European culture and began removing ethnic ornaments from their buildings . The policies implemented by the New Order government which prohibited the public display of Chinese culture have also accelerated the transition toward local and Western architecture .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Chinese culinary culture is particularly evident in Indonesian cuisine through the Hokkien , Hakka , and Cantonese loanwords used for various dishes . Words beginning with bak ( 肉 ) signify the presence of meat , e.g. bakpau ( " meat bun " ) ; words ending with cai ( 菜 ) signify vegetables , e.g. pecai ( " Chinese white cabbage " ) and cap cai . The words mi or mie ( 麵 ) signify noodle as in mi goreng .
Most of these loanwords for food dishes and their ingredients are Hokkien in origin , and are used throughout the Indonesian language and vernacular speech of large cities . Because they have become an integral part of the local language , many Indonesians and ethnic Chinese do not recognize their Hokkien origins . Some popular Indonesian dishes such as nasi goreng , lumpia , and bakpia can trace their origin to Chinese influence . Some food and ingredients are part of the daily diet of both the indigenous and ethnic Chinese populations as side dishes to accompany rice , the staple food of most of the country . Among ethnic Chinese families , both peranakan and totok , pork is generally preferred as meat ; this is in contrast with traditional Indonesian cuisine , which in majority @-@ Muslim areas avoids the meat . The consumption of pork has , however , decreased in recent years owing to a recognition of its contribution to health hazards such as high cholesterol levels and heart disease .
In a 1997 restaurant listing published by the English @-@ language daily The Jakarta Post , which largely caters to expatriates and middle class Indonesians , at least 80 locations within the city can be considered Chinese out of the 10 @-@ page list . Additionally , major hotels generally operate one or two Chinese restaurants , and many more can be found in large shopping centers . Upscale Chinese restaurants in Jakarta , where the urban character of the ethnic Chinese is well established , can be found serving delicacies such as shark fin soup and bird 's nest soup . Food considered to have healing properties , including ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine , are in high demand .
= = = Education = = =
Citizens of the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) residing in Indonesia are served by two international schools : Jakarta Taipei School , which was the first Chinese @-@ language school in Indonesia since the Indonesian government ended its ban on the Chinese language , and the Surabaya Taipei International School ( 印尼泗水臺灣學校 ) .
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= Skinner 's Sense of Snow =
" Skinner 's Sense of Snow " is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' twelfth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 17 , 2000 . In the episode , a snowstorm traps the students with principal Seymour Skinner and Groundskeeper Willie in Springfield Elementary . When Skinner uses his army skills to control the students , they overthrow him and take over the school . Meanwhile , Homer and Ned set out to rescue the children using Ned 's car .
" Skinner 's Sense of Snow " was written by Tim Long and directed by Lance Kramer . While the episode 's premise is based on an occurrence in Long 's childhood , the setpiece came from staff writer Matt Selman . Because the episode takes place in winter , Kramer found it difficult to animate . It features references to Smilla 's Sense of Snow , The Deer Hunter and Kristi Yamaguchi , among other things . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 8 @.@ 8 million viewers , finishing in 33rd place in the ratings the week it aired . Following the home video release , the episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
While the Simpsons attend a French Canadian circus called " Cirque de Purée " , a wild blizzard hits Springfield , turning it into a snowsquall overnight . However , Springfield Elementary School stays open regardless of the storm , even though every other local school closes . Only some students , including the classmates of Bart and Lisa , show up while Skinner and Willie are the only faculty members at the school that day . To pass the time , Skinner plays his professed favourite film , a very low @-@ budget , long @-@ running , 1938 holiday movie called " The Christmas That Almost Wasn 't , But Then Was " . When the kids try to leave school , however , snow has piled up , trapping the kids inside with Skinner and Groundskeeper Willie , much to their horror .
Skinner tries to keep the children under control , forcing them to stay together in the cafeteria and eat apples , relish and ( only if they behave well enough ) mayonnaise and will not let them go home until the snow melts . After Nelson tries to escape , Skinner unearths his U.S. Army memorabilia and is reminded of the days when he commanded respect from his troops . Skinner tries to command respect from the students , and briefly succeeds after threatening to hang them in their clothes on hooks on the wall if they rebel . Bart tries to tunnel his way out , but Skinner stops him , and after Willie refuses to destroy the tunnel , Skinner tries to , but is stuck in the resulting cave @-@ in . The students rebel and eventually tie Skinner up in a dodge ball bag . They then set about ' going nuts ' such as racing trolleys in the school hallway , even burning numerous books in the school 's library .
Meanwhile , Homer , with the help of Ned Flanders , sets out to rescue the children but crashes Flanders ' car into a fire hydrant , which sprays water that freezes the car in place . Homer 's repeated gunning of the accelerator causes carbon monoxide to flood the front of the car . Flanders and Homer get high from the fumes and wildly hallucinate . While the trapped children go wild with power , Skinner uses the school hamster , named Nibbles , to get a message to the outside world . Nibbles makes it to Ned and Homer , breaking the window and reviving them : they crash into a salt silo , melting the snow around the school and badly rusting the car but freeing the kids in the process .
Superintendent Chalmers appears and is ready to blame Skinner for the school 's current poor state when Bart takes the place , amending things with Skinner . As he and Lisa leave with Homer and Ned , Homer starts hallucinating again making him see Lisa as a camel and Bart as a dancing girl . Homer tries to kiss Bart , who tries his best to escape , causing the car to lose control and crash , and camel Lisa , then says " Merry Christmas from the Simpsons " !
= = Production = =
" Skinner 's Sense of Snow " was written by Tim Long and directed by Lance Kramer . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 17 , 2000 . The idea for the episode came from Long . One winter during his childhood , Exeter , Ontario , where Long lived , was hit by a blizzard . Much to his dismay , Long found out that all schools except Exeter Public School , which he went to , got closed ( in the U.S. , schools are closed entirely at the County or District level , so the real @-@ life situation did not apply here , as it was shown Principal Skinner had the authority to open the school and even to have Otto work his usual bus route ) . Eventually , Long and his classmates were snowed in with the school 's staff . " It was hellish , but then became a sweet thing " , he said . " A couple of the dads braved the cold and brought us food on snowmobiles . So it was sweet . " Two years after Long pitched the premise , staff writer Matt Selman pitched the episodes setpiece , which revolves around the Simpsons ' visit to Cirque du Purée . " I pitched [ the setpiece ] to Tim [ Long ] when we were pitching around ideas " , Selman said in the episode 's DVD commentary . " And I said , ' What about a Cirque du Soleil parody ? ' " The staff then decided to combine the two stories , and production on " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " ensued .
In order to make a faithful rendition of the circus , director Kramer asked the animators to watch a showing of Cirque du Soleil in Santa Monica , but they declined the offer . Regardless , executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully found that the animators did an " amazing " job animating the setpiece . Because the episode takes place in winter , the animators faced some challenges that they would not have with any other episode . " It just adds another element " , Kramer said about episodes taking place in winter , " People 's clothes have to get tugged in the wind if it 's windy . And you have to make sure the snow is consistent because [ ... ] It 's like a character . If it 's a big snowflake in one scene and then tiny ones where it 's snowing too hard in the next scene ... It 's not gonna work . " The scratches and bad quality of " The Christmas That Almost Wasn 't , But Then Was " were added in by the Post @-@ Production Department , led by Alex Duke . " Our Post @-@ Production Department never gets enough credit , " Scully said , " But they 'll take a film like [ ' The Christmas That Almost Wasn 't , But Then Was ' ] and make it all scratchy and make it look really old . They always do a great job . " The woman in " The Christmas That Almost Wasn 't , But Then Was " was portrayed by Tress MacNeille , while the clown in the Cirque du Purée was voiced by Hank Azaria . The song that plays when Homer and Ned are driving to the school is " Feel Like Makin ' Love " by English rock band Bad Company . Originally , the series ' staff wanted to use " Rock and Roll All Nite " by American rock band Kiss , but they failed to obtain the rights to use it .
= = Cultural references = =
Although the episode 's title is a reference to the Danish mystery novel Smilla 's Sense of Snow , there are no other allusions to the book in the episode . In the episode 's setpiece , the Simpsons visit a circus called Cirque du Puree . The circus is a reference to the Canadian entertainment company Cirque du Soleil . In the film " The Christmas That Almost Wasn 't , But Then Was " , one of the hobgoblins has a similar singing voice as American singer Nelson Eddy . Having just found out that they are trapped in the school , Skinner says " I don 't care if you 're Kristi Yamaguchi - no one leaves the building " . According to Long , the line was written by either Dana Gould or George Meyer , both of whom are former staff writers . While wreaking havoc in the school , Milhouse can be seen doodling a mustache on a picture of Warren G. Harding , the 29th President of the United States . While ordering Skinner to humiliate himself , Bart says " Di , di , mau " . This is a reference to the 1978 drama film The Deer Hunter , in which the Vietcong says the line to their captives . One of the books that the children burn in the school 's library is the 1944 children 's novel Johnny Tremain by Esther Forbes .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on December 17 , 2000 , " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " received an 8 @.@ 7 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 8 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode finished in 33rd place in the ratings for the week of December 11 @-@ 17 , 2000 , tying with an episode of the ABC sitcom The Drew Carey Show . Since its broadcast , the episode has been released twice on home video . On November 2 , 2004 , it was released along with " Homer vs. Dignity " , " Dude , Where 's My Ranch ? " and " ' Tis the 15th Season " as part of a DVD set entitled The Simpsons - Christmas 2 . On August 18 , 2009 , the episode was again released as part of a DVD set called The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Tim Long , Matt Selman , David Mirkin , Max Pross and Lance Kramer participated in the audio commentary for the episode .
Following its home video release , " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " received mostly positive reviews from critics . In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season , DVD Verdict 's Mac McEntire wrote that , while he prefers " down @-@ to @-@ Earth " episodes , the more " outrageous " episodes like " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " are the ones that are " standouts " . He added that the episode " provides a lot of solid ' cool kids versus dorky adults ' comedy " , and that the setpiece was the best part of the episode . Matt Haigh of Den of Geek described the episode as " gold " , and considers it to be one of the season 's best episodes . The staff of The Journal , while reviewing The Simpsons - Christmas 2 DVD set , described the episode as " memorable " , and John McMurtrie of the San Francisco Chronicle cited it as " great " . Elizabeth Skipper , another reviewer for DVD Verdict , wrote that most episodes that center around Skinner are " a sure thing " , and that " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " is no exception . Both Aaron Beierle and Jason Bailey of DVD Talk argued that " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " is one of the best episodes of the season . On the other hand , giving the episode a mixed review , Colin Jacobsson of DVD Movie Guide described the episode as " mediocre " . Although he found the children 's revolt against Skinner amusing , he argued that the premise was not used to its full potential . He concluded his review by calling it " a fairly average program " .
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= New York State Route 252 =
New York State Route 252 ( NY 252 ) is an east – west state highway south of Rochester in Monroe County , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 33A in Chili and the eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 64 and NY 96 in the village of Pittsford . NY 252 passes through the center of the town of Henrietta 's commercial district , where it intersects NY 15 . The route passes through three distinct areas : a lightly populated , rural area of Chili west of the Genesee River , the heavily developed commercial district centered on NY 252 's intersections with NY 15 and NY 15A , and a mostly residential area of the town of Pittsford .
When NY 252 was assigned in the early 1930s , it extended from Scottsville Road ( NY 383 ) in Chili to the village of Pittsford . NY 252 was extended northwest to Chili Center in 1949 by way of modern NY 252A , and east to Bushnell 's Basin in the mid @-@ 1950s after NY 96 was realigned onto part of the Eastern Expressway . The route was shifted southward onto its present alignment through Chili in the late 1950s and cut back to Pittsford c . 1961 . The segment of NY 252 west of NY 383 was initially county @-@ maintained ; however , ownership and maintenance of it was transferred to the state of New York in 2007 .
= = Route description = =
NY 252 begins at an intersection with NY 33A in the Monroe County town of Chili . The route heads eastward , following Beaver Road through a sparsely populated area of Chili . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from NY 33A , NY 252 intersects NY 386 . The highway continues onward , partially paralleling Black Creek eastward to an intersection with Archer Road . Here , Beaver Road comes to an end while NY 252 adopts the Archer Road name and heads southeastward , crossing over Black Creek as it approaches Ballantyne Road . At Ballantyne Road , Archer Road terminates and NY 252 changes names once more to Ballantyne Road .
As Ballantyne Road , the route progresses northeastward , paralleling Black Creek as it crosses the Rochester and Southern Railroad . Roughly 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) past the railroad crossing , the road curves to the southeast , entering a residential area as it approaches the Genesee River and NY 383 ( Scottsville Road ) , which runs along the river 's western bank . At NY 383 , NY 252 becomes Jefferson Road , a name that follows NY 252 eastward to its terminus in the village of Pittsford . NY 252 traverses the river and enters the town of Henrietta by way of the Ballantyne Bridge . On the opposite bank of the river , NY 252 intersects East River Road , Scottsville Road 's counterpart on the eastern river bank .
Just east of the river , the route passes north of the campus of the Rochester Institute of Technology , one of largest colleges in the Rochester area . NY 252 connects to the college by way of Lomb Memorial Drive and Lowenthal Road before proceeding eastward into an area of Henrietta dominated by commercial establishments . From Brighton – Henrietta Town Line Road east to South Winton Road , NY 252 is at least four lanes wide and is lined with plazas , stores and shopping centers . The approximate center of Henrietta 's commercial district is situated near the modified diamond interchange that links NY 252 to NY 15 . The Marketplace Mall and South Town Plaza , the two largest shopping centers in the area , are both located in the vicinity of this intersection . NY 252 intersects NY 15A and meets Interstate 390 ( I @-@ 390 ) at an interchange prior to intersecting Winton Road .
East of Winton Road , NY 252 narrows to two lanes and enters a highly residential neighborhood . At the Henrietta – Pittsford town line , the route passes the Locust Hill Country Club . Past Locust Hill , NY 252 continues past a series of residential neighborhoods to an intersection with NY 65 . East of NY 65 , NY 252 becomes West Jefferson Road and briefly enters an area of open , cultivated fields before entering the village of Pittsford . The route heads east for four blocks as a residential street , passing Pittsford Sutherland High School before ending at an intersection with South Main Street ( NY 64 and NY 96 ) .
= = History = =
= = = Designation and maintenance = = =
NY 252 was assigned in the early 1930s to the portion of its modern alignment east of Scottsville Road ( current NY 383 ) in Chili . It was extended northwest to NY 33A and then @-@ NY 251 ( now NY 386 ) in the hamlet of Chili Center via Scottsville and Paul roads on January 1 , 1949 , replacing NY 198 . In the mid @-@ 1950s , NY 96 was realigned onto the new Eastern Expressway from Bushnell 's Basin to East Rochester . Its former surface routing between the village of Pittsford and Bushnell 's Basin became part of an extended NY 252 . The west end of NY 252 was altered in the late 1950s to follow Ballantyne , Archer , and Beaver Roads between NY 33A and NY 383 , while the east end was truncated back to Pittsford c . 1961 when the Eastern Expressway was redesignated as I @-@ 490 . The former routing of NY 252 along Paul Road was redesignated as NY 252A .
The portion of NY 252 west of NY 383 was originally maintained by Monroe County . This section was concurrent with three different county route designations , one for each of the three different road names along this stretch . The portion of NY 252 on Ballantyne Road was designated by Monroe County as County Route 125 ( CR 125 ) while the Beaver Road segment was CR 127 and the Archer Road piece was CR 129 . In 2007 , ownership and maintenance of NY 252 west of NY 383 was transferred from Monroe County to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . A bill ( S4856 , 2007 ) to enact the swap was introduced in the New York State Senate on April 23 and passed by both the Senate and the New York State Assembly on June 20 . The act was signed into law by Governor Eliot Spitzer on August 28 . Under the terms of the act , it took effect 90 days after it was signed into law ; thus , the maintenance swap officially took place on November 26 , 2007 . The entirety of NY 252 is now maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) .
= = = Widening projects = = =
In August 2008 , construction began on a $ 5 @.@ 5 million project to improve the intersection between Clover Street ( NY 65 ) and Jefferson Road ( NY 252 ) in the town of Pittsford . The project , which had been in development for a decade , involved the widening of Jefferson Road from two to four lanes in the vicinity of the intersection , the addition of green arrow signal lights for all left @-@ hand turns , and the installation of sidewalks alongside both Clover Street and Jefferson Road . Work on the project was temporarily halted during the winter months ; however , it resumed on April 1 , 2009 . The project was completed in late 2009 .
The portion of NY 252 in Henrietta between Marketplace Drive and Ridgeland Road was widened from four to six lanes as part of a multi @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 6 million project that began in mid @-@ 2009 . Phase one of the five @-@ phase project , completed during the second half of 2009 , involved the relocation of utility poles and water mains . The next four phases involved the actual widening of the highway . During phase two , all traffic on Jefferson Road was routed along the eastbound lanes while the westbound half of the road was reconstructed and widened ; this was reversed during phase three . A raised median between the two directions , which prohibited left @-@ hand turns at all points except signalized intersections , was constructed during phase four , and phase five covered the finishing touches of the project . As part of the project , the intersection between Jefferson Road and East Henrietta Road ( NY 15A ) was widened to have two dedicated left turn lanes in all four directions . Work on the last four phases began on March 29 , 2010 , and was expected to be fully completed in November 2011 . Construction did get completed in November 2011 , but at the cost of $ 16 @.@ 5 million ( 2012 USD ) instead of the original $ 15 @.@ 6 million .
= = NY 252A = =
NY 252A ( 4 @.@ 40 miles or 7 @.@ 08 kilometres ) was an alternate route of NY 252 along Paul Road in the town of Chili . It extended from the eastern terminus of the overlap between NY 33A and NY 386 in the hamlet of Chili Center to NY 383 in the vicinity of the Greater Rochester International Airport . Despite its designation , NY 252A never connected to NY 252 . The route existed from the late 1950s to 2009 . Its former alignment is now maintained by Monroe County as part of CR 168 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Monroe County .
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= Margaritaville ( South Park ) =
" Margaritaville " is the third episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 184th overall episode of the series , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 25 , 2009 as an Easter special . The episode is a satire and commentary on the global recession affecting much of the industrialized world at the time of the episode 's broadcast . Kyle is portrayed as a Jesus @-@ like savior working to save the economy , and Stan spends much of the episode trying to return a personal Jimmy Buffett Margaritaville machine .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . Parker and Stone long planned to create an episode about the economy and considered making it the season premiere , but decided they needed more time to craft the script , and instead opened the season with " The Ring " , a spoof of the Jonas Brothers boy band . In their original idea for an economy episode , Parker and Stone considered having Cartman dress as a superhero who fights the economy . That idea was ultimately scrapped , and elements were transferred to the season 's second episode , " The Coon " .
" Margaritaville " reflected Parker and Stone 's belief that most Americans view the economy in the same way as religion , in that it is seldom understood but seen as an important , elusive entity . The Margaritaville blender featured in the episode serves as a metaphor for American consumerism , as well as the housing bubble . The script proved challenging for Parker and Stone , and they did not finish writing it until the night before the episode first aired . Parker and Stone themselves were not entirely pleased with the final product of " Margaritaville " , but it received generally positive reviews by television critics .
According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 2 @.@ 77 million households in its original airing , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . " Margaritaville " won the 2009 Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program for Programming Less Than One Hour . " Margaritaville " was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray along with the rest of the thirteenth season on March 16 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
Stan tries to save money by depositing it into the bank but it " disappears " moments after when the bank manager invests the money in a " money @-@ market mutual fund . " When Randy complains to the manager , he invests money in a portfolio , but the money also disappears ; a recession then hits the nation and South Park . At dinner , Randy explains to Stan that the economy is failing due to people spending their money on luxuries , and ironically , he continues his tirade while making himself a margarita in a Margaritaville @-@ brand mixer , the noise of which drowns out his voice for part of the tirade .
People in South Park are struggling with the recent economic downturn , and many people on the street are castigating those whom they would blame ; Cartman predictably blames the Jews , claiming they hid the money in a " Jew Cave " , but Randy convinces everyone to reduce their spending to only the " bare essentials " in order to propitiate the economy , defending his own frivolous purchase by adding that the essentials include margaritas . His recommended changes make the town resemble first @-@ century Galilee .
Kyle becomes annoyed , responding that the economy is not actually angry with them , and that they should be out spending money , and continues to preach that the economy only exists as a mental construct , and that people have lost their faith in it because of the recession . He then convinces his friends that if they want the economy to be strong , they must have faith in it . Upon hearing of this heresy , Randy and his makeshift economic council decide that they must kill Kyle . Cartman , in his desire to obtain a copy of Grand Theft Auto : Chinatown Wars , says that he will deliver Kyle to Randy and his friends in exchange for the game .
In a scene resembling that of the Last Supper , Kyle and his friends go out for pizza where he laments that he feels they will not be able to get together like this anymore because he thinks one of his friends will betray him . The next day , Kyle sets up a table with a credit card machine in the town and begins " paying everybody 's debts " with his American Express Platinum Card . Kyle 's mother begs him to stop because he will be in debt for life , but Kyle feels he must to help everybody in the town . After paying for the debts , he passes out and the people carry him to his bed .
Soon enough , the economy takes a turn for the better . Malls and shops start opening again for business and the now debt free people start purchasing again . Randy is shown buying the new Margaritaville . The news acknowledges President Barack Obama for the sacrifices he made and credits him for bringing these improvements in the economy leaving Kyle infuriated shouting " Come on ! " .
As a subplot , Stan spends most of the episode trying to return the aforementioned Margaritaville mixer ; the trendy retailer Sur La Table will not accept the return because it was bought on a payment plan . He tries to find out to whom he can return it , each person saying the debt has been packaged and sold to someone else ( much like real @-@ life mortgage @-@ backed securities ) . Eventually he goes all the way to the United States Treasury , where a group of associates " consult the charts " and tell him the mixer is worth $ 90 trillion . One of the three treasury workers then says that another insurance company is failing and asks what they should do . They say they have to " consult the charts " again . Stan follows the men inside , and he sees a round lit @-@ up game show style board , where the men cut off a chicken 's head and let the decapitated chicken run on the board while one of them plays a tune similar to Yakety Sax on a kazoo . The chicken falls on the " bailout ! " spot , so that is what the men do . In anger at the ridiculousness of the system , Stan breaks the mixer on the platform by the chicken and walks off .
= = Production = =
" Margaritaville " was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker . It first aired on March 25 , 2009 in the United States on Comedy Central . Parker and fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone said they had long planned to do an episode about the global recession , and they argued over whether to start the season with an episode about the economy , or " The Ring , " an episode mocking the Jonas Brothers , a boy band which had recently grown in popularity . Stone argued the season premiere should focus on the economy because it was the biggest news item at the time , but Parker felt they needed more time to craft the script , and that the Jonas Brothers would be a funny season opener . Stone ultimately agreed , and later admitted it was the right decision . During an interview a few weeks before the episode aired , Stone said , " That 's one of those big things we want to get right . We 'll be talking about what kind of social commentary we want to make and do it right . "
Parker and Stone originally planned for their economy @-@ related episode to involve Cartman dressing as a superhero named " The Coon " and fighting the recession . Eventually , Cartman would discover the recession stemmed from the sale of Jimmy Buffett 's Margaritaville blenders , and he would have to battle singer @-@ songwriter Jimmy Buffett and investor Warren Buffett , who would be portrayed as Jimmy 's brother . Eventually , the idea was scrapped , and the superhero elements were incorporated into the episode " The Coon " , which aired just before " Margaritaville " . The opening scene of " The Coon " , in which Cartman discussed the poor economic state of the nation and the election of U.S. President Barack Obama , were left remnants of the original economy @-@ related idea . Certain elements of the original idea , such as the Margaritaville blenders , were eventually incorporated into " Margaritaville " .
As with most South Park episodes , Parker , Stone , and their team created the episode within a week of its broadcast date . The script was not finished until late March 24 , the night before the episode aired . " Margaritaville " featured a 70 @-@ second shot which panned over several characters speaking about the recession on pedestals before finally settling on Randy wearing robes and preaching about the economy . It was the longest shot in South Park history to that point , although it would be surpassed later in the season by " Dances with Smurfs " , which featured an 86 @-@ second single shot in which a South Park elementary student is murdered while reading the morning announcements .
Within a week of " Margaritaville 's " original broadcast date , the online retailer Zazzle and South Park Studios , the official South Park website , released T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on " Margaritaville " , including shirts with Randy dressed in rags saying " Finger pointing gets us nowhere ! " and " We must mock The Economy no longer ! " Other shirts included the finance company executive saying " Ooh , yeah , no , you know what , yeah , no ... " and an image of The Last Supper @-@ inspired pizza dinner between Kyle and his friends .
= = Theme = =
" Margaritaville " is a satire and commentary on the global recession affecting much of the industrialized world at the time of the episode 's broadcast on March 25 , 2009 . Parker and Stone believed many viewed the economy as an important , elusive entity without truly understanding how it works , and felt it mirrored faith in religion . The duo had difficulty writing the script due to their limited familiarity with religion and Christian history , and they relied heavily on executive producer Anne Garefino for help . In describing the economic elements of the episode , they sought assistance from Stone 's father , who works as an economist . The scenes in which Stan explains how his Margaritaville blender was purchased on a payment plan that was eventually combined into securities sold to the banks required particular assistance from Stone 's father . Parker said the dialogue proved so difficult , they were working on the script right up until the night before the episode was first broadcast .
The Margaritaville blender itself served as a metaphor for consumerism and the tendency of Americans to buy luxuries that they do not need . Stone said , " We didn 't want to make an episode where it was like , ' Oh , those Wall Street guys took our money . ' It was one of those things where we all screwed up and nobody really knows what 's going on , but it has something to do with buying shit like Margaritavilles . " The Margaritaville also serves as a metaphor for the housing bubble . Parker himself actually owns a Margaritaville , of which he said , " It 's pretty stupid because it really is just a blender " .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title comes from the Jimmy Buffett 's Margaritaville blender featured in the episode , which serves as a metaphor for the housing bubble . " Margaritaville " is also the name of a popular 1977 song by Jimmy Buffett , who has been the butt of South Park humor in the past . In " Margaritaville " , Kyle is portrayed as a Jesus @-@ like savior who makes a tremendous sacrifice to save the economy . A dinner he has with his friends is portrayed as the Last Supper , the final meal Jesus had with his Twelve Apostles before his death . Almost inevitably Cartman takes on the role of Judas Iscariot , the disciple who betrayed Jesus ( in the Last Supper scene he even sits in the same position as Judas in da Vinci 's painting ) , while some of the South Park residents form a council . Kyle uses a platinum American Express card to pay off the debts of all South Park residents .
Cartman says he wants the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released Grand Theft Auto : Chinatown Wars game for the handheld game console Nintendo DS . The game was released within a week of the original " Margaritaville " broadcast date . Representatives from game developer Rockstar Games told video game blog Kotaku they liked the reference , and did not know in advance it would be in the episode .
= = Reception = =
Parker and Stone themselves were not entirely pleased with the final result of " Margaritaville " . Although they liked the idea , they felt the main storyline involving the economy and the subplot involving Stan and the Margaritaville blender did not come together in the end as the duo originally hoped they would when they started writing the script . Parker said of the episode , " I give the concept on this an A , and the execution like a C- . " In its original American broadcast , " Margaritaville " was watched by 2 @.@ 77 million overall households , according to the Nielsen Media Research , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly said of the episode , " The episode was the most back @-@ handed endorsement imaginable of President Obama 's economic bailout plan . Or the most withering dismantling of it . As usual , South Park had it both ways . " Tucker also said of Cartman 's blaming the Jews for the recession , " Among its many achievements , South Park has exposed anti @-@ Semitism to such relentless ridicule over the years , it deserves some sort of humanitarian award . "
Financial writer Roger Nusbaum said the episode was not only " humorous " but provided a decent analysis of the recession . He particularly praised Randy 's inclusion of margaritas with the barest of necessities ; Nusbaum said most people tend to take on absurd expenses that they fail to realize are unnecessary , even as they discuss the plight of the economy . Brad Trechak of TV Squad called " Margaritaville " a highlight of the season . Mike Fahey of Kotaku said the episode had " a clever little plot " . Zac Bissonnette of BloggingStocks said of the episode , " It isn 't quite as trenchant as some of the other Wall Street satire that 's been making the rounds , but it 's definitely worth watching . " Carlos Delgado of If magazine said the episode included many excellent moments , including the headless chicken method of making economic decisions , but otherwise felt " Margaritaville " was not as strong as previous episodes like " The Ring " . Delgado said , " Maybe I 'm too depressed about the current economic situation , who knows , but although ' Margaritaville ' was well written and poignant , I wasn 't bursting out in laughter every two minutes . "
= = Emmy Award = =
Parker and Stone decided to submit " Margaritaville " for an Emmy Award because they had received a large amount of positive feedback about the episode from adults and older viewers . Since most Emmy voters are older , they decided " Margaritaville " stood the best chance of winning . Stone joked , " If an Emmy voter were to watch this , they might think the show was smarter than it was , so they might be fooled into voting for us . " " Margaritaville " ultimately won the 2009 Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program for Programming Less Than One Hour . It competed against Robot Chicken , The Simpsons and American Dad ! at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , which was held September 12 , 2009 .
= = Home release = =
" Margaritaville " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .
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= Henry Bell Gilkeson =
Henry Bell Gilkeson ( June 6 , 1850 – September 29 , 1921 ) was an American lawyer , politician , school administrator , and banker in West Virginia .
Gilkeson was born in Moorefield , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) , the eldest child of a dry goods merchant , and was raised in Romney . Following his graduation from Hampden – Sydney College , Gilkeson became a schoolteacher and served as superintendent of the Hampshire County Schools district from 1877 to 1879 . Gilkeson later studied law and started a law practice in Romney . Following the death of John Collins Covell in 1887 , Gilkeson served as the principal of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind until 1888 .
Gilkeson served in the West Virginia Legislature as a state senator representing the 12th District in the West Virginia Senate ( 1890 – 93 ) and as a member of the West Virginia House of Delegates ( 1883 – 85 and 1909 – 11 ) . Gilkeson served as the mayor of Romney beginning in 1885 , and the first president of the Bank of Romney ( 1888 – 1913 ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Henry Bell Gilkeson was born in Moorefield , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) on June 6 , 1850 . He was the eldest child of Robert B. Gilkeson and his wife , Sarah E. Gilkeson , both of Scottish ancestry . His father was a prominent dry goods merchant in Romney , where Henry and his brother , Edward , were raised .
Gilkeson graduated from Hampden – Sydney College in Hampden Sydney , Virginia , in 1872 . While a student , he was inducted as a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity . Gilkeson completed a special course in engineering at Yale University . He also received further education in Germany .
= = Academic career = =
Following his graduation from Hampden – Sydney College , Gilkeson became a schoolteacher and later served as superintendent of the Hampshire County Schools district from 1877 to 1879 . Before 1886 , Gilkeson was elected a member of the Romney Literary Society together with his brother .
= = = West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind = = =
From 1876 to 1888 , Gilkeson served as a member and secretary of the fourth , fifth , and sixth Board of Regents of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , a position that enabled him to become familiar with the school 's efforts to educate its deaf and blind students .
In 1887 , upon the death of the schools ' principal , John Collins Covell , Gilkeson was selected by the Board of Regents to serve as principal of the institution . The Board of Regents had reservations about selecting an immediate successor to Covell and requested that Gilkeson fill the position temporarily until the board could find a permanent replacement . Gilkeson left his lucrative law practice and accepted the position under the condition that he serve as interim principal while the Board of Regents sought a more suitable candidate to build upon Covell 's initiatives and reforms . Gilkeson believed that only administrators and educators fluent in sign language should be appointed to serve in the School for the Deaf , and during his tenure as principal he found that personnel who relied on interpreters did not receive " satisfactory results " . After he had spent a few weeks as acting principal , the Board of Regents reconvened and appointed him to stay on permanently .
During his tenure , the position of principal included the roles of clerk , bookkeeper , steward , and final arbiter of matters in the classroom . While Gilkeson lacked special training for the position , his business experience allowed him to run the schools in an economically efficient manner , which pleased the schools ' Board of Regents .
In the summer of 1888 , Gilkeson was delegated by the Board to Regents to attend the Conference of Superintendents and Principals of American Schools for the Deaf in New York City and select the most fitting candidate present at the conference or recommended someone to replace him as principal of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . Gilkeson tendered an offer to C. H. Hill , then an instructor at the Maryland School for the Deaf , and upon Gilkeson 's return to Romney he recommended Hill and resigned from his post as principal . Hill was subsequently appointed by the Board to fill the position . While the Board of Regents was pleased with Gilkeson 's performance as principal and wished for him to stay on in the position , but he preferred to return to his professional law and political career in the end .
Gilkeson resumed the practice of law and pursued a political career , but he continued his involvement with , and advocacy for , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , especially through his influence as a prominent lawyer and state legislator . Gilkeson used his position as a state legislator to condemn and hold accountable the officials responsible for the mismanagement of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , and often interceded on the schools ' behalf following Hill 's retirement due to political reasons . Gilkeson was displeased with the state 's political interference in the schools , and the " multiplication " of positions within the institution that were filled with personnel who had political or business ties but lacked prior knowledge or experience with deaf and blind education .
= = Law and political careers = =
Following his tenure as superintendent of Hampshire County Schools , Gilkeson undertook the study of law and started a law practice in Romney ; he subsequently became a prominent lawyer in the community . His law office was located on Main Street in Romney , two blocks from the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . Due to his preeminence in the legal field and high standing in the community , Gilkeson served as dean of the Hampshire County Bar Association .
Gilkeson was twice elected to represent Hampshire County as a member of the West Virginia House of Delegates for the 1883 – 85 and 1909 – 11 legislative sessions . As the leadership of the House of Delegates was being determined at the 1884 Democratic Party State Convention in Wheeling , Gilkeson was a leading contender for a speaker candidacy , but fellow Romney native Robert White was selected as the party 's candidate instead .
On August 13 , 1890 , the Twelfth Senatorial District Democratic Convention nominated Gilkeson to fill the vacant West Virginia State Senate seat of Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy . Gilkeson was elected to fill the seat during the general election of 1890 and served the remainder of Flournoy 's senate term until 1893 . At the time of his appointment , the Twelfth Senatorial District consisted of Grant , Hampshire , Hardy , Mineral , and Pendleton counties . In 1892 , Gilkeson was appointed to the Committees on the Judiciary , Public Buildings and Humane Institutions , Federal Relations , Forfeited , Delinquent , and Unappropriated Lands , and Clerks Office . In addition to serving in the state senate , Gilkeson also held the position of mayor of Romney , West Virginia , beginning in 1885 .
= = Banking and business career = =
Gilkeson served on the board of directors as the first president of the Bank of Romney after it was granted its charter by the West Virginia Legislature on September 3 , 1888 , and was opened later on December 20 , 1888 . During Gilkeson 's tenure as president , the Bank of Romney occupied two rooms on the ground floor of the Wirgman Building , where the city 's previous bank , the Bank of the Valley of Virginia , was located prior to the American Civil War . Gilkeson served as the president of the Bank of Romney until his retirement in 1913 , when he was succeeded by John J. Cornwell , 15th Governor of West Virginia . In November 1906 , Gilkeson , R. W. Dailey , Jr . , P. J. Ruckman , and Joshua Soule Zimmerman were incorporators of the Mill Mountain Orchard Company , which operated orchards along the top of Mill Creek Mountain west of Romney .
= = Later life and death = =
Gilkeson resided in Romney for the majority of his life and was involved in most of the community 's organizations as either a leader , officer , or stockholder . Gilkeson 's son Henry Bell Gilkeson , Jr . , died on November 16 , 1901 , from injuries sustained by falling against a piece of sharp iron , which penetrated his stomach . Gilkeson 's wife , Mary Katherine , predeceased him in February 1910 following the effects of a surgical procedure she had undergone in Cumberland , Maryland .
In his later years , Gilkeson suffered from allergic rhinitis and experienced a " physical breakdown " following the death of his son , Robert William Gilkeson , on October 2 , 1918 , during the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive of World War I and shortly before the Armistice with Germany . Robert William Gilkeson was a second lieutenant in Company C of the 316 Engineers , and was interred in the Meuse @-@ Argonne American Cemetery and Memorial near Romagne @-@ sous @-@ Montfaucon . Robert William Gilkeson was a 1907 graduate of his father 's alma mater , Hampden – Sydney College .
On account of his increasingly failing health , Gilkeson spent the summer of 1921 in Mountain Lake Park , Maryland , to recuperate . About a week before his death , Gilkeson fell down a flight of porch steps at his vacation residence , fracturing a number of bones . He died on September 29 , 1921 , in Mountain Lake Park , and his funeral was held on the anniversary of his son 's death on October 2 , 1921 . Gilkeson is interred with his wife Mary Katherine and son Henry , Jr . , at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney , West Virginia .
In recounting Gilkeson 's achievements to the Conference of Superintendents and Principals of American Schools for the Deaf following his death , West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind instructor Charles D. Seaton said of Gilkeson :
In 1980 , Gilkeson 's son @-@ in @-@ law George Sloan Arnold bequeathed the $ 1 @.@ 5 @-@ million George S. Arnold Trust to Hampden – Sydney College , his shared alma mater with his father @-@ in @-@ law and brother @-@ in @-@ law Robert William Gilkeson . At the time , it was the largest amount given by a living person and the institution 's second @-@ largest gift in its 204 @-@ year history . Arnold gave the trust in honor of the Gilkeson family .
= = Religious activities = =
Gilkeson was active in the Presbyterian Church in Hampshire County and served as a trustee for the Presbytery of Winchester along with Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy . In 1881 , Gilkeson and his fellow trustees were instrumental in securing from Amos L. and Allie G. Pugh a house and a large , partially wooded land lot in Capon Bridge for use by the Presbytery as a centrally located manse in Hampshire County . Gilkeson remained a trustee of the Presbytery from 1876 until his death in 1921 . He was also a commissioner of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States representing the Presbytery of Winchester , and attended the assembly 's meeting in Jackson , Mississippi , May 15 – 25 , 1902 .
= = Marriage and family = =
Gilkeson was married on November 19 , 1884 , to Mary Katherine Paxton ( 1853 – 1910 ) , daughter of Jordan J. and E. J. Paxton of Iron Gate , Virginia . Their wedding ceremony was officiated by Reverend George W. Finley of Romney at the residence of Mary Ann Lipscomb at 1537 I Street , N.W. in Washington , D.C. Mary Katherine had been employed as a teacher under Lipscomb at Waverly Seminary . Following the ceremony , Gilkeson and his wife embarked upon a tour of the Northern United States . Gilkeson and his wife Mary Katherine had three children together :
Laura Paxton Gilkeson Arnold ( August 18 , 1885 – 1973 ) , married Romney lawyer George Sloan Arnold ( 1885 – 1986 )
Robert William Gilkeson ( July 25 , 1887 – October 2 , 1918 )
Henry Bell Gilkeson , Jr . ( February 8 , 1890 – November 16 , 1901 )
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= Elvy Kalep =
Alviine @-@ Johanna Kalep ( 26 June 1899 – 15 August 1989 ) , known as Elvy Kalep , was an Estonian aviator and the country 's first female pilot , as well as an artist , toy designer and a one @-@ time children 's author .
Kalep grew up in Estonia and Russia , and subsequently moved to China to escape the Russian Civil War . She worked briefly as an interpreter for military officials in China before settling in Paris to study art with Alexandre Jacovleff . In 1931 , she qualified as a pilot in Germany , becoming the first Estonian female pilot . Befriending American aviatrix Amelia Earhart , she joined the Ninety @-@ Nines and took up the cause of encouraging other women to take up aviation . She wrote and illustrated a children 's book about flying , Air Babies , which was first published in 1936 .
After settling in the United States , Kalep founded a toy manufacturing business in New York . Although she was forced to close the business in 1946 due to her poor health , she made a living through the 1950s by selling patents to toy designs to larger businesses . In later decades , she created artworks out of leather , which she exhibited across the United States . She died in Florida in 1989 .
= = Early life = =
Kalep was born on 26 June 1899 in the village of Taali in Tori Parish , Pärnu County . She was the only child of Joanna ( née Liidemann ) and locksmith Aksel Emil , who both died when she was a young girl . She attended Tallinna Tütarlaste Kommertsgümnaasium , a girls ' secondary school in Tallinn . As a teenager , Kalep moved to Russia to live with an aunt in Saint Petersburg . She witnessed the events that sparked the February Revolution in 1917 , and spent a night in police detention as an eyewitness . She made a failed attempt to flee at the outset of the revolution , during which time she witnessed six men being shot while waiting in line to buy train tickets out of the country . She and her aunt moved to Vladivostok , where she married a Russian general , Count Slastšov , and had a son . She lived in Vladivostok for eight years , during which time she made numerous escape efforts , before her new family was able to successfully flee to China , a refuge they chose because of Slastšov 's ties to Zhang Zuolin .
Within a year of arriving in Harbin , China , Kalep 's son died and her husband disappeared . Kalep was able to support herself by working as an interpreter — she spoke Russian , German , English and Chinese — for a British general in Shenyang . She was also employed by Zhang Zuolin and later his son , Zhang Xueliang , but decided to return to Estonia in 1925 . She traveled through Indonesia , Italy and France before eventually arriving in Tallinn in 1926 . Soon afterwards she settled in Paris , where she studied the art of oil painting with Russian painter Alexandre Jacovleff . She married Rolf Baron von Hoeningen @-@ Bergendorff , who was of German or Austrian descent .
= = Aviation career = =
Kalep took up flying in the late 1920s , when she met Dutch aviator Anthony Fokker while holidaying in St. Moritz and asked him to teach her to fly a plane . She completed five hours of flying with Fokker and , after breaking her arm during a sledding accident in the winter of 1931 , took her pilot 's test in Germany on 1 August 1931 . She passed , becoming the first qualified female pilot from Estonia , and the seventh woman to pass the exam in Germany . Soon after receiving her license , Kalep and Valter Mayer , a German mechanic , co @-@ piloted a small Klemm plane from Berlin through Eastern Europe , stopping in Szczecin , Gdańsk , Kaunas , Jelgava and Riga , finally landing in Tallinn on 18 August . Upon her arrival in Tallinn , Kalep was greeted by a crowd of journalists and officers of the Estonian Air Force ; she briefly visited relatives in Nõmme before beginning her return journey to Amsterdam .
In May 1932 , Kalep traveled from France to New York on the steamship SS Paris with the intention of flying back to Europe across the Atlantic Ocean ; at the time , no woman had made a solo transatlantic flight . She befriended American aviation pioneer Amelia Earhart , who , unbeknownst to Kalep , was planning a similar feat . After Earhart 's successful flight from Canada to Ireland on 20 May , Kalep decided that it would not be worthwhile to make her own attempt at flying across the Atlantic , since she would no longer be the first woman to do so . She continued to encourage other women to enter the field of aviation , however , and became a member of the Ninety @-@ Nines , an international organisation for women pilots which was founded by Earhart and 98 other female aviators . In August 1932 , Kalep planned to fly with Roger Q. Williams from Los Angeles to Athens to celebrate the former city 's hosting of the 1932 Summer Olympics , but their flight was canceled . Soon after , it was reported that Kalep had remarried to W. E. Hutton @-@ Miller , an American stockbroker .
In 1936 , Kalep published the first edition of Air Babies , a children 's book that she wrote and illustrated to teach children about flying . The story followed two young planes , Happy Wings and Speedy , and a 1938 reprint included a foreword from Earhart , who embarked on her last flight three days after writing the piece ; she disappeared while flying in 1937 . Kalep later said of Earhart 's disappearance : " I miss her very much . When I heard that Amelia had disappeared , well , I fell apart . " She visited the 1939 New York World 's Fair to promote Air Babies on television and to speak at the National Woman 's Party luncheon .
= = Art and design career = =
After the outbreak of World War II in 1939 , and with the dissolution of her third marriage , Kalep began a new business venture in the American toy market . She designed a doll named Patsie Parachute which , when thrown into the air , would fall down slowly as a parachutist would . The dolls were produced in a New York factory where Kalep herself was forced to work to sustain the business . Her health deteriorated , however , and her profits from the business were spent almost entirely on medical costs ; she was forced to close the factory in 1946 . She had recovered by 1950 and made a living by selling patents for toy designs to larger businesses . One of her successful designs was Scribbles Dolls — toy dolls with blank faces that could be individually decorated by children — which was inspired by the 50 @,@ 000 doll heads she had left over from the closure of the Patsie Parachute factory .
In the 1960s , while living in Palm Beach , Florida , Kalep began creating leather artworks which she sold to her neighbours to make a living . She created three @-@ dimensional paintings made out of small pieces of coloured leather imported from France . Throughout the 1970s she showcased her art in exhibitions across the United States and sold works to high @-@ profile customers including Eugene Ormandy .
= = Death = =
Kalep died on 15 August 1989 , aged 90 , in the Regency Health Care Center of Lake Worth , Florida . She had lived in the facility since 1986 . She had been married three times but had no surviving family at the time of her death . Obituaries for Kalep were published in the Florida newspaper the Sun @-@ Sentinel and Vaba Eesti Sõna , an Estonian @-@ language newspaper published in New York .
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= Ryan Crowther =
Ryan John Crowther ( born 17 September 1988 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays for Ashton United as a winger . He started his career with his local side Stockport County , where he stayed for 10 years before moving to Liverpool in 2007 . After spending two years at Liverpool , he left by mutual consent having made no first team appearances .
Crowther went on several trials before joining Stalybridge Celtic in August 2010 . He left the club in September , having been sentenced to four months in prison , for a drunken attack on a taxi driver in Watford . After his release from prison he joined Ashton United , where he stayed until the end of the 2010 – 11 season , before Hyde , and later Fleetwood Town . Following his release from Fleetwood , Crowther joined non @-@ League side FC Halifax Town . At the end of the 2013 – 14 season he left Halifax Town after just 4 months at the club .
= = Career = =
= = = Stockport County and Liverpool = = =
Born in Stockport , Greater Manchester , Crowther spent nine years at his local club Stockport County moving through the youth system , before making his first team debut for the club on 2 January 2006 in a 2 – 2 draw against Cheltenham Town , where aged just 17 , he came on as a substitute and was made captain , making him the youngest captain in the club 's history . He went on to make one other senior appearance for Stockport before the club were approached by Liverpool requesting an opportunity to take both Crowther and Greg Tansey on trial with a view to take them to a tournament in Milan , and agreed deals with Stockport for both players subject to satisfactory performances from the players at the tournament . The players both went to the tournament and Crowther joined Liverpool on 9 July 2007 , with Tansey deciding to stay at Stockport . Crowther featured for the successful Liverpool reserve team during the 2007 – 08 season . On 18 August 2009 , it was confirmed that he had left Liverpool by mutual consent .
Just one week after leaving Liverpool he went on trial at Bournemouth . He also returned to Stockport where he played in a pre @-@ season friendly but was not offered a contract . In October 2009 he went on trial with Grimsby Town but again was not offered a contract .
= = = Drop into non @-@ League = = =
After several trials , he joined Stalybridge Celtic in August 2010 , making his debut for the club on 28 of that month in a Conference North match against Nuneaton Town . After just one more appearance , as a substitute , in a 1 – 0 defeat to Harrogate Town , he left the club to serve four months in prison after being convicted of assault . On his release from prison , he joined Northern Premier League outfit Ashton United . He scored his first goal for the club , in a Manchester Premier Cup game against Irlam Town , which Crowther 's side won 7 – 0 . He scored his first league goal for the club on the following weekend , as his side were beaten 6 – 3 by Frickley Athletic . He played 25 games in the 2010 – 11 season in total , scoring four goals . However , Crowther joined Ashton 's neighbours Hyde in June 2011 . He made his debut on the opening day of the 2011 – 12 season as his side beat Worcester City 2 – 1 , Crowther scored the opening goal . He scored one more goal in August as Hyde came out as 4 – 0 winners over Hinckley United . Crowther played a total of 17 games , in which he scored nine goals , during his short spell with Hyde .
= = = Fleetwood Town = = =
On 18 November 2011 , he left Hyde in order to join Conference National club Fleetwood Town on a free transfer . He made his Fleetwood debut a day later as a second @-@ half substitute as his side beat Crowther 's former team Stockport 2 – 1 .
In January 2012 he returned to former club Hyde on a three @-@ month loan , with a recall possible after 28 days . He returned to Fleetwood after playing 14 games scoring two goals , and he played in Fleetwood 's game against Cambridge United , in which they lost . He re @-@ joined Hyde on loan for the second time , in August 2012 . Making his third debut for the club away at Forest Green Rovers , scoring in a 3 – 1 defeat . He scored the winner for Hyde in October as his side won 1 – 0 away at Cambridge United . He scored twice in two games in November scoring in a 3 – 2 win over Grimsby Town , and a 3 – 2 defeat at Ebbsfleet United respectively . He returned to Fleetwood in January 2013 playing 18 times scoring four times in his third spell with the club .
He made a goal scoring return for Fleetwood , scoring on his first game after returning from Hyde , in a 3 – 0 win over Oxford United . He scored his second goal for the club again against Oxford United three games later . He finished the 2012 – 13 season having played 18 times scoring four goals for Hyde , and 15 games scoring two goals for Fleetwood .
On 30 January 2014 , Crowther was released from Fleetwood Town .
= = = FC Halifax Town = = =
Following his release from Fleetwood , Crowther joined Conference Premier side FC Halifax Town . Crowther scored on his Halifax debut in the 3 – 1 away defeat to Lincoln City on 1 February 2014 .
= = Personal life = =
In an interview with Liverpool Football Club , he stated that if he wasn 't a footballer he would have been a physio . On 12 September 2010 , he was jailed for four months over a drunken attack on a taxi driver which had taken place on 9 August 2009 in Watford , Hertfordshire . He was tried for racially aggravated assault occasioning actual bodily harm but a jury acquitted him of that charge , but found him guilty of an alternative charge of assaulting the taxi driver .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 11 February 2014
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= John Slessor =
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir John Cotesworth Slessor , GCB , DSO , MC ( 3 June 1897 – 12 July 1979 ) , sometimes known as Jack Slessor , was a senior commander in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , serving as Chief of the Air Staff from 1950 to 1952 . As a pilot in the Royal Flying Corps during the First World War , he saw action with No. 17 Squadron in the Middle East , earning the Military Cross , and with No. 5 Squadron on the Western Front , where he was awarded the Belgian Croix de Guerre . Between the wars he commanded No. 4 Squadron in England , and No. 3 ( Indian ) Wing , earning the Distinguished Service Order for operations with the latter in Waziristan . In 1936 , he published Air Power and Armies , which examined the use of air power against targets on and behind the battlefield .
Slessor held several operational commands in the Second World War . As Air Officer Commanding Coastal Command in 1943 and 1944 , he was credited with doing much to turn the tide of the Battle of the Atlantic through his use of long @-@ range bombers against German U @-@ boats . He was knighted in June 1943 . In the closing stages of the war he became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief RAF Mediterranean and Middle East and deputy to Lieutenant General Ira Eaker as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Mediterranean Allied Air Forces , conducting operations in the Italian Campaign and Yugoslavia . Slessor went on to serve in the RAF 's most senior post , Chief of the Air Staff , in the early 1950s , and was considered a strong proponent of strategic bombing and the nuclear deterrent . In retirement he published two more books , including an autobiography , and held ceremonial appointments in Somerset .
= = Early life and First World War = =
The son of Major Arthur Kerr Slessor and Adelaide Slessor ( née Cotesworth ) , Slessor was born in Ranikhet , India , on 3 June 1897 , and educated at Haileybury . Lame in both legs as a result of polio , he was rejected for army service in 1914 and only received a commission as a second lieutenant in the Royal Flying Corps on 6 July 1915 with the help of family connections . He was appointed to the Special Reserve as a flying officer on 9 September 1915 , and confirmed in his rank of second lieutenant on 28 September . Slessor saw action with No. 17 Squadron in Egypt and the Sudan , where he was credited with arresting the escape of Sultan Ali Dinar and 2 @,@ 000 men on 23 May 1916 , following the Sultan 's defeat at Beringia . He was mentioned in despatches on 25 October before being wounded in the thigh and invalided back to England .
Slessor was promoted to the temporary rank of captain on 1 December 1916 . Awarded the Military Cross on 1 January 1917 , he returned to combat in April as a flight commander with No. 5 Squadron on the Western Front . The squadron converted from Royal Aircraft Factory BE.2s to R.E.8s soon afterwards . Promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant on 1 July 1917 , Slessor was appointed a Chevalier of the Belgian Order of Leopold on 24 September , and awarded the Belgian Croix de Guerre on 11 March 1918 . He transferred to the newly formed Royal Air Force in April 1918 and , having been promoted to the temporary rank of major on 3 July 1918 , was posted to the Central Flying School at Upavon as an instructor on 14 July 1918 .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
Having left the RAF as a flight lieutenant on 21 August 1919 , Slessor applied to rejoin and was offered a short @-@ service commission at the same rank on 24 February 1920 . In May 1921 , he became a flight commander with No. 20 Squadron , which operated Bristol Fighters on the North @-@ West Frontier of India . He joined the staff at the Directorate of Training and Staff Duties in the Air Ministry in February 1923 . The same year , he married Hermione Grace Guinness ; they had a son and a daughter . He attended the RAF Staff College , Andover , in 1924 , and was promoted squadron leader on 1 January 1925 .
Slessor commanded No. 4 ( Army Cooperation ) Squadron , which flew Bristol Fighters out of RAF Farnborough , from April 1925 to October 1928 , when he joined the air planning staff at the Directorate of Operations and Intelligence at the Air Ministry . He attended the Staff College , Camberley , in 1931 , and was appointed RAF Directing Staff Officer there in January 1932 . Slessor was promoted acting wing commander on 1 January 1932 ( substantive on 1 July ) . He became Officer Commanding No. 3 ( Indian ) Wing at Quetta in March 1935 , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for operations in Waziristan between 25 November 1936 and 16 January 1937 .
In 1936 , Slessor published Air Power and Armies , an examination of the use of air power against targets on and behind the battlefield . In this work he advocated army co @-@ operation , interdiction to cut off enemy reinforcements and supply , and the use of aerial bombardment as a weapon against enemy morale . He did , however , acknowledge the limitations of his theory , stating :
... the conditions envisaged throughout [ this book ] are those of a campaign on the land in which the primary problem at the time is the defeat of an enemy army in the field . ... in a war against a great Naval power at sea , or when the principle threat to the Empire at the time is the action of hostile air forces against this country or its possessions , the aim and objectives of the air forces of the Empire will not be the same as described in this book .
On 17 May 1937 , following his posting to India , Slessor was promoted acting group captain , and appointed Deputy Director of Plans at the Air Ministry . He was promoted to substantive group captain on 1 July 1937 . Mentioned in despatches on 18 February 1938 , he took over as Director of Plans on 22 December 1938 . He was appointed Air Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp to the King on 1 January 1939 .
= = Second World War = =
Slessor was promoted air commodore on the first day of the Second World War , 1 September 1939 , and was succeeded as Air Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp by Group Captain Ralph Cochrane . On 10 January 1941 , he was raised to temporary air vice marshal ( made permanent in April 1942 ) and became Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) No.5 ( Bomber ) Group in May 1941 . Appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath and mentioned in despatches in January 1942 , he was appointed Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in April 1942 . Slessor was closely involved in planning the combined Allied air offensive in Europe . At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943 , he was able to influence Britain 's Secretary for Air , Sir Archibald Sinclair , and Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal , to agree to USAAF proposals that led to a " round @-@ the clock " bombing policy against Germany , with the US mounting daylight precision attacks and the RAF conducting area bombing at night .
Appointed AOC Coastal Command with the acting rank of air marshal on 5 February 1943 , Slessor had at his disposal sixty squadrons , two of which were equipped with B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers . He was credited with doing much to turn the tide of the Battle of the Atlantic in the Allies ' favour by employing his thinly stretched long @-@ range bomber force against the U @-@ boat threat , in close cooperation with naval forces . Promoted temporary air marshal on 1 June 1943 , he was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1943 Birthday Honours . Slessor became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief RAF Mediterranean and Middle East in January 1944 , and deputy to Lieutenant General Ira Eaker as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Mediterranean Allied Air Forces . In this role he conducted operations in the Italian Campaign and Yugoslavia , establishing the Balkan Air Force in the latter theatre . Slessor joined the Air Council as Air Member for Personnel on 5 April 1945 . His rank of air marshal became substantive on 6 June . He was awarded the Grand Cross of the Greek Order of the Phoenix on 6 September 1946 . His war service also earned him appointment as a Commander of the Belgian Order of Leopold on 27 August 1948 , and a Knight Grand Cross of the Norwegian Order of St. Olav on 6 March 1953 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Slessor was promoted air chief marshal on 1 January 1946 . He continued to serve as Air Member for Personnel , responsible for overseeing the demobilisation of the wartime RAF , until 1 October 1947 . At the urging of the @-@ then Chief of the Air Staff , Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir Arthur Tedder , Slessor succeeded General Sir William Slim as Commandant of the Imperial Defence College . Slessor had been dubious about accepting the position , and sought assurances from Tedder that he would be next in line for the post of Chief of the Air Staff , particularly in light of Tedder 's preference for Air Chief Marshal Sir Ralph Cochrane to succeed him . Meanwhile , Slessor was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 10 June 1948 , and became Principal Air Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp to the King on 1 July . In the event , he took over from Tedder as Chief of the Air Staff on 1 January 1950 , and chose Cochrane as his Vice Chief of the Air Staff . Slessor was promoted Marshal of the Royal Air Force on 8 June 1950 . In late 1951 , he reluctantly became involved in the Australian Government 's quest for a suitable RAF officer to serve as Chief of the Air Staff of the Royal Australian Air Force . He eventually selected Air Marshal Donald Hardman as the " outstanding candidate " for the Australian post , trying to avoid what he called " the follies of some years ago " , referring to Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett 's controversial tenure as Chief of the Air Staff in Australia on secondment from Britain in the early years of the Second World War .
As leader of the RAF , Slessor coined the term " V @-@ Force " to denote its planned trio of strategic jet bombers — the Vickers Valiant , Handley Page Victor , and Avro Vulcan — and contributed to the decision to build all three designs . He played a key role in promoting nuclear weapons as an effective instrument of deterrence in early Cold War British strategy . In 1952 , the RAF argued that , because bombers were such an important deterrent , conventional forces could be drastically reduced at a time when the Government was seeking significant public expenditure savings . Slessor believed it unlikely that the United Kingdom would be able to meet a communist offensive without resorting to the use of tactical nuclear weapons . He became one of the key propagandists of the " Great Deterrent " ( which he employed as the title of a book he wrote after he retired ) on both sides of the Atlantic . Slessor 's term as Chief of the Air Staff was dominated by the Korean War .
= = Later life = =
Completing his term as Chief of the Air Staff on 31 December 1952 , Slessor was succeeded by Air Chief Marshal Sir William Dickson and retired from the RAF on 29 January 1953 . He attended the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in June 1953 . In retirement he published two books : his autobiography , The Central Blue ( 1956 ) , and The Great Deterrent ( 1957 ) . He served as Honorary Air Commodore of No. 3 ( County of Devon ) Maritime Headquarters Unit , Royal Auxiliary Air Force , from 23 May 1963 to 5 May 1969 . His wife , Lady Hermione , was appointed a Serving Sister of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem on 2 July 1963 .
On 24 March 1965 , Slessor was appointed Sheriff of Somerset for the following year . He was commissioned a Deputy Lieutenant of Somerset in April 1969 . Slessor was also a director of Blackburn Aircraft and governor of several schools . After Hermione 's death , he married Marcella Florence Priest ( née Spurgeon ) in 1971 . Slessor died at the Princess Alexandra Hospital , Wroughton , in Wiltshire on 12 July 1979 . His son John also joined the RAF , rising to the rank of group captain .
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= John Key =
John Phillip Key ( born 9 August 1961 ) is the 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand , in office since 2008 . He has led the New Zealand National Party since 2006 .
Born in Auckland before moving to Christchurch when he was a child , Key attended the University of Canterbury and graduated in 1981 with a bachelor of commerce . He began a career in the foreign exchange market in New Zealand before moving overseas to work for Merrill Lynch , in which he became head of global foreign exchange in 1995 , a position he would hold for six years . In 1999 he was appointed a member of the Foreign Exchange Committee of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York until leaving in 2001 .
Key entered the New Zealand Parliament representing the Auckland electorate of Helensville as one of the few new National members of parliament in the election of 2002 following National 's significant defeat of that year . He has held the seat since then . In 2004 , he was appointed Finance Spokesman for National and eventually succeeded Don Brash as the National Party leader in 2006 . After two years as Leader of the Opposition , Key led his party to victory at the November 2008 general election , and repeated this feat at both the November 2011 general election and September 2014 general election .
As Prime Minister , Key leads the Fifth National Government of New Zealand which entered government at the beginning of the late @-@ 2000s recession in 2008 . In his first term , Key 's government implemented a GST rise and personal tax cuts . In February 2011 , a major earthquake in Christchurch , the nation 's second largest city , significantly affected the national economy and the government formed the Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority in response . In its second term , Key 's government announced a policy of partial privatisation of five state @-@ owned enterprises ; while the policy was enacted , voters in a citizens @-@ initiated referendum on the issue were 2 to 1 opposed to the policy . In foreign policy , Key announced the withdrawal of New Zealand Defence Force personnel from their deployment in the war in Afghanistan , signed the Wellington Declaration with the United States and pushed for more nations to join the Trans @-@ Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership .
= = Personal life = =
Key was born in Auckland , New Zealand , to George Key ( 1914 – 1969 ) and Ruth Key ( née Lazar ; 1922 – 2000 ) , on 9 August 1961 . His father was an English immigrant and a veteran of the Spanish Civil War and World War II . Key and his two sisters were raised in a state house in the Christchurch suburb of Bryndwr , by his mother , an Austrian Jewish immigrant .
He attended Aorangi School , and then Burnside High School from 1975 to 1979 . Then he attended the University of Canterbury and earned a Bachelor of Commerce degree in accounting in 1981 . He has attended management studies courses at Harvard University .
Key met his wife Bronagh when they were both students at Burnside High School . They married in 1984 . She also has a BCom degree , and worked as a personnel consultant before becoming a full @-@ time mother . They have two children , Stephie and Max . Max is the new night @-@ time radio host for George FM , and is also a singer .
On 25 July 2008 , Key was added to the New Zealand National Business Review ( NBR ) Rich List for the first time . The list details the wealthiest New Zealand individuals and family groups . Key had an estimated wealth of NZ $ 50 million . Key is the wealthiest New Zealand Member of Parliament .
= = Before politics = =
Key 's first job was in 1982 , as an auditor at McCulloch Menzies , and he then moved to be a project manager at Christchurch @-@ based clothing manufacturer Lane Walker Rudkin for two years . Key began working as a foreign exchange dealer at Elders Finance in Wellington , and rose to the position of head foreign exchange trader two years later , then moved to Auckland @-@ based Bankers Trust in 1988 .
In 1995 , he joined Merrill Lynch as head of Asian foreign exchange in Singapore . That same year he was promoted to Merrill 's global head of foreign exchange , based in London , where he may have earned around US $ 2 @.@ 25 million a year including bonuses , which is about NZ $ 5 million at 2001 exchange rates . Some co @-@ workers called him " the smiling assassin " for maintaining his usual cheerfulness while sacking dozens ( some say hundreds ) of staff after heavy losses from the 1998 Russian financial crisis . He was a member of the Foreign Exchange Committee of the New York Federal Reserve Bank from 1999 to 2001 .
In 1998 , on learning of his interest in pursuing a political career , the National Party president John Slater began working actively to recruit him . Former party leader Jenny Shipley describes him as one of the people she " deliberately sought out and put my head on the line – either privately or publicly – to get them in there " .
= = Member of Parliament = =
Auckland 's population growth , as evidenced in the 2001 census , led to the formation for the 2002 General Election of a new electorate called Helensville , which covered the north @-@ western corner of the Auckland urban area . Key beat long @-@ serving National MP Brian Neeson ( whose own Waitakere seat had moved on paper to being a Labour seat through the boundary changes ) for the National Party Helensville selection . At the 2002 elections Key won the seat with a majority of 1 @,@ 705 , ahead of Labour 's Gary Russell , with Neeson , now standing as an independent , coming third . Key won re @-@ election with ease at the 2005 election garnering 63 % of votes cast in Helensville , and increased his majority again in 2008 , gaining 73 % of the electorate vote .
= = = Finance spokesman = = =
In 2004 the National Party Parliamentary leader Don Brash promoted Key to the Opposition front benches and appointed him the party spokesman for finance . In late 2006 Brash resigned as leader , citing damaging speculation over his future as the reason . His resignation followed controversies over an extramarital affair , and over leaked internal National Party documents later published in the book The Hollow Men .
= = = Leader of the Opposition = = =
In his maiden speech as National Party leader on 28 November 2006 , Key talked of an " underclass " that had been " allowed to develop " in New Zealand , a theme which received a large amount of media coverage . Key followed up on this speech in February 2007 by committing his party to a programme which would provide food in the poorest schools in New Zealand .
He relented on his stance in opposition to Sue Bradford 's Child Discipline Bill , which sought to remove " reasonable force " as a defence for parents charged with prima facie assault of their children . Many parents saw this bill as an attempt to ban smacking outright . Key and Prime Minister Helen Clark agreed a compromise – giving police the discretion to overlook smacking they regarded as " inconsequential " .
In August 2007 Key came in for criticism when he changed his position regarding the Therapeutic Products and Medicine Bill :
" John Key had finally slipped up . National 's leader had told the Herald on Tuesday he would have signed up to a New Zealand First @-@ initiated compromise on the stalled Therapeutic Products and Medicines Bill had he seen it – and was still willing to sign up – only to change his mind yesterday after his remarks appeared in print . "
Also in August 2007 , Labour 's Trevor Mallard hinted in Parliament that Labour would try to link Key to the 1987 " H @-@ Fee " scandal , which involved Key 's former employer Elders Merchant Finance and a payment to Equiticorp Chief Executive Allan Hawkins . Hawkins and Elders executive Ken Jarrett were later jailed for fraud . Key forestalled the accusation by declaring that he had left Elders months before the event , that he had no knowledge of the deal , and that his interview with the Serious Fraud Office ( SFO ) during the investigation into the affair could only have helped to convict the people involved . Then @-@ SFO director Charles Sturt publicly supported Key 's statement .
Labour MPs criticised Key for not releasing specific policy information at their annual conference . Key responded that National would set its own policy agenda and that there was adequate time before the next election for voters to digest National Party policy proposals .
= = = Prime Minister = = =
Key became Prime Minister following the general election on 8 November 2008 which signalled an end to the Labour @-@ led government of nine years under Helen Clark . The National Party , promoting a policy of " change " , won 45 % of the party vote and 59 of the 122 seats in Parliament ( including a two @-@ seat overhang ) , a substantial margin over the Labour Party , which won 43 seats .
Key was sworn in as Prime Minister and Minister of Tourism and also appointed as a member of the Executive Council on 19 November 2008 with his new cabinet . His first international outing as Prime Minister was the 20th APEC meeting in Peru the following day .
Arriving at the Ngapuhi Te Tii Waitangi Marae the day before Waitangi Day 2009 , Key was briefly shoved and grabbed by two protesters before diplomatic protection officers pulled them off . He told reporters he was " quite shocked " but continued onto the marae and spoke , while police took the two men away and charged them with assault .
Key has also been tied with the National Cycleway Project since its conception at the national Job Summit in early 2009 . He proposed it , and as Minister for Tourism , was instrumental in getting NZ $ 50 million approved for initial construction work .
In January 2009 , after addressing Chinese New Year celebrations at the Greenlane ASB Showgrounds , Key tripped after coming down a small set of stairs in front of cameras leaving him with a broken right arm and " embarrassed " .
= = = Controversies = = =
During his first term in office , National remained high in the polls and one commentator described support for John Key as " stratospheric " . In 2011 he was nicknamed " Teflon John " , as nothing damaging to his reputation seemed to " stick " to him . Coming up to the election in 2011 , the gloss began to come off . In October that year , Key was caught up in a controversy over the replacement of 34 three @-@ year @-@ old Government BMW limousines with new ones at a time of economic restraint . Initially , Key denied any knowledge of the plan , although reports later surfaced showing that his office was aware of the deal . Key was accused of hypocrisy ; he eventually apologised , calling it a ' sloppy ' deal , effectively placing most of the blame on his chief of staff .
That same month , Key made a statement in which he claimed that Standard and Poor 's had said that " if there was a change of Government , that downgrade would be much more likely " . S & P contradicted the claim , bringing Key 's credibility into question . National won the election , but New Zealand 's credit rating was subsequently downgraded anyway – by two different agencies – Standard and Poor 's and Fitch Group .
The real turning @-@ point in the public 's perception of Mr Key began with the teapot tapes . Just before the election in November 2011 , a recording was made of a conversation between John Key and ACT Party candidate John Banks that they considered private – despite the fact that the meeting took place in a cafe and the media were invited to attend . Mr Key made a complaint to the police and compared the incident to illegal hacking in the News of the World scandal in Britain . He refused to answer media questions about what was said and the incident dominated media discussion in the days before the election . The unreleased recording allegedly concerns the leadership of ACT and disparaging remarks about elderly New Zealand First supporters .
The event causing perhaps the most embarrassment to John Key was the arrest of Kim Dotcom and the subsequent revelations that the New Zealand Government Communications Security Bureau ( GCSB ) had illegally spied on Dotcom . As Prime Minister , John Key is directly responsible for the GCSB , which is not allowed to spy on New Zealand citizens – and Dotcom had been granted permanent residency . Three days later , the Prime Minister John Key apologised for the illegal spying . " I apologize to Mr Dotcom . I apologize to New Zealanders because every New Zealander … is entitled to be protected from the law when it comes to the GCSB , and we failed to provide that appropriate protection for him . " It subsequently came to light that deputy Prime Minister Bill English had been asked to sign a " ministerial certificate " suppressing details of the GCSB 's involvement in the case while Mr Key was overseas – the only time this had been done in the last ten years .
In November 2012 , Key told students at St Hilda 's Collegiate in Dunedin that football star David Beckham was " thick as batshit " . The comments were picked up by UK papers The Daily Mirror and The Sun . On the same day , there was controversy over Key 's comments to a radio host that his shirt was " gay " . " You 're munted mate , you 're never gonna make it , you ’ ve got that gay red top on there " , he told host Jamie Mackay on RadioSport 's Farming Show . The following day , Lord of the Rings actor Sir Ian McKellen said in a blog entry that Key should " watch his language " .
The potential fallout from Dotcom 's arrest continued in December 2012 when the High Court ordered the GCSB to " confirm all entities " to which it gave information opening the door for Dotcom to sue for damages – against the spy agency and the police . Later that month , John Key 's rating as preferred PM dropped to 39 % – the first time in his four years as prime minister that his rating had slipped below 40 % .
In March 2013 it emerged that Key has known Ian Fletcher , head of the GCSB , since they were at school , but he denied that the pair were friends . But in early April it was revealed that Key had personally picked Fletcher for the role at the GCSB , encouraging Fletcher to apply for the role . Despite Key 's office claiming Fletcher was " the best candidate for the job " , Fletcher was in fact the only candidate interviewed . Key said he hadn 't originally mentioned the phone call because he " forgot " . Political commentator Bryce Edwards called it the " most appalling political management since he became Prime Minister back in 2008 " . Key was critical of reporting on the GSCB saga , calling journalists " knuckleheads " in a radio interview .
In April 2013 whilst visiting Chinese president Xi Jinping in Beijing , Key made headlines by suggesting New Zealand would back any United States or Australian military action against North Korea . The following day he backtracked , saying the chance of New Zealand troops entering North Korea was " so far off the planet " .
In May 2014 Key justified the use of New Zealand intelligence that resulted in innocent civilians falling to American targeted killings .
In April 2015 a waitress claimed and Key acknowledged that he had pulled her ponytail multiple times over several months ; when Key learnt she had taken offence , he apologised . International media have reported the incident as " ponytail @-@ gate " .
= = = UN Security Council bid = = =
Key launched New Zealand 's campaign for a Security Council seat at the UN General Assembly meeting in September 2009 . He met briefly with US President Barack Obama and former US President Bill Clinton . While in New York , Key appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman . He read out the Top Ten list , ' Top Ten Reasons You Should Visit New Zealand ' .
Key continued New Zealand 's push for a spot on the Security Council while in New York in 2013 . There he accused rival candidates Spain and Turkey of using aid money to buy votes from small African countries , and said New Zealand would not be spending its way onto the Council . While in New York , Key suddenly fell ill , but recovered in time for meetings with representatives from other countries ahead of the General Assembly .
= = = Intelligence reform = = =
On 6 October 2014 , John Key created a new ministerial portfolio called the Minister of National Security and Intelligence . The Minister of National Security and Intelligence will be responsible for setting national security and intelligence police and legislation , and will also head a newly established Cabinet National Security Committee . The Prime Minister will assume the new portfolio while the Attorney General Christopher Finlayson will assume the portfolios of Minister Responsible for the Government Communications Security Bureau ( GCSB ) and Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service ( NZSIS ) , which have traditionally been held by the Prime Minister .
= = Political views = =
Key 's views are largely aligned with his own party 's view . However he also notes that his differences from his predecessor are more of style and focus rather than view . Key has in the past noted others ' concern at the pace of asset sales , but argued that the arguments against selling assets in the 1980s were largely irrational . In a 2002 interview he said " some form of orientation towards privatisation " in health , education and superannuation , such as giving firms tax breaks for employer super schemes , made sense . After leading the National party to victory in the 2011 election , Key rejected that the National Party lacks a mandate to partially sell off state @-@ owned assets , he acknowledged that some New Zealanders were anxious about the mixed ownership model . " But I think we got a mandate . "
Key has a mixed voting record on social issues : he voted against the bill creating civil unions , claiming that this represented his constituents ' views but he supports them personally . He was part of a large block of MPs voting to defeat a bill that defined marriage as being between a man and a woman . Key has also stated that he does not oppose gay adoption . He voted for the Marriage ( Definition of Marriage ) Amendment Act 2013 .
In 2008 Key voted for an ill @-@ fated attempt to raise the legal drinking age from 18 back to 20 but subsequently ignored a Law Commission recommendation to increase levies on alcohol . He claimed there was ' no appetite ' for such a move . A ' suppressed ' report on public attitudes to alcohol law reform eventually came to light indicating that in 2010 , when he made this claim , 56 % of New Zealanders supported a price increase .
Key says that he believes that global warming is a real phenomenon , and that the Government needs to implement measures to reduce human contribution to global warming . Key has committed the National Party to working towards reducing greenhouse emissions in New Zealand by 50 % within the next fifty years . Commentators note that as recently as 2005 , Key made statements indicating that he was sceptical of the effects and impact of climate change .
Critics note that Key has changed his views on the Iraq war since becoming leader of the opposition . In 2003 , as an opposition MP , Key emphasised National 's position of supporting New Zealand 's traditional allies , the United States and Australia . Key came under fire in the New Zealand Parliament in August 2007 , when the Government claimed that had Key been Prime Minister at the time , he would have sent troops to Iraq .
Like his predecessor Helen Clark , Key views a New Zealand republic as " inevitable " , although probably not for another decade . " If Australia becomes a republic there is no question it will set off quite an intense debate on this side of the Tasman , " he said , " We would have to have a referendum if we wanted to move towards it . " Key later stated that he is a monarchist , and that a New Zealand republic would " Not [ happen ] under my watch " . Key is a supporter of changing the Flag of New Zealand , and during the 2014 general election campaign promised a referendum on the issue . Following the election he stated he hoped the referendum would be completed in 2015 .
= = Religious views = =
Key attends church frequently with his children , but is an agnostic . He has stated that he does not believe in an afterlife , and sees religion as " doing the right thing " . Key 's wife , Bronagh ( née Dougan ) Key , is the daughter of Northern Irish emigrants of mixed religious descent . Key is the third prime minister or premier of New Zealand ( after Julius Vogel and Francis Bell ) with Jewish ancestry .
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= On a Clear Night =
On a Clear Night is the second studio album by Australian singer @-@ songwriter Missy Higgins , released by Eleven on 28 April 2007 . Higgins started work on the album straight after finishing her 2004 debut , The Sound of White . She spent six months of 2006 in Broome , Western Australia , writing new material . She composed songs inspired by the landscape , and by past relationships . She wrote more material while touring the US and at the end of the year travelled to Los Angeles to record with Mitchell Froom .
The album was released on 28 April 2007 in Australia , with three singles ; " Steer " , " Where I Stood " and " Peachy " . The album went to No. 1 on the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) albums chart and was certified triple platinum . " Steer " topped the ARIA singles chart and " Where I Stood " went to No. 10 . To help her break into the US market , Higgins ' manager and Eleven 's president John Watson endeavored to get her songs featured in US television shows . " Where I Stood " was used in shows including Grey 's Anatomy , One Tree Hill and So You Think You Can Dance .
On a Clear Night drew mixed reviews from critics both in Australia and abroad . More positive reviews compared Higgins to Sarah McLachlan and Alanis Morissette , and praised the album 's maturity and assertiveness compared to The Sound of White . Less complimentary reviews said that On a Clear Night fails to lift Higgins above the level of her peers . Higgins was nominated for four awards at the 2007 ARIA Music Awards and won ' Best Female Artist ' .
= = Background and recording = =
Higgins started writing tracks for her second album as soon as she had finished recording The Sound of White , which was released in 2004 . She said , " I started quite early because I knew there would a lot of pressure for the second album and I didn 't want to write songs under anyone 's stopwatch . " " 100 Round the Bends " was written while she was still recording the first album . During 2006 , Higgins spent six months living in Broome , Western Australia , away from the distractions of the entertainment industry . Here she was able to relax and focus on creating new material for her next album . The landscape around Broome inspired the lyrics for " Going North " . She said , " It was the first place I 'd ever felt honestly connected with my country , with the physical land of my country " . The lyrics for " Steer " were inspired when Higgins looked up at the night sky on a Broome beach : " It dawned on me how small we are , how short life is ... I felt so liberated to have finally figured that out . "
Several of the songs on the album drew their lyrics from real life relationships . " Peachy " documents the permanent breakup of a relationship that had inspired her 2004 single " Ten Days " . " Where I Stood " , which Higgins calls " a pretty sad love song " , describes the end of another relationship . She said it portrays " one of those situations where you just feel that leaving this person is something you have to do to get to know yourself again . " " Secret " was about an ex @-@ girlfriend who was uncomfortable about going public with their relationship ; " I was so head over heels in love with her I kind of wanted to shout it out to the world , so it was just a song about keeping something under the covers ... keeping it away locked in a little room . "
She left Broome to tour the United States , and continued to write material on the road . While much of the her first album revolved around the piano , most of the songs from On a Clear Night were guitar @-@ based . This was because Higgins had easier access to a guitar than keyboards while touring . She said , " I hadn 't been playing guitar very long for the first album so I think I 'm definitely a better guitar player , and probably a worse piano player because I haven 't been able to play it much over the last few years " .
In the second half of 2006 , Higgins moved to Los Angeles to record On a Clear Night with American musician and producer Mitchell Froom , an experience Higgins described as " really easy and really fun . " They spent three months recording in Froom 's home studio with session musicians including Matt Chamberlain ( drums ) , Davey Faragher ( bass ) and Greg Leisz ( mandolin ) . Neil Finn of Crowded House played guitar on " Peachy " and sang backing vocals on " Going North " .
= = Release and promotion = =
On a Clear Night was released 28 April 2007 on Eleven . It debuted at No. 1 on the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) albums chart and stayed on the chart for 39 weeks . By 12 June it had sold 35 @,@ 627 units and was eventually certified triple platinum . It peaked at No. 14 on the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) albums chart . The first single from the album was " Steer " , released as an extended play ( EP ) on 14 April 2007 . It debuted on the ARIA singles chart at No. 1 and stayed on the chart for 11 weeks . " Where I Stood " was released 4 August and entered the chart ( and peaked ) at No. 10 . " Peachy " was released for digital download only on 10 November 2007 . Higgins spent November and December promoting the album in Australia on her For One Night Only Tour , taking in Cairns , Sydney and Perth . She was joined on some dates by You Am I lead singer , Tim Rogers .
Eleven 's president and Higgins ' manager John Watson noted that her first album , The Sound of White had achieved limited success in North America . He said , " There 's high name recognition there ... but not a high song recognition . " To promote On a Clear Night , he sought placement of its songs in US films and television shows . " Where I Stood " featured in Grey 's Anatomy , One Tree Hill , Brothers & Sisters , Lipstick Jungle , Smallville , The Hills , Men in Trees and So You Think You Can Dance . Higgins toured the US from July – October 2007 with her new material . The album was released in the US on 26 February 2008 on the Warner Bros. label . It reached No. 193 on the Billboard 200 . Higgins then spent 10 months of 2008 in the US promoting the album and toured as a support act with the Indigo Girls and then Ben Folds .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The album received mixed reviews in Australia . Writing for the Sydney Morning Herald , Bernard Zuel said that Higgins ' second album was the chance to prove herself as a " special one " , but that she had failed to do so . He called the album " attractive , in a comfortable way " and said that it would appeal to her fans , but said that Higgins is " no better or worse " than many other similar artists . Andrew Murfett for The Age was more positive and called the album " a convincing return " . He cited " Secret " as a highlight and called the song " remarkably forthright " . He also praised Froom 's production .
In the US , reviews were also mixed but generally positive . Andrew Leahey of Allmusic said that On a Clear Night marks a development from The Sound of White and that the second album combines " sass with sweet sentiment " although at times is " a bit too calculated " . He compared Higgins to Sarah McLachlan and Amy Winehouse , calling her " family friendly " but said that her popularity in Australia has not successfully spread to the US . A reviewer for Billboard noted that with this album , Higgins was trying to broaden her market and said that On a Clear Night would appeal to fans of KT Tunstall and the " Grey 's Anatomy @-@ soundtrack crowd " . They said that " Steer " was a highlight and that Higgins sounded assured . Writing for Mix , Sarah Benzuly commented on Higgins ' increased assertiveness with her second album and compared her to Sarah McLachlan and Alanis Morissette . She called the album lyrically rich and " beautifully stirring " .
= = = Awards = = =
At the 2007 ARIA Music Awards Higgins was nominated for ' Best Pop Release ' , ' Highest Selling Album ' and ' Best Female Artist ' for On a Clear Night and ' Highest Selling Single ' for " Steer " . She won the award for ' Best Female Artist ' . It was her seventh ARIA .
= = Track listing = =
All songs were written by Missy Higgins .
" Where I Stood " – 4 : 17
" 100 Round the Bends " – 2 : 58
" Steer " – 3 : 50
" Sugarcane " – 3 : 17
" Secret " – 4 : 07
" Warm Whispers " – 3 : 12
" The Wrong Girl " – 3 : 31
" Angela " – 3 : 03
" Peachy " – 2 : 39
" Going North " – 2 : 48
" Forgive Me " – 4 : 05
Limited Edition Tour DVD Edition
The Making Of " On A Clear Night " Documentary
" Steer " ( Video )
" Where I Stood " ( Video )
" Peachy " ( Video )
" Steer " [ Director 's Cut ] ( Video )
= = Personnel = =
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= Madame Tussauds Hong Kong =
Madame Tussauds Hong Kong , part of the renowned chain of wax museums founded by Marie Tussaud of France , is located at the Peak Tower on Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong . It is the first Madame Tussauds museums in Asia , the other being the Shanghai branch , which opened in 2006 and the third branch at Singapore which opened in 2014 . The Hong Kong branch houses nearly 100 wax figures of internationally known personalities , with Asian figures taking up more than a third of the total , of which sixteen were Hong Kongers . The wax figures are featured in a range of themed settings such as Hong Kong Glamour , Music Icons , Historical and National Heroes , The Champions and World Premiere .
= = History = =
In the late 1990s , Madame Tussauds had outlets spanning worldwide in major cities such as London , Amsterdam and Las Vegas , but none was in the Asia @-@ Pacific region . When the " Madame Tussaud 's Touring Attraction " ran in Asian cities of Singapore and Australia , proving to be highly popular , the Tussauds Group decided to open a permanent outlet in Asia to cater to such demand , and Hong Kong was chosen for its proximity to the Asian markets .
Madame Tussauds Hong Kong opens at The Peak in 2000 , and features nearly 100 wax figures of internationally known personalities and local celebrities to date – with Asian figures taking up more than a third of the total , of which sixteen were Hong Kongers . Asian celebrities and superstars have often graced the unveiling of their wax likenesses with sizeable groups of their fans tagging along . In September 2005 , it began its renovation in its effort to bring an interactive and immersive entertainment experience to visitors . It re @-@ opened at a cost of HK $ 20 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 6 million ) on 18 May 2006 , adding a further 700 square metres ( 7 @,@ 500 sq ft ) of exhibition space on three floors and five themed areas . Visitors can journey through the attraction , stopping to mingle with the ' stars ' in a range of themed settings including Hong Kong Glamour , Music Icons , Historical and National Heroes , The Champions and World Premiere .
As of 2008 , the museum is headed by Bret Pidgeon , who is currently the general manager of Madame Tussauds Hong Kong and Shanghai . He has worked for eight years for Madame Tussauds in New York previously . The museum is accessible from Central via minibus , taxi or Peak Tram and opens all year round from 10 am to 10 pm daily . Admission fee is HK $ 140 ( US $ 18 ) for adults and HK $ 70 for children aged between 3 and 11 years old .
= = Wax figure making process = =
In over one or more sittings , a highly skilled sculptor from Madame Tussauds Studios who is given direct access to the celebrity will record the colours of the hair and eyes , and over 500 precise body measurements are referenced . Most important is to capture the look of the celebrity to reflect the personality of each unique individual . The next task is to make a clay model of the head and body which is used to create a mould . Wax cast of the head and hands are made from the mould , and the eyes are inserted . Each eye is hand @-@ painted to achieve a perfect match of the original . Real human hair is then inserted painstakingly strand by strand .
The head and hands are coloured using a blend of oil , water and acrylic colour . From the mould , the body is cast in fibreglass , and the head and hands are fitted to the fiberglass body and dressed in clothes that are often donated by the celebrity . The pose , clothes and expression on the face all contribute to making the figure as realistic as possible . The whole process usually takes up to six months by a team of 20 people to create and cost about HK $ 1 million each .
= = Unique figures = =
The figure of Miriam Yeung , unveiled on November 2006 , is the first in the world designed to giggle via in @-@ built sensors . Miriam is well known for her fun @-@ loving and bubbly personality , and Madame Tussauds want to capture that essence in her figure .
The figure of Connie Chan , unveiled on August 2006 , was the first figure to appear in full Chinese regalia . The model 's costume was inspired by the musical Only You , set in the Yuan Dynasty , in which Chan formerly starred .
The figure of Bae Yong @-@ joon , unveiled on May 2006 , is the first Korean star to be included in a Madame Tussauds exhibition .
The figure of Andy Lau , unveiled on April 2005 , was the outlet first animatronic model that was crafted out of silicone rather than wax . Lau 's animatronic heartbeat was modelled on a similar system installed in a replica of Brad Pitt at Madame Tussauds Amsterdam .
= = Featured personalities = =
The list of featured celebrities sorted according to on @-@ site themes are :
= = Madame Tussauds Shanghai = =
The second Asian outlet is located in the Chinese city of Shanghai . Attracted by Shanghai 's growing reputation and tourism volume in East Asia , the Tussauds Group approached Shanghai authorities to discuss the possibility of opening its second Asian location in early 2004 . The Shanghai authorities agreed with the proposal and Madame Tussauds Shanghai ( 上海杜莎夫人臘像館 ) was opened on 1 May 2006 on the 10th floor of the New World Department Store at West Nanjing Road .
The Shanghai outlet houses nearly 75 wax figures of local and internationally known celebrities to date , and will add more in its second and third phases . The museum opens all year round from 10 am to 10 pm daily and it is divided up into seven themed sections : Glamour , Behind the Scenes , History and Heroes , Music , Film , Speed and Sport . Admission fee is RMB 135 ( US $ 20 ) for adults and RMB 100 for students . Madame Tussauds Shanghai is the Tussauds Group 's sixth waxwork museum after London , Amsterdam , Las Vegas , New York City and Hong Kong .
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= Haakon IV of Norway =
Haakon Haakonsson ( c . March / April 1204 – 16 December 1263 ) ( Old Norse : Hákon Hákonarson ; Norwegian : Håkon Håkonsson ) , sometimes called Haakon the Old in contrast to his son with the same name , and known in modern regnal lists as Haakon IV , was the King of Norway from 1217 to 1263 . His reign lasted for 46 years , longer than any Norwegian king since Harald I. Haakon was born into the troubled civil war era in Norway , but his reign eventually managed to put an end to the internal conflicts . At the start of his reign , during his minority , his later rival Earl Skule Bårdsson served as regent . As a king of the birkebeiner faction , Haakon defeated the uprising of the final bagler royal pretender , Sigurd Ribbung , in 1227 . He put a definitive end to the civil war era when he had Skule Bårdsson killed in 1240 , a year after he had himself proclaimed king in opposition to Haakon . Haakon thereafter formally appointed his own son as his co @-@ regent .
Under Haakon 's rule , medieval Norway is considered to have reached its zenith or golden age . His reputation and formidable naval fleet allowed him to maintain friendships with both the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor , despite their conflict . He was at different points offered the Imperial Crown by the Pope , the Irish High Kingship by a delegation of Irish kings , and the command of the French crusader fleet by the French king . He amplified the influence of European culture in Norway by importing and translating contemporary European literature into Old Norse , and by constructing monumental European @-@ style stone buildings . In conjunction with this he employed an active and aggressive foreign policy , and at the end of his rule added Iceland and the Norse Greenland community to his kingdom , leaving Norway at its territorial height . Although he for the moment managed to secure Norwegian control of the islands off the northern and western shores of Great Britain , he fell ill and died when wintering in Orkney following some military engagements with the expanding Scottish kingdom .
= = Historical sources = =
The main source of information concerning Haakon is the Saga of Haakon Haakonsson which was written in the immediate years following his death . Commissioned by his son Magnus , it was written by the Icelandic writer and politician Sturla Þórðarson ( nephew of the famous historian Snorri Sturluson ) . Having come into conflict with the royal representative in Iceland , Sturla came to Norway in 1263 in an attempt to reconcile with Haakon . When he arrived , he learned that Haakon was in Scotland , and that Magnus ruled Norway in his place . While Magnus initially took an unfriendly attitude towards Sturla , his talents as a story @-@ teller and skald eventually won him the favour of Magnus and his men . The saga is considered the most detailed and reliable of all sagas concerning Norwegian kings , building on both written archive material and oral information from individuals who had been close to Haakon . It is nonetheless written openly in support of the political program of the House of Sverre , and the legitimacy of Haakon 's kingship .
= = Background and childhood = =
Haakon was born in Folkenborg ( now in Eidsberg ) to Inga of Varteig in the summer of 1204 , probably in March or April . The father was widely regarded to have been King Haakon Sverresson , the leader of the birkebeiner faction in the ongoing civil war against the bagler , as Inga had been with Haakon in his hostel in Borg ( now Sarpsborg ) in late 1203 . Haakon Sverresson was dead by the time his son Haakon was born , but Inga 's claim was supported by several of Haakon Sverresson 's followers . Haakon was born in bagler @-@ controlled territory , and his mother 's claim placed them in a dangerous position . While the bagler started hunting Haakon , a group of birkebeiner warriors fled with the child in the winter of 1205 / 06 , heading for King Inge Bårdson , the new birkebeiner king in Nidaros ( now Trondheim ) . As the party was struck by a blizzard , two of the best birkebeiner skiers , Torstein Skevla and Skjervald Skrukka , carried on with the child over the mountain from Lillehammer to Østerdalen . They eventually managed to bring Haakon to safety with King Inge ; this particular event is commemorated in modern @-@ day Norway by the popular annual skiing event Birkebeinerrennet . Haakon 's dramatic childhood was often parallelled with that of former king Olaf Tryggvasson ( who introduced Christianity to Norway ) , as well as with the gospels and Child Jesus , which served as an important ideological function for his kingship .
In the saga , Haakon is described as bright and witty , and as being small for his age . When he was three years old , Haakon was captured by the bagler but refused to call the bagler king Philip Simonsson his lord ( he nonetheless came from the capture unharmed ) . When he learned at the age of eight that King Inge and his brother Earl Haakon the Crazy had made an agreement of the succession to the throne that excluded himself , he pointed out that the agreement was invalid due to his attorney not having been present . He subsequently identified his attorney as " God and Saint Olaf . " Haakon was notably the first Norwegian king to receive formal education at a school . From the late civil war era , the government administration relied increasingly on written communication , which in turn demanded literate leaders . When Haakon was in Bergen under the care of Haakon the Crazy , he started receiving education from the age of seven , likely at the Bergen Cathedral School . He continued his education under King Inge at the Trondheim Cathedral School after the Earl 's death in 1214 . Haakon was brought up alongside Inge 's son Guttorm , and they were treated as the same . When he was eleven , some of Haakon 's friends provoked the king by asking him to give Haakon a region to govern . When Haakon was approached by the men and was urged to take up arms against Inge , he rejected it in part because of his young age and its bad prospects , as well as because he believed it would be morally wrong to fight Inge and thus split the birkebeiner . He instead said that he prayed that God would give him his share of his father 's inheritance when the time was right .
= = Reign = =
= = = Succession struggle = = =
After King Inge 's death in 1217 , a dispute erupted over who was to become his successor . In addition to Haakon who gained the support of the majority of the birkebeiners including the veterans who had served under his father and grandfather , candidates included Inge 's illegitimate son Guttorm ( who dropped out very soon ) , Inge 's half @-@ brother Earl Skule Bårdsson who had been appointed leader of the king 's hird at Inge 's deathbed and was supported by the Archbishop of Nidaros as well as part of the birkebeiners , and Haakon the Crazy 's son Knut Haakonsson . With his widespread popular support in Trøndelag and in Western Norway , Haakon was proclaimed king at Øyrating in June 1217 . He was later the same year hailed as king at Gulating in Bergen , and at Haugating , Borgarting and local things east of Elven ( Göta Älv ) . While Skule 's supporters initially had attempted to cast doubt about Haakon 's royal ancestry , they eventually suspended open resistance to his candidacy . As the dispute could have threatened to split the birkebeiners in two , Skule settled on becoming regent for Haakon during his minority .
In connection with the dispute over the royal election , Haakon 's mother Inga had to prove his parentage through a trial by ordeal in Bergen in 1218 . The result of the trial strengthened the legal basis for his kingship , and improved his relationship with the church . The saga 's claim that Haakon already had been generally accepted as king in 1217 / 18 has however been contested by modern historians such as Sverre Bagge . Skule and Haakon increasingly drifted apart in their administration , and Skule focused mainly on governing Eastern Norway after 1220 , which he had gained the right to rule in 1218 as his third of the Norwegian kingdom . From 1221 to 1223 , Haakon and Skule separately issued letters as rulers of Norway , and maintained official contacts abroad . In 1223 a great meeting of bishops , clergy , secular nobles and other high @-@ ranking figures from all across the country was held in Bergen to finally decide on Haakon 's right to the throne . Other candidates to the throne were present either personally or through attorneys , but Haakon was in the end unanimously confirmed as King of Norway by the court .
The last bagler king Philip Simonsson died in 1217 . Speedy political and military manoeuvering by Skule led to a reconciliation between the birkebeiner and bagler , and thus the reunification of the kingdom . However , some discontented elements among the bagler found a new royal pretender , Sigurd Ribbung , and launched a new rising from 1219 . The rising only gained support in parts of Eastern Norway , and were unable to gain control of Viken and Opplandene as the bagler formerly had done . In the summer of 1223 Skule eventually managed to force the Ribbungar to surrender . The great meeting in Bergen soon after however renewed the division of the Norwegian kingdom with Skule , who thereafter gained control of the northern third of the country instead of the east , in what marked a setback despite his military victory . In 1224 , Ribbung who had been in Skule 's custody escaped , and Haakon was left to fight him alone as the new ruler of Eastern Norway . Skule remained passive throughout the rest of the war , and his support for Haakon was lukewarm at best . Assuming the military lead in the fight , Haakon nevertheless defeated Ribbung through comprehensive and organisationally demanding warfare over the next years . As part of the campaign , Haakon additionally led a large army into Värmland , Sweden in 1225 in order to punish the inhabitants for their support of Ribbung . While Ribbung died in 1226 , the revolt was finally quashed in 1227 after the surrender of the last leader of the uprising , Haakon the Crazy 's son Knut Haakonsson . This left Haakon more or less uncontested monarch .
Haakon 's councillors had sought to reconcile Haakon and Skule by proposing marriage between Haakon and Skule 's daughter Margrete in 1219 . Haakon accepted the proposal ( although he did not think it would change much politically ) , but the marriage between Haakon and Margrete did not take place before 1225 , partly due to the conflict with Ribbung . The relationship between Haakon and Skule nevertheless deteriorated further during the 1230s , and attempts of settlements at meetings in 1233 and 1236 only distanced them more from each other . Periodically , the two nonetheless reconciled and spent a great amount of time together , only to have their friendship destroyed , according to the saga by intrigues derived from rumours and slander by men who played the two against each other . Skule was the first person ever in Norway to be titled Duke ( hertug ) in 1237 , but instead of control over a region gained the rights to the incomes from a third of the syssels scattered across the whole of Norway . This was part of an attempt by Haakon to limit Skule 's power . In 1239 the conflict between the two erupted into open warfare when Skule had himself proclaimed king . Although he had some support in Trøndelag , Opplandene and in eastern Viken , he could not stand up to Haakon 's forces . The rebellion ended when Skule was killed in 1240 , leaving Haakon the undisputed king of Norway . This revolt is generally taken to mark the final end of Norway 's civil war era .
= = = Recognition by the Pope = = =
While the church in Norway initially had refused to recognise Haakon as King of Norway , it had largely turned to support his claim to the throne by the 1223 meeting , although later disagreements occurred . Despite additionally having become the undisputed ruler of Norway after 1240 , Haakon had still not been approved as king by the Pope due to his illegitimate birth . He nonetheless had a strong personal desire to be approved fully as a European king . Several papal commissions were appointed to investigate the matter , and Haakon declared his legitimate son Haakon the Young his successor instead of an older living illegitimate son . Although Haakon had children with his mistress Kanga the Young prior to his marriage with Margrete , it was his children with Margrete that was designated as his successors in accordance with a papal recognition . The Catholic principle of legitimacy was thus established in the Norwegian order of succession , although Haakon 's new law still maintained that illegitimate children could be designated as successor in the absence of any legitimate children or grandchildren — contrary to Catholic principles . While his strong position allowed him to set boundaries to the church 's political influence , he was on the other hand prepared to give the church much autonomy in internal affairs and relations with the rural society .
Haakon also attempted to strengthen his ties with the papacy by issuing a vow of crusade . In 1241 he however converted this into a vow of engaging in warfare against pagan peoples in the north in light of the Mongol invasion of Europe . When a group of Karelians ( " Bjarmians " ) had been forced westwards by the Mongols , Haakon allowed them to stay in Malangen and had them Christianized — something that would please the papacy . Later , in 1248 , Louis IX of France proposed ( by Matthew Paris as messenger ) to Haakon to join him for a crusade , with Haakon as commander of the fleet , but Haakon turned the offer down . While Haakon had been unsuccessful in gaining the recognition of Pope Gregory IX , he quickly gained the support from Pope Innocent IV who sought alliances in his struggle with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II . Haakon finally achieved royal recognition by Pope Innocent in 1246 , and Cardinal William of Sabina was sent to Bergen and crowned Haakon in 1247 .
= = = Cultural influence and legal reforms = = =
After consolidating his position in 1240 , Haakon focused on displaying the supremacy of the kingship , influenced by the increasingly closer contact with European culture . He started constructing several monumental royal buildings , primarily in the royal estate in Bergen where he built a European @-@ style stone palace . He used a grand fleet with stately royal ships when meeting with other Scandinavian rulers , and actively sent letters and gifts to other European rulers ; his most far @-@ reaching contact was achieved when he sent gyrfalcons with an embassy to the Sultan of Tunis .
The royal court in Bergen also started importing and translating the first true European literature that became available to a wider Norwegian audience . The literature which was popular then was heroic @-@ romantic literature derived from the French and in turn English courts , notably chansons de geste around Charlemagne ( the Matter of France ) and tales of King Arthur ( the Matter of Britain ) . The first work that was translated into Old Norse was reportedly the Arthurian romantic story Tristan and Iseult , which was finished in 1226 after orders from the young and newly @-@ wed Haakon . Hákon 's programme seems to have been the spark for the emergence of a new Norse genre of chivalric sagas .
Haakon also had the popular religious text Visio Tnugdali translated into Old Norse as Duggals leiðsla . The literature also appealed to women , and both Haakon 's wife Margrete and his daughter Kristina owned richly illustrated psalters .
Haakon also initiated legal reforms which were crucial for the development of justice in Norway . Haakon 's " New Law " written around 1260 was a breakthrough for both the idea and practice of public justice , as opposed to the traditional Norwegian customs for feuds and revenge . The influence of the reforms is also apparent in Haakon 's King 's Mirror ( Konungs skuggsjá ) , an educational text intended for his son Magnus , which was probably written in cooperation with the royal court in the mid @-@ 1250s .
= = = Involvements abroad = = =
Relations were hostile with both Sweden and Denmark from the start . During his rivalry with Earl Skule , Skule attempted to gain the support of Valdemar II of Denmark , but any aid was made impossible after Valdemar 's capture by one of his vassals . Since the Danes wanted overlordship of Norway and supported the Guelphs ( those supporting the Pope over the Holy Roman Emperor ) , Haakon in turn sought closer ties with the Ghibelline Emperor Frederick II , who sent ambassadors to Norway . As Haakon had gained a powerful reputation due to the strength of his fleet , other European rulers wanted to benefit from his friendship . Despite the struggle between the Pope and the Emperor , Haakon was able to maintain friendships with both . According to an English chronicler , the Pope wanted Haakon to become Holy Roman Emperor . It has been suggested that Haakon hesitated to leave Norway due to the Mongol threat .
Haakon pursued a foreign policy that was active in all directions ( although foremost to the west and south @-@ east ) . In the north @-@ east , the relationship with Novgorod had been tense due to a dispute over the right to tax the Sami people , as well as raiding from both Norwegian and Karelian sides . Eventually , the Mongol threat drove Prince Alexander Nevsky to negotiations with Haakon that likely strengthened Norwegian control of Troms and Finnmark . An embassy from Novgorod one time asked for Haakon 's daughter Christina for a marriage , but Haakon refused due to the Mongol threat . Due to the Elven @-@ based Norwegian presence in the seas around the south of Sweden and into the Baltic Sea , Norway increasingly relied on Baltic grain from Lübeck . The import was however halted in the late 1240s due to the plundering of Norwegian ships in Danish seas by ships from Lübeck . In 1250 , Haakon made a peace and trade agreement with Lübeck , which eventually also opened the city of Bergen to the Hanseatic League . During the conflict , Haakon had reportedly been offered control over the city by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II . In any case , Haakon 's policy regarding Northern German ports largely derived from his strategy of attempting to exploit the internal turmoil that had erupted in Denmark following the death of King Valdemar II in 1241 .
In Scandinavia , Haakon regularly met with neighbouring rulers in the border @-@ area around Elven from the late 1240s through the 1250s . Using grand fleets as envoys , Haakon 's fleet at most reportedly counted over 300 ships . Haakon sought to expand his kingdom southwards of Elven into the Danish province of Halland . He thus looked for alliance with the Swedes , as well as ties with opponents of the ruling line of monarchs of Denmark . Haakon made a deal with Swedish leader Earl Birger in 1249 about a joint Swedish @-@ Norwegian invasion into Halland and Scania , but the agreement was eventually abandoned by the Swedes ( see Treaty of Lödöse ) . Haakon claimed Halland in 1253 , and finally invaded the province on his own in 1256 , demanding it as compensation for the looting of Norwegian ships in Danish seas . He was however forced to renounce his claims in 1257 after a peace agreement was made with Christopher I of Denmark . Haakon thereafter negotiated a marriage between his only remaining son Magnus and Ingeborg , daughter of former Danish king Eric Ploughpenny . Haakon had also reconciled with the Swedes when he had his son Haakon the Young marry a daughter of Earl Birger . Haakon 's Nordic policies initiated the build @-@ up to the later personal unions ( called the Kalmar Union ) , that in the end had dire consequences for Norway as it did not have the economic and military resources to persevere and maintain Haakon 's aggressive policies .
More distantly , Haakon sought an alliance with Alfonso X of Castile , a potential next Holy Roman Emperor — chiefly as it would guarantee new supplies of grain in light of rising prices in England , and possibly giving access to Baltic grain through Norwegian control of Lübeck . Alfonso in turn sought to expand his influence in Northern Europe , as well as to gain Norwegian naval assistance for the campaign or crusade he had proposed in Morocco ( seeing that the Iberian Moors received backing overseas from North Africa ) . Haakon could thus potentially also fulfill his papal vow of crusade , although he likely did not intend to . He sent an embassy to Castile in 1255 , and the accompanying Castilian ambassador on the return to Norway proposed to establish the " strongest ties of friendship " with Haakon . At the request of Alfonso , Haakon gave his consent that his daughter Christina could go to Castile and marry one of Alfonso 's brothers . Christina 's death four years after the childless marriage , however , marked an effective end of the short @-@ lived " alliance " , and the proposed crusade fell into the blue .
= = = The Scottish expedition and death = = =
Haakon employed an active and aggressive foreign policy towards strengthening Norwegian ties in the west . His policy relied on friendship and trade with the English king ; the first known Norwegian trade agreements were made with England in the years 1217 – 23 ( England 's first commercial treaties were also made with Norway ) , and the friendship with Henry III of England was a cornerstone in Haakon 's foreign policy . As they had become kings around the same time , Haakon wrote to Henry in 1224 that he wished they could maintain the friendship that had existed between their fathers . Haakon sought to defend the Norwegian sovereignty over the islands in the west , namely the Hebrides and Man ( under the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles ) , Shetland and Orkney ( under the Earldom of Orkney ) , and the Faroe Islands . Further , the Norse community in Greenland agreed to submit to the Norwegian king in 1261 , and in 1262 Haakon achieved one of his long @-@ standing ambitions when he managed to incorporate Iceland into his kingdom by utilising the island 's internal conflicts in his favour . The dependency on Norwegian maritime trade and their subordination to the Nidaros ecclesiastical province were some of the key reasons which allowed Haakon to assert sovereignty over the islands . The Norwegian kingdom was at the largest it has ever been by the end of Haakon 's reign .
Norwegian control over the Faroe Islands and Shetland was strong due to the importance of Bergen as a trading centre , while Orkney , the Hebrides and Man had more natural ties with the Scottish mainland . Although traditionally having had ties with the community of Norse settlers in northern Scotland , Scottish rulers had increasingly asserted their sovereignty over the entire mainland . Haakon had at the same time gained stronger control of the Hebrides and Man than any Norwegian ruler since Magnus Barefoot . As part of a new development the Scottish king Alexander II claimed the Hebrides and requested to buy the islands from Norway , but Haakon staunchly rejected the proposals . Following Alexander II 's death , his son Alexander III continued and stepped up his father 's policy by sending an embassy to Norway in 1261 , and thereafter attacking the Hebrides .
In 1263 the dispute with the Scottish king over the Hebrides induced Haakon to undertake an expedition to the islands . Having learned in 1262 that Scottish nobles had raided the Hebrides and that Alexander III planned to conquer the islands , Haakon went on an expedition with his formidable leidang fleet of at least 120 ships in 1263 , having become accustomed to negotiating backed by an intimidating fleet . The fleet left Bergen in July , and reached Shetland and Orkney in August where they were joined by chieftains from the Hebrides and Man . Negotiations were started by Alexander following Norwegian landings on the Scottish mainland , but were purposely prolonged by the Scots . Having waited until September / October for weather that caused trouble for Haakon 's fleet , a clash occurred between a smaller Norwegian force and a Scottish division at the Battle of Largs . Although inconclusive and of a limited impact , Haakon withdrew to Orkney for the winter . A delegation of Irish kings invited Haakon to help them rid Ireland of English settlers as High King of Ireland , but this was apparently rejected against Haakon 's wish .
Haakon over @-@ wintered at the Bishop 's Palace in Kirkwall , Orkney , with plans to resume his campaign the next year . During his stay in Kirkwall he however fell ill , and died in the early hours of 16 December 1263 . Haakon was buried in the St Magnus Cathedral in Kirkwall for the winter , and when spring came he was exhumed and his body taken back to Norway , where he was buried in the Old Cathedral in his capital Bergen . Centuries later , in 1531 , the cathedral was demolished by the Danish feudal overlord Eske Bille for military purposes in connection with the Protestant Reformation , and the graves of Haakon and other Norwegian kings buried there were apparently destroyed in the process .
= = Views on Haakon 's reign = =
Norwegian historians have held strongly differing views on Haakon 's reign . In the 19th century , historian P. A. Munch portrayed Haakon as a mighty , almost flawless ruler , which in turn influenced Henrik Ibsen in his 1863 play The Pretenders . In the early 20th century , poet Hans E. Kinck countered and viewed Haakon as an insignificant king subordinated to forces outside of his control , a view which influenced historians such as Halvdan Koht and Edvard Bull , Sr .. Haakon has often been compared with Skule Bårdsson , and historians have taken sides in the old conflict . While Munch saw Skule as a traitor to the rightful Norwegian king , Koht viewed Skule as a heroic figure . On more sketchy grounds , Kinck praised Skule as representing the original and dying Norse culture , and Haakon as a superficial emulator of foreign culture . Since the 1960s , historians including Narve Bjørgo , Per Sveaas Andersen , Knut Helle , Svein Haga and Kåre Lunden have in turn professed a reaction against Koht 's view . According to Sverre Bagge , modern historians tend to follow Koht when it comes to see Skule 's rebellion as a last desperate attempt to stop Haakon from enroaching his power , but lean closer to Munch 's overall evaluation of the two men .
Knut Helle interprets the saga to leave an impression of Skule as a skilled warrior and politician , while noting that the author of the saga purposely created a diffuse image of his role in the conflict with Haakon . On the other hand , Helle notes that Skule was outmaneuvered with relative ease by Haakon 's supporters in the immediate years after 1217 , and that this may suggest some limited abilities . While neither giving a clear picture of Haakon , Helle maintains that Haakon " obviously " learned to master the political game in his early years . He interprets Haakon as an independent and willstrong ruler whom he assigns a " significant personal responsibility " for the policies pursued during his reign — notably regarding the internal consolidation of the kingship , the orientation towards European culture and the aggressive foreign policy . In his article in Norsk biografisk leksikon , Knut Helle acknowledges that Haakon was empowered by the strong institutional position of the kingship at the end of his reign ( which it should be noted that he had developed himself ) , and that his policies were not always successful . It nonetheless recognises the substantial political abilities and powerful determination Haakon must have had in order to progress from the difficult position in which he started his reign .
= = Children and marriage = =
Haakon had two illegitimate children with his mistress Kanga the Young ( who is only known by name ) before 1225 . They were :
Sigurd ( died 1252 ) .
Cecilia ( died 1248 ) . Married lendmann Gregorius Andresson , a nephew of the last bagler king Philip Simonsson in 1241 . Widowed in 1246 , she married Harald Olafsson , King of Mann and the Isles in 1248 . They both drowned the same year on the return voyage to Great Britain .
Haakon married Margrete Skulesdatter on 25 May 1225 , daughter of his rival Earl Skule Bårdsson . Their children were :
Olav ( born 1226 ) . Died in infancy .
Haakon the Young ( 1232 – 1257 ) . Married Rikissa Birgersdotter , daughter of the Swedish statesman Earl Birger in 1251 . He was appointed king and co @-@ ruler by his father in 1240 , but predeceased his father .
Christina ( 1234 – 1262 ) . Married Infante Philip of Castile , brother of Alfonso X of Castile in 1258 . She died childless .
Magnus VI of Norway ( 1238 – 1280 ) . Married Ingeborg , daughter of Eric IV of Denmark in 1261 . Was appointed king and co @-@ ruler following the death of Haakon the Young . Succeeded his father as King of Norway following his father 's death .
= = Olympic Mascot = =
Håkon and Kristin are the mascots of the 1994 Winter Olympics . Håkon is named after Haakon IV of Norway and Kristin after Christina of Norway .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Saudi Arabia women 's national football team =
The Saudi Arabia women 's national football team would be the national team representing the kingdom in international football . However , the team does not yet exist because of influence of religious leaders in Saudi Arabia and systematic discrimination against women 's sport , active opposition of political leaders and sport administrators . International pressure has come to bear on the country to field a women 's team , and FIFA now allows the hijab to be worn in competition . A meeting at the College of Business Administration in Jeddah was seen as a possible first step in a team eventually being created .
Despite a lack of official support for a national team and women 's football in general , women have self @-@ organised their own teams and play games out of the sight of men . Created in 2006 , King 's United women football club was the first women 's football club in the country . No official data is kept regarding participation rates for women football players .
= = Team = =
In 1985 , almost no country in the world had a women 's national football team including Saudi Arabia , who have not played in a FIFA @-@ recognised match as of June 2012 . In 2008 , based on the influence of conservative religious leaders in the country , the creation of a FIFA recognised women 's national team was banned by law . In June 2012 the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA and no team from the country has ever been FIFA ranked .
Growing the game and having an opportunity to have a women 's national team has been hindered by the systematic discrimination that all women 's sport is subject to in the country . Saudi Arabia 's Olympic Committee head Nawaf bin Faisal is quoted as saying that the committee should " not be endorsing any female participation at the moment " . In November 2011 , Ahmad Eid Al @-@ Harbi , vice president of the Player Status Committee for the Saudi Arabian Football Federation , said of the creation of a women 's national team : " Saudi society is a very conservative one , even when it comes to men ’ s clubs . No one can imagine his daughter playing in front of thousands of people wearing shorts , such as in soccer . " Leaders in Saudi Arabian sport held a meeting in mid @-@ 2011 at the College of Business Administration in Jeddah where they discussed women 's sport and possible participation of women as part of the Saudi Arabian national team at the Olympic Games . They were inspired by the example of seven other Arab nations having successfully created women 's national football teams . During 2012 opposition to women 's participation in sport softened with the national Olympic Committee and the Saudi Embassy in London announcing that women 's participation at the 2012 Summer Olympics would be permitted if they were invited .
No Saudi women 's national football team will be competing at the 2012 London Olympics , despite extensive pressure from the International Olympic Committee . Still , in 2012 , the national federation was quietly arguing with the International Football Association Board not to allow women 's participation if they were wearing the hijab while playing . The logic they followed was that if FIFA allowed women to wear the hijab in recognised matches , it would be much more difficult for the federation to prevent a national team from being created . There is a lot of pressure being put on the sporting community to allow for national representation of women on the international team as the kingdom will likely be the last nation in the world to prohibit women from competing at the Olympics . If the Saudis can successfully argue the hijab cannot be worn in competition , it would make them less isolated internationally as other teams in the Arab world would be less likely to compete in the upcoming FIFA Women 's Under @-@ 17 World Cup . PRI 's The World said in late 2011 : " Who knows . In 10 years Saudi Arabia might just have a formidable national women 's soccer team . " A current female football player in the country said of the situation as it pertains to the national team : " Our generation started the game , the leagues , the structure . The next generation will have it on a silver platter . We may not get to play for a national team but we 're laying the groundwork . "
= = Background and development = =
The national federation was created in 1956 and became a FIFA affiliate in 1956 . However women 's football is not included in the country 's FIFA coordinated Goals ! project . By 2011 , inside the Saudi Arabia Football Federation , there has been an effort to create women 's football programs at universities . Input had been sought on how to do this from other national federations including ones from the United States , Germany , Brazil and the United Kingdom . On the men 's side of the game , the national federation has funded efforts to improve the quality of the Saudi Arabia men 's national football team .
Founded in 2006 , King 's United women football club was the first women 's football club in the country . In 2009 , they trained in Jeddah . The team was initially sponsored by Prince Alwaleed bin Talal but facing scrutiny in the face of intense media coverage , he withdrew his support in 2009 . In 2012 , the team trained three times a week outside the sight of men , with players wearing traditional football kit of short sleeved shirts and shorts . The team is coached by Reema Abdullah who also is the team 's striker . It has 35 players who range in age from 13 to 35 . Other women 's teams have been created in the country in cities like Riyadh and Dammam and a tournament was held in 2008 , with seven teams competing and the event being won by King 's United . The first match between two female teams in the country occurred in January 2008 when the Prince Mohammad bin Fahd University team beat Al @-@ Yamamah College in a match played at Dammam 's 35 @,@ 000 @-@ spectator capacity Prince Mohamed bin Fahd Stadium in a shootout victory before an all @-@ women audience . The player of the match was Al @-@ Yamamah College 's goalkeeper . In March 2009 , a women 's charity football match was held between a team called " University " and a team called " Barcelona " that was attended by 400 female fans and no men . The game was won 2 – 1 by University and earned SR81,000 ( $ 21 @,@ 598 ) to go towards people with disabilities in the eastern part of the kingdom .
As of 2006 , no data was available for the number of women 's football players in the country . In 2006 , there was international uproar when Saudi authorities sought to prevent women from attending a game between the Saudi Arabia national football team and the Sweden national football team . In 2008 , the situation for women 's football in the Middle East was said by author Gary Brecher to be up there in popularity of freedom and democracy in the region . An all @-@ women 's school sporting competition was held at Effat University in 2010 . The tournament was investigated by Saudi authorities because , according to Ahmed al @-@ Zahrani , director of the Girls Education Department in Jeddah , the country does not have " any regulations that say that it 's okay for girl schools to hold sports classes or training " . In 2011 , women 's football was seen as a way to combat a growing problem of obesity in the country .
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= Ajtony =
Ajtony , Ahtum or Achtum ( Hungarian : Ajtony , Bulgarian : Охтум , Romanian : Ahtum , Serbian : Ахтум ) was an early @-@ 11th @-@ century ruler in the territory now known as Banat in present Romania and Serbia . His primary source is the Long Life of Saint Gerard , a 14th @-@ century hagiography . Ajtony was a powerful ruler who owned many horses , cattle and sheep and was baptised according to the Orthodox rite in Vidin . He taxed salt which was transferred to King Stephen I of Hungary on the Mureș River . The king sent Csanád , Ajtony 's former commander @-@ in @-@ chief , against him at the head of a large army . Csanád defeated and killed Ajtony , occupying his realm . In the territory , at least one county and a Roman Catholic diocese were established .
Historians disagree on the year of Ajtony 's defeat ; it may have occurred in 1002 , 1008 or between 1027 and 1030 . His ethnicity is also a subject of historical debate ; he may have been Hungarian , Kabar , Pecheneg or Romanian . In Romanian historiography Ajtony is viewed as the last member of a Romanian ruling family founded by Glad , lord of Banat around 900 according to the Gesta Hungarorum .
= = Background = =
The Magyars ( or Hungarians ) , who had lived on the Pontic steppe for decades , invaded the Carpathian Basin after their defeat by a coalition of Bulgarians and Pechenegs about 895 AD . Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote that the seven Magyar tribes formed a confederation with the Kabars . Although the Kabars had originally lived in the Khazar Khaganate , they rebelled against the Khazars and joined the Magyars on the Pontic steppe .
According to churchman Regino of Prüm , Constantine Porphyrogenitus and other contemporary sources , the Magyars fought the Bavarians , Bulgarians , Carinthians , Franks and Moravians in the Carpathian Basin . Among the Magyars ' opponents the same sources noted many local rulers , including Svatopluk I of Moravia , Luitpold of Bavaria and Braslav , Duke of Lower Pannonia . The Gesta Hungarorum — the earliest extant Hungarian chronicle , written after 1150 — instead mentioned Glad , lord of the lands between the Danube and the Mureș ( now known as the Banat in Romania and Serbia ) and other local rulers absent from the earlier sources . Therefore , the credibility of the Gesta reports is a subject of scholarly debate . Although Vlad Georgescu , Ioan Aurel Pop and other historians describe Glad as one of the local Romanian rulers who attempted to resist the invading Hungarians , other scholars — including Pál Engel and György Györffy — call him one of the dozen " imaginary figures " invented by Anonymus ( author of the Gesta ) as foes in the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin .
Constantine Porphyrogenitus identified " the whole settlement of Turkey " ( Hungary ) with the basins of five rivers — the Criș , Mureș , Timiș , Tisza and the unidentified " Toutis " — around 950 , indicating that the land east of the Tisza was ruled by the Hungarians at that time . The emperor apparently received information about the Carpathian Basin situation from Termatzus , Bulcsú and Gylas , three Hungarian chieftains who visited Constantinople during the mid @-@ 10th century . According to Byzantine historian John Skylitzes , Bulcsú and Gylas were baptised during their visit . Bulcsú , Skylitzes wrote , still " violated his contract with God and often invaded " the Byzantine Empire ; Gylas , however , " remained faithful to Christianity " and made no further inroads against the empire . Skylitzes also mentioned a Greek monk , Hierotheos , who was ordained bishop for the Hungarians . Hierotheos accompanied Gylas back to Hungary and " converted many from the barbaric fallacy to Christianity " . Most 10th @-@ century Byzantine coins and artifacts have been unearthed around the confluence of the Tisza and the Mureș , particularly in the Banat . Tudor Sălăgean , Florin Curta and other historians posit that Gylas 's lands must have been in these territories , but their theory is not universally accepted .
Unlike Gylas , who chose the Eastern Orthodox Church , Géza , Grand Prince of the Hungarians , opted for Western Christianity and a cleric from the Holy Roman Empire ( according to most scholars , Bruno from the Abbey of Saint Gall ) baptised him during the 970s . Thietmar of Merseburg and other 11th @-@ century authors emphasized that Géza was a cruel ruler , suggesting that the unification of the Hungarian chieftains ' lands began under him . Géza was succeeded by his son , Stephen , who was crowned the first king of Hungary in 1000 or 1001 .
= = In primary sources = =
The principal source of Ajtony 's life is the Long Life of Saint Gerard , compiled from a number of earlier sources in the early 14th century . According to modern historians ( including Carlile Aylmer Macartney and Florin Curta ) , all information on Ajtony incorporated into the Long Life was based on a ballad about the heroic deeds of Csanád — Ajtony 's former commander @-@ in @-@ chief — because a shorter version of Bishop Gerard of Csanád 's life does not mention Ajtony . Most historians agree that the ballad was composed shortly after Ajtony 's death . In addition to the Long Life , Ajtony is mentioned in the Gesta Hungarorum ; the Hungarian chronicle was written after around 1150 . According to the Gesta , Ajtony was descended from Glad ( in the same source , lord of the Banat ) ; however , its credibility is questioned . In a 1499 sermon the Franciscan Osvát Laskai wrote that Ajtony was from the Nyírség region , but no evidence exists to indicate that Laskai knew his place of birth .
Ajtony 's name , recorded in the earliest sources as " Ohtun " or " Achtum " , is of Turkic origin . According to linguist Loránd Benkő , his name is rooted in the Turkic word for golden ( altun ) and changed in Hungarian . Place names also echo his name ; an abbey named Ahtunmonustura ( Ajtony 's monastery ) existed in Csanád County and a village ( Ahthon ) in Krassó County , and a settlement named Aiton exists in Romania .
According to the Long Life , Ajtony 's seat was a stronghold on the Mureș ( urbs Morisena ) . His realm extended from the Criș in the north to the Danube in the south , and from the Tisza in the west to Transylvania in the east . Ajtony was a wealthy ruler who owned horses , cattle and sheep , and was powerful enough to establish customs offices and guards along the Mureș and tax salt carried to Stephen I of Hungary on the river .
Originally a pagan , Ajtony was baptised according to the Greek rite in Vidin . Shortly after his baptism , he established a monastery for Greek monks at his seat which was dedicated to John the Baptist . Ajtony remained polygamous , with seven wives after his baptism . In the Long Life Ajtony " had taken his power from the Greeks " , suggesting that he accepted the Byzantine emperor 's suzerainty .
Ajtony 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief was Csanád , described in the Gesta Hungarorum as the " son of Doboka and nephew " of King Stephen . Accused of conspiring against Ajtony , Csanád fled to Stephen ; the king prepared to conquer Ajtony 's realm , placing Csanád at the head of a large army . After crossing the Tisza , the royal army engaged Ajtony 's troops but was forced to withdraw . In a second battle , Stephen 's army routed Ajtony 's troops near modern Banatsko Aranđelovo or at Tomnatic . Csanád killed Ajtony , either on the battlefield ( according to the Long Life ) or in his stronghold on the Mureș ( according to the Gesta Hungarorum ) . In the Long Life Csanád cut out Ajtony 's tongue after his death , enabling him to prove that he had killed Ajtony ( and exposing Gyula , who had taken credit for the deed in Stephen 's presence ) . Archaeologist István Erdélyi said that the Treasure of Sânnicolau Mare , excavated near Ajtony 's seat , was connected to the ruler ; however , his view has not been universally accepted by scholars .
King Stephen granted large estates to Csanád in the lands Ajtony had ruled . Ajtony 's stronghold , now known as Cenad ( Hungarian : Csanád ) , was named for Stephen 's commander . The king also appointed Csanád the head ( or ispán ) of the county made up of Ajtony 's former realm . Stephen established a Roman Catholic diocese in Cenad , with the Venetian monk Gerard its first bishop . The Greek monks from Cenad were transferred to a new monastery built by Csanád at Banatsko Aranđelovo . Ajtony 's descendants owned land in the region , indicating that King Stephen had not confiscated all of his predecessor 's domain .
= = In modern historiography = =
Ajtony 's ethnicity is debated . Historian Paul Stephenson described him as a Magyar chieftain ; according to historian László Makkai , he was of Kabar origin and his Turkic name may imply that he was a Pecheneg . In Romanian historiography , Ajtony has been considered the last member of a Romanian dynasty descended from Glad ; historian Alexandru Madgearu wrote that the Latin name of Ajtony 's seat ( urbs Morisena ) preserved a Romanian form .
The date of Ajtony 's conquest is also uncertain . His close contacts with the Byzantine Empire , including his " Greek rite " baptism in Vidin , show that he ruled after the Byzantine Emperor Basil II seized Vidin from the Bulgarians in 1002 . The conflict between Ajtony and King Stephen must have occurred before the king appointed Gerard the first bishop of Csanád in 1030 . Alexandru Madgearu , who called Ajtony an ally of Samuel of Bulgaria rather than Emperor Basil II , wrote that Stephen I 's army occupied Ajtony 's realm in parallel with Basil II 's 1002 conquest of Vidin . Makkai placed the conquest of Ajtony 's realm in 1008 . According to Pop , Stephen I decided to invade the Banat after a 1027 Pecheneg raid on the Byzantine Empire and Emperor Constantine VIII 's death the following year . Pop also writes that Ajtony 's former duchy was not fully incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary until the 13th century because frequent internal conflicts had enabled the Romanians to preserve their idea of a " Romanian country " . Curta rejected the Long Life account of Ajtony altogether , calling it a " family legend " from a 14th @-@ century hagiography .
= = = Primary = = =
= = = Secondary = = =
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= Ferugliotherium =
Ferugliotherium is a genus of fossil mammals from the Campanian and / or Maastrichtian ( Late Cretaceous , around 70 million years ago ) of Argentina in the family Ferugliotheriidae . It contains a single species , Ferugliotherium windhauseni , which was first described in 1986 . Originally interpreted as a member of Multituberculata , an extinct group of small , rodent @-@ like mammals , on the basis of a single brachydont ( low @-@ crowned ) molar , it was recognized as related to the hypsodont ( high @-@ crowned ) Sudamericidae after the discovery of additional material in the early 1990s . After a jaw of the sudamericid Sudamerica was described in 1999 , these animals ( collectively known as Gondwanatheria ) were no longer considered to be multituberculates and a few fossils that were previously considered to be Ferugliotherium were assigned to unspecified multituberculates instead . Since 2005 , a relationship between gondwanatheres and multituberculates has again received support . A closely related animal , Trapalcotherium , was described in 2009 on the basis of a single tooth .
About twenty teeth and a jaw fragment have been referred to Ferugliotherium , but the assignment of many of these is controversial or has been superseded . The upper and lower incisors are long and rodent @-@ like and have enamel on only one side of the crown . A fragment of the lower jaw shows that the tooth socket of the lower incisor was very long , extending below the fourth premolar ( p4 ) . The p4 is preserved in this fragment . It is blade @-@ shaped and resembles multituberculate p4s . However , the determination of this fossil as Ferugliotherium is in question . The identity of a few additional isolated premolars assigned to Ferugliotherium , some resembling multituberculates , is also uncertain . The first lower molariform ( molar @-@ like tooth ; mf1 ) is known from four examples , of which two were originally identified as upper molars of a different species ( Vucetichia gracilis ) , which is now considered a synonym of Ferugliotherium . They bear two longitudinal rows of three or four cusps and transverse crests and furrows . A single example each of the second lower ( mf2 ) and first upper molariform ( MF1 ) show that these teeth also had longitudinal cusp rows and transverse furrows and crests , but the mf2 had only two or perhaps three cusps per row and the MF1 had three longitudinal rows .
Although Ferugliotherium teeth are much lower @-@ crowned than those of the Sudamericidae , they share an essentially similar pattern on the occlusal ( chewing ) surface of mf1 and mf2 , similar incisors , backward jaw movement during chewing , and enamel with small prisms . Ferugliotherium is thought to have been a small animal , with a body mass of about 70 g ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) , and may have eaten insects and plant material . Its remains have been found in two geological formations of southern Argentina , where it is part of a mammal fauna that also includes the sudamericid Gondwanatherium and a variety of dryolestoids .
= = Taxonomy = =
Ferugliotherium windhauseni was named in 1986 by Argentinean paleontologist José Bonaparte on the basis of a single second lower molar ( m2 ) from the Late Cretaceous Los Alamitos Formation of Argentina . Both the generic name , Ferugliotherium , and the specific name , windhauseni , honor geologists who studied the geology of Patagonia : Egidio Feruglio and Anselmo Windhausen , respectively . Bonaparte created a new family , Ferugliotheriidae , for the new species and tentatively assigned it to Multituberculata , an extinct group of mammals that was diverse during the late Cretaceous , mostly in the northern continents ( Laurasia ) . In subsequent years , other finds permitted a more confident assignment to Multituberculata . In 1990 , Bonaparte described Vucetichia gracilis on the basis of what he interpreted as two upper molars of a relative of Gondwanatherium within the order Gondwanatheria , a small mammalian group that was at the time known only from Argentinean fossils and thought to be related to xenarthrans as part of a group called Paratheria . The generic name , Vucetichia , commemorates Argentinean paleontologist Guiomar Vucetich , and the specific name , gracilis ( Latin for " slender " ) , refers to the animal 's small size .
However , in 1990 David W. Krause and Bonaparte argued that Gondwanatheria , including Ferugliotherium ( family Ferugliotheriidae ) , Gondwanatherium , and Sudamerica ( family Sudamericidae ) , should be placed within Multituberculata . Two years later , Krause , Bonaparte , and Zofia Kielan @-@ Jaworowska described additional material of Ferugliotherium ( which they tentatively placed in the multituberculate suborder Plagiaulacoidea ) and suggested that the supposed upper molars of Vucetichia were in fact heavily worn first lower molariforms ( mf1 ) of Ferugliotherium . In 1993 , Krause described an unworn mf1 of Ferugliotherium and confirmed that Vucetichia was based on worn specimens of Ferugliotherium and therefore a synonym of the latter . In the same year , he and Bonaparte argued once again that Ferugliotherium , Gondwanatherium , and Sudamerica formed a closely related group of multituberculates , which they called the superfamily Gondwanatherioidea . Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and Bonaparte described a lower jaw fragment with a multituberculate @-@ like lower fourth premolar ( p4 ) from Los Alamitos in 1996 and tentatively identified it as Ferugliotherium . On the basis of the morphological features of the jaw fragment , they argued that gondwanatherians were not closely related to any other multituberculate group , and consequently placed them in a suborder of their own , Gondwanatheria .
In 1999 , Rosendo Pascual and colleagues described a jaw of Sudamerica . Because some of this jaw 's features were thought to be incompatible with a multituberculate identity , they regarded gondwanatheres ( including Ferugliotherium ) as Mammalia incertae sedis . However , in 2009 Yamila Gurovich and Robin Beck argued in favor of a close relationship between gondwanatheres ( including Ferugliotherium ) and multituberculates . The controversy is partially due to disagreement over the assignment of two upper premolars and the jaw fragment described by Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and Bonaparte in 1996 ; Gurovich and Beck identify these as Ferugliotherium , while Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and others regard them as indeterminate multituberculates .
In the 2000s , some possible close relatives of Ferugliotherium were discovered . An enigmatic tooth from the Paleogene of Peru , LACM 149371 , was described in 2004 as possibly related to the family Ferugliotheriidae . Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues described a p4 from the La Colonia Formation ( Late Cretaceous of Argentina ) as a new multituberculate genus , Argentodites , in 2007 , but Gurovich and Beck noted close similarities between this p4 and the p4 in the possible jaw fragment of Ferugliotherium and suggested that it represented Ferugliotherium or a closely related species . A single mf1 from the Allen Formation ( Late Cretaceous of Argentina ) was described as another ferugliotheriid genus , Trapalcotherium , in 2009 .
= = Description = =
Ferugliotherium is known from isolated teeth , the assignment of some of which is controversial . The material from the Los Alamitos Formation , which is mostly in the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales Bernardino Rivadavia ( MACN ) in Buenos Aires , with one tooth in the Museo de La Plata ( MLP ) in La Plata , Argentina , has been thoroughly described ; while there are additional Ferugliotherium fossils from the La Colonia Formation , they have not been described in detail . Although the fragmentary nature of the known fossils of Ferugliotherium makes it impossible to determine its dental formula with certainty , Gurovich suggested that it had one incisor ( possibly two in the upper jaw ) , no canines , one or two premolars , and two molars on each side of the lower and upper jaws . However , on the basis of comparisons with Sudamerica , which is known to have had four lower molariforms ( molar @-@ like teeth , either premolars or molars ) in its lower jaw , Pascual and Ortiz @-@ Jaureguizar suggested in 2007 that Ferugliotherium may also have had four lower molars .
Ferugliotherium was much smaller than the sudamericids Gondwanatherium and Sudamerica , and its body mass is estimated to have been about 70 g ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) . Unlike the hypsodont ( high @-@ crowned ) sudamericids , Ferugliotherium has brachydont ( low @-@ crowned ) molariform teeth that are supported by at least two roots , not a single massive root . The direction of wear on the teeth indicates that Ferugliotherium , Gondwanatherium , and Sudamerica all had palinal jaw movement ( i.e. , the lower jaw moved backwards during the power stroke of chewing ) — a feature otherwise only seen in multituberculates among mammals .
= = = Incisors = = =
Three fragmentary Ferugliotherium lower incisors ( MACN Pv @-@ RN 701A , 701B , and 701C ) are known from the Los Alamitos Formation . Another incisor , MACN Pv @-@ RN 970 , was assigned to Ferugliotherium by Bonaparte in 1990 , but it is much larger than the other three incisors , which are otherwise similar , and probably represents Gondwanatherium instead . Only the tips of the three incisors are preserved . They are laterally compressed , with an estimated width of 1 @.@ 3 mm and height of 2 @.@ 4 mm in 701A . The medial side ( towards the middle of the mouth ) is flat , but the lateral side ( towards the sides ) is convex . There is enamel only on the lower ( ventral ) side . A large wear facet is present at the tip , forming an angle of about 35 ° with the ventral margin in 701A . The three incisor fragments are identified as Ferugliotherium because of their size and provenance and the presence of a restricted enamel band . They show features , such as lateral compression , an acute angle at the tip , small curvature , and an irregular cross section , that are usually seen in lower , not upper incisors in mammals with procumbent incisors , such as rodents and taeniolabidoid multituberculates .
Four specimens ( MACN Pv @-@ RN 702A through 702D ) are thought to represent second upper incisors ( I2 ) of Ferugliotherium . 702A ( height 1 @.@ 5 mm ; width 1 @.@ 1 mm ) and 702B are slightly larger than 702C ( height 1 @.@ 2 mm ; width 0 @.@ 9 mm ) and 702D . The smaller incisors cannot be lateral incisors ( I3 ) , because 702C 's wear facet is stronger than would be expected in an I3 ; therefore , all four upper incisors are identified as central incisors ( I2 ) . To explain the size difference , Krause and colleagues suggested that Ferugliotherium was variable in size or that the smaller incisors were deciduous precursors of the larger permanent tooth . They considered it less likely that multiple species with similar incisors were present . The upper incisors have enamel only on the dorsal side . The wear facet at the tip is preserved only in 702C , forming an angle of 52 ° with the dorsal side , and is more concave than the facet in the lower incisors . 702A – D are recognizable as upper incisors because they have a less acute angle at the tip and are less laterally compressed , more curved , and elliptical in cross section .
Incisors of Ferugliotherium and Gondwanatherium are similar in overall shape and share a restricted band of enamel — a feature otherwise seen only in multituberculates among Mesozoic mammals . The incisors of Sudamerica are also similar .
= = = Mandible with lower premolar = = =
MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 , a fragment of the mandible ( lower jaw ) preserving one premolar , was discovered in 1991 and tentatively identified as Ferugliotherium by Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and Bonaparte in 1996 , but this assignment remains controversial . The poorly preserved and worn premolar is a bladelike tooth , resembling multituberculate fourth lower premolars ( p4 ) . The premolar is 4 @.@ 8 mm long and bears eight faint ridges on both the labial ( towards the lips ) and lingual ( towards the tongue ) sides . On the labial side , the four ridges at the back are more widely separated than the four in front of them . The back and front margins of the tooth are parallel and there is no small cusp on the labial side . There are two roots ; the one at the front is larger than the one at the back and bears a furrow . The lower border of the enamel cover is marked by two semicircular extensions of the enamel on the front side , but there is only one such extension at the back . By its size , the number of ridges , and apparently greater length than height , it differs from all known multituberculate first , second , and third lower premolars , indicating that it is a p4 .
The dentary ( lower jaw bone ) itself is robust and short . The length axis of the p4 makes an angle of about 58 ° with the length axis of the jawbone . The bone is concave on the lingual , but convex on the labial side . There is a diastema ( gap ) between the p4 and the incisor that would have been in front of it , as in the jaw of Sudamerica . Gurovich estimated the length of the diastema as 2 @.@ 5 mm . There is a rounded mental foramen ( an opening in the labial side of the jawbone ) , with a diameter of 0 @.@ 7 mm , located about 0 @.@ 8 mm below the dorsal margin of the bone and 1 @.@ 5 mm in front of the p4 . Although the incisor itself is not preserved , its alveolus ( the housing of the root ) is in part . As in Sudamerica , it extends far into the dentary , passing below p4 . The alveolus is 1 @.@ 5 mm wide below the front root of p4 and 1 @.@ 4 mm at the back of the jaw fragment . Although the height of the alveolus cannot be determined because the lower side is broken away , the incisor must have been quite deep .
When it was discovered that Sudamerica had four molariform teeth and no bladelike premolar in its lower jaw , Pascual , Kielan @-@ Jaworowska , and colleagues removed MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 from Ferugliotherium , which they expected to have the same dental formula as its fellow gondwanathere Sudamerica , and identified it as an indeterminate multituberculate instead . Pascual and colleagues argued that molariform teeth as seen in Sudamerica could not have evolved from the bladelike p4 of Ferugliotherium , and that it was unlikely that additional molars had been added in Sudamerica . In 2004 and 2007 , Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues aligned the dentary with the multituberculate suborder " Plagiaulacida " because the p4 is rectangular in labial view , not curved as in the suborder Cimolodonta . This feature was also used to distinguish MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 from the single p4 assigned to Argentodites , which was tentatively placed in Cimolodonta .
Gurovich , Guillermo Rougier , and colleagues , on the other hand , maintain that the dentary is referable to Ferugliotherium and that the p4s of Argentodites and MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 are very similar . The alveolus of MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 fits the lower incisors attributed to Ferugliotherium in size and the blade @-@ like premolar is of the size expected for an animal with molariforms the size of Ferugliotherium teeth . If the dentary and premolars ( whose identification has been similarly controversial ; see below ) do not belong to Ferugliotherium , then , Gurovich and Beck argue , the Los Alamitos Formation would contain two mammals ( Ferugliotherium and a multituberculate ) similar in size and morphology , and therefore presumably occupying similar ecological niches — and one of those would be represented only by molariforms and incisors and the other only by premolars and a jaw fragment among the available fossils . Furthermore , they noted that the transition from blade @-@ like to molariform premolars had actually been observed in the fossil record of the extinct sthenurine kangaroos , and that the first molariform in Sudamerica and Gondwanatherium is laterally compressed , suggesting that it may have derived from a blade @-@ like tooth . Gurovich and Beck attributed the difference in shape between the MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 and Argentodites p4s to the extensive wear of the former , and suggested that the two are similar enough that they probably represent at least closely related species .
= = = Other premolars = = =
Krause and colleagues identified a single tooth , MACN Pv @-@ RN 251 , as a possible deciduous anterior ( i.e. , not p4 or dp4 , the deciduous version of p4 ) lower premolar of Ferugliotherium . It is minuscule , with a length of 0 @.@ 85 mm and width of 0 @.@ 5 mm ( assuming the tooth is oriented correctly ) . It bears two serrations ( small projections ) at the tip of the crown — one around the middle of the crown and the other at what may be the back of the crown , where it is highest . Two prominent ridges descend from each serration towards the front down the sides of the tooth . No roots are preserved , but the rounded surface of the lower side of the tooth suggests they may have been resorbed , which would indicate that the tooth is deciduous . Krause and colleagues suggested that the tooth may have been the frontmost premolar , whether deciduous or permanent . However , Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and Bonaparte wrote that this tooth does not match the partial jaw MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 , which has no alveoli in front of p4 , and Pascual and colleagues agreed in 1999 that the tooth probably does not belong to Ferugliotherium .
Bonaparte had identified another tooth , MACN Pv @-@ RN 252 , as a possible Ferugliotherium lower premolar in 1990 , but this fossil is very fragmentary and according to Krause and colleagues , it cannot even be proven to be a mammalian tooth .
Krause and colleagues identified two teeth , MACN Pv @-@ RN 249 and 250 , as anterior upper premolars . 249 bears two longitudinal rows of cusps . One row ( row A ; possibly the lingual one ) includes four cusps , the other ( row B ) includes at least two , but is damaged . In row A , there are three ridges ( at the front , middle , and back ) extending from the tip of the base of each cusp . The second and third cusps are largest and most widely separated from each other . In row B , one cusp bears three ridges , of which one extends towards the other cusp in the row and the two others towards row A ) and the other cusp is damaged . 250 is more fragmentary , but bears at least five cusps and may represent the same tooth position as 249 , though it would come from the opposite side of the mouth . The microstructure of the enamel of this tooth has been studied . With a width of about 55 μm near the tip of a cusp , the enamel is thin . The enamel prisms are straight , small , and rounded and there is little material between the prisms . Small , rounded prisms are also seen in Gondwanatherium , Sudamerica , and other gondwanatheres , but in few multituberculates . Even in those multituberculates that do have small prisms , the prism sheath is closed , but the sheath is incomplete in Gondwanatherium and possibly Ferugliotherium .
Krause and colleagues wrote that these two teeth resemble multituberculate deciduous anterior upper premolars , particularly second and third premolars ( P2 and P3 ) , and used this as one of their arguments for identifying Ferugliotherium as a multituberculate . However , as with the dentary MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 , the two upper premolars were excluded from Ferugliotherium and identified as multituberculates by Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues after the discovery of the jaw of Sudamerica . Gurovich continues to identify them as Ferugliotherium on the basis of their size and provenance and other similarities between Ferugliotherium and multituberculates .
= = = Lower molariforms = = =
Five putative lower molariforms of Ferugliotherium are known from the Los Alamitos Formation ( MACN Pv @-@ RN 20 , 174 , 175 , and 253 and MLP 88 @-@ III @-@ 28 @-@ 1 ) . These teeth include the holotypes of Ferugliotherium windhauseni ( MACN Pv @-@ RN 20 , the only second lower molariform , or m2 ) and Vucetichia gracilis ( MACN Pv @-@ RN 174 ) .
The best @-@ preserved mf1 is MLP 88 @-@ III @-@ 28 @-@ 1 . The crown is unworn and complete and there are no roots , suggesting that the tooth had not yet erupted when its owner died . Krause , who first described the tooth in 1993 , identified it as a right molar , but the subsequent discovery of the jaw of Sudamerica made it clear that Ferugliotherium molariforms had been reversed , and MLP 88 @-@ III @-@ 28 @-@ 1 is actually from the left side of the jaw . The tooth is 2 @.@ 2 mm long and 1 @.@ 5 mm wide . The crown is roughly rectangular , with rounded corners , and bears two longitudinal rows of cusps . The lingual row consists of four cusps , which are smaller and lower than the three labial ones . The cusps in this row become smaller and lower from the front to the back . Two ridges descend from the tip of each cusp to the lingual and labial sides . The labial ridges on the first and fourth cusp only reach the base of the cusp , but those on the second and third cusps join ridges descending from the first and second labial cusp . In the first three cusps , the lingual ridge extends to near the lingual margin of the tooth and then turns backward ; the end of the ridge is lingual to the next cusp . In the fourth cusp , the ridge hardly extends posteriorly , but rather labially , forming the posterior margin of the tooth and joining a ridge descending from the last labial cusp . The labial cusp row includes three , larger cusps , each of which bears two ridges that descend lingually into the valley between the two cusp rows . The front ridge of each pair ends in the central valley , and the back ridge joins a ridge from a lingual cusp . The ridge pattern results in the presence of three transverse furrows between the main cusps .
Another mf1 , MACN Pv @-@ RN 253 , is almost unworn , but damaged : only the front two lingual cusps and the first two cusps and part of the third in the labial row are preserved . This tooth is similar to MLP 88 @-@ III @-@ 28 @-@ 1 in all respects . However , Gurovich suggests that it may also be an m2 . MACN Pv @-@ RN 174 , which is heavily worn , and MACN Pv @-@ RN 175 , which is not only heavily worn but has also undergone severe abrasion , were originally identified as upper molars of Vucetichia gracilis by Bonaparte in 1990 . The roots of MACN Pv @-@ RN 174 are preserved ; at the front and back of the tooth , there is a pair of roots , which are fused near their bases . It has small enamel prisms . Krause and colleagues suggested in 1992 that 174 and 175 were mf1s of Ferugliotherium on the basis of similarities with 253 , and Krause confirmed this in 1993 by describing the complete mf1 MLP 88 @-@ III @-@ 28 @-@ 1 . The related ferugliotheriid genus Trapalcotherium is known from a single mf1 , which is similar to Ferugliotherium mf1s but different in some morphological details ( see Trapalcotherium : Relationships ) .
The holotype , MACN Pv @-@ RN 20 , is a right mf2 according to both Krause and colleagues ( 1992 ) and Gurovich ( 2005 ) , but Gurovich considered the side that Krause and colleagues thought was lingual to be labial , and vice versa . The latter interpretation is used in the following description . It is almost square , but at the front it is slightly narrower than at the back . The labial side of the tooth is taller and less worn than the lingual side . There are two rows of cusps , and each lingual cusp is connected to each labial cusp by a broad crest , with one or more fossas in the middle . One of the two labial cusps may have been divided into two smaller cusps . The two crests are separated by a deep furrow . The enamel prisms of this tooth are small , like those of the premolar MACN Pv @-@ RN 250 .
Transverse ridges between the cusps , as seen in Ferugliotherium , are known in only one multituberculate , Essonodon , but the ridge pattern in Essonodon is more complicated and the animal lacks the prominent furrows of Ferugliotherium and differs in numerous other features . On the other hand , overall patterns of cusps and ridges are essentially similar among Ferugliotherium , Gondwanatherium , and Sudamerica , indicating that the three are closely related .
= = = Upper molariforms = = =
A single tooth , MACN Pv @-@ RN 248 , is currently identified as a Ferugliotherium upper molariform . In 1992 , Krause and colleagues labeled it as a right MF1 , but Gurovich identifies it as a left MF1 or possibly even a right mf1 . LACM 149371 , an enigmatic tooth from the Paleogene of Santa Rosa , Peru , may represent an upper molar of an animal related to Ferugliotherium . Like the latter , it has cusps that are compressed from front to back and that are connected to the center of the crown by low crests .
MACN Pv @-@ RN 248 is somewhat damaged and almost rectangular , but slightly narrower at the back than at the front . The tooth bears three longitudinal rows of cusps . The middle row consists of five cusps , the labial row ( assuming it is a left M1 ; if it is from the right , " lingual " and " labial " should be reversed ) includes two or perhaps three cusps , and the lingual row includes probably four cusps . The lingual and middle rows extend across the entire length of the tooth , but the labial row is shorter , extending across about 70 % of the length . The middle row is oriented obliquely with respect to the length axis of the tooth , so that it converges with the lingual row towards the back of the tooth . The front lingual corner of the tooth is missing , but it appears that the first cusps in the lingual and middle rows are connected by two ridges , one at the front margin of the tooth and one at the back of the cusps . A deep fossa ( basin ) lies between the two cusps and their connecting ridges . Behind these two cusps , a transverse furrow extends across the width of the tooth . The second lingual and middle cusps are also connected by a crest , which is somewhat weaker than those connecting the first cusps . Another transverse furrow extends behind the second cusps and also separates the second middle cusp from the labial row . A third furrow , behind the third lingual and middle cusps , also separates the first from the second labial cusp . Three ridges descend from the fourth lingual cusp : one connects to the fourth middle cusp , one ends blindly between the fourth lingual and middle cusps , and one connects to the fifth middle cusp . The second labial cusp , which is larger than the first one , is superficially divided into two smaller cusps by an indentation on its lingual side . There are vertical grooves at the bases of the cusps .
= = Range and ecology = =
Remains of Ferugliotherium come from two formations in the Late Cretaceous of southern Argentina , the Los Alamitos and La Colonia Formations . These and the Allen Formation ( which has yielded Trapalcotherium ) are all dated to the Campanian ( 84 – 71 million years ago ) and / or Maastrichtian ( 71 – 66 million years ago ) , the penultimate and ultimate stages of the Cretaceous . The La Colonia Formation may be somewhat younger than the other two , while the Los Alamitos Formation has been considered Campanian , and can be dated to the Campanian or Maastrichtian on the basis of palynology . The Allen Formation is likely Maastrichtian , but not latest Maastrichtian .
The Los Alamitos Formation is located in southeastern Río Negro Province , in the vicinity of the town of Cona Niyeu and was probably deposited in a marshy environment . In 1983 , it yielded the first Mesozoic mammal to be found in Argentina , Mesungulatum houssayi , and since then , the mammalian fauna has expanded to 14 species . Most of those belong to the archaic mammalian group Dryolestoidea , but the fauna also includes the gondwanatheres Ferugliotherium and Gondwanatherium . The dryolestoids Mesungulum houssayi and Groebertherium novasi and the two gondwanatheres are the most common mammals . Other fossils found in the Los Alamitos Formation include fish , frogs , turtles , madtsoiid snakes , dinosaurs such as Secernosaurus , gastropods , and other invertebrates .
The La Colonia Formation outcrops in north @-@ central Chubut Province , and the mammalian fossils come from the Mirasol Chico valley . The formation includes fluvial ( river ) , deep @-@ sea , and near @-@ shore deposits , and the mammalian fauna probably comes from an estuary , tidal flat , or coastal plain . The La Colonia Formation also contains dryolestoids , such as Coloniatherium and Reigitherium , as well as a ferugliotheriid and the putative multituberculate Argentodites . In addition , the La Colonia Formation has yielded fossils of a wide array of other animals , including crocodiles , plesiosaurs , lungfish ( Ceratodus ) , and dinosaurs ( including Carnotaurus ) .
The high @-@ crowned sudamericids were probably herbivores , but the lower @-@ crowned Ferugliotherium was more probably an insectivore or omnivore , like similar multituberculates such as Mesodma , which is thought to have eaten insects , other arthropods , seeds , and / or nuts . It may have used its incisors for gnawing or slicing , and the blade @-@ like p4 may also have been used for slicing hard plant parts , such as seeds . The wear patterns on Ferugliotherium teeth independently suggest that the animal may have eaten some plant material .
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= Bethlehem =
Bethlehem ( Arabic : بيت لحم Bayt Lahm Arabic pronunciation : [ beːt.laħm ] ; " House of Meat " , Bēt Laḥm ; Hebrew : בֵּית לֶחֶם Bet Lehem , Modern : Bet Lehem [ bet ˈleχem ] , lit . " House of Bread " ; Ancient Greek : Βηθλεέμ [ bɛːtʰle.ém ] ; Latin : Bethleem ) is a Palestinian city located in the central West Bank , Palestine , about 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) south of Jerusalem . Its population is approximately 25 @,@ 000 people . It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate . The economy is primarily tourist @-@ driven .
The earliest known mention of the city was in the Amarna correspondence of 1350 – 1330 BCE during its habitation by the Canaanites . The Hebrew Bible , which says that the city of Bethlehem was built up as a fortified city by Rehoboam , identifies it as the city David was from and where he was crowned as the king of Israel . The New Testament identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of Jesus . Bethlehem was destroyed by the Emperor Hadrian during the second @-@ century Bar Kokhba revolt ; its rebuilding was promoted by Empress Helena , mother of Constantine the Great , who commissioned the building of its great Church of the Nativity in 327 CE . The church was badly damaged by the Samaritans , who sacked it during a revolt in 529 , but was rebuilt a century later by Emperor Justinian I.
Bethlehem became part of Jund Filastin following the Muslim conquest in 637 . Muslim rule continued in Bethlehem until its conquest in 1099 by a crusading army , who replaced the town 's Greek Orthodox clergy with a Latin one . In the mid @-@ 13th century , the Mamluks demolished the city 's walls , which were subsequently rebuilt under the Ottomans in the early 16th century . Control of Bethlehem passed from the Ottomans to the British at the end of World War I. Bethlehem came under Jordanian rule during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War and was later captured by Israel in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War . Since the 1995 Oslo Accords , Bethlehem has been administered by the Palestinian Authority .
Bethlehem now has a Muslim majority , but is still home to a significant Palestinian Christian community . Bethlehem 's chief economic sector is tourism , which peaks during the Christmas season when Christians make pilgrimage to the Church of the Nativity , as they have done for almost 2 @,@ 000 years . Bethlehem has over 30 hotels and 300 handicraft workshops . Rachel 's Tomb , an important Jewish holy site , is located at the northern entrance of Bethlehem .
= = History = =
= = = Canaanite period = = =
The earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the Amarna correspondence ( c . 1400 BCE ) . In one of his six letters to Pharaoh , Abdi @-@ Heba , Egypt 's governor for Jerusalem , appeals for aid in retaking " Bit @-@ Lahmi " in the wake of disturbances by Apiru mercenaries. employed by his rivals : " now even a town near Jerusalem , Bit @-@ Lahmi by name , a village which once belonged to the king , has fallen to the enemy . . . Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi @-@ Heba , and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king ! "
It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that this was a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals . Lachmo was the Chaldean god of fertility , worshipped by the Canaanites as Lachama . Some time in the 3rd millennium BCE , they erected a temple to worship the god on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity . The town was known as Beit Lachama , meaning " House of Lachama . " The Philistines later established a garrison there . William F. Albright notes that the pronunciation of the name remained essentially the same for 3 @,@ 500 years , but has meant different things : " ' Temple of the God Lakhmu ' in Canaanite , ' House of Bread ' in Hebrew and Aramaic , ' House of Meat ' in Arabic . "
A burial ground discovered in spring 2013 , and surveyed in 2015 by a joint Italian @-@ Palestinian team found that the necropolis covered 3 hectares ( more than 7 acres ) and originally contained more than 100 tombs in use between roughly 2200 B.C. and 650 B.C. The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs .
= = = Israelite and Judean period = = =
Archaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as a city in the Kingdom of Judah was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the City of David in the form of a bulla ( seal impression in dried clay ) in ancient Hebrew script that reads " From the town of Bethlehem to the King , " indicating that it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain , wine , or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE .
Biblical scholars believe Bethlehem , located in the " hill country " of Judah , may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath , which means " fertile " , as there is a reference to it in the Book of Micah as Bethlehem Ephratah . The Bible also calls it Beth @-@ Lehem Judah , and the New Testament describes it as the " City of David " . It is first mentioned in the Tanakh and the Bible as the place where the matriarch Rachel died and was buried " by the wayside " ( Gen. 48 : 7 ) . Rachel 's Tomb , the traditional grave site , stands at the entrance to Bethlehem . According to the Book of Ruth , the valley to the east is where Ruth of Moab gleaned the fields and returned to town with Naomi . It was the home of Jesse , father of King David of Israel , and the site of David 's anointment by the prophet Samuel . It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of Adullam .
Writing in the 4th century , the Pilgrim of Bordeaux reported that the sepulchers of David , Ezekiel , Asaph , Job , Jesse , and Solomon were located near Bethlehem . There has been no corroboration of this .
= = = Classical period = = =
After the Bar Kokhba revolt was crushed , Hadrian converted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to the Greek god Adonis , to honour his favourite , the Greek youth Antinous . Some scholars hold the view that this site was one that had originally been dedicated to Adonis @-@ Tammuz and Christians had taken it over .
In 326 – 328 , the empress Helena , consort of the emperor Constantius Chlorus , and mother of the emperor Constantine the Great , made a pilgrimage to Syra @-@ Palaestina , in the course of which she visited the ruins of Bethlehem . The empress promoted the rebuilding of the city , and Eusebius of Caesarea writes that she was responsible for the construction of the Church of the Nativity .
During the Samaritan revolt of 529 , Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed ; they were rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor Justinian I. In 614 , the Persian Sassanid Empire , supported by Jewish rebels , invaded Palestina Prima and captured Bethlehem . A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the magi depicted in Persian clothing in a mosaic .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
In 637 , shortly after Jerusalem was captured by the Muslim armies , ' Umar ibn al @-@ Khattāb , the second Caliph , promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use . A mosque dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed , next to the church . Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of the Umayyads in the 8th century , then the Abbasids in the 9th century . A Persian geographer recorded in the mid @-@ 9th century that a well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town . In 985 , the Arab geographer al @-@ Muqaddasi visited Bethlehem , and referred to its church as the " Basilica of Constantine , the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country @-@ round . " In 1009 , during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph , al @-@ Hakim bi @-@ Amr Allah , the Church of the Nativity was ordered to be demolished , but was spared by local Muslims , because they had been permitted to worship in the structure 's southern transept .
In 1099 , Bethlehem was captured by the Crusaders , who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity . The Greek Orthodox clergy were removed from their sees and replaced with Latin clerics . Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox . On Christmas Day 1100 , Baldwin I , first king of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem , was crowned in Bethlehem , and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town .
In 1187 , Saladin , the Sultan of Egypt and Syria who led the Muslim Ayyubids , captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders . The Latin clerics were forced to leave , allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return . Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192 . However , Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade , as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims . William IV , Count of Nevers had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control , he would welcome them in the small town of Clamecy in present @-@ day Burgundy , France . As a result , the Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor , Clamecy , in 1223 . Clamecy remained the continuous ' in partibus infidelium ' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years , until the French Revolution in 1789 .
Bethlehem , along with Jerusalem , Nazareth , and Sidon , was briefly ceded to the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem by a treaty between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Ayyubid Sultan al @-@ Kamil in 1229 , in return for a ten @-@ year truce between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders . The treaty expired in 1239 , and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244 . In 1250 , with the coming to power of the Mamluks under Rukn al @-@ Din Baibars , tolerance of Christianity declined . Members of the clergy left the city , and in 1263 the town walls were demolished . The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century , establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica of the Nativity . The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and the Armenians .
= = = Ottoman era = = =
From 1517 , during the years of Ottoman control , custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches . By the end of the 16th century , Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem , and was subdivided into seven quarters . The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period . The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1 @,@ 435 , making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time . Its total revenue amounted to 30 @,@ 000 akce .
Bethlehem paid taxes on wheat , barley and grapes . The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities , each having its own leader . Five leaders represented the village in the mid @-@ 16th century , three of whom were Muslims . Ottoman tax records suggest that the Christian population was slightly more prosperous or grew more grain than grapes ( the former being a more valuable commodity ) .
From 1831 to 1841 , Palestine was under the rule of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of Egypt . During this period , the town suffered an earthquake as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter in 1834 by Egyptian troops , apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist of Ibrahim Pasha . In 1841 , Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once again and remained so until the end of World War I. Under the Ottomans , Bethlehem 's inhabitants faced unemployment , compulsory military service , and heavy taxes , resulting in mass emigration , particularly to South America . An American missionary in the 1850s reported a population of under 4 @,@ 000 , nearly all of whom belonged to the Greek Church . He also noted that a lack of water crippled the town 's growth .
= = = Modern era = = =
Bethlehem was administered by the British Mandate from 1920 to 1948 . In the United Nations General Assembly 's 1947 resolution to partition Palestine , Bethlehem was included in the special international enclave of Jerusalem to be administered by the United Nations . Jordan captured the city during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . Many refugees from areas captured by Israeli forces in 1947 – 48 fled to the Bethlehem area , primarily settling in what became the official refugee camps of ' Azza ( Beit Jibrin ) and ' Aida in the north and Dheisheh in the south . The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem 's Christian majority into a Muslim one .
Jordan retained control of the city until the Six @-@ Day War in 1967 , when Bethlehem was captured by Israel , along with the rest of the West Bank . Following the Six @-@ Day War , Israel took control of the city . In 1995 , Israel turned it over to the Palestinian National Authority in accordance with the Oslo peace accord .
Today , the city is surrounded by two bypass roads for settlers , leaving the inhabitants squeezed between 37 Jewish enclaves , where a quarter of all West Bank settlers , roughly 170 @,@ 000 , live , and the gap between the two roads closed by the 8 @-@ metre high Israeli West Bank barrier , which cuts Bethlehem off from its sister city Jerusalem .
= = = = Palestinian control = = = =
On December 21 , 1995 , Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem , and three days later the city came under the complete administration and military control of the Palestinian National Authority in conformance with the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in 1995 . During the Second Palestinian Intifada in 2000 – 2005 , Bethlehem 's infrastructure and tourism industry were damaged . In 2002 , it was a primary combat zone in Operation Defensive Shield , a major military counteroffensive by the Israeli Defense Forces ( IDF ) . During the counteroffensive , the IDF besieged the Church of the Nativity , where dozens of Palestinian militants had sought refuge . The siege lasted for 39 days . Several militants were killed . It ended with an agreement to exile 13 of the wanted militants to various foreign countries .
= = Geography = =
Bethlehem is located at an elevation of about 775 meters ( 2 @,@ 543 ft ) above sea level , 30 meters ( 98 ft ) higher than nearby Jerusalem . Bethlehem is situated on the southern portion in the Judean Mountains .
The city is located 73 kilometers ( 45 mi ) northeast of Gaza City and the Mediterranean Sea , 75 kilometers ( 47 mi ) west of Amman , Jordan , 59 kilometers ( 37 mi ) southeast of Tel Aviv , Israel and 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Jerusalem . Nearby cities and towns include Beit Safafa and Jerusalem to the north , Beit Jala to the northwest , Husan to the west , al @-@ Khadr and Artas to the southwest , and Beit Sahour to the east . Beit Jala and the latter form an agglomeration with Bethlehem . The Aida and Azza refugee camps are located within the city limits .
In the center of Bethlehem is its old city . The old city consists of eight quarters , laid out in a mosaic style , forming the area around the Manger Square . The quarters include the Christian an @-@ Najajreh , al @-@ Farahiyeh , al @-@ Anatreh , al @-@ Tarajmeh , al @-@ Qawawsa and Hreizat quarters and al @-@ Fawaghreh — the only Muslim quarter . Most of the Christian quarters are named after the Arab Ghassanid clans that settled there . Al @-@ Qawawsa Quarter was formed by Arab Christian emigrants from the nearby town of Tuqu ' in the 18th century . There is also a Syriac quarter outside of the old city , whose inhabitants originate from Midyat and Ma 'asarte in Turkey . The total population of the old city is about 5 @,@ 000 .
= = Climate = =
Bethlehem has a Mediterranean climate , with hot and dry summers and mild , wetter winters . Winter temperatures ( mid @-@ December to mid @-@ March ) can be cool and rainy . January is the coldest month , with temperatures ranging from 1 to 13 degree Celsius ( 33 – 55 ° F ) . From May through September , the weather is warm and sunny . August is the hottest month , with a high of 30 degrees Celsius ( 86 ° F ) . Bethlehem receives an average of 700 millimeters ( 28 in ) of rainfall annually , 70 % between November and January .
Bethlehem 's average annual relative humidity is 60 % and reaches its highest rates between January and February . Humidity levels are at their lowest in May . Night dew may occur in up to 180 days per year . The city is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea breeze that occurs around mid @-@ day . However , Bethlehem is affected also by annual waves of hot , dry , sandy and dust Khamaseen winds from the Arabian Desert , during April , May and mid @-@ June .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Population = = =
According to Ottoman tax records , Christians made up roughly 60 % of the population in the early 16th century , while the Christian and Muslim population became equal by the mid @-@ 16th century . However , there were no Muslim inhabitants counted by the end of the century , with a recorded population of 287 adult male tax @-@ payers . Christians , like all non @-@ Muslims throughout the Ottoman Empire , were required to pay the jizya tax . In 1867 an American visitor describes the town as having a population of 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 ; of whom about 100 were Protestants , 300 were Muslims and " the remainder belonging to the Latin and Greek Churches with a few Armenians . " Another report from the same year puts the Christian population at 3 @,@ 000 , with an additional 50 Muslims . An 1885 source put the population at approximately 6 @,@ 000 of " principally Christians , Latins and Greeks " with no Jewish inhabitants .
In 1948 , the religious makeup of the city was 85 % Christian , mostly of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic denominations , and 13 % Muslim . In the 1967 census taken by Israel authorities , the town of Bethlehem proper numbered 14 @,@ 439 inhabitants , its 7 @,@ 790 Muslim inhabitants represented 53 @.@ 9 % of the population , while the Christians of various denominations numbered 6 @,@ 231 or 46 @.@ 1 % .
In the PCBS 's 1997 census , the city had a population of 21 @,@ 670 , including a total of 6 @,@ 570 refugees , accounting for 30 @.@ 3 % of the city 's population . In 1997 , the age distribution of Bethlehem 's inhabitants was 27 @.@ 4 % under the age of 10 , 20 % from 10 to 19 , 17 @.@ 3 % from 20 – 29 , 17 @.@ 7 % from 30 to 44 , 12 @.@ 1 % from 45 – 64 and 5 @.@ 3 % above the age of 65 . There were 11 @,@ 079 males and 10 @,@ 594 females . In the 2007 PCBS census , Bethlehem had a population of 25 @,@ 266 , of which 12 @,@ 753 were males and 12 @,@ 513 were females . There were 6 @,@ 709 housing units , of which 5 @,@ 211 were households . The average household consisted of 4 @.@ 8 family members .
= = = Christian population = = =
After the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s , the local Christians were Arabized as well even though large numbers were ethnically Arabs of the Ghassanid clans . Bethlehem 's two largest Arab Christian clans trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids , including al @-@ Farahiyyah and an @-@ Najajreh . The former have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated from Yemen and from the Wadi Musa area in present @-@ day Jordan and an @-@ Najajreh descend from Najran . Another Bethlehem clan , al @-@ Anatreh , also trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids .
The percentage of Christians in the town has been steadily declining over the years , primarily due to emigration . The lower birth rate of Christians also accounts for some of the decline . In 1947 , Christians made up 85 % of the population , but by 1998 the figure had declined to 40 % . In 2005 , the mayor of Bethlehem , Victor Batarseh explained that " due to the stress , either physical or psychological , and the bad economic situation , many people are emigrating , either Christians or Muslims , but it is more apparent among Christians , because they already are a minority . " The Palestinian Authority is officially committed to equality for Christians , although there have been incidents of violence against them by the Preventive Security Service and militant factions . The only mosque in the Old City is the Mosque of Omar , located in the Manger Square .
The outbreak of the Second Intifada and the resulting decrease in tourism also affected the Christian minority , since they are the owners of many Bethlehem hotels and services that cater to foreign tourists . A statistical analysis of the Christian exodus cited lack of economic and educational opportunity , especially due to the Christians ' middle @-@ class status and higher education . Since the Second Intifada , 10 % of the Christian population have left the city .
In 2006 , the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue conducted a poll among the city 's Christians according to which 90 % said they had had Muslim friends , 73 @.@ 3 % agreed that the PNA treated Christian heritage in the city with respect and 78 % attributed the exodus of Christians to the Israeli blockade . However , it is likely that there are many factors , most of which are shared with the Palestinian population as a whole .
= = Economy = =
Shopping is a major attraction , especially during the Christmas season . The city 's main streets and old markets are lined with shops selling Palestinian handicrafts , Middle Eastern spices , jewelry and oriental sweets such as baklawa . Olive wood carvings are the item most purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem . Religious handicrafts include ornaments handmade from mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , as well as olive wood statues , boxes , and crosses . Other industries include stone and marble @-@ cutting , textiles , furniture and furnishings . Bethlehem factories also produce paints , plastics , synthetic rubber , pharmaceuticals , construction materials and food products , mainly pasta and confectionery .
Cremisan Wine , founded in 1885 , is a winery run by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan . The grapes are grown mainly in the al @-@ Khader district . In 2007 , the monastery 's wine production was around 700 @,@ 000 liters per year .
In 2008 , Bethlehem hosted the largest economic conference to date in the Palestinian territories . It was initiated by Palestinian Prime Minister and former Finance Minister Salam Fayyad to convince more than a thousand businessmen , bankers and government officials from throughout the Middle East to invest in the West Bank and Gaza Strip . A total of 1 @.@ 4 billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism is Bethlehem 's main industry . Unlike other Palestinian localities prior to 2000 , the majority of the employed residents did not have jobs in Israel . More than 20 % of the working population is employed in the industry . Tourism accounts for approximately 65 % of the city 's economy and 11 % of the Palestinian National Authority . The city has more than two million visitors every year .
The Church of the Nativity is one of Bethlehem 's major tourist attractions and a magnet for Christian pilgrims . It stands in the center of the city — a part of the Manger Square — over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt , where Jesus is believed to have been born . Nearby is the Milk Grotto where the Holy Family took refuge on their Flight to Egypt and next door is the cave where St. Jerome spent thirty years creating the Vulgate , the dominant Latin version of the Bible until the Reformation .
There are over thirty hotels in Bethlehem . Jacir Palace , built in 1910 near the church , is one of Bethlehem 's most successful hotels and its oldest . It was closed down in 2000 due to the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict , but reopened in 2005 as the Jacir Palace InterContinental at Bethlehem .
= = Religious significance and commemoration = =
= = = Birthplace of Jesus = = =
Early Christian traditions describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem : in one , a verse in the Book of Micah is interpreted as a prophecy that the Messiah would be born there . The New Testament has two different accounts of the birth . In the Gospel of Luke , Jesus ' parents live in Nazareth and travel for the Census of Quirinius to Bethlehem , where Jesus is born , after which they return home . The Gospel of Matthew mentions Bethlehem but not the census . Told that a ' King of the Jews ' has been born in the town , Herod orders the killing of all the boys aged two and under in the town and surrounding area . Joseph , warned of by an angel of the Lord , flees to Egypt with his family ; the Holy Family later settles in Nazareth .
Many modern scholars question the idea that Jesus was born in Bethlehem , seeing the biblical stories not as historical accounts but as symbolic narratives invented to present the birth as fulfillment of prophecy and imply a connection to the lineage of King David . The Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John do not include a nativity narrative , but refer to him only as being from Nazareth . In a 2005 article in Archaeology magazine , archaeologist Aviram Oshri points to an absence of evidence for the settlement of Bethlehem near Jerusalem at the time when Jesus was born , and postulates that Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Galilee . In a 2011 article in Biblical Archaeology Review magazine , Jerome Murphy @-@ O 'Connor argues for the traditional position that Jesus was born in Bethlehem near Jerusalem .
The existence of early traditions of Jesus ' birth in Bethlehem is attested by the Christian apologist Justin Martyr , who stated in his Dialogue with Trypho ( c . 155 – 161 ) that the Holy Family had taken refuge in a cave outside of the town . Origen of Alexandria , writing around the year 247 , referred to a cave in the town of Bethlehem which local people believed was the birthplace of Jesus . This cave was possibly one which had previously been a site of the cult of Tammuz .
= = = Christmas celebrations = = =
Christmas rites are held in Bethlehem on three different dates : December 25 is the traditional date by the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations , but Greek , Coptic and Syrian Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on January 6 and Armenian Orthodox Christians on January 19 . Most Christmas processions pass through Manger Square , the plaza outside the Basilica of the Nativity . Roman Catholic services take place in St. Catherine 's Church and Protestants often hold services at Shepherds ' Fields .
= = = Other religious festivals = = =
Bethlehem celebrates festivals related to saints and prophets associated with Palestinian folklore . One such festival is the annual Feast of Saint George ( al @-@ Khadr ) on 5 – 6 May . During the celebrations , Greek Orthodox Christians from the city march in procession to the nearby town of al @-@ Khader to baptize newborns in the waters around the Monastery of St. George and sacrifice a sheep in ritual . The Feast of St. Elijah is commemorated by a procession to Mar Elias , a Greek Orthodox monastery north of Bethlehem .
= = Culture = =
= = = Embroidery = = =
The women embroiderers of Bethlehem were known for their bridalwear . Bethlehem embroidery was renowned for its " strong overall effect of colors and metallic brilliance . " Less formal dresses were made of indigo fabric with a sleeveless coat ( bisht ) from locally woven wool worn over top . Dresses for special occasions were made of striped silk with winged sleeves with a short taqsireh jacket known as the Bethlehem jacket . The taqsireh was made of velvet or broadcloth , usually with heavy embroidery .
Bethlehem work was unique in its use of couched gold or silver cord , or silk cord onto the silk , wool , felt or velvet used for the garment , to create stylized floral patterns with free or rounded lines . This technique was used for " royal " wedding dresses ( thob malak ) , taqsirehs and the shatwehs worn by married women . It has been traced by some to Byzantium , and by others to the formal costumes of the Ottoman Empire 's elite . As a Christian village , local women were also exposed to the detailing on church vestments with their heavy embroidery and silver brocade .
= = = Mother @-@ of @-@ pearl carving = = =
The art of mother @-@ of @-@ pearl carving is said to have been a Bethlehem tradition since the 15th century when it was introduced by Franciscan friars from Italy . A constant stream of pilgrims generated a demand for these items , which also provided jobs for women . The industry was noted by Richard Pococke , who visited Bethlehem in 1727 .
= = = Cultural centers and museums = = =
Bethlehem is home to the Palestinian Heritage Center , established in 1991 . The center aims to preserve and promote Palestinian embroidery , art and folklore . The International Center of Bethlehem is another cultural center that concentrates primarily on the culture of Bethlehem . It provides language and guide training , woman 's studies and arts and crafts displays , and training .
The Bethlehem branch of the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music has about 500 students . Its primary goals are to teach children music , train teachers for other schools , sponsor music research , and the study of Palestinian folklore music .
Bethlehem has four museums : The Crib of the Nativity Theatre and Museum offers visitors 31 3D models depicting the significant stages of the life of Jesus . Its theater presents a 20 @-@ minute animated show . The Badd Giacaman Museum , located in the Old City of Bethlehem , dates back to the 18th century and is primarily dedicated to the history and process of olive oil production . Baituna al @-@ Talhami Museum , established in 1972 , contains displays of Bethlehem culture . The International Museum of Nativity was built by United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) to exhibit " high artistic quality in an evocative atmosphere " .
= = Local government = =
Bethlehem is the muhfaza ( seat ) or district capital of the Bethlehem Governorate .
Bethlehem held its first municipal elections in 1876 , after the mukhtars ( " heads " ) of the quarters of Bethlehem 's Old City ( excluding the Syriac Quarter ) made the decision to elect a local council of seven members to represent each clan in the town . A Basic Law was established so that if the victor for mayor was a Catholic , his deputy should be of the Greek Orthodox community .
Throughout , Bethlehem 's rule by the British and Jordan , the Syriac Quarter was allowed to participate in the election , as were the Ta 'amrah Bedouins and Palestinian refugees , hence ratifying the number of municipal members in the council to 11 . In 1976 , an amendment was passed to allow women to vote and become council members and later the voting age was increased from 21 to 25 .
Today , the Bethlehem Municipal Council consists of 15 elected members , including the mayor and deputy mayor . A special statute requires that the mayor and a majority of the municipal council be Christian , while the remainder are open seats , not restricted to any religion .
There are several branches of political parties on the council , including Communist , Islamist , and secular . The leftist factions of the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP ) and the Palestinian People 's Party ( PPP ) usually dominate the reserved seats . Hamas gained the majority of the open seats in the 2005 Palestinian municipal elections .
= = = Mayors = = =
The mayor and the deputy mayor of Bethlehem are required by municipal law to be Christian . In the October 2012 municipal elections , Fatah member Vera Baboun won , becoming the first female mayor of Bethlehem .
= = Education = =
According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics ( PCBS ) , in 1997 , approximately 84 % of Bethlehem 's population over the age of 10 was literate . Of the city 's population , 10 @,@ 414 were enrolled in schools ( 4 @,@ 015 in primary school , 3 @,@ 578 in secondary and 2 @,@ 821 in high school ) . About 14 @.@ 1 % of high school students received diplomas . There were 135 schools in the Bethlehem Governorate in 2006 ; 100 run the Education Ministry of the Palestinian National Authority , seven by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency ( UNRWA ) and 28 were private .
Bethlehem is home to Bethlehem University , a Catholic Christian co @-@ educational institution of higher learning founded in 1973 in the Lasallian tradition , open to students of all faiths . Bethlehem University is the first university established in the West Bank , and can trace its roots to 1893 when the De La Salle Christian Brothers opened schools throughout Palestine and Egypt .
= = Transportation = =
Bethlehem has three bus stations owned by private companies which offer service to Jerusalem , Beit Jala , Beit Sahour , Hebron , Nahalin , Battir , al @-@ Khader , al @-@ Ubeidiya and Beit Fajjar . There are two taxi stations that make trips to Beit Sahour , Beit Jala , Jerusalem , Tuqu ' and Herodium . There are also two car rental departments : Murad and ' Orabi . Buses and taxis with West Bank licenses are not allowed to enter Israel , including Jerusalem , without a permit .
The Israeli construction of the West Bank barrier has had an impact on Bethlehem politically , socially , and economically . The barrier is located along the northern side of the town 's built @-@ up area , within meters of houses in ' Aida refugee camp on one side , and the Jerusalem municipality on the other . Most entrances and exits from the Bethlehem agglomeration to the rest of the West Bank are currently subjected to Israeli checkpoints and roadblocks . The level of access varies based on Israeli security directives . Travel for Bethlehem 's Palestinian residents from the West Bank into Jerusalem is regulated by a permit @-@ system . Palestinians require a permit to enter the Jewish holy site of Rachel 's Tomb . Israeli citizens are barred from entering Bethlehem and the nearby biblical Solomon 's Pools .
= = Twin towns and sister cities = =
Bethlehem is twinned with :
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= Green Light ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Green Light " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé . The song was written by Beyoncé , Sean Garrett , and Pharrell for Beyoncé 's second solo studio album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . Produced by The Neptunes , it was released as the fifth UK and seventh overall single on July 30 , 2007 through Columbia Records . " Green Light " is an R & B @-@ funk song with lyrics detailing a break @-@ up song in which the female protagonist gives her love interest the permission to move out . The song also finds Beyoncé using fairly aggressive tone . Written in the key of A minor , " Green Light " samples the " uh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh " vocals which music critics noted to have a flagrant resemblance to Beyoncé 's own 2003 hit single , " Crazy in Love " . A remix of the song features American rapper Young Buck .
" Green Light " was generally well received by music critics who universally praised the beat , bass , groove , and angry tone used by Beyoncé in the song . The single performed moderately on charts , peaking at number 12 on the UK Singles Chart and at number 46 in Ireland . The Freemasons remix of the track peaked at number eighteen on the Dutch Top 40 chart . The single 's accompanying music video was directed by Melina Matsoukas and co @-@ directed by Beyoncé . It is inspired by Robert Palmer 's 1985 music video " Addicted to Love " . Beyoncé considered the video , which is her second to feature her all @-@ female tour band called the Suga Mama , her toughest shoot . The song was a part of the set list on her world tour The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) .
= = Background and release = =
After filming Dreamgirls in which Beyoncé landed a major role , she went on a month @-@ long vacation . On the break she went to the studio to start working on her second solo album , B 'Day . She was inspired by her role and she " had so many things bottled up , so many emotions , so many ideas " . Beyoncé contacted American singer @-@ songwriter Sean Garrett , who had worked with her in Destiny 's Child and on her 2006 single " Check on It " . Together with Pharrell , who had also previously collaborated with Beyoncé , Garrett was booked to Sony Music Studios in New York City , each had studio to work in . The track was co @-@ produced by Beyoncé and The Neptunes , along with " Kitty Kat " , and was recorded by Jim Caruana and mixed by Jason Goldstein at the same studio .
In June 2006 , Beyoncé invited Tamara Coniff of Billboard magazine to a New York recording studio . There she premiered several songs from the album including " Ring the Alarm " ( 2006 ) and " Freakum Dress " ( 2006 ) , which both were cited as possible second singles , to be released in the United States only . At the same time , she revealed that " Green Light " and " Get Me Bodied " ( 2007 ) , were planned to be released as the next two international / third US singles from B 'Day , following the release of the lead single " Déjà Vu " ( 2006 ) . However , she ultimately opted for " Ring the Alarm " ( 2006 ) as the second single to be released in the United States only while " Irreplaceable " ( 2006 ) was officially serviced as the album 's second international / third US single . " Green Light " was released later in the United Kingdom on July 30 , 2007 as the seventh overall single , following the international release " Beautiful Liar " ( 2007 ) . Along with the release of the single , a Digital EP featuring remixes from the English production team Freemasons , was made available on July 27 , 2007 as an online digital download .
= = Composition = =
" Green Light " is an R & B @-@ funk song performed with " vivace " tempo . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is written in the key of A minor with a moderate groove of 132 beats per minute . The chord follows the Fm @-@ G ♭ key series with an occasional shift to additional B ♭ m7 . Beyoncé 's vocals range from the note of C ♯ 4 to F5 . The song is built on a ripping bassline and features " a more organic " beat . Green Light " features " uh @-@ huh huh huh " vocals and uses brassy stabs which a reviewer from Guardian Unlimited found to be a " direct echo to ' Crazy in Love ' . " According to The London Paper , the " uh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh " vocals in " Green Light " is an " imitation of Amerie 's performance " in her 2005 single " 1 Thing " . " Green Light " also displays Latin percussion as well as sampled soul horns , and uses a fairly aggressive tone . Conforming to Jon Pareles of The New York Times , " Green Light " is a break @-@ up song in which the female protagonist gives her love interest the permission to move out . This is shown in the lines of the hook : " Go ! Go ! " The lyrics are constructed in the traditional verse @-@ chorus form . The song starts with an intro in which Beyoncé sings , " Give it to mama " . Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music commented that " Green Light " seems to be all " slink and minimalism before a surging come @-@ on of a chorus . " It follows the verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse @-@ verse @-@ chorus pattern giving way to the bridge . Beyoncé repeats the chorus , ending the song .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Green Light " received positive reception from critics . Eb Haynes of AllHipHop referred to " Green Light " as a " classic Pharrell @-@ Neptunes groove " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic described the track as an " ambitious , fleet @-@ footed number that continually switches tempos and sounds " . Spence D. of IGN music stated , " ' Green Light ' brings things back down to pseudo earthiness ; both with the slightly more organic sounding Neptunes beat . " He felt that the " rippling bassline sounds really familiar , like it 's been used in other Neptunes ' produced tracks before " .... Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music said that " Green Light " is " the best thing Pharrell and co have done in a long , long while . " Roger Friedman of Fox News Channel considered " Green Light " as his second choice as the song having the greatest potential to become a massive hit after " Irreplaceable " ( 2006 ) . Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine gave a mixed review for the song commenting that it 's one of the " tired random @-@ percussion tracks [ ... ] that goes nowhere . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
With the album version of the song being available digitally as soon as the album was released , " Green Light " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 152 after the video aired in early July 2007 , and then rose to number seventy @-@ eight on July 28 , 2007 . Because of heavy radio airplay of the Freemasons remix , as soon as it was available , the song climbed sixty places from number seventy @-@ seven to number seventeen on August 11 , 2007 , and then to number twelve , giving Beyoncé her eleventh top twenty hit in the United Kingdom . " Green Light " became Beyoncé 's highest charting single on downloads alone on the UK Singles Chart without a prominent featured artist . The UK commercial CD single was cancelled at the last minute , which means it did not receive a physical release . This explains why the single failed to reach a higher position . " Green Light " stayed on the chart for nine weeks . In Ireland , the single debuted at number forty @-@ six on August 23 , 2007 , and dropped off the chart a week later . The Freemasons remix of the track debuted at number thirty on the Dutch Top 40 chart on September 8 , 2007 . It propelled to number nineteen , and peaked at number eighteen on September 29 , 2007 . It remained on the chart for six weeks . On the other hand , the album version of " Green Light " peaked at number twenty on the Dutch Mega Single Top 100 on September 22 , 2007 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Green Light " was directed by Melina Matsoukas and co @-@ directed by Beyoncé . Filmed in early 2007 , it was one of the videos shot in two weeks for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album ( 2007 ) and was one out of eight previously unseen clips . " Green Light " was the third video shot during the sessions . The clip was inspired mainly by Robert Palmer 's 1985 music video " Addicted to Love " with its " stone @-@ faced models pretending to play guitars " . " Green Light " was considered by Beyoncé as a modern version of the video because they used the instruments as props , where she pretended as a rock star .
She also revealed that the scenes reminded her of Vanity 6 . A short " Kitty Kat " clip opens the " Green Light " video . Beyoncé considered " Green Light " the " toughest video " to shoot . Besides from dressing in latex rubber clothing , she and her back @-@ up dancers had to wear ballet @-@ pointe heels . The shoes blistered her feet and gave muscle spasms due to the 18 @-@ hour session . Beyoncé invited her all @-@ female tour band , Suga Mama , to make their second appearance in a video after their debut performance on the music video for " Irreplaceable " ( 2006 ) . The video was posted on the MTV Overdrive on March 28 , 2007 .
= = Live performances = =
On September 6 , 2006 , Beyoncé promoted the album B 'Day with a performance of " Green Light " on Good Morning America . On April 2 , 2007 she also appeared on the Today Show , to promote the deluxe edition of B 'Day , which was released the following day . Beyoncé sang the Spanglish version of " Irreplaceable " and " Green Light " . The song was included as a part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience . On August 5 , 2007 , Beyoncé performed the song at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan , wearing a sparkly silver dress with a long train . For the performance , Beyoncé also brought out her squad of six female dancers . According to Shaheem Reid of MTV News , all the women moved with the precision " of a Navy Seal strike force " , slaying the crowd with their synchronized dances . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the performance , stating : " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes [ ... ] " . According to Tonya Turner of The Courier @-@ Mail , the performance of " Green Light " , " moved fans to screams of endearment . " In Los Angeles , Beyoncé gave a full @-@ length performance of the song , dressed in a sparkly silver dress with a long train . It was executed with several female backup dancers , and live instrumentation . " Green Light " was included as on her live album The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) .
= = Track listings and formats = =
Digital download
" Green Light " – 3 : 29
" Green Light " ( Freemasons Remix ) – 3 : 19
" Green Light " ( Remix featuring Young Buck ) - 4 : 19
UK Freemasons Digital EP
" Green Light " ( Freemasons Remix ) – 3 : 19
" Beautiful Liar " ( Freemasons Club Remix ) ( featuring Shakira ) – 7 : 31
" Déjà Vu " ( Freemasons Radio Mix ) ( featuring Jay @-@ Z ) – 3 : 15
" Ring the Alarm " ( Freemasons Club Mix Radio Edit ) – 3 : 26
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from B 'Day 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Cincinnati , Lebanon and Northern Railway =
The Cincinnati , Lebanon and Northern Railway ( CL & N ) was a local passenger and freight @-@ carrying railroad in the southwestern part of the U.S. state of Ohio , connecting Cincinnati to Dayton via Lebanon . It was built in the late 19th century to give the town of Lebanon and Warren County better transportation facilities . The railroad was locally known as the " Highland Route " , since it followed the ridge between the Little and Great Miami rivers , and was the only line not affected by floods such as the Great Dayton Flood of 1913 .
The company went through multiple bankruptcies , both before and after its 1881 completion , until the Pennsylvania Railroad gained control in 1896 and leased it in 1921 . Except for several years in the mid @-@ 1880s , when the line was under control of the 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge Toledo , Cincinnati and St. Louis Railroad , it was not a major line , in part due to its steep approach to downtown Cincinnati . For this reason , portions of the line have been abandoned , beginning in 1952 with a segment north of Lebanon .
Passenger service was eliminated entirely in 1934 . Conrail , the Pennsylvania Railroad 's successor , sold the remaining trackage in the 1980s to the Indiana and Ohio Railway , a short line now owned by RailAmerica . That company continues to provide local freight service on the ex @-@ CL & N , and the Lebanon Mason Monroe Railroad operates tourist trains on a portion of the line near Lebanon .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and grading , 1850 – 1876 = = =
The town of Lebanon , Ohio , laid out in 1802 , was bypassed by the Miami and Erie Canal in 1830 ; the branch Warren County Canal to Lebanon was wrecked by flooding in 1848 . The Little Miami Railroad ( 1846 , later a Pennsylvania line ) and Cincinnati , Hamilton and Dayton Railroad ( 1851 , later a B & O line ) followed the valleys of the Little and Great Miami rivers ( the M & E Canal had used the latter ) , also bypassing the highlands on which Lebanon lay . Residents of the town obtained a legislative charter in March 1850 for the Cincinnati , Lebanon and Xenia Railroad ( CL & X ) , which would extend from Cincinnati northeast through Lebanon to Xenia . At the latter town , the incorporators decided the most likely connection would be the New York and Erie Railroad , which was planning on extending into Ohio . Thus the line was planned to use the Erie 's 6 ft ( 1 @,@ 829 mm ) broad gauge .
To enter the city of Cincinnati , the CL & X would join the Dayton and Cincinnati Railroad ( D & C ) , which was planning the 10 @,@ 011 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 051 m ) double @-@ track Deer Creek Tunnel through the Walnut Hills , at Sharonville ( then known as Sharon ) . Tunnel construction began in late 1852 , and the CL & X was finally organized under the charter in November . The CL & X located right @-@ of @-@ way , and began construction in about April 1853 , but was forced to stop work by the end of 1855 due to lack of funds . Only grading between Sharon and Lebanon , mostly north of Mason , had been completed . ( The tunnel project also failed , and was eventually acquired by the CL & N. ) In July 1861 , the courts appointed a receiver for the CL & X , who in March 1869 sold the unfinished railroad , which had cost $ 83 @,@ 885 , to 40 area residents for $ 4 @,@ 000 . Five trustees would ensure that the property was not sold without a majority of its owners consenting . Twenty years after its canal connection was destroyed , Lebanon was still without a modern connection to the outside world , and its economy continued to stagnate .
The 1870s fad of the narrow gauge railway , which was cheaper than broader gauges to build and operate ( for low volumes of traffic ) , presented a new possibility . The Dayton and South Eastern Railroad ( D & SE , later a B & O line ) was planning a 3 ft narrow gauge line from the Jackson County mines through Xenia to Dayton , and a branch from Xenia through Lebanon would connect to the markets at Cincinnati . The editors of the local newspaper , The Western Star , encouraged citizens to support the project , but by taking a more active role and organizing a locally owned railroad company to ensure its completion . Editorials likened the situation to Aesop 's fable of Hercules and the Carter , where Hercules tells a stuck carter that he will not assist unless the carter himself is willing to help . In November 1874 , residents of Lebanon and the surrounding area organized the 3 ft narrow gauge Miami Valley Narrow Gauge Railway ( renamed Miami Valley Railway in October 1876 ) , which would complete the unfinished CL & X as a branch of the D & SE .
Slow stock subscriptions delayed surveying until June 1875 , when a line was located between Xenia and the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad ( M & C , later a B & O line ) west of Norwood . Property owners in the villages of Norwood and Pleasant Ridge , wishing to develop their land as suburbs , put forward a proposition to relocate the line to the east through their land in exchange for free right @-@ of @-@ way , and to build a steam dummy line between Norwood and the horse car lines in Walnut Hills , which would provide Miami Valley passengers with a more direct entrance to downtown Cincinnati than the circuitous M & C. However , in August , an even more direct route south of Norwood , through the rugged Deer Creek Valley , was suggested , by which the Miami Valley could obtain its own access to Cincinnati . After imposing heavy restrictions , which would require the construction of several trestles and a tunnel , the Cincinnati City Council granted the right @-@ of @-@ way through the valley , including Eden Park , to the railroad company . The owners of the old CL & X grade sold it in April 1876 for $ 8 @,@ 000 in stock of the new company , and most of the land outside Cincinnati had been bought by that summer . The Miami Valley resolved in May 1876 to build only north to Waynesville , a village southwest of Xenia , where the projected Waynesville , Port William and Jeffersonville Railroad and Jeffersonville , Mt . Sterling and Columbus Railroad would extend to Columbus , crossing the D & SE at Octa . ( The former completed most of its line , but abandoned it in 1887 ; the latter was only able to grade a portion . )
= = = Construction and early operations , 1876 – 1885 = = =
President Seth S. Haines of Waynesville broke ground in Eden Park on September 1 , 1876 , although most early work was done outside Cincinnati . The company continued to be plagued by lack of funds , and , despite completion of the grade between Norwood and Waynesville within a year , work soon slowed and eventually stopped in late 1878 . Contractor John B. Benedict brought a suit in December for breach of contract , alleging that he was not properly paid . During the trial , two embarrassing facts came to light : Haines and Benedict had signed a " secret contract " giving Haines a portion of the bonds paid to Benedict , and the price of the line south of Norwood had been artificially inflated so that the connecting Cincinnati and Eastern Railway ( C & E , later a N & W line ) would have to pay more for trackage rights into Cincinnati . However , it was nonpayment of interest on bonds that forced the Miami Valley into receivership in January and foreclosure in March 1880 . Another decade had passed and Lebanon still lacked a railroad .
The Toledo , Delphos and Burlington Railroad ( TD & B ) , a growing 3 ft narrow gauge system with roots in the town of Delphos , would finally give Lebanon its rail line . Together with a group of suburban Cincinnati investors , the TD & B bought the unfinished grade at the foreclosure sale for $ 61 @,@ 000 and incorporated the 3 ft narrow gauge Cincinnati Northern Railway as its successor on June 8 , 1880 . ( The TD & B would also acquire the Dayton and South Eastern in February 1881 . ) At first the TD & B and Cincinnati @-@ area residents shared stock and management equally , but soon this was changed so that the former party would control all the stock for ease in future consolidation , and the latter would locally manage the road . As the TD & B was in the process of building into Dayton from the north , it was decided that the new company would not use the grade all the way to Waynesville . Instead , the TD & B would construct a connection from the D & SE at a point they called Lebanon Junction , now inside Dayton near the intersection of Woodman and Rainier Drives , to the small village of Dodds . There the Cincinnati Northern would begin , following the Miami Valley 's route through Lebanon to Cincinnati . Construction resumed in late 1880 , and proceeded rapidly thanks to funding from Ohio and Northeastern capitalists . Mixed train operations between Lebanon and Norwood , where connections could be made with the M & C , began on May 30 , 1881 , and on September 5 the line was opened south to a streetcar connection at Oak Street , just north of the tunnel . Service was extended through the tunnel to the Eden Park entrance on January 12 , 1882 , and on February 13 a temporary Cincinnati depot opened just north of Court Street . With the completion of the TD & B 's branch from Lebanon Junction to Dodds in December 1881 , the Cincinnati @-@ Dayton line was finally complete ; Jackson County coal was first shipped over it in February 1882 . Two short branches to the suburbs of Montgomery and Avondale — the latter built separately as the Spring Grove , Avondale and Cincinnati Railway ( SGA & C ) — opened on November 14 , 1881 and July 1 , 1882 , respectively . C & E operations to Court Street began by April 1882 , using the Cincinnati Northern south of a junction at Idlewild , and in October the Cincinnati Northern laid tracks across that street into its permanent depot at the southeast corner of the Broadway Street intersection .
The TD & B absorbed its subsidiary , the Toledo , Cincinnati and St. Louis Railroad ( TC & StL ) , in March 1882 , and took its name as more descriptive of the growing system , which hoped to become part of a nationwide narrow gauge network stretching southwest to Mexico City . One year later , in May 1883 , the Cincinnati Northern and the SGA & C were consolidated into the TC & StL . However , the TC & StL was constructed cheaply , with poor drainage and little ballast . While the Cincinnati Northern had been built to better standards , the connecting line between Lebanon Junction and Dodds was just as bad . The inadequate facilities and equipment , as well as difficulties in interchanging equipment with 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge lines , contributed to its entering receivership in August 1883 . The TC & StL had six divisions at this time . Four of the five TC & StL divisions south of Delphos were sold to their bondholders at auction in June 1884 , and separate companies were soon organized for three of those : the Dayton and Toledo Railroad , Dayton and Ironton Railroad , and Iron Railway ( named Iron Railroad prior to TC & StL receivership ) . The Toledo @-@ St. Louis line was sold in December 1885 and reorganized as the Toledo , St. Louis and Kansas City Railroad , commonly known as the Clover Leaf Route . In July , George Hafer of Avondale replaced William J. Craig of Toledo as receiver of the Cincinnati Northern Division , allowing it to recover from Craig 's deferred maintenance . Hafer obtained a short @-@ term lease from the trustees of the Dodds @-@ Lebanon Junction line ( officially the Cincinnati Division ) , allowing continued access to Dayton . Finally , on June 27 , 1885 , the Cincinnati Northern Division was sold for $ 200 @,@ 000 to its bondholders , who incorporated the Cincinnati , Lebanon and Northern Railway , with Hafer as president , on July 14 and transferred operations on August 1 , 1885 . The narrow gauge movement of the 1870s had failed , and all of the ex @-@ TC & StL lines were converted to standard gauge within the next ten years .
= = = CL & N , 1885 – 1926 = = =
The newly organized CL & N initially operated a main line from Court Street in Cincinnati to Dayton , leasing the track from Dodds to Lebanon Junction from the Cincinnati Division trustees , and trackage rights over the Dayton and Ironton Railroad ( the old 3 ft narrow gauge D & SE line ) into Dayton . But the latter was converted to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge in April 1887 , and CL & N service was cut back to Dodds , since the operations north of there were unprofitable even when it was able to reach Dayton . ( The line from Lebanon to Dodds was leased in 1892 to the company organized to operate north of Dodds . ) Avondale Branch operations were discontinued in August 1889 , due to competition from the cheaper Mt . Auburn Cable Railway . Under Hafer 's leadership , new passenger and freight depots opened on the north side of Court Street in December 1885 . In preparation for conversion to standard gauge , the CL & N relaid rail and replaced bridges , including a straight trestle in the Deer Creek Valley , completed in January 1889 , in place of a curving old narrow gauge structure . The first standard gauge rails were laid by August 1889 as part of a dual gauge setup south of Idlewild , when the Ohio and North Western Railroad ( O & NW , successor to the C & E ) , which had converted its line to standard gauge , moved its trains from the Little Miami Railroad ( Pennsylvania Railroad system ) back to the CL & N. Several months later , a third rail was laid north to East Norwood , allowing the O & NW to connect with the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern Railroad ( successor to the M & C ) . After undertaking more improvements to the alignment , the company completed the conversion of the main line to Lebanon to standard gauge on September 16 , 1894 , although , until it acquired a full set of standard gauge equipment , much of the commuter service to Blue Ash continued to use the narrow gauge tracks .
Throughout the CL & N 's independence , various larger companies were looking to acquire it , mainly for the valuable Court Street terminal property . The most persistent rumor was that the Cincinnati , Jackson and Mackinaw Railroad ( CJ & M , later a NYC line ) would buy the CL & N as an entrance to Cincinnati . The CJ & M had built south from Michigan to Carlisle , Ohio in 1887 , and initially acquired trackage rights over the CH & D to reach Cincinnati . Negotiations between the CL & N and CJ & M convinced the CH & D that the latter was capable of becoming a strong competitor , despite its poor financial state , and the CH & D attempted to acquire the CJ & M in 1892 . But the CL & N stopped the consolidation based on Ohio 's laws prohibiting such anti @-@ competitive practices , and the CJ & M continued to look at the CL & N as a possible part of its line . After the CL & N 's conversion to standard gauge was completed in 1894 , the CJ & M secured trackage rights over the CL & N into Court Street , beginning service on January 27 , 1896 via an extension from Carlisle to Franklin , the Cleveland , Cincinnati , Chicago and St. Louis Railway ( Big Four , later a NYC line ) to Middletown , and the recently opened Middletown and Cincinnati Railroad to the CL & N at Hageman . The CJ & M also acquired the long @-@ dormant Deer Creek Tunnel project in an attempt to construct its own route into the city , tired of dealing with Hafer and the CL & N. The Pennsylvania Railroad , owner of the Little Miami Railroad that had been constructed east of Lebanon in the 1840s , entered the negotiations in 1896 to protect its Cincinnati @-@ area interests , and in March it ( through the Pennsylvania Company ) acquired a majority of the CL & N 's stock . Pennsylvania officials took over management in May , and in 1902 the CL & N acquired the tunnel property and some terminal property near Court Street from the Cincinnati Northern Railroad , successor to the CJ & M , which had become part of the Big Four and terminated its use of the CL & N in 1901 .
As a part of the Pennsylvania system , the CL & N continued to operate its own property ( which included the line north of Dodds after 1914 ) until January 1 , 1921 , when it was leased to the Pennsylvania . Starting at the end of 1918 , the Interstate Commerce Commission classified the CL & N as a Class I railroad , meaning that it made at least $ 1 million per year in operating revenue . ( This designation was dropped in 1921 when the CL & N was leased . ) However , net operating income , revenue minus costs , which had steadily climbed from the 1890s , began falling in 1916 , becoming a deficit in 1920 . Subsequently , effective January 1 , 1926 , the Pennsylvania merged the CL & N with several other small companies — the Cleveland , Akron and Cincinnati Railway , Manufacturers Railway , Pennsylvania @-@ Detroit Railroad , and Toledo , Columbus and Ohio River Railroad — to create the Pennsylvania , Ohio and Detroit Railroad , a non @-@ operating subsidiary . That company was merged into the Connecting Railway , previously a short link in Philadelphia , in 1956 , and its lessee merged with the New York Central Railroad in 1968 to form Penn Central Transportation .
= = = Other lines , 1889 – 1915 = = =
The 16 @.@ 96 @-@ mile ( 27 @.@ 29 km ) line north of Dodds , built by the TD & B to connect the Cincinnati Northern to the D & SE at Lebanon Junction , was sold separately at the June 1884 foreclosure sale , to its first @-@ mortgage bondholders for $ 20 @,@ 000 . Initially operated under lease by the CL & N , service was discontinued in April 1887 when the ex @-@ D & SE was converted from 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge . With its northern connection gone , and no on @-@ line sources of revenue , there was no profit in operating the line . However , one such source would soon be created , when local businessman Henry Lewis decided to purchase nearby " Dayton limestone " quarries at Centerville . He bought the abandoned rail line from the bondholders ' trustees for $ 40 @,@ 000 in December 1888 , and in January 1889 organized the Dayton , Lebanon and Cincinnati Railroad ( DL & C ) . Extensions on both ends were planned , north into downtown Dayton and south to a standard gauge connection . Lewis finished converting the 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge line to standard gauge in January 1891 , and initially leased it to the Dayton , Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway , successor to the D & SE . He leased in 1890 and later bought land in Dayton for the proposed terminal , and in early 1892 he acquired the quarries at Centerville , giving the line its source of traffic . The DL & C bought the line from Lewis in March 1892 for $ 189 @,@ 000 in stock , and in June it acquired a lease on the CL & N 's 5 @.@ 52 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 88 km ) line between Dodds and Lebanon . After converting the track to standard gauge , the DL & C began operations into Lebanon in late December 1892 . However , it was unable to negotiate trackage rights with the Cincinnati , Dayton and Ironton Railroad ( the latest name for the ex @-@ D & SE ) , and only operated north to Lebanon Junction , where passengers could transfer to that company 's trains into Dayton . Throughout its life , the DL & C competed with the CL & N wherever possible ; for example , the CL & N advertised ( along with the Middletown and Cincinnati Railroad and Big Four ) a faster route between Lebanon and Dayton via Hageman and Middletown .
Lewis died in 1893 , and in the next decade the DL & C built no new lines . However , a group of investors bought the company , including the Dayton terminal property , in 1901 for $ 250 @,@ 000 from Lewis 's heirs . The first segment of the line into downtown Dayton was completed in late 1902 , branching off the main line at Hempstead and ending at Lambeth , site of the Dayton State Hospital . Unable to obtain a franchise from Dayton , and still unprofitable , the DL & C entered receivership in January 1905 , and was sold at foreclosure in April 1907 and reorganized in May as the Dayton , Lebanon and Cincinnati Railroad and Terminal Company . The bondholders who had organized the new company succeeded in obtaining the franchise , and sold the stock to a new group of investors in January 1909 . Construction was restarted in April , and in November the branch reached the intersection of Brown and Caldwell Streets and the National Cash Register plant . Finally , after completing the cuts and fills required along the east bank of the Great Miami River , the DL & C opened its new main line in 1912 , to a passenger depot on the north side of Washington Street , several blocks south and west of the city 's main Union Station . A freight depot was located just to the north , at Eaker Street , and just beyond was an interchange track ( not part of the original line ) connecting to the Cincinnati , Hamilton and Dayton Railway ( B & O system ) and , via that line , the Pittsburgh , Cincinnati , Chicago and St. Louis Railway ( Panhandle Route , part of the Pennsylvania system ) .
The other line eventually acquired by the CL & N was the Middletown and Cincinnati Railway ( M & C , not to be confused with the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad discussed earlier ) . Paul J. Sorg , owner of a tobacco plant east of Middletown , was unhappy with the service provided by the Cincinnati , Hamilton and Dayton Railroad ( then independent ) and Cincinnati and Springfield Railway ( Big Four system ) , both of which bypassed the center of town . Sorg and associates incorporated the M & C in early 1890 , and surveyed a 14 @.@ 23 miles ( 22 @.@ 90 km ) line from Middletown , which lay in the Great Miami River valley , southeast to a point that would be known as Middletown Junction on the Little Miami Railroad ( Pennsylvania system ) . Construction on the majority of the route , which crossed the CL & N at Hageman , was complete by September 1891 , and a 365 @-@ foot ( 111 m ) truss bridge over the Little Miami River opened in early 1892 , linking the line to the Pennsylvania . Access into central Middletown was delayed until December , when it was finally able to cross the CH & D to its depot . As opposed to the CL & N and DL & C , the M & C was straight and flat , giving a smooth ride , and turned a reasonable profit . The revenue was not enough , however , to pay off the bonds , and the M & C entered receivership in July 1894 . The holders of liens against the property bought the line at foreclosure in October for $ 335 @,@ 000 , incorporated the Middletown and Cincinnati Railroad in December , and elected Sorg president .
Sorg died on May 28 , 1902 , and six days later the CL & N , owned by the Pennsylvania since 1896 , bought its property for $ 400 @,@ 000 and began operating it as a branch . The DL & C would be acquired twelve years later , after the Great Dayton Flood of 1913 . The CL & N and DL & C , built on the highlands between the river valleys , combined to provide the only access into Dayton during the disaster . The Pennsylvania realized that the DL & C would make a good acquisition in the event of future flooding , and had the CL & N buy and begin operating the DL & C for about $ 700 @,@ 000 in December 1914 . ( Through service between Cincinnati and Dayton had begun that summer . ) The DL & C built a short connection from Lebanon Junction to the Panhandle Route at Clement in early 1915 , and on July 1 its property became that of the CL & N.
= = = Abandonments and sales , 1917 – present = = =
Competition from interurbans , specifically the Cincinnati @-@ Lebanon Interurban Railway and Terminal Company , took away passengers from the CL & N beginning in 1903 . But the interurban began to decline , going out of business in 1922 , and it was motor vehicles that would kill the CL & N 's passenger service . The first line to go was the Middletown Branch , discontinued in 1917 ; the short branch to Montgomery became freight @-@ only in 1926 . All service north of Lebanon ended in 1928 , and in 1931 only one mixed train between Court Street and Lebanon was left on the schedule . The less @-@ convenient Cincinnati Union Terminal replaced Court Street in 1933 , as agreed upon by all railroads participating in its construction . CL & N trains reached the station via trackage rights on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ( ex @-@ M & C ) south of East Norwood . This was never popular among CL & N riders , and the last scheduled passenger train on the former CL & N ran on January 31 , 1934 . With passenger service gone , and several cross @-@ connections to other Pennsylvania lines , the CL & N was no longer needed as a through route . Several years after the Montgomery Branch was fully abandoned in 1933 , the Pennsylvania discontinued freight service between Blue Ash and Mason and between Lebanon and Lytle ; trains continued to reach Lebanon via the Little Miami Railroad and Middletown Branch . Service was resumed on the entire line during World War II , but the Lebanon @-@ Lytle segment was torn up in 1952 . After the Pennsylvania merged into Penn Central in 1968 , a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) piece north from Brecon was again abandoned , as was the short piece of the Middletown Branch east of the main line at Hageman , with Lebanon service now coming from the ex @-@ New York Central at Middletown . The line through the Deer Creek Valley into Court Street was also abandoned , and the old freight depot was torn down in 1975 .
When the Consolidated Rail Corporation ( Conrail ) acquired the assets of the bankrupt Penn Central in 1976 , it was allowed to choose which lines to keep and which to abandon . The line between Avondale and Brecon still saw heavy freight traffic , and there would still be a reasonable amount of traffic to Mason and Hempstead . Thus Conrail bought about half of the ex @-@ CL & N , including the main line from Cincinnati to Brecon ( Blue Ash Secondary Track ) , Mason to Hageman ( Mason Secondary Track ) , Hempstead to Pasadena ( Kettering Running Track ) , and Patterson Road to Dayton ( DP & L Industrial Track ) , as well as Middletown to Hageman ( Middletown Secondary ) and Hempstead to Clement ( Clement Running Track ) . Ownership of the remaining lines — Brecon to Mason , Hageman to Lebanon , Lytle to Hempstead , Pasadena to Patterson Road , and Hageman to Middletown Junction — remained with the Penn Central trustees , although , with local funding , Conrail operated the two segments from Hageman to Lebanon and Centerville to Hempstead as " light density lines " . Tracks between Lytle and Centerville were torn up in 1979 . Since then , several more segments have been abandoned , including Avondale to McCullough and Centerville to Kettering . Short line Indiana and Ohio Railway ( IORY ) acquired most of the remainder in the 1980s , beginning operations from Monroe ( near Middletown ) to Mason and Lebanon in March 1985 , and McCullough to Brecon in December 1986 . The city of Lebanon has bought the Hageman @-@ Lebanon segment , initially owned by the Penn Central trustees , and the Southwest Ohio Regional Transit Authority acquired the property between McCullough and Brecon in 1997 for a proposed public transit line . ( IORY continues to operate freight on both of these segments . ) The IORY began running tourist trains on the Lebanon segment in 1985 . The passenger operations were split in 1996 , going through several renamings to Turtle Creek Valley Railway , Turtle Creek and Lebanon Railway , and finally Lebanon Mason Monroe Railroad . Three short segments of line at Middletown and Dayton remained with Conrail until its 1999 breakup , when the Norfolk Southern Railway acquired Conrail 's assets in southwestern Ohio .
= = Route description = =
Lying on the highlands between the Little and Great Miami Rivers , the CL & N was commonly known as the " Highland Route " . While it normally received only local traffic , its location was a distinct advantage during floods . This was first demonstrated during the Flood of 1884 , when the rising Ohio River cut off all other railroads from downtown Cincinnati . But the load was too much for the 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge TC & StL , and several companies switched to Miami and Erie Canal boats to make the connections until the waters subsided . Similar Cincinnati floods happened in 1883 , 1897 , 1898 , 1907 , and 1937 , but in 1913 the Great Dayton Flood inundated that city , then lying at the north end of the independent DL & C. That company had just completed its line into downtown Dayton , when , less than a year later , the Loramie Reservoir broke through its levees and sent a swell of water through down the Great Miami River and into the city . As with the Cincinnati floods , only the CL & N and DL & C were unaffected , and relief supplies were sent north from Cincinnati via Lebanon to the National Cash Register plant .
The line began on the east side of downtown Cincinnati , at the corner of Eggleston Avenue and Court Street . The site of the brick freight depot , closed in 1969 and demolished in 1975 , is now owned by Greyhound Lines , which uses it as an intercity bus terminal . A track built in 1887 crossed Court Street , connecting with the Little Miami Railroad 's Eggleston Avenue Connection for freight transfer . The line began by climbing the Deer Creek Valley , the only feasible rail entrance to downtown Cincinnati that did not follow a river valley . When the railroad was built in the late 1870s , the valley was used by the city as a dump . An 1852 city ordinance provided for raising the ground level , beginning with the raising of Court Street by as much as 50 feet ( 15 m ) . To follow the eventual surface level and avoid the steep hillsides , the railroad was built on trestles for much of its ascent , with a maximum grade of 3 @.@ 5 % . After leaving the depot , the line traversed an S @-@ shaped trestle to the east side of the valley , before crossing Elsinore Place and Eden Park Drive at grade , with a second trestle between these streets . ( The former was replaced in January 1889 with a straighter single @-@ track trestle . ) A bridge took the line over Florence Avenue , and it then passed through the neighborhood of Mount Auburn before passing under the summit through the cut @-@ and @-@ cover Oak Street Tunnel north of McMillan Street . The line started its gradual descent as it left the tunnel , generally following the existing ground level and crossing streets at grade .
Double tracks initially stretched from Court Street to near Fredonia Avenue , where the 1 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) Avondale Branch split for the Cincinnati Zoo . When the line was converted to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge in 1894 , the tunnel and McMillan Street underpass were not wide enough for a double @-@ track line , yet two standard gauge tracks were laid side @-@ by @-@ side . After an accident in 1916 , the tracks were relaid as a gauntlet track . The trestles were rebuilt as single @-@ track in 1888 and 1889 , after which double track only extended from Eden Park Drive to Avondale . Due to increased passenger traffic , the line was re @-@ widened not only south to Court Street but also north to Norwood from 1902 to 1904 , once the valley had been filled in . Beyond Avondale , the CL & N descended through Idlewild , where two Norfolk and Western Railway lines diverged — the Cincinnati and Eastern Railway east to Portsmouth and the Cincinnati Connecting Belt Railroad northwest to a junction near Elmwood Place . The railway began to climb again at East Norwood , where it crossed the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad ( Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ) , reaching the flat highlands at Deer Park . In the late 1880s , the CL & N , with its frequent commuter service , contributed to the development of suburbs along its line including Idlewild , East Norwood , Silverton , Deer Park , and Hazelwood . At Hopkins Avenue in Norwood , commuters unsatisfied with the bare platform built by the railroad company raised $ 1500 to build a station building , which opened on August 1 , 1888 , and was owned by the Hopkins Avenue Depot Company until service ended in the 1930s . It was later used as a gas station , and now houses a chiropractor . As part of its bicentennial celebration , the city of Silverton built a replica of its former CL & N station with a museum inside .
Just beyond East Norwood , the Pennsylvania built McCullough Yard in 1927 , improving switching operations for the growing industrial base in Norwood . A connection was included to the Pennsylvania 's Chicago @-@ bound Richmond Branch , which the CL & N crossed over north of the yard . In Butler County , north of Brecon , the CL & N curved abruptly northeast onto the original line , partially graded in the 1850s between Sharonville and Lebanon . Just beyond , it began to descend slowly through Mason to Hageman , where it crossed the Middletown Branch , and then rose slightly , alongside Turtle Creek , to Lebanon . The Pennsylvania tore down the original Lebanon passenger station in 1960 , replacing it ( for freight purposes ) with a smaller building from Kings Mills on the Little Miami Railroad . The Lebanon Council of Garden Clubs acquired the land in 1972 , tore down the freight depot , and erected a replica of the old passenger depot in its place , with a gift shop inside .
Leaving Lebanon , the line ascended a small gully and then headed north @-@ northeasterly across the highlands to Dodds . The never @-@ used grade from Dodds to Waynesville descended into the Little Miami River valley via Newman Run before turning north and ending at the latter village . Portions of the right @-@ of @-@ way and stone abutments for several never @-@ built bridges remain on what is now farmland . The line as completed turned north at Dodds , and required several cuts and fills to traverse the rolling terrain . At Hempstead , just north of Hempstead Road , the line split . The original route continued north , parallel to Woodman Drive , to the old Dayton and South Eastern Railroad ( now the Iron Horse Trail ) at Lebanon Junction . A 1915 extension was built parallel to the ex @-@ D & SE , and ended at the Panhandle Route ( now the Creekside Trail to the east ) at Clement . Part of this line is still operated by the Norfolk Southern Railway , and to the south the right @-@ of @-@ way is being used for an extension of the Iron Horse Trail . The other branch headed northwesterly into downtown Dayton , steadily descending as it passed south of the University of Dayton and alongside the Great Miami River . The main passenger and freight depots were at Washington Street , which the CL & N passed over on the first such grade separation in Dayton . The first freight depot opened with the line in 1912 , and was replaced in 1930 by a larger structure , itself torn down in 1966 .
= = Presidents = =
J. P. Gilchrist ( 1852 – 1861 )
Seth Silver Haines ( 1874 – 1879 )
Nathan Keever ( receiver , 1879 – 1880 )
John M. Corse of the TD & B ( 1880 – 1882 )
Elijah B. Phillips of the TC & StL ( 1883 )
William J. Craig ( receiver , 1883 – 1884 )
George Hafer ( receiver , 1884 – 1885 ; president , 1885 – 1896 )
Joseph Wood was the first of at least two Pennsylvania Railroad men elected president after that company gained control in 1896 .
= = Equipment = =
When the CL & N converted to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge in 1894 , it initially mounted its 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge passenger cars on standard gauge trucks . These were replaced with standard gauge cars after the Pennsylvania acquisition in 1896 .
The first locomotive on the line , a Baldwin 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 named " Warren County No. 1 " , was bought in 1877 by the Miami Valley Railway . In all , the CL & N and predecessors had nine narrow gauge locomotives , bought from four different manufacturers . Two were disposed of in the 1880s , and , of the seven remaining into the 1890s , six provided main line service and one was used as a switching and helper locomotive .
Standard gauge operations began in 1894 with five locomotives , and the narrow gauge equipment was kept temporarily for commuter runs to Blue Ash . Later acquisitions , as well as consolidations with other companies , raised the number to 23 in 1920 , its final year of independent operation .
= = Station list = =
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= Wyoming @-@ class battleship =
The Wyoming class was a pair of dreadnought battleships built for the United States Navy . The two ships , Wyoming and Arkansas , were authorized in early 1909 , and they were built between 1910 and 1912 . They were the fourth dreadnought design of the US Navy , and they marked an incremental improvement over the preceding Florida class . The primary changes being the addition of a sixth twin @-@ gun turret , bringing the number of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns to twelve , and improved armor protection , including the first use of a torpedo bulkhead in an American battleship design . The Navy had seriously considered a significantly more powerful 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) gun , but it would have entailed major delays and required extensive harbor improvements to accommodate what would have been much larger ships .
The two ships frequently served together , first in the Atlantic Fleet in the 1910s . Both vessels were deployed to British waters after the United States entered World War I in April 1917 to reinforce the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet . They served in the Pacific Fleet in 1919 – 21 , before both returned to the Atlantic Fleet . Much of their time in the Atlantic Fleet was spent conducting peacetime training exercises , along with taking midshipmen from the US Naval Academy on training cruises . Wyoming and Arkansas were heavily modernized in the mid @-@ 1920s , receiving more efficient oil @-@ fired boilers to replace their old coal @-@ fired models , thicker deck armor to protect against plunging fire , anti @-@ torpedo bulges to increase their resistance to underwater damage , and anti @-@ aircraft guns to defend against aerial attacks .
The London Naval Treaty of 1930 mandated that Wyoming be demilitarized ; she accordingly was converted into a training ship , with half of her main battery turrets , belt armor , and anti @-@ torpedo bulges removed . Arkansas was permitted to continue in service with the fleet , however . After the United States entered World War II , Arkansas was used to escort convoys to North Africa . By 1944 , she served as a coastal bombardment vessel ; in this role , she supported Allied landings at Normandy ( Operation Overlord ) and southern France ( Operation Dragoon ) before being transferred to the Pacific , where she provided fire support to Marines fighting on Iwo Jima and at Okinawa in 1945 . Wyoming meanwhile continued as a training ship , being modified further in 1944 to include the various types of anti @-@ aircraft guns that trainees would operate in the fleet . Both ships were decommissioned shortly after the war , with Arkansas being expended as a target ship during the 1946 nuclear tests at Operation Crossroads , and Wyoming being sold for scrap in 1947 .
= = Design = =
On 22 July 1908 , the Newport Conference was held ; this included the General Board , the staff of the Naval War College , President Theodore Roosevelt — who had a keen interest in naval matters — and other officers . This conference examined a series of issues relating to existing battleships and new designs ; the first of these new ships would become the Wyoming class . The Board on Construction received general instructions from the Newport Conference ; those at the conference favored adopting the 14 @-@ inch gun , as the British Royal Navy had already traded their 12 @-@ inch guns for 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) pieces . The Bureau of Ordnance ( BuOrd ) estimated that design work on the new gun , production , and testing would take two years . On 26 August , the Secretary of the Navy , Victor Metcalf , issued a request for eight- and ten @-@ gun battleships armed with the 14 @-@ inch weapons to the Bureau of Construction and Repair ( C & R ) . Speed was to be at least 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , with as much armor as could be accommodated .
BuOrd argued that at likely battle ranges , 8 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 500 yd ( 7 @,@ 300 to 7 @,@ 800 m ) , the 12 @-@ inch gun was powerful enough to penetrate existing armor , and so the 14 @-@ inch gun was unnecessary . C & R produced three designs to meet Metcalf 's request , all based on the preceding Florida design ; the first , referred to as design 404 , was a battleship armed with eight 14 @-@ inch guns . The second , design 502 , had an additional twin turret for a total of ten 14 @-@ inch guns . The third , design 601 , would be fitted with twelve 12 @-@ inch guns . The General Board chose 601 , since the design work for the 14 @-@ inch gun had not begun , and adopting it would have caused the class to be delayed . In addition , the ships ' displacement would have increased more dramatically with the larger gun , requiring extensive improvements to harbor facilities ; design 502 would have only been able to dock in Pearl Harbor and Puget Sound with the existing facilities . The placement of the secondary battery also proved to be problematic . The cruise of the Great White Fleet in 1907 – 09 had demonstrated the problems with casemates on the main deck . They were too easily washed out in even moderate seas , making them unusable . Some officers at the Newport Conference had advocated placing them in the superstructure , but the heavy 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns used by the Navy would have added excessive top weight . Another alternative was to place them in the forecastle , but the additional weight forward would have strained the ship where the forecastle stepped down to the main deck . The designers ultimately settled on a full @-@ length forecastle , which allowed the casemates to be moved about 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) higher in the hull .
The ships ' armor protection was improved over earlier designs . The belt and barbette armor was increased by an inch compared to an earlier version of the twelve @-@ gun battleship . A new protection scheme for the funnels was devised , after the Russian experience at the Battle of Tsushima three years before had highlighted the risk of a destroyed exhaust system . The designers also emphasized the need for improved underwater protection . As a result , the Wyomings design incorporated a torpedo bulkhead , the first time the feature was included on an American battleship design . Congress approved two new battleships , BB @-@ 32 and BB @-@ 33 , on 3 March 1909 . Design 502 later proved to be the basis for the subsequent class of battleships , the New Yorks .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Wyoming class were 554 ft ( 169 m ) long at the waterline and 562 ft ( 171 m ) long overall . They had a beam of 93 ft 3 in ( 28 @.@ 42 m ) and a draft of 28 ft 7 in ( 9 m ) . The ships displaced 26 @,@ 000 long tons ( 26 @,@ 417 t ) as designed and up to 27 @,@ 243 long tons ( 27 @,@ 680 t ) at full combat load . They had a full length flush deck , which improved sea @-@ keeping and the ability to work the secondary guns in heavier seas . Both ships were fitted with lattice masts . Their transverse metacentric height was 5 @.@ 4 ft ( 2 m ) They had a crew of 58 officers and 1 @,@ 005 enlisted men .
The ships were powered by four @-@ shaft Parsons steam turbines rated at 28 @,@ 000 shp ( 21 @,@ 000 kW ) . Steam was provided by twelve mixed oil and coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , which were trunked into two closely spaced funnels amidships . The engines generated a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 kn ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) , though on speed trials Arkansas made 21 @.@ 22 knots ( 39 @.@ 30 km / h ; 24 @.@ 42 mph ) from 25 @,@ 546 shp ( 19 @,@ 050 kW ) . Fuel capacity was 1 @,@ 667 long tons ( 1 @,@ 694 t ) of coal and 266 long tons ( 270 t ) of oil . This allowed the ships to cruise for 6 @,@ 700 nmi ( 12 @,@ 400 km ; 7 @,@ 700 mi ) at a speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . At 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the range fell considerably , to 2 @,@ 655 nmi ( 4 @,@ 917 km ; 3 @,@ 055 mi ) . Steering was controlled by a single rudder .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships were armed with a main battery of twelve 12 @-@ inch / 50 caliber Mark 7 Mod 0 guns in six Mark 9 twin @-@ gun turrets all on the centerline , two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward . The other four turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in two superfiring pairs . These guns fired a 870 lb ( 395 kg ) shell with a 353 lb ( 160 kg ) propellant charge , which produced a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) . Wyoming and Arkansas were the only ships of the US Navy to receive the gun ; earlier dreadnoughts were equipped with the lower @-@ velocity 12 @-@ inch / 45 @-@ caliber Mark 5 gun . The Mark 7 had significantly better armor penetrating capabilities , owing to its higher muzzle velocity ( and thus higher striking velocity ) . At a range of 12 @,@ 000 yd ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) , the gun could penetrate 12 @.@ 3 in ( 310 mm ) of contemporary face @-@ hardened armor , compared to 10 @.@ 8 in ( 270 mm ) for the Mark 5 . The guns were mounted in the Mark IX gun turret , which allowed for elevation to 15 degrees and depression to -5 degrees . Unlike the turrets used on earlier dreadnoughts , the Mark IX turret required the guns to return to 0 degrees to reload .
The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ one 5 @-@ inch / 51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull . These guns fired a 50 lb ( 23 kg ) shell with a charge of 24 @.@ 5 lb ( 11 @.@ 1 kg ) , at a muzzle velocity of 3 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 960 m / s ) . As was standard for capital ships of the period , they carried a pair of submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes in the hull on the broadside . They were equipped with the Mark III Bliss @-@ Leavitt design , which carried a 218 lb ( 99 kg ) warhead and had a range of 4 @,@ 000 yd ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) at a speed of 26 @.@ 5 kn ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The main armored belt , which was 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high , was 11 in ( 280 mm ) thick over the central portion of the ship , where it protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces . The belt reduced to 5 in ( 130 mm ) toward the stern . On the bottom edge it was reduced to 9 in ( 230 mm ) . The forward end of the belt was connected with an 11 in thick transverse bulkhead with the forward @-@ most main battery barbette , while the aft end of the belt was connected with a 9 in bulkhead . The main armored deck was 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) of special treatment steel , reduced to 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) in less critical areas . The conning tower had 11 @.@ 5 in ( 292 mm ) thick sides and a 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick roof .
The gun turrets had 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick faces and 3 in thick roofs . Their supporting barbettes had 11 in thick sides where they were exposed ; the portions that were masked by the armored belt were reduced to 4 @.@ 5 in ( 110 mm ) . The lower half of the casemate armor was 11 in thick , and the upper half was reduced to 6 @.@ 5 in ( 170 mm ) . Inboard of the casemate battery were longitudinal armored bulkheads ; these were designed to protect the uptakes to the funnels . These were deemed important because during the Russo @-@ Japanese War , three years before , Russian battleships had had their uptakes damaged , which ducted the boiler smoke into the ship rather than out through the funnels .
= = = Modifications = = =
Both ships were significantly modified throughout their careers . During and shortly after World War I , the horizontal armor of the ships was improved , including the roofs of the conning tower and the gun turrets . Their deck armor was increased to 3 @.@ 5 in ( 89 mm ) , and eight 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed . Following the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty in February 1922 , modernization work was strictly controlled . The treaty governed what modifications could be made to existing ships , and included restrictions on what could be changed or added . Displacement could rise by no more than 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) and no alterations of any kind could be made to the main battery guns or mounts . The primary areas that could be improved were those that concerned defense against aerial and underwater attack , along with propulsion systems .
The two Wyomings , along with the Floridas and New Yorks were heavily modernized in the 1920s . All six ships were converted to completely oil @-@ fired boilers with equipment taken from the cancelled South Dakota @-@ class battleships . The boilers were trunked into a single funnel . These boilers were much more efficient than the coal @-@ fired models the ships had been completed with , and they allowed a significantly greater cruising radius of 11 @,@ 000 nmi ( 20 @,@ 000 km ; 13 @,@ 000 mi ) . The ships were also fitted with anti @-@ torpedo bulges , which improved their underwater defense and also provided additional oil storage capacity . Wyoming and Arkansas lost their cage main mast , which was replaced by a short tripod mast that carried searchlights and radio antennas . Some of their secondary battery guns were relocated higher in the ship to improve their workability in heavy seas . A sponson for six guns was built into the hull abreast of the conning tower and the eight 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns were moved to the top of the sponson . Both ships had their torpedo tubes removed .
Under the terms of the 1930 London Naval Treaty , Wyoming was to be demilitarized and converted into a training ship . During the demilitarization process , her anti @-@ torpedo bulges , side armor , and half of her main battery guns were removed . Wyoming was modernized at Norfolk Navy Yard from 12 January to 3 April 1944 ; the reconstruction removed the last of her three 12 @-@ inch gun turrets , and replaced them with four twin and two single enclosed mounts for 5 @-@ inch / 38 caliber guns . New fire control radars were also installed ; these modifications allowed Wyoming to train anti @-@ aircraft gunners with the most modern equipment they would use while in combat with the fleet . Modifications to Arkansas during World War II were kept to a minimum . In 1942 , Arkansas received a new tripod foremast and bridgework , along with more anti @-@ aircraft guns throughout the war . By 1945 , she carried nine quadruple 40 mm Bofors mounts and twenty @-@ eight 20 mm Oerlikons , and the number of 3 @-@ inch guns had been increased to ten .
= = Construction = =
= = Service history = =
After entering service , both ships were assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . The ships took part in the normal routine of training and fleet maneuvers off the east coast of the United States and in the Caribbean , interspersed with periodic maintenance . Both ships toured the Mediterranean in late 1913 , making stops in Italy and France , among others . In April 1914 , Arkansas was involved in the occupation of Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution , and Wyoming arrived later to support the operation . Two men from Arkansas won the Medal of Honor for their actions during the initial occupation of the city . After the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917 , Wyoming , along with the rest of Battleship Division 9 ( BatDiv 9 ) , steamed to Britain to reinforce the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet , stationed in Scapa Flow . Arkansas initially remained in the United States , training gun crews for the expanding wartime fleet . In July 1918 , she too was sent to Britain . Neither ship saw action during the war , though they were present when the German High Seas Fleet surrendered in November 1918 .
From mid @-@ 1919 to mid @-@ 1921 , Arkansas and Wyoming served in the Pacific Fleet , with the latter serving as the flagship of BatDiv 6 . During this time , the ships made a tour of Central and South American countries , culminating in a visit to Valparaiso , where they took part in a naval review for the Chilean president . Both battleships returned in service with the Atlantic Fleet in mid @-@ 1921 . They returned to their peacetime routine of training and maneuvers and periodic maintenance . In the summers , the ships would generally take midshipmen from the US Naval Academy on training cruises . In June 1925 , Arkansas assisted relief efforts after the 1925 Santa Barbara earthquake . From late 1925 to late 1926 , Arkansas received her reconstruction , followed by Wyoming in 1927 . In 1929 and 1930 , Arkansas visited European waters on midshipmen cruises ; she made stops in several countries . Wyoming was reduced to a training ship in 1931 in accordance with the London Naval Treaty , and she spent the next decade conducting training cruises for midshipmen and NROTC cadets .
From early 1932 to early 1934 , Arkansas returned for another stint in the Pacific Fleet , followed by another tour of Europe later in the year . After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , she was assigned to the reserve force for the Neutrality Patrols . She supported the occupation of Iceland in July 1941 as an escort for the troopship convoys . In November , as it became increasingly apparent that the United States would become involved in World War II , Wyoming was reassigned as a gunnery training ship , a role she served in for the duration of the war . Arkansas , meanwhile , continued in front @-@ line service during the war , first as an escort to convoys to North Africa , and then as a shore bombardment vessel . She supported the landings at Normandy in June 1944 , shelling German positions at Omaha Beach , before bombarding Cherbourg later in the month . Her next bombardment mission came with Operation Dragoon , the invasion of southern France , in August that year . She was then transferred to the Pacific Theater of Operations for action against the Japanese . She bombarded Japanese positions on Iwo Jima in February 1945 and on Okinawa in April .
With the end of the war in September 1945 , Arkansas was employed with Operation Magic Carpet , repatriating American soldiers in the Pacific . Wyoming remained in service briefly after the war , though she was decommissioned in August 1947 . She was sold for scrap in October and subsequently broken up . Arkansas was instead retained for use as a target ship during the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in mid @-@ 1946 . She survived the first test , an air @-@ burst code @-@ named ABLE , though the second experiment , an underwater detonation code @-@ named BAKER , sank the ship .
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= Michael P. Murphy =
Michael Patrick " Murph " Murphy ( May 7 , 1976 – June 28 , 2005 ) was a United States Navy SEAL officer who was awarded the U.S. military 's highest decoration , the Medal of Honor , for his actions during the War in Afghanistan . He was also the first member of the U.S. Navy to receive the award since the Vietnam War . His other posthumous awards include the Silver Star Medal ( which was later upgraded to the Medal of Honor ) and the Purple Heart .
Michael Murphy was born and raised in Suffolk County , New York . He graduated from Pennsylvania State University with honors and dual degrees in political science and psychology . After college he accepted a commission in the United States Navy and became a United States Navy SEAL in July 2002 . After participating in several War on Terrorism missions , he was killed on June 28 , 2005 , after his team was compromised and surrounded by Taliban forces near Asadabad , Afghanistan .
A United States Navy destroyer and several civilian and military buildings have been named in his honor .
= = Early life and education = =
Murphy was born on May 7 , 1976 in Smithtown , New York to Irish American parents Maureen and Daniel Murphy , a former assistant Suffolk County district attorney . He was raised in Patchogue . He attended Saxton Middle School , where he played youth soccer and pee @-@ wee football , with his father as coach . In high school , he continued playing sports , and took a summer job as a lifeguard at the Brookhaven town beach in Lake Ronkonkoma . He returned to the job every summer throughout his college years .
Murphy was known to his friends as " Murph " , and he was known as " The Protector " in his high school years . In 8th grade , he protected a special needs child who was being shoved into a locker by a group of boys , this was the only time the principal of the school had called his parents , they couldn 't have been prouder . He also protected a homeless man , who was being attacked while collecting cans . He chased away the attackers and helped the man pick up his cans .
In 1994 , Murphy graduated from Patchogue @-@ Medford High School and left home to attend The Pennsylvania State University ( Penn State ) . He graduated from Penn State in 1998 , with degrees in both political science and psychology . Murphy was engaged to be married with the ceremony scheduled for November 2005 .
= = Career = =
After graduating from Penn State , Murphy was accepted to several law schools , but decided to attend SEAL mentoring sessions at the United States Merchant Marine Academy . In September 2000 , he accepted an appointment to the U.S. Navy 's Officer Candidate School in Pensacola , Florida . On December 13 of that year , he was commissioned as an Ensign in the Navy and began Basic Underwater Demolition / SEAL ( BUD / S ) training in Coronado , California in January 2001 , eventually graduating with Class 236 .
Upon graduation from BUD / S , he attended the United States Army Airborne School , SEAL Qualification Training and SEAL Delivery Vehicle ( SDV ) school . Murphy earned his SEAL Trident and checked on board SDV Team ONE ( SDVT @-@ 1 ) in Pearl Harbor , Hawaii in July 2002 . In October 2002 , he deployed with Foxtrot Platoon to Jordan as the liaison officer for Exercise Early Victor . Following his tour with SDVT @-@ 1 , Murphy was assigned to Special Operations Command Central ( SOCCENT ) in Florida and deployed to Qatar in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . After returning from Qatar , he was deployed to Djibouti to assist in the operational planning of future SDV missions .
= = = Combat in Afghanistan = = =
Operation Enduring Freedom is the official name used by the United States Government for its War in Afghanistan , together with three smaller military actions under the umbrella of its Global War on Terrorism . The war began on October 7 , 2001 with the response of the United States and United Kingdom to the September 11 attacks in New York City and Arlington , Virginia . In early 2005 , Murphy was assigned to SEAL Delivery Vehicle Team ONE as officer in charge of Alpha Platoon and deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom .
= = = = Operation Red Wings = = = =
Operation Red Wings was a counter @-@ insurgent mission in Kunar province , Afghanistan , involving four members of the United States Navy SEALs . Murphy and two other SEALs , Danny Dietz and Matthew Axelson , were killed in the fighting , in addition to 16 American Special Operations Forces soldiers , who were killed when their helicopter was shot down while attempting to extract the SEAL Team . Prior to a helicopter being shot down in 2011 , it was both the largest loss of life for American forces since the invasion began and the largest loss for the SEALs since the Vietnam War . Marcus Luttrell was the only surviving American sailor from the squad ; he was protected by local villagers , who sent an emissary to the closest military base , allowing a rescue team to locate him .
Murphy led the four @-@ man reconnaissance team on a mission to kill or capture a top Taliban leader , Ahmad Shah ( code name Ben Sharmak ) , who commanded a group of insurgents known as the " Mountain Tigers , " west of Asadabad . The team was dropped off by helicopter in a remote , mountainous area east of Asadabad in Kunar Province , near the Pakistan border . After an initially successful infiltration , local goat herders stumbled upon the SEALs ' hiding place . Unable to verify any hostile intent from the herders , the team cut them loose . Hostile locals , possibly the goat herders they let pass , alerted nearby Taliban forces , who surrounded and attacked the small group . After Murphy called for help , an MH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopter loaded with reinforcements was dispatched to rescue the team , but was shot down with an RPG , killing all 16 personnel aboard ; eight SEALs and eight service members from the 160th SOAR .
Murphy , Dietz , and Axelson were killed in the action . Luttrell was the only American survivor and was eventually rescued , after several days of wandering the mountain and being protected by the people of an Afghan village . All three of Murphy 's men were awarded the Navy 's second @-@ highest honor , the Navy Cross , for their part in the battle making theirs the most decorated Navy SEAL team in history .
= = Death = =
Murphy was killed June 28 , 2005 after exposing himself to enemy fire and knowingly leaving his position of cover to get a clear signal in order to communicate with his headquarters . He provided his unit ’ s location and requested immediate support for his element and then returned to his position to continue fighting until he died from his wounds .
On July 4 , 2005 , Murphy 's remains were found by a group of American soldiers during a combat search and rescue operation and returned to the United States . Nine days later , on July 13 , Murphy was buried with full military honors at Calverton National Cemetery , Calverton , New York , Section 67 , Grave No. 3710 , less than 20 miles from his childhood home .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Murphy 's military awards include :
= = = Medal of Honor = = =
On October 11 , 2007 The White House announced Murphy would be presented the Medal of Honor , awarded posthumously , during a ceremony at the White House on October 22 , 2007 .
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government and is bestowed on a member of the armed forces who distinguishes himself " ... conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States ... " Due to the nature of the award , it is commonly presented posthumously .
On October 22 , 2007 the Medal of Honor presentation ceremony was held at the White House . President George W. Bush presented Murphy 's Medal of Honor to his parents .
= = = = Citation = = = =
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life and above and beyond the call of duty as the leader of a special reconnaissance element with Naval Special Warfare task unit Afghanistan on 27 and 28 June 2005 .
While leading a mission to locate a high @-@ level anti @-@ coalition militia leader , Lieutenant Murphy demonstrated extraordinary heroism in the face of grave danger in the vicinity of Asadabad , Kunar Province , Afghanistan . On 28 June 2005 , operating in an extremely rugged enemy @-@ controlled area , Lieutenant Murphy 's team was discovered by anti @-@ coalition militia sympathizers , who revealed their position to Taliban fighters . As a result , between 30 and 40 enemy fighters besieged his four member team . Demonstrating exceptional resolve , Lieutenant Murphy valiantly led his men in engaging the large enemy force . The ensuing fierce firefight resulted in numerous enemy casualties , as well as the wounding of all four members of the team . Ignoring his own wounds and demonstrating exceptional composure , Lieutenant Murphy continued to lead and encourage his men . When the primary communicator fell mortally wounded , Lieutenant Murphy repeatedly attempted to call for assistance for his beleaguered teammates . Realizing the impossibility of communicating in the extreme terrain , and in the face of almost certain death , he fought his way into open terrain to gain a better position to transmit a call . This deliberate , heroic act deprived him of cover , exposing him to direct enemy fire . Finally achieving contact with his headquarters , Lieutenant Murphy maintained his exposed position while he provided his location and requested immediate support for his team . In his final act of bravery , he continued to engage the enemy until he was mortally wounded , gallantly giving his life for his country and for the cause of freedom . By his selfless leadership , Lieutenant Murphy reflected great credit upon himself and upheld the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
= = Legacy = =
During his military career , Murphy received 11 different military decorations , including : the Medal of Honor , Purple Heart , Joint Service Commendation Medal , and Navy Commendation Medal . Since his death , a post office in his home town , a park and a guided missile destroyer , the USS Michael Murphy ( DDG @-@ 112 ) , have been named in his honor .
In addition to the Medal of Honor , his military awards and his inscription on the Hall of Heroes in the Pentagon , Murphy has received several other honors .
= = = Michael P. Murphy Memorial = = =
The Penn State class of 2011 's senior gift was a memorial named after LT Michael P. Murphy to commemorate all veterans who served the United States . The wall behind the memorial is inscribed with a Greek phrase meaning " With it [ your shield ] , or on it " referencing the ancient Spartan tradition that a warrior came home from a battle " with his shield " after a victory , or dead being carried home " on his shield " after a defeat .
= = = Michael P. Murphy Memorial Park = = =
On May 7 , 2006 , on what would have been his 30th birthday , Murphy ’ s hometown dedicated the Michael P. Murphy Memorial Park ; formerly Lake Ronkonkoma Park . The park contains a black granite wall dedicated to the men lost in Operation Red Wings , with each member ’ s name inscribed . A black granite stone embedded in the plaza bears the picture of Murphy and his Medal of Honor .
= = = Lieutenant Michael P. Murphy United States Post Office = = =
On May 7 , 2007 , the Lieutenant Michael P. Murphy United States Post Office was dedicated in Patchogue , New York . The request to rename the historic United States Postal Office located at 170 East Main Street in Patchogue , New York , was submitted as bill H.R. 4101 to the 109th Congress . On January 3 , 2006 , the 109th Congress approved the request and on August 1 , 2006 , it was signed by President George W. Bush and became Public Law No : 109 @-@ 256 .
" The facility of the United States Postal Service located at 170 East Main Street in Patchogue , New York , shall be known and designated as the ' Lieutenant Michael P. Murphy Post Office Building ' . "
= = = USS Michael Murphy ( DDG @-@ 112 ) = = =
On May 7 , 2008 , Secretary of the Navy Donald C. Winter announced that DDG @-@ 112 , the last planned U.S. Navy Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyer at the time , would be named USS Michael Murphy ( DDG @-@ 112 ) in honor of Murphy . On May 7 , 2011 , on what would have been Murphy 's 35th birthday , the USS Michael Murphy was christened by his mother Maureen Murphy , the ship 's sponsor .
= = = Lt. Michael P. Murphy Combat Training Pool = = =
On July 9 , 2009 , the newly constructed Combat Training Pool at the Naval Station Newport , Rhode Island was dedicated in honor of Murphy . The pool is an L @-@ shaped , 8 @-@ lane pool which holds approximately 347 @,@ 000 gallons of chlorinated water . The training pool also has a training platform three meters above the water which is used for military training , abandon ship drills , etc .
= = = Lt. Michael P. Murphy Award in Geospatial Intelligence = = =
The Lt. Michael P. Murphy Award in Geospatial Intelligence recognizes achievement by a Penn State graduate student who is serving or has served in the U.S. Armed Forces or with the U.S. Intelligence Community and demonstrated exceptional contributions to the discipline . The award was made possible by the gracious gifts of GeoEye and the US Geospatial Intelligence Foundation . This award is endowed to be given in Murphy ’ s name in perpetuity .
= = = Lt. Michael P. Murphy / Penn State Veterans Plaza = = =
On November 2 , 2010 , it was announced the senior gift for the Pennsylvania State University ( Murphy 's alma mater ) Class of 2011 will be the Lt. Michael P. Murphy / Penn State Veterans Plaza . The plaza will honor all Penn State veterans and Penn State 's only Medal of Honor recipient , Murphy .
= = = Long Island Medal of Honor Recipients Memorial Plaque = = =
The United States Veterans Hospital at Northport Long Island New York maintains a memorial plaque that names all of the Medal of Honor recipients who have lived in Long Island . Lt. Murphy 's name was placed in honor on this memorial shortly after he was awarded the Medal of Honor . Others honored include President Theodore Roosevelt , General Theodore Roosevelt , Jr . , and Murphy ’ s fellow Eastern Long Island hero Garfield Langhorn . The Memorial , which is at the back end of the hospital lobby , is in close proximity to where his mother works in the hospital .
= = = High school campus = = =
In April 2014 , Patchogue @-@ Medford High School in Medford , New York , named its campus the " Navy ( SEAL ) LT Michael P. Murphy Campus " after its fallen former pupil .
= = = Sea Cadet unit = = =
The Sea Cadet unit from West Sayville , New York is named the " LT Michael P. Murphy Division " and has hosted and sponsored events in honor of Murphy .
= = = Fort Hamilton MEPS Memorial Wall = = =
The Fort Hamilton MEPS main lobby has a memorial wall dedicated to Murphy .
= = = LT Michael P Murphy Distinguished Citizen Award = = =
The Central Pennsylvania council of the Navy League of the United States awards the " LT Michael P Murphy Distinguished Citizen Award " in his name . The award honors living , non @-@ active duty citizens who exemplify his character and commitment to his country and his community .
= = = CrossFit Workout = = =
A workout named in Michael 's honor is performed at CrossFit boxes across the country on Memorial Day . The workout is named " Murph " .
For time : 1 mile Run 100 Pull @-@ ups 200 Push @-@ ups 300 Squats 1 mile Run
Participants may choose to wear a body vest weighing 8 lbs . - 20 lbs . This workout was one of Mike 's favorites and he 'd named it " Body Armor " .
= = In media = =
In the 2013 film Lone Survivor , Murphy is portrayed by actor Taylor Kitsch .
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= Theology of Huldrych Zwingli =
The theology of Huldrych Zwingli was based on the Bible , taking scripture as the inspired word of God and placing its authority higher than what he saw as human sources such as the Ecumenical councils and the church fathers . He also recognised the human element within the inspiration noting the differences in the canonical gospels . Zwinglianism is the Reformed confession based on the Second Helvetic Confession promulgated by Zwingli 's successor Heinrich Bullinger in the 1560s .
Zwingli 's views on baptism were largely a response to Anabaptism , a movement which attacked the practice of infant baptism . He defended the baptism of children by describing it as a sign of a Christian 's covenant with God just as God made a covenant with Abraham .
He developed the symbolic view of the Eucharist . He denied the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and following Cornelius Henrici Hoen , he agreed that the bread and wine of the institution signify and do not literally become the body and blood of Jesus Christ . Zwingli 's differences of opinion on this with Martin Luther resulted in the failure of the Marburg Colloquy to bring unity between the two Protestant leaders .
Zwingli believed that the state governed with divine sanction . He believed that both the church and the state are placed under the sovereign rule of God . Christians were obliged to obey the government , but civil disobedience was allowed if the authorities acted against the will of God . He described a preference for an aristocracy over monarchic or democratic rule .
= = Scripture = =
The Bible is central in Zwingli 's work as a reformer and is crucial in the development of his theology . Zwingli appealed to scripture constantly in his writings . This is strongly evident in his early writings such as Archeteles ( 1522 ) and The Clarity and Certainty of the Word of God ( 1522 ) . He believed that man is a liar and only God is the truth . For him scripture , as God 's word , brings light when there is only darkness of error .
Zwingli initially appealed to scripture against Catholic opponents in order to counter their appeal to the church — which included the councils , the church fathers , the schoolmen , and the popes . To him , these authorities were based on man and liable to error . He noted that " the fathers must yield to the word of God and not the word of God to the fathers " . His insistence of using the word of God did not preclude him from using the councils or the church fathers in his arguments . He gave them no independent authority , but he used them to show that the views he held were not simply his own .
The inspiration of scripture , the concept that God or the Holy Spirit is the author , was taken for granted by Zwingli . His view of inspiration was not mechanical and he recognized the human element in his commentaries as he noted the differences in the canonical gospels . He did not recognize the apocryphal books as canonical . Like Martin Luther , Zwingli did not regard the Revelation of St John highly , and also did not accept a " canon within the canon " , but he did accept scripture as a whole .
= = Baptism = =
Zwingli 's views on baptism are largely rooted in his conflict with the Anabaptists , a group whose beliefs included the rejection of infant baptism and centered on the leadership of Conrad Grebel and Felix Manz . In October 1523 , the controversy over the issue broke out during the second Zürich disputation and Zwingli vigorously defended the need for infant baptism and his belief that rebaptism was unnecessary . His major works on the subject include Baptism , Rebaptism , and Infant Baptism ( 1525 ) , A Reply to Hubmaier ( 1525 ) , A Refutation ( 1527 ) , and Questions Concerning the Sacrament of Baptism ( 1530 ) .
In Baptism , Rebaptism , and Infant Baptism , Zwingli outlined his disagreements with both the Catholic and the Anabaptist positions . He accused the Anabaptists of adding to the word of God and noted that there is no law forbidding infant baptism . He challenged Catholics by denying that the water of baptism can have the power to wash away sin . Zwingli understood baptism to be a pledge or a promise , but he disputed the Anabaptist position that it is a pledge to live without sin , noting that such a pledge brings back the hypocrisy of legalism . He argued against their view that those that received the Spirit and were able to live without sin were the only persons qualified to partake in baptism . At the same time he asserted that rebaptism had no support in scripture . The Anabaptists raised the objection that Christ did not baptise children , and so Christians , likewise , should not baptise their children . Zwingli responded by noting that kind of argument would imply women should not participate in communion because there were no women at the last supper . Although there was no commandment to baptise children specifically , the need for baptism was clearly stated in scripture . In a separate discussion on original sin , Zwingli denies original guilt . He refers to I Corinthians 7 : 12 – 14 which states that the children of one Christian parent are holy and thus they are counted among the sons of God . Infants should be baptised because there is only one church and one baptism , not a partial church and partial baptism .
The first part of the document , A Reply to Hubmaier , is an attack on Balthasar Hubmaier 's position on baptism . The second part where Zwingli defends his own views demonstrates further development in his doctrine of baptism . Rather than baptism being simply a pledge , he describes baptism as a sign of our covenant with God . Furthermore , he associates this covenant with the covenant that God made with Abraham . As circumcision was the sign of God 's covenant with Abraham , baptism was the sign of his covenant with Christians . In A Refutation , he states ,
The children of Christians are no less sons of God than the parents , just as in the Old Testament . Hence , since they are sons of God , who will forbid this baptism ? Circumcision among the ancients ... was the same as baptism with us .
His later writings show no change in his fundamental positions . Other elements in Zwingli 's theology would lead him to deny that baptism is a means of grace or that it is necessary for salvation . His defence of infant baptism was not only a matter of church politics , but was clearly related to the whole of his theology and his profound sense of unity of the church .
= = Eucharist = =
The Eucharist was a key center of controversy in the Reformation as it not only focused differences between the reformers and the church but also between themselves . For Zwingli it was a matter of attacking a doctrine that imperiled the understanding and reception of God 's gift of salvation , while for Luther it was a matter of defending a doctrine that embodied that gift . It is not known what Zwingli 's eucharistic theology was before he became a reformer and there is disagreement among scholars about his views during his first few years as a priest . In the eighteenth article of The Sixty @-@ seven Articles ( 1523 ) which concerns the sacrifice of the mass , he states that it is a memorial of the sacrifice . He expounds on this in An Exposition of the Articles ( 1523 ) .
Zwingli credited the Dutch humanist , Cornelius Henrici Hoen ( Honius ) , for first suggesting the " is " in the institution words " This is my body " meant " signifies " . Hoen sent a letter to Zwingli in 1524 with this interpretation along with biblical examples to support it . It is impossible to say how the letter impacted Zwingli 's theology although Zwingli claimed that he already held the symbolic view when he read the letter . He first mentioned the " signifies " interpretation in a letter to Matthäus Alber , an associate of Luther . Zwingli denies transubstantiation using John 6 : 63 , " It is the Spirit who gives life , the flesh is of no avail " , as support . He commended Andreas Karlstadt 's understanding of the significance of faith , but rejected Karlstadt 's view that the word " this " refers to Christ 's body rather than the bread . Using other biblical passages and patristic sources , he defended the " signifies " interpretation . In The Eucharist ( 1525 ) , following the introduction of his communion liturgy , he laid out the details of his theology where he argues against the view that the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ and that they are eaten bodily .
The conflict between Zwingli and Luther began in 1525 , but it was not until 1527 that Zwingli engaged directly with Luther . The culmination of the controversy was the Marburg Colloquy in 1529 . He wrote four responses leading up to the meeting : A Friendly Exegesis ( 1527 ) , A Friendly Answer ( 1527 ) , Zwingli 's Christian Reply ( 1527 ) , and Two Replies to Luther 's Book ( 1528 ) . They examined Luther 's point @-@ of @-@ view rather than systematically presenting Zwingli 's own . Some of his comments were sharp and critical , although they were never as harsh and dismissive as some of Luther 's on him . However , Zwingli also called Luther " one of the first champions of the Gospel " , a David against Goliath , a Hercules who slew the Roman boar . Martin Bucer and Johannes Oecolampadius most likely influenced Zwingli as they were concerned with reconciliation of the eucharistic views .
The main issue for Zwingli is that Luther puts " the chief point of salvation in the bodily eating of the body of Christ " . Luther saw the action as strengthening faith and remitting sins . This , however , conflicted with Zwingli 's view of faith . The bodily presence of Christ could not produce faith as faith is from God , for those whom God has chosen . Zwingli also appealed to several passages of scripture with John 6 : 63 in particular . He saw Luther 's view as denying Christ 's humanity and asserted that Christ 's body is only at one place and that is at the right hand of God . The Marburg Colloquy did not produce anything new in the debate between the two reformers . Neither changed his position , but it did produce some further developments in Zwingli 's views . For example , he noted that the bread was not mere bread and affirmed terms such as " presence " , " true " , and " sacramental " . However , it was Zwingli 's and Luther 's differences in their understanding of faith , their Christology , their approach and use of scripture that ultimately made any agreement impossible .
Near the end of his life Zwingli summarized his understanding of the Eucharist in a confession sent to King Francis I , saying :
" We believe that Christ is truly present in the Lord ’ s Supper ; yea , we believe that there is no communion without the presence of Christ . This is the proof : ' Where two or three are gathered together in my name , there am I in the midst of them ' ( Matt . 18 : 20 ) . How much more is he present where the whole congregation is assembled to his honor ! But that his body is literally eaten is far from the truth and the nature of faith . It is contrary to the truth , because he himself says : ' I am no more in the world ' ( John 17 : 11 ) , and ' The flesh profiteth nothing ' ( John 6 : 63 ) , that is to eat , as the Jews then believed and the Papists still believe . It is contrary to the nature of faith ( I mean the holy and true faith ) , because faith embraces love , fear of God , and reverence , which abhor such carnal and gross eating , as much as any one would shrink from eating his beloved son . … We believe that the true body of Christ is eaten in the communion in a sacramental and spiritual manner by the religious , believing , and pious heart ( as also St. Chrysostom taught ) . And this is in brief the substance of what we maintain in this controversy , and what not we , but the truth itself teaches . "
= = State = =
The relation of church and state in Zwingli 's mind is best represented in a statue by the Wasserkirche , where he stands with a Bible in one hand and a sword in the other . For him , the church and state are one under the sovereign rule of God . The development of the complex relationship between church and state in Zwingli 's view can only be understood by examining the context of his life , the city of Zürich , and the wider Swiss Confederation . His earliest writings before he became a reformer , such as The Ox ( 1510 ) and The Labyrinth ( 1516 ) , reveal a patriotic love of his land , a longing for liberty , and opposition to the mercenary service where young Swiss citizens were sent to fight in foreign wars for the financial benefit of the state government . His life as a parish priest and an army chaplain helped to develop his concern for morality and justice . He saw his ministry not limited to a private sphere , but to the people as a whole .
The Zürich council played an essential role at each stage of the Reformation . Even before the Reformation , the council operated relatively independently on church matters although the areas of doctrine and worship were left to the authority of the ecclesiastical hierarchy . As Zwingli was convinced that doctrinal matters had to conform to the word of God rather than the hierarchy , he recognised the role of the council as the only body with power to act if the religious authorities refused to undertake reform . His theocratic views are best expressed in Divine and Human Righteousness ( 1523 ) and An Exposition of the Articles ( 1523 ) in that both preacher and prince were servants under the rule of God . The context surrounding these two publications was a period of considerable tension . Zwingli was banned by the Swiss Diet from travelling into any other canton . The work of the Reformation was endangered by the potential outbreak of religious and social disorder . Zwingli saw the need to present the government in a positive light to safeguard the continued preaching of the Gospel . He stated ,
... the gospel of Christ is not opposed to government ... but is a support to government ... as far as it acts in a Christian way in accordance with the standard prescribed by God .
The relationship between preacher and magistrate was demonstrated by two forms of righteousness , human and divine . Human righteousness ( or the " outward man " ) was the domain of the magistrate or government . Government could secure human righteousness , but it could not make man righteous before God . That was the domain of the preacher where the " inward man " is called to account for divine righteousness .
As government was ordained by God , Christians were obliged to obey in Zwingli 's view . This requirement applied equally to a good or an evil government because both came from God . However , it is because rulers are to be servants of God and that Christians obey the rulers as they are to obey God , that the situation could arise when Christians may disobey . When the authorities act against the will of God then Zwingli noted , " We must obey God rather than men . " God 's commands took precedence over man 's .
In his Commentary on Isaiah ( 1529 ) , Zwingli noted that there were three kinds of governments : monarchy , aristocracy , and democracy . He expressed his preference for aristocracy which is not surprising given his experience with the Zürich council . In the publication , rather than comparing the three forms of government , he gave a defence of aristocracy against a monarchy . He argued that a monarchy would invariably descend to tyranny . A monarchy had inherent weaknesses in that a good ruler could be easily replaced by a bad one or a single ruler could be easily corrupted . An aristocracy with more people involved did not have these disadvantages .
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= Manchester Liners =
Manchester Liners was a cargo and passenger shipping company founded in 1898 , based in Manchester , England . The line pioneered the regular passage of ocean @-@ going vessels along the Manchester Ship Canal . Its main sphere of operation was the transatlantic shipping trade , but the company also operated services to the Mediterranean . All of the line 's vessels were registered in the Port of Manchester , and many were lost to enemy action during the First and Second World Wars .
A successful switch from traditional to container shipping in 1968 was relatively short @-@ lived , as the subsequent introduction elsewhere of much larger container ships meant that the company 's vessels , which were restricted to a maximum length of 530 feet ( 160 m ) imposed by the ship canal 's lock chambers , could no longer compete economically . The line ceased operations in 1985 .
= = Early history = =
The opening of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 made it possible for large ocean @-@ going ships to sail directly into the heart of Manchester . However , because of opposition from cartels of ship @-@ owners based at Liverpool and other ports in the United Kingdom , shipping lines were slow to introduce direct services to the new Port of Manchester , which found it difficult to compete against the established ports . New trading routes from Manchester to West Africa and Mediterranean ports were countered by the established shipping conferences sharply reducing their own charges and by inducing their customers to sign binding contracts . In some cases , after achieving their aims , the cartels re @-@ imposed their old charges . To help counter these ' sharp practices ' , Sir Christopher Furness , of Furness Withy & Company , proposed in 1897 that a Manchester @-@ based shipping line should be formed , to encourage the use of the Manchester Ship Canal and docks . The public prospectus for Manchester Liners Ltd ( ML ) was issued on 10 May 1898 , with an authorised share capital of £ 1 million . Furness ' company became the largest shareholder , and he was appointed chairman . Other directors included representatives from the Ship Canal company and Salford Borough Council . Robert Burdon Stoker , a director of Furness Withy , was appointed as ML 's first managing director .
= = Initial operations 1898 – 1914 = =
Manchester Liners decided from the outset to make Manchester – Canada their prime route , with a secondary route to the southern United States cotton ports of New Orleans and Galveston . Other lesser , sometimes seasonal routes , were added later . Two 1890 @-@ built 3 @,@ 000 gross registered ton ( grt ) ships were bought for £ 60 @,@ 000 in May 1898 , and renamed Manchester Enterprise and Manchester Trader . The Trader made the shipping line 's first voyage , setting out from Avonmouth for Montreal on 26 May , before docking in Manchester with a cargo of grain .
The two secondhand vessels were joined in January 1899 by the newly built Manchester City of 7 @,@ 696 grt , constructed by Raylton Dixon & Co of Middlesbrough . This steamship carried 1 @,@ 170 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) of coal , burned at 70 long tons ( 71 t ) per day , giving a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , fast for her day . She was a refrigerated vessel , designed to carry frozen meat and live cattle , and was claimed to be one of the largest meat @-@ carrying ships then afloat . She made a successful maiden voyage from Canada and up the new canal to Manchester , taking two days and stopping overnight at Irlam to give the crew a rest . The Manchester Guardian reported on 16 January 1899 that " there were many shakings of the head , not only in Liverpool , at the audacity of the attempt " and that " the canal pilots , on reaching Irlam , looked as if they had not been in bed for a week , as their eyes were bleared with exhaustion " . The City discharged 450 cattle and 150 sheep at Manchester Corporation 's Foreign Animals Wharf near the Mode Wheel locks in Salford . With an overall length of 467 feet ( 142 m ) , she was by far the largest vessel to have ventured up the waterway , and her successful navigation disproved the claim of Liverpool owners that only ships of 350 feet ( 110 m ) or less could safely reach Manchester . The vessel continued to Manchester docks for further unloading , where she was met by the Lord Mayor , accompanied by a band and a festive crowd . This successful voyage did much to encourage other shipowners to use the new port . On her first voyage to Halifax , Nova Scotia in March 1899 , the City took nine days and sixteen hours ; and arrived before the mail boat , which had left the Mersey twelve hours ahead of her .
The ML fleet was joined by two new smaller 5 @,@ 600 grt vessels , the Manchester Port and Manchester Merchant during 1899 and 1900 , and further new vessels followed quickly thereafter . The basic sailing pattern to Canada was St John , New Brunswick , year @-@ round and to Montreal when the St Lawrence River was ice @-@ free .
Between 1899 and 1902 , four Manchester ships and their crews were requisitioned by the United Kingdom government to transport troops , horses , and supplies to South Africa during the Boer War and its aftermath . Collecting points for horses and mules included Galveston and New Orleans ( USA ) and Buenos Aires and Montevideo in South America . Manchester Port made its second voyage to the Cape in 1900 , then continued to Australia to bring troops to the conflict . On the first voyage after her return to ML , in January 1903 , the first Manchester Merchant was lost while on passage from New Orleans to Manchester . A serious fire developed in her cotton cargo , and she was scuttled in Dingle Bay on the west coast of Ireland to douse the flames , but subsequently broke up in bad weather .
By 1904 the line was operating fourteen steamships of between four and seven thousand tons , several built by the associated Furness Withy shipyards . Services to ports in eastern Canada were supplemented by regular sailings to Boston , Philadelphia , and the southern US cotton ports of New Orleans and Galveston . Between 1904 and 1908 ML deployed three vessels including the Manchester City to the River Plate route , serving other UK ports as well Manchester . The main return cargo was frozen and chilled meat , and the City set a record for the largest meat consignment up to that time . Lord Furness , as he had become , died in 1912 and was succeeded as ML 's chairman by R. B. Stoker until his death in 1919 . ML 's fleet was maintained at 14 vessels during the last few years before the First World War . Eleven of their ships were deployed on the Canadian routes , carrying mainly manufactured goods outwards and meat and grain inbound .
= = Operations during the First World War = =
At the start of the war in July 1914 , ML had a fleet of fifteen ships . Most of the fleet continued to operate services to ports in eastern Canada and to USA including Baltimore , returning with war and other supplies . In August 1914 , the Manchester Miller ( 1903 ) and Manchester Civilian ( 1913 ) were requisitioned as supply ships and sent with coal to the Falkland Islands to refuel the battlecruisers HMS Inflexible and HMS Invincible . As the Civilian was coaling the cruisers , the German vessels approached and the British warships cast off immediately to engage them . In the ensuing battle Admiral Von Spee 's battleships Scharnhost and Gneisenau , plus escorting cruisers , were sunk . The Civilian was later equipped with minesweeping gear . She returned in 1916 carrying supplies and equipment from Canada to the troops in France .
All vessels were fitted with defensive guns at the bow and stern . In June 1917 Manchester Port ( 1904 ) beat off a submarine attack with gunfire near Cape Wrath . Manchester Commerce ( 1899 ) , outward @-@ bound for Quebec City was sunk off northwest Ireland on 26 October 1914 , with the loss of 14 crew , becoming the first merchant ship to be sunk by a mine . On 4 June 1917 the second Manchester Trader , en route from Souda Bay in Crete to Algiers , was engaged in a running battle with U @-@ boat U 65 before she was captured and sunk near Pantellaria island , with the loss of one crewmember . The master , Captain F. D. Struss , was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , and went on to complete 40 years service with the line after surviving another sinking in the Second World War . A further nine ships were sunk by U @-@ boats , seven of the losses occurring in 1917 .
ML acquired seven ships between 1916 and 1918 , four of which were sunk in 1917 . Manchester Engineer , acquired secondhand in 1917 , had a short but eventful career with ML . On 18 June , when bound for Archangel , she was chased by a U @-@ boat but escaped when her naval escort arrived . On 16 August when sailing from the Tyne to St Nazaire with coal , she was torpedoed five miles off Flamborough Head and sunk . Manchester Division achieved fame on her maiden voyage from West Hartlepool to join a westbound Atlantic convoy at Plymouth when she rammed and sank a German submarine off Flamborough Head in October 1918 . At the end of the war in November 1918 , ML had twelve surviving vessels on strength .
= = Peacetime operations 1919 – 39 = =
In 1921 – 22 , ML 's fleet was augmented by two second @-@ hand vessels . Sailings were resumed to New Orleans , and the Baltimore service was extended to Norfolk , Virginia . Some ships including the Manchester Civilian and Manchester Spinner became regular carriers in the coal trade from Sydney , Nova Scotia . The Civilian made several round trips from the USA to Japan in 1923 , carrying relief supplies after the Japanese earthquake . ML took delivery of the 7 @,@ 930 tons steam turbine Manchester Regiment in 1922 , constructed on the Tees by the Furness Shipbuilding Company . This 12 @.@ 5 @-@ knot ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ; 14 @.@ 4 mph ) ship with a crew of 65 was the largest operated to date , carrying 512 cattle , plus hold cargo and was equipped with large derricks to assist in heavy goods handling . The Regiment 's record from the Mersey Bar to Quebec was seven days nine hours . In 1925 her captain won the gold @-@ headed cane traditionally awarded each Spring to the master of the first ship to break through the St Lawrence ice to reach Montreal , a feat repeated later by several other ML captains . ML 's old head office in Deansgate , Manchester became inadequate and was replaced in August 1922 by a purpose @-@ built five @-@ storey modern building located in St Ann 's Square next to the Royal Exchange .
The line acquired two new vessels in 1925 , but later that year its fortunes were adversely affected by competition from subsidised American firms on the North Atlantic routes ; ML disposed of seven ships between late 1925 and 1930 , reducing its fleet to ten vessels . The Regiment steamed 160 miles through a gale in 1929 to reach the sinking Glasgow steamer Volumnia . A lifeboat was launched to rescue the crew of forty @-@ five . On return home , King George V awarded the Regiment 's lifeboat crew the Silver Medal for Gallantry in Saving Life at Sea and Manchester 's Lord Mayor presented a silver salver from the Board of Trade to Captain Linton . In 1933 , amid the Great Depression , several ships were laid up ; the Manchester Merchant of 1904 was disposed of for breaking up and the Manchester Civilian was sold to Greek owners . The public sailing programme for the 1933 summer season listed six ships as allocated to the weekly " Fast Freight Service " to Quebec and Montreal . The six steamers were advertised as being " fitted with fan or forced ventilation and all have cold storage accommodation " . Most vessels were also able to carry up to twelve passengers . After a ten @-@ year gap , three new vessels were commissioned between 1935 and 1938 as trade started to recover , maintaining the fleet at ten ships . The trio were equipped with automatic stokers for their coal @-@ fired boilers and had greatly improved accommodation for the passengers and the crew .
= = Operations during the Second World War = =
ML had ten vessels at the start of World War II , but early in the conflict lost Manchester Regiment in December 1939 , when outbound with general cargo for St John , New Brunswick . She was proceeding without lights when she was run down by the Pacific Steam Navigation 's Oropesa , which had been detached from an eastbound convoy . While the ML fleet continued to be deployed on the North Atlantic routes during the war , the company 's vessels also undertook a wide variety of roles elsewhere during the conflict . Manchester City became a minelayer , then a naval auxiliary ship , working in the Far East . Manchester Progress was one of the last ships to leave Rangoon in 1941 before the Japanese conquest of Burma . Manchester Commerce ( 1925 ) was deployed on Mediterranean convoys in 1942 / 43 and next year transported mules from South Africa to India for the Burma Campaign . Manchester Trader ( 1941 ) was fitted with extra crew quarters for use as a commodore ship on Atlantic convoys . Except for two supply runs to Bone , Algeria , she remained in the Atlantic theatre and served ML until 1963 . Manchester Brigade , having survived the first World War , was sunk on 26 September 1940 after being torpedoed by U @-@ 137 when bound for Montreal in convoy off Malin Head , to the north of Ireland ; 58 crew were lost .
Manchester Merchant , completed in May 1940 , quickly became involved in " Operation Fish " , transporting Britain 's gold reserves to Canada , making two voyages with bullion valued in total at £ 4 @.@ 5 million . In late 1942 she was deployed on Operation Torch as a supply ship to North Africa . On 25 February 1943 , she was torpedoed by " U 628 " while part of an outbound Atlantic convoy ; 36 of the crew of 65 including gunners were lost , but Captain Struss again survived , and received the OBE . Manchester Division ( 1918 ) bound for Table Bay was directed to assist the Blue Star Line 's Dunedin Star which had beached on Namibia 's rugged coast . The Division stood by in heavy swell for three days , rescuing 40 passengers and crew , before taking them to Cape Town . Manchester Citizen ( 1925 ) was also sunk by a U @-@ boat , whilst on passage to Lagos on 9 July 1943 after surviving several supply runs for the Eighth Army . The last vessel to be " lost " , albeit deliberately , was Manchester Spinner ( 1918 ) , which had taken military supplies to India in 1942 . On 7 June 1944 , shortly after D @-@ Day , manned by a volunteer crew , she led a line of Mulberry Harbour blockships and was sunk off Juno Beach Normandy to act as a breakwater , whilst troop reinforcements and stores were landed on the beaches . Her superstructure was then armed with anti @-@ aircraft guns .
= = Peacetime operations 1945 – 68 = =
At the war 's end , ML had a fleet of eight vessels built between 1918 and 1943 , and these continued to operate the traditional service to eastern Canada for a further two years before new vessels could be acquired . In 1946 the Manchester Shipper became the first merchant ship to be fitted with radar , and to navigate the St Lawrence with its aid . In the same year the company carried Manchester 's Lord Mayor and party to Canada on a goodwill and trade mission . Manchester Exporter was sold in 1947 and replaced by the newly built larger Manchester Regiment . Two further 7 @,@ 000 ton 14 @-@ knot ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) ships were commissioned in 1952 , which meant that the Manchester Division , veteran of both wars , could be sold for scrapping after a record 35 years service with the line . In 1952 , Robert B. Stoker , grandson of the second chairman , became the third generation of his family to be appointed an executive director of ML . He had joined the line in 1932 and in turn became chairman in 1968 .
Manchester Shipper was used to transport WWII German aircraft to Canada . It left Ellesmere Port on the 23rd of August 1946 arriving in Montreal September 1 . Its cargo included two Me 262s ( WNr500210 , WNr111690 ) . Manchester Commerce also carried Second World War German aircraft to Canada , leaving Seaforth Docks on 26 August and arriving on 9 September with two He 162s ( WNr 120076 , WNr 120086 ) and two Me 163s ( WNr191454 , WNr191914 ) .
ML contracted Cammell Laird of Birkenhead to build two smaller vessels of 1 @,@ 800 tons . Commissioned in 1952 , they were named the Manchester Pioneer and Explorer . They were joined by the secondhand 1 @,@ 400 @-@ ton Manchester Prospector . The trio were the first of a size able to pass through the restricted @-@ size canals and locks leading directly to Toronto and the other Great Lakes ports as far as Detroit , Michigan . This initiative , the first by a British line , and taken well ahead of the 1959 completion of the Saint Lawrence Seaway , gave the line a head start in the direct trade to the Midwest ports . During the winter months , when thick ice prevented navigation on the lakes , the trio were employed elsewhere , sometimes on charter to other lines .
Manchester Progress , 5 @,@ 620 grt , opened a regular mid @-@ summer service to Churchill , Manitoba on Hudson Bay in 1954 , during the short ice @-@ free season , bringing back grain shipped to the port by rail from the Canadian Prairies . Captain F. Struss , survivor of sinkings in both wars , retired in March 1954 after forty years service , the last ML Commodore who had gained his master 's ticket in sail . That same year the Great Lakes service was extended to Chicago , and ML 's pre @-@ 1914 service to the southern US ports of Charleston , Savannah , and Jacksonville was resumed .
A USAF RB @-@ 36 " Peacemaker " ten @-@ engined strategic bomber suffered engine fires on 5 August 1954 , while en route from Travis AFB California to RAF Lakenheath Suffolk . The crew of twenty @-@ three were ordered to bail out 450 miles ( 720 km ) west of Ireland at 03 : 40 . The Manchester Shipper , inbound from Montreal , and the outbound Manchester Pioneer , diverted to the scene and despite bad weather were able to rescue the four surviving crew . The USAF 's HQ Third Air Force sent messages commending the ship masters and crews efforts under adverse circumstances .
ML 's first two motor vessels , with engines and accommodation located aft , were commissioned in April 1956 . The Manchester Vanguard and Venture , 1 @,@ 662 grt , were designed for the Great Lakes service . Two larger motor vessels , the Manchester Faith and Fame , 4 @,@ 460 grt , were commissioned in April 1959 , and the Faith quickly became the first commercial vessel to transit the newly opened St Lawrence Seaway with its larger locks .
Two ML vessels were involved in a successful mid @-@ Atlantic rescue of airliner passengers on 23 September 1962 . A Flying Tiger Line Lockheed Super Constellation was en route from McGuire AFB New Jersey to Frankfurt Airport with 76 persons aboard . Two out of four engines failed and the airliner changed course for Shannon Airport Ireland . After a further hour , a third engine failed and Captain John Murray made a successful ditching in darkness 560 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 040 km ; 640 mi ) west of Shannon . All occupants evacuated the aircraft before it sank . The larger Manchester Progress acted as a radio relay ship , while Manchester Faith picked up 48 survivors . The other 28 persons on board the aircraft were lost when their rafts sank in heavy seas .
= = Switch to containers 1968 – 78 = =
Manchester Liners House , the company 's new headquarters in Salford Docks was officially opened on 12 December 1969 by the High Commissioner for Canada . The design was advanced for its day and it remains basically unchanged today except for re @-@ glazing . The unusual curved facade of the ten @-@ storey building was designed to echo the bridge shape of the Manchester Miller . Later renamed Furness House , it was built on the former Manchester Ship Canal railway sidings between Nos. 8 and 9 Docks .
By the late 1960s rising shore costs , dock workers strikes , restrictive practices on both sides of the Atlantic , and subsidised competition from American shipping lines , persuaded Manchester Liners to switch its future fleet to container ships only . An example of the delaying effect of the strikes in the Canadian ports , with consequent impact on operating costs , was an extended ninety @-@ day return voyage to Quebec City in early 1967 by the new Manchester Progress .
Initially , three new ships were ordered from Smiths Dock Company in Middlesbrough , the first of which , Manchester Challenge , was delivered in 1968 , becoming the first British @-@ built and operated cellular container ship . The Challenge and her two sisters Manchester Courage and Concorde were followed from the Tees in 1971 by the Crusade . UK manufacturers supplied 10 @,@ 000 containers . The four ships each had the capacity to carry five hundred 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) containers , all of them below deck . A new regular container route started in November 1968 , with a twice @-@ weekly service to Montreal , where the containers were transferred to smaller vessels which could navigate to the ports of the Great Lakes . The four new powerful ( 16 @,@ 000 hp ) 19 @.@ 5 @-@ knot ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) vessels were constructed to a standard exceeding Lloyds class 1 ice @-@ stiffening , with additional aft protection over the rudder to permit reversing through ice .
On her second voyage in early 1969 , Manchester Challenge lived up to her name by entering the heavily iced Montreal harbour , discharging , reloading and departing only two days late . Another thirty @-@ seven conventional vessels were stuck at the port for a month . The quartet 's ice @-@ breaking capability often resulted them in leading a convoy of other vessels into Montreal during the winter months . The four ships of 12 @,@ 039 gross tons were of the maximum size able to navigate the Manchester Ship Canal .
To obtain the greatest operational efficiency , ML constructed two dedicated container terminals with their own gantry cranes , spreaders etc . The Manchester terminal was built on an open site next to the western end of No. 9 Dock . A second container berth was added in 1972 . The other terminal was created at Montreal , with similar equipment , where the containers were trans @-@ shipped to a dedicated liner train operated by Canadian National Railways , which carried them onwards to Toronto and further destinations .
ML inaugurated a container service to the Mediterranean in 1971 using smaller ships . Initial destinations included Malta , Cyprus and Israel . Later in the decade , the countries served were extended to include Italy , Greece , Lebanon and Syria . To further improve service to shippers , two large road hauliers were acquired in 1971 and 1972 , enabling a " door @-@ to @-@ door " container operation to be introduced . Facilities for container storage and repair were also acquired . Following its successful pioneering of the UK container trade , ML was given the Queen 's Award for Export in 1971 , the first to be given to a shipping company ; every ship in the fleet flew the award flag .
In 1974 ML carried 783 @,@ 000 long tons ( 796 @,@ 000 t ) out of the total 2 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 t ) of dry cargo handled on the ship canal ( 27 % ) . During the same year , ML acquired Manchester Dry Docks Ltd , which operated three large and one small dry docks on the canal adjacent to MLs berths in Salford Docks . These facilities assisted greatly in keeping the fleet fully operational . Manchester Challenge completed her 100th round voyage to Montreal in 1975 having carried 95 @,@ 000 containers weighing 1 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 460 @,@ 000 t ) a distance of 554 @,@ 000 miles ( 892 @,@ 000 km ) – the equivalent of a round trip to the moon . During 1976 MLs Manchester to Canada route had three sailings per week .
= = Decline and closure = =
Manchester Liners had been partly owned by Furness Withy from the beginning , and they became a subsidiary in 1970 . Furness Withy was itself taken over in 1980 by the C. Y. Tung Group of Hong Kong . Robert B. Stoker retired in 1979 as Chairman of Manchester Liners after 47 years service with the company .
Severe competition following the building of excess container shipping capacity by many companies badly affected ML 's trade and profitability . The company 's vessels were by then smaller than average in the industry , leading to higher operating costs per unit of cargo carried . Their operations were further severely affected during the mid @-@ 1970s by both official and unofficial strikes by dock workers . The service to Canada ended in 1979 , and by the early 1980s only five " Manchester " ships remained – the 30 @,@ 000 ton container vessel Manchester Challenge and four 1 @,@ 600 – 4 @,@ 000 ton vessels : Manchester Crown , Manchester Trader , Manchester Faith and Manchester City . The line had by then ceased using the Port of Manchester , and the four smaller vessels were operating to the Mediterranean out of Ellesmere Port , 33 miles ( 53 km ) closer to the sea on the lower reaches of the ship canal .
In 1981 , ML jointly with the Canadian Pacific Steamship Company and the Dart Container Line , instituted a weekly containership service from Felixstowe , Suffolk , to Montreal . MLs contribution to the service was the large Manchester Challenge . The last of Manchester Liners ' ships was sold in 1985 , and in 1988 the services formerly operated by the company were taken over by the Orient Overseas Container Line , successor to the Tung Group .
= = Ship naming policy , house and flag colours = =
The company 's ship @-@ naming policy throughout its 87 @-@ year period of operations was to use its home port 's name plus a suffix word , often a trade or occupation . The most frequently used name was Manchester Trader , applied to six different vessels between 1898 and cessation of operations in 1985 . Some names used appropriately during the First World War , such as Manchester Hero , Manchester Brigade and Manchester Division were not reused after the disposal or loss of those vessels . Some ships operated short @-@ term or on charter retained their original names and did not receive the Manchester prefix .
From the earliest days , the line 's colours were : funnels – dark red with black top and thin black band ; hulls – black with white boot topping . During the Second World War , ships were painted in battleship grey and the names were deleted for security , except when in friendly ports . From the 1960s onwards , some ships ' hulls were painted light grey and others red .
The line 's flag colours were a red oval , placed horizontally , with white " ML " lettering in the centre , imposed on an overall white background .
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= Mickie James =
Mickie Laree James @-@ Aldis ( born August 31 , 1979 ) better known as Mickie James , is an American professional wrestler , actress , model and country singer signed with Global Force Wrestling ( GFW ) .
James began her wrestling career in 1999 as a valet on the independent circuit , where she was known under the name Alexis Laree . She trained in several camps to improve her wrestling abilities before working for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( NWA : TNA ) in June 2002 , where she gained national attention . After only a few appearances , she joined a stable called The Gathering and was written into storylines with the group . She is also the only woman to be involved in Clockwork Orange House of Fun matches .
James appeared in World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) in October 2005 and was placed in a storyline with Trish Stratus , in which James ' gimmick was that of Stratus ' biggest fan turned obsessed stalker , an angle which ran over eight months . She received a push , and she won her first WWE Women 's Championship at WrestleMania 22 , a title she has held a total of five times . James also won her first Divas Championship at Night of Champions in 2009 to become the second of five Divas to hold both the Women 's and Divas titles . She was released from the company on April 22 , 2010 , after which she returned to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) .
In Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , James won the TNA Knockouts Championship three times and the 2013 TNA World Cup with Team USA . She left TNA in September 2013 . Between WWE and TNA , James is a nine @-@ time champion , which is a national record and is also the only female to hold the WWE Women 's , WWE Divas and TNA Knockouts Championships in wrestling history . Pro Wrestling Illustrated ranked James as the number one female wrestler in 2009 , and she was also voted Woman of the Year twice , first in 2009 and again in 2011 by readers of PWI magazine .
= = Early life = =
James was born at Richmond Memorial Hospital in 1979 to Stuart James , a retired wastewater @-@ treatment worker and landscaper , and Sandra Knuckles , a Hanover County teacher and real @-@ estate agent . Her parents divorced while she was young . She has a sister , a half @-@ sister , a half @-@ brother , and three stepbrothers . She grew up in Montpelier , Virginia and graduated from Patrick Henry High School in 1997 . While growing up , she spent a lot of time on her grandmother 's horse farm , and developed a keen interest in equestrian sports . She played violin for five years .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Independent circuit ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
A fan of professional wrestling from an early age , James attended a professional wrestling school in the Washington , D.C. area at the suggestion of a friend . She made her professional debut on the independent circuit in 1999 , as a valet for KYDA Pro Wrestling under the ring name Alexis Laree , a name created as the result of a combination of her stage name from when she was a dancer and her middle name . Laree went on to manage several male wrestlers , including managing Tommy Dreamer to win the KYDA Pro Heavyweight Championship . In March , she wrestled in her first match , an intergender tag team match with Jake Damian against American Mike Brown and Candie . She trained to improve her wrestling abilities by attending training camps such as the Funking Conservatory , a workshop run by Dory Funk Jr . , and an Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) dojo . She also started competing for Maryland Championship Wrestling ( MCW ) , where she trained at camps run by Ricky Morton and Bobby Eaton . Beginning in 2002 , she also made appearances for Ring of Honor .
Due to the low salary of the independent shows , James supplemented her income by working as a waitress at a Olive Garden restaurant , and posing nude for the magazines Leg Show and Naughty Neighbors in the mid 2000s before gaining fame for the in WWE .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = =
While working in Ring of Honor for a year , James also debuted as Alexis Laree in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) on the company 's second ever weekly pay @-@ per @-@ view , as a participant in a lingerie battle royal . She was not prominently featured until March 26 , 2003 , when she teamed with Amazing Red as part of his feud against the X Division Champion Kid Kash and Trinity . Laree competed in her first singles match with the promotion on April 2 , 2003 in a losing effort against Trinity . Weeks later , she became the first member of The Gathering , a stable led by Raven in his feud against NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jeff Jarrett . On April 16 , Laree became the first ( and thus far , only ) woman to compete in a Clockwork Orange House of Fun match , after the Gathering challenged and defeated Jarrett . She continued to wrestle with the stable while they feuded with The Disciples of the New Church , taking part in an angle with Father James Mitchell burning her with a fireball and wrestling in another Clockwork Orange House of Fun match before leaving the company .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = = =
After two years of sending tapes and making phone calls , as well as wrestling a tryout dark match with Dawn Marie , James was signed to a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , who sent her to train at Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , their then @-@ developmental territory , in August . Still using the ring name Alexis Laree , she began making television appearances for OVW on January 29 , 2004 and competed in several tag team matches throughout the year . She also won a Halloween costume contest on October 30 , and defeated Jillian Hall in a $ 1 @,@ 000 match on November 12 .
On May 17 , 2005 , Laree was placed into a tournament for the OVW Television Championship . She defeated Mike Mondo in the first round , only to lose to Blaster Lashley in the next round . She began a feud with Beth Phoenix on July 20 after Phoenix interrupted Laree during an interview , setting up a match on July 29 , which Laree lost . Their angle continued into September , with Shelly Martinez being added to the storyline to side with Phoenix against Laree . On October 12 , she appeared in OVW under her real name , and finished the year on the losing end of matches against Martinez and Jillian Hall .
= = = = Storyline with Trish Stratus ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
James , under her real name , debuted in WWE on the October 10 , 2005 episode of Raw as a face , under the gimmick of WWE Women 's Champion Trish Stratus 's biggest fan . The angle had the two Divas competing together in tag team matches , with James ' character becoming increasingly obsessed with Stratus . The storyline included a Halloween costume contest , in which James was dressed like Stratus and helped Stratus retain the Women 's Championship in a Fulfill Your Fantasy battle royal at Taboo Tuesday by eliminating herself and Victoria at the same time . James even began utilizing Stratus ' signature finishing moves as her own during matches . James later became the number one contender for the WWE Women 's Championship on December 12 , by defeating Victoria in a match to determine who would face Stratus at New Year 's Revolution . Subsequently , the storyline between James and Stratus developed into a lesbian angle , after James kissed Stratus under a sprig of mistletoe . In the championship match at the pay @-@ per @-@ view , James lost to Stratus , but continued to be enamored of her the next night on Raw .
Despite the defeat , James continued to be enamored of Stratus , which made Stratus feel uncomfortable . On March 6 , 2006 , the storyline had Stratus confronting James , telling her that they needed time apart from each other . Through the early part of 2006 , James would attack Ashley Massaro several times due to Massaro calling her " crazy " . At the Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view , James defeated Massaro with then @-@ Women 's Champion , Trish Stratus , as the special guest referee . James would also confess her love for Stratus at the event . Massaro got her revenge on her one @-@ week later by pinning James in a rematch on Raw .
James and Stratus teamed together at the March 18 , 2006 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event to defeat Candice Michelle and Victoria . After the match , James agreed to honor Stratus 's wishes and attempted to kiss her . After Stratus pushed her away , James attacked Stratus and vowed to destroy her , becoming a villain in the process . The feud between James and Stratus culminated in a Women 's Championship match at WrestleMania 22 , which James won , to earn her first Women 's Championship . Her angle with Stratus continued into Backlash during a rematch , after Stratus legitimately dislocated her shoulder when James threw her out of the ring . The feud would come to an end on the June 26 episode of Raw , when James defeated Stratus in a Women 's Championship match . The storyline is widely regarded as one of the best women 's feuds in WWE history .
= = = = Women 's Champion ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
James dropped the WWE Women 's Championship on August 14 to Lita , after Lita hit James with the title belt . After the Women 's Championship was vacated due to the retirement of Trish Stratus , James entered a tournament to determine the new champion . She defeated Victoria and Melina en route to the finals at Cyber Sunday , where she lost to Lita . James transitioned into a face after her and Lita wrestled in a series of matches in which Lita chose stipulations to hinder James ' wrestling ability . The feud between James and Lita ended at Survivor Series , where James defeated Lita , in the latter 's retirement match , to win her second Women 's Championship .
James then began an angle with Melina on January 29 , 2007 , when Melina became the number one contender for the Women 's Championship . Following a successful title defense on February 5 , James teamed with Super Crazy in a mixed tag team match against Melina and Johnny Nitro . After Melina pinned James for the victory , she challenged her to a rematch for the title . James would subsequently lose the Women 's Championship to Melina on February 19 and , in continuation of their storyline feud , failed to regain the title during the first women 's Falls Count Anywhere match in WWE history . During the finish of the match , James fell from the top turnbuckle and landed on her neck , which resulted in a rushed finish . James , however , was not seriously injured in the incident .
The scripted feud between James and Melina was rekindled on April 2 , when James interrupted and attacked Melina during her photo op on Raw . At a house show in Paris , France on April 24 , James won her third Women 's Championship during a triple threat match that also involved Victoria . Since James pinned Victoria , however , and not Melina , Jonathan Coachman announced that a rematch would take place immediately . James dropped the title to Melina , giving her the shortest Women ’ s Championship reign in WWE history . James later received a rematch for the title at Backlash , but was unsuccessful . After Backlash , James would only make sporadic appearances on television , wrestling occasionally in tag @-@ matches and rarely in singles competition . On the November 26 episode of Raw , James defeated Melina in a number one contender 's match for Beth Phoenix 's Women 's Championship , setting up a title match between the two at Armageddon , in which Phoenix retained the title .
On the April 14 , 2008 episode of Raw , held in London , England , James defeated Beth Phoenix to win her fourth Women 's Championship . At Judgment Day , James successfully defended her title against Melina and Beth Phoenix in a triple @-@ threat match . James re @-@ entered the feud against Phoenix in mid @-@ 2008 , where she and Kofi Kingston teamed up against Phoenix and Santino Marella at SummerSlam in a Winner Takes All tag team match for both the Women 's and Intercontinental Championships , in which James and Kingston lost their titles to Phoenix and Marella . After James lost the championship , she had two rematches for the title , but was unsuccessful in regaining it .
= = = = Divas Champion and feud with LayCool ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
Following an appearance in the 25 @-@ Diva battle royal at WrestleMania XXV , James began feuding with the WWE Divas Champion Maryse heading into Night of Champions on July 26 . At the event , James defeated Maryse to win her first Divas Championship , becoming only the second Diva in history to have held both the Women 's and Divas titles . Throughout the Summer , James successfully defended the title against Gail Kim and Beth Phoenix on episodes of Raw , and against Alicia Fox at the Hell in a Cell pay @-@ per @-@ view on October 4 . Two weeks later on Raw , James lost the title to Jillian Hall after an approximate three month title reign . After the show , James was traded to the SmackDown brand for the first time in her career , due to a Diva trade made by Raw guest host Nancy O 'Dell .
James made her debut with the brand on the October 23 episode of SmackDown , defeating Layla . On the October 30 episode of SmackDown , a controversial angle began that saw WWE Women 's Champion Michelle McCool and Layla , collectively known as LayCool , bully James . On the November 20 episode of SmackDown , after James defeated Layla , McCool gave James the nickname " Piggy James " , that sent James to tears , resulting in a five @-@ on @-@ five elimination tag team match at the November pay @-@ per @-@ view Survivor Series , where James ' team prevailed over McCool 's team , with James and Melina as the sole survivors . On the December 4 episode of SmackDown , James became the number one contender for McCool 's Women 's Championship by defeating Beth Phoenix and Natalya in a triple threat match . The following week , James challenged McCool for the championship at TLC : Tables , Ladders & Chairs , but was unsuccessful after interference from Layla . The storyline feud continued into the Royal Rumble on January 31 , 2010 where James finally defeated McCool , in 20 seconds , to become a five @-@ time Women 's Champion . Over the following couple of weeks , SmackDown consultant Vickie Guerrero was introduced into the rivalry , choosing to side with LayCool over James . On the February 26 episode of SmackDown , McCool used her rematch clause to face James for the Women 's Championship , with Guerrero acting as special guest referee . After Guerrero slapped James , McCool pinned her to regain the title .
On March 9 , WWE.com announced that James had been diagnosed with a staph infection on her right knee , and that she would be out of action for three weeks . She returned on the March 22 episode of Raw , where alongside Kelly Kelly , she accompanied Eve Torres , Beth Phoenix and Gail Kim in their losing effort against McCool , Maryse and Layla , who had Vickie Guerrero and Alicia Fox in their corner . This set up a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match at WrestleMania XXVI , in which James made an unsuccessful in @-@ ring return after Vickie pinned Kelly . James made her last appearance on Raw during a rematch , where her team was victorious . James ' final match in WWE aired on the April 23 episode of SmackDown where she teamed with former long @-@ time rival Beth Phoenix against LayCool in a losing effort when she was pinned by Layla . James was released from WWE one day earlier on April 22 , having pre @-@ taped her SmackDown match . According to James , WWE explained the decision as due to desiring to " move in a new direction with their women 's division " .
In November 2013 , James served as guest trainer at the WWE Performance Center in Orlando , Florida for a week , training WWE NXT 's female wrestlers . James also attended that week 's NXT live event in Tampa , Florida .
= = = Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = =
On June 18 , 2011 , James made her debut for the Mexican promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) at Triplemanía XIX , where she teamed with Angelina Love , Sexy Star and Velvet Sky to defeat Cynthia Moreno , Faby Apache , Lolita and Mari Apache in an eight @-@ woman tag team match . James returned to AAA on July 9 , teaming with Sexy Star to defeat the Apaches in a tag team match , after which she challenged Mari to a match for her AAA Reina de Reinas Championship . On July 31 at Verano de Escándalo , James competed in an eight – way match for the Reina de Reinas Championship , becoming the last person eliminated by the new champion , Pimpinela Escarlata .
= = = Return to TNA = = =
= = = = Feud with Madison Rayne ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
On September 22 , 2010 , it was reported that James had signed a contract with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . James returned to the promotion on October 7 's Before The Glory special episode of Impact ! , announcing that she would be the special guest referee for the TNA Knockouts Championship match between Angelina Love , Velvet Sky , Madison Rayne and Tara at Bound for Glory . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , James counted the pinfall which made Tara the new Knockouts Champion , prompting Rayne to shove James amidst an argument with Tara , and James replying with a punch . On the following episode of Impact ! , Tara lost the title to Rayne , while James made her intentions for the Knockouts title clear , after a confrontation with the new champion . James wrestled her return match the following week , defeating Sarita , before being attacked by Rayne 's ally , Tara . James wrestled her first TNA pay @-@ per @-@ view match at Turning Point , where she battled Tara to a double disqualification .
On the November 18 episode of Impact ! James defeated Angelina Love to become the number one contender to the championship . At Final Resolution , James was defeated by Tara in a Falls Count Anywhere match , following interference from Madison Rayne after she sprayed a fire extinguisher and hit James with the Knockouts title belt . On the following episode of Impact ! , James defeated Tara in a steel cage match . On January 9 , 2011 at Genesis , James lost her match against Rayne for the Knockouts Championship due to interference from Tara . The following month at Against All Odds , James once again failed to win the Knockouts Championship , this time losing to Rayne in a Last Knockout Standing match , after another interference by Tara . On the March 17 episode of Impact ! , Rayne agreed to give James another title match at Lockdown , with the added stipulation that should James fail to win the title , she would have to shave her hair off . On March 18 , James legitimately separated her shoulder at a TNA house show in Jacksonville , Florida . James 's injury was put into a storyline , where it was caused by Rayne and Tara running over her with Tara 's motorcycle .
= = = = Knockouts Championship reigns ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
On April 17 , James defeated Madison Rayne in a steel cage match , which lasted less than a minute , to win the TNA Knockouts Championship for the first time . With the win , James became the first woman in history to have held the WWE Women 's Championship , the WWE Divas Championship , and the TNA Knockouts Championship . On the May 5 episode of Impact ! , James made her first successful title defense against Ms. Tessmacher . On May 15 at Sacrifice , James successfully defended her title against Madison Rayne and in the process helped Tara get a release from her alliance with Rayne . The following month at Slammiversary IX , James successfully defended her title against Angelina Love , however after the match both Love and Winter attacked her . On the June 23 episode of Impact Wrestling , James was defeated by Winter in a non @-@ title Street Fight , following outside interference from Love . This led to a match on August 7 at Hardcore Justice , where James lost the Knockouts Championship to Winter , following multiple interferences from Love and a red mist from Winter . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Madison Rayne to earn a rematch for the title . On the September 1 episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Winter to win her second TNA Knockouts Championship . On September 11 at No Surrender , James dropped the title back to Winter . On the September 22 episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Ms. Tessmacher to earn another shot at the championship at Bound for Glory , in a four @-@ way match with defending champion Winter , Madison Rayne and Velvet Sky , which Sky would win .
On the November 17 episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated nine other Knockouts in a gauntlet match to earn a championship match with the new champion , Gail Kim . On December 11 at Final Resolution , Gail defeated James to retain the championship , following a distraction from Madison Rayne . In the main event of the December 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , James challenged Kim for the championship , but was defeated following interference from Rayne . On the January 5 , 2012 , episode of Impact Wrestling , James and Traci Brooks failed to capture the TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship from Kim and Rayne . Three days later at Genesis , James lost another championship match against Kim , after being disqualified for using the brass knuckles that were thrown into the ring by Rayne , who was locked in a cage suspended in the air during the match . On the January 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Rayne in a steel cage match . On the January 26 episode of Impact Wrestling , James and Velvet Sky were defeated by Tara in a triple @-@ threat number one contender 's match for the Knockouts Championship . On the April 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , James was defeated by Sky in a six @-@ way number one contenders match , also involving Angelina Love , Madison Rayne , Tara , and Winter . On the June 7 episode of Impact Wrestling , James again failed to earn a shot at the Knockouts Championship when she was defeated by Ms. Tessmacher in a four @-@ way match that also included Tara and Velvet Sky , while also showing signs of a heel turn due to jealousy of Sky . On the June 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , James was chosen over Sky as the next challenger for the Knockouts Championship , but failed to recapture the title from Ms. Tessmacher . James ' storyline with Sky ended abruptly the following month , when Sky was granted her release from TNA . On the August 2 episode of Impact Wrestling , James unsuccessfully competed in a four @-@ way number one contenders match involving Gail Kim , Tara and the eventual winner Madison Rayne . After a three @-@ month absence , James returned on the November 15 episode of Impact Wrestling , winning a Knockouts battle royal to become the number one contender to the Knockouts Championship . On December 9 at Final Resolution , James was unsuccessful in winning the championship from Tara after a distraction from her boyfriend Jesse . James received another shot at the championship on the December 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , but was again defeated by Tara . On January 13 , 2013 , at the Genesis pay @-@ per @-@ view , James competed in a five @-@ woman gauntlet match to determine the number one contender to the Knockout Championship , but was eliminated by Gail Kim .
On the April 18 of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Ms. Tessmacher to become the number one contender to the Knockouts Championship . James received her title match the following week , but was defeated by defending champion Velvet Sky . On the May 23 episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Sky after attacking her injured knee to become a three @-@ time Knockouts Champion . The following week , James began portraying a villainous persona by calling out Velvet Sky , acting sarcastic and pompous towards her , and also did not help Sky when she was attacked by Gail Kim . James turned into a villainess on the June 13 episode of Impact Wrestling , when she attacked Sky after Sky announced that she was ready for a rematch . James and Sky had their rematch on the June 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , where James retained her championship . On the July 4 episode of Impact Wrestling , James justified her actions by claiming that getting to the top of the Knockouts division requires " clawing and scratching your way to the top " ; James also claimed that " no woman would ever be as great as her " and she 'll " stand atop the division as the greatest Knockouts Champion of all time " . On the July 25 episode of Impact Wrestling , James successfully defended the championship against Gail Kim . At the September 6 airing of Knockout Knockdown , James defeated Serena Deeb to qualify for the gauntlet battle royal finals , in which James was lastly eliminated by Gail Kim . James lost the Knockouts Championship on the September 19 episode of Impact Wrestling to ODB . Four days later , it was announced that James had failed to come to terms on a contract renewal with TNA . James later stated in an interview that she technically wasn 't under contract with TNA , but she did not confirm that she was gone . On November 15 , 2013 , James appeared in an interview on WWE.com , discussing her history with WWE and the possibility of making a return to the company . At the December 6 airing of World Cup of Wrestling , James was announced as a member of Team USA , along with James Storm , Christopher Daniels , Kazarian and Kenny King . James was defeated by Team Aces & Eights ' Ivelisse Vélez following interference from the other members of Aces & Eights . Team USA would go on to defeat Team Aces & Eights in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 elimination tag team match , in which James gained a measure of retribution by eliminating Vélez during the match . James and Storm were presented with the trophy afterwards .
= = = Return to the independent circuit ( 2010 – 2016 ) = = =
James made her return to the independent circuit in April 2010 , as part of World Wrestling Council ( WWC ) , teaming with Carlito to defeat the team of ODB and Christopher Daniels . James won the bout after pinning Daniels . On July 11 , as part of their Anniversary weekend , she defeated ODB in a singles match . On the last day of that month , James returned to one of her early promotions , Maryland Championship Wrestling ( MCW ) , to wrestle Mia Yim in a winning effort . The following month , she contested for the Women Superstars Uncensored ( WSU ) Championship against Mercedes Martinez , but she was unsuccessful . She also returned to Dory Funk 's promotion , recording a tag team match for ! Bang ! TV . James also accompanied Dory Funk Jr. during his match , and sung " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " during ! Bang ! TV 's tribute to the troops . On September 18 , James served as a special guest referee for a three @-@ way match between ODB , Persephone and Kristin Flake for the SCWA Ladie 's Title during Southern California Wrestling Association 's ( SCWA ) ' CAGED event in Wentworth , North Carolina , where all matches took place in a cage .
In early 2011 , James began appearing for Covey Promotions . At All or Nothing 5 on April 30 , James defeated Hannah Blossom to become the first Covey Pro Women 's Champion . During her time with TNA , James made several appearances for independent wrestling promotions such as Pro Championship Wrestling , Legends of the Ring , Northeast Wrestling and National Wrestling Superstars . On November 11 , 2011 , James lost the Covey Pro Women 's Championship to the debuting Jessie Belle Smothers .
James made her debut for Pro Wrestling Elite ( PWE ) in Ayr , South Ayrshire , Scotland on September 15 , 2012 at History Is Born , where she fought Kay Lee Ray to a no contest . After the match , James teamed up with Ray in a winning effort against Carmel and Nikki Storm . The following night , James competed against Carmel in a winning effort . James returned to Pro Wrestling Elite at their two @-@ year anniversary event Elite Bro on July 20 , 2013 , in a winning effort against Nikki Storm . On September 21 , James made an appearance at the Wrestling Spectacular 2 all @-@ female event in Edison , New Jersey , alongside many former WWE and TNA female wrestlers , such as Angelina Love , Katarina Waters , Rosita and Brooke Adams . James and Love fought in the main event , with Candice Michelle as the special guest referee , where Love pinned James after an interference from Velvet Sky . James made an appearance for Big Time Wrestling in August 2013 , wrestling Reby Sky several times in different dates and locations , winning in all bouts against Sky . On October 12 , Mickie again appeared for the promotion , beating Quebec 's Midianne in Bristol , Connecticut . On February 8 , 2014 , James returned to Maryland Championship Wrestling for the Anniversary 2014 event in Joppa , Maryland to face Angelina Love , promoted as " Battle of the Bombshells " . Although originally promoted as a singles match , interference by MCW 's Renee Michelles ' and Jessie Kayes ' rivalry occurred during the match , resulting in the match being turned into a tag team match with Mickie and Michelle facing Angelina and Kayes , which James and Michelle won .
On April 25 , 2014 at the Berkeley Springs High School theater in West Virginia , James headlined the Covey Promotion 3rd Annual Hall Of Fame Induction Ceremony , as she was inducted into the Covey Pro Hall Of Hame Class of 2014 . The next day , during the All or Nothing 8 ! event which was aired on May 17 as the 154th episode of Covey Pro TV , James was interrupted during an interview by Amber Rodriguez , who mocked James on her legitimate pregnancy and gave her a pie as a tease , and in return , James shoved the pie in Amber 's face . Jessie Belle Smothers came to the rescue and battled Rodriguez as James was escorted out by security . Two months after giving birth to her child , James returned to in @-@ ring competition at Queens Of Combat 3 on November 30 , where she defeated Tessa Blanchard . On May 16 , James debuted for ( 1CW ) First State Championship Wrestling unsuccessfully challenging Kacee Carlisle for the 1CW Women 's Championship after getting herself disqualified . On June 19 , 2015 , at Maryland Championship Wrestling 's Ladies Night event , James defeated Amber Rodriguez with Lisa Marie Varon as the special guest referee to win the MCW Women 's Championship , despite James being attacked by villainous enforcer Melina during the match . On November 13 , Kimber Lee defeated James to win the MCW Women 's Championship after interference from Amber Rodriguez . The following night , James gained a measure of revenge by defeating Rodriguez in a Loser Leaves MCW match , causing Rodriguez to leave the company . On February 2 , 2016 , James made an appearance for Chikara in a losing effort against Grand Champion Princess Kimber Lee . On April 1 , 2016 , James returned to Queens of Combat and defeated LuFisto at Queens of Combat 10 .
= = = Second return to TNA ( 2015 ) = = =
James made a surprise return to TNA as a fan favorite , after a year and a half absence from the company , on January 30 , 2015 , during the tapings of Impact Wrestling in Glasgow , Scotland . James would then have several confrontations with Bram over his actions towards her real life fiancé , Magnus . On the April 24 episode of Impact Wrestling , James announced her retirement from wrestling to focus on becoming a full @-@ time mother , only to have James Storm talk her into having one more match . On the June 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , James declined an offer by Storm to join The Revolution , which resulted in him intentionally shoving her onto a train track in the storyline , which sparked controversy . This was done to write off James from television , as she had no more dates set with the company at the time . James made her return on the July 1 episode of Impact Wrestling , confronting Storm and challenging him to a mixed tag team match . On the July 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , James and Magnus defeated Storm and his partner Serena , when James pinned Serena .
= = = Global Force Wrestling ( 2015 – present ) = = =
On July 7 , 2015 , it was announced that James had signed with Global Force Wrestling ( GFW ) . On July 24 , at GFW 's inaugural tapings in Las Vegas , Nevada , James lost a three @-@ way GFW Women 's Championship tournament qualifying match that also included Lei 'D Tapa , and was ultimately won by Christina Von Eerie . At the September 3 event in Cedar Rapids , Iowa , James defeated ODB . On October 28 , during the GFW UK Invasion Tour , James defeated Nikki Storm in Grimsby , Lincolnshire , and defeated Toni Storm on October 30 in King 's Lynn , Norfolk . On January 22 , Christina Von Eerie defeated James and Kimber Lee to retain the GFW Women 's Championship .
= = Music career = =
James ' first country music album , Strangers & Angels , was released on May 18 , 2010 on iTunes . The album was self @-@ released with an independent team . On December 2 , 2010 , James released another single called , " Hardcore Country " , which is also used as her entrance music with TNA and on the independent circuit . A music video for the single was first shown during James 's first appearance on TNA Spin Cycle . For her second album , James joined a Kickstarter campaign in order to partially fund the album . Fans who contributed donations received special items from the campaign . The online campaign was a success , with a total pledge of $ 16 @,@ 500 out of a $ 5 @,@ 000 goal . The funds helped to produce the first six songs from the album . The album , called " Somebody 's Gonna Pay " was released on May 7 , 2013 under the label Entertainment One ( eOne ) Music , and debuted on the music charts at # 15 on the Billboards Heatseekers charts . James has also filmed a music video for the song " Somebody 's Gonna Pay " , from her second album of the same name . The video features former WWE Women 's Champion , Trish Stratus and her fiancé Magnus . TNA founder , Jeff Jarrett , was also on set of the video in Nashville , Tennessee . Jarrett did not appear in the video , but taught James how to swing a guitar . While she worked for TNA , James also toured around the United States , holding small concerts at various venues .
James has opened shows for Montgomery Gentry , Randy Houser , Gretchen Wilson and Rascal Flatts . James also performed at the 2011 CMA Music Festival . James again performed at CMA Fest in 2013 , where Eric Young and James Storm also made appearances at the event . Other musical appearances James has made are the 2013 Esophageal Cancer Awareness Association ( ECAA ) benefit concert on August 24 , 2013 and World Chicken Festival in London , Kentucky on September 28 , 2013 . In 2014 , James collaborated with country artist Cowboy Troy and TNA wrestler James Storm on a song titled " Is Everybody Doing OK " , which is featured on Cowboy Troy 's album , King of Clubs .
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = = Strangers & Angels = = = =
= = = = Somebody 's Gonna Pay = = = =
= = = Guest work = = =
= = Other media = =
James , along with Ken Anderson , represented WWE at the 2008 Republican National Convention , in an effort to persuade fans to register to vote in the 2008 Presidential election . On April 13 , 2008 , James , along with Layla , Melina and Kelly Kelly , appeared as guest trainers in an episode of Celebrity Fit Club Boot Camp . On September 5 of that same year , James appeared on the USA Network show Psych , portraying a villainous roller derby girl called Rita " Lethal Weapon " Westwood , in the episode " Talk Derby to Me " . James made a special appearance on Redemption Song which is hosted by Chris Jericho along with Candice Michelle , Maryse , and Eve Torres . It was originally aired on November 12 , 2008 . In 2012 , James was featured in Bucky Covington 's music video for his song " Drinking Side of Country " . In June 2013 , James starred in a Dr Pepper advert , which featured " One of a Kind " individuals talking about the role of Dr. Pepper in their lives . As part of the WWE roster , James made appearances in five WWE video games as a playable character .
= = Personal life = =
When she is finished with her wrestling career , James plans to own a farm and be an equine trainer . James owns three Morgan horses named Rhapsody , Bunny and Casanova . James also owns two dogs , one named Butch and a Miniature Pinscher named Elvis . Outside of wrestling , James received her Associate of Arts degree in business administration , and studied for her Bachelor of Arts degree in operations management .
James is part Native American of the Powhatan tribe . James has two tattoos : a symbol meaning ' love ' on her ankle , and a dragon that wraps around it . James is a fan of Equine sports and American Football , and is a fan of the Dallas Cowboys .
In 2007 , James was engaged to wrestler Kenny Dykstra . On September 25 , 2014 , James and Nick Aldis , better known by his ring name Magnus , welcomed their first child , a boy named Donovan Patrick Aldis . In December 2014 , James announced her engagement to Aldis , and the two were married on December 31 , 2015 ( New Year 's Eve ) .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
As Mickie James
Mick Kick ( Roundhouse kick ) – 2006 ; parodied from Trish Stratus
Cross @-@ legged STF – 2013 – present
Long Kiss Goodnight ( Reverse roundhouse kick , sometimes preceded by a kiss to the opponent 's lips ) – 2005 – present
Mickie @-@ DT ( Standing tornado DDT or a jumping DDT , with theatrics ) – 2005 – present
Stratusfaction ( Springboard bulldog , with theatrics ) – 2005 – 2006 ; parodied from Trish Stratus
As Alexis Laree
Laree DDT ( Standing tornado DDT or a jumping DDT )
Signature moves
Flapjack , sometimes followed by a kip @-@ up
Implant DDT
Mick @-@ a @-@ rana ( Rope aided hurricanrana from out of the corner )
Multiple pin variations
Crucifix
Jackknife
Roll @-@ up
Victory roll
Snapmare , followed by a running low – angle front dropkick to the opponent 's front or back
Thesz press , followed by multiple punches , sometimes from the top rope
Wrestlers managed
A.J. Styles
Christian York
Amazing Red
Chris Cage
CM Punk
Joey Matthews
Julio Dinero
Raven
Tommy Dreamer
Trish Stratus
Super Crazy
Kofi Kingston
Entrance themes
" Girlfriend " by Dale Oliver ( TNA )
" Day Dreamin ' Fazes " by Kottonmouth Kings ( ROH )
" Just a Girl " by No Doubt ( OVW )
" Ice Breaker " by Jim Johnston ( WWE )
" Obsession " by Jim Johnston ( WWE )
" Hardcore Country " by Mickie James and Serg Salinas ( TNA / AAA / Independent circuits )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Covey Promotions
Covey Pro Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Covey Pro Hall of Fame ( 2014 )
CyberSpace Wrestling Federation
CSWF Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Dynamite Championship Wrestling
DCW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Impact Championship Wrestling
ICW Super Juniors Championship ( 1 time )
Maryland Championship Wrestling
MCW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Premier Wrestling Federation
PWF Universal Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Woman of the Year ( 2009 , 2011 )
PWI ranked her No. 1 of the best 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2009
Southern Championship Wrestling
SCW Diva Championship ( 1 time )
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA Knockouts Championship ( 3 times )
TNA World Cup of Wrestling ( 2013 ) – with Christopher Daniels , James Storm , Kazarian and Kenny King
Ultimate Championship Wrestling
UCW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Ultimate Wrestling Federation
UWF Women 's Championship ( 2 times )
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Women 's Championship ( 5 times )
WWE Divas Championship ( 1 time )
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
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= Metalloid =
A metalloid is any chemical element which has properties in between those of metals and nonmetals , or that has a mixture of them . There is neither a standard definition of a metalloid nor complete agreement on the elements appropriately classified as such . Despite the lack of specificity , the term remains in use in the literature of chemistry .
The six commonly recognised metalloids are boron , silicon , germanium , arsenic , antimony , and tellurium . Five elements are less frequently so classified : carbon , aluminium , selenium , polonium , and astatine . On a standard periodic table , all eleven are in a diagonal area in the p @-@ block extending from boron at the upper left to astatine at lower right , along the dividing line between metals and nonmetals shown on some periodic tables .
Typical metalloids have a metallic appearance , but they are brittle and only fair conductors of electricity . Chemically , they behave mostly as nonmetals . They can form alloys with metals . Most of their other physical and chemical properties are intermediate in nature . Metalloids are usually too brittle to have any structural uses . They and their compounds are used in alloys , biological agents , catalysts , flame retardants , glasses , optical storage and optoelectronics , pyrotechnics , semiconductors , and electronics .
The electrical properties of silicon and germanium enabled the establishment of the semiconductor industry in the 1950s and the development of solid @-@ state electronics from the early 1960s .
The term metalloid originally referred to nonmetals . Its more recent meaning , as a category of elements with intermediate or hybrid properties , became widespread in 1940 – 1960 . Metalloids sometimes are called semimetals , a practice that has been discouraged , as the term semimetal has a different meaning in physics than in chemistry . In physics it more specifically refers to the electronic band structure of a substance .
= = Definitions = =
= = = Judgement @-@ based = = =
A metalloid is an element with properties in between , or that are a mixture of , those of metals and nonmetals , and which is therefore hard to classify as either a metal or a nonmetal . This is a generic definition that draws on metalloid attributes consistently cited in the literature . Difficulty of categorisation is a key attribute . Most elements have a mixture of metallic and nonmetallic properties , and can be classified according to which set of properties is more pronounced . Only the elements at or near the margins , lacking a sufficiently clear preponderance of either metallic or nonmetallic properties , are classified as metalloids .
Boron , silicon , germanium , arsenic , antimony , and tellurium are recognised commonly as metalloids . Depending on the author , one or more from selenium , polonium , or astatine sometimes are added to the list . Boron sometimes is excluded , by itself , or with silicon . Sometimes tellurium is not regarded as a metalloid . The inclusion of antimony , polonium , and astatine as metalloids also has been questioned .
Other elements occasionally are classified as metalloids . These elements include hydrogen , beryllium , nitrogen , phosphorus , sulfur , zinc , gallium , tin , iodine , lead , bismuth , and radon . The term metalloid also has been used for elements that exhibit metallic lustre and electrical conductivity , and that are amphoteric , such as arsenic , antimony , vanadium , chromium , molybdenum , tungsten , tin , lead , and aluminium . The p @-@ block metals , and nonmetals ( such as carbon or nitrogen ) that can form alloys with metals or modify their properties also have occasionally been considered as metalloids .
= = = Criteria @-@ based = = =
No widely accepted definition of a metalloid exists , nor any division of the periodic table into metals , metalloids and nonmetals ; Hawkes questioned the feasibility of establishing a specific definition , noting that anomalies can be found in several attempted constructs . Classifying an element as a metalloid has been described by Sharp as " arbitrary " .
The number and identities of metalloids depend on what classification criteria are used . Emsley recognised four metalloids ( germanium , arsenic , antimony and tellurium ) ; James et al. listed twelve ( Emsley 's plus boron , carbon , silicon , selenium , bismuth , polonium , ununpentium and livermorium ) . On average , seven elements are included in such lists ; individual classification arrangements tend to share common ground and vary in the ill @-@ defined margins .
A single quantitative criterion such as electronegativity is commonly used , metalloids having electronegativity values from 1 @.@ 8 or 1 @.@ 9 to 2 @.@ 2 . Further examples include packing efficiency ( the fraction of volume in a crystal structure occupied by atoms ) and the Goldhammer @-@ Herzfeld criterion ratio . The commonly recognised metalloids have packing efficiencies of between 34 % and 41 % . The Goldhammer @-@ Herzfeld ratio , roughly equal to the cube of the atomic radius divided by the molar volume , is a simple measure of how metallic an element is , the recognised metalloids having ratios from around 0 @.@ 85 to 1 @.@ 1 and averaging 1 @.@ 0 . Other authors have relied on , for example , atomic conductance or bulk coordination number .
Jones , writing on the role of classification in science , observed that " [ classes ] are usually defined by more than two attributes " . Masterton and Slowinski used three criteria to describe the six elements commonly recognised as metalloids : metalloids have ionization energies around 200 kcal / mol ( 837 kJ / mol ) and electronegativity values close to 2 @.@ 0 . They also said that metalloids are typically semiconductors , though antimony and arsenic ( semimetals from a physics perspective ) have electrical conductivities approaching those of metals . Selenium and polonium are suspected as not in this scheme , while astatine 's status is uncertain .
= = Periodic table territory = =
= = = Location = = =
Metalloids lie on either side of the dividing line between metals and nonmetals . This can be found , in varying configurations , on some periodic tables . Elements to the lower left of the line generally display increasing metallic behaviour ; elements to the upper right display increasing nonmetallic behaviour . When presented as a regular stairstep , elements with the highest critical temperature for their groups ( Li , Be , Al , Ge , Sb , Po ) lie just below the line .
The diagonal positioning of the metalloids represents an exception to the observation that elements with similar properties tend to occur in vertical groups . A related effect can be seen in other diagonal similarities between some elements and their lower right neighbours , specifically lithium @-@ magnesium , beryllium @-@ aluminium , and boron @-@ silicon . Rayner @-@ Canham has argued that these similarities extend to carbon @-@ phosphorus , nitrogen @-@ sulfur , and into three d @-@ block series .
This exception arises due to competing horizontal and vertical trends in the nuclear charge . Going along a period , the nuclear charge increases with atomic number as do the number of electrons . The additional pull on outer electrons as nuclear charge increases generally outweighs the screening effect of having more electrons . With some irregularities , atoms therefore become smaller , ionization energy increases , and there is a gradual change in character , across a period , from strongly metallic , to weakly metallic , to weakly nonmetallic , to strongly nonmetallic elements . Going down a main group , the effect of increasing nuclear charge is generally outweighed by the effect of additional electrons being further away from the nucleus . Atoms generally become larger , ionization energy falls , and metallic character increases . The net effect is that the location of the metal – nonmetal transition zone shifts to the right in going down a group , and analogous diagonal similarities are seen elsewhere in the periodic table , as noted .
= = = Alternative treatments = = =
Depictions of metalloids vary according to the author . Some do not classify elements bordering the metal – nonmetal dividing line as metalloids , noting that a binary classification can facilitate the establishment of rules for determining bond types between metals and nonmetals . Metalloids are variously grouped with metals , regarded as nonmetals or treated as a sub @-@ category of nonmetals . Other authors have suggested that classifying some elements as metalloids " emphasizes that properties change gradually rather than abruptly as one moves across or down the periodic table " . Some periodic tables distinguish elements that are metalloids and display no formal dividing line between metals and nonmetals . Metalloids are shown as occurring in a diagonal band or diffuse region .
= = Properties = =
Metalloids usually look like metals but behave largely like nonmetals . Physically , they are shiny , brittle solids with intermediate to relatively good electrical conductivity and the electronic band structure of a semimetal or semiconductor . Chemically , they mostly behave as ( weak ) nonmetals , have intermediate ionization energies and electronegativity values , and amphoteric or weakly acidic oxides . They can form alloys with metals . Most of their other physical and chemical properties are intermediate in nature .
= = = Compared to metals and nonmetals = = =
Characteristic properties of metals , metalloids and nonmetals are summarized in the table . Physical properties are listed in order of ease of determination ; chemical properties run from general to specific , and then to descriptive .
The above table reflects the hybrid nature of metalloids . The properties of form , appearance , and behaviour when mixed with metals are more like metals . Elasticity and general chemical behaviour are more like nonmetals . Electrical conductivity , band structure , ionization energy , electronegativity , and oxides are intermediate between the two .
= = Common applications = =
The focus of this section is on the recognised metalloids . Elements less often recognised as metalloids are ordinarily classified as either metals or nonmetals ; some of these are included here for comparative purposes .
Metalloids are too brittle to have any structural uses in their pure forms . They and their compounds are used as ( or in ) alloying components , biological agents ( toxicological , nutritional and medicinal ) , catalysts , flame retardants , glasses ( oxide and metallic ) , optical storage media and optoelectronics , pyrotechnics , semiconductors and electronics .
= = = Alloys = = =
Writing early in the history of intermetallic compounds , the British metallurgist Cecil Desch observed that " certain non @-@ metallic elements are capable of forming compounds of distinctly metallic character with metals , and these elements may therefore enter into the composition of alloys " . He associated silicon , arsenic and tellurium , in particular , with the alloy @-@ forming elements . Phillips and Williams suggested that compounds of silicon , germanium , arsenic and antimony with B metals , " are probably best classed as alloys " .
Among the lighter metalloids , alloys with transition metals are well @-@ represented . Boron can form intermetallic compounds and alloys with such metals of the composition MnB , if n > 2 . Ferroboron ( 15 % boron ) is used to introduce boron into steel ; nickel @-@ boron alloys are ingredients in welding alloys and case hardening compositions for the engineering industry . Alloys of silicon with iron and with aluminium are widely used by the steel and automotive industries , respectively . Germanium forms many alloys , most importantly with the coinage metals .
The heavier metalloids continue the theme . Arsenic can form alloys with metals , including platinum and copper ; it is also added to copper and its alloys to improve corrosion resistance and appears to confer the same benefit when added to magnesium . Antimony is well known as an alloy @-@ former , including with the coinage metals . Its alloys include pewter ( a tin alloy with up to 20 % antimony ) and type metal ( a lead alloy with up to 25 % antimony ) . Tellurium readily alloys with iron , as ferrotellurium ( 50 – 58 % tellurium ) , and with copper , in the form of copper tellurium ( 40 – 50 % tellurium ) . Ferrotellurium is used as a stabilizer for carbon in steel casting . Of the non @-@ metallic elements less often recognised as metalloids , selenium — in the form of ferroselenium ( 50 – 58 % selenium ) — is used to improve the machinability of stainless steels .
= = = Biological agents = = =
All six of the elements commonly recognised as metalloids have toxic , dietary or medicinal properties . Arsenic and antimony compounds are especially toxic ; boron , silicon , and possibly arsenic , are essential trace elements . Boron , silicon , arsenic and antimony have medical applications , and germanium and tellurium are thought to have potential .
Boron is used in insecticides and herbicides . It is an essential trace element . As boric acid , it has antiseptic , antifungal , and antiviral properties .
Silicon is present in silatrane , a highly toxic rodenticide . Long @-@ term inhalation of silica dust causes silicosis , a fatal disease of the lungs . Silicon is an essential trace element . Silicone gel can be applied to badly burned patients to reduce scarring .
Salts of germanium are potentially harmful to humans and animals if ingested on a prolonged basis . There is interest in the pharmacological actions of germanium compounds but no licensed medicine as yet .
Arsenic is notoriously poisonous and may also be an essential element in ultratrace amounts . During World War I , both sides used " arsenic @-@ based sneezing and vomiting agents … to force enemy soldiers to remove their gas masks before firing mustard or phosgene at them in a second salvo . It has been used as a pharmaceutical agent since antiquity , including for the treatment of syphilis before the development of antibiotics . Arsenic is also a component of melarsoprol , a medicinal drug used in the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness . In 2003 , arsenic trioxide ( under the trade name Trisenox ) was re @-@ introduced for the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukaemia , a cancer of the blood and bone marrow . Arsenic in drinking water , which causes lung and bladder cancer , has been associated with a reduction in breast cancer mortality rates .
Metallic antimony is relatively non @-@ toxic , but most antimony compounds are poisonous . Two antimony compounds , sodium stibogluconate and stibophen , are used as antiparasitical drugs .
Elemental tellurium is not considered particularly toxic ; two grams of sodium tellurate , if administered , can be lethal . People exposed to small amounts of airborne tellurium exude a foul and persistent garlic @-@ like odour . Tellurium dioxide has been used to treat seborrhoeic dermatitis ; other tellurium compounds were used as antimicrobial agents before the development of antibiotics . In the future , such compounds may need to be substituted for antibiotics that have become ineffective due to bacterial resistance .
Of the elements less often recognised as metalloids , beryllium and lead are noted for their toxicity ; lead arsenate has been extensively used as an insecticide . Sulfur is one of the oldest of the fungicides and pesticides . Phosphorus , sulfur , zinc , selenium and iodine are essential nutrients , and aluminium , tin and lead may be . Sulfur , gallium , selenium , iodine and bismuth have medicinal applications . Sulfur is a constituent of sulfonamide drugs , still widely used for conditions such as acne and urinary tract infections . Gallium nitrate is used to treat the side effects of cancer ; gallium citrate , a radiopharmaceutical , facilitates imaging of inflamed body areas . Selenium sulfide is used in medicinal shampoos and to treat skin infections such as tinea versicolor . Iodine is used as a disinfectant in various forms . Bismuth is an ingredient in some antibacterials .
= = = Catalysts = = =
Boron trifluoride and trichloride are used as catalysts in organic synthesis and electronics ; the tribromide is used in the manufacture of diborane . Non @-@ toxic boron ligands can replace toxic phosphorus ligands in transition metal catalysts . Silica sulfuric acid ( SiO2OSO3H ) is used in organic reactions . Germanium dioxide is sometimes used as a catalyst in the production of PET plastic for containers ; cheaper antimony compounds , such as the trioxide or triacetate , are more commonly employed for the same purpose despite concerns about antimony contamination of food and drinks . Arsenic trioxide has been used in the production of natural gas , to boost the removal of carbon dioxide , as have selenous acid and tellurous acid . Selenium acts as a catalyst in some microorganisms . Tellurium , and its dioxide and tetrachloride , are strong catalysts for air oxidation of carbon above 500 ° C. Graphite oxide can be used as a catalyst in the synthesis of imines and their derivatives . Activated carbon and alumina have been used as catalysts for the removal of sulfur contaminants from natural gas . Titanium doped aluminium has been identified as a substitute for expensive noble metal catalysts used in the production of industrial chemicals .
= = = Flame retardants = = =
Compounds of boron , silicon , arsenic and antimony have been used as flame retardants . Boron , in the form of borax , has been used as a textile flame retardant since at least the 18th century . Silicon compounds such as silicones , silanes , silsesquioxane , silica and silicates , some of which were developed as alternatives to more toxic halogenated products , can considerably improve the flame retardancy of plastic materials . Arsenic compounds such as sodium arsenite or sodium arsenate are effective flame retardants for wood but have been less frequently used due to their toxicity . Antimony trioxide is a flame retardant . Aluminium hydroxide has been used as a wood @-@ fibre , rubber , plastic and textile flame retardant since the 1890s . Apart from aluminium hydroxide , use of phosphorus based flame @-@ retardants — in the form of , for example , organophosphates — now exceeds that of any of the other main retardant types . These employ boron , antimony or halogenated hydrocarbon compounds .
= = = Glass formation = = =
The oxides B2O3 , SiO2 , GeO2 , As2O3 and Sb2O3 readily form glasses . TeO2 forms a glass but this requires a " heroic quench rate " or the addition of an impurity , otherwise the crystalline form results . These compounds are used in chemical , domestic and industrial glassware and optics . Boron trioxide is used as a glass fibre additive , and is also a component of borosilicate glass , widely used for laboratory glassware and domestic ovenware for its low thermal expansion . Most ordinary glassware is made from silicon dioxide . Germanium dioxide is used as a glass fibre additive , as well as in infrared optical systems . Arsenic trioxide is used in the glass industry as a decolourizing and fining agent ( for the removal of bubbles ) , as is antimony trioxide . Tellurium dioxide finds application in laser and nonlinear optics .
Amorphous metallic glasses are generally most easily prepared if one of the components is a metalloid or " near metalloid " such as boron , carbon , silicon , phosphorus or germanium . Aside from thin films deposited at very low temperatures , the first known metallic glass was an alloy of composition Au75Si25 reported in 1960 . A metallic glass having a strength and toughness not previously seen , of composition Pd82.5P6Si9.5Ge2 , was reported in 2011 .
Phosphorus , selenium and lead , which are less often recognised as metalloids , are also used in glasses . Phosphate glass has a substrate of phosphorus pentoxide ( P2O5 ) , rather than the silica ( SiO2 ) of conventional silicate glasses . It is used , for example , to make sodium lamps . Selenium compounds can be used both as decolourising agents and to add a red colour to glass . Decorative glassware made of traditional lead glass contains at least 30 % lead ( II ) oxide ( PbO ) ; lead glass used for radiation shielding may have up to 65 % PbO . Lead @-@ based glasses have also been extensively used in electronics components ; enamelling ; sealing and glazing materials ; and solar cells . Bismuth based oxide glasses have emerged as a less toxic replacement for lead in many of these applications .
= = = Optical storage and optoelectronics = = =
Varying compositions of GeSbTe ( " GST alloys " ) and Ag- and In- doped Sb2Te ( " AIST alloys " ) , being examples of phase @-@ change materials , are widely used in rewritable optical discs and phase @-@ change memory devices . By applying heat , they can be switched between amorphous ( glassy ) and crystalline states . The change in optical and electrical properties can be used for information storage purposes . Future applications for GeSbTe may include , " ultrafast , entirely solid @-@ state displays with nanometre @-@ scale pixels , semi @-@ transparent " smart " glasses , " smart " contact lenses and artificial retina devices . "
= = = Pyrotechnics = = =
The recognised metalloids have either pyrotechnic applications or associated properties . Boron and silicon are commonly encountered ; they act somewhat like metal fuels . Boron is used in pyrotechnic initiator compositions ( for igniting other hard @-@ to @-@ start compositions ) , and in delay compositions that burn at a constant rate . Boron carbide has been identified as a possible replacement for more toxic barium or hexachloroethane mixtures in smoke munitions , signal flares and fireworks . Silicon , like boron , is a component of initiator and delay mixtures . Doped germanium can act as a variable speed thermite fuel . Arsenic trisulfide As2S3 was used in old naval signal lights ; in fireworks to make white stars ; in yellow smoke screen mixtures ; and in initiator compositions . Antimony trisulfide Sb2S3 is found in white @-@ light fireworks and in flash and sound mixtures . Tellurium has been used in delay mixtures and in blasting cap initiator compositions .
Carbon , aluminium , phosphorus and selenium continue the theme . Carbon , in black powder , is a constituent of fireworks rocket propellants , bursting charges , and effects mixtures , and military delay fuses and igniters . Aluminium is a common pyrotechnic ingredient , and is widely employed for its capacity to generate light and heat , including in thermite mixtures . Phosphorus can be found in smoke and incendiary munitions , paper caps used in toy guns , and party poppers . Selenium has been used in the same way as tellurium .
= = = Semiconductors and electronics = = =
All the elements commonly recognised as metalloids ( or their compounds ) have been used in the semiconductor or solid @-@ state electronic industries .
Some properties of boron have limited its use as a semiconductor . It has a high melting point , single crystals are relatively hard to obtain , and introducing and retaining controlled impurities is difficult .
Silicon is the leading commercial semiconductor ; it forms the basis of modern electronics ( including standard solar cells ) and information and communication technologies . This was despite the study of semiconductors , early in the 20th century , having been regarded as the " physics of dirt " and not deserving of close attention .
Germanium has largely been replaced by silicon in semiconducting devices , being cheaper , more resilient at higher operating temperatures , and easier to work during the microelectronic fabrication process . Germanium is still a constituent of semiconducting silicon @-@ germanium " alloys " and these have been growing in use , particularly for wireless communication devices ; such alloys exploit the higher carrier mobility of germanium . The synthesis of gram @-@ scale quantities of semiconducting germanane was reported in 2013 . This comprises one @-@ atom thick sheets of hydrogen @-@ terminated germanium atoms , analogous to graphane . It conducts electrons more than ten times faster than silicon and five times faster than germanium , and is thought to have potential for optoelectronic and sensing applications . The development of a germanium @-@ wire based anode that more than doubles the capacity of lithium @-@ ion batteries was reported in 2014 . In the same year , Lee at al. reported that defect @-@ free crystals of graphene large enough to have electronic uses could be grown on , and removed from , a germanium substrate .
Arsenic and antimony are not semiconductors in their standard states . Both form type III @-@ V semiconductors ( such as GaAs , AlSb or GaInAsSb ) in which the average number of valence electrons per atom is the same as that of Group 14 elements . These compounds are preferred for some special applications . Antimony nanocrystals may enable lithium @-@ ion batteries to be replaced by more powerful sodium ion batteries .
Tellurium , which is a semiconductor in its standard state , is used mainly as a component in type II / VI semiconducting @-@ chalcogenides ; these have applications in electro @-@ optics and electronics . Cadmium telluride ( CdTe ) is used in solar modules for its high conversion efficiency , low manufacturing costs , and large band gap of 1 @.@ 44 eV , letting it absorb a wide range of wavelengths . Bismuth telluride ( Bi2Te3 ) , alloyed with selenium and antimony , is a component of thermoelectric devices used for refrigeration or portable power generation .
Five metalloids — boron , silicon , germanium , arsenic and antimony — can be found in cell phones ( along with at least 39 other metals and nonmetals ) . Tellurium is expected to find such use . Of the less often recognised metalloids , phosphorus , gallium ( in particular ) and selenium have semiconductor applications . Phosphorus is used in trace amounts as a dopant for n @-@ type semiconductors . The commercial use of gallium compounds is dominated by semiconductor applications — in integrated circuits ; cell phones ; laser diodes ; light @-@ emitting diodes ; photodetectors ; and solar cells . Selenium is used in the production of solar cells and in high @-@ energy surge protectors .
Boron , silicon , germanium , antimony and tellurium , as well as heavier metals and metalloids such as Sm , Hg , Tl , Pb , Bi and Se , can be found in topological insulators . These are alloys or compounds which , at ultracold temperatures or room temperature ( depending on their composition ) , are metallic conductors on their surfaces but insulators through their interiors . Cadmium arsenide Cd3As2 , at about 1 K , is a Dirac @-@ semimetal — a bulk electronic analogue of graphene — in which electrons travel effectively as massless particles . These two classes of material are thought to have potential quantum computing applications .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
= = = Derivation and other names = = =
The word metalloid comes from the Latin metallum ( " metal " ) and the Greek oeides ( " resembling in form or appearance " ) . Several names are sometimes used synonymously although some of these have other meanings that are not necessarily interchangeable : amphoteric element , boundary element , half @-@ metal , half @-@ way element , near metal , meta @-@ metal , semiconductor , semimetal and submetal . " Amphoteric element " is sometimes used more broadly to include transition metals capable of forming oxyanions , such as chromium and manganese . " Half @-@ metal " is used in physics to refer to a compound ( such as chromium dioxide ) or alloy that can act as a conductor and an insulator . " Meta @-@ metal " is sometimes used instead to refer to certain metals ( Be , Zn , Cd , Hg , In , Tl , β @-@ Sn , Pb ) located just to the left of the metalloids on standard periodic tables . These metals are mostly diamagnetic and tend to have distorted crystalline structures , electrical conductivity values at the lower end of those of metals , and amphoteric ( weakly basic ) oxides . " Semimetal " sometimes refers , loosely or explicitly , to metals with incomplete metallic character in crystalline structure , electrical conductivity or electronic structure . Examples include gallium , ytterbium , bismuth and neptunium . The names amphoteric element and semiconductor are problematic as some elements referred to as metalloids do not show marked amphoteric behaviour ( bismuth , for example ) or semiconductivity ( polonium ) in their most stable forms .
= = = Origin and usage = = =
The origin and usage of the term metalloid is convoluted . Its origin lies in attempts , dating from antiquity , to describe metals and to distinguish between typical and less typical forms . It was first applied in the early 19th century to metals that floated on water ( sodium and potassium ) , and then more popularly to nonmetals . Earlier usage in mineralogy , to describe a mineral having a metallic appearance , can be sourced to as early as 1800 . Since the mid @-@ 20th century it has been used to refer to intermediate or borderline chemical elements . The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) previously recommended abandoning the term metalloid , and suggested using the term semimetal instead . Use of this latter term has more recently been discouraged by Atkins et al. as it has a different meaning in physics — one that more specifically refers to the electronic band structure of a substance rather than the overall classification of an element . The most recent IUPAC publications on nomenclature and terminology do not include any recommendations on the usage of the terms metalloid or semimetal .
= = Elements commonly recognised as metalloids = =
Properties noted in this section refer to the elements in their most thermodynamically stable forms under ambient conditions .
= = = Boron = = =
Pure boron is a shiny , silver @-@ grey crystalline solid . It is less dense than aluminium ( 2 @.@ 34 vs. 2 @.@ 70 g / cm3 ) , and is hard and brittle . It is barely reactive under normal conditions , except for attack by fluorine , and has a melting point of 2076 ° C ( cf. steel ~ 1370 ° C ) . Boron is a semiconductor ; its room temperature electrical conductivity is 1 @.@ 5 × 10 − 6 S • cm − 1 ( about 200 times less than that of tap water ) and it has a band gap of about 1 @.@ 56 eV .
The structural chemistry of boron is dominated by its small atomic size , and relatively high ionization energy . With only three valence electrons per boron atom , simple covalent bonding cannot fulfil the octet rule . Metallic bonding is the usual result among the heavier congenors of boron but this generally requires low ionization energies . Instead , because of its small size and high ionization energies , the basic structural unit of boron ( and nearly all of its allotropes ) is the icosahedral B12 cluster . Of the 36 electrons associated with 12 boron atoms , 26 reside in 13 delocalized molecular orbitals ; the other 10 electrons are used to form two- and three @-@ centre covalent bonds between icosahedra . The same motif can be seen , as are deltahedral variants or fragments , in metal borides and hydride derivatives , and in some halides .
The bonding in boron has been described as being characteristic of behaviour intermediate between metals and nonmetallic covalent network solids ( such as diamond ) . The energy required to transform B , C , N , Si and P from nonmetallic to metallic states has been estimated as 30 , 100 , 240 , 33 and 50 kJ / mol , respectively . This indicates the proximity of boron to the metal @-@ nonmetal borderline .
Most of the chemistry of boron is nonmetallic in nature . Unlike its heavier congeners , it is not known to form a simple B3 + or hydrated [ B ( H2O ) 4 ] 3 + cation . The small size of the boron atom enables the preparation of many interstitial alloy @-@ type borides . Analogies between boron and transition metals have been noted in the formation of complexes , and adducts ( for example , BH3 + CO → BH3CO and , similarly , Fe ( CO ) 4 + CO → Fe ( CO ) 5 ) , as well as in the geometric and electronic structures of cluster species such as [ B6H6 ] 2 − and [ Ru6 ( CO ) 18 ] 2 − . The aqueous chemistry of boron is characterised by the formation of many different polyborate anions . Given its high charge @-@ to @-@ size ratio , boron bonds covalently in nearly all of its compounds ; the exceptions are the borides as these include , depending on their composition , covalent , ionic and metallic bonding components . Simple binary compounds , such as boron trichloride are Lewis acids as the formation of three covalent bonds leaves a hole in the octet which can be filled by an electron @-@ pair donated by a Lewis base . Boron has a strong affinity for oxygen and a duly extensive borate chemistry . The oxide B2O3 is polymeric in structure , weakly acidic , and a glass former . Organometallic compounds of boron have been known since the 19th century ( see organoboron chemistry ) .
= = = Silicon = = =
Silicon is a crystalline solid with a blue @-@ grey metallic lustre . Like boron , it is less dense ( at 2 @.@ 33 g / cm3 ) than aluminium , and is hard and brittle . It is a relatively unreactive element . According to Rochow , the massive crystalline form ( especially if pure ) is " remarkably inert to all acids , including hydrofluoric " . Less pure silicon , and the powdered form , are variously susceptible to attack by strong or heated acids , as well as by steam and fluorine . Silicon dissolves in hot aqueous alkalis with the evolution of hydrogen , as do metals such as beryllium , aluminium , zinc , gallium or indium . It melts at 1414 ° C. Silicon is a semiconductor with an electrical conductivity of 10 − 4 S • cm − 1 and a band gap of about 1 @.@ 11 eV . When it melts , silicon becomes a reasonable metal with an electrical conductivity of 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 × 104 S • cm − 1 , similar to that of liquid mercury .
The chemistry of silicon is generally nonmetallic ( covalent ) in nature . It is not known to form a cation . Silicon can form alloys with metals such as iron and copper . It shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals . Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions . The high strength of the silicon @-@ oxygen bond dominates the chemical behaviour of silicon . Polymeric silicates , built up by tetrahedral SiO4 units sharing their oxygen atoms , are the most abundant and important compounds of silicon . The polymeric borates , comprising linked trigonal and tetrahedral BO3 or BO4 units , are built on similar structural principles . The oxide SiO2 is polymeric in structure , weakly acidic , and a glass former . Traditional organometallic chemistry includes the carbon compounds of silicon ( see organosilicon ) .
= = = Germanium = = =
Germanium is a shiny grey @-@ white solid . It has a density of 5 @.@ 323 g / cm3 and is hard and brittle . It is mostly unreactive at room temperature but is slowly attacked by hot concentrated sulfuric or nitric acid . Germanium also reacts with molten caustic soda to yield sodium germanate Na2GeO3 and hydrogen gas . It melts at 938 ° C. Germanium is a semiconductor with an electrical conductivity of around 2 × 10 − 2 S • cm − 1 and a band gap of 0 @.@ 67 eV . Liquid germanium is a metallic conductor , with an electrical conductivity similar to that of liquid mercury .
Most of the chemistry of germanium is characteristic of a nonmetal . Whether or not germanium forms a cation is unclear , aside from the reported existence of the Ge2 + ion in a few esoteric compounds . It can form alloys with metals such as aluminium and gold . It shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals . Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions . Germanium generally forms tetravalent ( IV ) compounds , and it can also form less stable divalent ( II ) compounds , in which it behaves more like a metal . Germanium analogues of all of the major types of silicates have been prepared . The metallic character of germanium is also suggested by the formation of various oxoacid salts . A phosphate [ ( HPO4 ) 2Ge · H2O ] and highly stable trifluoroacetate Ge ( OCOCF3 ) 4 have been described , as have Ge2 ( SO4 ) 2 , Ge ( ClO4 ) 4 and GeH2 ( C2O4 ) 3 . The oxide GeO2 is polymeric , amphoteric , and a glass former . The dioxide is soluble in acidic solutions ( the monoxide GeO , is even more so ) , and this is sometimes used to classify germanium as a metal . Up to the 1930s germanium was considered to be a poorly conducting metal ; it has occasionally been classified as a metal by later writers . As with all the elements commonly recognised as metalloids , germanium has an established organometallic chemistry ( see organogermanium chemistry ) .
= = = Arsenic = = =
Arsenic is a grey , metallic looking solid . It has a density of 5 @.@ 727 g / cm3 and is brittle , and moderately hard ( more than aluminium ; less than iron ) . It is stable in dry air but develops a golden bronze patina in moist air , which blackens on further exposure . Arsenic is attacked by nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid . It reacts with fused caustic soda to give the arsenate Na3AsO3 and hydrogen gas . Arsenic sublimes at 615 ° C. The vapour is lemon @-@ yellow and smells like garlic . Arsenic only melts under a pressure of 38 @.@ 6 atm , at 817 ° C. It is a semimetal with an electrical conductivity of around 3 @.@ 9 × 104 S • cm − 1 and a band overlap of 0 @.@ 5 eV . Liquid arsenic is a semiconductor with a band gap of 0 @.@ 15 eV .
The chemistry of arsenic is predominately nonmetallic . Whether or not arsenic forms a cation is unclear . Its many metal alloys are mostly brittle . It shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals . Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions . Arsenic generally forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of + 3 or + 5 . The halides , and the oxides and their derivatives are illustrative examples . In the trivalent state , arsenic shows some incipient metallic properties . The halides are hydrolysed by water but these reactions , particularly those of the chloride , are reversible with the addition of a hydrohalic acid . The oxide is acidic but , as noted below , ( weakly ) amphoteric . The higher , less stable , pentavalent state has strongly acidic ( nonmetallic ) properties . Compared to phosphorus , the stronger metallic character of arsenic is indicated by the formation of oxoacid salts such as AsPO4 , As2 ( SO4 ) 3 and arsenic acetate As ( CH3COO ) 3 . The oxide As2O3 is polymeric , amphoteric , and a glass former . Arsenic has an extensive organometallic chemistry ( see organoarsenic chemistry ) .
= = = Antimony = = =
Antimony is a silver @-@ white solid with a blue tint and a brilliant lustre . It has a density of 6 @.@ 697 g / cm3 and is brittle , and moderately hard ( more so than arsenic ; less so than iron ; about the same as copper ) . It is stable in air and moisture at room temperature . It is attacked by concentrated nitric acid , yielding the hydrated pentoxide Sb2O5 . Aqua regia gives the pentachloride SbCl5 and hot concentrated sulfuric acid results in the sulfate Sb2 ( SO4 ) 3 . It is not affected by molten alkali . Antimony is capable of displacing hydrogen from water , when heated : 2 Sb + 3 H2O → Sb2O3 + 3 H2 . It melts at 631 ° C. Antimony is a semimetal with an electrical conductivity of around 3 @.@ 1 × 104 S • cm − 1 and a band overlap of 0 @.@ 16 eV . Liquid antimony is a metallic conductor with an electrical conductivity of around 5 @.@ 3 × 104 S • cm − 1 .
Most of the chemistry of antimony is characteristic of a nonmetal . Antimony has some definite cationic chemistry , SbO + and Sb ( OH ) 2 + being present in acidic aqueous solution ; the compound Sb8 ( GaCl4 ) 2 , which contains the homopolycation , Sb82 + , was prepared in 2004 . It can form alloys with one or more metals such as aluminium , iron , nickel , copper , zinc , tin , lead and bismuth . Antimony has fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals . Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions . Like arsenic , antimony generally forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of + 3 or + 5 . The halides , and the oxides and their derivatives are illustrative examples . The + 5 state is less stable than the + 3 , but relatively easier to attain than with arsenic . This is explained by the poor shielding afforded the arsenic nucleus by its 3d10 electrons . In comparison , the tendency of antimony ( being a heavier atom ) to oxidize more easily partially offsets the effect of its 4d10 shell . Tripositive antimony is amphoteric ; pentapositive antimony is ( predominately ) acidic . Consistent with an increase in metallic character down group 15 , antimony forms salts or salt @-@ like compounds including a nitrate Sb ( NO3 ) 3 , phosphate SbPO4 , sulfate Sb2 ( SO4 ) 3 and perchlorate Sb ( ClO4 ) 3 . The otherwise acidic pentoxide Sb2O5 shows some basic ( metallic ) behaviour in that it can be dissolved in very acidic solutions , with the formation of the oxycation SbO +
2 . The oxide Sb2O3 is polymeric , amphoteric , and a glass former . Antimony has an extensive organometallic chemistry ( see organoantimony chemistry ) .
= = = Tellurium = = =
Tellurium is a silvery @-@ white shiny solid . It has a density of 6 @.@ 24 g / cm3 , is brittle , and is the softest of the commonly recognised metalloids , being marginally harder than sulfur . Large pieces of tellurium are stable in air . The finely powdered form is oxidized by air in the presence of moisture . Tellurium reacts with boiling water , or when freshly precipitated even at 50 ° C , to give the dioxide and hydrogen : Te + 2 H2O → TeO2 + 2 H2 . It reacts ( to varying degrees ) with nitric , sulfuric and hydrochloric acids to give compounds such as the sulfoxide TeSO3 or tellurous acid H2TeO3 , the basic nitrate ( Te2O4H ) + ( NO3 ) − , or the oxide sulfate Te2O3 ( SO4 ) . It dissolves in boiling alkalis , to give the tellurite and telluride : 3 Te + 6 KOH = K2TeO3 + 2 K2Te + 3 H2O , a reaction that proceeds or is reversible with increasing or decreasing temperature .
At higher temperatures tellurium is sufficiently plastic to extrude . It melts at 449 @.@ 51 ° C. Crystalline tellurium has a structure consisting of parallel infinite spiral chains . The bonding between adjacent atoms in a chain is covalent , but there is evidence of a weak metallic interaction between the neighbouring atoms of different chains . Tellurium is a semiconductor with an electrical conductivity of around 1 @.@ 0 S • cm − 1 and a band gap of 0 @.@ 32 to 0 @.@ 38 eV . Liquid tellurium is a semiconductor , with an electrical conductivity , on melting , of around 1 @.@ 9 × 103 S • cm − 1 Superheated liquid tellurium is a metallic conductor .
Most of the chemistry of tellurium is characteristic of a nonmetal . It shows some cationic behaviour . The dioxide dissolves in acid to yield the trihydroxotellurium ( IV ) Te ( OH ) 3 + ion ; the red Te42 + and yellow @-@ orange Te62 + ions form when tellurium is oxidized in fluorosulfuric acid ( HSO3F ) , or liquid sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) , respectively . It can form alloys with aluminium , silver and tin . Tellurium shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals . Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions . Tellurium generally forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of − 2 , + 4 or + 6 . The + 4 state is the most stable . Tellurides of composition XxTey are easily formed with most other elements and represent the most common tellurium minerals . Nonstoichiometry is pervasive , especially with transition metals . Many tellurides can be regarded as metallic alloys . The increase in metallic character evident in tellurium , as compared to the lighter chalcogens , is further reflected in the reported formation of various other oxyacid salts , such as a basic selenate 2TeO2 · SeO3 and an analogous perchlorate and periodate 2TeO2 · HXO4 . Tellurium forms a polymeric , amphoteric , glass @-@ forming oxide TeO2 . It is a " conditional " glass @-@ forming oxide — it forms a glass with a very small amount of additive . Tellurium has an extensive organometallic chemistry ( see organotellurium chemistry ) .
= = Elements less commonly recognised as metalloids = =
= = = Carbon = = =
Carbon is ordinarily classified as a nonmetal but has some metallic properties and is occasionally classified as a metalloid . Hexagonal graphitic carbon ( graphite ) is the most thermodynamically stable allotrope of carbon under ambient conditions . It has a lustrous appearance and is a fairly good electrical conductor . Graphite has a layered structure . Each layer comprises carbon atoms bonded to three other carbon atoms in a honeycomb lattice arrangement . The layers are stacked together and held loosely by van der Waals forces and delocalized valence electrons .
Like a metal , the conductivity of graphite in the direction of its planes decreases as the temperature is raised ; it has the electronic band structure of a semimetal . The allotropes of carbon , including graphite , can accept foreign atoms or compounds into their structures via substitution , intercalation or doping . The resulting materials are referred to as " carbon alloys " . Carbon can form ionic salts , including a hydrogen sulfate , perchlorate , and nitrate ( C +
24X − .2HX , where X = HSO4 , ClO4 ; and C +
24NO –
3.3HNO3 ) . In organic chemistry , carbon can form complex cations — termed carbocations — in which the positive charge is on the carbon atom ; examples are CH +
3 and CH +
5 , and their derivatives .
Carbon is brittle , and behaves as a semiconductor in a direction perpendicular to its planes . Most of its chemistry is nonmetallic ; it has a relatively high ionization energy and , compared to most metals , a relatively high electronegativity . Carbon can form anions such as C4 − ( methanide ) , C2 –
2 ( acetylide ) and C3 –
4 ( sesquicarbide or allylenide ) , in compounds with metals of main groups 1 – 3 , and with the lanthanides and actinides . Its oxide CO2 forms carbonic acid H2CO3 .
= = = Aluminium = = =
Aluminium is ordinarily classified as a metal . It is lustrous , malleable and ductile , and has high electrical and thermal conductivity . Like most metals it has a close @-@ packed crystalline structure , and forms a cation in aqueous solution .
It has some properties that are unusual for a metal ; taken together , these are sometimes used as a basis to classify aluminium as a metalloid . Its crystalline structure shows some evidence of directional bonding . Aluminium bonds covalently in most compounds . The oxide Al2O3 is amphoteric , and a conditional glass @-@ former . Aluminium can form anionic aluminates , such behaviour being considered nonmetallic in character .
Classifying aluminium as a metalloid has been disputed given its many metallic properties . It is therefore , arguably , an exception to the mnemonic that elements adjacent to the metal – nonmetal dividing line are metalloids .
Stott labels aluminium as a weak metal . It has the physical properties of a metal but some of the chemical properties of a nonmetal . Steele notes the paradoxical chemical behaviour of aluminium : " It resembles a weak metal in its amphoteric oxide and in the covalent character of many of its compounds ... Yet it is a highly electropositive metal ... [ with ] a high negative electrode potential " . Moody says that , " aluminium is on the ' diagonal borderland ' between metals and non @-@ metals in the chemical sense . "
= = = Selenium = = =
Selenium shows borderline metalloid or nonmetal behaviour .
Its most stable form , the grey trigonal allotrope , is sometimes called " metallic " selenium because its electrical conductivity is several orders of magnitude greater than that of the red monoclinic form . The metallic character of selenium is further shown by its lustre , and its crystalline structure , which is thought to include weakly " metallic " interchain bonding . Selenium can be drawn into thin threads when molten and viscous . It shows reluctance to acquire " the high positive oxidation numbers characteristic of nonmetals " . It can form cyclic polycations ( such as Se2 +
8 ) when dissolved in oleums ( an attribute it shares with sulfur and tellurium ) , and a hydrolysed cationic salt in the form of trihydroxoselenium ( IV ) perchlorate [ Se ( OH ) 3 ] + · ClO –
4 .
The nonmetallic character of selenium is shown by its brittleness and the low electrical conductivity ( ~ 10 − 9 to 10 − 12 S • cm − 1 ) of its highly purified form . This is comparable to or less than that of bromine ( 7 @.@ 95 × 10 – 12 S • cm − 1 ) , a nonmetal . Selenium has the electronic band structure of a semiconductor and retains its semiconducting properties in liquid form . It has a relatively high electronegativity ( 2 @.@ 55 revised Pauling scale ) . Its reaction chemistry is mainly that of its nonmetallic anionic forms Se2 − , SeO2 −
3 and SeO2 −
4 .
Selenium is commonly described as a metalloid in the environmental chemistry literature . It moves through the aquatic environment similarly to arsenic and antimony ; its water @-@ soluble salts , in higher concentrations , have a similar toxicological profile to that of arsenic .
= = = Polonium = = =
Polonium is " distinctly metallic " in some ways . Both of its allotropic forms are metallic conductors . It is soluble in acids , forming the rose @-@ coloured Po2 + cation and displacing hydrogen : Po + 2 H + → Po2 + + H2 . Many polonium salts are known . The oxide PoO2 is predominantly basic in nature . Polonium is a reluctant oxidizing agent , unlike its lighter congener oxygen : highly reducing conditions are required for the formation of the Po2 − anion in aqueous solution .
Whether polonium is ductile or brittle is unclear . It is predicted to be ductile based on its calculated elastic constants . It has a simple cubic crystalline structure . Such a structure has few slip systems and " leads to very low ductility and hence low fracture resistance " .
Polonium shows nonmetallic character in its halides , and by the existence of polonides . The halides have properties generally characteristic of nonmetal halides ( being volatile , easily hydrolyzed , and soluble in organic solvents ) . Many metal polonides , obtained by heating the elements together at 500 – 1 @,@ 000 ° C , and containing the Po2 − anion , are also known .
= = = Astatine = = =
As a halogen , astatine tends to be classified as a nonmetal . It has some marked metallic properties and is sometimes instead classified as either a metalloid or ( less often ) as a metal . Immediately following its production in 1940 , early investigators considered it a metal . In 1949 it was called the most noble ( difficult to reduce ) nonmetal as well as being a relatively noble ( difficult to oxidize ) metal . In 1950 astatine was described as a halogen and ( therefore ) a reactive nonmetal . In 2013 , on the basis of relativistic modelling , astatine was predicted to be a monatomic metal , with a face @-@ centred cubic crystalline structure .
Several authors have commented on the metallic nature of some of the properties of astatine . Since iodine is a semiconductor in the direction of its planes , and since the halogens become more metallic with increasing atomic number , it has been presumed that astatine would be a metal if it could form a condensed phase . Astatine may be metallic in the liquid state on the basis that elements with an enthalpy of vaporization ( ∆ Hvap ) greater than ~ 42 kJ / mol are metallic when liquid . Such elements include boron , silicon , germanium , antimony , selenium and tellurium . Estimated values for ∆ Hvap of diatomic astatine are 50 kJ / mol or higher ; diatomic iodine , with a ∆ Hvap of 41 @.@ 71 , falls just short of the threshold figure .
" Like typical metals , it [ astatine ] is precipitated by hydrogen sulfide even from strongly acid solutions and is displaced in a free form from sulfate solutions ; it is deposited on the cathode on electrolysis . " Further indications of a tendency for astatine to behave like a ( heavy ) metal are : " ... the formation of pseudohalide compounds ... complexes of astatine cations ... complex anions of trivalent astatine ... as well as complexes with a variety of organic solvents " . It has also been argued that astatine demonstrates cationic behaviour , by way of stable At + and AtO + forms , in strongly acidic aqueous solutions .
Some of astatine 's reported properties are nonmetallic . It has the narrow liquid range ordinarily associated with nonmetals ( mp 302 ° C ; bp 337 ° C ) . Batsanov gives a calculated band gap energy for astatine of 0 @.@ 7 eV ; this is consistent with nonmetals ( in physics ) having separated valence and conduction bands and thereby being either semiconductors or insulators . The chemistry of astatine in aqueous solution is mainly characterised by the formation of various anionic species . Most of its known compounds resemble those of iodine , which is a halogen and a nonmetal . Such compounds include astatides ( XAt ) , astatates ( XAtO3 ) , and monovalent interhalogen compounds .
Restrepo et al. reported that astatine appeared to be more polonium @-@ like than halogen @-@ like . They did so on the basis of detailed comparative studies of the known and interpolated properties of 72 elements .
= = Related concepts = =
= = = Near metalloids = = =
In the periodic table , some of the elements adjacent to the commonly recognised metalloids , although usually classified as either metals or nonmetals , are occasionally referred to as near @-@ metalloids or noted for their metalloidal character . To the left of the metal – nonmetal dividing line , such elements include gallium , tin and bismuth . They show unusual packing structures , marked covalent chemistry ( molecular or polymeric ) , and amphoterism . To the right of the dividing line are carbon , phosphorus , selenium and iodine . They exhibit metallic lustre , semiconducting properties and bonding or valence bands with delocalized character . This applies to their most thermodynamically stable forms under ambient conditions : carbon as graphite ; phosphorus as black phosphorus ; and selenium as grey selenium .
= = = Allotropes = = =
Different crystalline forms of an element are called allotropes . Some allotropes , particularly those of elements located ( in periodic table terms ) alongside or near the notional dividing line between metals and nonmetals , exhibit more pronounced metallic , metalloidal or nonmetallic behaviour than others . The existence of such allotropes can complicate the classification of the elements involved .
Tin , for example , has two allotropes : tetragonal " white " β @-@ tin and cubic " grey " α @-@ tin . White tin is a very shiny , ductile and malleable metal . It is the stable form at or above room temperature and has an electrical conductivity of 9 @.@ 17 × 104 S · cm − 1 ( ~ 1 / 6th that of copper ) . Grey tin usually has the appearance of a grey micro @-@ crystalline powder , and can also be prepared in brittle semi @-@ lustrous crystalline or polycrystalline forms . It is the stable form below 13 @.@ 2 ° C and has an electrical conductivity of between ( 2 – 5 ) × 102 S · cm − 1 ( ~ 1 / 250th that of white tin ) . Grey tin has the same crystalline structure as that of diamond . It behaves as a semiconductor ( with a band gap of 0 @.@ 08 eV ) , but has the electronic band structure of a semimetal . It has been referred to as either a very poor metal , a metalloid , a nonmetal or a near metalloid .
The diamond allotrope of carbon is clearly nonmetallic , being translucent and having a low electrical conductivity of 10 − 14 to 10 − 16 S · cm − 1 . Graphite has an electrical conductivity of 3 × 104 S · cm − 1 , a figure more characteristic of a metal . Phosphorus , sulfur , arsenic , selenium , antimony and bismuth also have less stable allotropes that display different behaviours .
= = Abundance , extraction and cost = =
= = = Abundance = = =
The table gives crustal abundances of the elements commonly to rarely recognised as metalloids . Some other elements are included for comparison : oxygen and xenon ( the most and least abundant elements with stable isotopes ) ; iron and the coinage metals copper , silver and gold ; and rhenium , the least abundant stable metal ( aluminium is normally the most abundant metal ) . Various abundance estimates have been published ; these often disagree to some extent .
= = = Extraction = = =
The recognised metalloids can be obtained by chemical reduction of either their oxides or their sulfides . Simpler or more complex extraction methods may be employed depending on the starting form and economic factors . Boron is routinely obtained by reducing the trioxide with magnesium : B2O3 + 3 Mg → 2 B + 3MgO ; after secondary processing the resulting brown powder has a purity of up to 97 % . Boron of higher purity ( > 99 % ) is prepared by heating volatile boron compounds , such as BCl3 or BBr3 , either in a hydrogen atmosphere ( 2 BX3 + 3 H2 → 2 B + 6 HX ) or to the point of thermal decomposition . Silicon and germanium are obtained from their oxides by heating the oxide with carbon or hydrogen : SiO2 + C → Si + CO2 ; GeO2 + 2 H2 → Ge + 2 H2O . Arsenic is isolated from its pyrite ( FeAsS ) or arsenical pyrite ( FeAs2 ) by heating ; alternatively , it can be obtained from its oxide by reduction with carbon : 2 As2O3 + 3 C → 2 As + 3 CO2 . Antimony is derived from its sulfide by reduction with iron : Sb2S3 → 2 Sb + 3 FeS . Tellurium is prepared from its oxide by dissolving it in aqueous NaOH , yielding tellurite , then by electrolytic reduction : TeO2 + 2 NaOH → Na2TeO3 + H2O ; Na2TeO3 + H2O → Te + 2 NaOH + O2 . Another option is reduction of the oxide by roasting with carbon : TeO2 + C → Te + CO2 .
Production methods for the elements less frequently recognised as metalloids involve natural processing , electrolytic or chemical reduction , or irradiation . Carbon ( as graphite ) occurs naturally and is extracted by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite to the surface . Aluminium is extracted by dissolving its oxide Al2O3 in molten cryolite Na3AlF6 and then by high temperature electrolytic reduction . Selenium is produced by roasting its coinage metal selenides X2Se ( X = Cu , Ag , Au ) with soda ash to give the selenite : X2Se + O2 + Na2CO3 → Na2SeO3 + 2 X + CO2 ; the selenide is neutralized by sulfuric acid H2SO4 to give selenous acid H2SeO3 ; this is reduced by bubbling with SO2 to yield elemental selenium . Polonium and astatine are produced in minute quantities by irradiating bismuth .
= = = Cost = = =
The recognised metalloids and their closer neighbours mostly cost less than silver ; only polonium and astatine are more expensive than gold . As of 5 April 2014 , prices for small samples ( up to 100 g ) of silicon , antimony and tellurium , and graphite , aluminium and selenium , average around one third the cost of silver ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 per gram or about $ 45 an ounce ) . Boron , germanium and arsenic samples average about three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half times the cost of silver . Polonium is available for about $ 100 per microgram , which is $ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a gram . Zalutsky and Pruszynski estimate a similar cost for producing astatine . Prices for the applicable elements traded as commodities tend to range from two to three times cheaper than the sample price ( Ge ) , to nearly three thousand times cheaper ( As ) .
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= Paranoid Android =
" Paranoid Android " is a song by the English alternative rock band Radiohead from on their third album OK Computer ( 1997 ) . The darkly humourous lyrics were written primarily by singer Thom Yorke following an unpleasant experience in a Los Angeles bar . The song is more than six minutes long and contains four distinct sections . " Paranoid Android " takes its name from Marvin the Paranoid Android of Douglas Adams ' The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy series .
Released as the lead single from OK Computer , " Paranoid Android " charted at number three on the UK Singles Chart . It was well received by music critics . It track has appeared regularly on lists of the best songs of all time , including Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . Its animated music video , directed by Magnus Carlsson , was placed on heavy rotation on MTV , although the network censored portions containing nudity in the US . At the 1998 Brit Awards , the song was nominated for Best British Single . Since its release , the track has been covered by numerous artists working in a variety of musical genres . The song was included in the 2008 Radiohead : The Best Of collection .
= = Background and recording = =
Radiohead fused together parts from three different songs , each written by a different member of the band . The idea to combine the pieces into a single track was inspired in part by the structure of The Beatles ' " Happiness Is a Warm Gun " .
" Basically an excuse to weld loads of half @-@ finished songs together , Abbey Road @-@ style . It 's Radiohead , pissed and having a party . I wasn 't there when it was all stuck together – I 'd been sent to sleep it off . What 's it all about ? The fall of the Roman Empire . " – Thom Yorke
Colin Greenwood admitted that the band , in attempting it to make the disparate elements work together , " felt like irresponsible schoolboys who were doing this ... naughty thing , ' cause nobody does a six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute song with all these changes . It 's ridiculous " . The song was at first intended to be humorous , and took its title from Marvin the Paranoid Android in Douglas Adams ' The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy series of books . Yorke said the title " was chosen as a joke . It was like , ' Oh , I 'm so depressed . ' And I just thought , that 's great . That 's how people would like me to be . And that was the end of writing about anything personal in the song . The rest of the song is not personal at all . " In an early interview , Colin Greenwood described it " just a joke , a laugh , getting wasted together over a couple of evenings and putting some different pieces together " . The band used Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " and the work of the Pixies as reference points while writing ; yet Ed O 'Brien denies they wrote " a ' Bohemian Rhapsody ' for the nineties " , and Jonny Greenwood considers it too tense and simple to rival Queen 's song .
" Paranoid Android " was recorded in actress Jane Seymour 's 15th century mansion near the village of St Catherine , near Bath , Somerset . The first edit was over 14 minutes long and included a long organ interlude performed by Jonny Greenwood . Radiohead played this extended version during a tour with Alanis Morissette in September 1996 . " When we started playing it live , it was completely hilarious , " recalled O 'Brien . " There was a rave down section and a Hammond organ outro , and we 'd be pissing ourselves while we played . We 'd bring out the glockenspiel and it would be really , really funny . " Before the song 's first live performance , Yorke told audiences that " [ i ] f you can have sex to this one , you 're fucking weird . " He also sarcastically referred to the version of the song played during the tour as " a Pink Floyd cover " .
Inspired by the editing of The Beatles ' Magical Mystery Tour ( described by Colin Greenwood as " brutal " ) , Radiohead shortened the song to a final six and a half minutes , a process that led to Jonny Greenwood 's organ section being replaced by a substantially shorter guitar fade out . However , it took the band a year and a half to learn how to play the final version in live performance .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Paranoid Android " is a song described as alternative rock , art rock and progressive rock . It has four distinct sections , each played in standard tuning , and a 4 / 4 time signature , although several three @-@ bar segments in the second section are played in 7 / 8 timing . The opening segment is played in the key of C minor with a tempo of 84 beats per minute ( BPM ) , and begins with a mid @-@ tempo acoustic guitar backed by shaken percussion before layered with electric guitar and Yorke 's vocals . The melody of the opening vocal lines span an octave and a third . The second section is written in the key of A minor and begins about two minutes into the song . Although the second section retains the tempo of the first , it differs rhythmically . Ending the second section is a distorted guitar solo played by Jonny Greenwood , which lasts from 2 : 43 to 3 : 33 . The third section was written by Jonny Greenwood , and reduces the tempo to 63 BPM . The harmonies form a looped chord progression resembling a Baroque passacaglia , with the tonality split between C minor and D minor . This section uses multi @-@ tracked , choral vocal arrangement and according to Dai Griffiths , a " chord sequence [ that ordinarily ] would sound seedy , rather like something by the band Portishead " .
The fourth and final section , which begins at 5 : 35 , is a brief instrumental reprise of the second movement that serves as a coda . After a second solo , a brief guitar riff is introduced , which Jonny Greenwood says " was something I had floating around for a while and the song needed a certain burn . It happened to be the right key and the right speed and it fit right in . " The song ends , as does the second section , with a short chromatically descending guitar motif .
" Paranoid Android " is categorised by three distinct moods written in what Yorke referred to as three different states of mind . The song 's lyrics tie in with a number of themes common in OK Computer , including insanity , violence , slogans , and political objection to capitalism . Yorke 's lyrics were based on an unpleasant experience at a Los Angeles bar during which he was surrounded by strangers high on cocaine . In particular , Yorke was frightened by a woman who became violent after someone spilled a drink on her . Yorke characterised the woman as " inhuman " , and said " There was a look in this woman 's eyes that I 'd never seen before anywhere . ... Couldn 't sleep that night because of it . " The woman inspired the line " kicking squealing Gucci little piggy " in the song 's second section . Yorke , referring to the line " With your opinions , which are of no consequence at all " , said that " Again , that 's just a joke . It 's actually the other way around – it 's actually my opinion that is of no consequence at all . "
= = Release and reception = =
While Colin Greenwood said the song was " hardly the radio @-@ friendly , breakthrough , buzz bin unit shifter [ radio stations ] have been expecting , " Capitol supported the band 's choice for the song as a lead single . Radiohead premiered " Paranoid Android " on the BBC Radio 1 programme The Evening Session in April 1997 , nearly a month before its release as a single . Melody Maker revealed that a Radio 1 producer had to " have a bit of a lie down " after first hearing the song . It was released as a single on 26 May 1997 , chosen by the band to prepare listeners for the musical direction of its parent album . Despite an initial lack of radio play , " Paranoid Android " charted at number three on the UK Singles Chart , giving Radiohead their highest singles chart position . As the song 's popularity grew , Radio 1 played it up to 12 times a day . Yorke described the song 's appearance on Radio 1 as one of his proudest moments of the OK Computer era . The track also spent two weeks on Australia 's ARIA Singles Chart , where it charted at number 29 .
" Paranoid Android " was favourably reviewed by critics . NME chose it as its " Single of the Week " , and journalist Simon Williams described how the song " [ s ] prawls out like a plump man on a small sofa , featuring all manner of crypto @-@ flamenco shufflings , medieval wailings , furiously wrenched guitars and ravishingly over @-@ ambitious ideas . Possesses one of the most unorthodox ' axe ' solos known to mankind . " The style of the song was compared to that of Queen by Rolling Stone 's Mark Kemp , while other critics , including David Browne of Entertainment Weekly , Jon Lusk of the BBC and Simon Williams of NME wrote about its similarity to Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " . Williams described the song as being " not unlike ' Bohemian Rhapsody ' being played backwards by a bunch of Vietnam vets high on Kings Cross @-@ quality crack " . Kemp praised the song 's mix of acoustic and electronic instrumentation , which he believed were melded to produce " complex tempo changes , touches of dissonance , ancient choral music and a King Crimson @-@ like melodic structure " . Meanwhile Browne wrote of " celestial call @-@ and @-@ response vocal passages , dynamically varied sections , and Thom Yorke 's high @-@ voiced bleat " . The A.V. Club called the song unforgettable and an " amazing epic single " .
Several reviewers noted the record 's ambition . Slant Magazine described the song 's lyrics as a " multipart anti @-@ yuppie anthem whose ambition is anything but ugly " , and Andy Gill wrote in The Independent that " Paranoid Android " could be the most ambitious single since Richard Harris ' " MacArthur Park " . Craig McLean of The Sydney Morning Herald described " Paranoid Android " as " a titanic guitar opera in three movements and 6 [ and a half ] minutes " . PopMatters ' Evan Sawdey called the song OK Computer 's " sweeping , multi @-@ tiered centerpiece " , Peter and Jonathan Buckley wrote in The Rough Guide to Rock that it was the album 's " breathtaking high point " . Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called " Paranoid Android " " complex , multi @-@ segmented ... tight , melodic , and muscular " , and said it displayed Radiohead at their most adventurous . Browne admitted that , partially because of " Paranoid Android " , OK Computer was significantly more expansive than The Bends . Rolling Stone placed the song at number 256 on its 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list , and Pitchfork Media included the song at number 4 on their Top 200 Tracks of the 90s .
= = Music video = =
Remarking on the band 's goals for the " Paranoid Android " music video , Yorke said that , " When it came time to make the video for that song , we had lots of people saying , ' Yeah , great , we can have another video like " Street Spirit " , all moody and black and dark . Well , no . We had really good fun doing this song , so the video should make you laugh . I mean , it should be sick , too . " Magnus Carlsson , Swedish creator of the animated series Robin , was commissioned by the band to make the video . Radiohead were fans of the show , and connected with the Robin character ; Jonny Greenwood described him as " affectionate " and " vulnerable " , while Yorke admitted that he found Robin " quite the vulnerable character , but he 's also violently cynical and quite tough and would always get up again . " At first Carlsson sought to work on a video for " No Surprises " and was uncertain as to how to approach " Paranoid Android " . Eventually he devised a scenario to the band 's liking after he locked himself in his office for over 12 hours to stare out of the window , while listening to the song on repeat while jotting down visual ideas . As Carlsson did not have access to the lyrics at the time , the concept for the video was based entirely on the song 's sound . According to Yorke , the band " deliberately didn 't send Magnus the lyrics " because they " didn 't want [ the video ] to be too literal . "
Like Robin , the " Paranoid Android " video is drawn in a simplistic style that emphasises bold colours and clear , strong lines . It features Robin and his friend Benjamin venturing into the world , running into miserable EU representatives , bullying pub patrons , a prostitute , two kissing leathermen , a drug addict , deranged businessmen , mermaids and an angel who plays table tennis with Robin . The band appears in cameo at a bar , where they are shown drinking while watching a man with a head coming out of his belly dancing on their table . However , in this cameo only the versions of Yorke and Jonny Greenwood resemble themselves ; O 'Brien said " If you freeze @-@ frame it on the video , the guy with the five strands of hair slicked back , that 's Colin . It looks nothing like him . " Colin Greenwood said " there was no way that we could appear in it to perform in it because that would be so Spinal Tap " and that having animations that did not resemble the band members allowed the video to be " twisted and colorful which is how the song is anyway " . Yorke was ultimately pleased with the video , saying that it " is really about the violence around [ Robin ] , which is exactly like the song . Not the same specific violence as in the lyrics , but everything going on around him is deeply troubling and violent , but he 's just drinking himself into oblivion . He 's there , but he 's not there . That 's why it works . And that 's why it does my head in every time I see it . "
While the single did not receive significant radio play in the US , MTV placed its video on high rotation . The version most often shown was edited to remove the mermaids ' bare breasts . Greenwood said , " we would 've understood if they had a problem with some guy chopping his arms and legs off , but I mean , a woman 's breasts ! And mermaids as well ! It 's fucked up . " MTV Europe played the video uncut for two weeks because the channel 's official censor was ill and unable to work ; after that time the channel ran the cut version of the video . A later US version of the video saw the mermaids wear bathing suits , while the uncut version was later compiled along with other Radiohead videos on the DVD and home video release 7 Television Commercials and The Best Of DVD .
Evan Sawdey of PopMatters described the video as " bizarre @-@ yet @-@ fitting " , and Melody Maker said it represented a stunning " psycho @-@ cartoon " . Adrian Glover of Circus called the animation incredible and the video " really cool " . MTV vice president of music Lewis Largent told Spin " You can watch ' Paranoid Android ' a hundred times and not figure it all out . "
= = Packaging = =
Stanley Donwood worked with Yorke to design the artwork for most of the " Paranoid Android " releases , although both the images and design were ultimately credited to " dumb computers " . The cover illustration accompanying the single depicts a hand @-@ drawn dome contains the phrase " God loves his children , yeah ! " , the last line of the song , written above on the uppermost plane . Images from the OK Computer artwork reappear , including a pig and two human figures shaking hands . Writer Tim Footman suggested that these images are borrowed from Pink Floyd , respectively corresponding to the Pink Floyd pigs and Wish You Were Here cover . The cover of the CD2 single is tinted differently from the CD1 single . The UK vinyl release did not include the dome artwork found on the CD singles , but feature images taken from the OK Computer release across the top banner area .
The two versions of the single have different messages on the reverse . Both the CD1 and Japanese releases state :
To kill a demon made of wet sawdust . This sort of demon is almost impossible to kill the only way to do it is to cover its face with wet bread and karate chop its head off otherwise you are in trouble and so is the neighbourhood . Wet sawdust demons like to terrorise . N.B. pressing its face into wet bread that is on the ground works best though you can get a result just by throwing the bread at its face .
Written on the back of the CD2 single is :
A cathedral of white in a suburban shanty town two up two down houses with just the asbestos and the skeletons left .
Each release of " Paranoid Android " included one or more B @-@ sides . " Polyethylene ( Parts 1 & 2 ) " , included on the CD1 , 7 @-@ inch vinyl , and Japanese releases of the single , were a multi @-@ section piece formatted much like " Paranoid Android " itself . The first part of the song consists of Yorke 's vocals over acoustic guitar ; the second part contains distorted guitar and organ and uses complex time signature changes . " Pearly * " , featured on the CD1 and Japanese releases of the single , was described by Yorke as a " dirty song for people who use sex for dirty things " . " A Reminder " , which appears on the CD2 release , features fuzzed guitar , thumping drums , and electric piano . According to Yorke , this song was inspired by " this idea of someone writing a song , sending it to someone , and saying : ' If I ever lose it , you just pick up the phone and play this song back to remind me . ' " " Melatonin " , also on the CD2 release , is a synthesiser @-@ based song with lyrics similar to that of a lullaby , but with an undercurrent of menace in lines like " Death to all who stand in your way " . The OK Computer track " Let Down " is also included on the Japanese single .
= = Cover versions = =
YouTube cover artist Mike Massé recorded a live acoustic version of " Paranoid Android " with Jeff Hall on 9 / 8 / 08 at the Pie Pizzeria in Salt Lake City , Utah .
Jazz pianist Brad Mehldau recorded a nine @-@ minute cover of " Paranoid Android " on his album Largo ( 2002 ) , featuring percussionists Jim Keltner and Matt Chamberlain , as well as a horn section . Additionally , Mehldau performed a 19 @-@ minute version of the song on Live in Tokyo ( 2004 ) .
The University of Massachusetts Amherst Minuteman Marching Band covered the song live in a version featuring xylophones , chimes , snare drums , cymbals , bass drum and timpani .
Numerous Radiohead tribute albums include a version of " Paranoid Android " , including Rockabye Baby ! Lullaby Renditions of Radiohead and Plastic Mutations : The Electronic Tribute to Radiohead .
The reggae group Easy Star All @-@ Stars covered OK Computer in its entirety for Radiodread ( 2006 ) . Producer Michael G noted that " Paranoid Android " was particularly difficult to arrange for reggae , saying " There are songs like ' Paranoid Android ' , which flips between 4 / 4 time and 7 / 8 time about 13 times , and I also had to think about other ways to reinterpret those parts with horns , melodica , organ ... it was a great challenge . "
Sia Furler covered the song for the neo soul tribute Exit Music : Songs with Radio Heads ( 2006 ) , and this version later appeared on The O.C. episode " The Chrismukk @-@ huh ? " .
" Paranoid Android " has also been covered by classical musicians . Christopher O 'Riley arranged " Paranoid Android " for a single piano and performed the song on Hold Me to This ( 2005 ) .
Los Angeles string quartet The Section recorded the song for Strung Out on OK Computer : The String Quartet Tribute to Radiohead ( 2001 ) ; half of this quartet went on to form the Section Quartet , who performed " Paranoid Android " and the rest of OK Computer during two concerts in October 2006 .
Weezer covered " Paranoid Android " in both a live studio version released as a YouTube video and in concerts during their 2011 summer tour . Pitchfork 's Tom Breihan called the Weezer cover " a fucking weird experience " , and Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone criticised the song as " mainly boring " for not venturing far enough from Weezer 's traditional sound .
= = Track listings = =
All songs written by Thom Yorke , Jonny Greenwood , Ed O 'Brien , Colin Greenwood , and Phil Selway .
= = Personnel = =
Thom Yorke - vocals , acoustic guitar , laptop
Jonny Greenwood - electric guitar , electric piano , synthesizers , mellotron
Ed O 'Brien - electric guitar , effects , cabasa , backing vocals
Colin Greenwood - bass guitar , claves
Phil Selway - drums and percussion
= = Charts = =
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= Zoo TV Tour =
The Zoo TV Tour ( also written as ZooTV , ZOO TV or ZOOTV ) was a worldwide concert tour by rock band U2 . Staged in support of their 1991 album Achtung Baby , the tour visited arenas and stadiums from 1992 to 1993 . To mirror the new musical direction that the group took with Achtung Baby , the tour was intended to deviate from their past and confound expectations of the band . In contrast to U2 's austere stage setups from previous tours , the Zoo TV Tour was an elaborately staged multimedia event . It satirised television and media oversaturation by attempting to instill " sensory overload " in its audience . To escape their reputation for being overly serious , U2 embraced a more lighthearted and self @-@ deprecating image on tour . Zoo TV and Achtung Baby were central to the group 's 1990s reinvention .
The tour 's concept was inspired by disparate television programming , the desensitising effect of mass media , and " morning zoo " radio shows . The stage featured dozens of large video screens that showed visual effects , video clips , and flashing text phrases . Live satellite link @-@ ups , channel surfing , prank calls , and video confessionals were incorporated into the shows . Whereas U2 were known for their earnest live act in the 1980s , the group 's Zoo TV performances were intentionally ironic and theatrical ; on stage , Bono portrayed several characters he conceived , including " The Fly " , " Mirror Ball Man " , and " MacPhisto " . In contrast to other U2 tours , each of the Zoo TV shows opened with six to eight consecutive new songs before older material was played .
Comprising five legs and 157 shows , the tour began in Lakeland , Florida , on 29 February 1992 and finished in Tokyo , Japan , on 10 December 1993 . The first four legs alternated between North America and Europe , before the final leg visited Australasia and Japan . After two arena legs , the show 's production was expanded for stadiums for the final three legs , which were branded " Outside Broadcast " , " Zooropa " , and " Zoomerang / New Zooland " , respectively . Although the tour provoked a range of reactions from music critics , it was generally well received . Along with being the highest @-@ grossing North American tour of 1992 , Zoo TV sold around 5 @.@ 3 million tickets over its five legs . The band 's 1993 album Zooropa , which expanded on Zoo TV 's mass media themes , was recorded during a break in the tour , and its songs were played in 1993 . The tour was depicted in the Grammy Award – winning 1994 concert film Zoo TV : Live from Sydney . Critics regard the Zoo TV Tour as one of rock 's most memorable tours — in 2002 , Q 's Tom Doyle called it " the most spectacular rock tour staged by any band " .
= = Background = =
U2 's 1987 album The Joshua Tree and the supporting Joshua Tree Tour brought them to a new level of commercial and critical success , particularly in the United States . Like their previous tours , the Joshua Tree Tour was a minimalistic , austere production , and they used this outlet for addressing political and social concerns . As a result , the band earned a reputation for being earnest and serious , an image that became a target for derision after their much @-@ maligned 1988 motion picture and companion album Rattle and Hum , which documented their exploration of American roots music . The project was criticised as being " pretentious " , and " misguided and bombastic " , and U2 were accused of being grandiose and self @-@ righteous . Their 1989 Lovetown Tour did not visit the United States , and at the end of the tour , lead vocalist Bono announced on @-@ stage that it was " the end of something for U2 " and that " we have to go away and ... just dream it all up again " , foreshadowing changes for the group .
= = Conception = =
U2 's first ideas for Zoo TV emerged during the Lovetown Tour in 1989 , when various aspects of radio programming intrigued the group , particularly the large radio audience their Dublin concerts reached . The wild antics of " morning zoo " radio programmes inspired the band to consider taking a pirate radio station on tour . They were also interested in using video as a way of making themselves less accessible to their audiences . The band developed these ideas in late 1990 while recording Achtung Baby in Berlin at Hansa Studios . While in Berlin , they watched television coverage of the Gulf War on Sky News , which was the only English programming available . When they became tired of hearing about the conflict , they tuned into local programming to see " bad German soap operas " and automobile advertisements . The band believed that cable television had blurred the lines between news , entertainment , and home shopping over the previous decade , and they wanted to represent this on their next tour .
The juxtaposition of such disparate programming inspired U2 and Achtung Baby co @-@ producer Brian Eno to conceive an " audio @-@ visual show " that would display a rapidly changing mix of live and pre @-@ recorded video on monitors . The idea was intended to mock the desensitising effect of mass media . Eno , who was credited in the tour programme for the " Video Staging Concept " , explained his vision for the tour : " the idea to make a stage set with a lot of different video sources was mine , to make a chaos of uncoordinated material happening together ... The idea of getting away from video being a way of helping people to see the band more easily ... this is video as a way of obscuring them , losing them sometimes in just a network of material . "
While on a break from recording , the band invited production designer Willie Williams to join them in Tenerife in February 1991 . Williams had recently worked on David Bowie 's Sound + Vision Tour , which used film projection and video content , and he was keen to " take rock show video to a level as yet undreamed of " . The band played Williams some of their new music — inspired by alternative rock , industrial music , and electronic dance music — and they told him about the " Zoo TV " phrase that Bono liked . Williams also learned about the band 's affection for the Trabant , an East German automobile that derisively became a symbol for the fall of Communism . Williams thought their fondness for the car was " deeply , deeply bizarre " , but nonetheless , he incorporated it into his ideas for the tour . In May , he brainstormed the idea to construct a lighting system using Trabants by hanging them from the ceiling and hollowing them to carry spotlights .
On 14 June 1991 , the first tour production meeting was held , with Williams , the band , manager Paul McGuinness , artist Catherine Owens , and production managers Steve Iredale and Jake Kennedy in attendance . Williams presented his ideas , which included the Trabant lighting system and the placement of video monitors all over the stage ; both notions were well received . Eno 's original idea was to have the video screens on wheels and constantly in motion , although this was impractical . Williams and the group proposed many ideas that did not make it to the final stage design . One such proposal , dubbed " Motorway Madness " , would have placed billboards advertising real products across the stage , similar to their placement beside highways . The idea was intended to be ironic , but was ultimately scrapped out of fear that the band would be accused of selling out . Another proposed idea building a giant doll of an " achtung baby " , complete with an inflatable penis that would spray on the audience , but it was deemed too expensive and was abandoned .
By August , a prototype of a single Trabant for the lighting system was completed , with the innards gutted and retrofitted with lighting equipment , and a paint job on the exterior . Williams spent most of the second half of 1991 designing the stage . Owens was insistent that her ideas be given priority , as she thought that men had been making all of U2 's creative decisions and were using male @-@ centred designs . With bassist Adam Clayton 's support , she recruited visual artists from Europe and the United States to arrange images for use on the display screens . These people included video artist Mark Pellington , photo / conceptual artist David Wojnarowicz , and satirical group Emergency Broadcast Network , who digitally manipulate sampled image and sound . Pellington envisaged a collection of text phrases into the visual displays , inspired by his working with artist Jenny Holzer . The idea was first put into practice in the video for Achtung Baby 's lead single , " The Fly " . Bono devised and collected numerous phrases during development of the album and the tour . Additional pre @-@ recorded video content was created by Eno , Williams , Kevin Godley , Carol Dodds , and Philip Owens .
On 13 November , U2 settled on the " Zoo TV Tour " name and the plans to place video screens across the stage and build a lighting system out of Trabants . McGuinness led a trip to East Germany to buy Trabants from a recently closed factory in Chemnitz , and in January 1992 , Catherine Owens began to paint the cars . As she described , " The basic idea was that the imagery on the cars should have nothing to do with the car itself . " One such design was the " fertility car " , which sported blown @-@ up newspaper personal ads and a drawing of a woman giving birth while holding string tied to her husband 's testicles . Williams and Chilean artist Rene Castro also provided artwork on the cars .
= = Stage design and show production = =
The Zoo TV stages were designed by Willie Williams , U2 's stage designer since the War Tour of 1982 – 1983 . In place of U2 's austere and minimalist productions of the 1980s , the Zoo TV stage was a complex setup , designed to instill " sensory overload " in its audience . The set 's giant video screens showed not only close @-@ ups of the band members performing , but also pre @-@ recorded video , live television transmissions ( intercepted by a satellite dish the group brought on tour ) , and text phrases . Electronic , tabloid @-@ style headlines ran on scrawls at the ends of the stage . The band 's embracing of such technology was meant as a radical departure in form , and as a commentary on the pervasive nature of technology . This led many critics to describe the show as " ironic " .
Several versions of the stage were used during the tour . The first two legs of 1992 were indoors and used the smallest of the sets , which included four Vidiwalls ( Philips @-@ branded giant television screens ) ; six painted Trabants suspended above the stage ; 36 television monitors ; and a B @-@ stage , a small remote platform connected to the main stage by a ramp . A seventh Trabant by the B @-@ stage doubled as a DJ booth and a mirror ball .
To redesign the set for the 1992 North American stadium leg — dubbed " Outside Broadcast " — Williams collaborated with stage designers Mark Fisher and Jonathan Park , both of whom had worked on The Rolling Stones ' Steel Wheels Tour stage set . The set was expanded to include a 248 @-@ by @-@ 80 @-@ foot ( 76 by 24 m ) stage , and the Vidiwalls were supplemented by four larger mega @-@ video screens . Williams faced difficulties in designing the outdoor lighting system , as the stage did not have a roof . He settled on using the venues ' house spotlights and strategically placed lights in the structure behind the band . The spires of the stage , intended to resemble transmission towers , were tall enough that the Federal Aviation Administration required them to have blinking warning lights . The stage 's appearance was compared to the techno @-@ future cityscapes from Blade Runner and the works of cyberpunk writer William Gibson . The B @-@ stage was located at the end of a 150 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 46 m ) catwalk . The larger set used 176 speaker enclosures , 312 18 @-@ inch ( 46 cm ) subwoofers , 592 10 @-@ inch ( 25 cm ) mid @-@ range speakers , 18 projectors , 26 on @-@ stage microphones , two Betacam and two Video @-@ 8 handheld video cameras , and 11 Trabants suspended by cranes over the stage . The outdoor stage used for the 1993 legs of the tour was smaller due to budget concerns , and it discarded the Trabants hung from cranes , instead featuring three cars hanging behind the drum kit . All of the projection screens were replaced with " video cubes " , as the projectors were not bright enough for the European summer nights , when daylight remained later into the evening .
To accommodate the video production , the equivalent of a television studio control room — costing US $ 3 @.@ 5 million — was built for the tour . Beneath the stage , Dodds , the video director , operated a system custom @-@ built by Philips called CD @-@ i . It used five broadcast camera systems , 12 Laser Disc players , and a satellite dish , and it required 12 directors , 19 video crew members , and two separate mix stations to operate . Despite the production 's complexity , the group decided that flexibility in the shows ' length and content was a priority . Guitarist The Edge said , " That was one of the more important decisions we made early on , that we wouldn 't sacrifice flexibility , so we designed a system that is both extremely complicated and high @-@ tech but also incredibly simple and hands @-@ on , controlled by human beings ... in that sense , it 's still a live performance . " This flexibility allowed for improvisations and deviations from the planned programme . Eno recommended that U2 film its own video tapes so that they could be edited and looped into the video displays more easily , instead of relying entirely on pre @-@ sequenced video . Eno explained , " their show depends on some kind of response to what 's happening at the moment in that place . So if it turns out they want to do a song for five minutes longer , they can actually loop through the material again so that you 're not suddenly stuck with black screens halfway through the fifth verse . " The band shot new video for the displays over the course of the tour .
The 180 @-@ person crew travelled in 12 buses and a chartered jet known as the Zoo Plane . For the American stadium shows , 52 trucks were required to transport 1 @,@ 200 short tons ( 1 @,@ 089 tonnes ) of equipment , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of cabling , 12 forklifts , and a 40 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 36 t ) crane ; the million @-@ dollar stage was constructed in a 40 @-@ hour process with the help of 200 local labourers . The sound system used over one million watts and weighed 30 short tons ( 27 t ) .
= = Planning , itinerary , and ticketing = =
Rehearsals for the tour began in December 1991 at The Factory in Dublin . During this time , Eno consulted U2 on the visual aspects of the show . The band found it challenging to recreate all the sounds from the new album . They considered using additional musicians , but their sentimental attachment to a four @-@ piece prevailed . They left Dublin on 19 February 1992 to set up at Lakeland Civic Center in Lakeland , Florida for rehearsals before the opening show at the venue on 29 February .
Unlike many of the group 's previous tours , which began ahead of or coincident with the release of a new album , Zoo TV started four months after Achtung Baby was released , giving fans more time to familiarise themselves with the new songs . By opening night , the album had already sold three million copies in the US and seven million worldwide . The first two legs of the 1992 tour were indoor arena shows , comprising 32 concerts in North America from February to April and 25 in Europe from May to June . While the band had toured North America every year between 1980 and 1987 , they were absent from the North American tour circuit for over four years before Zoo TV . The US concert business was in a slump at the time , and the routing of the first two legs generally allowed only one show per city . This was intended to announce the band 's return to major cities , to gauge demand for ticket sales , and to re @-@ introduce the notion of a " hot ticket " to concertgoers . Tickets for the opening show in Florida sold out over the phone in four minutes , demand exceeding supply by a factor of 10 to 1 . To combat ticket scalping , the band avoided selling tickets in box offices as much as possible , preferring to sell over the telephone instead . Several cities ' telephone systems were overwhelmed when Zoo TV tickets went on sale ; Los Angeles telephone company Pacific Bell reported 54 million calls in a four @-@ hour period , while Boston 's telephone system was temporarily shut down .
In Europe , ticketing details were kept secret until radio advertisements announced that tickets had gone on sale at box offices . In many cases , tickets were limited to two @-@ per @-@ person to deter scalping . Due to the production costs and relatively small arena crowds , the European arena leg lost money . McGuinness had planned larger outdoor concerts in Berlin , Turin , Poland , and Vienna to help the tour break even , but only the Vienna concert occurred .
Two stadium legs were tentatively planned and dependent on the success of the arena tour : the North American " Outside Broadcast " leg from August – November 1992 , and the European " Zooropa " leg from May – August 1993 . While their playing stadiums was motivated by pragmatic concerns , U2 saw it as an artistic challenge as well , imagining what Salvador Dalí or Andy Warhol would do with such spaces . Rehearsals for " Outside Broadcast " began in Hersheypark Stadium in Hershey , Pennsylvania in early August 1992 ; a public rehearsal show was held on 7 August . Technical problems and pacing issues forced refinement to the show . Six days before the official leg @-@ opening Giants Stadium show , the group delayed the concert by a day , due to the difficulty of assembling the large outdoor production and the destruction of the largest screen in a windstorm . By the time " Outside Broadcast " began , Achtung Baby had sold four million copies in the US . Tickets for the " Zooropa " leg went on sale in November 1992 . The leg , which began in May 1993 , was the band 's first full stadium tour of Europe and marked the first time they had visited certain areas . Scheduling for the " Zoomerang " stadium leg in the Pacific from November – December 1993 afforded the band more off @-@ days between shows than previous legs , but this amplified the exhaustion and restlessness that had set in by the tour 's end .
Although the tour was listed as co @-@ sponsored by MTV , the group decided against explicit corporate sponsorship ; band members , especially drummer Larry Mullen , Jr . , were uncertain that the tour would be profitable . The daily cost of producing the tour was US $ 125 @,@ 000 , regardless of whether a show was held on a given day . An attempt to convince Philips to donate the video equipment was unsuccessful , and the band had to pay for it themselves . In order to defray the heavy expenses of the Pacific shows , U2 asked for large guarantees from local promoters up front , rather than sharing the financial burden as they had in the past . This sometimes caused promoters to raise ticket prices above usual levels , which in turn sometimes resulted in less than full houses . Profit margin was a slim four to five percent at most sold @-@ out shows .
= = Show overview = =
= = = Pre @-@ show = = =
Between the support acts and U2 's performance , a disc jockey played records . For the 1992 legs , Irish rock journalist and radio presenter BP Fallon filled the role . Originally hired to write the Zoo TV tour programme , he played music from inside a Trabant on the B @-@ stage , while providing commentary and wearing a cape and top hat . His official title was " Guru , Viber and DJ " . He hosted Zoo Radio , a November 1992 distributed radio special that showcased select live performances , audio oddities , and half @-@ serious interviews with members of U2 and the opening acts . At the group 's suggestion , Fallon eventually published a book about the tour entitled U2 Faraway So Close . Paul Oakenfold , who became one of the world 's most prominent club DJs by the decade 's end , replaced him later on the tour .
Beginning with the group 's 24 May 1992 show , Fallon played " Television , the Drug of the Nation " by hip @-@ hop artists The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy as the last song before the venue darkened and U2 took the stage . U2 saw the song , a commentary on mass media culture , as encapsulating some of the tour 's principal themes . The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy became one of the supporting acts for the " Outside Broadcast " leg , and after their supporting stint , " Television " was retained as the pre @-@ show closer until the tour 's conclusion . After the venue darkened , one of several audio @-@ video pieces was played to accompany the group taking the stage . During the " Outside Broadcast " leg , the piece was one by Emergency Broadcast Network that reorganised video clips of American President George H. W. Bush to make him sing Queen 's " We Will Rock You " . A different piece , created by Ned O 'Hanlon and Maurice Linnane of Dreamchaser video productions , was used on the 1993 legs ; it wove looped video from Leni Riefenstahl 's films Triumph of the Will and Olympia with various video clips featuring war and news .
= = = Main set = = =
The concert began with a fixed sequence of six to eight consecutive Achtung Baby songs , a further sign that they were no longer the U2 of the 1980s . For the opening song , " Zoo Station " , Bono entered as his primary stage persona , " The Fly " , appearing silhouetted against a giant screen of blue and white video noise interwoven with glimpses of xerox animations of the band members . " The Fly " usually followed , with the video monitors flashing a rapidly changing array of textual words and aphorisms . Some of these included " Taste is the enemy of art " , " Religion is a club " , " Ignorance is bliss " , " Watch more TV " , " Believe " with letters fading out to leave " lie " , and " Everything you know is wrong " . ( During the first week of the tour , media outlets incorrectly reported that the words shown included " Bomb Japan Now " , forcing the band to issue a statement denying the claim . ) Before " Even Better Than the Real Thing " , Bono channel surfed through live television programming , and during the song , as random images from television and pop culture flashed on screen , he filmed himself and the band with a camcorder .
In a Zoo Radio interview , The Edge described the visual material that accompanied the first three songs :
" ' Zoo Station ' is four minutes of a television that 's not tuned into any station , but giving you interference and shash and almost a TV picture . ' The Fly ' is information meltdown — text , sayings , truisms , untruisms , oxymorons , soothsayings , etc . , all blasted at high speed , just fast enough so it 's impossible to actually read what 's being said . ' Even Better Than the Real Thing ' is whatever happens to be flying around the stratosphere on that night . Satellite TV pictures , the weather , shopping channel , cubic zirconium diamond rings , religious channels , soap operas ... "
" Mysterious Ways " featured a belly dancer on @-@ stage . For the 1992 indoor legs , Florida resident Christina Petro was the dancer . Tour choreographer Morleigh Steinberg assumed the role starting with the " Outside Broadcast " leg . " One " was accompanied by the title word shown in many languages , as well as Mark Pellington @-@ directed video clips of buffalos leading to a still image of David Wojnarowicz 's " Falling Buffalo " photograph . For " Until the End of the World " , Bono often played with a camera , kissing the lens and thrusting it into his crotch , a stark contrast from his more earnest stage behaviour of the past . Beginning with " Outside Broadcast " , the band began playing " New Year 's Day " afterwards . During " Tryin ' to Throw Your Arms Around the World " , Bono danced with a young female fan from the crowd ( a ritual he had done more solemnly on past tours ) , shared camcorder video filming duties with her , and sprayed champagne . At this point in the show , Mullen sometimes sang a solo performance of " Dirty Old Town " .
The group played many Achtung Baby songs very similarly to the way they had appeared on record . Since this material was complex and layered , most numbers featuring pre @-@ recorded or offstage percussion , keyboard , or guitar elements underlying the U2 members ' live instrumentals and vocals . U2 had used backing tracks in live performance before , but with the need to sync live performance to Zoo TV 's high @-@ tech visuals , almost the entire show was synced and sequenced . This practice has continued on their subsequent tours .
Zoo TV was one of the first large @-@ scale concerts to feature a B @-@ stage , where performances were intended " to be the antidote to Zoo TV " . The idea had been inspired by the successful informality of the Elvis Presley ' 68 Comeback Special . Here , the band played quieter songs , such as acoustic arrangements of " Angel of Harlem " , " When Love Comes to Town " , " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " , and Lou Reed 's " Satellite of Love " . Many critics compared the B @-@ stage performances to " busking " and singled them out as the shows ' highlights .
After leaving the B @-@ stage , U2 often played " Bad " or " Sunday Bloody Sunday " , with performances of " Bullet the Blue Sky " and " Running to Stand Still " following . For " Bullet the Blue Sky " , the video screens displayed burning crosses and swastikas ; during " Running to Stand Still " , Bono mimed the actions of a heroin addict from the B @-@ stage , rolling up his sleeves and then spiking his arm during the final lyric . Afterwards , red and yellow smoke flares came out from either end of the B @-@ stage , before the band re @-@ grouped on the main stage for U2 classics played straight . " Where the Streets Have No Name " was accompanied by sped @-@ up video of the group in the desert from The Joshua Tree 's photo shoot . U2 often finished their set with " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " while a clip from Martin Luther King , Jr . ' s famed " I 've Been to the Mountaintop " speech was played on the video screens . The group was initially unconvinced that the leap from the rest of the show 's irony and artifice to something more sincere would be successful , but they thought that it was important to demonstrate that certain ideals were so strong and true that they could be held onto no matter the circumstance . The group alternated performances of " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " in acoustic form on the B @-@ stage with using it to close the main set .
= = = Encore = = =
Commencing with the " Outside Broadcast " leg , clips from the tour 's " video confessional booth " were displayed on the set 's screens between the main set and the encore . Concertgoers were encouraged to visit the booth prior to the concert and say whatever they wanted . These " confessions " varied from a woman flashing her breasts to a man revealing he had killed his friend in a car accident . Once the encore began , Bono would return as a different alter ego — Mirror Ball Man in 1992 , and MacPhisto in 1993 . Performances of " Desire " were accompanied by images of Richard Nixon , Margaret Thatcher , Paul Gascoigne , and Jimmy Swaggart , and were meant as a criticism of greed ; cash rained the stage and Bono often portrayed Mirror Ball Man as an interpretation of the greedy preacher described in the song 's lyrics . Bono often made a crank call from the stage as his persona of the time . Such calls included dialing a phone sex line , calling a taxi cab , ordering 10 @,@ 000 pizzas ( the Detroit pizza parlor delivered 100 pizzas during the show ) , or calling a local politician . Bono regularly called the White House in an attempt to contact President Bush . Though Bono never reached the President , Bush did acknowledge the calls during a press conference .
" Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " and " With or Without You " were frequently played afterwards . Concerts initially ended with Achtung Baby 's slower " Love Is Blindness " . Beginning with the " Outside Broadcast " shows , it was often followed by Bono 's falsetto take on Elvis Presley 's long @-@ time show @-@ closing ballad , " Can 't Help Falling in Love " , culminating in Bono softly stating that " Elvis is still in the building " . Both songs presented a low @-@ key , introspective conclusion to the show , in contrast to the dynamic , aggressive opening ; the group also wanted to move away from its tradition of ending concerts with the fan sing @-@ along favourite " 40 " . The night finished with a single video message being displayed : " Thanks for shopping at Zoo TV " .
= = = Guest appearances = = =
On 11 June 1992 , Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus of ABBA appeared on @-@ stage in Stockholm for the first time in years to perform " Dancing Queen " with the band , which U2 had frequently performed on the tour up to that point . Other guest performers on the tour included Axl Rose , Jo Shankar , and Daniel Lanois .
On 19 June 1992 , during the European indoor leg , U2 played the " Stop Sellafield " concert in Manchester , alongside Kraftwerk , Public Enemy , and Big Audio Dynamite II , to protest the operation of a second nuclear reactor at Sellafield . For the group 's performance , the stage was made to resemble their Zoo TV stage . The following day , the band participated in a demonstration organised by Greenpeace in which protesters landed on the beach at Sellafield in rubber dinghies and displayed 700 placards for the waiting media .
At the first " Outside Broadcast " show on 12 August 1992 at Giants Stadium , Lou Reed performed " Satellite of Love " with the band ; he and Bono dueted using their contrasting vocal styles . Bono re @-@ confirmed the singer 's influence on the band by announcing , " Every song we 've ever written was a rip @-@ off of a Lou Reed song . " For the second show and the remainder of the tour , a taping of Reed singing the song was used for a virtual duet between him and Bono .
Novelist Salman Rushdie joined the band on stage in London 's Wembley Stadium on 11 August 1993 , despite the death fatwā against the author and the risk of violence arising from his controversial novel The Satanic Verses . In reference to the novel 's satanic references , Rushdie , when confronted by Bono 's MacPhisto character , observed that " real devils don 't wear horns " . In 2010 , Clayton recalled that " Bono had been calling Salman Rushdie from the stage every night on the Zoo TV tour . When we played Wembley , Salman showed up in person and the stadium erupted . You [ could ] tell from Larry 's face that we weren 't expecting it . Salman was a regular visitor after that . He had a backstage pass and he used it as often as possible . For a man who was supposed to be in hiding , it was remarkably easy to see him around the place . "
= = Sarajevo satellite link @-@ ups = =
As the " Zooropa " leg unfolded in 1993 , U2 became concerned about the volatile political situation in post @-@ communist Europe and the resurgence of radical nationalism . The opening of the show was modified to reflect this , with sounds from Lenin 's Favourite Songs mixed with " Ode to Joy " mixed with monotone voices asking " What do you want ? " in different European languages . A visual of the Flag of Europe was presented which then crumbled after one of the stars fell off .
A number of these European shows featured live satellite link @-@ ups with people living in war @-@ torn Sarajevo during the siege of Sarajevo / Bosnian War . The transmissions were arranged with help from American aid worker Bill Carter . Before their 3 July show in Verona , Italy , the band met with Carter to give an interview about Bosnia for Radio Televizija Bosne I Hercegovina . Carter described his experiences helping Sarajevans while surviving the dangerous living conditions . While in Sarajevo , Carter had seen a television interview on MTV in which Bono mentioned the theme of the " Zooropa " leg was a unified Europe . Feeling that such an aim was empty if Bosnia went overlooked , Carter sought Bono 's help . He requested that U2 visit Sarajevo to bring attention to the war and break the " media fatigue " that had occurred from covering the conflict . Bono wanted the band to play a concert in the city , but their tour schedule prevented this , and McGuinness believed that a concert there would make them and their audience targets for the Serbian aggressors .
Instead , the group agreed to use the tour 's satellite dish to conduct live video transmissions between their concerts and Carter in Sarajevo . Carter returned to the city and was able to assemble a video unit . The band had to purchase a satellite dish to be sent to Sarajevo and had to pay a £ 100 @,@ 000 fee to join the European Broadcasting Union . Once set up , the band began satellite link @-@ ups to Sarajevo on a near nightly basis , the first airing on 17 July 1993 in Bologna , Italy . To connect with the EBU satellite feeds , Carter and two co @-@ workers had to traverse " Sniper Alley " at night to reach the Sarajevo television station , and they had to film with as little light as possible to avoid the attention of snipers . This was done a total of ten times over the course of a month . Carter discussed the deteriorating situation in the city , and Bosnians often spoke to U2 and their audience . These grim interviews deviated from the rest of the show , and they were completely unscripted , leaving the group unsure of who would be speaking or what they would say . U2 stopped the broadcasts in August 1993 after learning that the siege of Sarajevo was being reported on the front of many British newspapers . Though this trend had begun before the first link @-@ up , Nathan Jackson suggested that U2 's actions had brought awareness of the situation to their fans , and to the British public indirectly .
Reactions to the transmissions were mixed , triggering a media debate concerning the ethical implications of mixing rock entertainment with human tragedy . The Edge said , " A lot of nights it felt like quite an abrupt interruption that was probably not particularly welcomed by a lot of people in the audience . You were grabbed out of a rock concert and given a really strong dose of reality and it was quite hard sometimes to get back to something as frivolous as a show having watched five or ten minutes of real human suffering . " Mullen worried that the band were exploiting the Bosnians ' suffering for entertainment . In 2002 , he said , " I can 't remember anything more excruciating than those Sarajevo link @-@ ups . It was like throwing a bucket of cold water over everybody . You could see your audience going , ' What the fuck are these guys doing ? ' But I 'm proud to have been a part of a group who were trying to do something . " During a transmission for the band 's concert at Wembley Stadium , three women in Sarajevo told Bono via satellite , " We know you 're not going to do anything for us . You 're going to go back to a rock show . You 're going to forget that we even exist . And we 're all going to die . " Some people close to the band joined the War Child charity project , including Brian Eno . Writer Bill Flanagan believes that the link @-@ ups accomplished Bono 's goal for Zoo TV of " illustrating onstage the obscenity of idly flipping from a war on CNN to rock videos on MTV " . U2 vowed to perform in Sarajevo someday , eventually fulfilling this commitment on their 1997 PopMart Tour .
= = Bono 's stage personae = =
Bono assumed a number of costumed alter egos during Zoo TV performances . The three main personae that he used on stage were " The Fly " , " Mirror Ball Man " , and " MacPhisto " . Additionally , during performances of " Bullet the Blue Sky " and " Running to Stand Still " , he appeared on @-@ stage wearing a military utility vest and cap , and a microphone headset . As this character , he ranted and raved in an act he said was set in the Vietnam War .
To escape their reputation for being overly serious and self @-@ righteous , U2 decided to alter their image by being more facetious . Bono said , " All through the Eighties we tried to be ourselves and failed when the lights were on . Which is what set us up for Zoo TV . We decided to have some fun being other people , or at least other versions of ourselves . " The Edge said , " We were quite thrilled at the prospect of smashing U2 and starting all over again . " The group viewed humour as the appropriate response to their negative perception and that although their message would not change , they needed to change how they delivered it to their audience .
= = = The Fly = = =
Bono conceived his " Fly " persona during the writing of the song of the same name . The character began with Bono wearing an oversized pair of blaxploitation sunglasses , given to him by wardrobe manager Fintan Fitzgerald , to lighten the mood in the studio . Bono wrote the song 's lyrics as this character , composing a sequence of " single @-@ line aphorisms " . He developed the persona into a leather @-@ clad egomaniac , describing his outfit as having Lou Reed 's glasses , Elvis Presley 's jacket , and Jim Morrison 's leather pants . To match the character 's dark fashion , Bono dyed his naturally brown hair black .
Bono began each concert as The Fly and continued to play the character for most of the first half of the concert . In contrast to his earnest self of the 1980s , as The Fly , Bono strutted around the stage with " swagger and style " , exhibiting mannerisms of an egotistical rock star . He adopted the mindset that he was " licensed to be an egomaniac " . He often stayed in character away from the tour stage , including for public appearances and when staying in hotels . He said , " That rather cracked character could say things that I couldn 't " , and that it offered him a greater freedom of speech .
= = = Mirror Ball Man = = =
As the Mirror Ball Man , Bono dressed in a shining silver lamé suit with matching shoes and cowboy hat . The character was meant to parody greedy American televangelists , showmen , and car salesman , and was inspired by Phil Ochs ' Elvis persona from his 1970 tour . Bono said that he represented " a kind of showman America . He had the confidence and charm to pick up a mirror and look at himself and give the glass a big kiss . He loved cash and in his mind success was God 's blessing . If he 's made money , he can 't have made any mistakes . " As the character , Bono spoke with an exaggerated Southern American accent . Mirror Ball Man appeared during the show 's encore and made nightly prank calls , often to the White House . Bono portrayed this alter ego on the first three legs of the tour , but replaced him with MacPhisto for the 1993 legs .
= = = MacPhisto = = =
MacPhisto was created to parody the devil and was named after Mephistopheles of the Faust legend . Initially called " Mr. Gold " , MacPhisto wore a gold lame suit with gold platform shoes , pale make @-@ up , lipstick , and devil 's horns atop his head . As MacPhisto , Bono spoke with an exaggerated upper @-@ class English accent , similar to that of a down @-@ on @-@ his @-@ luck character actor . The character was created as a European replacement for the American @-@ influenced Mirror Ball Man . The initial inspiration for MacPhisto came from the stage musical The Black Rider . Realisation of the character did not come about until rehearsal the night before the first of the 1993 shows . According to Bono , " We came up with a sort of old English Devil , a pop star long past his prime returning regularly from sessions on The Strip in Vegas and regaling anyone who would listen to him at cocktail hour with stories from the good old , bad old days . " MacPhisto sang the closing " Can 't Help Falling in Love " with an oddly childlike manner that many reviewers found one of the most poignant moments of the show .
Bono continued making crank calls as MacPhisto , but the targets changed with the location of each concert . Many of them were local politicians that Bono wished to mock by engaging them in character as the devil . He enjoyed making these calls , saying , " When you 're dressed as the Devil , your conversation is immediately loaded , so if you tell somebody you really like what they 're doing , you know it 's not a compliment . " The band intended for MacPhisto to add humour while making a point . Said The Edge , " That character was a great device for saying the opposite of what you meant . It made the point so easily and with real humor . " A female Cardiff fan who was pulled on @-@ stage questioned Bono 's motives for dressing as the devil , prompting the singer to compare his act to the plot of the C. S. Lewis novel The Screwtape Letters .
= = Recording and release of Zooropa = =
U2 recorded their next album , Zooropa , from February to May 1993 during an extended break between the third and fourth legs of the tour . The album was intended as a companion EP to Achtung Baby , but soon expanded into a full LP . Recording could not be completed before the tour restarted , and for the first month of the " Zooropa " leg , the band flew home after shows , recording until the early morning and working on their off @-@ days , before travelling to their next destination . Clayton called the process " about the craziest thing you could do to yourself " , while Mullen said of it , " It was mad , but it was mad good , as opposed to mad bad . " McGuinness later said the band had nearly wrecked themselves in the process . The album was released on 5 July 1993 . Influenced by the tour 's themes of technology and mass media , Zooropa was an even greater departure in style from their earlier recordings than Achtung Baby was , incorporating further dance music influences and electronic effects into their sound . A number of songs from the album were incorporated into the subsequent " Zooropa " and " Zoomerang " legs , most frequently " Numb " and " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " . For the " Zoomerang " leg , " Daddy 's Gonna Pay For Your Crashed Car " and " Lemon " were added to the encore and " Dirty Day " to the main set .
= = Broadcasts , recordings , and releases = =
On 9 September 1992 , a portion of U2 's performance at the Pontiac Silverdome was broadcast live to the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards . The band performed " Even Better Than the Real Thing " while VMA host Dana Carvey , dressed as his Wayne 's World Garth persona , accompanied the band on drums in Los Angeles . A Zoo Radio special included live selections from 1992 shows from Toronto , Dallas , Tempe , and New York City . On 28 and 29 November 1992 , a TV special entitled Zoo TV Featuring U2 was aired , featuring portions of several " Outside Broadcast " leg shows as well as William S. Burroughs ' reading of the sardonic poem " Thanksgiving Prayer " ; directed by Kevin Godley , the programme was broadcast in North America on Fox , and in Europe via Channel 4 , Premiere , France 2 , Rai Uno , RTVE , TV1000 , and Veronica . Several 1992 shows , including the 11 June concert in Stockholm and 27 October concert in El Paso , were broadcast into the homes of fans who had won contests . In October 1992 , U2 released Achtung Baby : The Videos , The Cameos , and a Whole Lot of Interference from Zoo TV , a VHS compilation of nine music videos from Achtung Baby . Interspersed between the music videos were clips of so @-@ called " interference " , comprising documentary footage , media clips , and other video similar to what was displayed on tour .
Two November 1993 " Zoomerang " shows in Sydney were filmed as part of a worldwide television broadcast . The 26 November show was to be a rehearsal for the production crew for the official filming the following night ; however , Clayton , who began drinking excessively on the latter stages of the tour , suffered an alcoholic blackout from the previous night and was unable to perform . Bass guitar technician Stuart Morgan filled in for him , marking the first time any member of U2 had missed a show . Clayton recovered in time to play the 27 November show , which was broadcast and was the only show used in the resulting video release . The concert was broadcast in the United States on tape @-@ delayed pay @-@ per @-@ view . U2 originally planned to produce the concert with MTV for a January 1994 " triplecast " that would have offered three different perspectives of the show on three separate channels . However , the group cancelled the " triplecast " after realising they had not fully developed the concept . The show was subsequently released as the concert video Zoo TV : Live from Sydney in 1994 , and the double CD Zoo TV Live in 2006 to subscribing members of U2 's website . The video won the Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video at the 37th Annual Grammy Awards ceremony .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Reviews written during the initial arena legs reflected the dramatic change in U2 's approach . Many critics published favourable reviews about the tour ; the San Francisco Chronicle praised the special effects for supplementing the music . The reviewer wrote , " The often @-@ surrealistic effects always served the songs , not the other way around . " The review concluded , " this magnificent multimedia production will serve as a pinnacle in rock 's onstage history for sometime [ sic ] to come " . Edna Gundersen of USA Today said that U2 was dismantling its myth and wrote that the show was " a trippy and decadent concert of bedazzling visuals and adventurous music " . Melody Maker 's Jon Wiederhorn wrote that he expected to dislike the show based upon their past stage history , " But , alas , I cannot be negative about U2 tonight . Their Zoo TV show is visually stunning , musically unparalleled , downright moving and , dammit , truly entertaining . " Hot Press ' Bill Graham said of the show , " U2 don 't so much use every trick in the book as invent a whole new style of rock performance art . " For Graham , the tour resolved any doubts he had about the band — particularly about Bono — following their reinvention with Achtung Baby .
Other critics indicated befuddlement as to U2 's purpose . The Asbury Park Press wrote that the long string of Achtung Baby song presentations that opened the show made one forget about the band 's past , and that " almost everything you knew about U2 a couple years ago is , in fact , wrong now " . The Star @-@ Ledger said that the band shortchanged its music with its video presentations and that especially during the opening sequence , " one was only aware of the music as a soundtrack to the real ' show ' " . It concluded by saying that the group had lost the sense of mystery and yearning that made it great and that they had succumbed to the style of music videos . Jon Pareles of The New York Times acknowledged that U2 was trying to break its former earnest image and that they were a " vastly improved band " for being " trendy " and " funny " ; yet , he commented , " U2 wants to have its artifice and its sincerity at the same time — no easy thing — and it hasn 't yet made the breakthrough that will unite them . "
The stadium legs of the tour received more consistent praise than the arena shows . Critics noted that while the show and its setlist were largely the same as before , the tour mostly benefited from the increased scale . The New York Daily News said that the stage " looked like a city made of television sets — an electronic Oz " and that " glitz was used not as a mere distraction ( as it has been by so many video @-@ age artists ) , but as a determined conceit " . Gundersen also made the comparison to Oz , saying that even though the band was dwarfed by the setting , their adventurous musicianship still shone through . She concluded that the group had " deliver [ ed ] a brilliant high @-@ wire act " between mocking and exploiting rock music clichés , a comparison also made by stage designer Williams . Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times said of the outdoor American leg , " Zoo TV is the yardstick by which all other stadium shows will be measured . " David Fricke of Rolling Stone said that the band had " regained critical and commercial favor by negotiating an inspired balance between rock 's cheap thrills and its own sense of moral burden " . He praised the band for " retool [ ing ] themselves as wiseacres with heart and elephant bucks to burn " . Fricke noted that the increased visual effects for the " Outside Broadcast " leg increased the shows ' " mind @-@ fuck " factor . Many critics described the tour as " post @-@ modern " . The writers of Rolling Stone , in a best @-@ of @-@ 1992 issue , named U2 co @-@ winners of " Best Band " , while awarding the Zoo TV Tour honours for both " Best Tour " and " Worst Tour " .
The Independent praised the " Zooropa " leg , with the reviewer stating , " I came as a sceptic , and left believing I had witnessed the most sophisticated meeting of technical wizardry and mojo priestcraft ever mounted . " Dave Fanning of The Irish Times praised the " Zooropa " leg , stating , " If this is the show by which all other rock circuses must be measured , then God help the new music . " Fanning observed that the group , particularly Bono , exhibited " style , sex and self @-@ assurance " . Billboard wrote , " No one is dancing on the edges of rock 'n'roll 's contradictions as effectively these days as U2 . " The stadium legs had their detractors , as NME called the shows a " two @-@ hour post @-@ modernist pot noodle advert made by politically naive , culturally unaware squares with the help of some cool , arty people " . Graham thought that the scale of the stadium shows led to more predictability and less interaction with the audiences .
= = = Fan reaction = = =
The group and the music industry were unsure how fans would receive the tour beforehand . During the first week of shows , Bono said , " This show is a real roller coaster ride , and some people will want to get off , I 'm sure . " He remained optimistic that their devoted fans would continue following them , but cautioned he had no intention of resisting the glamour and fame : " Oh , but it 's fun to be carried away by the hype . Where would you be without the hype ? ... You can 't pretend all the promotion and all the fanfare is not happening . " Some hardcore fans , particularly in the US , objected to the tour as a blatant sellout to commercial values , while others misinterpreted the tour 's mocking of excess , believing that , according to VH1 's Legends , " U2 had ' lost it ' and that Bono had become an egomaniac " . Many Christian fans were offended the band 's antics and believed they had abandoned their religious faith .
By the outdoor legs , many fans knew what to expect , and Pareles observed that Bono 's admonitions to never cheer a rock star were greeted with idolatrous applause ; he concluded that the show 's message of scepticism was somewhat lost on the audience and that , " No matter what Bono tells his fans , they seem likely to trust him anyway . " By the end of the tour 's first year , U2 had won over many fans . In a 1992 end @-@ of @-@ year poll , readers of Q voted U2 " The Best Act in the World Today " . The band 's almost clean sweep of Rolling Stone 's end @-@ of @-@ year readers ' poll — which included " Best Artist " , " Best Tour " , and Bono as " Sexiest Male Artist " — reconfirmed for the magazine they were the " world 's biggest rock band " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
On the opening leg , U2 sold 528 @,@ 763 tickets and grossed US $ 13 @,@ 215 @,@ 414 in 32 shows . They grossed US $ 67 million overall in 73 North American shows in 1992 , easily the highest amount for any touring artist that year . At the time , this was the third @-@ highest gross for a North American tour , behind The Rolling Stones ' 1989 Steel Wheels Tour and New Kids on the Block 's 1990 Magic Summer Tour . For 1992 , Zoo TV ticket sales in America and Europe totalled 2 @.@ 9 million . The " Zooropa " stadium leg the following year played to more than 2 @.@ 1 million people over 43 dates between 9 May and 28 August . In total , the Zoo TV Tour played to about 5 @.@ 3 million people . The band incurred heavy expenses to produce the tour , leading to only a small profit . According to McGuinness , " We grossed $ 30 million in T @-@ shirt sales . Without those we 'd be fucked . " Bono later said , " When we built Zoo TV , we were so close to bankruptcy that if five percent fewer people went , U2 was bankrupt . Even in our irresponsible , youthful and fatal disregard of such material matters , it was terrifying . "
= = Impact and legacy = =
For the Zoo TV Tour , U2 embraced the " rock star " identity they had struggled with and were reluctant to accept throughout the 1980s . They drew the attention of celebrities , including American presidential candidate Bill Clinton , and they began partying more than they had in the past . During parts of the tour , the band attracted the fashion crowd ; Clayton 's romantic relationship with supermodel Naomi Campbell and Bono 's friendship with supermodel Christy Turlington made them the subjects of unwanted tabloid attention . By the " Zoomerang " leg , Clayton 's relationship with Campbell was fracturing and he was drinking frequently . After missing the group 's 26 November 1993 show in Sydney from an alcoholic blackout , Clayton quit drinking altogether . The incident resulted in tensions within the group in the tour 's final weeks . The Edge began dating the belly dancer Morleigh Steinberg during the tour , and the two later married in 2002 .
The tour 's two @-@ year length , then U2 's longest , exhausted the band as the final legs unfolded . Following the conclusion of Zoo TV , U2 took an extended break from recording as a group . Mullen and Clayton moved into Manhattan apartments in New York City , where they sought out music lessons to become better musicians . The Edge and Bono spent most of 1994 living in newly renovated houses in the South of France .
After the tour , although The Fly character was retired , Bono began to wear tinted glasses , similar to his Fly sunglasses , in most public appearances . The glasses have since become a stylistic trademark of the singer in both his musical and activist roles . The Fly and MacPhisto characters appeared in the animated music video to U2 's 1995 song " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " from the soundtrack to Batman Forever . Author Višnja Cogan wrote that " the video crystallises and concludes the Zoo TV period and the changes that occurred " . Director Joel Schumacher attempted to create a role for Bono as MacPhisto in Batman Forever , but both later agreed it was not suitable .
As the tour drew to a close , the group entered prolonged discussions about creating a Zoo TV television channel in partnership with MTV . This never materialised , but in 1997 , MTV ran a brief miniseries called Zoo @-@ TV , which featured Emergency Broadcast Network extending their tour role in creating contemporary surrealist satirical video . U2 endorsed the effort as a representation of what the tour would have been like as a news magazine , but their direct role was limited to providing half @-@ financing and outtakes from the Zooropa album . Wired magazine said the series " pushe [ d ] the edge of commercial — even comprehensible — television " .
U2 's subsequent concert tour , 1997 's PopMart Tour , followed in Zoo TV 's footsteps by mocking another social trend , this time consumerism . Paul McGuinness said the group wanted " the production [ of PopMart ] to beat Zoo TV " , and accordingly , the tour 's spectacle was a further shift away from their austere stage shows of the 1980s ; PopMart 's stage featured a 150 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 46 m ) LED screen , a 100 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 30 m ) golden arch containing the sound system , and a mirrorball lemon that served as a transport to the B @-@ stage . Although critics were much less receptive to PopMart , in a 2009 interview , Bono said that he considers that tour to be their best : " Pop ( Mart ) is our finest hour . It 's better than Zoo TV aesthetically , and as an art project it is a clearer thought . "
The Pixies ' stint as a support act produced a controversy that partially contributed to their break @-@ up . In July 1992 , Spin featured a controversial cover story titled " U2 On Tour : The Story They Didn 't Want You to Read " , which detailed author Jim Greer 's travels on the tour 's first weeks with his unidentified girlfriend ( who turned out to be Pixies ' bassist Kim Deal ) . The article featured their criticisms of U2 for the supposed poor treatment the Pixies received . Both U2 and the Pixies disagreed and were livid at Deal , particularly Pixies frontman Black Francis . In 1993 , following tensions within the group , Francis announced the Pixies had dissolved .
In 2005 , during their Vertigo Tour , the group often played a short set of songs as a homage to the Zoo TV Tour — " Zoo Station " , " The Fly " , and " Mysterious Ways " — as part of the first encore ; performances of " Zoo Station " included the interference in the background visual effects , and " The Fly " used flashing text effects on the LED screens similar to the Zoo TV visuals .
Critics regard the Zoo TV Tour as one of rock 's most memorable tours . During the " Zooropa " leg of the tour , Guy Garcia of Time called Zoo TV " one of the most electrifying rock shows ever staged " . In 1997 , Robert Hilburn wrote that " It 's not unreasonable to think of it as the Sgt. Pepper 's of rock tours . " In 2002 , Tom Doyle of Q called it " still the most spectacular rock tour staged by any band " , and in 2013 , the magazine listed it as one of the " ten greatest gigs of all time " . In 2009 , critic Greg Kot said , " Zoo TV remains the finest supersized tour mounted by any band in the last two decades . " Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork wrote in a review of Achtung Baby 's 20th anniversary reissue , " Even 20 years on , the tour looks like something to behold , a singularly inventive experience that no band — including U2 itself — has been able to really expound upon in a meaningful way . " The Edge said , " as a band I think it stretched us all . We were a different band after that and touring was different . " Producer Nellee Hooper later told Bono that Zoo TV " ruined irony for everyone " .
= = Tour dates = =
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= The Bishop Revival =
" The Bishop Revival " is the 14th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode 's storyline followed Nazi scientist Alfred Hoffman ( Craig Robert Young ) as he specially designed airborne toxins to kill only surrounding people with similar genetic traits , such as people with brown eyes .
It was written by Glen Whitman and Robert Chiappetta , and directed by Adam Davidson . Along with Young and a number of small guest parts , the episode featured another guest appearance by Clark Middleton as rare book seller Edward Markham . " The Bishop Revival " first aired in the United States on January 28 , 2010 on the Fox network to an estimated 9 @.@ 153 million viewers . Critical reception for the episode ranged from positive to mixed , as reviewers were divided on the episode 's villain .
= = Plot = =
15 people suffocate at a Jewish wedding , appearing to have asphyxiated from the inside out . When the Fringe team arrives , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) identifies that all the victims were from the groom 's side , whose grandmother was a Holocaust survivor - and Walter ( John Noble ) surmises that they were all killed via their shared genetic traits . Later , a similar mass death occurs at a coffee shop , in which Walter recognizes the victims all had brown eyes , another common genetic trait . From fingerprints found at the scene , they discover the culprit is Alfred Hoffman ( Craig Robert Young ) , a Nazi scientist apparently somehow over 100 years old . Walter realizes that the man likely worked with his own father , Robert Bishoff ( a German scientist who defected to the US in 1943 and anglicised his name ) , in creating a chemical agent that , once heated as a gas , could be used to target any specific trait using DNA from the target subject - especially those not of the master race . Though Walter originally had his father 's files on the subject , his son Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , 10 years earlier , had sold them ; Peter tries to recover the files but finds some have been used by an artist to create sensationalism art , causing Walter to become distraught .
They trace Hoffman to his home , finding his equipment used to create the chemical agent downstairs but no sign of Hoffman . Walter nearly suffocates from an agent left by Hoffman , but Olivia and Peter are able to save him in time . As the FBI search the premises , they find evidence that points to a convention being held to promote world equality . Olivia and Peter depart to try to find Hoffman , while Walter remains behind , examining Hoffman 's equipment .
At the convention , Hoffman has replaced the heating elements for the chafing @-@ dishes with his own . Olivia and Peter struggle with locating Hoffman before Walter and Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) arrive . Walter uses a fogger to distribute his own chemical agent , this time specific to Hoffman , and soon the man is found dying . As the team regroups , Walter fully admits to killing Hoffman , a crime in itself , but Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) decides to let Walter go . Later , Peter has been able to recover the rest of his grandfather 's work and returns it to Walter ; Walter then goes through the files , finding an old photo of his father and Hoffman working together .
= = Production = =
" The Bishop Revival " was the third episode to be written by writing partners Glen Whitman and Robert Chiappetta . It was the only Fringe episode directed by Adam Davidson .
" The Bishop Revival " revealed that the seahorse shown in promotions since the series began was in fact a genetically encoded " signature " created by Walter 's father Dr. Robert Bishop . In an interview after the episode 's broadcast , consulting producer Akiva Goldsman cited " The Bishop Revival " when discussing the use of flashbacks in Fringe ; he stated his disinclination to use too many flashbacks in the series , explaining " I think flashbacks are really useful and there are a couple of places where it will be useful . But fundamentally , no , I don 't think we 're a show that will be doing a lot of jumping back in time despite the single horde of calls for the ' Walter 's Grandfather Nazi Hunting ' series . I think not , but it was fun to do [ in the ' Peter ' episode ] . "
Guest stars for the episode included Craig Robert Young , Max Train , Sierra Pitkin , Brendon Zub , Barbara Kottmeier , John Macintyre , Lauren Attadia , Al Miro , Aaron Brooks , Magda Harout , Leonard Tenisci , Alberta Mayne , Nancy Linari , and Dan Joffre . Clark Middleton , who was last seen in the first season episode " Ability " , made his second guest appearance in " The Bishop Revival " as rare bookseller Edward Markham .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode contained two pieces of music from the 19th century German composer Johannes Brahms : his Piano Quartet No. 1 , Op.25 in G Major : III . Andante Con Moto @-@ Animato and Piano Quartet No. 1 , Op.25 in G Minor : II . Intermezzo : Allegro Ma Non Troppo @-@ Trio : Animato . Also in the episode , someone is seen holding a Dharma Initiative tea bag , a reference to the mysterious organization on the science fiction series Lost .
The Nazi in this episode appears to be Reichsführer of the Schutzstaffel , Heinrich Himmler . Aside from looking like the character , Himmler was also both a Nordicist and a Nazi Occultist . At one point in the episode , a scared elderly woman points at him screaming , " It 's him ... it 's him ... ! " This has a double meaning , as she could have been saying " It 's him ! " or she could have been trying to say " It 's Himmler ! "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In a Thursday night filled mostly with repeats , Fox 's airing of new episodes Bones and Fringe finished # 1 among adults aged 18 – 49 , with an estimated 9 @.@ 153 million viewers tuning in . Fringe was up fifteen percent from the previous week with a 3 @.@ 0 rating , tying its highest 18 – 49 ratings share for the season . It was the second most viewed episode of the season after the season premiere " A New Day in the Old Town " .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Jane Boursaw of TV Squad wasn 't sure what to think about " The Bishop Revival " , but loved the plotline about Walter 's dad being a German spy working for the US government . Alternately , Annalee Newitz of io9 called the episode " surprisingly meh " ; while appreciating " all the weird family revelations about the Bishops " , she believed the revelations about Walter 's father to be " too much " because " we didn 't need that extra backstory " . Newitz wished Fringe had brought back Olivia 's childhood subplot and its ties with Walter and Peter . The A.V. Club columnist Noel Murray was also critical of the episode , explaining " Plotwise , there wasn 't much going on in ' The Bishop Revival . ' ... The FD tracked down a criminal and felled that criminal ; that 's really it . " Murray did however praise the killer 's methods and " Aryan aloofness " as " cool " and " delightfully old @-@ school " . Like Newitz , Tim Grierson of the magazine New York believed the episode contained " stupid revelations " ; for instance , the Nazi connection of Walter 's father " just felt like a variation on season one 's episodes in which bizarre phenomena could always magically be linked back to Walter 's work for the government . Obviously , this info about Peter 's grandfather was supposed to be ' shocking , ' showing how the Bishop family 's scientific work can so easily be perverted for evil , but by this point it just seems like a very artificial , unnecessary ploy to keep us engaged . "
Other than a few minor complaints with the episode 's logic , IGN writer Ramsey Isler thought positively about " The Bishop Revival " and the Nazi story element in particular , stating " there 's a definite unique Fringe flavor that makes this story work " . Isler disliked the unsolved mystery of Hoffman however , writing the " story really had the feel of one of those intriguing but ultimately disposable stories in the Fringe library " . Jennifer Walker from TV Fanatic called the episode " amazing " and a " heart stopper " , while Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times enjoyed the father @-@ son dynamic . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly wrote " The Bishop Revival " was " one of the series ' most satisfying stand @-@ alone episodes " because it featured a " good threat " and gave more information about the Bishop family 's backstory . Tucker praised John Noble 's performance , as his " portrayal of Walter encompasses everything from endearing daffiness to ferocious concentration and commitment " . MTV 's Josh Wigler believed the episode was " terrific , " but wished there was more of a balance between the show 's three leads , and that Olivia was featured on a regular basis . He , Hanson , and other critics agreed that this and the previous week 's episode gave Fringe some strong momentum heading into the winter finale . Though normally skeptical of the series ' many fringe cases , Popular Mechanics called the episode Fringe 's " most plausible case yet " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 2011 Young Artist Awards , Sierra Pitkin received a nomination for Best Performance in a TV Series under the category " Guest Starring Young Actress Ten and Under " .
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= George F. Kennan =
George Frost Kennan ( February 16 , 1904 – March 17 , 2005 ) was an American diplomat and historian . He was known best as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet expansion during the Cold War on which he later reversed himself . He lectured widely and wrote scholarly histories of the relations between USSR and the United States . He was also one of the group of foreign policy elders known as " The Wise Men " .
During the late 1940s , his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and the U.S. foreign policy of " containing " the Soviet Union . His " Long Telegram " from Moscow during 1946 and the subsequent 1947 article " The Sources of Soviet Conduct " argued that the Soviet regime was inherently expansionist and that its influence had to be " contained " in areas of vital strategic importance to the United States . These texts provided justification for the Truman administration 's new anti @-@ Soviet policy . Kennan played a major role in the development of definitive Cold War programs and institutions , notably the Marshall Plan .
Soon after his concepts had become U.S. policy , Kennan began to criticize the foreign policies that he had seemingly helped begin . Subsequently , prior to the end of 1948 , Kennan became confident that positive dialogue could commence with the Soviet government . His proposals were discounted by the Truman administration and Kennan 's influence was marginalized , particularly after Dean Acheson was appointed Secretary of State during 1949 . Soon thereafter , U.S. Cold War strategy assumed a more assertive and militaristic quality , causing Kennan to lament about what he believed was an abrogation of his previous assessments .
During 1950 , Kennan left the Department of State — except for two brief ambassadorial stints in Moscow and Yugoslavia — and became a realist critic of U.S. foreign policy . He continued to analyze international affairs as a faculty member of the Institute for Advanced Study from 1956 until his death at age 101 .
He was a member of the Founding Council of the Rothermere American Institute at the University of Oxford .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Kennan was born in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , to Kossuth Kent Kennan , a lawyer specializing in tax law , a descendant of dirt @-@ poor Scotch @-@ Irish settlers of 18th @-@ century Connecticut and Massachusetts , who was named after the Hungarian patriot Lajos Kossuth ( 1802 – 94 ) , and Florence James Kennan . Mrs. Kennan died two months later due to peritonitis from a ruptured appendix , though Kennan long believed that she died after giving birth to him . The boy always lamented not having a mother ; he was never close to his father or stepmother , however , he was close to his older sisters .
At the age of eight he went to Germany to stay with his stepmother in order to learn German . He attended St. John 's Military Academy in Delafield , Wisconsin , and arrived at Princeton University in the second half of 1921 . Unaccustomed to the elite atmosphere of the Ivy League , the shy and introverted Kennan found his undergraduate years difficult and lonely . After receiving his bachelor 's degree in 1925 , Kennan considered applying to law school , but decided it was too expensive and instead opted to apply to the newly formed U.S. Foreign Service . He passed the qualifying examination and after seven months of study at the Foreign Service School in Washington he gained his first job as a vice consul in Geneva , Switzerland . Within a year he was transferred to a post in Hamburg , Germany . During 1928 Kennan considered quitting the Foreign Service to attend college , but was selected for a linguist training program that would give him three years of graduate @-@ level study without having to quit the service .
In 1929 Kennan began his program on history , politics , culture , and the Russian language at the University of Berlin 's Oriental Institute . In doing so , he would follow in the footsteps of his grandfather 's younger cousin , George Kennan ( 1845 – 1924 ) , a major 19th century expert on Imperial Russia and author of Siberia and the Exile System , a well @-@ received 1891 account of the Czarist prison system . During the course of his diplomatic career , Kennan would master a number of other languages , including German , French , Polish , Czech , Portuguese , and Norwegian .
In 1931 Kennan was stationed at the legation in Riga , Latvia , where , as third secretary , he worked on Soviet economic affairs . From his job , Kennan " grew to mature interest in Russian affairs " . When the U.S. began formal diplomacy with the Soviet government during 1933 after the election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Kennan accompanied ambassador William C. Bullitt to Moscow . By the mid @-@ 1930s Kennan was among the professionally trained Russian experts of the staff of the embassy in Moscow , along with Charles E. Bohlen and Loy W. Henderson . These officials had been influenced by the long @-@ time director of the State Department 's division of East European Affairs , Robert F. Kelley . They believed that there was little basis for cooperation with the Soviet Union , even against potential adversaries . Meanwhile , Kennan studied Stalin 's Great Purge , which would affect his opinion of the internal dynamics of the Soviet regime for the rest of his life .
Kennan found himself in strong disagreement with Joseph E. Davies , Bullitt 's successor as ambassador to the Soviet Union , who defended the Great Purge and other aspects of Stalin 's rule . Kennan did not have any influence on Davies 's decisions , and the latter even suggested that Kennan be transferred out of Moscow for " his health " . Kennan again contemplated resigning from the service , but instead decided to accept the Russian desk at the State Department in Washington . By September 1938 , Kennan had been reassigned to a job at the legation in Prague . After the occupation of the Czechoslovak Republic by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II , Kennan was assigned to Berlin . There , he endorsed the United States ' Lend @-@ Lease policy , but warned against displaying any notion of American endorsement for the Soviets , whom he considered to be an unfit ally . He was interned in Germany for six months after Germany , followed by the other Axis states , declared war on the United Statesin December 1941 .
In September 1942 Kennan was assigned as a counselor in Lisbon , Portugal , where he begrudgingly performed a job administrating intelligence and base operations . In January 1944 he was sent to London , where he served as counselor of the American delegation to the European Advisory Commission , which worked to prepare Allied policy in Europe . There , Kennan became even more disenchanted with the State Department , which he believed was ignoring his qualifications as a trained specialist . However , within months of beginning the job , he was appointed deputy chief of the mission in Moscow upon request of W. Averell Harriman , the ambassador to the U.S.S.R.
= = = Cold War = = =
= = = = The " long telegram " = = = =
In Moscow , Kennan again felt that his opinions were being ignored by Harry S. Truman and policymakers in Washington . Kennan tried repeatedly to persuade policymakers to abandon plans for cooperation with the Soviet government in favor of a sphere of influence policy in Europe to reduce the Soviets ' power there . Kennan believed that a federation needed to be established in western Europe to counter Soviet influence in the region and to compete against the Soviet stronghold in eastern Europe .
Kennan served as deputy head of the mission in Moscow until April 1946 . Near the end of that term , the Treasury Department requested that the State Department explain recent Soviet behavior , such as its disinclination to endorse the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank . Kennan responded on February 22 , 1946 , by sending a lengthy 5 @,@ 500 @-@ word telegram ( sometimes cited as being more than 8 @,@ 000 words ) from Moscow to Secretary of State James Byrnes outlining a new strategy for diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union . At the " bottom of the Kremlin 's neurotic view of world affairs is the traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity " . After the Russian Revolution , this sense of insecurity became mixed with communist ideology and " Oriental secretiveness and conspiracy " .
Soviet international behavior depended mainly on the internal necessities of Joseph Stalin 's regime ; according to Kennan , Stalin needed a hostile world in order to legitimize his autocratic rule . Stalin thus used Marxism @-@ Leninism as a " justification for the Soviet Union 's instinctive fear of the outside world , for the dictatorship without which they did not know how to rule , for cruelties they did not dare not to inflict , for sacrifice they felt bound to demand ... Today they cannot dispense with it . It is the fig leaf of their moral and intellectual respectability " .
The solution was to strengthen Western institutions in order to render them invulnerable to the Soviet challenge , while awaiting the mellowing of the Soviet regime .
Kennan 's new policy of containment was that Soviet pressure had to " be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points " .
This dispatch brought Kennan to the attention of Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal , a major advocate of a confrontational policy with regard to the Soviets , the United States ' former wartime ally . Forrestal helped bring Kennan back to Washington , where he served as the first deputy for foreign affairs at the National War College and then strongly influenced his decision to publish the " X " article .
The goal of his policy was to withdraw all the U.S. forces from Europe . The settlement reached would give the Kremlin sufficient reassurance against the establishment of regimes in Eastern Europe hostile to the Soviet Union , tempering the degree of control over that area that the Soviet leaders felt it necessary to exercise .
Meanwhile , during March 1947 , Truman appeared before Congress to request funding for the Truman Doctrine to fight Communism in Greece . " I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures . "
= = = = " X " = = = =
Unlike the " long telegram " , Kennan 's well @-@ timed article appearing in the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs with the pseudonym " X " , entitled " The Sources of Soviet Conduct " , did not begin by emphasizing " traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity " ; instead it asserted that Stalin 's policy was shaped by a combination of Marxist – Leninist ideology , which advocated revolution to defeat the capitalist forces in the outside world and Stalin 's determination to use the notion of " capitalist encirclement " in order to legitimize his regimentation of Soviet society so that he could consolidate his political power . Kennan argued that Stalin would not ( and moreover could not ) moderate the supposed Soviet determination to overthrow Western governments . Thus ,
" the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be a long @-@ term , patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies ... Soviet pressure against the free institutions of the Western world is something that can be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points , corresponding to the shifts and manoeuvers of Soviet policy , but which cannot be charmed or talked out of existence . "
His new policy of containment declared that Soviet pressure had to " be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counter @-@ force at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points " . The goal of his policy was to withdraw all the U.S. forces from Europe . " The settlement reached would give the Kremlin sufficient reassurance against the establishment of regimes in Eastern Europe hostile to the Soviet Union , tempering the degree of control over that area that the Soviet leaders felt it necessary to exercise " .
Kennan further argued that the United States would have to perform this containment alone but if it could do so without undermining its own economic health and political stability , the Soviet party structure would undergo a period of immense strain eventually resulting in " either the break @-@ up or the gradual mellowing of Soviet power " .
The publication of the " X " article soon began one of the more intense debates of the Cold War . Walter Lippmann , a leading American commentator on international affairs , strongly criticized the " X " article . Lippmann argued that Kennan 's strategy of containment was " a strategic monstrosity " that could " be implemented only by recruiting , subsidizing and supporting a heterogeneous array of satellites , clients , dependents , and puppets " . Lippmann argued that diplomacy should be the basis of relations with the Soviets ; he suggested that the U.S. withdraw its forces from Europe and reunify and demilitarize Germany . Meanwhile , it was soon revealed informally that " X " was indeed Kennan . This information seemed to give the " X " article the status of an official document expressing the Truman administration 's new policy toward Moscow .
Kennan had not intended the " X " article as a prescription for policy . For the rest of his life , Kennan continued to reiterate that the article did not imply an automatic commitment to resist Soviet " expansionism " wherever it occurred , with little distinction of primary and secondary interests . The article did not make it obvious that Kennan favored employing political and economic rather than military methods as the chief agent of containment . " My thoughts about containment " said Kennan in a 1996 interview to CNN , " were of course distorted by the people who understood it and pursued it exclusively as a military concept ; and I think that that , as much as any other cause , led to [ the ] 40 years of unnecessary , fearfully expensive and disoriented process of the Cold War " .
Additionally , the administration made few attempts to explain the distinction between Soviet influence and international Communism to the U.S. public . " In part , this failure reflected the belief of many in Washington " , writes historian John Lewis Gaddis , " that only the prospect of an undifferentiated global threat could shake Americans out of their isolationist tendencies that remained latent among them " .
In a PBS television interview with David Gergen during 1996 , Kennan again reiterated that he did not regard the Soviets as primarily a military threat , noting that " they were not like Hitler " . Kennan 's opinion was that this misunderstanding :
" all came down to one sentence in the " X " article where I said that wherever these people , meaning the Soviet leadership , confronted us with dangerous hostility anywhere in the world , we should do everything possible to contain it and not let them expand any further . I should have explained that I didn 't suspect them of any desire to launch an attack on us . This was right after the war , and it was absurd to suppose that they were going to turn around and attack the United States . I didn 't think I needed to explain that , but I obviously should have done it . "
The " X " article meant sudden fame for Kennan . After the long telegram , he recalled later , " My official loneliness came in fact to an end ... My reputation was made . My voice now carried . "
= = = = Influence under Marshall = = = =
Between April 1947 and December 1948 , when George C. Marshall was Secretary of State , Kennan was more influential than he was at any other period in his career . Marshall valued his strategic sense and had him create and direct what is now named the Policy Planning Staff , the State Department 's internal think tank . Kennan became the first Director of Policy Planning . Marshall relied heavily on him to prepare policy recommendations . Kennan played a central role in the drafting of the Marshall Plan .
Although Kennan regarded the Soviet Union as too weak to risk war , he nonetheless considered it an enemy capable of expanding into Western Europe through subversion , given the popular support for communist parties in Western Europe , which remained demoralized by the devastation of the Second World War . To counter this potential source of Soviet influence , Kennan 's solution was to direct economic aid and covert political help to Japan and Western Europe to revive Western governments and assist international capitalism ; by doing so the United States would help to rebuild the balance of power . During June 1948 , Kennan proposed covert assistance to left @-@ wing parties not oriented toward Moscow and to labor unions in Western Europe in order to engineer a rift between Moscow and working @-@ class movements in Western Europe .
As the United States was initiating the Marshall Plan , Kennan and the Truman administration hoped that the Soviet Union 's rejection of Marshall aid would strain its relations with its Communist allies in Eastern Europe . Kennan initiated a series of efforts to exploit the schism between the Soviets and Josip Broz Tito 's Yugoslavia . Kennan proposed conducting covert action in the Balkans to further decrease Moscow 's influence .
The administration 's new vigorously anti @-@ Soviet policy also became evident when , at Kennan 's suggestion , the U.S. changed its hostility to Francisco Franco 's anti @-@ communists regime in Spain in order to secure U.S. influence in the Mediterranean . Kennan had observed during 1947 that the Truman Doctrine implied a new consideration of Franco . His suggestion soon helped begin a new phase of U.S. – Spanish relations , which ended with military cooperation after 1950 .
= = = = Differences with Acheson = = = =
Kennan 's influence rapidly decreased when Dean Acheson became Secretary of State , succeeding the ailing George Marshall during 1949 and 1950 . Acheson did not regard the Soviet " threat " as chiefly political , and he saw the Berlin blockade starting during June 1948 , the first Soviet test of a nuclear weapon during August 1949 , the Communist revolution in China a month later , and the beginning of the Korean War during June 1950 as evidence . Truman and Acheson decided to delineate the Western sphere of influence and to create a system of alliances .
This policy was realized as NSC @-@ 68 , a classified report issued by the United States National Security Council during April 1950 and written by Paul Nitze , Kennan 's successor as director of policy planning . Kennan and Charles Bohlen , another State Department expert on Russia , argued about the wording of NSC @-@ 68 , which became the basis of Cold War policy . Kennan rejected the idea that Stalin had a grand design for world conquest implicit in Nitze 's report and argued that he actually feared overextending Russian power . Kennan even argued that NSC @-@ 68 should not have been drafted at all , as it would make U.S. policies too rigid , simplistic , and militaristic . Acheson overruled Kennan and Bohlen , endorsing the assumption of Soviet menace implied by NSC @-@ 68 .
Kennan opposed the building of the hydrogen bomb and the rearmament of Germany , which were policies encouraged by the assumptions of NSC @-@ 68 . During the Korean War ( which began when North Korea invaded South Korea during June 1950 ) , when rumors started circulating in the State Department that plans were being made to advance beyond the 38th parallel into North Korea , an act that Kennan considered dangerous , he engaged in intense arguments with Assistant Secretary of State for the Far East Dean Rusk , who apparently endorsed Acheson 's goal to forcibly unite the Koreas .
Kennan lost influence with Acheson , who in any case relied much less on his staff than Marshall had . Kennan resigned as director of policy planning during December 1949 but stayed in the department as counselor until June 1950 . Acheson replaced Kennan with Nitze during January 1950 , who was much more comfortable with the calculus of military power . Afterwards , Kennan accepted an appointment as Visitor to the Institute for Advanced Study from fellow moderate Robert Oppenheimer , Director of the Institute .
Despite his influence , Kennan was never really comfortable in government . He always regarded himself as an outsider and had little patience with critics . W. Averell Harriman , the U.S. ambassador in Moscow when Kennan was deputy between 1944 and 1946 , remarked that Kennan was " a man who understood Russia but not the United States " .
= = = = Ambassador to the Soviet Union = = = =
During December 1951 , President Truman nominated Kennan to be the next United States ambassador to the USSR . His appointment was endorsed strongly by the Senate .
In many respects ( to Kennan 's consternation ) the priorities of the administration emphasized creating alliances against the Soviets more than negotiating differences with them . In his memoirs , Kennan recalled , " So far as I could see , we were expecting to be able to gain our objectives ... without making any concessions though , only ' if we were really all @-@ powerful , and could hope to get away with it . ' I very much doubted that this was the case . "
At Moscow , Kennan found the atmosphere even more regimented than on his previous trips , with police guards following him everywhere , discouraging contact with Soviet citizens . At the time , Soviet propaganda charged the U.S. with preparing for war , which Kennan did not wholly dismiss . " I began to ask myself whether ... we had not contributed ... by the overmilitarization of our policies and statements ... to a belief in Moscow that it was war we were after , that we had settled for its inevitability , that it was only a matter of time before we would unleash it . "
During September 1952 , Kennan made a statement that cost him his ambassadorship . In an answer to a question at a press conference , Kennan compared his conditions at the ambassador 's residence in Moscow to those he had encountered while interned in Berlin during the first few months of the Second World War . While his statement was not unfounded , the Soviets interpreted it as an implied analogy with Nazi Germany . The Soviets then declared Kennan persona non grata and refused to allow him to re @-@ enter the USSR . Kennan acknowledged retrospectively that it was a " foolish thing for me to have said " .
= = = = Kennan and the Eisenhower administration = = = =
Kennan returned to Washington , where he became embroiled in disagreements with Dwight D. Eisenhower 's hawkish Secretary of State , John Foster Dulles . Even so , he was able to work constructively with the new administration . During the summer of 1953 President Eisenhower asked Kennan to manage the first of a series of top @-@ secret teams , dubbed Operation Solarium , examining the advantages and disadvantages of continuing the Truman administration 's policy of containment and of seeking to " roll back " existing areas of Soviet influence . Upon completion of the project , the president seemed to endorse the group 's recommendations .
By lending his prestige to Kennan 's position , the president tacitly signaled his intention to formulate the strategy of his administration within the framework of its predecessor 's , despite the misgivings of some within the Republican Party . The critical difference between the Truman and Eisenhower policies of containment had to do with Eisenhower 's concerns that the United States could not indefinitely afford great military spending . The new president thus sought to minimize costs not by acting whenever and wherever the Soviets acted ( a strategy designed to avoid risk ) but rather whenever and wherever the United States could afford to act .
= = = = Ambassador to Yugoslavia = = = =
During John F. Kennedy 's 1960 presidential election campaign Kennan wrote to the future president to offer some suggestions on how his administration should improve the country 's foreign affairs . Kennan wrote , " What is needed is a succession of ... calculated steps , timed in such a way as not only to throw the adversary off balance but to keep him off it , and prepared with sufficient privacy so that the advantage of surprise can be retained . " He also urged the administration to " assure a divergence of outlook and policy between the Russians and Chinese , " which could be accomplished by improving relations with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev who had wanted to distance himself from the Communist Chinese . He wrote , " We should ... without deceiving ourselves about Khrushchev 's political personality and without nurturing any unreal hopes , be concerned to keep him politically in the running and to encourage the survival in Moscow of the tendencies he personifies " . Additionally , he recommended that the United States work toward creating divisions within the Soviet bloc by undermining its power in Eastern Europe and encouraging the independent propensities of satellite governments .
Although Kennan had not been considered for a job by Kennedy 's advisers , the president himself offered Kennan the choice of ambassadorship in either Poland or Yugoslavia . Kennan was more interested in Yugoslavia , so he accepted Kennedy 's offer and began his job in Yugoslavia during May 1961 .
Kennan was tasked with trying to strengthen Yugoslavia 's policy against the Soviets and to encourage other states in the Eastern bloc to pursue autonomy from the Soviets . Kennan found his ambassadorship in Belgrade to be much improved from his experiences in Moscow a decade earlier . He commented , " I was favored in being surrounded with a group of exceptionally able and loyal assistants , whose abilities I myself admired , whose judgment I valued , and whose attitude toward myself was at all times ... enthusiastically cooperative ... Who was I to complain ? " Kennan found the Yugoslav government treated the American diplomats politely , in contrast from the way in which the Russians treated him in Moscow . He wrote that the Yugoslavs " considered me , rightly or wrongly , a distinguished person in the U.S. , and they were pleased that someone whose name they had heard before was being sent to Belgrade " .
Kennan found it difficult to perform his job in Belgrade . President Josip Broz Tito and his foreign minister , Koča Popović , began to suspect that Kennedy would adopt an anti @-@ Yugoslav policy during his term . Tito and Popović considered Kennedy 's decision to observe Captive Nations Week as an indication that the United States would assist anticommunist liberation efforts in Yugoslavia . Tito also believed that the CIA and the Pentagon were the true directors of American foreign policy . Kennan attempted to restore Tito 's confidence in the American foreign policy establishment but his efforts were compromised by a pair of diplomatic blunders , the Bay of Pigs Invasion , and the U @-@ 2 spy incident .
Relations between Yugoslavia and the United States quickly began to worsen . During September 1961 , Tito held a conference of nonaligned nations , where he delivered speeches that the U.S. government interpreted as being pro @-@ Soviet . According to historian David Mayers , Kennan argued that Tito 's perceived pro @-@ Soviet policy was in fact a ploy to " buttress Khrushchev 's position within the Politburo against hardliners opposed to improving relations with the West and against China , which was pushing for a major Soviet – U.S. showdown " . This policy also earned Tito " credit in the Kremlin to be drawn upon against future Chinese attacks on his communist credentials " . While politicians and government officials expressed growing concern about Yugoslavia 's relationship with the Soviets , Kennan believed that the country had an " anomalous position in the Cold War that objectively suited U.S. purposes " . Kennan also believed that within a few years , Yugoslavia 's example would cause states in the Eastern bloc to demand more social and economic autonomy from the Soviets .
By 1962 , Congress had passed legislation to deny financial aid grants to Yugoslavia , to withdraw the sale of spare parts for Yugoslav warplanes , and to revoke the country 's most favored nation status . Kennan strongly protested the legislation , arguing that it would only result in a straining of relations between Yugoslavia and the U.S. Kennan came to Washington during the summer of 1962 to lobby against the legislation but was unable to elicit a change from Congress . President Kennedy endorsed Kennan privately but remained noncommittal publicly , as he did not want to jeopardize his slim majority support in Congress on a potentially contentious issue . With U.S. – Yugoslav relations getting progressively worse , Kennan tendered his resignation as ambassador during late July 1963 .
= = = Academic career and later life = = =
During 1957 Kennan was invited by the BBC to give the annual Reith Lectures — a series of six radio lectures , which were titled Russia , the Atom and the West . For these , Kennan explored the history , effect , and possible consequences of relations between Russia and the West .
After the end of his brief ambassadorial post in Yugoslavia during 1963 , Kennan spent the rest of his life in academe , becoming a major realist critic of U.S. foreign policy . Having spent 18 months as a scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study between 1950 and 1952 , Kennan permanently joined the faculty of the Institute 's School of Historical Studies during 1956 . During his career there , Kennan wrote seventeen books and scores of articles on international relations . He won the Pulitzer Prize for History , the National Book Award for Nonfiction , the Bancroft Prize , and the Francis Parkman Prize for Russia Leaves the War , published during 1956 . He again won a Pulitzer and a National Book Award during 1968 for Memoirs , 1925 – 1950 . A second volume , taking his reminiscences up to 1963 was published during 1972 . Among his other works were American Diplomacy 1900 – 1950 , Sketches from a Life , published during 1989 , and Around the Cragged Hill during 1993 .
His properly historical works amount to a six @-@ volume account of the relations between Russia and the West from 1875 to his own time ; the period from 1894 to 1914 was planned but not completed . He was chiefly concerned with :
The folly of the First World War as a choice of policy ; he argues that the costs of modern war , direct and indirect , predictably exceeded the benefits of eliminating the Hohenzollerns .
The ineffectiveness of summit diplomacy , with the Conference of Versailles as a type @-@ case . National leaders have too much to do to give any single matter the constant and flexible attention which diplomatic problems require .
The Allied intervention in Russia in 1918 – 19 . He was indignant with Soviet accounts of a vast capitalist conspiracy against the world 's first worker 's state , some of which do not even mention the First World War ; he was equally indignant with the decision to intervene as costly and harmful . He argues that the interventions , by arousing Russian nationalism , may have ensured the survival of the Bolshevik state .
= = = Realism = = =
Political realism formed the basis of Kennan 's work as a diplomat and diplomatic historian and remains relevant to the debate over American foreign policy , which since the 19th century has been characterized by a shift from the Founding Fathers ' realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations . According to the realist tradition , security is based on the principle of a balance of power , whereas Wilsonianism ( considered impractical by realists ) relies on morality as the sole determining factor in statecraft . According to the Wilsonians the spread of democracy abroad as a foreign policy is important and morals are valid universally . During the Presidency of Bill Clinton , American diplomacy represented the Wilsonian school to such a degree that those in favor of the realism likened President Clinton 's policies to social work . According to Kennan , whose concept of American diplomacy was based on the realist approach , such moralism without regard to the realities of power and the national interest is self @-@ defeating and will result in the decrease of American power .
In his historical writings and memoirs , Kennan laments in great detail the failings of democratic foreign policy makers and those of the United States in particular . According to Kennan , when American policymakers suddenly confronted the Cold War , they had inherited little more than rationale and rhetoric " utopian in expectations , legalistic in concept , moralistic in [ the ] demand it seemed to place on others , and self @-@ righteous in the degree of high @-@ mindedness and rectitude ... to ourselves " . The source of the problem is the force of public opinion , a force that is inevitably unstable , unserious , subjective , emotional , and simplistic . Kennan has insisted that the U.S. public can only be united behind a foreign policy goal on the " primitive level of slogans and jingoistic ideological inspiration " .
Containment during 1967 , when he published the first volume of his memoirs , involved something other than the use of military " counterforce " . He was never pleased that the policy he influenced was associated with the arms build @-@ up of the Cold War . In his memoirs , Kennan argued that containment did not demand a militarized U.S. foreign policy . " Counterforce " implied the political and economic defense of Western Europe against the disruptive effect of the war on European society . Exhausted by war , the Soviet Union posed no serious military threat to the United States or its allies at the beginning of the Cold War but rather an ideological and political rival .
During the 1960s , Kennan criticized U.S. involvement in Vietnam , arguing that the United States had little vital interest in the region . Kennan believed that the USSR , Britain , Germany , Japan , and North America remained the areas of vital U.S. interests . During the 1970s and 1980s , he was a major critic of the renewed arms race as détente was ended .
During 1989 President George H. W. Bush awarded Kennan the Medal of Freedom , the nation 's greatest civilian honor . Yet he remained a realist critic of recent U.S. presidents , urging the U.S. government to " withdraw from its public advocacy of democracy and human rights " , saying that the " tendency to see ourselves as the center of political enlightenment and as teachers to a great part of the rest of the world strikes me as unthought @-@ through , vainglorious and undesirable " . These ideas were particularly applicable to U.S. relations with China and Russia . Kennan opposed the Clinton administration 's war in Kosovo and its expansion of NATO ( the establishment of which he had also opposed half a century earlier ) , expressing fears that both policies would worsen relations with Russia . He described NATO enlargement as a " strategic blunder of potentially epic proportions " .
Kennan remained vigorous and alert during the last years of his life , although arthritis had him using a wheelchair . During his later years , Kennan concluded that " the general effect of Cold War extremism was to delay rather than hasten the great change that overtook the Soviet Union " . At age 98 he warned of the unforeseen consequences of waging war against Iraq . He warned that attacking Iraq would amount to waging a second war that " bears no relation to the first war against terrorism " and declared efforts by the Bush administration to associate al Qaeda with Saddam Hussein " pathetically unsupportive and unreliable " . Kennan went on to warn :
Anyone who has ever studied the history of American diplomacy , especially military diplomacy , knows that you might start in a war with certain things on your mind as a purpose of what you are doing , but in the end , you found yourself fighting for entirely different things that you had never thought of before ... In other words , war has a momentum of its own and it carries you away from all thoughtful intentions when you get into it . Today , if we went into Iraq , like the president would like us to do , you know where you begin . You never know where you are going to end .
During February 2004 scholars , diplomats , and Princeton alumni gathered at the university 's campus to celebrate Kennan 's 100th birthday . Among those in attendance were Secretary of State Colin Powell , international relations theorist John Mearsheimer , journalist Chris Hedges , former ambassador and career Foreign Service officer Jack F. Matlock , Jr . , and Kennan 's biographer , John Lewis Gaddis .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Kennan died on March 17 , 2005 , at age 101 at his home in Princeton , New Jersey . He was survived by his wife Annelise , whom he married during 1931 , and his four children , eight grandchildren , and six great @-@ grandchildren . Annelise died in 2008 at the age of 98 .
In an obituary in the New York Times , Kennan was described as " the American diplomat who did more than any other envoy of his generation to shape United States policy during the cold war " to whom " the White House and the Pentagon turned when they sought to understand the Soviet Union after World War II " . Of Kennan , historian Wilson D. Miscamble remarked that " [ o ] ne can only hope that present and future makers of foreign policy might share something of his integrity and intelligence " . Foreign Policy described Kennan as " the most influential diplomat of the 20th century " . Henry Kissinger said that Kennan " came as close to authoring the diplomatic doctrine of his era as any diplomat in our history " , while Colin Powell called Kennan " our best tutor " in dealing with the foreign policy issues of the 21st century .
During his career , Kennan received a number of awards and honors . As a scholar and writer , Kennan was a two @-@ time recipient of both the Pulitzer Prizes and the National Book Award , and had also received the Francis Parkman Prize , the Ambassador Book Award and the Bancroft Prize . Among Kennan 's numerous other awards and distinctions were the Testimonial of Loyal and Meritorious Service from the Department of State ( 1953 ) , Princeton 's Woodrow Wilson Award for Distinguished Achievement in the Nation 's Service ( 1976 ) , the Order of the Pour le Mérite ( 1976 ) , the Albert Einstein Peace Prize ( 1981 ) , the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade ( 1982 ) , the American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal ( 1984 ) , the American Whig @-@ Cliosophic Society 's James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service ( 1985 ) , the Franklin D. Roosevelt Foundation Freedom from Fear Medal ( 1987 ) , the Presidential Medal of Freedom ( 1989 ) , the Distinguished Service Award from the Department of State ( 1994 ) , and the Library of Congress Living Legend ( 2000 ) . Kennan had also received 29 honorary degrees and was honored in his name with the George F. Kennan Chair in National Security Strategy at the National War College and the George F. Kennan Professorship at the Institute for Advanced Study .
Historian Wilson D. Miscamble argues that Kennan played a critical role in developing the foreign policies of the Truman administration . He also states that Kennan did not believe in either global or strongpoint containment ; he simply wanted to restore the balance of power between the United States and the Soviets . Like historian John Lewis Gaddis , Miscamble concedes that although Kennan personally preferred political containment , his recommendations ultimately resulted in a policy directed more toward strongpoint than to global containment .
= = = Cultural views = = =
Noting the large @-@ scale Mexican immigration to the Southwestern United States , Kennan said in 2002 there were " unmistakable evidences of a growing differentiation between the cultures , respectively , of large southern and southwestern regions of this country , on the one hand " , and those of " some northern regions " . In the former , " the very culture of the bulk of the population of these regions will tend to be primarily Latin @-@ American in nature rather than what is inherited from earlier American traditions ... Could it really be that there was so little of merit [ in America ] that it deserves to be recklessly trashed in favor of a polyglot mix @-@ mash ? " Mayers argues that Kennan throughout his career represented the " tradition of militant nativism " that resembled or even exceeded the Know Nothings of the 1850s . Mayers adds that Kennan also believed American women had too much power .
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= Irish Thoroughbred =
Irish Thoroughbred is American author Nora Roberts 's debut novel , originally published by Silhouette in January 1981 as a category romance . Like other category romances , the novel was less than 200 pages and was intended to be on sale for only one month . It proved so popular that it was repackaged as a stand @-@ alone romance and reprinted multiple times . Roberts wrote two sequels , Irish Rebel and Irish Rose .
Roberts drew on her Irish heritage to create an Irish heroine , Adelia " Dee " Cunnane . In the novel , Dee moves to the United States , where her sick uncle arranges for her to marry his employer , wealthy American horsebreeder Travis Grant . Although the early part of their relationship is marked by frequent arguments and misunderstanding , by the end of the story Travis and Dee reconcile . According to critic Mary Ellen Snodgrass , the couple 's transformation from adversaries to a loving married couple is one of many formulaic elements in the book . Although the protagonists adhered to many stereotypes common to romance novels of the 1980s , Roberts 's heroine is more independent and feisty than most heroines of the time . This book 's popularity helped pave the way for other romance authors to experiment with heroes and heroines who had greater economic and emotional parity .
= = Publication = =
In 1979 , Nora Roberts was a stay @-@ at @-@ home mother with two small children . Stranded during a blizzard with nothing to read , Roberts amused herself by writing down one of the stories in her head . After developing her idea into a novel @-@ length contemporary romance , she continued writing and soon finished six more manuscripts . Roberts submitted her work to Harlequin Enterprises , a Canadian company considered the foremost publisher of romance novels in North America . Harlequin typically published works by British authors set in the British Commonwealth , but in 1975 Harlequin relaxed its criteria slightly and purchased several novels from American Janet Dailey . Unconvinced that the market would appreciate novels such as Dailey 's – all featuring American protagonists and set in the United States – Harlequin was unwilling to further expose itself to risk . As a result , the company quickly rejected Roberts 's work ; one editor explained that " they already had their American writer . "
In an effort to take advantage of the untapped talent of American writers , in 1980 Simon & Schuster created a new imprint , Silhouette Books , to serve as a counterpart to Harlequin . Roberts sent her seventh manuscript , Irish Thoroughbred , unsolicited to the new company . Nancy Jackson , the acquiring editor at Silhouette , pulled the manuscript from the slush pile and was impressed . She offered Roberts a contract , leaving the writer " awestruck " .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel follows the relationship between Irishwoman Adelia " Dee " Cunnane and American Travis Grant . As the story begins , the young and penniless Dee emigrates to the United States to live with her uncle , Paddy , who works on a large horse farm . Dee 's love for animals is evident , and she is given a job working alongside her uncle . Dee has a fiery temper and often argues with Travis , the wealthy farm owner ; many of their arguments lead to passionate embraces . Travis later rescues Dee from an attempted rape .
When Paddy suffers a heart attack , he becomes very concerned about his mortality and Dee 's future . He becomes overwrought and insists that Travis take care of Dee . After privately agreeing to a temporary marriage of convenience , Travis and Dee exchange vows in Paddy 's hospital room . As the story progresses , the protagonists become increasingly unhappy , with neither willing to admit their love for the other .
Although still unwilling to vocalize their feelings , Dee and Travis appear more confident in their relationship after they finally consummate their marriage . Soon , however , Dee 's insecurities are exploited by Travis 's sophisticated former girlfriend , Margot , who has returned to the area to win him back . Dee runs away . Travis follows , and the two confess their love and resolve to make their marriage work .
= = Genre = =
Irish Thoroughbred was initially published as a category romance novel . Books in this genre are short – usually between 175 and 200 pages , or about 55 @,@ 000 words – and are published in clearly delineated lines , or categories . Although each category romance novel is unique , it is required to conform to the general parameters that define its line . The small number of books published in each line every month are numbered sequentially within the line . Irish Thoroughbred was number 81 in the Silhouette Romance line . Novels in this line espouse more traditional family values and place greater emphasis on the characters ' emotions rather than their physical needs . Although these novels often describe sexual tension between the main characters , sexual intercourse is only described within the bounds of marriage .
Category romances are generally only available for a limited time , remaining on a bookseller 's shelves until they are sold out or until the next month 's titles are released . Popular category romances can be repacked as stand @-@ alone romance novels ; Irish Thoroughbred received five printings by 1984 . In 2000 , the book was paired with its sequel , Irish Rose , and republished as Irish Hearts , with an initial print run of one million copies . This coincided with the release of a second sequel , Irish Rebel , which focused on Travis and Dee 's daughter .
= = Themes = =
Silhouette editors were originally concerned that the novel was too ethnic . Like many of her early novels , Roberts 's debut featured characters who shared the Irish culture in which Roberts had been raised . The opening pages , alluding to the introductory scene of Daphne du Maurier 's Rebecca , detailed the heroine 's awed reaction to the extravagance of an American estate . This plotline of an impoverished Irishwoman 's surprise at the wealth of America essentially reframed the Irish emigration to the United States of the 19th century .
According to literary critic Mary Ellen Snodgrass , Irish Thoroughbred is not as polished as later Roberts works . Snodgrass cites many predictable elements , including the core " confrontation between an overconfident male and an assertive girl @-@ woman " . Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s , romance novel heroines were generally " trembling virgins " , of an inferior class and power level than the hero . The hero often was very rich and powerful , while the heroine worked in traditional , subordinate , female roles , such as governess or secretary . The heroine of Irish Thoroughbred conformed to this pattern in part , by being sexually inexperienced , immature , and poor , but Roberts deliberately deviated from the rest of the stereotype by providing her with a hot @-@ tempered and independent personality . Her later books have continued in the same vein . As Roberts explains , " My heroine may have problems , she may be vulnerable , but she has to be strong , she has to be intelligent . She has to be independent and so does he , or I 'm not interested in telling their stories . " The popularity of this book and Roberts 's subsequent novels helped transform the genre , making authors more willing to give heroes and heroines economic and emotional parity .
Despite the greater independence that Roberts allotted her heroine , Dee is trapped within a patriarchal culture in which her uncle and prospective husband arrange her future . The arranged marriage and ensuing events , including the misunderstanding and her running away , were common plot elements for romance novels at that time . Dee 's reactions , however , veered from the formulaic . Her retorts brought to mind the " quippy one @-@ upmanship of feminist literature " . When a man attempts to rape her , Dee responds with a series of sharp comments , calling him , among other things , " a filthy pig of a man " , before succumbing to the traditional feminine response of fainting in horror .
Roberts also includes the motif of jealousy . Dee is given a rival for Travis 's affections – an over @-@ sophisticated woman who is essentially Dee 's antithesis . Roberts reused this plot point in other novels , including Song of the West .
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= Pulvermacher 's chain =
The Pulvermacher chain , or in full as it was sold the Pulvermacher hydro @-@ electric chain , was a type of voltaic battery sold in the second half of the 19th century for medical applications . Its chief market was amongst the numerous quack practitioners who were taking advantage of the popularity of the relatively new treatment of electrotherapy , or " electrification " as it was then known . Its unique selling point was its construction of numerous linked cells , rendering it mechanically flexible . A variant intended to be worn wrapped on part of the body for long periods was known as Pulvermacher 's galvanic chain or electric belt .
The Pulvermacher Company attracted a great deal of antagonism from the medical community due to their use of the names of well @-@ known physicians in their advertising without permission . The nature of their business ; in selling to charlatans and promoting quack practices also made them unpopular with the medical community . Despite this , the Pulvermacher chain was widely reported as a useful source of electricity for medical and scientific purposes , even amongst the most vocal critics of the Pulvermacher Company .
= = Construction = =
Electrically , the machine worked like a voltaic pile , but was constructed completely differently . The electrodes were copper for the cathode and zinc for the anode , with the electrolyte consisting of vinegar or some other weak acid , or a salt solution .
Each cell consisted of a wooden dowel with a bifilar winding of copper and zinc wires . The dowels were helically grooved like a screw thread to locate the wires precisely in position . This enabled the copper and zinc wires to be placed very close to each other without coming into electrical contact . Insulated wires could not be used as this would interfere with the operation of the electrolyte . Copper wires were inserted into the ends of the dowels to which the copper and zinc windings were soldered . These end wires were either attached to , or formed into , hooks and eyes for attaching to other cells . This arrangement is depicted in figure 2 . These attachments provided the electrical connections as well as the mechanical linkages .
Each cell was connected to the next with the copper winding of one being connected to the zinc winding of the next and so on . The cells could be connected end @-@ to @-@ end , or for a more compact assembly side @-@ by @-@ side , in the manner of links in a chain . The voltage delivered by the assembly was controlled by the number of links thus incorporated and could become quite high , even though the current available was no more than from a single cell ( to increase the current , the size of the cells must be increased ) . The shock delivered by such chains was described as " strong " for one chain of 120 links , and as " sharp " for another of 50 links .
Prior to use , the chain was soaked in vinegar so that the electrolyte was absorbed into the wooden dowels . The wood of which the dowels were made was chosen to be a very porous type so that the amount of electrolyte absorbed was maximised . The chain would continue to produce a voltage until the dowels dried out , then the chain would have to be resoaked . Typically , the chain would be charged by slowly drawing it through a bowl of vinegar as shown in figure 4 .
A special link could be included in the chain which incorporated an interrupter circuit . The purpose of the interrupter is to rapidly connect and disconnect the circuit so that the normally steady current of the battery is turned into a rapidly varying current . The usual practice in the use of medical electrical batteries was to feed the output of the interrupter to an induction coil in order to increase the voltage applied to the patient by transformer action . In Pulvermacher 's patent however , there is no mention of using induction coils - the Pulvermacher battery could produce large voltages merely by adding more links to the chain . However , the interrupter still had an effect in that an interrupted current produces a stronger sensation of electric shock in the patient than a steady current . A novel feature of Pulvermacher 's interrupter was that it was operated by the action of a vibrating spring kept in motion by the movements of the patient without the need for any external input . Interrupters of the time typically had to be hand @-@ cranked by the physician , although there were already some in existence using electro @-@ mechanical automatic interrupters . Later versions of the Pulvermacher chain used clockwork driven interrupters whose rate of interruption could be adjusted so that the rate of shock to the patient could be controlled . Such a clockwork interrupter is fitted to the chain shown in figure 1 . It is wound up by turning the handle at the left end .
By 1869 a variant of this chain had appeared . In this the wooden dowels were dispensed with , and instead a hollow tube of zinc or magnesium was used . The zinc tube itself formed the anode of the cell , and over this was wound the copper wire cathode , or in yet another version , rings of copper plates . The zinc tube and copper wire were kept apart by stitches of thread . Magnesium was not commonly used by battery manufacturers of the time due to its very high price ( unlike today ) compared to zinc . However , a cell made with magnesium in place of zinc produces around twice the voltage . More importantly for Pulvermacher , the cell would still output some voltage if the electrolyte was replaced with plain water . Pulvermacher marketed a type of chain that was designed to be worn wrapped around a limb being treated and was claimed to operate with body sweat acting as the electrolyte and no need to charge it with electrolyte from an external source . Pulvermacher also produced a smaller " pocket version " of the chain which had fewer links than the full 120 @-@ cell version .
= = Pulvermacher = =
Isaac Lewis Pulvermacher was a physicist and inventor originally concerned with the electric telegraph . He first published details of his chain in August 1850 in German and in the winter of that same year came to Britain to demonstrate the machine to notable physicians . He visited London and Edinburgh on this trip . He gives his residence as Breslau , Kingdom of Prussia in his 1853 US patent . Prior to this , however , he had arrived in Britain from Vienna and all the British sources of the time describe him as " of Vienna " .
= = Medical opinion = =
At first , there was a very positive reaction to Pulvermacher . Early in 1851 Pulvermacher gave Golding Bird , a well known London physician with an interest in electrotherapy , a sample of the machine with which to experiment . Bird was impressed enough with it that he later gave a representative of the Pulvermacher Company a testimonial as a letter of introduction to physicians in Edinburgh . Bird thought that the battery would make a useful source of portable electricity and could be used for treating patients with some forms of paralysis in their homes . Contemporary equipment was not very portable , and in the case of friction machines required skilled operators to keep going . By October 1851 Bird felt that he had tested the device sufficiently to give it a glowing article in The Lancet . But even at this early stage there were signs of disquiet . Even as he wrote the favourable report in The Lancet Bird felt the need to level criticism at the Pulvermacher Company 's London agent , one C. Meinig , for promoting the device as a " universal panacea " for almost any imaginable complaint in the company 's advertisements . Bird was a tireless opponent of quack practitioners , and was particular quick to criticise medically unqualified electrical treatment , as he felt this was a reason professional acceptance of his own work in electrotherapy was being held back . The quack practitioner market was the very sector that the Pulvermacher Company 's unrestrained claims were aimed at . Nevertheless , Bird was gracious enough to specifically exclude Pulvermacher himself from responsibility for these " injudiciously puffed " claims .
By April 1853 the situation had become very acrimonuous . Meinig had been using extracts from the testimonial provided by Bird without permission in order to bolster the Company 's , medically largely unsupported , quack advertising claims . Bird threatened a legal injunction but Meinig refused to desist and tried to imply that Bird was benefitting from the publicity . A letter writing campaign by one Dr. McIntyre against the Pulvermacher advertisements led to an exchange of letters in the Association Medical Journal . Bird made plain that he had only ever recommended the chain as a convenient source of electricity and did not support any of the claimed curative powers , most especially those that were supposed to produce instant results ( a typical course of electrotherapy at the time could last several months ) . He criticised some of the chains being sold as delivering " too feeble " a current to be of any medical use and pointed out that the proposed procedure of wrapping the device around an affected limb would make it useless since a conductive path through the skin across each cell would prevent a useful voltage being developed at the terminals ( Pulvermacher even suggests in his patent that contact with the body generates enough electricity to be effective even without electrolyte ) . This resulted in the Journal removing the Pulvermacher advertisements from its pages . The Association Medical Journal was quickly followed by the Medical Times and with growing pressure on The Lancet to do the same this pretty much ended professional medical support for the device , at least for the time being .
Despite this inauspicious start with the medical profession , the Pulvermacher chain continued to be described in scientific and medical journals and books as a useful tool throughout the late 1850s and 1860s , even being mentioned in the proceedings of the Royal Society . Even Bird , at the height of his dispute with the Pulvermacher company found himself able to say " the battery of Pulvermacher is an ingenious and useful source of electricity ... " Although banned from much of the medical press , the Pulvermacher Company did not restrain its advertising claims or its use of notable names . The College of Dentists investigated its possible use as an anaesthetic during tooth extraction but found no benefit with the device frequently adding to the pain . In 1869 , the Pulvermacher Company again found itself the subject of discussion in the medical press when they were involved in legal proceedings . This time the company was itself the victim of quacks when its product was pirated with poor quality imitations and this was the cause of the court case . The Medical Times was prompted by this to examine the efficacy of the Pulvermacher chain ending a long period of the paper ignoring it as a worthless quack instrument . The result was a very positive review of the chain 's function and the reviewer particularly praised the workmanship .
= = Competition and decline = =
Pulvermacher patented the chain battery in the US in 1853 . This was soon followed by the wearable chain battery belt , or electric belt . Electric belts became enormously popular in the US , far more so than in Europe . This led to the company headquarters being moved to Cincinnati by the 1880s as the Pulvermacher Galvanic Company , but still calling themselves Pulvermacher 's of London for the prestige of a European connection . Early models had to be soaked in vinegar before use as in England , but later on models that worked purely by galvanic action with body sweat were introduced . Since the device was being sold essentially as a quack cure it was only necessary to generate enough electricity that the wearer could feel it , no matter how slightly , and know that it was working .
Electric belts were made for every conceivable part of the human anatomy : limbs , abdomen , chest , neck – sometimes all worn at the same time . Pulvermacher even had a model designed to attach to the male genitals in a special sac which was claimed to cure impotence and erectile dysfunction . Pulvermacher promoted a theory that loss of " male vigour " in later life was a consequence of masturbation in early life and that a limited supply of semen , which provided the vigour , would run out before time if wasted . Pulvermacher 's device was meant to address this shortcoming .
Competition was very intense for this lucrative market and the claimed benefits became ever more extravagant . Amongst Pulvermacher 's many competitors in the US were the German Electric Belt Company ( actually New York based ) , Dr Crystal 's , Dr. Horn 's , Addison 's , Edson 's , Edison 's , Owen 's and Heidelberg 's . Edison 's was founded by Thomas Edison Junior , whose father was the famous Thomas Edison . Owen 's was originally New York based but expanded across the country until they were put out of business due to fraud . In Europe too , there were competitors . The Medical Battery Company of England made a popular belt . They attempted ( unsuccessfully ) to sue the Electrical Review when that paper accused them of quackery in 1892 . The Iona Company , an Oregon @-@ based company founded by Henry Gaylord Wilshire was still selling belts in 1926 and making large profits : $ 36 @,@ 000 ( $ 481 @,@ 000 inflation adjusted ) net from 2 @,@ 445 belts in five months . By the end of the 1920s the electric belt 's popularity had severely declined ( but not the public 's appetite for other quack electric cures ) and the scientific market had long since moved on to better electrical generation technology than chain batteries .
= = Popular culture = =
The Pulvermacher chain , especially in the form of one being worn on the body , was very familiar in the late 19th and early 20th century and would not have needed to be explained to an audience . For instance , there are references to it in the novel Madame Bovary when the character Homais wearing a number of Pulvermacher chains is described as " more bandaged than a Scythian " .
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= Mindomys =
Mindomys hammondi , also known as Hammond 's rice rat or Hammond 's oryzomys , is a species of rodent in the tribe Oryzomyini of family Cricetidae . Formerly considered to be related with Nectomys , Sigmodontomys , Megalomys , or Oryzomys , it is now placed in its own genus , Mindomys , but its relationships remain obscure ; some evidence supports a placement near Oecomys or as a basal member of Oryzomyini .
Mindomys hammondi is known only from Ecuador , where it occurs in montane forest ; a record from the Amazonian lowlands is dubious . Reportedly , it lives on the ground and is associated with water ; other suggest it lives in trees . A large , long @-@ tailed , and long @-@ whiskered rat , its fur is buff above and abruptly lighter below . The front part of the skull ( rostrum ) is heavily built .
The species is named after the collector who first found it , Gilbert Hammond . He supplied natural history specimens to Oldfield Thomas and others .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Discovery and classification in Nectomys = = =
In 1913 , Oldfield Thomas of the British Museum of Natural History ( BMNH ) in London published the first description of Mindomys hammondi , using two specimens collected at Mindo in Pichincha Province , Ecuador , in 1913 by Gilbert Hammond . He named the species Nectomys hammondi , classifying it in the genus Nectomys , which at the time included not only the large water rats currently placed in it , but also Sigmodontomys alfari and Oryzomys dimidiatus . He considered the animal to be most closely related to Nectomys russulus , a species he had himself described in 1897 and which is now recognized as a synonym of Sigmodontomys alfari .
In his 1941 review The Families and Genera of Living Rodents , Sir John Ellerman retained N. hammondi as a species of Nectomys , but noted that the features of its teeth were atypical for the genus , as " the cusps appear to show no tendency to become suppressed . " Reviewing the genus Nectomys in 1944 , Philip Hershkovitz listed N. hammondi among species of Nectomys incertae sedis ( of uncertain position ) , and considered its placement in Nectomys as dubious . Characters he listed as conflicting with a Nectomys identity of the species included the short hindfoot with a long fifth toe , the weakly developed posterolateral palatal pits ( perforations of the palate near the third molars ) , and the orientation of the zygomatic plate .
= = = Classification in Oryzomys = = =
Hershkovitz published again on Nectomys in 1948 after examining additional material , including the holotype of N. hammondi . He now considered the latter to be a species of Oryzomys ( at the time a large genus that included most of the current members of the tribe Oryzomyini ) , but distinctive enough to be placed in its own subgenus . Noting that the species was " extremely long @-@ tailed " , he introduced the subgeneric name Macruroryzomys for hammondi . He also wrote that Oryzomys aphrastus ( currently Sigmodontomys aphrastus ) , then known only from Costa Rica , may be the closest relative of hammondi .
In his 1962 Ph.D. thesis , Clayton Ray considered O. hammondi to be most closely related to Megalomys , which includes giant rats from the Caribbean , and classified it as a member of the subgenus Megalomys of genus Oryzomys . In 1970 , Hershkovitz treated the species in another publication and noted that his name Macruroryzomys was a nomen nudum ( " naked name " ) because he had not explicitly mentioned characters differentiating it from other taxa in his 1948 publication . Nevertheless , he did not do anything to rectify the situation , and Macruroryzomys remains a nomen nudum . Hershkovitz rejected any relationship between O. hammondi and Nectomys or O. aphrastus and instead argued that O. hammondi was closely similar to Megalomys and may be close to the ancestor of Megalomys . In 1982 , Steadman and Ray mentioned the animal in passing under the name Macruroryzomys hammondi and reaffirmed its relationship to Megalomys . In the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World , Guy Musser and Michael Carleton listed O. hammondi as an Oryzomys of obscure affinities , but suggested that it may be related to Megalomys .
= = = Classification in Mindomys = = =
In 2006 , Marcelo Weksler published a large @-@ scale cladistic analysis of Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , the group ( tribe ) to which hammondi and the related species mentioned above belong . He used both morphological and molecular characters , but had only morphological data for Oryzomys hammondi . The placement of the species in his results was unstable ; some trees placed it close to the tree rice rats , Oecomys , within clade B and others placed it as an isolated lineage , basal to all other Oryzomyini .
Traits of O. hammondi that supported the latter placement include : a relatively short palate that does not extend behind the maxillary bones ; simple posterolateral palatal pits ; absence of a capsular process ( a raising of the bone of the mandible , or lower jaw , at the back end of the incisor ) ; and presence of the posteroloph on the upper third molar ( a crest at the back of the tooth ) . In these characters , O. hammondi differs from many or most Oryzomyini and is similar to some species outside Oryzomyini , but all traits of O. hammondi are present in at least one other member of the tribe . Traits shared by O. hammondi and Oecomys included : tail with the same coloration above and below ( unicolored ) ; parietal bones extending to the sides of the skull ; narrow zygomatic plate , without a zygomatic notch ; posteroloph present on upper third molar ; mesoflexus ( a valley in the molar crown in front of the mesoloph crest ) on upper second molar not divided in two .
In Weksler 's analysis , species placed in Oryzomys did not form a coherent ( monophyletic ) group , but instead were found at various positions across the oryzomyine tree , and he suggested that most of these species , including O. hammondi , should be placed in new genera . Later in 2006 , Weksler and others described ten new genera for species formerly placed in Oryzomys , including Mindomys for hammondi . Noting its " enigmatic distribution " and uncertain but perhaps basal position within Oryzomyini , they labeled the species an " extraordinary rat " worthy of continued inquiry . The generic name refers to Mindo , the type locality of M. hammondi .
Mindomys is now one of about 28 genera in the tribe Oryzomyini , which includes well over a hundred species distributed mainly in South America , including nearby islands such as the Galápagos Islands and some of the Antilles . Oryzomyini is one of several tribes recognized within the subfamily Sigmodontinae , which encompasses hundreds of species found across South America and into southern North America . Sigmodontinae itself is the largest subfamily of the family Cricetidae , other members of which include voles , lemmings , hamsters , and deermice , all mainly from Eurasia and North America .
= = Description = =
Mindomys hammondi is a large rice rat ; all other rats within its range are smaller . The fur is relatively short and woolly and is buffy with a grayish tone above and much paler — yellow or white — below , with the bases of the hairs grey . It has a long snout and small , dark ears that appear hairless . The vibrissae ( whiskers ) are long . The very long tail is dark both above and below and has rectangular scales . The hindfeet are broad , with long , narrow digits . They have poorly developed ungual tufts , patches of hair between the digits and along the plantar margins . The squamae , small structures resembling scales that cover the soles of the hindfeet in many oryzomyines , are indistinct . The fifth digit reaches to about half the length of the second phalange of the fourth . As in most oryzomyines , females have eight mammae . In specimens with published measurements , head and body length is 173 to 203 mm ( 6 @.@ 8 to 8 @.@ 0 in ) , tail length is 251 mm ( 9 @.@ 9 in ) , hindfoot length is 41 to 42 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 7 in ) , ear length is 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) , and greatest length of skull is 39 @.@ 4 to 43 @.@ 9 mm ( 1 @.@ 55 to 1 @.@ 73 in ) .
= = = Skull = = =
In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is large and robust . The nasal bones are short , not extending further back than the lacrimals , and the premaxillaries extend about as far back as the nasals . The zygomatic plate is narrow and lacks a zygomatic notch , an extension of the plate at the front . The plate 's back margin is level with the front of the first upper molar . The narrowest part of the interorbital region , located between the eyes , is to the front and its margins exhibit strong beading . Various crests develop on the long braincase , especially in old animals . The parietal bones form part of the roof of the braincase and , unlike in some other rice rats , also extend to the sides of the braincase .
The incisive foramina , perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars , are short , not extending between the molars . The condition of the posterolateral palatal pits is variable , with some individuals having small pits and others having larger pits that may be recessed into a fossa ( depression ) . The palate is moderately long , extending beyond the molars but not beyond the posterior margins of the maxillary bone . In most specimens , the roof of the mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the back of the palate , is not perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities and thus it is fully ossified ; if present , these vacuities are small . Mindomys lacks an alisphenoid strut ; in some other oryzomyines , this extension of the alisphenoid bone separates two openings ( foramina ) in the skull , the masticatory – buccinator foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium . There are no openings in the mastoid bone . The squamosal bone lacks a suspensory process that contacts the tegmen tympani , the roof of the tympanic cavity , a defining character of oryzomyines .
In the mandible , the mental foramen , an opening in the mandible just before the first molar , opens to the outside , not upwards as in a few other oryzomyines . The upper and lower masseteric ridges , which anchor some of the chewing muscles , join at a point below the first molar and do not extend forward beyond that point . There is no capsular process of the lower incisor , a trait Mindomys shares with only a few other oryzomyines .
= = = Molars = = =
The molars are bunodont ( with the cusps higher than the connecting crests ) and brachydont ( low @-@ crowned ) . On the upper first and second molar , the outer and inner valleys between the cusps and crests interpenetrate . Many accessory crests are present , including the mesolophs and mesolophids . The anterocone and anteroconid , the front cusps on the upper and lower first molar , are not divided into smaller outer and inner cusps . Unlike in Nectomys , Oryzomys , and Megalomys , the first upper and lower molars usually lack accessory roots , so that each of the three upper molars has two roots on the outer side and one on the inner side and each of the lower molars has one root at the front and one at the back .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
A rare species , Mindomys hammondi is known only from Ecuador . Between 1913 and 1980 , eight specimens have been collected at Mindo , a " tiny agricultural community " at 1 @,@ 264 m ( 4 @,@ 147 ft ) elevation in Pichincha Province , northwestern Ecuador . Another specimen is labeled as having been collected on July 27 , 1929 , by the Olalla family of professional collectors in Concepción , a locality in the Amazonian lowlands of Napo Province , around 300 to 500 m ( 980 to 1 @,@ 640 ft ) above sea level . If this record is correct , Mindomys would be unique among small , non @-@ flying mammals native to Ecuador in occurring at relatively low elevations on both sides of the Andes . Furthermore , other collectors working in the same area in Napo have failed to find Mindomys , and the date the specimen was reportedly collected does not accord with the dates reported for the visit of the Olallas to Concepción , rendering its provenance dubious . There are two other locations named " Concepción " in northwestern Ecuador , and Diego Tirira suggested in 2007 that the specimen may instead be from one of these . Another specimen is known from Chaco , Imbabura Province , at an altitude of 630 m ( 2 @,@ 070 ft ) .
Citing unpublished work by Tirira and Percequillo , the 2009 IUCN Red List reports that Mindomys is known from eleven specimens collected at four localities in northwestern Ecuador , and that its altitudinal range extends from 1 @,@ 200 to 2 @,@ 700 m ( 3 @,@ 900 to 8 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level , but does not give details . The species occurs in moist , montane forest on the foothills of the western Andes .
Almost nothing is known of the biology of Mindomys . In 1999 , Eisenberg and Redford suggested that the species may live in trees ; in 2007 , Tirira agreed , citing the animal 's broad feet . Tirira also suggested that it is nocturnal ( active during the night ) and solitary and eats fruits , seeds , and insects . According to the 2009 IUCN Red List , it lives on the ground and " apparently has some affinity with water " .
= = Conservation status = =
The IUCN Red List lists Mindomys hammondi as " endangered " in view of its small known distribution and a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat . Up to 40 % of its habitat may already have been destroyed , and the species was last recorded in 1980 . It is not known to occur in any protected areas , but has been recorded close to the protected forest of Mindo @-@ Nambillo . It prefers well @-@ conserved primary forest .
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= Fusible plug =
A fusible plug is a threaded metal cylinder usually of bronze , brass or gunmetal , with a tapered hole drilled completely through its length . This hole is sealed with a metal of low melting point that flows away if a pre @-@ determined , high temperature is reached . The initial use of the fusible plug was as a safety precaution against low water levels in steam engine boilers , but later applications extended its use to other closed vessels , such as air conditioning systems and tanks for transporting corrosive or liquefied petroleum gasses .
= = Purpose = =
A fusible plug operates as a safety valve when dangerous temperatures , rather than dangerous pressures , are reached in a closed vessel . In steam engines the fusible plug is screwed into the crown sheet ( the top plate ) of the firebox , typically extending about an inch ( 25mm ) into the water space above . Its purpose is to act as a last @-@ resort safety device in the event of the water level falling dangerously low : when the top of the plug is out of the water it overheats , the low @-@ melting @-@ point core melts away and the resulting noisy release of steam into the firebox serves to warn the operators of the danger before the top of the firebox itself runs completely dry , which could result in catastrophic failure of the boiler . The temperature of the flue gases in a steam engine firebox can reach 1000 ° F ( 550 ° C ) , at which temperature copper , from which historically most fireboxes were made , softens to a state which can no longer sustain the boiler pressure and a severe explosion will result if water is not put into the boiler quickly and the fire removed or extinguished . The hole through the plug is too small to have any great effect in reducing the steam pressure and the small amount of water , if any , that passes through it is not expected to have any great impact in quenching the fire .
= = History = =
The device was invented in 1803 by Richard Trevithick , the proponent of high @-@ pressure ( as opposed to atmospheric ) steam engines , in consequence of an explosion in one of his new boilers . His detractors were eager to denounce the whole concept of high @-@ pressure steam , but Trevithick proved that the accident happened because his fireman had neglected to keep the boiler full of water . He publicised his invention widely , without patent , to counter these criticisms .
= = = Experiments = = =
Experiments conducted by the Franklin Institute , Boston , in the 1830s had initially cast doubt on the practice of adding water as soon as the escape of steam through the device was noted . A steam boiler was fitted with a small observation window of glass and heated beyond its normal operating temperature with the water level below the top of the firebox . When water was added it was found that the pressure rose suddenly and the observation glass shattered . The report concluded that the high temperature of the metal had vaporised the added water too quickly and that an explosion was the inevitable result . It was not until 1852 that this assumption was challenged : Thomas Redmond , one of the Institute 's own inspectors , specifically ruled out this theory in his investigation into the boiler explosion on the steam ship Redstone on the Ohio River on 3 April that year . A 1907 investigation in Wales came to a similar conclusion : a steam locomotive belonging to the Rhymney Railway was inadvertently sent out with its safety valves wrongly assembled . The pressure in the boiler built up to the extent that the injectors failed ; the crown sheet became uncovered , was weakened by the heat of the fire and violently blew apart . The investigation , led by Colonel Druitt of the Railway Inspectorate , dismissed the theory that the enginemen had succeeded in starting the injectors and that the sudden flood of cold water had caused such a generation of steam that the boiler burst . He quoted the results of experiments by the Manchester Steam Users ' Association , a national boiler certification and insurance body , that proved that the weight of copper present ( considered with its specific heat ) was insufficient to generate enough steam to raise the boiler pressure at all . Indeed , the addition of cold water had caused the pressure to fall . From then on it was accepted that the correct action in the event of the operation of the fusible plug was to add water .
= = = Cored fusible plugs = = =
The original design was a simple solid plug filled with a slug of low @-@ melting @-@ point alloy . When this melts , it first melts as a narrow channel through the plug . Steam and water immediately begins to escape through this . The cored fusible plug was developed in the 1860s to give a wide opening as soon as the alloy softens . This version has a solid brass or bronze centre , soldered into place by a layer of the low @-@ melting @-@ point alloy . When overheated , the plug does not release any steam or water until the alloy melts sufficiently to release the centre plug . The plug now fails dramatically , opening its entire bore immediately . This full @-@ bore jet is then more likely to be noticed .
= = = Un @-@ noticed melted plugs = = =
A drawback to the device was found on 7 March 1948 , when the firebox crown sheet of Princess Alexandra , a Coronation Pacific of the London , Midland and Scottish Railway , failed while hauling a passenger train from Glasgow to London . Enquiries established that both water gauges were defective and on a journey earlier that day one or both of the fusible plugs had melted , but this had gone unnoticed by the engine crew because of the strong draught carrying the escaping steam away from them .
= = Maintenance = =
= = = Alloy composition = = =
Investigation showed the importance of the alloy on plug ageing . Alloys were initially favoured as they offered lower eutectic melting points than pure metals . It was found though that alloys aged poorly and could encourage the development of a matrix of oxides on the water surface of the plug , this matrix having a dangerously high melting point that made the plug inoperable . In 1888 the US Steamboat Inspection Service made a requirement that plugs were to be made of pure banca tin and replaced annually . This avoided lead and also zinc contamination . Zinc contamination was regarded as so serious a problem that the case of the plugs was also changed from brass ( a copper @-@ zinc alloy ) to a zinc @-@ free copper @-@ tin bronze , to avoid the risk of zinc migrating from the housing into the alloy plug .
= = = Plug ageing = = =
In the 1920s investigations by the U.S. Bureau of Standards , in conjunction with the Steamboat Inspection Service , found that in use encrustation and oxidation above the fusible core can increase melting point of the device and prevent it from working when needed : melting points in excess of 2000 ° F ( 1100 ° C ) in used examples have been found . Typical current practice in locomotives requires new plugs to be inspected after " 15 to 30 working days ( dependent upon water condition and use of locomotive ) or at least once every six months , " depending on the boiler operating pressure and temperature .
= = Other applications = =
The principle of the fusible plug is also applied to the transport of liquefied petroleum gases , where fusible plugs ( or small , exposed patches of the containers ' lining membrane ) are designed to melt or become porous if too high a temperature is reached : a controlled release , at a typical temperature of 250 ° F ( 120 ° C ) , is preferable to an explosive release ( a " BLEVE " ) at a higher temperature . Corrosive gas containers , such as those used for liquid chlorine , are fitted with one or more fusible plugs with an operating temperature of about 158 to 165 ° F ( 70 – 74 ° C ) .
Fusible plugs are common in aircraft wheels , typically in larger or high @-@ performance aircraft . The very large thermal loads imposed by abnormal landing and braking conditions ( and RTO notably ) can cause already high pressure in the tyres to rise to the point that the tyre might burst , so fusible plugs are used as a relief mechanism . The vented gas may be directed to cool the braking surfaces .
Fusible plugs are sometimes fitted to the receivers of air compressors as a precaution against the ignition of any lubricating oil vapour that might be present . Should the action of the compressor heat the air above a safe temperature the core will melt and release the pressure .
Automobile air conditioning systems were commonly fitted with fusible plugs , operating at 100 – 110 ° C , but from concerns about the environmental effects of any released refrigerant gas this function has been taken over by an electrical switch .
A patented ( Patent published 1867 ) type of fireproof safe uses a fusible plug to douse its contents with water if the external temperature gets too high .
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= Confessions ( Usher album ) =
Confessions is the fourth studio album by American singer Usher . It was released on March 23 , 2004 , by Arista Records . Recording sessions for the album took place during 2003 to 2004 , with its production handled by his longtime collaborator Jermaine Dupri , alongside with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and Lil Jon , among others . Primarily an R & B album , Confessions showcases Usher as a crooner and incorporates musical elements of hip hop and crunk . The album 's themes generated controversy about Usher 's personal relationships ; however , the album 's primary producer Jermaine Dupri claimed the record reflects his personal story .
The album became the instant commercial success in the United States , selling 1 @.@ 1 million copies in its first week . Its continued success was bolstered by its four chart @-@ topping singles . To begin strategizing of boosting its sales amid threats of bootlegging , the special edition for the album was issued , which includes the hit single , " My Boo " ; a duet with Alicia Keys . Despite some mixed criticism towards its lyrical substance , Confessions received mostly positive reviews and earned Usher several awards ; including the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R & B Album .
The album has been regarded by music writers as Usher 's greatest work , and according to Billboard , is the second best @-@ selling album of the 2000s decade in the United States . With over eight million copies sold in 2004 , the album 's commercial success was viewed as a sign of recovering record sales in the US , following three years of decline . It was also exemplary of urban music 's commercial peak and dominance of the Billboard charts in 2004 . Confessions has been certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and , as of 2016 , has sold over 10 million copies in the US and over 20 million copies worldwide .
= = Background and recording = =
When he began recording Confessions in 2003 , Usher claimed he did not want to work with any new producers . Production began between Usher and Jermaine Dupri , who produced his last two albums , My Way ( 1997 ) and 8701 ( 2001 ) . In spite of his vision , Usher stated , " With this album I chose some new producers who I figured would definitely allow me to really articulate myself in a different way ... Every album you gotta grow . You gotta look for something different . " Dupri also invited his frequent collaborator Bryan @-@ Michael Cox . The album features productions by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , Just Blaze , R. Kelly , and Usher 's brother James Lackey .
With forty recorded songs , Usher felt the album had already been completed . Initially , he submitted the album to his record label , Arista . He and the company 's then @-@ president , L. A. Reid , who listened to the record ; however , they thought something was missing in it , " You know what , there 's like one or two more records that we just gotta get . " Usher was displeased with the decision ; he felt returning to the studio was the hardest part and needed to re @-@ motivate himself . He went on recording a few more tracks with help from fellow Atlantian 's Lil Jon and Ludacris . Eventually , the team was able to produce songs like " Red Light " and " Yeah ! " . He also recorded songs with P. Diddy and The Neptunes during one of those sessions but were not released .
= = Composition = =
One of Usher 's first steps of recording Confessions was deciding to reveal " his own little secrets " . Friend and former A & R rep named Kawan " KP " Prather thought the album would let the public know Usher personally , as Kawan " KP " Prather speaks , " The music has never been the question , but people tend to buy into the artist . The more they know about you , the more they feel like they 're there with you . " Primarily because of its personal content , Usher said that this is his chance to be real . He named the album Confessions because he felt it is his most personal record to date : " All of us have our Pandora 's boxes or skeletons in our closets . I let a few of them out , you know . I 've got a lot to say . I 've got a lot of things and stuff built in me that I just want to let go of . " He wrote more songs than he contributed to his previous album .
Several of the songs in this album were conceptually based on a situation . For instance , " Burn " which it has built around the situation where Usher 's two @-@ year relationship with Rozonda " Chilli " Thomas from an American R & B @-@ hip hop girl group TLC has almost ended . Dupri and Cox were talking and felt that there was a song in it , and started writing . Same through with the supposedly title track " Confessions Part II " ; they were conversing about an impregnated mistress , and its concept was written down . Usher has recorded " Confessions Part II " during a July 2003 's recording sessions in New York City , United States . With Usher singing the song 's lyrics , the theme of cheating inspired him and Dupri ; which both of them has decided to produce these two parts ; " Confessions Part I " and " Confessions Part II ( which the former has heard it at the beginning of the video for the latter ) .
= = = Music and style = = =
Confessions falls dominantly in the R & B genre . Usher commented that he chose to work with collaborators who know " ... how to interpret R & B from a jazz standpoint , an old school throwback standpoint , a new school point , a traditional classic standpoint ... " With producers and him set to produce such an album , however , other musical genres including hip hop were incorporated . While he wanted to do R & B , Usher also wanted his fans to experience hip hop at the same time : " I try to think outside the box . " When Lil Jon came on the scene , crunk was introduced to the R & B @-@ centered album , specifically on the Sean Garrett @-@ penned song " Yeah ! " . Usher said , " ' Yeah ! ' could be called the first consciously styled " crunk R & B " record . " The album also includes various slow jams .
This record also introduces a new style for Usher , focusing on his voice and technique . Andre " Dre " Harris and Vidal Davis listened to 8701 and felt that " Usher really needs to sing hard and let people know his vocal ability " . With efforts focused on the record to demonstrate his vocal ability to listeners , songs such as " Superstar " and " Follow Me " exhibited Usher in a type of " crooner mode " . The ballad @-@ oriented " Burn " also showcases his vocal aptitude .
= = Release = =
Confessions was slated to be released on November 6 , 2003 . However , due to marketing issues , the scheduled date was moved to March 23 of the following year . With several songs recorded , Usher faced the challenge of determining the final track listing . Usher , Dupri , Reid , and then @-@ A & R rep Mark Pitts have their favorites among the forty , but decided to choose those which " came up consistently more " . The collective was able to decide fifteen of them with two interludes completing the seventeen track list . Many songs were set aside for future use , including " Red Light " and a remix of " Yeah ! " . Usher and Arista held advance @-@ listenings for the album , few months before its actual release ; he also appeared on TV guestings to promote Confessions .
With strategies to boost the album 's sales albeit threats of stealing music in the internet , Usher and his management readied a follow @-@ up release of Confessions with additional marketing blitz . The idea was considered " musically driven " after Zomba , who absorbed Arista , management was excited about " My Boo " , a song that was recorded for the original version of the album but failed to meet deadline . However , it actually began when American R & B and soul singer Alicia Keys , who is featured on the track , " brought in that the talk of repackaging started " . With the inclusion of " My Boo " , they thought of the album as complete . While they knew of other artists releasing special editions of their albums , the label felt that Confessions had the edge because of its previous success and its physical changes , including a new cover art , an expanded CD booklet , pullout poster and a letter to fans from Usher . The new version includes " My Boo " and " Red Light " , which were leaked alongside other songs that did not appear in the album , and a remix of " Confessions Part II " , and " Seduction " ; original tracks were also improved like the extended version of " Confessions Part I " and a rap added by American rapper Jadakiss in " Throwback " . The label itself treated the version a new album , with full media advertisements . The album was re @-@ issued in October 2004 , seven months after its initial release .
= = = Marketing = = =
When " Yeah ! " was issued , Usher and the label were plagued by marketing strategies . With many potential lead singles that could fare well in music markets , they were choosing between " Yeah ! " and " Burn " . Considering that the former sufficed what the label was looking for , they also believed the latter would be a blockbuster . Usher as well was skeptical that time if " Yeah ! " — which is largely composed around crunk — would be a good choice after doing an R & B record was in his mindset . Meanwhile , they felt " Burn " also failed to meet their expectations : " ' Burn ' being a great song is one thing , but it 's one of them things where people said , ' It 's strong , but can we make history with that ? ' At the end of the day , you want an event . " KP recalled , " Everybody was scared to make that first step . "
With much debate between two songs , " Burn " was originally chosen as the lead single , with plans of filming its music video in late 2003 . Meanwhile , Lil Jon leaked " Yeah ! " to DJs across the United States in November 2003 . Originally , the label did not intend " Yeah ! " as a proper single . Released to street DJs and mixtapes , it was meant to cultivate fans who waited for three years since the release of 8701 . While record labels stayed idle during the Christmas season , " Yeah ! " was getting favorable and quick response from radio stations though nobody was promoting ; it was finally released as the lead single . To keep the album atop the chart , " My Boo " was targeted for release after " Confessions Part II " was diminishing on the Hot 100 . The B @-@ side of the UK release includes " Red Light " and " Sweet Lies " . The single again topped the Hot 100 , giving the album its fourth consecutive number @-@ one . " Caught Up " was released as the album 's fifth and final single , and reached number eight in the United States .
= = = Tour = = =
Usher supported the album with a two @-@ month concert tour called " The Truth Tour " . The tour set featured a small stage up on top of the main stage , where the band played with Usher and his supporting dancers left with enough room to perform . The smaller stage had a mini platform attached to it — which lowered to the main stage — and had two big staircases on both sides of it . To the left , a group of circular staircases climbed to the top , and to the right , there was a fire escape replete with steps and an elevator . Kanye West , who had finished his own headlining tour for his 2004 album The College Dropout , was the opening act for " The Truth Tour " .
Preceding Usher 's entrance was a short movie showing him getting dressed , following on with him performing the opening song " Caught Up " , with Usher dressed in all white . The second song performed was " You Make Me Wanna ... " , where two dancers stayed on the top stage with Usher while two male dancers came out to the lower level with two chairs each in their hands . Each dancer threw one chair up to the top , with Usher already in hand with his own chair , with everyone following a set dance routine . Following this , Usher performed " U Remind Me " , where he danced by himself during a breakdown of the track . He then sang " That 's What It 's Made For " , following on with the song " Bad Girl " , where Usher was dressed up in a lavender suit and came out in a chrome chair . During the song , Usher picked out a female from the crowd , transitioning to " Superstar " , singing to the fan . Usher continued singing to the fan , performing " Can U Handle It ? " , closing the song by kissing the fan who then left the stage . Usher closed his performance with Confessions ' lead single " Yeah ! " .
" The Truth Tour " commenced on August 5 , 2004 in Hampton , Virginia and concluded on October 7 , 2004 in New York . It was ranked as one of the highest grossing tours of 2004 , grossing $ 29 @.@ 1 million .
= = Public reaction = =
After Usher along with his label held a few listening parties for the album , controversies spread about the mistress @-@ impregnating concept of " Confessions Part II " . Although Usher did not foresee such reaction of the album , Dupri already inferred , while making the album , what would be their reaction : " People are gonna question [ Usher ] on a couple of little lyrics ... " Coincidentally , Usher ended his relationship with Chilli early in 2004 . People were speculating about their breakup given the material of the album and his early interviews about its themes . With lyrics Usher admitted to have written because of his guilty conscience , people assumed that he and Chilli broke up because he was unfaithful . In a February 2004 radio interview , Chilli claimed that Usher " cheated " on her that caused their relationship to split .
Amidst widespread rumors , Usher stated , " People assume things , because as I said , I pull from my personal experiences to make my music . " He added that he loved Chilli , however , " ... it just didn 't work out . But cheating is not what caused the relationship to collide and crash ... " Although " Burn " is a reference to his dying relationship with Chilli — hence the title — Usher answered the press that the impregnating issue was not taken from a specific situation in his life . He also revealed that his friends who went through similar situations inspired him to write those songs : " ... it 's just something that I collectively got energy from everybody around me that had been through it . " In early 2006 , Dupri revealed that the story behind the album is his : " ... me cheating on my steady girlfriend , having a baby with that other woman and having to confess to everything that happened to my main girl . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Confessions was commercially successful , selling nearly 1 @.@ 096 million copies in the United States in its first week of release . It became the highest @-@ ever first week sales by an R & B artist , the second @-@ highest first week sales for a male artist , and the seventh @-@ highest first week sales of the recorded album charts history by SoundScan at the time of its release . It also equates the combined first @-@ week sales of his four previous album releases , including his live album called Live . The feat also carved history in Arista records having the first in any of their released albums to reach such sales . The success of the thirty @-@ year @-@ old record label , however , was attributed to its merging with Zomba Records . As of March 2013 it has the tenth highest first week album sales in history .
The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , becoming Usher 's first number @-@ one album . Confessions also hit number @-@ one on the Canadian Albums Chart and the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . Its early , and successive , progress on the chart was said to be partly sustained by its strong single releases and plenty of press appearances and promotions . With " Yeah ! " propelling the album 's debut atop the chart , " Burn " , the second single off the album , facilitated Confessions 's continuing dominance as well . The first two released singles were competing on the Billboard Hot 100 ; the latter ended the twelve @-@ week number @-@ one chart run of the former . As the album 's third single , " Confessions Part II " , was about to top the chart and Usher to join with English pop and rock group The Beatles as the only acts to achieve three consecutive number @-@ one singles , American R & B singer Fantasia Barrino 's debut single " I Believe " prevented it from happening . Despite this , Usher became the first artist to top the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay with three consecutive number @-@ one singles . " Burn " achieved only eight non @-@ consecutive weeks on the Hot 100 after " Confessions Part II " topped the chart ; it became Usher 's second time to replace his own single at the top . " Yeah ! " and " Burn " were 2004 's top best @-@ selling singles in the United States , placing at number one and two respectively on the Billboard Chart Year @-@ Ender . Again , it honored Usher being the first act to achieve the feat since 1964 with the Beatles ' " I Want to Hold Your Hand " and " She Loves You " .
The album continued its dominance on the chart . D12 World by D12 ended its five consecutive weeks run at the top spot ; however , Confessions reclaimed the position the following week . The album spent a total 9 non @-@ consecutive weeks at number one on the Billboard 200 , becoming the longest @-@ running number one album of the millennium until 2009 , when country singer Taylor Swift spent 11 weeks atop the charts with Fearless . Over one month after its release , Confessions was certified three @-@ time platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for three million US shipments . Confessions topped the list of the most @-@ shipped albums of 2004 in the United States.Confessions was the second best @-@ selling album of the 2000s decade in the US , behind Eminem 's The Marshall Mathers LP . In July 2012 , it reached sales of 10 million copies in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan . It has sold over 20 million copies worldwide . To date , the album has shipped 10 @.@ 3 million copies in the US and has received a Diamond certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Confessions received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 71 , based on 13 reviews . From an artistic viewpoint , the album has been considered as Usher 's best album to date , with writers calling it expansive and futuristic . Matt Cibula of PopMatters wrote that it " might be the best English @-@ language pop album of the year " . Entertainment Weekly 's Jem Aswad said that Usher " reveals his new @-@ found maturity by opening with the grittiest song he 's ever done . " Laura Checkoway of Vibe said that , " Though Confessions doesn 't bring Usher all the way to the artistic maturity one might hope for , tracking this star 's progression definitely has its satisfactions . " Q magazine observed " addictive R & B hooks and all @-@ dancin ' , all @-@ lovin ' subject matter boosted with hot production tweaks . " Amy Linden of The Village Voice commented that " Usher 's ( alleged ) character flaws are easily forgiven , though , because he can sing his cheating ass off , " and concluded , " Like 2002 's big @-@ selling but underrated 8701 , Confessions is a top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line pop @-@ soul showcase that ... manages to be commercially savvy without coming off as too desperate . Sorta like Usher himself . " Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times said that near the end , the songwriting " fails " Usher on a " heavily front @-@ loaded " R & B album , but felt that his performance is solid throughout :
The pleasure of listening to Usher is the pleasure of listening to a singer who knows exactly what he 's doing . ' Truth Hurts , ' a seemingly innocent ( if plaintive ) 1970 's throwback , turns nasty when the narrator suddenly reveals that the first two verses were full of lies . Which raises the question : are these supposed ' confessions ' true ? He loves toying with his audience this way , loves telling us exactly how bad he is , then daring us to believe him .
In a mixed review , Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian criticized its " production gloss " and said that , although Usher 's " fluid delivery " redeems weak tracks , there are only two " great songs " — " Yeah ! " and the title track — and " 17 less so . " Rolling Stone writer Laura Sinagra said that he " is coming of age , again " , but " still doesn 't quite cut it as a horny roughneck " . Jon Caramanica of Blender viewed that Usher 's songwriting " isn 't a strength , and his ballads often drown in their own inanity " . The Washington Post 's Elizabeth Mendez Berry called Confessions " Usher 's strongest recording to date " but found the more sexual songs mundane . Robert Christgau from The Village Voice cited " Confessions Part II " and " Bad Girl " as " choice cuts " , indicating " a good song on an album that isn 't worth your time or money " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The album earned Usher numerous accolades . At the 47th Grammy Awards , he was nominated for eight categories and won three : Best Contemporary R & B Album , Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal ( for " My Boo " ) and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration ( for " Yeah ! " ) . Usher won awards at the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards : R & B / Soul Album , Male ( for Confessions ) ; R & B / Soul Single , Male for ( " Confessions Part II " ) ; R & B / Soul Single , Group , Band or Duo ( for " My Boo " ) ; and R & B / Soul or Rap Dance Cut ( for " Yeah ! " ) . At the 2004 American Music Awards , he won four , including Favorite Soul / R & B Album and Favorite Male Soul / R & B Artist . At the 2004 Billboard Music Awards , Usher racked up eleven awards , including Artist of the Year , Male Artist of the Year , and Hot 100 Song of the Year for " Yeah ! " . In December 2009 it was ranked as the best solo album and second best overall album of the 2000 – 2009 decade . Its singles Yeah ! , Burn , and My Boo were all ranked as some of the best songs of the 2000 – 2009 decade , respectively placing in order at number two , number 21 , and number 36 .
= = Legacy and impact = =
With sales of more than eight million in 2004 , Confessions was the most @-@ shipped album of the year in the US . Along with the success of the American singer Norah Jones 's second album , Feels like Home ( 2004 ) , as well as breakthroughs albums by many new and old artists , it was seen as a sign that US record sales were slowly recovering after three straight years of decline due to competing DVDs and video games and the prevalent music piracy . By the end of 2004 , the industry had sold 667 million albums , an increase of about 1 @.@ 6 percent , as recorded by Nielsen SoundScan . Compared with sales records in 2003 , the figures showed eight percent increase . The album 's success also exemplified urban music 's commercial dominance during the early 2000s , which featured massive crossover success on the Billboard charts by R & B and hip hop artists . In 2004 , all 12 songs that topped the Billboard Hot 100 were African @-@ American recording artists and accounted for 80 % of the number @-@ one R & B hits that year . Along with Usher 's streak of singles , Top 40 radio and both pop and R & B charts were topped by OutKast 's " Hey Ya ! " , Snoop Dogg 's " Drop It Like It 's Hot " , Terror Squad 's " Lean Back " , and Ciara 's " Goodies " . Chris Molanphy of The Village Voice later remarked that " by the early 2000s , urban music was pop music . "
In a year @-@ end article for The New York Times , writer Ben Sisario dubbed 2004 " the year of Usher " . The success of the album put Usher in the mainstream , becoming the biggest artist of 2004 . Others also said that Usher might be the successor of Michael Jackson . The success of the album had also facilitated Usher to branch out to non @-@ musical ventures . He has opened a restaurant , starred in a film , launched his record label and recruited artists , and has done philanthropic activities like his efforts in helping 2005 Hurricane Katrina victims . Usher was not the only person who benefited from the album 's significant critical and commercial success . Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , who co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced " Burn " , earned credibility in the music industry for his role in the album . Cox had been producing records for several notable American artists , including Alicia Keys , B2K , Mariah Carey and Destiny 's Child , among others , but he considered " Burn " as his crowning moment , which earned him two Grammy Award nominations . With 2004 deemed to be his introduction to a larger , more mainstream audience , Cox stated in an interview for MTV that many people were starting to recount what he had done .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a vocal producer .
^ [ b ] signifies a co @-@ producer .
" Throwback " contains a sample of Dionne Warwick 's 1973 " You 're Gonna Need Me " .
" Superstar " contains a sample of Willie Hutch ' 1973 " Mack 's Stroll / The Getaway ( Chase Scene ) " .
" Truth Hurts " uses the production of Janet Jackson 's " Could This Be Love " , an outtake from Damita Jo .
" Take Your Hand " contains a sample of Harold Melvin & The Blue Notes ' 1973 " Is There a Place for Me ? " .
Faith Evans performs uncredited background vocals on " Superstar " .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Confessions adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Battle of Masan =
The Battle of Masan was an engagement between United Nations ( UN ) and North Korean ( NK ) forces , which took place early in the Korean War between August 5 and September 19 , 1950 , in the vicinity of Masan and the Naktong River in South Korea . It was part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously . The battle ended in a victory for the UN after large numbers of United States ( US ) and Republic of Korea ( ROK ) troops were able to repel the repeated attacks of two North Korean divisions .
Operating as the extreme southern flank of the Pusan Perimeter , the US Army 's 25th Infantry Division placed its regiments around the South Korean city of Masan , with the US 24th Infantry Regiment and 5th Regimental Combat Team based in Haman and nearby Sobuk @-@ san , and the US 35th Infantry Regiment based along the Nam River to the west of the city . Throughout the six @-@ week battle , the Korean People 's Army 6th and 7th Divisions attacked the 25th Division 's regiments in an attempt to break through the UN forces and attack Pusan .
An initial UN counteroffensive out of Masan proved ineffective in stopping the North Koreans from advancing . In the subsequent fight , the 35th Infantry was able to repel the North Koreans at the Battle of Nam River and were highly regarded for these actions . However , the 24th Infantry performed very poorly at the battles of Blue Mountain and Haman , forcing the 25th Division to muster reserves to counter the North Korean gains against the 24th .
The UN units were able to defeat and repel the North Koreans repeatedly , including through a coordinated offensive across the entire perimeter . In delaying and pushing back the North Koreans , the 25th Infantry Division was able to buy time for UN forces to counterattack at Inchon , effectively defeating the North Korean Army at the Pusan Perimeter .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the 25 June 1950 invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States , a member of the UN , subsequently committed ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and preventing South Korea from collapsing . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division , headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th Division was ordered to South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow reinforcements to arrive . The division was alone for several weeks as it attempted to delay the North Koreans , making time for the 1st Cavalry and the 7th and 25th Infantry Divisions , along with other Eighth Army supporting units , to move into position . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , the first encounter between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , the 24th Infantry Division was repeatedly defeated and forced south by superior North Korean numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry Division were systematically pushed south in engagements around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The division made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , where it was nearly destroyed , but delayed North Korean forces until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
With Taejon captured , North Korean forces began surrounding the Pusan Perimeter in an attempt to envelop it . The 4th and 6th North Korean Infantry Divisions advanced south in a wide flanking maneuver . The two divisions attempted to envelop the UN 's left flank , but became extremely spread out in the process . They advanced on UN positions with armor and superior numbers , repeatedly pushing back U.S. and South Korean forces .
American forces finally halted the North Korean advance in a series of engagements in the southern section of the country . Forces of the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment , newly arrived in the country , were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27 , opening a pass to the Pusan area . Soon after , North Korean forces took Chinju to the west , pushing back the US 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to the Pusan open for more North Korean attacks . US formations were subsequently able to defeat and push back the North Koreans on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2 . Suffering mounting losses , the KPA force in the west withdrew for several days to re @-@ equip and receive reinforcements . This granted both sides a reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter .
= = Battle = =
= = = Task Force Kean = = =
Lieutenant General Walton Walker and the Eighth Army began preparing a counteroffensive , the first conducted by the UN in the war , for August . It would kick off with an attack by the US reserve units in the Masan area to secure Chinju from the North Korean 6th Division , followed by a larger general push to the Kum River in the middle of the month . One of his goals was to break up a suspected massing of North Korean troops near the Taegu area by forcing the diversion of some North Korean units southward . On August 6 , the Eighth Army issued the operational directive for the attack by Task Force Kean , named for the US 25th Infantry Division commander , Major General William B. Kean . Task Force Kean consisted of the 25th Division , less the 27th Infantry and a field artillery battalion , with the 5th Regimental Combat Team ( 5th RCT ) and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade attached . Together this represented a force of about 20 @,@ 000 men . The plan of attack required the force to move west from positions held near Masan , seize the Chinju Pass , and secure the line as far as the Nam River . However , the offensive relied on the arrival of the entire 2nd Infantry Division , as well as three more battalions of American tanks .
Task Force Kean kicked off its attack on August 7 , moving out from Masan . At the Notch , a northern pass into the city and site of a previous battle , the 35th Infantry Regiment encountered 500 North Korean infantry , defeating them . The force surged forward to Pansong , inflicting another 350 casualties on the North Koreans . There , they overran the North Korean 6th Division 's headquarters . However the rest of the task force was slowed by North Korean resistance . Task Force Kean pressed on the Chindong @-@ ni area , resulting in a confused battle where the fragmented force had to rely on air strikes and airdrops to keep it effective . Task Force Kean 's offensive had collided with one being delivered simultaneously by the North Korean 6th Division .
Heavy fighting continued in the area for three days . By August 9 , Task Force Kean was poised to retake Chinju . The task force , aided by air power , initially advanced quickly though North Korean resistance was heavy . On August 10 the Marines picked up the advance , inadvertently discovering the North Korean 83rd Motorized Regiment of the 105th Armored Division . F4U Corsairs from the 1st Marine Air Wing strafed the retreating column repeatedly , inflicting 200 casualties and destroying about 100 of the regiment 's equipment vehicles . However the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade elements were withdrawn from the force on August 12 to be redeployed elsewhere on the perimeter . Task Force Kean continued forward supported by naval and field artillery , capturing the area around Chondong @-@ ni . However , Eighth Army requested several of its units to redeploy to Taegu to be used elsewhere on the front , particularly at the Naktong Bulge
An attempt to move the 25th Infantry Division 's division trains through the valley became mired in the mud through the night of August 10 – 11 and was attacked in the morning by North Koreans who had driven American forces from the high ground . In the confusion , North Korean armor was able to penetrate roadblocks and assault the supporting artillery positions . The surprise attack was successful in wiping out most of the 555th and 90th Field Artillery battalions , with much of their equipment . Both North Korean and American armor swarmed to the scene and US Marine aviation continued to provide air cover , but neither side was able to make appreciable gains despite inflicting heavy casualties on one another . American forces were unsuccessful in retaking the positions where the artillery was overrun , suffering numerous casualties in several failed attempts to do so . Upon later inspection , the bodies of 75 men , 55 from the 555th Field Artillery and 20 from the 90th Field Artillery , were found executed when the area again came under American control , in what was later known as the Bloody Gulch massacre . Task Force Kean was forced to withdraw back to Masan , unable to hold its gains , and by August 14 it was approximately in the same positions it had been in when it started the offensive .
Task Force Kean had failed in its objective of diverting North Korean troops from the north , and also failed in its objective of reaching the Chinju pass . However , the offensive is noted to have significantly increased morale among the troops of the 25th Infantry Division , which performed extremely well in subsequent engagements . The 6th Division had been reduced to 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 and had to replenish its ranks with South Korean conscripts from Andong . Fighting in the region continued for the rest of the month .
= = = UN redraws battle lines = = =
Walker then ordered the US 25th Infantry Division , under Kean , to take up defensive positions on the Pusan Perimeter southern flank west of Masan . By August 15 , the 25th Infantry Division had moved into these positions . Rough terrain west of Masan limited the choice of the positions . The mountain group west of Masan was the first readily defensible ground east of the Chinju pass . The 2 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 610 m ) mountain ridges of Sobuk @-@ san dominated the area and protected the Komam @-@ ni @-@ Haman @-@ Chindong @-@ ni road , the only means of north @-@ south communication west of Masan .
Northwest of Komam @-@ ni was the broken spur of P 'il @-@ bong , dominated by 900 feet ( 270 m ) Sibidang @-@ san , along the Nam River . Sibidang was an excellent observation point for the surrounding area , and US artillery emplaced in the Komam @-@ ni area could interdict the road junction at Chungam @-@ ni . The US 35th Infantry Regiment set up positions at Sibidang @-@ Komam @-@ ni , in the northern part of the 25th Infantry Division defense line . The 35th Regiment line extended from a point 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Komam @-@ ni to the Nam River and then turned east along that stream to its confluence with the Naktong River . It was a long regimental line , about 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) , twice the length a regiment was typically assigned .
The 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry held the regiment 's left flank west of Komam @-@ ni , while the 2nd Battalion held the right along the Nam River . 3rd Battalion , redesignated from the 1st Battalion , 29th Infantry , was in reserve on the road south of Chirwon from where it could move quickly to any part of the line . To the south was the US 24th Infantry Regiment and west of Chindong @-@ ni , the 5th Regimental Combat Team was on the division 's left flank . On division orders , the 5th Regimental Combat Team first held the ground above the Chindong @-@ ni coastal road only as far as Yaban @-@ san . Kean soon decided , however , that the 5th RCT should close the gap northward between it and the 24th Infantry . When the 5th sent a South Korean unit of 100 men under American officers to the higher slope of Sobuk @-@ san , North Korean troops already there drove them back . Kean then ordered the 5th RCT to take this ground , but it was too late .
= = = North Korean consolidation = = =
Meanwhile , the NK 6th Division was ordered to await reinforcements before continuing the attack . From north to south , the division had its 13th , 15th , and 14th Regiments . The first replacements arrived at Chinju on about August 12 . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 unarmed South Koreans conscripted in the Seoul area joined the division by August 15 . At Chinju , the 6th Division issued them grenades and told the recruits they would have to pick up weapons from killed and wounded on the battlefield . Another group of 2 @,@ 500 replacements conscripted in the Seoul area joined the 6th Division on August 21 , bringing the division strength to approximately 8 @,@ 500 men . In the last week of August and the first week of September , 3 @,@ 000 more recruits conscripted in southwest Korea joined the division . The 6th Division used this last body of recruits in labor details at first and only later employed them as combat troops . The South Korean conscripts were often forcibly taken from their homes by North Korean troops , and typically held very weak morale . The North Koreans realized they presented a weakness in the lines but were unable to acquire men using other means . The North Koreans placed rear @-@ guard troops behind the conscripts ' formations , who would threaten to shoot them if they attempted to defect , desert or surrender their positions .
As a part of the North Korean build @-@ up in the south , the untried NK 7th Division also arrived near Masan with another 10 @,@ 000 men . The 7th Division occupied key ports to protect the 6th Division against possible amphibious landings in its rear . Eventually , though , the division was committed to combat in conjunction with other North Korean units . The simultaneous attacks were hoped to overwhelm UN lines .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
On August 17 , the North Koreans resumed their attack . A battalion of North Korean troops drove the ROK police out of T 'ongyong but did not hold it long . UN naval forces heavily shelled T 'ongyong as three companies of ROK Marines from Koje Island made an amphibious landing near the town . The ROK force then attacked the North Koreans and , supported by naval gun fire , drove them out . The North Koreans at T 'ongyong lost about 350 men , the survivors withdrew to Chinju .
The reinforced North Koreans had advanced on the 25th Infantry Division defensive line and had begun a series of probing attacks that were to continue throughout the month , sometimes of battalion strength . Most of these attacks came in the high mountains west of Haman , in the Battle Mountain , P 'il @-@ bong , and Sobuk @-@ san area . There the 6th Division attacked any UN @-@ held terrain features that afforded observation of its supply and concentration area in the deeply cut valley to the west .
= = = Battle of Komam @-@ ni = = =
The NK 6th Division shifted its axis of attack and its main attacking effort to the northern part of the Chinju @-@ Masan corridor just below the Nam River in the 35th Infantry 's sector . The 35th Infantry set to work to cover its front with trip flares , but they were in short supply and gradually it became impossible to replace them . Illuminating flares were also in short supply , and the reserve stocks had deteriorated to such a degree that only about 20 percent of the supply issued to the regiment was effective . Even when employed , the time lapse between a request for them and delivery by the big howitzers allowed some North Korean infiltration before the threatened area was illuminated .
The 64th Field Artillery Battalion , with C Battery , 90th Field Artillery Battalion , attached , and A Company , 88th Medium Tank Battalion , supported Fisher 's regiment . Three medium M4A3 Sherman tanks , from positions at Komam @-@ ni , acted as artillery and placed interdiction fire on Chungam @-@ ni . Six other medium M26 Pershing tanks in a similar manner placed interdiction fire on Uiryong across the Nam River .
In the pre @-@ dawn hours of August 17 , a North Korean attack hit the 35th Infantry . North Korean artillery fire began falling on the 1st Battalion command post in Komam @-@ ni at 03 : 00 , and an hour later North Korean infantry attacked A Company , forcing two of its platoons from their positions , and overrunning a mortar position . After daylight , a counterattack by B Company regained the lost ground . This was the beginning of a five @-@ day battle by 1st Battalion along the southern spurs of Sibidang , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Komam @-@ ni . The North Koreans attempted to turn the left flank of the 35th Regiment and split the 25th Division line . On the morning of August 18 , A Company again lost its position to North Korean attack and again regained it by counterattack . Two companies of South Korean police arrived to reinforce the battalion right flank . Against the continuing North Korean attack , artillery supporting the 1st Battalion fired an average of 200 rounds an hour during the night of August 19 – 20 .
After three days and nights of this battle , C Company of the 35th Infantry and A Company of the 29th Infantry moved up astride the Komam @-@ ni road during the morning of August 20 to bolster A and B Companies on Sibidang . A large concentration of North Koreans advanced to renew the attack . The US troops directed artillery fire on this force and called in an air strike . Observers estimated that the artillery fire and the air strike killed about 350 North Korean troops , half the attack group .
The North Koreans made another try on the same position . The morning of August 22 , North Korean infantry started a very heavy attack against the 1st Battalion . Employing no artillery or mortar preparatory fires , the force cut the barbed wire at the perimeter and attacked at close quarters with small arms and grenades . This assault engaged three American companies and drove one of them from its position . After three hours of fighting A Company counterattacked at 07 : 00 and regained its lost position . The next day , August 23 , the North Koreans , frustrated in this area , withdrew from contact in the 35th Infantry sector .
= = = Battle of Battle Mountain = = =
This high ground west of Haman on which the 24th Infantry established its defensive line was part of the Sobuk @-@ san mountain mass . Sobuk @-@ san reaches its 2 @,@ 400 @-@ foot ( 730 m ) peak at P 'il @-@ bong ( also called Hill 743 ) 8 miles ( 13 km ) northwest of Chindong @-@ ni and 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southwest of Haman . From P 'il @-@ bong the crest of the ridge line curves northwestward , to rise again 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away in the bald peak designated Hill 665 , which became known as Battle Mountain . US troops also occasionally referred to it variously as " Napalm Hill , " " Old Baldy , " or " Bloody Knob . " Between P 'il @-@ bong and Battle Mountain the ridge line narrows to a rocky ledge which the troops called the " Rocky Crags . " Northward from Battle Mountain toward the Nam River , the ground drops sharply in two long spur ridges . Men who fought there called the eastern one Green Peak .
At the western , North Korean @-@ held base of Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong were the villages of Ogok and Tundok , 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) from the crest . A north @-@ south mountain trail crossed a high saddle just north of these villages and up the west slope about halfway to the top of Battle Mountain . This road gave the North Koreans an advantage in mounting and supplying their attacks in the area . A trail system ran from Ogok and Tundok to the crests of Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong . From the top of Battle Mountain an observer could look directly down into the North Korean @-@ held valley . At the same time , from Battle Mountain the North Koreans could look down into the Haman valley eastward and observe the US 24th Infantry command post , supply road , artillery positions , and approach trails . Whichever side held the crest of Battle Mountain could see into the rear areas of the other . Both forces , seeing the advantages of holding the crest of Battle Mountain , fought relentlessly to capture it in a six @-@ week @-@ long battle .
The first attack against the mountain line of the 24th Infantry came on the morning of August 18 , when the North Koreans overran several E Company positions on the northern spur of Battle Mountain and killed the company commander . During the day , Lieutenant Colonel Paul F. Roberts succeeded Lieutenant Colonel George R. Cole in command of the 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry there . The next day , the North Koreans attacked C Company on Battle Mountain and routed it . Officers could collect only 40 men to bring them back into position . Many ROK police on P 'il @-@ bong also ran from the fight , and only 56 of them remained in their defensive positions . American officers used threats and physical force to get others back into position . A 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in the line north of P 'il @-@ bong existed in the 24th Infantry lines at the close of the day , and an unknown number of North Koreans were moving into it .
On August 20 , the NK 6th Division intensified its efforts to attack Battle Mountain , and began sending stronger attacks to capture the two peaks . In the face of these , all of C Company except the company commander and about 25 men abandoned their position on Battle Mountain . Upon reaching the bottom of the mountain those who had fled reported erroneously that the company commander had been killed and their position surrounded , then overrun by the North Koreans . On the basis of this misinformation , American artillery and mortars fired concentrations on C Company 's former position , and fighter @-@ bombers , in 38 sorties , attacked the crest of Battle Mountain , using napalm , fragmentation bombs , rockets , and machine guns . This action forced the company commander and his remaining 25 men off Battle Mountain after they had held it for 20 hours , having declined a call to surrender from the North Koreans . A platoon of E Company , except for about 10 men , also left its position on the mountain as soon as the attack progressed . On the regimental left , an ROK patrol from K Company 's position on Sobuk @-@ san captured the commanding officer of the NK 15th Regiment , but he was killed a few minutes later while trying to escape . The patrol removed several intelligence documents from his body . During the day of fighting on Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong , the North Koreans drove off the ROK police from the 24th Infantry 's left flank on Sobuk @-@ san . 24th Infantry troops continued to straggle from their positions , ignoring commands from officers to stay in place . Both African American and white officers , infuriated by the disobedience , wrote sworn statements implicating the deserters . The situation was so severe that those who stayed in their positions were often given Bronze Star Medals with Valor Devices because they were so far outnumbered in the fighting .
Battle Mountain changed hands so often during August that there is no agreement on the exact number of times . The intelligence sergeant of the 1st Battalion , 24th Infantry estimated the peak changed hands 19 times . From August 18 to the end of the month , North Korean troops attacked the mountain every night . The peak often changed hands two or three times in a 24 @-@ hour period . The usual pattern was for the North Koreans to take it at night and the US 24th Infantry to recapture it the next day . This type of fluctuating battle resulted in relatively high losses among artillery forward observers and their equipment . During the period of August 15 – 31 , seven forward observers and eight other members of the Observer and Liaison Section of the 159th Field Artillery Battalion were casualties , and they lost eight radios , 11 telephones , and two vehicles in the process .
The 24th Infantry consistently captured Battle Mountain in the same way . Artillery , mortar , and tank fire raked the crest and air strikes employing napalm blanketed the top of the peak . Then , the infantry attacked from the hill beneath the east slope of the summit . Supporting mortars would set up a base of fire and kept the heights under barrage until the infantry had arrived at a point just short of the crest . The mortar fire then lifted and the infantry moved rapidly up the last stretch to the top , usually to find it abandoned by the North Koreans .
= = = September push = = =
On August 31 , 1950 , the 25th Division held a front of almost 30 miles ( 48 km ) , beginning in the north at the Namji @-@ ri bridge over the Naktong River and extending west on the hills south of the river to the Nam 's confluence with it . It then bent southwest up the south side of the Nam to where the Sobuk @-@ san mountain mass tapered down in its northern extremity to the river . There the line turned south along rising ground to Sibidang @-@ san , crossed the saddle on its south face through which passed the Chinju @-@ Masan railroad and highway , and continued southward up to Battle Mountain and on to P 'il @-@ bong . From P 'il @-@ bong the line dropped down spur ridge lines to the southern coastal road near Chindong @-@ ni . The US 35th Infantry Regiment held the northern 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) of the division line , from the Namji @-@ ri bridge to the Chinju @-@ Masan highway . The regiment was responsible for the highway . The regiment 's weakest and most vulnerable point was a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) gap along the Naktong River between most of F Company on the west and its 1st Platoon to the east . This platoon guarded the Namji @-@ ri cantilever steel bridge on the division extreme right at the boundary with the US 2nd Infantry Division across the Naktong River . South of the highway , the 24th Infantry held the high ground west of Haman , including Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong . Colonel John L. Throckmorton 's 5th Infantry Regimental Combat Team held the southern spur of Sobuk @-@ san to the coastal road at Chindong @-@ ni . From Chindong @-@ ni some ROK Marine Corps units continued the line to the southern coast . General Kean 's 25th Division command post was at Masan , the 35th Infantry command post was on the east side of the Chirwon @-@ Chung @-@ ni road , the 24th Infantry command post was at Haman and Throckmorton 's 5th Infantry command post was at Chindong @-@ ni . By August 31 , the division was suffering manpower shortages , and a limited number of KATUSAs were brought in to replenish its ranks .
Aerial reconnaissance in the last week of August had disclosed to Eighth Army a large amount of North Korean activity behind the lines opposite the US 2nd and 25th Divisions in the southern part of the Pusan Perimeter . The North Koreans had built three new underwater bridges across the Nam River in front of the 35th Infantry in the 25th Division sector . Aerial bombing only temporarily and partially destroyed these bridges , and they were repaired overnight . Eighth Army intelligence credited the North Koreans with having moved one or two new divisions and about 20 tanks to the Hyopch 'on area on the west side of the Naktong River opposite the US 2nd Division . However , the US intelligence overestimated the strength of these divisions . On August 28 the Eighth Army intelligence officer warned that a general offensive may be expected at any time along the 2nd Division and 25th Division front aimed at severing the Taegu @-@ Pusan railroad and highway and capturing Masan .
Just before midnight August 31 , the NK I Corps started its portion of The Great Naktong Offensive , a coordinated attack all along the Pusan Perimeter with a goal of breaking the UN defensive lines and capturing Pusan . North Korean soldiers crossed the lower Naktong at a number of points in a well @-@ planned attack . From Hyongp 'ung southward to the coast , in the zones of the US 2nd and 25th Divisions , the North Koreans ' greatest effort struck in a single massive coordinated attack .
= = = Battle of Haman = = =
In the left center of the 25th Division line , Lieutenant Colonel Paul F. Roberts ' 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry , held the crest of the second ridge west of Haman , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the town . From Chungam @-@ ni , in North Korean territory , a secondary road led to Haman along the shoulders of low hills and across rice paddy ground , running east 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the main Chinju @-@ Masan road . It came through Roberts ' 2nd Battalion position in a pass 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Haman . Late in the afternoon of August 31 , observers with G Company , 24th Infantry , noticed activity 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in front of their positions . They called in two air strikes that hit this area at dusk . US artillery sent a large concentration of fire into the area , but the effect of this fire was not known . All US units on the line were alerted for a possible North Korean attack .
That night the North Koreans launched The Great Naktong Offensive against the entire UN force . The NK 6th Division advanced first , hitting F Company on the north side of the pass on the Chungam @-@ ni @-@ Haman road . The ROK troops in the pass left their positions and fell back on G Company to the south . The North Koreans captured a 75 mm recoilless rifle in the pass and turned it on American tanks , knocking out two of them . They then overran a section of 82 mm mortars at the east end of the pass . South of the pass , at dawn , First Lieutenant Houston M. McMurray found that only 15 out of 69 men assigned to his platoon remained with him , a mix of US and ROK troops . The North Koreans attacked this position at dawn . They came through an opening in the barbed wire perimeter which was supposed to be covered by a man with a M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle , but he had fled . Throwing grenades and spraying the area with PPSh @-@ 41 " burp gun " fire , the North Koreans quickly overran the position . Numerous officers and non @-@ commissioned officers attempted to get the men back into line , but they would not follow these orders . In one instance South Korean troops killed their own company commander when he tried to stop them from escaping .
Shortly after the North Korean attack started most of the 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry , fled its positions . One company at a time , the battalion was struck with strong attacks all along its front , and with the exception of a few dozen men in each company , each formation quickly crumbled , with most of the troops running back to Haman against the orders of the officers . The North Koreans passed through the crumbling US lines quickly and overran the 2nd Battalion command post , killing several men there and destroying much of the battalion 's equipment . With the 2nd Battalion broken , Haman was open to direct North Korean attack . As the North Koreans encircled Haman , Roberts , the 2nd Battalion commander , ordered an officer to take remnants of the battalion and establish a roadblock at the south edge of the town . Although the officer directed a large group of men to accompany him , only eight did so . The 2nd Battalion was no longer an effective fighting force . Pockets of its soldiers remained in place and fought fiercely , but the majority fled upon attack , and the North Koreans were able to move around the uneven resistance . They surrounded Haman as the 2nd Battalion crumbled in disarray .
When the North Korean attack broke through the 2nd Battalion , The 1st Battalion commander ordered his unit , which was about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of Haman on the Chindong @-@ ni road , to counterattack and restore the line . Roberts assembled all the 40 men of the disorganized 2nd Battalion he could find to join in this counterattack , which got under way at 07 : 30 . Upon contact with the North Koreans , the 1st Battalion broke and fled to the rear . Thus , shortly after daylight the scattered and disorganized men of the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 24th Infantry had fled to the high ground 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Haman . The better part of two regiments of the NK 6th Division poured into and through the Haman gap , now that they had captured the town and held it .
At 14 : 45 on September 1 , Kean ordered an immediate counterattack to restore the 24th Infantry positions . For 30 minutes US Air Force aircraft struck North Korean positions around Haman with bombs , napalm , rockets , and machine gun fire . They also attacked the North Korean @-@ held ridges around the town . Fifteen minutes of concentrated artillery fire followed . Fires spread in Haman . Infantry from 3rd Battalion moved out in attack west at 16 : 30 , reinforced by a platoon of tanks from A Company , 79th Tank Battalion . Eight tanks , mounting infantry , spearheaded the attack into Haman , capturing the city easily , as most of the North Korean troops had abandoned it . North Koreans in force held the ridge on the west side of the town , and their machine gun fire swept every approach . North Korean fire destroyed one tank and the attacking infantry suffered heavy casualties . But Check 's battalion pressed the attack and by 18 : 25 had seized the first long ridge 500 yards west of Haman . By 20 : 00 it had secured half of the old battle position on the higher ridge beyond , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Haman . Just 200 yards ( 180 m ) short of the crest on the remainder of the ridge , the infantry dug in for the night . It had recaptured Haman and was pushing back to the 24th 's old positions .
The North Koreans attacked Haman daily for the next week . Following the repelling of North Korean infiltration on September 7 , the North Korean attack on Haman ground to a halt . The North Koreans , racked by logistical and manpower shortages , focused more heavily on their attacks against 24th Infantry positions on Battle Mountain , as well as 35th Infantry positions at the Nam River . 24th Infantry troops at Haman encountered only probing attacks until September 18 .
= = = Battle of Nam River = = =
Meanwhile , the North Korean 7th Division troops committed all of their effort into attacking the US 35th Infantry line . At 23 : 30 on August 31 , a North Korean SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled high @-@ velocity gun from across the Nam fired shells into the position of G Company , 35th Infantry , overlooking the river . Within a few minutes , North Korean artillery was attacking all front @-@ line rifle companies of the regiment from the Namji @-@ ri bridge west . Under cover of this fire a reinforced regiment of the NK 7th Division crossed the Nam River and attacked F and G Companies , 35th Infantry . Other North Korean soldiers crossed the Nam on an underwater bridge in front of the paddy ground north of Komam @-@ ni and near the boundary between the 2nd Battalion , led by Lieutenant Colonel John L. Wilkins , Jr . , holding the river front and Lieutenant Colonel Bernard G. Teeter 's 1st Battalion holding the hill line that stretched from the Nam River to Sibidang @-@ san and the Chinju @-@ Masan highway . The 35th Infantry , facing shortages of equipment and reinforcements , was under @-@ equipped but nonetheless prepared for an attack .
In the low ground between these two battalions at the river ferry crossing site , the 35th Infantry commander had placed 300 ROK National Police , expecting them to hold there long enough to serve as a warning for the rest of the forces . Guns from the flanking hills there could cover the low ground with fire . Back at Komam @-@ ni he held the 3rd Battalion ready for use in counterattack to stop an enemy penetration should it occur . Unexpectedly , the ROK police companies near the ferry scattered at the first North Korean fire . At 00 : 30 , North Korean troops streamed through this hole in the line , some turning left to take G Company in its flank and rear , and others turned right to attack C Company , which was on a spur of ground west of the Komam @-@ ni road . The I & R Platoon and elements of C and D Companies formed a defense line along the dike at the north edge of Komam @-@ ni where US tanks joined them at daybreak . But the North Koreans did not drive for the Komam @-@ ni road fork 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the river as Colonel Fisher expected them to ; instead , they turned east into the hills behind 2nd Battalion .
At daybreak on September 1 , a tank @-@ led relief force of C Company headquarters troops cleared the road to Sibidang @-@ san and resupplied the 2nd Platoon , B Company , with ammunition just in time for it to repel another North Korean assault , killing 77 and capturing 21 North Koreans . Although Fisher 's 35th Infantry held all its original positions , except that of the forward platoon of G Company , 3 @,@ 000 North Korean soldiers were behind its lines . The farthest eastern penetration reached the high ground just south of Chirwon overlooking the north @-@ south road there .
By midafternoon , Kean felt that the situation was so dangerous that he ordered the 2nd Battalion , US 27th Infantry Regiment , to attack behind the 35th Infantry . A large part of the division artillery was under direct North Korean infantry attack . During the morning hours of September 1 , when the NK 7th Division troops had attacked , the first American unit they encountered was G Company , 35th Infantry , at the north shoulder of the gap . While some North Korean units peeled off to attack G Company , others continued on and engaged E Company , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream from it , and still others attacked scattered units of F Company all the way to its 1st Platoon , which guarded the Namji @-@ ri bridge . There , at the extreme right flank of the 25th Division , this platoon drove off a North Korean force after a fierce fight . By September 2 , E Company in a heavy battle had destroyed most of a North Korean battalion .
Bitter , confused fighting continued behind the 35th Infantry 's line for the next week . Battalions , companies , and platoons , cut off and isolated , fought independently of higher control and help except for airdrops which supplied many of them . Airdrops also supplied relief forces trying to reach the front @-@ line units . Tanks and armored cars drove to the isolated units with supplies of food and ammunition and carried back critically wounded on the return trips . In general , the 35th Infantry fought in its original battle line positions , while at first one battalion , and later two battalions , of the 27th Infantry fought toward it through the estimated 3 @,@ 000 North Koreans operating in its rear areas .
Although the 25th Division generally was under much less pressure after September 5 , there were still severe local attacks . Heavy rains caused the Nam and Naktong Rivers to rise on September 8 and 9 , reducing the danger of new crossings . However , North Korean attacks against 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry occurred nightly . The approaches to the Namji @-@ ri bridge , one of their key targets to protect , were mined . At one time there were about 100 North Korean dead lying in that area . From September 9 to 16 , there were limited attacks on the 35th Infantry 's front but most of the North Koreans ' momentum had been broken and they could not muster strong attacks against the regiment again .
= = = Evacuation of Masan = = =
Civilians in Masan posed an unexpectedly dangerous problem for the UN forces . The town had a large community of Communist sympathizers and agents . At the peak of the North Korean offensive , Han Gum Jo , manager of the Masan branch of the Korean Press Association , confessed that he was chief of the South Korean Labor Party in Masan and that he had been funneling information to the North Koreans through a Pusan headquarters . Additionally , the chief of the Masan prison guards was found to be the head of a Communist cell that included seven of his subordinates . This , and other counterintelligence information , came to light at a time when the most intense fighting was in progress only a few miles away . Kean considered the situation so dangerous that he ordered Masan evacuated of all people except police , public officials , railroad and utility workers , and necessary laborers and their families . Evacuation was to be completed in five days . On September 10 and 11 alone the 25th Division evacuated more than 12 @,@ 000 people by Landing Ship Tank ( LST ) from Masan .
= = = North Korean withdrawal = = =
The UN counterattack at Inchon collapsed the North Korean line and forced them back on all fronts . On September 16 , however , the 25th Infantry Division was still fighting North Korean forces behind its lines , and North Korean strong points existed on the heights of Battle Mountain , P 'il @-@ bong , and Sobuk @-@ san . Kean felt that the division could advance along the roads toward Chinju only when the mountainous center of the division front was clear . He therefore believed that the key to the advance of the 25th Division lay in its center where the North Koreans held the heights and kept the 24th Infantry Regiment under daily attack . The 27th Infantry on the left and the 35th Infantry on the right , astride the roads between Chinju and Masan held their positions and could not advance until the situation in front of the 24th Infantry improved .
On September 19 the UN discovered the North Koreans had abandoned of Battle Mountain during the night , and the 1st Battalion , 24th Infantry , moved up and occupied it . On the right , the 35th Infantry began moving forward . There was only light resistance until it reached the high ground in front of Chungam @-@ ni where hidden North Korean soldiers in spider holes shot at 1st Battalion soldiers from the rear . The next day the 1st Battalion captured Chungam @-@ ni , and the 2nd Battalion captured the long ridge line running northwest from it to the Nam River . Meanwhile , the North Koreans still held strongly against the division left where the 27th Infantry had heavy fighting in trying to move forward .
The North Koreans withdrew from the Masan area the night of September 18 – 19 . The NK 7th Division withdrew from south of the Nam River while the 6th Division sideslipped elements to cover the entire front . Covered by the 6th Division , the 7th had crossed to the north side of the Nam River by the morning of September 19 . Then the NK 6th Division withdrew from its positions on Sobuk @-@ san . The US units rapidly pursued them north , passing over the Battle Mountain positions , which were no longer of strategic importance .
= = Aftermath = =
The US 5th Regimental Combat Team suffered 269 killed , 573 wounded and 4 missing during its battles at the Pusan Perimeter , most of these at Masan . The rest of the 25th Infantry Division suffered 650 killed , 1 @,@ 866 wounded , four captured and 10 missing during the fight . Another 138 were killed , 646 wounded , and two captured during the division 's breakout attack from the Masan battleground .
The North Korean troops suffered heavily in the fight , and most became casualties in the attack . By mid @-@ September , the NK 7th Division was reduced to just 4 @,@ 000 men , a loss of 6 @,@ 000 from when it was committed to the perimeter . Only 2 @,@ 000 men from the NK 6th Division returned to North Korea , a loss of 80 percent of its strength . Large groups of troops from the divisions were captured as they attempted to return to North Korea , including up to 3 @,@ 000 North Korean troops . The attacking force of over 20 @,@ 000 had been reduced to only 6 @,@ 000 by the end of the fighting at Masan .
The position around Masan remained locked in a bitter stalemate during the entire six weeks of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter . Each side attempted several offensives on the other in an attempt to force a withdrawal , but the North Koreans were unable to pierce the UN perimeter , and the UN troops were unable to overwhelm the North Koreans to the point they were forced to withdraw . The battle itself was tactically inconclusive , as neither side was able to decisively defeat the other , however the UN units achieved their strategic goal of preventing the North Koreans from advancing further east and threatening Pusan . Instead , they were able to hold the line against repeated attacks until the Inchon attack , and were thus successful in defeating the North Korean army in subsequent engagements .
Desertion had continued to be a problem for the 24th Infantry , a de facto segregated unit . Statistics compiled found the 25th Infantry Division had to detain 116 deserters from the 24th Infantry throughout August , compared to 15 from the 27th Infantry and 12 from the 35th Infantry . The regiment had already been criticized for its poor performance at the Battle of Sangju several weeks earlier . In late August , Kean began investigating the unit 's behavior , finding its poor performance was starting to bring other units of the division down as well . Kean considered the regiment a weak link in the chain , and after its poor performance at the battles of Battle Mountain and Haman , he suggested to Walker that the regiment be disbanded and its troops be used as replacements for other units in the field . Virtually all of the officers and enlisted men in the regiment were supportive of this idea , but Walker declined , feeling he could not afford to lose a regiment . Conversely , the 35th Infantry was widely praised for its actions at the Kum River line . The regiment had performed so well in repulsing the North Koreans that Kean nominated it for a Presidential Unit Citation .
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= Pentonville Road =
Pentonville Road is a road in Central London that runs west to east from Kings Cross to City Road at The Angel , Islington . The road is part of the London Inner Ring Road and part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone .
The road was originally built in the mid @-@ 18th century as part of the New Road , a bypass of Central London for coach traffic . It was named Pentonville Road after the new town of Pentonville , that encouraged manufacturing to move out of the city and into suburbia . Numerous factories and commercial premises became established on the road in the 19th and 20th centuries , particularly after the arrival of London railways in the 1840s .
As industrial manufacturing fell out of favour in London in the late 20th century , many properties are now residential or student accommodation . Current premises include the Crafts Council Gallery on the site of a former chapel , the Scala nightclub in a former cinema , and The Castle , a public house .
= = Geography = =
The road is 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) long and runs east from King 's Cross railway station as a continuation of Euston Road . It ends at the Angel , Islington , at a junction with Islington High Street and Goswell Road ; the road ahead becoming City Road . Only eastbound traffic can travel on the full extent of the road ; westbound traffic is diverted south via Swinton Street . The road is on the London Inner Ring Road ( A501 ) and as such forms part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone . Since 1995 , it has been a red route , prohibiting stopping of any kind , including loading and unloading .
Most of the road is in the London Borough of Islington but a small part near Kings Cross is in the London Borough of Camden , including the Kings Cross Thameslink railway station and the " Lighthouse " Block . London Underground and National Rail stations in the vicinity include Kings Cross and Angel tube station .
There has been a bus service on Pentonville Road since 1829 . Regular bus routes running along the road are 30 , 73 and 146 .
= = History = =
What is now Pentonville Road was built as the final section of the New Road in 1756 , connecting the City of London to the western suburbs , so that coach traffic could avoid Central London . At the time , the route now covered by Pentonville Road was mostly fields , with Battle Bridge occupying the space where King 's Cross now is . It included a tavern known as Busby 's Folly , a meeting place of a drinking group known as the Society of Bull Feathers . It is marked on John Ogilby 's map of London in 1675 . It was moved around 1780 to Penton Street and renamed the Belvedere Tavern . The current building dates from 1876 .
The road was designed as part of Pentonville , a new suburb away from the City and became a local hub for manufacturing in the area . There was some debate over the final route of the road ; the original plan to run straight through fields owned by the Skinners Company and the New River Company was rejected in favour of the route further north via Battle Bridge . As it was always intended to be a main road , a coach service began in 1798 between Paddington and Bank but was quickly withdrawn . The road was turnpiked in 1830 and renamed Pentonville Road after landowner Henry Penton in 1857 . Until 1882 , the upkeep of the road was paid by the local parish , paying a ground rent to Penton 's estate for the disused toll house at No. 274 .
The street is distinguished by the " set back " housing lines originally intended to provide an atmosphere of spaciousness along the thoroughfare . The original 1756 act to create the New Road prohibited the construction of any building within 50 feet ( 15 m ) of its side . Though the area had been designed to be a pleasant suburb , the arrival of railways in the 1840s turned the road into an industrial urban street , with factories and workshops aligning the road . The original bylaw restricting property on the front of the road was ignored and shops were built on top of gardens .
By the 21st century , most of the manufacturing base along Pentonville Road had disappeared . The original townhouses are now apartments .
= = Properties = =
Alexander Cumming , former clockmaker and organ builder to Archibald Campbell , 3rd Duke of Argyll , built a house at No. 166 Pentonville Road . In 1807 , the year after his death , the house became the London Female Penitentiary , housing " fallen women " and rehabilitating them into society . It was extended between 1811 – 12 , roughly tripling its capacity , and moved to Stoke Newington in 1884 .
The Thomas S. Jones organ builders were based at No. 25 Pentonville Road between 1860 and 1935 . The Dunn & Hewett cocoa factory was established at No. 9 Pentonville Road in 1833 by Daniel Dunn , who went into partnership with Charles Hewett in the 1850s . The business claimed to have invented soluble chocolate and cocoa , and moved to No. 136 , expanding to No. 138 in the 1870s . The building was enlarged and partially rebuilt over the 1880s and 90s , and included a staff tea @-@ room at No. 140 by 1907 . The factory closed around 1930 and was subsequently sub @-@ let to various businesses . The Ealing Radiator Company was established at Nos. 152 – 154 Pentonville Road in 1936 , manufacturing car radiators . A first floor extension was added in 1952 , while Nos. 136 – 150 were cleared to accommodate a low metal @-@ framed building . These premises have now been sub @-@ let to various businesses .
The Claremont Chapel was at No. 44a Pentonville Road . It was named after Claremont House , home of the then @-@ recently deceased Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales . The chapel was designed by Thomas Wilson , who acquired the 2 acre site in 1818 for £ 700 , spending an additional £ 6 @,@ 000 on building works . It opened in October 1819 , though a regular pastor was not appointed until 1822 . The building was extended in 1847 to accommodate a Sunday school , while sash windows were installed in 1853 . In 1860 , the building was refurbished and given a Classical facade , but reducing the capacity of the inside gallery . Attendance declined and the chapel was sold to the London Congregational Union , before closing in 1899 . It re @-@ opened in 1902 as Claremont Hall , a mission institute . It was let for commercial purposes in the 1960s , and sub @-@ let to the Crafts Council in 1991 . The building is now the Crafts Council Gallery , a public gallery funded by the Arts Council England . It contains a number of exhibition rooms that are available for use .
The block of properties at No. 295 – 297 Pentonville Road , at its junction with Gray 's Inn Road , is known as the " Lighthouse Block " owing to the lead clad tower at the top of the building . The site avoided being compulsory purchased and demolished ( in order to provide improvements to King 's Cross station 's eastern entrance ) and is now Grade II listed .
The Vernon Square school opened on Pentonville Road in 1913 , expanding to cover secondary school students in 1949 . It was renamed the Sir Philip Magnus School in 1952 and closed in the 1970s . It became part of Kingsway College before being purchased by the School of Oriental and African Studies in 2001 . The SOAS has several other halls of residence along Pentonville Road , including Dinwiddy House .
The Scala at No. 275 – 277 Pentonville Road opened as the King 's Cross Cinema in 1920 with a capacity of 1 @,@ 300 . Construction had begun just before World War I and was halted because of it . It was damaged by bombs during World War II , and while it remained open during wartime , it eventually had to be shut between 1949 and 1952 for renovations and repair . It closed in 1970 , and re @-@ opened as an independent cinema , which showed old 16mm films including King Kong . The Stooges played their only gig in London at the venue in June 1972 , shortly before recording the album Raw Power with David Bowie ; a shot of Iggy Pop onstage here became the album 's front cover . The venue closed in 1992 , and is now a nightclub .
The Castle is a pub at No. 54 Pentonville Road , at the junction with Baron Street . In 2015 , the perpetrators of the Hatton Garden safe deposit burglary met at the pub to discuss the crime shortly after it occurred , but were secretly filmed there by the Flying Squad . All were subsequently arrested and sent to prison . The current owners , Geronimo Inns , wish to distance themselves from the burglary and forbid staff to discuss it with customers .
The original Angel , Islington , sits at the far east end of Pentonville Road , at its junction with Islington High Street . It was named after the Angel of the Annunciation that appeared on its sign . The inn pre @-@ dated the construction of Pentonville Road , and had become one of the largest coaching inns in the local area by the 18th century . The site was cut in two by the construction of the road , with the inn remaining on the north side . A new building was constructed in 1899 , later becoming a Lyons Corner House . It closed in 1959 , and was threatened with demolition as a plan to improve junction improvements around Pentonville Road , but survived and is now partly occupied by a branch of The Co @-@ operative Bank .
= = Cultural references = =
The poet John Betjeman 's parents ran a cabinet makers at No. 34 – 42 Pentonville Road . It was established since 1859 and produced the Tantalus drinks cabinet in 1881 .
Pentonville Road is one of the locations on the London version of the Monopoly board game . It is one of the light blue squares alongside The Angel , Islington and Euston Road , both of which it connects to . The magazine Mixmag 's main offices are at Nos. 90 – 92 Pentonville Road .
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= Phoenix ( constellation ) =
Phoenix is a minor constellation in the southern sky . Named after the mythical phoenix , it was first depicted on a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria . The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted the brighter stars and gave their Bayer designations in 1756 . The constellation stretches from roughly − 39 ° to − 57 ° declination , and from 23.5h to 2.5h of right ascension . The constellations Phoenix , Grus , Pavo and Tucana , are known as the Southern Birds .
The brightest star , Alpha Phoenicis , is named Ankaa , an Arabic word meaning ' the Phoenix ' . It is an orange giant of apparent magnitude 2 @.@ 4 . Next is Beta Phoenicis , actually a binary system composed of two yellow giants with a combined apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 3 . Nu Phoenicis has a dust disk , while the constellation has ten star systems with known planets and the recently discovered galaxy clusters El Gordo and the Phoenix Cluster — located 7 @.@ 2 and 5 @.@ 7 billion light years away respectively , two of the largest objects in the visible universe . Phoenix is the radiant of two annual meteor showers : the Phoenicids in December , and the July Phoenicids .
= = History = =
Phoenix was the largest of the twelve constellations established by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman . It first appeared on a 35 @-@ cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 ( or 1598 ) in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius . The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer 's Uranometria of 1603 . De Houtman included it in his southern star catalog the same year under the Dutch name Den voghel Fenicx , " The Bird Phoenix " , symbolising the phoenix of classical mythology . One name of the brightest star Alpha Phoenicis — Ankaa — is derived from the Arabic العنقاء al- ‘ anqā ’ " the phoenix " , and was coined sometime after 1800 in relation to the constellation .
Celestial historian Richard Allen noted that unlike the other constellations introduced by Plancius and La Caille , Phoenix has actual precedent in ancient astronomy , as the Arabs saw this formation as representing young ostriches , Al Ri 'āl , or as a griffin or eagle . In addition , the same group of stars was sometimes imagined by the Arabs as a boat , Al Zaurak , on the nearby river Eridanus . He observed , " the introduction of a Phoenix into modern astronomy was , in a measure , by adoption rather than by invention . "
The Chinese incorporated Phoenix 's brightest star , Ankaa ( Alpha Phoenicis ) , and stars from the adjacent constellation Sculptor to depict Bakui , a net for catching birds . Phoenix and the neighbouring constellation of Grus together were seen by Julius Schiller as portraying Aaron the High Priest . These two constellations , along with nearby Pavo and Tucana , are called the Southern Birds .
= = Characteristics = =
Phoenix is a small constellation bordered by Fornax and Sculptor to the north , Grus to the west , Tucana to the south , touching on the corner of Hydrus to the south , and Eridanus to the east and southeast . The bright star Achernar is nearby . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' Phe ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 10 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 23h 26.5m and 02h 25.0m , while the declination coordinates are between − 39 @.@ 31 ° and − 57 @.@ 84 ° . This means it remains below the horizon to anyone living north of the 40th parallel in the Northern Hemisphere , and remains low in the sky for anyone living north of the equator . It is most visible from locations such as Australia and South Africa during late Southern Hemisphere spring . Most of the constellation lies within , and can be located by , forming a triangle of the bright stars Achernar , Fomalhaut and Beta Ceti — Ankaa lies roughly in the centre of this .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
A curved line of stars comprising Alpha , Kappa , Mu , Beta , Nu and Gamma Phoenicis was seen as a boat by the ancient Arabs . French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted and designated 27 stars with the Bayer designations Alpha through to Omega in 1756 . Of these , he labelled two stars close together Lambda , and assigned Omicron , Psi and Omega to three stars , which subsequent astronomers such as Benjamin Gould felt were too dim to warrant their letters . A different star was subsequently labelled Psi Phoenicis , while the other two designations fell out of use .
Ankaa is the brightest star in the constellation . It is an orange giant of apparent visual magnitude 2 @.@ 37 and spectral type K0.5IIIb , 77 light years distant from Earth and orbited by a secondary object about which little is known . Lying close by Ankaa is Kappa Phoenicis , a main sequence star of spectral type A5IVn and apparent magnitude 3 @.@ 90 . Located centrally in the asterism , Beta Phoenicis is the second brightest star in the constellation and another binary star . Together the stars , both yellow giants of spectral type G8 , shine with an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 31 , though the components are of individual apparent magnitudes of 4 @.@ 0 and 4 @.@ 1 and orbit each other every 168 years . Zeta Phoenicis is an Algol @-@ type eclipsing binary , with an apparent magnitude fluctuating between 3 @.@ 9 and 4 @.@ 4 with a period of around 1 @.@ 7 days ( 40 hours ) ; its dimming results from the component two blue @-@ white B @-@ type stars , which orbit and block out each other from Earth . The two stars are 0 @.@ 05 AU from each other , while a third star is around 600 AU away from the pair , and has an orbital period exceeding 5000 years . The system is around 300 light years distant . In 1976 , researchers Clausen , Gyldenkerne , and Grønbech calculated that a nearby 8th magnitude star is a fourth member of the system .
Gamma Phoenicis is a red giant of spectral type M0IIIa and varies between magnitudes 3 @.@ 39 and 3 @.@ 49 . It lies 235 light years away . Psi Phoenicis is another red giant , this time of spectral type M4III , and has an apparent magnitude that ranges between 4 @.@ 3 and 4 @.@ 5 over a period of around 30 days . Lying 340 light years away , it has around 85 times the diameter , but only 85 % of the mass , of our sun . W Phoenicis is a Mira variable , ranging from magnitude 8 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 4 over 333 @.@ 95 days . A red giant , its spectrum ranges between M5e and M6e . Located 6 @.@ 5 degrees west of Ankaa is SX Phoenicis , a variable star which ranges from magnitude 7 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 5 over a period of a mere 79 minutes . Its spectral type varies between A2 and F4 . It gives its name to a group of stars known as SX Phoenicis variables . Rho and BD Phoenicis are Delta Scuti variables — short period ( six hours at most ) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology . Rho is spectral type F2III , and ranges between magnitudes 5 @.@ 20 and 5 @.@ 26 over a period of 2 @.@ 85 hours . BD is of spectral type A1V , and ranges between magnitudes 5 @.@ 90 and 5 @.@ 94 .
Nu Phoenicis is a yellow @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type F9V and magnitude 4 @.@ 96 . Lying some 49 light years distant , it is around 1 @.@ 2 times as massive as our sun , and likely to be surrounded by a disk of dust . It is the closest star in the constellation that is visible with the unaided eye . Gliese 915 is a white dwarf only 26 light years away . It is of magnitude 13 @.@ 05 , too faint to be seen with the naked eye . White dwarfs are extremely dense stars compacted into a volume the size of the Earth . With around 85 % of the mass of the Sun , Gliese 915 has a surface gravity of 108 @.@ 39 ± 0 @.@ 01 ( 2 @.@ 45 · 108 ) cm · s − 2 , or approximately 250 @,@ 000 of Earth 's .
Ten stars have been found to have planets to date , and four planetary systems have been discovered with the SuperWASP project . HD 142 is a yellow giant that has an apparent magnitude of 5 @.@ 7 , and has a planet ( HD 142 b ) 1 @.@ 36 times the mass of Jupiter which orbits every 328 days . HD 2039 is a yellow subgiant with an apparent magnitude of 9 @.@ 0 around 330 light years away which has a planet ( HD 2039 b ) triple the mass of Jupiter . WASP @-@ 18 is a star of magnitude 9 @.@ 29 which was discovered to have a hot Jupiter @-@ like planet ( WASP @-@ 18b ) taking less than a day to orbit the star . The planet is suspected to be causing WASP @-@ 18 to appear older than it really is . WASP @-@ 4 and WASP @-@ 5 are solar @-@ type yellow stars around 1000 light years distant and of 13th magnitude , each with a single planet larger than Jupiter . WASP @-@ 29 is an orange dwarf of spectral type K4V and visual magnitude 11 @.@ 3 , which has a planetary companion of similar size and mass to Saturn . The planet completes an orbit every 3 @.@ 9 days .
WISE J003231.09 @-@ 494651 @.@ 4 and WISE J001505.87 @-@ 461517 @.@ 6 are two brown dwarfs discovered by the Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer , and are 63 and 49 light years away respectively . Initially hypothesised before they were belatedly discovered , brown dwarfs are objects more massive than planets , but which are of insufficient mass for hydrogen fusion characteristic of stars to occur . Many are being found by sky surveys .
Phoenix contains HE0107 @-@ 5240 , possibly one of the oldest stars yet discovered . It has around 1 / 200 @,@ 000 the metallicity that the Sun has and hence must have formed very early in the history of the universe . With a visual magnitude of 15 @.@ 17 , it is around 10 @,@ 000 times dimmer than the faintest stars visible to the naked eye and is 36000 light years distant .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The constellation does not lie on the galactic plane of the Milky Way , and there are no prominent star clusters . NGC 625 is a dwarf irregular galaxy of apparent magnitude 11 @.@ 0 and lying some 12 @.@ 7 million light years distant . Only 24000 light years in diameter , it is an outlying member of the Sculptor Group . NGC 625 is thought to have been involved in a collision and is experiencing a burst of active star formation . NGC 37 is a lenticular galaxy of apparent magnitude 14 @.@ 66 . It is approximately 42 kiloparsecs ( 137 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ) in diameter and about 12 @.@ 9 billion years old . Robert 's Quartet ( composed of the irregular galaxy NGC 87 , and three spiral galaxies NGC 88 , NGC 89 and NGC 92 ) is a group of four galaxies located around 160 million light @-@ years away which are in the process of colliding and merging . They are within a circle of radius of 1 @.@ 6 arcmin , corresponding to about 75 @,@ 000 light @-@ years . Located in the galaxy ESO 243 @-@ 49 is HLX @-@ 1 , an intermediate @-@ mass black hole — the first one of its kind identified . It is thought to be a remnant of a dwarf galaxy that was absorbed in a collision with ESO 243 @-@ 49 . Before its discovery , this class of black hole was only hypothesized .
Lying within the bounds of the constellation is the gigantic Phoenix cluster , which is around 7 @.@ 3 million light years wide and 5 @.@ 7 billion light years away , making it one of the most massive galaxy clusters . It was first discovered in 2010 , and the central galaxy is producing an estimated 740 new stars a year . Larger still is El Gordo , or officially ACT @-@ CL J0102 @-@ 4915 , whose discovery was announced in 2012 . Located around 7 @.@ 2 billion light years away , it is composed of two subclusters in the process of colliding , resulting in the spewing out of hot gas , seen in X @-@ rays and infrared images .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
Phoenix is the radiant of two annual meteor showers . The Phoenicids , also known as the December Phoenicids , were first observed on 3 December 1887 . The shower was particularly intense in December 1956 , and is thought related to the breakup of the short @-@ period comet 289P / Blanpain . It peaks around 4 – 5 December , though is not seen every year . A very minor meteor shower peaks around July 14 with around one meteor an hour , though meteors can be seen anytime from July 3 to 18 ; this shower is referred to as the July Phoenicids .
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= Bismarck @-@ class battleship =
The Bismarck class was a pair of battleships built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine shortly before the outbreak of World War II . The ships were the largest warships built for the Kriegsmarine . Bismarck was laid down in July 1936 and completed in September 1940 , while her sister Tirpitz 's keel was laid in October 1936 and work finished in February 1941 . The two ships were broadly similar to the World War I @-@ era Bayern class , in that they mounted a similar main battery .
Both ships had short service careers . Bismarck conducted only one operation , Operation Rheinübung , a sortie into the North Atlantic to raid supply convoys sent from North America to Great Britain . During the operation , she destroyed the British battlecruiser HMS Hood and damaged the new battleship Prince of Wales in the Battle of the Denmark Strait . Bismarck was defeated and sunk in a final engagement after a three @-@ day chase by the Royal Navy . Disagreements over the cause of the sinking persist with chiefly British sources claiming responsibility for the sinking of the ship . Evidence reviewed by Robert Ballard and James Cameron indicates that her loss was most likely due to scuttling as originally claimed by her surviving crew @-@ members .
Tirpitz 's career was less dramatic ; she was sent to Norwegian waters in 1942 , where she acted as a fleet in being , threatening the convoys from Britain to the Soviet Union . She was repeatedly attacked by the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force . In 1944 , Lancaster bombers hit the ship with three Tallboy bombs , which caused extensive internal damage and capsized the battleship . Tirpitz was broken up for scrap between 1948 and 1957 .
= = Design = =
A series of conceptual designs were begun in 1932 to determine the ideal characteristics of a battleship built to the 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) limit of the Washington Naval Treaty . These early studies determined that the ship should be armed with eight 33 cm ( 13 in ) guns , have a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , and have strong armour protection . The design work for what became the Bismarck class was begun in 1933 and continued until 1936 . In June 1935 , Germany signed the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement , which allowed Germany to build battleships at a ratio of 35 percent to the total tonnage of the Royal Navy . It also made Germany party to the international treaty system begun at the Washington Conference . At the time , France , which had begun a program of naval expansion , was viewed as the most likely threat , not Great Britain . As a result , Bismarck and Tirpitz were intended to counter the new French battleships being built at the time .
A series of questions needed to be answered during the design process , including the calibre of the main battery , the propulsion system , and armour protection . The deciding factor for the adoption of 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns for Bismarck and Tirpitz was the decision of the French Navy to arm its four Richelieu @-@ class ships then under construction with 38 cm pieces . It was decided that four twin turrets would provide the best solution to distribution of the main battery , as it would provide equal firepower forward and aft , as well as simplify fire control . This arrangement was similar to the last German battleships of the Imperial period , the Bayern class . The similarity led to speculation that the Bismarcks were essentially copies of the earlier ships , though the arrangement of the main battery was the only shared trait , along with a three @-@ shaft propulsion system .
The naval constructors examined diesel geared drive , steam drive , and turbo @-@ electric drive engines ; the last system was the preferred choice , as it had been extremely successful in the two American Lexington @-@ class aircraft carriers and the French passenger ship Normandie . The design staff were also required to provide sufficient range to the new battleships ; they would have to make long voyages from German ports to reach the Atlantic , and Germany had no overseas bases where the ships could refuel . Due to the numerical inferiority of the German fleet and the assumption that naval battles would take place at relatively close range in the North Sea , the design placed great emphasis on stability and armour protection . Very thick vertical belt armour was adopted , along with heavy upper @-@ citadel armour plating and extensive splinter protection in the bow and stern of the ships .
The displacement of Bismarck and Tirpitz were limited by the capabilities of existing infrastructure in Kiel and Wilhelmshaven , and the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . On 11 February 1937 , the Construction Office informed Generaladmiral ( General Admiral ) Erich Raeder that the ships could not displace more than 42 @,@ 000 long tons ( 43 @,@ 000 t ) due to harbour constraints and canal depths . The office also expressed a preference for building a third vessel and remaining within the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ ton treaty limit . Admiral Werner Fuchs , the head of the General Command Office of the Oberkommando der Marine , advised Raeder and Adolf Hitler that modifications would be necessary to reduce the displacement to ensure the new ships met the legal requirements of the London Naval Treaty . Japan refused to sign the new treaty , and so on 1 April 1937 an escalator clause permitting treaty signatories to build ships up to a limit of 45 @,@ 000 long tons ( 46 @,@ 000 t ) went into effect . The final design displacement of 41 @,@ 400 long tons ( 42 @,@ 100 t ) was well within this limit , so Fuchs 's modifications were discarded .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Bismarck @-@ class battleships were 251 m ( 823 ft 6 in ) long overall and 241 @.@ 60 m ( 792 ft 8 in ) long at the waterline . The ships had a beam of 36 m ( 118 ft 1 in ) , and a designed draft of 9 @.@ 30 m ( 30 ft 6 in ) ; the draft at standard displacement was 8 @.@ 63 m ( 28 ft 4 in ) , and 9 @.@ 90 m ( 32 ft 6 in ) at a full load . The ships had a designed displacement of 45 @,@ 950 metric tons ; their standard displacement was 41 @,@ 700 metric tons , and when fully laden , the ships displaced 50 @,@ 300 metric tons . The ships had a double bottom for 83 percent of the length of the hull , and twenty @-@ two watertight compartments . The ships were 90 percent welded construction . The stern was weakly constructed ; this had significant consequences on Bismarck 's only combat mission .
The ships were very stable , primarily because of their wide beam . The ships suffered from only slight pitching and rolling , even in the heavy seas of the North Atlantic . Bismarck and Tirpitz were responsive to commands from the helm ; they were capable of manoeuvring with rudder deflections as small as 5 ° . With the rudder completely over , the ships heeled only 3 ° , but lost up to 65 % of their speed . The ships handled poorly at low speeds or when travelling astern . As a result , tugs were necessary in confined areas to avoid collisions or grounding . The ships had a standard crew of 103 officers and 1 @,@ 962 enlisted sailors . The ships carried smaller boats , including three picket boats , four barges , one launch , two pinnaces , two cutters , two yawls , and two dinghies .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Bismarck @-@ class ships both had three sets of geared turbine engines ; Bismarck was equipped with Blohm & Voss turbines , while Tirpitz used Brown , Boveri , and Co. engines . Each set of turbines drove a 3 @-@ bladed screw that was 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) in diameter . Robert Ballard , the discoverer of Bismarck , noted that the adoption of the three @-@ shaft arrangement caused serious problems for Bismarck . The centre shaft weakened the keel , especially where it emerges from the hull . Ballard stated that a four @-@ shaft arrangement would have allowed a greater ability to steer the ship using only propeller revolutions than the three @-@ screw system .
At a full load , the high and medium @-@ pressure turbines ran at 2 @,@ 825 rpm , while the low @-@ pressure turbines ran at 2 @,@ 390 rpm . The ships ' turbines were powered by twelve Wagner ultra high @-@ pressure oil @-@ burning boilers . The two ships had different fuel stores ; Bismarck was designed to carry 3 @,@ 200 tons of fuel oil , but could store up to 6 @,@ 400 tons of fuel in a normal configuration ; with extra fuel bunkers , the fuel carried could be increased up to 7 @,@ 400 tons . Tirpitz was designed to carry 3 @,@ 000 tons of fuel , and with additional bunkers , was able to store up to 7 @,@ 780 tons . At 19 knots , Bismarck could steam for 8 @,@ 525 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 788 km ) , and Tirpitz had a maximum range of 8 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 430 km ) at that speed .
The turbines were initially intended to use electric transmission , and would have produced 46 @,@ 000 hp ( 34 @,@ 000 kW ) apiece . The geared turbines were lighter , and as a result had a slight performance advantage . The geared turbines also had a significantly more robust construction . The ships mounted eight 500 kW diesel generators arranged in four pairs , five 690 kW turbo @-@ generators , and one 460 kW , the last of which was connected to a 400 kVA AC generator . Another 550 kVA diesel generator provided additional AC power . The electrical plant provided a total 7 @,@ 910 kW at 220 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
= = = = Main battery = = = =
Bismarck 's and Tirpitz 's main battery consisted of eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK C / 34 guns in four twin turrets , Anton and Bruno in a superfiring pair forward of the superstructure and Caesar and Dora aft . The turrets allowed elevation to 30 ° , which gave the guns a maximum range of 36 @,@ 520 m ( 39 @,@ 940 yd ) . The guns fired 800 kg ( 1 @,@ 800 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 820 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 690 ft / s ) . The main battery was supplied with between 940 – 960 shells total , for approximately 115 – 120 shells per gun . As with other German large @-@ calibre naval rifles , these guns were designed by Krupp and featured sliding wedge breech blocks , which required brass cartridge cases for the propellant charges . Under optimal conditions , the rate of fire was one shot every 18 seconds , or three per minute . The gun turrets were electrically trained and the guns were hydraulically elevated . Gun elevation was controlled remotely . The turrets required each gun to return to 2 @.@ 5 ° elevation for loading . Tirpitz was eventually provided with time @-@ fuzed shells to combat the repeated Allied bombing attacks .
The Bismarcks ' use of four twin turrets ( the 4 × 2 configuration ) was a design practice that hearkened back to the First World War . Almost all other post @-@ 1921 capital ships had triple or even quadruple turrets , which allowed for additional heavy caliber guns , while reducing the number of turrets . Fewer turrets reduced the length of the battleship 's armored citadel ( particularly magazine length and the armor needed to protect it ) and shortened the vessel itself . Although triple turrets were considered for the Bismarcks , there were concerns that the extra barrel would lower the overall rate of fire in each turret , along with fears that a single well @-@ aimed hit could disable a larger proportion of the ship 's firepower . It was also felt that four twin turrets allowed for a better field of fire and a more effective sequence of salvoes .
Although other contemporary vessels like the American North Carolina @-@ class battleships carried 40 @.@ 6 @-@ cm main guns , the Bismarcks used 38 @-@ cm naval guns as the Germans had experience with them ; a 40 @.@ 6 @-@ cm weapon would have had to have been designed from scratch . Bismarck was also authorized prior to the breakdown of the London Naval Treaty and the invocation of the 45 @,@ 000 @-@ ton , 406 @-@ mm main gun escalator clause ( which the United States did invoke with the North Carolinas ) ; building 40 @.@ 6 cm battleships would doubtless have seemed provocative , especially to the United Kingdom . As it was , the 38 cm main battery of the Bismarck class compared well to their contemporaries , out @-@ ranging almost all of the 38 cm and 40 @.@ 6 cm guns of contemporary navies ( with the exception of the Italian 38 @.@ 1 cm gun , which suffered exceptional bore erosion as a consequence ) . The German gun was superior to the World War I era BL 15 inch / 42 naval gun ( 381 mm ) of the Royal Navy in both range and penetration .
= = = = Secondary battery = = = =
The ships ' secondary battery consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK C / 28 guns mounted in six twin turrets . The 15 cm gun turrets were based on the single @-@ gun turrets used aboard the Scharnhorst class . They could elevate to 40 ° and depress to − 10 ° ; they had a rate of fire of around six shots per minute . The 15 cm guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 100 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 875 m / s ( 2 @,@ 871 ft / s ) . At maximum elevation , the guns could hit targets out to 23 @,@ 000 m ( 25 @,@ 000 yd ) . As with the main battery guns , Tirpitz 's 15 cm guns were later supplied with time @-@ fused shells .
The decision to mount low @-@ angle 15 cm guns has been criticised by naval historians , including Antony Preston , who stated that they " imposed a severe weight penalty " , while American and British battleships were being armed with dual @-@ purpose guns . Naval historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin note that " the use of dual @-@ purpose armament would have possibly increased the number of anti @-@ aircraft guns , but might have weakened the defence against destroyer attack , which German naval experts deemed more important . "
= = = = Anti @-@ aircraft battery = = = =
As built , Bismarck and Tirpitz were equipped with an anti @-@ aircraft battery of sixteen 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) C / 32 65 @-@ calibre guns in eight twin mounts , sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) C / 30 guns in eight dual mounts , and twelve 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns in individual mounts . The 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were the same weapons as used aboard the Scharnhorst class , and were mounted on the first superstructure deck . After Bismarck was sunk in 1941 , two amidships guns on Tirpitz were moved forward so as to provide them with better fields of fire . The sixteen guns were guided by four fire @-@ control directors , two just aft of the conning tower , a third positioned aft of the main mast , and the fourth directly behind turret Caesar . Tirpitz 's directors were covered by protective domes , though Bismarck 's were not .
The ships ' 37 mm 83 @-@ calibre guns were twin mounted and placed in the superstructure . The mounts were hand @-@ operated and automatically stabilised for roll and pitch . These guns were supplied with a total of 32 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . Bismarck and Tirpitz were initially armed with twelve 20 mm guns in single mounts , though these were augmented over time . Bismarck received a pair of quadruple gun mountings , for a total of twenty 20 mm guns . Over the course of her career , Tirpitz 's 20 mm battery was increased to 78 guns in single and quadruple mountings .
= = = Armour = = =
The Bismarck @-@ class ships had an armoured belt that ranged in thickness from 220 to 320 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 to 12 @.@ 6 in ) ; the thickest section of armour covered the central portion , where the gun turrets , ammunition magazines , and machinery spaces were located . This portion of the belt was capped on either end by 220 mm thick transverse bulkheads . The ships had an upper deck that was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and an armoured deck that was between 100 – 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships , and tapered down to 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) at the bow and 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) at the stern . The deck was mounted low in the hull , however , which reduced the volume of internal space protected by the armoured citadel . This contrasted with contemporary British and American designs that featured a single thick armoured deck mounted high in the ship .
The forward conning tower had a 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick roof and 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick sides , while the range finder had an armoured roof 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick and 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides . The aft conning tower had much lighter armour : the roof was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the sides were 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) , while the aft range finder had a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick roof and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) sides . The main battery turrets were reasonably well @-@ protected : the turret roofs were 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) thick , the sides were 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick , and the faces were 360 mm ( 14 in ) thick with 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick shields . These armour thicknesses were less than those of contemporary British ( King George V ) and French ( Richelieu ) designs . Conversely , the secondary battery was better @-@ protected than most rivals . The 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) gun turrets had 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick roofs , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) sides , and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) fronts . The 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns had 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) shields .
= = Construction = =
Bismarck was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard on 1 July 1936 . The ship was assigned construction number 509 , and the contract name Ersatz Hannover , as a replacement for the old battleship Hannover . The ship was launched on 14 February 1939 , with Adolf Hitler in attendance . The granddaughter of the ship 's namesake , Otto von Bismarck , christened the ship . As with other German capital ships , Bismarck was originally built with a straight bow . Experiences with other ships revealed the necessity of a clipper bow , which was installed on Bismarck during the fitting @-@ out process . The ship was commissioned into the fleet on 24 August 1940 , with Kapitän zur See Ernst Lindemann in command . Three weeks later , the ship left Hamburg for trials in the Baltic Sea , before returning in December for final fitting @-@ out work . Further trials and tests were conducted in the Baltic in March and April ; Bismarck was placed on active status the following month .
Tirpitz 's keel was laid at the Kriegsmarine dockyard in Wilhelmshaven on 20 October 1936 , under construction number 128 . She had been ordered under the contract name Ersatz Schleswig @-@ Holstein to replace the obsolete battleship Schleswig @-@ Holstein . Tirpitz was named for Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the architect of the High Seas Fleet before World War I. His daughter , Frau von Hassel , christened the ship on 1 April 1939 . Fitting out work lasted until February 1941 ; Tirpitz was commissioned into the fleet on 25 February . A series of trials were then conducted , first in the North Sea and then in the Baltic .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
= = = Bismarck = = =
After Bismarck joined the fleet , plans were drawn up for a sortie into the North Atlantic . The operation initially called for a force composed of Bismarck , Tirpitz , and the two Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships . Tirpitz was not yet ready for service by May 1941 , and Scharnhorst was being overhauled . The force was reduced to Bismarck , Gneisenau , and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen . Gneisenau was damaged by a British bombing raid on Brest , so it was decided that only Bismarck and Prinz Eugen would conduct the operation . Admiral Günther Lütjens was placed in command of the pair of ships .
Early on the morning of 19 May , Bismarck left Gotenhafen , bound for the North Atlantic . While on the trip through the Danish Belt , Bismarck and Prinz Eugen encountered the Swedish cruiser HSwMS Gotland ; the sighting was passed through the Swedish Navy to the British naval attaché in Stockholm . The British Royal Air Force conducted aerial reconnaissance of the Norwegian fjord in which Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had stopped , to confirm the sighting . While in Norway , Admiral Lütjens failed to replenish the approximately 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel Bismarck had spent on the first leg of the voyage .
By 23 May , Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had reached the Denmark Strait . That evening , the British cruisers Suffolk and Norfolk briefly engaged Bismarck before dropping back to shadow the German ships . At 06 : 00 the following morning , observers aboard Bismarck spotted the masts of the battlecruiser Hood and the new battleship Prince of Wales . The British ships steamed directly towards Bismarck and Prinz Eugen , before attempting a turn to bring the two forces on a roughly parallel course . During the turn , at least one of Bismarck 's 38 cm shells penetrated one of the aft ammunition magazines aboard Hood , which caused a catastrophic explosion and destroyed the ship . There were only three survivors from Hood 's crew of 1 @,@ 421 . The German ships then concentrated their fire on Prince of Wales , which was forced to withdraw . Bismarck did not emerge unscathed ; a direct hit on her bow from Prince of Wales caused Bismarck to take in some 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of water . The ship was also leaking oil , which made it easier for the British to track her .
After retreating , Prince of Wales joined Norfolk and Suffolk ; the ships briefly engaged Bismarck at around 18 : 00 . Neither side scored a hit . By this time , 19 warships were involved in the chase . This included six battleships and battlecruisers and two aircraft carriers , along with a number of cruisers and destroyers . After the second engagement with Prince of Wales , Lütjens detached Prinz Eugen to continue the operation while Bismarck sailed for port . Shortly before midnight on 24 May , a group of Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from 825 Naval Air Squadron on Victorious attacked Bismarck . One torpedo struck the ship amidships , though without doing any serious damage . The shock from the explosion , coupled with Bismarck 's manoeuvring at high speed , damaged the temporary repairs that had stopped the flooding from the earlier battle damage . Her speed was reduced to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) to slow the flooding while repair teams fixed the reopened wounds .
Early on 25 May , Bismarck doubled back past her pursuers in a wide circle . The manoeuvre successfully shook off the British ships , which turned west in an attempt to find the ship . Despite the manoeuvre , Admiral Lütjens was unaware that he had evaded the British , and so sent a series of radio transmissions , which were intercepted by the British and used to gain a rough fix on his position . Due to the damage his ship had sustained , Lütjens decided to head for occupied France rather than continue his mission . On the morning of 26 May , a Coastal Command PBY Catalina flying boat spotted Bismarck 690 nmi ( 1 @,@ 280 km ; 790 mi ) to the north @-@ west of Brest ; she was steaming at a speed that would put her under the protective umbrella of German aircraft and U @-@ boats within 24 hours . The only British forces close enough to slow her down were the aircraft carrier Ark Royal and her escort , the battlecruiser Renown . At approximately 20 : 30 , a flight of fifteen Ark Royal 's 820 Naval Air Squadrons Swordfish torpedo bombers launched an attack on Bismarck . Three torpedoes were believed to have struck the ship ; the first two torpedoes failed to do serious damage to the ship , but the third hit jammed Bismarck 's rudders hard to starboard . The damage could not be repaired , and the battleship began turning in a large circle , back towards her pursuers .
An hour after the Swordfish attack , Lütjens transmitted the following signal to Naval Group Command West : " Ship unable to manoeuvre . We will fight to the last shell . Long live the Führer . " At 08 : 47 the following morning , the battleship Rodney opened fire , followed directly by King George V. Bismarck replied three minutes later , though at 09 : 02 a 16 inch shell from Rodney destroyed the forward turrets . Half an hour later , Bismarck 's rear turrets were silenced as well . At around 10 : 15 , both British battleships had ceased fire , their target a burning wreck . The British were running dangerously low on fuel , but Bismarck had not yet been sunk . The cruiser Dorsetshire fired several torpedoes into the crippled ship , which then took on a severe list to port . At approximately the same time as Dorsetshire 's attack , engine room crew detonated scuttling charges in the engine rooms . There is still significant debate as to the direct cause of Bismarck 's sinking . Only 110 men were rescued by the British before reports of U @-@ boats forced them from the scene . A further five men were rescued by German vessels .
= = = Tirpitz = = =
Tirpitz 's first action following her commissioning into the Kriegsmarine on 25 February 1941 was to act as a deterrent to a possible Soviet attempt to break out their Baltic Fleet following the German invasion of the Soviet Union . The ship was joined by the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer and the light cruisers Leipzig , Nürnberg , and Köln . The force patrolled off the Åland Islands for a few days before returning to Kiel . On 14 January 1942 , Tirpitz left German waters for Norway , arriving on the 17th .
On 6 March , Tirpitz , escorted by three destroyers , launched a raid on the British convoys to the Soviet Union . The Germans attempted to intercept convoys PQ @-@ 12 and QP @-@ 8 , but the inclement weather prevented them from finding the convoys . The British located Tirpitz , and the aircraft carrier Victorious launched a strike of twelve Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers . The aircraft were repulsed without having scored any hits on the German ships . Tirpitz and the destroyers were back in port by 12 March . The close call prompted Hitler to mandate that Tirpitz was not to attack another convoy unless its escorting aircraft carrier had been sunk or disabled .
Over the next two months , the RAF launched a series of unsuccessful bombing raids against Tirpitz while she was moored in the Faettenfjord . The first , by 34 Handley Page Halifax bombers , took place on 31 March . Two followed a month later , on 28 and 29 April . The first attack was conducted by 43 Halifax and Avro Lancaster bombers , the second by 34 Halifax and Lancaster . A combination of heavy German anti @-@ aircraft fire and poor weather caused all three missions to fail . Over the rest of the year and into late 1942 , Tirpitz underwent a refit in the Faettenfjord , which lacked dockyard facilities of any type . As a result , the work was done incrementally ; a large caisson was built to allow the rudders to be replaced . Naval historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin stated that " the repairs to this ship were one of the most difficult naval engineering feats of World War II . "
In January 1943 , Tirpitz emerged from the lengthy overhaul , after which she was transferred to Altafjord . Here , she participated in extensive training operations with Scharnhorst and the heavy cruiser Lützow , which lasted until the middle of the year . In early September , Tirpitz , Scharnhorst , and ten destroyers bombarded the island of Spitzbergen , which served as a British refuelling station . The two battleships destroyed their targets and returned safely to Altenfjord ; this was the first time Tirpitz fired her main guns in anger . On 22 – 23 September , six British midget submarines attacked Tirpitz while at anchor . Two of the submarines successfully planted explosive charges against the battleship 's hull , which did serious damage . Tirpitz had been successfully neutralised . Over the next six months , a workforce of some 1 @,@ 000 men effected the needed repairs , which were finished by March 1944 .
The British resumed the series of air attacks almost immediately after repairs were completed . On 3 April , the Royal Navy launched Operation Tungsten , during which 40 fighters and 40 Barracuda bombers from six carriers attacked the ship . They scored 15 direct hits and two near misses , which caused heavy damage , killed 122 men , and wounded 316 more . The Royal Navy attempted to repeat the attack three weeks later on the 24th , but had to call the operation off due to inclement weather . Operation Brawn , another carrier @-@ launched attack , followed on 15 May , but again weather interfered . Another carrier strike was attempted on 28 May , but it too was cancelled due to poor weather conditions . Operation Mascot , which was to be conducted by Victorious , Furious , and Indefatigable on 17 July , was frustrated by the heavy smokescreen over the battleship .
The Royal Navy launched the Operation Goodwood series in late August . Goodwood I took place on 22 August , with 38 bombers and 43 fighters from five carriers . The attackers failed to score any hits . Goodwood III followed two days later , with 48 bombers and 29 fighters from Formidable , Furious , and Indefatigable . The bombers made two hits on the ship , which did only minor damage . The last Royal Navy operation , Goodwood IV , followed on 29 August . Thirty @-@ four bombers and 25 fighters , launched from Formidable and Indefatigable , attacked the ship , though fog prevented them from scoring any hits .
The task of sinking Tirpitz now fell to the RAF , which performed three airstrikes armed with new 5 @,@ 400 kg ( 11 @,@ 900 lb ) Tallboy bombs . The first attack , Operation Paravane , came on 15 September , when a force of 27 Lancasters dropped a single Tallboy each ; the bombers succeeded in hitting Tirpitz directly in the bow with one of the bombs . The bomb completely penetrated the ship and exploded directly under her keel . This caused 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) of water to flood the ship ; Tirpitz had again been disabled . A month later , on 15 October , Tirpitz was moved to Haaköy Island off Tromsø to be used as a floating artillery battery . Two weeks later , on 29 October , the British launched Operation Obviate , which consisted of 32 Lancaster bombers . Only a near miss was achieved , though it caused Tirpitz to take in more water . The last attack , Operation Catechism , took place on 12 November . Thirty @-@ two Lancasters attacked the ship and scored a pair of direct hits and a near miss . The bombs detonated one of Tirpitz 's ammunition magazines and caused the ship to capsize . Casualties were high : 1 @,@ 204 men were killed in the attack . Another 806 men managed to escape the sinking ship , and a further 82 were rescued from the capsized hulk . The wreck was gradually broken up for scrap between 1948 and 1957 .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
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= Hastings Ismay , 1st Baron Ismay =
General Hastings Lionel Ismay , 1st Baron Ismay KG GCB CH DSO PC DL ( 21 June 1887 – 17 December 1965 ) , nicknamed Pug , was a British Indian Army officer and diplomat , remembered primarily for his role as Winston Churchill 's chief military assistant during the Second World War and his service as the first Secretary General of NATO from 1952 to 1957 .
Ismay was born in Nainital , India in 1887 , and educated in the United Kingdom at the Charterhouse School and Royal Military College , Sandhurst . After Sandhurst , he joined the Indian Army as an officer of the 21st Prince Albert Victor 's Own Cavalry . During the First World War , he served with the Camel Corps in British Somaliland , where he joined in the British fight against the " Mad Mullah " , Mohammed Abdullah Hassan . In 1925 , Ismay became an Assistant Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence . After being promoted to the rank of colonel , he served as the military secretary for Lord Willingdon , the Viceroy of India , then returned to the Committee of Imperial Defence as Deputy Secretary in 1936 .
On 1 August 1938 , shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War , Ismay became the Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence and began planning for the impending war . In May 1940 , when Winston Churchill became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , he selected Ismay as his chief military assistant and staff officer . In that capacity , Ismay served as the principal link between Churchill and the Chiefs of Staff Committee . Ismay also accompanied Churchill to many of the Allied war conferences . For Ismay 's advice and aid , " Churchill owed more , and admitted that he owed more " to him " than to anybody else , military or civilian , in the whole of the war . "
After the end of the war , Ismay remained in the army for another year , and helped to reorganise the Ministry of Defence . He then retired from the military and served as Lord Mountbatten of Burma 's Chief of Staff in India , helping to oversee its partition . From 1948 to 1951 , he served as chairman of the council of the Festival of Britain , helping to organise and promote the event . Then , in 1951 , when Churchill again became Prime Minister , he appointed Ismay Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations . Ismay accepted the position , but resigned after only six months to become the first Secretary General of NATO in 1952 . He served as Secretary General until 1957 , and helped to establish and define the position . After retiring from NATO , Ismay wrote his memoirs , The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay , served on a variety of corporate boards , and co @-@ chaired the Ismay – Jacob Committee , which reorganised the Ministry of Defence once again . He died on 17 December 1965 , at his home Wormington Grange , Gloucestershire .
= = Early life = =
Ismay was born in Nainital , India , on 21 June 1887 . His father , Sir Stanley Ismay , was a member of the Viceroy 's Legislative Council and his mother , Beatrice Ellen , was the daughter of an Army colonel . Ismay began his education in Britain at the Charterhouse School , and his parents hoped that after completing his education there he would attend Cambridge and enter the civil service .
Ismay , however , " had a sneaking desire to be a cavalry soldier " , and after doing poorly on his final examinations at Charterhouse , he was not eligible to attend Cambridge . As a result , he entered the Royal Military College , Sandhurst in 1904 . Ismay would later write : " Sandhurst never meant nearly so much to me as Charterhouse had " , but he enjoyed his time at the school and studied alongside many men who went on to become important military officers , including Lord Gort , Edgar Ludlow @-@ Hewitt and Cyril Newall .
= = = Indian Army = = =
After completing the course at Sandhurst , Ismay placed fourth overall on its examinations and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Indian Army . Ismay was then attached to the Gloucestershire Regiment of the British Army in Ambala , where he served a one year mandatory apprenticeship . After leaving the regiment , Ismay did not immediately find a place in the Indian cavalry , so he spent nine months floating among positions with various British and Indian units .
In 1907 , Ismay found a permanent position in the Indian cavalry , joining the 21st Prince Albert Victor 's Own Cavalry , based at Risalpur . Ismay thoroughly enjoyed his time with the regiment , describing it as " blissful . " In 1908 , he saw his first action with the regiment , when it was sent into Afghanistan , pursuing Mohmand raiders who had taken several Hindu women as hostages . Immediately after Ismay 's regiment returned from action , he was hospitalised in Peshawar due to heat stroke , but he recovered quickly and , along with the rest of his regiment , received the India General Service Medal .
In 1910 , after a reorganisation of the Indian Army , Ismay 's regiment moved from Risalpur to Jhelum , further from the frontier . Shortly thereafter , Ismay was appointed the adjutant of his regiment , a position which he held for four years , during which time he also read voraciously and developed a great admiration for Winston Churchill , whom he sought to emulate .
= = Somaliland = =
In early 1914 , just before Ismay 's appointment as adjutant was set to expire , he met C.A.L Howard , another British officer serving in India , who told him about an opportunity to serve with the King 's African Rifles in British Somaliland . Ismay decided that this was " just the sort of job that [ he ] wanted , " and applied immediately . Due to his reputation " as a thorough and dependable officer of sound judgement , " Ismay was appointed second in command of the Somaliland Camel Corps , a cavalry unit led by Thomas Cubitt .
Ismay left India for Somaliland in late July 1914 , and arrived on 9 August , shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in Europe . Like other officers in Somaliland , Ismay was " unhappy at being left out of the great war " and repeatedly asked for a transfer to the European front . In the end , however , Ismay 's superiors decided that he was " so indispensable that , despite his longing for action in Europe , he was retained in Somaliland until 1920 . "
In Somaliland , the Camel Corps and other British soldiers were ordered to subdue an uprising by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan , known by the British as the " Mad Mullah " , who had been fighting against them for more than twenty years . Ismay 's commander , Thomas Cubitt , was determined to end the rebellion forcefully and quickly , so on 17 November 1914 , he launched a major assault against Hassan 's fortress at Shimber Berris . In the attack , Ismay fought closely alongside Adrian Carton de Wiart , later an important British officer in both World Wars . Not long after the attack on Shimber Berris , however , the Camel Corps received orders from London " forbidding all offensive operations in Somaliland " , due to the misfortunes of the Army elsewhere . As a result of this order , British operations were limited for the duration of the First World War , and Ismay 's unit undertook no further major offensives .
Despite limited British activity , a few operations combined with the effort of local forces led to " a drastic weakening " of Hassan 's forces by 1918 . Thus , after the armistice ending the First World War , the government sent Major General Arthur Hoskins to take control of the forces in Somaliland and defeat Hassan conclusively in battle . After Hoskins arrived , his initial plan for dealing with Hassan focussed on the use of the newly formed Royal Air Force , so Ismay and the Camel Corps were consigned to a minor role . Hoskins 's plans , however , were found " overscaled and far too costly " , so they were shelved throughout most of 1918 and 1919 .
In October 1919 , plans for Hoskins 's operation were finally approved , and on 21 January 1920 , the attack against Hassan commenced . After several days of bombing , Ismay was ordered to lead an assault by the Camel Corps against Hassan 's fortress at Jid Ali . On 27 January , Ismay 's forces first attempted the attack and were repulsed by strong resistance . That night , however , Hassan and his forces fled Jid Ali to take refuge in the countryside . Ismay was assigned to track down and capture Hassan , but he " had no idea of where he was " , and was forced to begin a large search . Ismay pursued Hassan for nearly two weeks , and managed to capture many members of his family and people close to him , including seven of his sons . Nonetheless , Hassan himself managed to evade Ismay and on 12 February , the effort to capture him was called off . Though Hassan was never captured , his power was broken , and he died in December 1920 of influenza . For his service in the effort against Hassan , Ismay received the Distinguished Service Order and was twice mentioned in despatches .
= = Interwar years = =
In April 1920 , Ismay left Somaliland for England . While en route , he received word that he had been nominated for a place at the Indian Army 's Staff College in Quetta . Depressed by the loss of life and destruction of the First World War , Ismay turned down the nomination , and " was even seriously thinking of resigning [ his ] commission " in the Army . After arriving in London , Ismay was given twelve months of medical leave , and decided to stay in the army . He then attempted to reclaim his seat at the Staff College , but was told that it had already been given to someone else .
= = = Service in India = = =
While on medical leave , Ismay met Laura Kathleen Clegg , with whom he quickly fell in love . The two were engaged only three weeks after meeting . After four months , however , Ismay was proclaimed fit for duty , despite his remaining eight months of leave , and ordered back to India , where he rejoined his old regiment . His time back in India was relatively quiet , as there was " no serious fighting " in the area of his regiment at the time . In February 1921 , Ismay took the qualifying exam for the Staff College in Rawalpindi , and passed , earning himself a seat for the next year .
In April , Ismay returned to London on leave , and married Clegg , with whom he eventually had three daughters . Ismay remained in London until February 1922 , when he entered the Staff College at Quetta . Ismay excelled at the Staff College , and its commandant called him " one of the two best , if not the best , of the students who have passed through my hands . " In his final thesis at the Staff College , Ismay correctly predicted that the next European war would be a total war , but he incorrectly predicted that cavalry would continue to play a role in future warfare .
After the Staff College , Ismay became Deputy Assistant Quartermaster General of the Indian Army . In that position , he worked closely with Claude Auchinleck , beginning a long @-@ standing personal and professional relationship between the two . Ismay found that his work as Deputy Assistant Quartermaster General " was a valuable experience " , but did not enjoy it .
= = = Service in England = = =
In 1924 , Air Vice @-@ Marshal Philip Game suggested to Ismay that he apply for a seat at the RAF Staff College , Andover . Although Ismay " had no desire to learn to be a pilot " , he was happy for the opportunity to return to England , and went to study at the college . After completing the programme , he was approached about the possibility of serving as an Assistant Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence ( CID ) under Maurice Hankey . Ismay gladly accepted the position , starting work in December 1925 . In the six months between finishing the Staff College and beginning at the CID , Ismay returned to India and held a staff position at the headquarters of the Indian Army in Simla .
As Assistant Secretary , Ismay directed several of the subcommittees of the Committee of Imperial Defence , including those for Censorship and War Emergency Legislation , Principal Supply Officers , and Co @-@ ordination of Departmental Action . As the Secretary of the Committee for the Co @-@ ordination of Departmental Action , Ismay " was responsible for seeing that all plans and preparations made by Government Departments or sub @-@ committees of the CID to meet the eventuality of war , were incorporated under appropriate headings in a document known as the War Book . " This task ended up consuming most of Ismay 's time as Assistant Secretary , and gave him " exceptional insight into the ways of Whitehall . "
While serving as Assistant Secretary , Ismay made important friends and gained the backing of Hankey , by whom he was " greatly valued " . Largely through Hankey 's influence , Ismay was nominated as a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the Civil Division , an honour which he received in 1931 .
= = = Lord Willingdon and the War Office = = =
In December 1930 , after five years , Ismay left his position at the CID . He was promoted to the rank of colonel and hoped to take command of the 12th Cavalry . Instead , he became the military secretary for Lord Willingdon , the newly appointed Viceroy of India .
In this role , Ismay served as the " unofficial link " between Willingdon and the Indian Army . He also led Willingdon 's personal staff , and organised his many trips throughout India . Ismay was also responsible for Willingdon 's safety , and took precautions after he was threatened by assassins . In December 1932 , Ismay was informed that his service with Willingdon was over and that he was expected to take up a position in the War Office during the next year .
At the War Office , Ismay served as an intelligence officer with responsibility for the Middle East , Far East , the Americas , the Soviet Union , Poland and the Baltic States . Ismay enjoyed his work , and wrote that " intelligence is perhaps the most interesting of all Staff work . " During his three years in the position , Ismay worked directly under Sir John Dill , who would later serve as the Chief of the Imperial General Staff .
= = Committee of Imperial Defence = =
In 1936 , Maurice Hankey became determined to " bring Ismay in as his deputy and eventual successor " at the CID . Hoping that the appointment would " strengthen the organization of the CID " and enhance its influence , Hankey offered Ismay the position of Deputy Secretary . Although the appointment meant that Ismay would probably never command troops again , he viewed it as an important opportunity and " accepted with scarcely a moment 's hesitation . " A week thereafter , Ismay received a letter offering him the command of a cavalry brigade in India , but declined , solidifying his choice to remain a staff officer .
As Deputy Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , Ismay had broad responsibilities , and was " concerned with every aspect of planning and preparation for a war which seemed imminent . " Ismay dealt extensively with a variety of matters and focussed much of his attention on the preparation of anti @-@ aircraft defences and co @-@ ordination among the military services . As the crisis in Europe escalated , however , Hankey announced his intention to retire in June 1938 . Hankey hoped that one person , preferably Ismay , would inherit all of the positions he had occupied , including Secretary of the CID , clerk of the Privy Council , and Secretary to the Cabinet , but the Prime Minister , Neville Chamberlain , decided that the positions should be split and assigned to different people .
In the end , Ismay was named only to the position of Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , effective 1 August 1938 . Ismay assumed the position scarcely more than a year before the outbreak of the Second World War , and the war totally dominated his time in office . Soon after Ismay took office , Hitler initiated a crisis over the Sudetenland . While Chamberlain was at the Munich Conference attempting to resolve the crisis , Ismay ordered the digging of trenches in London as protection against air attacks , should war occur . Ismay later said that he thought Britain should have gone to war at Munich instead of waiting , but said nothing at the time . As it became increasingly clear that war was inevitable in 1939 , Ismay also prepared for a " smooth , simple and practically instantaneous " transition from the Committee of Imperial Defence to the War Cabinet , or whatever other wartime authority the government might choose .
= = Second World War = =
With the outbreak of the Second World War , the CID was immediately absorbed into the War Cabinet as Ismay had planned . In the midst of the turmoil , Ismay was promoted to Major General , and began to work closely with Chamberlain , accompanying him on a visit to France in December 1939 . Ismay disagreed with several Allied strategic choices , including the decision to try to stop the German advance in Belgium , but kept his doubts to himself .
= = = Chiefs of Staff Committee = = =
In April 1940 , Winston Churchill took control of the Military Co @-@ ordination Committee , charged with overseeing all of the military services . He selected Ismay as his chief staff officer , which also gave Ismay the additional responsibility of serving on the Chiefs of Staff Committee . While serving under Churchill had been a life @-@ long dream for Ismay , he was initially sceptical about the duties of his new position , which seemed unclear and poorly defined .
On 10 May , after the beginning of the Battle of France , Chamberlain resigned , and Churchill became both Prime Minister and Minister of Defence . Ismay , who later called Churchill " the greatest War Prime Minister in our history " , was " thrilled " by this development , and continued to act as Churchill 's chief staff officer and military adviser . According to Churchill , the two developed a close " personal and official connection [ that ] was preserved unbroken and unweakened " throughout the war . As part of this relationship , not long after Churchill became Prime Minister , he arranged for Ismay to be appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in June 1940 . From the very moment he became Prime Minister , Churchill " relied heavily on General Pug Ismay , " who provided a crucial bridge to the military establishment . Ismay served as the " principal assistant to Mr. Churchill in his capacity as Minister of Defence " , continued to serve as the Secretary of the Imperial Defence Chiefs of Staff Committee , and became Deputy Secretary of the War Cabinet . Ismay was crucial to running the war effort , as he was able to effectively link the military and civilian leadership . Jock Colville , Churchill 's private secretary , wrote that Ismay had the " tact , patience , and skill in promoting compromise " needed to keep the war running smoothly . " Ismay had the additional advantage of being admired by the Service Chiefs for his long and distinguished record as a soldier .
In his role , Ismay handled " nearly all military messages " from Churchill to the Service Chiefs . Ismay also gave Churchill advice on military matters , and often " begged him to be reasonable " when he contemplated foolish actions , believing that Churchill 's greatest fault was his " impetuous nature and impatience with opposition . " When the Chiefs of Staff found Churchill 's demands unfeasible , Ismay took the role of " converting the Prime Minister " to their viewpoint .
= = = Allied conferences = = =
As Churchill 's chief military adviser , Ismay frequently attended wartime conferences and meetings of the Allies and accompanied other British leaders , such as Foreign Minister Anthony Eden , on their travels . Ismay 's travel to the conferences began in 1941 , when he went with Lord Beaverbrook to the first Moscow Conference . Because English participation in the conference was a secret , Ismay faked influenza to explain his absence from London while it was taking place . The Conference was also the first time that Ismay worked closely with the Americans , whom he found " quite congenial . "
Ismay would continue to work closely with the Americans throughout the remainder of the war , and he accompanied Churchill on his 1942 trip to the United States . Shortly after their return , US General Dwight D. Eisenhower arrived in Britain to command the American forces . He established close relations with Ismay , who liked him greatly , and assisted him in co @-@ ordinating with both British forces and the Cabinet . Eisenhower thought highly of Ismay , remembering him for his " stalwart support " , and calling him a man " of great ability " . Not long after Eisenhower arrived , on 16 August 1942 , Ismay was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General . Around the same time , his good relations with the Americans were recognised by others in the government . Thus , in November 1942 , when Eleanor Roosevelt visited Britain , Lady Ismay was chosen to host her for one night of her stay .
= = = 1943 conferences = = =
In January 1943 , Ismay accompanied Churchill to the Casablanca Conference . Ismay attended nearly all of the proceedings of the Conference , and helped work towards consensus where the Americans and British disagreed on issues . Ismay was also appointed to the committee which wrote the formal report of the conference . After the conference , Ismay visited the American headquarters in Algiers to meet with Eisenhower , and helped resolve some differences of opinion between Eisenhower and his British colleagues .
After Casablanca , Ismay accompanied Churchill to the third Washington Conference in May 1943 . At the conference , Ismay first met the American Admiral William D. Leahy , who is often described as his American counterpart . The two developed a friendly relationship , and Leahy wrote in his memoirs : " General Sir Hastings Ismay became my favorite , perhaps because his position closely paralleled my own " .
After the Washington Conference came the Quebec Conference in August 1943 . Once again , Ismay attended along with Churchill . The Quebec Conference was the first time that the Allied leaders discussed the full details of Operation Overlord , so Ismay spent much of his time explaining details of the operation to Churchill and other leaders . During the conference , Ismay also observed that Dudley Pound " had had a breakdown " . He took the information to Churchill who demanded Pound 's resignation a week later .
Shortly after returning from Quebec , Ismay participated in his next conference , travelling with Anthony Eden to the Moscow Conference in October and November , where he served as Eden 's top military adviser . At the conference , Ismay handled all of the Soviet questions about the planning for Operation Overlord , and met Joseph Stalin personally for the first time . After the conference , Ismay wrote that he " was optimistic about [ sic ] post @-@ war relations with Russia " , showing his belief that the meeting had gone well .
Only four days after returning from the Moscow Conference , Ismay left England again for the Cairo Conference and Teheran Conference with Churchill . One major source of conflict at the Cairo Conference was an American proposal to appoint an overall commander for the strategic bombing of Germany . Ismay and the British were strongly opposed , and Ismay wrote a long paper against the idea , which became the basis of British policy on the subject . At Teheran , Ismay helped to argue the case for Operation Overlord , but immediately after the conference he developed bronchitis and returned to England by ship , scrapping his other plans for the trip .
= = = 1944 – 1945 = = =
In the first several months of 1944 , Ismay spent almost all of his time planning for the Normandy Landings . As part of the planning , Ismay personally coordinated the plans for Operation Bodyguard and Operation Fortitude , which were designed to deceive the Germans about the planned Normandy landings . In March , Duncan Sandys , Churchill 's nephew , told Ismay that Basil Liddell Hart , a noted strategist and historian , had somehow discovered the secret plans for the Normandy landings . This development had the potential to compromise the entire operation , so Ismay personally interviewed Liddell Hart , who claimed to have simply " worked it all out for himself " without any access to secret information . After their interview , Ismay directed the matter to the MI5 , who never found evidence of wrongdoing , although it is suspected that Liddell Hart may in fact have received information from military planners .
On 20 May 1944 , less than a month before the Normandy Landings were scheduled to take place , Ismay was promoted to the rank of full general . After the successful D @-@ Day landings , King George VI decided to visit the troops in Normandy , and selected Ismay to accompany him on the visit . In September , Ismay accompanied Churchill to another conference , the Second Quebec Conference . Ismay also accompanied Churchill on his visits to Moscow and Paris in late 1944 .
In February 1945 , Ismay attended the Yalta Conference . He found the conference different from the previous ones where " the military element had been the prima donna , occupying the centre of the stage . " Instead , at Yalta , political issues took precedence , leaving Ismay and other military advisers " waiting for calls that never came " .
On VE Day , Ismay found it " quite impossible to be completely happy about the future , " due to the lingering Japanese threat , and the rising threat of the Soviet Union . Nonetheless , he was happy to be one of only three men to hold the same high government position throughout the war in Europe , along with Edward Bridges , 1st Baron Bridges and the King .
= = Post @-@ war military service = =
After VE Day , Ismay accompanied Churchill to the Potsdam Conference . Like Yalta , the conference focussed primarily on political issues , so there was little for Ismay to do . After Clement Attlee defeated Churchill in the 1945 election , becoming Prime Minister , Ismay kept his position , working with Attlee at the conference , but remained loyal to Churchill . Ismay and Churchill remained friends for the remainder of their lives , and Ismay even helped Churchill write his memoirs , reviewing and commenting on each chapter of his manuscript .
Shortly after the Potsdam Conference , the war in Asia ended on VJ Day . After this victory , Ismay " would have liked to retire at once " , but at Attlee 's request he remained in the military for another year . Before continuing work , however , Ismay travelled to New York on 6 September , for a six @-@ week vacation ; he received a warm welcome .
Over the next year , Ismay worked largely on the issue of reform for the Ministry of Defence . From December 1945 to February 1946 , Ismay worked with a small committee to draft the Statement Relating to Defence , which formed the basis of reforms implemented by Attlee later that year . For his role , Ismay became known as the " ' chief architect ' of the post @-@ war Ministry of Defence . "
During the year following the war , Ismay received many honours for his service . In August 1945 , as part of Churchill 's resignation honours , he was appointed to the Order of the Companions of Honour , an honour rarely bestowed on soldiers . The next January , he received the Legion of Merit from the United States . He was also promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Bath in June . Finally , he was named the Chairman of the Council of the Royal National Institute for the Blind .
In November 1946 , Ismay announced his intention to retire . Attlee accepted his retirement , effective on 31 December 1946 . Immediately after retiring , in the 1947 New Year Honours , Ismay was created a baron taking the title Baron Ismay , of Wormington in the County of Gloucester . He accepted the barony and took his seat in the House of Lords in February .
= = Partition of India = =
Shortly after Ismay 's retirement , Lord Mountbatten of Burma was appointed as the last British Viceroy of India and Ismay offered to serve as his chief of staff . Thus , in March 1947 , Ismay left with Mountbatten for India to help preside over its transition to independence . After arriving in India , Ismay soon came to the conclusion that the situation there was dire , heading for civil war , and told Mountbatten that " India was a ship on fire in mid @-@ ocean with ammunition in her hold . "
When Ismay and Mountbatten arrived , they were committed to preserving a unified India , but Ismay soon realised " that the Moslem League would not agree to any plan which did not provide for the creation of Pakistan as an independent sovereign state . " In April , after several unsuccessful meetings with Muhammad Ali Jinnah , Mountbatten came to the same conclusion and began drawing up plans for the partition . Over the next month Mountbatten finalised his partition plan , and on 2 May 1947 , he sent Ismay back to London to present it to the British government . Ismay presented the plan to the Prime Minister and Cabinet , casting partition as a Hobson 's choice . Ismay stayed in England for the next month , and helped to alter the plan based on the cabinet 's suggestions , before returning to India on 31 May .
Once the partition plan had been accepted , Ismay worked on implementing the details . In particular , Ismay dealt with the issue of dividing the Indian Army . Based on his own experiences and love of the Indian Army , Ismay did his " utmost to persuade " the leaders of the new Indian and Pakistani states not to separate the army immediately . His efforts failed due to the opposition of Jinnah .
Ismay also travelled to Kashmir to ask Hari Singh to hold an immediate referendum over whether his territory would join India or Pakistan . Once again , Ismay was unsuccessful and Singh " changed the subject " each time that Ismay tried to discuss the referendum . Throughout the period immediately following independence , Ismay also tried to ensure that stories printed in the Indian and Pakistani press about the partition were accurate , but once again he was largely unsuccessful .
The situation in India continued to deteriorate throughout the summer and autumn of 1947 . Nevertheless , Ismay and Mountbatten had agreed that Ismay would remain in his position for only three to four months after partition . In December 1947 , he left India to return to England . Shortly after his return , Ismay served briefly on the British delegation to the United Nations to deal with the Kashmir issue . Ismay played only a limited role , as the Pakistanis suspected him of pro @-@ Indian sympathies .
= = Festival of Britain = =
Shortly after Ismay returned from the United Nations , Prime Minister Attlee asked him to become the Chairman of the Council of the Festival of Britain , scheduled to take place in 1951 . Ismay accepted the offer , and on 10 March 1948 , he officially took the position of chairman . The appointment was largely symbolic , and Ismay " was at least partly appointed to forestall potential criticism by his friend Winston Churchill . " The Council , however , wielded " slight , but not insignificant influence " and Ismay took his duties seriously .
Ismay helped to ensure that the festival would be truly national in character , rather than just confined to London . As such , in June 1949 , he called together all of the mayors in Britain to discuss the festival ; this was the first meeting of all British mayors since 1916 . Ismay also publicly defended the large cost of the festival , and emphasised its historic nature , saying , " We are consciously and deliberately determined to make history . " Once the festival opened , Ismay hosted various notable guests , including Margaret Truman , the daughter of US President Harry Truman .
= = Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations = =
In the 1951 general election held shortly after the conclusion of the Festival of Britain , Churchill 's Conservative Party once again won a majority in Parliament , making Churchill Prime Minister for a second time . The day after the election , Churchill asked Ismay to become the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations in his cabinet . Ismay " was overjoyed at the prospect of serving under Churchill again " and accepted the post immediately . Although not a politician , Ismay was well @-@ suited for the position because of his close relationships with the leaders of the commonwealth countries , largely the result of his work during the war .
As a result of his military background and experience , Ismay became " more closely involved in defence matters than is usual for a Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations , " and often served as de facto Minister of Defence and serving as temporary Minister of Defence until the permanent appointee , Harold Alexander , was able to take office . Through his close involvement in defence matters , Ismay began to be involved with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization . In January 1952 , he accompanied Churchill to a meeting in Ottawa about the alliance , and in February 1952 he attended the NATO Lisbon Conference as the British Ministry of Defence representative . When leaving the conference , Ismay remarked to Alfred Gruenther , " this is the first that I have seen of NATO , and thank heaven it 's the last . "
= = Secretary General of NATO = =
At the Lisbon Conference , the members of NATO agreed to appoint a Secretary General who would direct the organisation 's staff and serve as Vice @-@ Chairman of the Atlantic Council . The position was initially offered to Sir Oliver Franks , but he declined . As such , the allies scrambled to find someone else to take the position . Two weeks later , the countries agreed to ask Ismay to become Secretary General at the suggestion of Churchill and Anthony Eden .
Eden asked Ismay to accept the position , but his response " was an immediate and emphatic negative , " as he saw NATO as an overly bureaucratic and inefficient organisation and complained that the position of Secretary General was " divided and ill @-@ defined . " Churchill then personally asked Ismay to accept the position , telling him that " NATO provided the best , if not the only , hope of peace in our time . " After further urging , Ismay reluctantly agreed to take the job . On 12 March 1952 , the Atlantic Council officially passed a resolution appointing Ismay Secretary General , and he started work on 24 March .
Ismay 's appointment to the position was well @-@ received , enjoying the unanimous support of all the NATO members . The press and public also responded favourably . The Times wrote : " of all the candidates whose names have been mentioned , Lord Ismay would seem to have the strongest qualifications for the post . " The New York Times applauded his " vast experience in military planning , strategy , and administration , " and The Washington Post wrote that Ismay would bring NATO " great authority , experience and energy and a personal charm that can dissolve difficulties . "
As the first Secretary @-@ General , Ismay was " assuming an entirely new role in the history of international organizations , " and as such he helped to define the position itself . While Ismay " deemed it wise not to step too boldly in a political role " in disputes among the members , he asserted himself strongly on issues relevant to the organisation of NATO . From the very beginning of his time in office , Ismay worked to empower the permanent representatives to NATO , and emphasised that they had the same legal authority to make decisions as the NATO foreign ministers .
Ismay was also a proponent of NATO expansion , saying that NATO " must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella . " However , before Warsaw Pact was even put in place , he opposed the request to join NATO made by USSR in 1954 saying that " the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force " thus making apparent that NATO alliance ( " the police force " ) was directed against USSR . As stated in the official NATO website " the request tested the limits of NATO 's willingness to admit new members " .
As Secretary General , Ismay also worked to encourage closer political co @-@ ordination among the members of the alliance . During the Suez Crisis he offered his good offices to help resolve issues among members of the alliance . Ismay also offered to help mediate disputes over Cyprus .
In December 1956 , Ismay decided to retire from NATO . He told the press that " he was not giving up his position for personal reasons , but because he felt it needed a fresh hand and a fresh brain . " Paul @-@ Henri Spaak was immediately chosen as his successor , but Ismay remained in office until May 1957 , when he left with " the affection and respect " of all the NATO members . While Secretary General , Ismay is also credited as having been the first person to say that the purpose of the alliance was " to keep the Russians out , the Americans in , and the Germans down , " a saying that has since become a common way to quickly describe the alliance .
= = Retirement = =
Immediately after leaving NATO , Ismay was honoured by Queen Elizabeth II with an appointment to the Order of the Garter . His youngest daughter Mary had married George Seymour , equerry to Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother , and their daughter Katharine is a god @-@ daughter of Princess Margaret .
He was appointed to boards of several corporations including the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation . Ismay also began writing his memoirs , The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay , which were published in 1960 by Viking Press . In his memoirs , Ismay focussed principally on his Second World War service , and as such , one reviewer called them " a most significant addition to the literature of the Second World War . "
In 1963 , Ismay was asked to again assist in a review of the organisation of the British military along with Sir Ian Jacob . Although Ismay was ill throughout most of the review and did relatively little of the work , " his influence was strong " , and the final product of the review largely reflected his opinions . In the end , the Ismay – Jacob Report recommended strengthening the central power of the Ministry of Defence substantially , and in 1964 , Parliament implemented its recommendations .
Ismay died on 17 December 1965 at his home Wormington Grange , Gloucestershire , at the age of 78 . As he had no male heir , his title became extinct . His Garter banner , which hung in St. George 's Chapel in Windsor during his lifetime , is now on display in the nave of Tewkesbury Abbey .
= = In popular culture = =
General Ismay was portrayed in the television drama Churchill and the Generals by Paul Hardwick , and in Lord Mountbatten : The Last Viceroy by Nigel Davenport .
= = = Books = = =
Overy , Richard ( 1989 ) . The Road To War . London : Macmillan .
Beachey , Ray ( 1990 ) . The Warrior Mullah . London : Bellew Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 947792 @-@ 43 @-@ 0 . OCLC 60081063 .
Churchill , Winston ( 1948 ) . The Gathering Storm . The Second World War 2 . Boston : Houghton Mifflin Company . OCLC 3025315 .
Colville , John ( 1981 ) . Winston Churchill and His Inner Circle . New York : Wyndham Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 42583 @-@ 8 . OCLC 7283766 .
Conekin , Becky ( 2003 ) . The Autobiography of a Nation : The 1951 Festival of Britain . Manchester : Manchester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7190 @-@ 6060 @-@ 5 . OCLC 50783359 .
Collins , Larry ; LaPierre , Dominique ( 1975 ) . Freedom at Midnight . New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 22088 @-@ 8 . OCLC 1366307 .
Eisenhower , Dwight ( 1948 ) . Crusade in Europe . Garden City , New York : Doubleday . OCLC 394251 .
Eisenhower , John ( 1982 ) . Allies : Pearl Harbor to D @-@ Day . Garden City , New York : Doubleday . ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 11479 @-@ 6 . OCLC 7672682 .
Gilbert , Martin ( 1991 ) . Churchill : A Life . New York : Henry Holt and Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 0615 @-@ X. OCLC 24011440 .
Ismay , Hastings ( 1960 ) . The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay . New York : Viking Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8371 @-@ 6280 @-@ 5 . OCLC 827892 .
Johnson , Franklyn ( 1980 ) . Defence by Ministry . New York : Holmes & Meier Publisher , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 8419 @-@ 0598 @-@ 3 . OCLC 5889060 .
Jordan , Robert ( 1967 ) . The NATO International Staff / Secretariat 1952 – 1957 . London : Oxford University Press . OCLC 59029584 .
Lamb , Richard ( 1991 ) . Churchill as War Leader . New York : Caroll & Graff Publishers , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 88184 @-@ 937 @-@ 5 . OCLC 27340277 .
Leahy , William ( 1950 ) . I Was There . New York : Whittlesey House . OCLC 397109 .
Lewin , Ronald ( 2004 ) . " Hastings Lionel Ismay " . In Matthew , H.C.G ; Harrison , Brian . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 29 . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 861379 @-@ 2 . OCLC 226159003 .
Naylor , John ( 1984 ) . A man and an institution . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 25583 @-@ X.
Oxbury , Harold ( 1985 ) . Great Britons . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 211599 @-@ 5 . OCLC 11533077 .
Roskill , Stephen ( 1972 ) . Hankey : Man of Secrets 1 . London : Collins . ISBN 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 211330 @-@ 9 . OCLC 226236422 .
Roskill , Stephen ( 1972 ) . Hankey : Man of Secrets 2 . London : Collins . ISBN 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 211330 @-@ 9 . OCLC 226236422 .
Sainsbury , Keith ( 1985 ) . The Turning Point . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 215858 @-@ 9 . OCLC 10823797 .
US Department of State Historical Office ( 1968 ) . Foreign Relations of the United States : Conferences at Washington , 1941 – 1942 , and Casablanca , 1943 . Washington , DC : Government Printing Office . OCLC 1444030 .
Wingate , Ronald ( 1970 ) . Lord Ismay : A Biography . London : Hutchinson of London . ISBN 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 102370 @-@ X. OCLC 102756 .
= = = Articles = = =
" Advice on Defence : Imperial Committee in Peace and War " . The Times . 12 January 1939 @.@ p . 12e .
" Allied Chiefs with the King " . The Times . 17 June 1944 @.@ p . 4d .
" Atlantic Council Deputies " . The Times . 20 March 1952 @.@ p . 3a .
" British Officers Decorated " . The Times . 17 January 1946 @.@ p . 7c .
" Cabinet Staff Change " . The Times . 17 December 1946 @.@ p . 4g .
Daniel , Clifton ( 28 February 1952 ) . " Franks Rejection of Post Confirmed " . The New York Times .
Daniel , Clifton ( 13 March 1952 ) . " Ismay Named Civilian Chief of Atlantic Pact Organization " . The New York Times .
" Commodity Markets " . The Times . 22 May 1957 @.@ p . 16g .
" Court Circular " . The Times . 16 May 1957 @.@ p . 14b .
" Discussions in Ottawa " . The Times . 15 January 1952 @.@ p . 4a .
" Dulles Gives Pledge to Save Allied Unity " . The Washington Post . 10 December 1956 .
Evans , Michael ( 4 September 2006 ) . " Army writer came close to exposing secrets of D @-@ Day " . The Times ( London ) . Retrieved 13 April 2009 .
" First Chief of NATO , Lord Ismay , 78 , Dies " . The Washington Post . 19 December 1965 .
" General Ismay Promoted " . The Times . 7 November 1942 @.@ p . 4e .
" House of Lords " . The Times . 6 February 1947 @.@ p . 8a .
" Ismay to Study Service Unity " . The Washington Post . 13 January 1964 .
Joffe , Josef ( 19 March 2009 ) . " NATO : Soldiering On " . Time . Retrieved 13 February 2009 .
" Knighthoods for the Services " . The Times . 11 July 1940 @.@ p . 5g .
Leventhal , F.M. ( Autumn 1995 ) . " A Tonic to the Nation : The Festival of Britain , 1951 " . Albion 27 ( 3 ) .
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 32142 @.@ p . 1 . 26 November 1920 . Retrieved 5 June 2009 .
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 37860 @.@ p . 411 . 21 January 1947 . Retrieved 5 June 2009 .
" Lord Ismay Appointed " . The Times . 11 March 1948 @.@ p . 4c .
" Lord Ismay , Ex @-@ Churchill Aide , Leader in NATO , Is Dead at 78 " . The New York Times . 18 December 1965 .
" M Spaak to Succeed Lord Ismay " . The Times . 15 December 1956 @.@ p . 6a .
MI5 . " 4 September 2006 releases : Other subjects of Security Service enquiries " . Archived from the original on 13 February 2009 . Retrieved 14 April 2009 .
" Miss Truman at South Bank Exhibition " . The Times . 5 June 1951 @.@ p . 4c .
" Mr. Eden at Kremlin " . The Times . 30 October 1943 @.@ p . 4d .
" Mr. Eden Sees Marshal Stalin " . The Times . 28 October 1943 @.@ p . 4c .
" N.A.T.O. Secretary General " . The Times . 13 March 1952 @.@ p . 4e .
" New Viceroy in Delhi " . The Times . 23 March 1947 @.@ p . 6e .
" New Years Honours List " . The Times . 1 January 1947 @.@ p . 4f .
" News in Brief " . The Times . 26 July 1946 @.@ p . 3a .
" Obituary : Lord Ismay " . The Times . 18 December 1965 @.@ p . 9a .
" Prime Minister in the United States " . The Times . 19 June 1942 @.@ p . 4a .
" Resignation Honours " . The Times . 14 August 1945 @.@ p . 4g .
" Secretary Ismay " . The Washington Post . 15 March 1952 .
Schorr , Daniel ( 1 April 2009 ) . " With No Clear Mission , NATO Has Little Power " . NPR . Retrieved 13 April 2009 .
" Scope of 1951 Festival " . The Times . 9 June 1949 @.@ p . 3a .
" Sir H. Ismay Promoted " . The Times . 20 May 1944 @.@ p . 7g .
" Sir M. Hankey 's Successors " . The Times . 2 June 1938 @.@ p . 14c .
" The Birthday Honours " . The Times . 13 June 1946 @.@ p . 8a .
" The Prime Minister in Canada " . The Times . 11 August 1943 @.@ p . 4a .
" The Queen Mary Sails with 15 @,@ 000 Troops " . The Times . 6 September 1945 @.@ p . 2c .
" Women 's Part in the War " . The Times . 9 November 1942 @.@ p . 2a .
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= 2008 Yemen cyclone =
In October 2008 , the remnants of a tropical cyclone caused extensive damage in Yemen , a poor country on the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula . The storm , officially known as Deep Depression ARB 02 , was the sixth tropical cyclone of the 2008 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , and the second tropical cyclone in the Arabian Sea that year . It formed on October 19 off the west coast of India from the same broader system that spawned a storm in the southern Indian Ocean . Moving generally westward , the depression failed to intensify much , reaching maximum sustained winds of only 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . It was no longer classifiable as a tropical depression by October 23 , and later that day , its remnants struck near Ash Shihr in eastern Yemen .
The storm sent a plume of moisture throughout the Arabian Peninsula , contributing to dust storms as far north as Iraq . However , the effects were most severe in Yemen , becoming the second @-@ worst natural disaster in the country after deadly floods in 1996 . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in a normally arid region , reaching around 91 mm ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) , which caused flash flooding in valleys after waterways were unable to contain the approximately 2 billion km3 ( 528 billion gallons ) of water that fell . Poor drainage practices and an invasive species of weed contributed to the floods , which damaged or destroyed 6 @,@ 505 houses , leaving about 25 @,@ 000 people homeless . The floods killed 180 people and severely disrupted the livelihoods of about 700 @,@ 000 residents of Hadhramaut and Al Mahrah governorates , mostly farmers whose fields were washed away . Some of the buildings at the Shibam UNESCO World Heritage Site collapsed due to the floods . Overall damage was estimated at US $ 874 @.@ 8 million , although residual losses from damaged infrastructure were estimated to cost an additional US $ 726 @.@ 9 million . The overall economic impact of the storm was therefore estimated at US $ 1 @.@ 638 billion , equating to roughly 6 % of the country 's gross domestic product .
After the scale of the damage became clear , the government of Yemen requested for assistance from the international community . The hardest hit areas had poor infrastructure , which caused difficulties in communications as relief goods were distributed . Nations in the region , including Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates , sent money and supplies to help rebuild the damaged infrastructure and houses . Agencies under the United Nations provided food and logistical support . Relief efforts continued to make progress until 2011 due to a political uprising in Yemen .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 11 , an active phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation , in conjunction with an equatorial wind burst , produced twin areas of convection in the central Indian Ocean on both sides of the equator . The system in the southern hemisphere would become Moderate Tropical Storm Asma in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean , and the system in the northern hemisphere would ultimately strike Yemen . The northern hemisphere system originated in the Bay of Bengal , and moved westward for much of its duration , steered by a ridge to the north along 15º N. On October 16 , a low pressure area developed over southern India near Kanyakumari . With low wind shear and warm waters of 27 to 28 ° C ( 81 to 82 ° F ) , the system slowly organized . On October 19 , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified the low as a depression about 725 km ( 450 mi ) southeast of the Yemeni island of Socotra . By that time , the convection had organized more , although it was displaced slightly from the center due to stronger wind shear .
The convection persisted along the western periphery of an elongated center , organizing enough for the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to issue warnings on the depression on October 20 , designating it Tropical Cyclone 03A . With marginally favorable conditions , the depression intensified slightly , and the IMD upgraded it to a 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) deep depression on October 21 , the same peak as the JTWC . That day , the system moved over Socotra as it reached an area of cooler water temperatures . Land interaction and dry air weakened the convection around the system as it approached the Gulf of Aden . The IMD downgraded the cyclone to depression status on October 22 . On the next day , the JTWC discontinued advisories , and the IMD downgraded the system further to a remnant low to the northeast of Cape Guardafui , Somalia . The JTWC continued tracking the system as it moved northwestward , and the circulation made landfall near Ash Shihr in southeastern Yemen late on October 23 , losing its identity shortly thereafter .
= = Impact = =
Moving ashore southeastern Yemen , the storm dropped heavy rainfall in the typically arid region , reaching 91 mm ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) in some areas , and possibly as high as 200 mm ( 8 in ) , over a 20 @,@ 000 km2 ( 7 @,@ 700 mi2 ) area . This equated to about 2 billion m3 ( 528 billion gallons ) of water , more than twice the capacity of most waterways . The thunderstorms and rainfall occurred over a 30 ‑ hour period , severely disrupting life in eastern Yemen . The precipitation coalesced into valleys , resulting in flash flooding that swelled water levels to 18 m ( 59 ft ) . Hundreds of residents became trapped in their homes , while businesses and schools were shut down . The storm sent a plume of moisture that spread into Saudi Arabia , reaching 74 mm ( 2 @.@ 9 in ) in Najran , and was drawn northward into Iraq by a trough over Syria , triggering dust storms .
A representative of UNICEF estimated that the magnitude of the flooding was the worst in 600 years , attributing the scope to climate change . The areas effected – primarily Hadhramaut and Al Mahrah governorates – are usually dry and unsuited for such flooding . This resulted in the second worst natural disaster on record in Yemen , following deadly floods in 1996 . Overall , the floods killed around 180 people in Yemen , with many corpses carried away by the deluge . Illegal alterations in canal and drainage systems caused the floods to impact many houses and buildings , and the governor of Hadhramaut credited the invasive Prosopis juliflora weed as exasperating floods after blocking waterways . Throughout the country , the floods destroyed 2 @,@ 826 houses and damaged another 3 @,@ 679 , leaving about 25 @,@ 000 people homeless ; many of these houses were made of mud , washed away by the floodwaters . The displaced utilized temporary shelters in mosques and schools , or stayed with family and friends . Damage to housing , hospitals , and education was estimated at $ 200 million . The UNESCO World Heritage Site at Shibam – dating back to the 3rd century and housing tall mud buildings from the 17th century – was surrounded by floodwaters , causing some of the dwellings to collapse . Businesses and other infrastructure projects were also destroyed .
Infrastructure damage was estimated at $ 113 million ( 2008 USD ) , most of which related to damaged roads , after thoroughfares were washed away . At the Sayun Airport , floods damaged runways and other facilities . 359 dams were damaged , alongside 65 reservoirs . Widespread irrigation systems were also damaged , including 117 @,@ 875 m ( 386 @,@ 729 ft ) of pipelines , 1 @,@ 241 wells , and 1 @,@ 229 water pumps . Electricity and telephone lines were disrupted in the region . The floods damaged 170 schools , as well as many health facilities . Along the coast , the storm damaged many fishing boats and equipment . In Al Mahrah Governorate , the storm washed a cargo ship ashore , although the 17 person crew was rescued .
Agriculture impacts were significant , estimated at $ 550 million , which affected 75 % of the farmers in Hadhramaut . Soil erosion from the floods damaged 22 @,@ 902 acres ( 9 @,@ 268 ha ) of farmlands , as well as 51 @,@ 455 acres ( 20 @,@ 823 ha ) of uncultivated lands . This mostly affected cereals , vegetables , and forage crops . Floods killed about 58 @,@ 500 livestock and wrecked 309 @,@ 103 beehives . The storm also knocked down 547 @,@ 185 palm trees , 16 @,@ 587 citrus trees , and another 161 @,@ 449 fruit trees . Despite the heavy agriculture damage , the floods did not disrupt the national food supply .
The effects of the flooding disrupted the livelihoods of about 700 @,@ 000 residents ; most of the storm 's damage affected people 's jobs , including farming , industry , and commerce , totaling $ 557 @.@ 3 million in damages . About 76 % of the overall effects of the flooding were the result of disruption of people 's jobs . Overall damage was estimated at $ 874 @.@ 8 million , although residual losses from damaged infrastructure were estimated to cost an additional $ 726 @.@ 9 million . The overall economic impact of the storm was therefore estimated at $ 1 @.@ 638 billion , equating to roughly 6 % of the country 's gross domestic product . Damage was heaviest in Hadhramaut Governorate , accounting for 67 @.@ 5 % of the material damages , and occurred mostly along the coast ; 16 of the 19 districts in the governorate reported damage . Also in Hadramaut , there were 57 people injured due to the storm . The government sent search and rescue teams into the flooded areas to help stranded residents , although strong winds in the region disrupted these efforts in the immediate aftermath . In Seiyun , six soldiers died while attempting to rescue trapped residents . Lightning strikes killed six people .
= = Aftermath = =
On October 27 , the Yemen government requested assistance from the international community , unable to provide disaster assessments or cope with the rebuilding . The storm affected areas of Yemen that already had poor infrastructure and lack of food , and were generally under a state of political unrest , which made recovery difficult . In some areas , relief distribution was duplicated due to lack of coordination while some areas did not receive help . Yemen 's Deputy Prime Minister for Internal Affairs coordinated the relief efforts , in conjunction with the governors of the most affected areas . The government focused on streamlining disaster activities and toward future mitigation . However , there was no coordinated disaster plan as of September 2009 , and the scale of the disaster proved too great for ministries to handle . The Ministry of Public Works helped reopen roads , which allowed for the transport of relief goods , and the damaged Sayun Airport was repaired to withstand future floods . By December 2008 , most roads , power systems , hospitals , and communication services were restored . The government also enacted the Fund for Hadramout and Al @-@ Mahara Reconstruction , which failed to promptly distribute aid assistance .
In addition to requesting international aid , the Yemen government declared Hadhramaut and Al Mahrah governorates as disaster areas , after then @-@ president Ali Abdullah Saleh surveyed the affected areas . The president also utilized the nation 's military to assist storm victims , and sent aircraft with tents , food , and medicine to the worst hit areas . To raise money for the disaster recovery , the Yemeni government cut one day of salary for all workers , equating to $ 4 @.@ 25 million , and the government provided another $ 100 million from its annual budget . Local charities and residents collectively raised $ 8 @.@ 5 million . Yemen 's Red Cross provided meals and water to about 21 @,@ 000 people . The agency also provided school kits for 4 @,@ 500 students whose facilities were damaged . Ultimately , the Red Cross assisted over 70 @,@ 000 storm victims through health programs , and also helped residents cope with stress , hygiene promotion , and other ongoing vulnerabilities to their livelihoods .
Various agencies under the United Nations assisted in the recovery ; the World Health Organization provided medical kits to the worst hit areas , capable of helping 10 @,@ 000 residents each for three months . The United Nations Development Programme helped house displaced storm victims , and many of the mud @-@ built houses were repaired with the same construction materials as before . The World Bank led the assessment efforts , estimating the cost of recovery at $ 1 @.@ 046 billion , mostly toward rebuilding houses , regrowing crops , and restoring social services . The World Bank also provided $ 41 million toward the Yemen Flood Protection and Emergency Reconstruction , which rebuilt vital infrastructure and ensured they were flood @-@ proof . The World Food Programme assisted 43 @,@ 000 people with food and other emergency supplies . The Organisation of the Islamic Conference declared the situation a " national catastrophe " and started a drive to collect funds for the relief of flood victims . At an international donor conference , various individuals and countries pledged $ 301 million to help with the reconstruction in the country . Arab nations in the region also donated cash and supplies to Yemen ; Saudi Arabia pledged $ 100 million in assistance . The United Arab Emirates Red Crescent assisted in the reconstruction work , sending $ 27 @.@ 3 million to rebuild 1 @,@ 000 houses ; 750 of these were completed by December 2009 . The Arab Fund sent $ 135 million , including $ 35 million for road reconstruction . The Japanese government provided funding toward building shelter for 700 displaced Al @-@ Akhdam people , designed to be away from the flood plain . Access to clean drinking water and proper shelter for the displaced helped mitigate the spread of disease . For many families , the effects of the disaster lasted several years due to insufficient assistance or disrupted jobs . By 2010 , about 40 % of the overall recovery cost was met by international donations , although funding was halted after political uprising in 2011 .
Over the long term , residents lost significant amounts of income in the storm @-@ affected areas , particularly farms in the year after the storm . Higher food prices also resulted in less income for other residents . The area 's economy largely recovered to pre @-@ flood levels by 2010 .
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= Tom Welling =
Thomas John Patrick " Tom " Welling ( born April 26 , 1977 ) is an American actor , director , producer and model best known for his role as Clark Kent in The WB / CW superhero drama Smallville ( 2001 – 11 ) .
A high school athlete , Welling initially worked in construction and , in 1998 , he successfully modeled men 's clothing for several popular brands . In 2000 , he made a successful transition to television . He has been nominated for and received several awards for his role as Clark Kent . In 2001 , he had a recurring role as Rob " Karate Rob " Meltzer in the second season of the CBS drama Judging Amy . He has also been involved behind the camera as an executive producer and a director . His films include Cheaper by the Dozen , Cheaper by the Dozen 2 , The Fog , and Draft Day .
= = Early life = =
Welling was born on April 26 , 1977 , in the lower Hudson Valley , New York . His family moved frequently , making stops in Wisconsin , Delaware , and Michigan . Welling attended Okemos High School in Okemos , Michigan , where he started acting in plays , but then switched into sports . Welling played baseball and soccer , but his favorite sport is basketball . Welling is one of four children with two older sisters , Rebecca and Jamie . His younger brother , Mark Welling , is also an actor .
= = Career = =
Originally a construction worker , Welling was discovered in 1998 at a party in Nantucket by a catalog camera scout who suggested he try modeling . Welling modelled for Louisa Modeling Agency until 2000 , when he relocated to Los Angeles . There he modelled for Tommy Hilfiger , Abercrombie & Fitch , and Calvin Klein while pursuing an acting career . In 2000 , Welling appeared in Angela Via 's music video " Picture Perfect " where he played Vía 's love interest . Welling has stated that he did not like modelling and that he was not good at it because it was all on the outside or from an external point of view . He pursued acting because he wanted to express a range of emotions , but Welling still models occasionally and appeared in the May 2008 issue of Vogue , the so @-@ called Superhero Issue . In his first major acting role , Welling played karate teacher Rob " Karate Rob " Meltzer , a younger love interest of Amy Gray ( Amy Brenneman ) in the second season of the CBS drama Judging Amy , which aired in 2001 . Welling was originally signed for three episodes ; after receiving enthusiastic fan reviews , the producers kept him for three more . Welling also had a small role in the UPN science fiction sitcom Special Unit 2 , and he appeared in the pilot episode of the FOX sitcom Undeclared .
= = = Smallville = = =
Welling was cast in the WB superhero drama Smallville after a nationwide search for an actor to play Clark Kent . In an interview with a teen magazine , Welling spoke about the day he auditioned for the role : " I was on my way back from the Warner Bros. studio , and I stopped in a gas station to call my manager and tell him how it went . I called and got him on the phone and he said , ' Can you hold on a second ? ' Next thing I know , there are literally seven people on the other line and almost in unison they say , ' Tom , you got it ! ' " The pilot aired in October 2001 and became the highest rated debut for The WB , with 8 @.@ 4 million viewers . Welling told TV Guide that he turned down the lead role twice , but after reading the script , decided to take the job . Like Christopher Reeve , he was not a Superman fan prior to being cast as Clark Kent . In fact , he said , he continues to not read Superman comics : " I made a conscious decision to stay away from that material . We 're doing something different at a time before all that , I don 't want that to affect what I 'm doing , even subconsciously . " He did get the chance to meet two previous Superman actors : Christopher Reeve , who appeared in season 2 : episode 17 titled " Rosetta " , and Dean Cain , who appeared in season 7 : episode 4 titled " Cure " .
Welling was named one of People magazine ’ s " Breakthrough Stars of 2001 " , and also won the Teen Choice Award as " Choice Breakout Star ( Male ) " in 2002 for his role as Clark Kent . Following the third season , Welling was interviewed by Smallville Magazine and stated that if he could play one character on the show that was not Clark Kent , it would be Lex Luthor ; " Lex Luthor ! I wouldn ’ t mind having my head shaved – as an actor , [ it is the ultimate , ] getting to play the complete opposite of your character . "
In 2004 , Welling was approached about starring in the big screen adaptation of Superman when director Brett Ratner was attached to the project . Comic book artist Alex Ross even did two sketches of Welling as the " Man of Steel " to see what the actor would look like in the famous costume . In August 2009 , Welling won another Teen Choice Award as " Choice TV Actor ( Action Adventure ) " for Smallville .
= = = Film = = =
In December 2003 , Welling made his feature film debut as Charlie Baker , the oldest son and second oldest in the Baker family which had 12 children , in the family comedy Cheaper by the Dozen with Steve Martin and Bonnie Hunt , which is a remake of the 1950 movie starring Clifton Webb and Myrna Loy , based on Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 's 1948 book . Welling talked about why he was interested in the project in an interview with Paul Fischer : " The top three reasons I decided to do this film were , one , Steve Martin , two , Steve Martin and three , Steve Martin . That was the number one draw for me . Then , after reading the script , I really liked this character , Charlie . I liked what he went through , what he had to go through , and I felt I understood where he was coming from . And I just wanted to be a part of it . " Welling had always been a fan of Martin 's and stated that he " absolutely loved " working with him .
In 2005 , Welling co @-@ starred in the horror film The Fog , a remake of John Carpenter 's 1980 film of the same name , as Nick Castle ( a character originally played by Tom Atkins ) . At the same time The Fog was in production , Welling was still working on the last few episodes of the fourth season of Smallville . The same year , he reprised his role as Charlie Baker in Cheaper by the Dozen 2 .
In 2013 , Welling co @-@ starred in the all @-@ star cast of Peter Landesman 's historical drama Parkland , based on the book Reclaiming History : The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy by author Vincent Bugliosi . The story centers on the chaotic events that occurred at Parkland Hospital in Dallas , Texas on the day President John F. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22 , 1963 . In 2014 , Welling co @-@ starred with Kevin Costner , Jennifer Garner , Frank Langella and Denis Leary in Ivan Reitman 's sports drama Draft Day . He played a veteran quarterback whose career is at a crossroads .
= = = Production = = =
For Smallville 's ninth season , Welling served as a co @-@ executive producer . He returned as Clark Kent for the show 's tenth and final season in Fall 2010 and became a full executive producer , as credited in a May 20 , 2010 press release by the CW .
Welling served as an executive producer on the CW comedy @-@ drama Hellcats based on journalist Kate Torgovnick 's book Cheer : Inside the Secret World of College Cheerleaders . The series first aired on The CW beginning in the fall of 2010 , and was cancelled on May 17 , 2011 .
= = = Directing = = =
Welling made his directorial debut in 2006 , with Smallville , 5 @.@ 18 " Fragile " . He also directed 6 @.@ 10 " Hydro " , the show 's 150th episode 7 @.@ 18 " Apocalypse " , 8 @.@ 21 " Injustice " , and the second part , " Legends " , of the two @-@ hour episode 9 @.@ 11 " Absolute Justice " . Later , he directed two episodes of Smallville 's final season , 10 @.@ 09 " Patriot " and 10 @.@ 18 " Booster " .
= = Personal life = =
On July 5 , 2002 , Welling married model Jamie White @-@ Welling in Martha 's Vineyard with Welling 's friends and then @-@ current Smallville co @-@ stars Kristin Kreuk and Michael Rosenbaum in attendance . Welling and White resided in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada , but returned to Los Angeles in March 2011 . On October 17 , 2013 , White filed for divorce from Welling , citing " irreconcilable differences " . The divorce was finalized in November 2015 .
Welling has stated in YM that he dislikes interviews . He said , " I don 't want to be a celebrity for the sake of being a celebrity . I want to work and then go home and live in private . "
= = Filmography = =
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= Hugo Danner =
Hugo Danner is a fictional character and the protagonist of Philip Wylie 's 1930 novel Gladiator . Born in the late 19th century with superhuman abilities via prenatal chemical experimentation , Danner tries to use his powers for good , making him a precursor of the superhero . However , Danner grows disillusioned with his inability to find a permanent outlet for his great strength , and dies frustrated .
Apart from Wylie 's novel , the character has also appeared in a feature film and publications by Marvel Comics and DC Comics . Comedic actor Joe E. Brown portrayed him in a 1938 movie adaptation of the book . Decades later the character starred in an adaptation titled " Man @-@ God " in Marvel 's black @-@ and @-@ white comics @-@ magazine Marvel Preview # 9 ( Winter 1976 ) . He next appeared in DC 's standard color comic book Young All @-@ Stars in 1988 and 1989 , as the estranged father of an illegitimate son named Iron Munro . In 2005 , he returned in the comic @-@ book miniseries Legend , published by the DC imprint Wildstorm . Here Danner , in the late 1960s , fights as a U.S. Army supersoldier in the Vietnam War rather than as a super Legionnaire in World War I.
= = Publication history = =
= = = Creation = = =
In early February 1930 , Wylie described the inspiration for Danner 's creation in the introduction to one of the earliest printings of Gladiator :
A temperamental consciousness of material force brought Hugo Danner into being . The frustration of my own muscles by things , and the alarming superiority of machinery started the notion of a man who would be invincible . I gave him a name and planned random deeds for him . I let him tear down Brooklyn Bridge and lift a locomotive . Then I began to speculate about his future and it seemed to me that a human being thus equipped would be foredoomed to vulgar fame or to a life of fruitless destruction . He would share the isolation of geniuses and with them would learn the inflexibility of man 's slow evolution . To that extent Hugo became symbolic and Gladiator a satire . The rest was adventure and perhaps more of the book derives from the unliterary excitement of imagining such a life than from a studious juxtaposition of incidents to a theme "
= = = Development = = =
The novel begins during the closing years of the 19th century , as Colorado science Professor Abednego Danner searches for a way to improve the innate weaknesses of human biology and create a new " race that doesn 't know fear — because it cannot know harm " . After 14 years of research he finally discovers " alkaline radicals " that vastly improve " muscular strength and the nervous discharge of energy " . Following very successful animal testing , which yields super @-@ strong tadpoles and a bulletproof kitten capable of taking down cattle as prey , he injects this super @-@ serum into the womb of his pregnant wife , Matilda . Hugo Danner is born on Christmas several months later .
His parents imbue him with a strong moral compass during his formative years and warn him never to use his great strength in anger . However , during kindergarten , Danner nearly kills the school 's bully in a one @-@ sided fight after being assaulted by the child . This event brands him as an outsider in the eyes of the other children . Because they treat him with such abhorrence , his only solace comes in the form of unleashing his powers within the Colorado wilderness ( uprooting trees , throwing huge boulders , leaping to the mountain tops , etc . ) . This stigma eventually wears off , though , and is forgotten by the time Danner enters high school .
Danner leaves Colorado after graduating high school to attend Webster University . There , he becomes an unstoppable football star and the most popular boy in school . During the summer months , he works as a circus strong man and even enters a fight competition for money . However , after returning to college and accidentally killing another player during a game , he quits school and becomes a sailor . A year later , his ship is trapped in France by the outbreak of World War I in 1914 .
He and a fellow American sign up with the French Foreign Legion and find themselves on the battlements after a short training period . He eventually reveals his powers to his Legionnaire superiors , who believe him to be a devil or supernatural Native American , and he is given free rein to roam the battlefield and kill as many German soldiers as he possibly can . Stories of " Le Colorado " ( The Colorado ) quickly spread from trench to trench and Danner becomes a sort of mythical hero . After a short stint in an American Legionnaire unit , Danner grows weary of war and devises a plan with an airplane :
He would drive it far into Germany . When its petrol failed , he would crash it . Stepping from the ruins , he would hasten on in the darkness , on , on , like Pheidippides , till he reached the centre of the enemy government . There , crashing through the petty human barriers , he would perform his last feat , strangling the Emperor , slaying the generals , pulling buildings apart with his Samsonian arms , and disrupting the control of the war .
However , the Treaty of Versailles is signed the very day he prepares to leave , and so he is forced to abort his mission , much to his dismay . He returns to the United States and works in a number of professions — steel mill worker , bank teller , farm hand , and disarmament lobbyist — but his unique stature among mortal men forever brings him grief . He eventually offers his services to a noted history professor preparing a Mayan archaeological dig and travels with the group to the Yucatan Peninsula .
During the trip , Danner wonders if the Mayans and Egyptians had discovered the same formula as his father , " which could be poured into the veins of the slaves [ who built the pyramids ] , making them stronger than engines " . There , he works as the head steward of the hired Mayan helpers and proves himself an asset to the team . But when a mishap reveals his great strength to the professor , the elderly man suggests Danner use his father 's formula to create a new race of men known as the " Sons of Dawn " , who will use their powers to right the world 's wrongs . The idea appeals to him at first , but Danner fears that these sons would also be hated by humanity for their superiority and treated much the same as himself . In the end , he climbs a mountain amidst an oncoming thunderstorm , and is struck dead by lightning while praying to God . The formula is lost in the resulting fire . The professor discovers his charred remains three days later and buries him among the Mayan ruins .
= = Powers and abilities = =
Even during his early years , Danner displays superhuman strength . He demolishes his wooden crib as a newborn , saves a man 's life by lifting a two @-@ ton supply wagon at 6 years old , and uproots entire trees at 10 . He progressively grows stronger as he gets older . During his twenties , he can stop and kill a charging bull with a single punch , bend a railroad rail , lift a seventy @-@ five millimeter howitzer cannon singlehandedly , lift a car and its driver singlehandedly , rip open a 5 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) bank vault , and easily catch a falling 8 @,@ 000 @-@ pound block of stone .
Danner 's physical strength extends to his legs , allowing him to leap great heights and distances . At age 10 he can leap 40 feet into the air and run faster than a train . During his freshman year in college , he easily breaks a world track record , though he actually doesn 't run at his full speed . While in the service of the French Foreign Legion in World War I , he traverses thirty @-@ seven miles round trip in just thirty minutes ( a speed of about 148 mph ) ; all while carrying 2 @,@ 000 pounds of food , water , and ammunition for his unit . Despite his great strength , he is still susceptible to fatigue .
He first learns of his body 's superior resistance to physical injury during the war . Bullets and bayonets glance off his tough skin . He believes he can even survive a plane crash . The only weaponry capable of penetrating his skin at the time are the largest artillery shells . Although , he still feels the effects of the elements , sweating under the heat of the sun and freezing during winter . Danner 's only vulnerability is lightning , which ultimately kills him .
Danner 's bodily tissues have a somewhat greater density than those of an ordinary human being . Though he has an athletic build , his strength is far greater than what his frame would naturally allow . People guess him to be 155 pounds , but he actually weighs 211 . During his stint as a sailor , he goes pearl diving with the natives of Cristobal and is able to dive deeper and stay under longer because of his density .
His body can heal damaged tissue much faster and more extensively than an ordinary human can . He collapses from exhaustion and wounds sustained from artillery shells after he goes berserk against the Germans to avenge a friend 's death . When he wakes up in an army hospital , he finds " his wounds had healed without the necessity of a single stitch " . Long periods of comatose sleep ( up to 20 hours ) and the consuming of huge meals also aid in his regenerative process .
= = In other media = =
= = = Film = = =
Danner was portrayed by comedic actor Joe E. Brown in the 1938 film The Gladiator , which loosely adapted science @-@ fiction drama as a comedy , and , among the many changes , renamed the protagonist " Hugo Kipp " . The film begins when Kipp wins a large sum of money in a contest and decides to return to college . There , he is talked into joining the football team and fails to live up to his athletic father 's legendary reputation . But after a Professor Danner ( Lucien Littlefield ) injects Kipp with a serum that gives him superhuman strength , he becomes an unstoppable player and wins the heart of the self @-@ centered quarterback 's girlfriend ( June Travis ) . In the end , he faces Man Mountain Dean in a wrestling match , but the serum runs out at the last minute .
= = = Comics = = =
In comics , Danner first appeared in the 52 @-@ page story " Man @-@ God " , by writer Roy Thomas and artist Tony DeZuniga ( credited as Antony DeZuniga ) in Marvel Comics ' Marvel Preview # 9 ( Winter 1976 ) . Only the first half of the novel is adapted .
Danner next appeared in DC Comics ' Young All @-@ Stars # 9 @-@ 11 ( Feb.-April 1988 ) and # 28 @-@ 31 ( Aug.-Nov. 1989 ) , as the estranged father of Iron Munro , his illegitimate son . Munro was not a character or even a possibility in the original novel , where , as Danner 's ailing scientist father explained , " the effect of the process is not inherited by the future generations . It must be done over each time " .
In this storyline , Munro comes into possession of his father ’ s diary and learns of Danner 's troubled life as the 20th century ’ s first metahuman . After having read the diary , Munro turns to the government 's secret Project M , demanding to know the location of the " Dinosaur Island " mentioned by Danner . There he meets a person who leads him instead to Maple White Land in South America . Munro is surprised when he finds his father is alive . Danner apparently faked his death in the Yucatan and briefly returned home to have a one @-@ night stand with his former high school sweetheart Anna Blake . The resulting union bore Munro , who took his surname from his mother 's new husband ( who believed the child to be his own ) . Danner has , by this time , succeeded in rearing the first generation of the Sons of Dawn . He later reveals to the Young @-@ All Stars that the villain Übermensch has stolen the formula in order to create his own race of supermen .
Munro is forced to oppose his father when Danner orders the Sons of Dawn to attack a Brazilian city . The combined might of the All @-@ Star Squadron defeats the Sons of Dawn and Danner is killed during the final battle .
Danner starred in the four @-@ issue miniseries Legend ( April – July 2005 ) by writer Howard Chaykin and artist Russ Heath , published by the DC imprint Wildstorm . Cover blurbs on the first two issues read , " Inspired by Philip Wylie 's Novel Gladiator " . The story now takes place in the second half of the 20th century , with the Vietnam War replacing World War I , but the story remaining for the most part intact .
= = Comparison with later heroes = =
While no confirmation exists that Superman co @-@ creator Jerry Siegel was influenced by Gladiator , Siegel may have read the novel in 1932 . He and co @-@ creator Joe Shuster began developing Superman in 1934 .
Superman as originally conceived came from an unnamed planet whose inhabitants were millions of years more evolved than humans . When they reached maturity , " the people of his race became gifted with titanic strength " . Their advanced evolution and great strength accounted for Superman 's superhuman abilities on earth . As Siegel described them : " When maturity was reached , he discovered he could easily : leap 1 ⁄ 8th of a mile ; hurdle a twenty @-@ story building ... raise tremendous weights ... run faster than an express train ... and that nothing less than a bursting shell could penetrate his skin ! "
Siegel and Shuster compared Superman 's strength and leaping abilities to those of an ant and a grasshopper , respectively , as did Abednego for his son . Danner also claims descent from a far @-@ off land ( Colorado ) inhabited by a race of super @-@ strong , indestructible men . In order to keep his true " experimental " origins a secret , he tells his Legionnaire superiors , " [ Colorado is a ] place in America . A place that has scarcely been explored . I was born there . All the men of Colorado are born as I was born and are like me . We are very strong . We are great fighters . We cannot be wounded except by the largest shells . " Other examples of similarities include both of their biological fathers are scientists ( Jor @-@ El and Abednego ) , both grow up in rural settings ( Smallville and Indian Creek , Colorado ) , both are imbued with a strong moral compass from a young age both lift cars over their heads , and both hide their powers from the world .
One critic noted that Danner 's " creation and upbringing by a scientist father recall Doc Savage 's origins " and a " prototype for the famous scene in which the fledgling Spider @-@ Man defeats a hulking wrestler to make money is found in Wylie 's novel ; Hugo 's bout in the ring is similar to that in the Spider @-@ Man 's origin story in 1962 's Amazing Fantasy # 15 . "
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= Stephen Trigg =
Stephen Trigg ( c . 1744 – August 19 , 1782 ) was an American pioneer and soldier from Virginia . He was killed ten months after the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown in one of the last battles of the American Revolution while leading the Lincoln County militia at the Battle of Blue Licks , Kentucky .
A son of William and Mary ( Johns ) Trigg , he mainly worked as a public servant and militia officer during the early years of the frontier counties of southwest Virginia , which then Kentucky . He was one reportedly of the wealthiest men on the frontier . Trigg was a delegate to the first Virginia Revolutionary conventions , and was a member of the Fincastle Committee of Safety that drafted the Fincastle Resolutions , a precursor to the Declaration of Independence passed by the Second Continental Congress on July 4 , 1776 . He was also elected to the Virginia House of Delegates .
Trigg was appointed to the Virginia Land Court Commission in 1779 , charged with settling land titles in Kentucky . He then settled in Kentucky himself . In 1782 , a raiding party of Shawnee Indians led by British and Loyalist officers attacked Bryan Station , but were driven off . Kentucky militia companies then pursued the fleeing invaders . Trigg commanded half of the men , Daniel Boone the other . Ignoring Boone 's warnings of a trap , the militiamen charged into an Indian ambush at Blue Licks . Trigg and many others , including Boone 's youngest son , were killed . Trigg 's body was later found cut into pieces .
Trigg County , Kentucky , was named in memory of Stephen Trigg .
= = Early life and family = =
Trigg was the son of William Trigg ( 1716 – 1773 ) and Mary ( Johns ) Trigg ( 1720 – 1773 ) , whose family was prominent on the Virginia frontier . His father served as a Judge of the Court of Chancery , an equity court , and the Bedford County Court . Trigg had four brothers , William , John , Abram and Daniel , who were all soldiers in the Revolutionary War . Two of these brothers , John and Abram , later represented Virginia in the U.S. Congress . Stephen married Mary Christian , daughter of another Virginia pioneer , Israel Christian . Trigg lived the early part of his life in southwest Virginia and ran a tavern in Botetourt County .
Trigg and his wife had three sons and two daughters . His daughter Mary married General David Logan , and was the mother of was Stephen Trigg Logan , who would serve in the Illinois state legislature and become Abraham Lincoln law partner in Springfield , Illinois .
= = Virginia pioneer = =
The western county of Augusta in Virginia could no longer serve the needs of the far flung pioneers along the New River , and so in 1769 , the county of Botetourt was created . Trigg was one of several appointed as its first justices of the peace , which was a judge presiding over misdemeanors and other civil cases . From 1770 to 1771 , he served as magistrate , Justice of the County Court in Chancery and a Justice of Oyer and Terminer , which was a criminal court . When the town of Fincastle , Virginia was forming in 1770 , Trigg was instrumental in its development , helping to sell lots and build the town 's prison along with a courthouse with his father @-@ in @-@ law , Israel Christian .
Due to the needs of a growing population , the southwestern half of Botetourt County was separated in 1772 and named Fincastle County . Trigg was installed as one of its first justices of the peace . He was also made a Justice of the County Court in Chancery and a Justice of Oyer and Terminer in addition to his appointment as Deputy Clerk and surveyor of the road from New River to the Sinking Spring . Trigg also continued pursuing his livelihood as a merchant at Dunkard Bottom in present @-@ day Pulaski County . From 1773 to 1774 , he partnered with David Ross and operated a community store in New Dublin , with branches located in Meadow Creek , Reed Creek and Reed Island . At this time , many indentured servants came to this area of the state . Short of money , they sold themselves to the ship owners for passage to America for a term of servitude that gained them land and tools upon completion . In October , Trigg advertised the sale of 30 white indentured servants at his home with a discount for " ready money " . Trigg also served as a delegate to the last session of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1775 , representing Fincastle County , but he absented himself to serve as a captain in Dunmore 's War .
Settlers again agitated for another split , and so Fincastle County was split into three counties and became defunct in 1776 ; the new counties were Montgomery , Washington and Kentucky . Trigg was again a member of the first court of justices held for a new county , this time Montgomery . He also served in the Virginia House of Delegates in 1778 .
= = Early Kentucky pioneer = =
The new Virginia counties were growing rapidly , and with this growth came trouble . Trigg was appointed as one of the judges to the Virginia Land Court commission of 1779 – 80 charged with settling land disputes in Kentucky County , Virginia . The Virginia Land Act of 1779 had set up this court of four judges in order to examine the numerous land claims and to certify valid titles . The four judges arrived at St. Asaph in October and triggered emigration to Kentucky as people wished to either certify their claims or seek unclaimed land . They closed their court on February 26 , 1780 , and prepared to return home . However , in March they were told that they had to reopen the court and stay through April , as claimants were delayed due to weather . Trigg and two fellow judges reconvened on April 16 and heard another 134 cases . In all , the court judged 1 @,@ 328 claims covering over 1 million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km ² ) of land . After these sessions ended , Trigg stayed and established his home on 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km ² ) of land at Trigg 's Station about four miles ( 6 km ) north @-@ west of Harrodsburg in Kentucky County , Virginia .
When Kentucky County , Virginia , was split into three counties in 1780 , Trigg was made lieutenant colonel for the new county militia of Lincoln . He also continued his public service by being one of the first justices of the peace , was one of the trustees to lay out Louisville , and served in the Virginia House of Delegates by representing Kentucky County in the 1780 – 1781 session . It was during this session that he , along with his fellow delegate John Todd , secured passage of the act that allowed the formation of Louisville .
Despite the growth of settlement in Kentucky , white colonists there were far from secure . Historian Virginia Webb Howard wrote of this era :
This was the darkest and most critical period in the history of the early Kentucky settlements . It must be remembered that the settlement of Kentucky was much different from the settlement of most of the other places where the new colony joined the older settlements . Kentucky , instead of adjoining already settled districts , was like an island in the wilderness . There were more than two hundred miles of forest between the settlements of Kentucky and the settlements of the older states .
Trigg continued his service in the militia throughout this period . In 1781 , he was made colonel of the Lincoln County militia . In 1782 , the four delegates to the Virginia General Assembly from Kentucky pushed for Trigg 's recommendation as one of the assistant judges to the newly created Supreme Court for Kentucky , but his early death prevented him from taking this position .
= = Revolutionary War = =
Meanwhile , events had moved from local agitations against the British crown to outright war . Early on , Trigg served in local militias , but he also represented Fincastle in the Virginia Conventions . These were five political meetings that started after Lord Dunmore , the governor of Virginia , had dissolved the House of Burgesses after its delegates expressed solidarity with Boston , Massachusetts , where the harbor had been closed by the British . Trigg was at the first convention in 1774 and was elected a delegate to the second convention in 1775 , though he did not attend . He was elected to the third convention ( July – August 1775 ) , and did appear . He was also a delegate to the Fourth Convention ( December 1775 – January 1776 ) , but did not attend .
His other revolutionary activity at the time was as a member of the Fincastle County Committee of Safety , an outgrowth of the Virginia Committee of Correspondence . The Virginia Committee of Correspondence was formed on March 12 , 1773 , and requested each county to do the same . The British refused to address the issues that were of greatest concern to the colonists , and so the freeholders of Fincastle County met at the Lead Mines on January 20 , 1775 , forming a Committee of Safety in which Trigg was a member . They were one of the first to respond to the request of the Virginia Committee of Correspondence to form such a body . Committees of Safety basically served as provisional governments for their area . It was also at this meeting that they drew up the Fincastle Resolutions , which was a precursor to the Declaration of Independence issued by the Second Continental Congress on July 4 , 1776 ; Trigg was one of the signatories . The resolutions , addressed to the Virginia members of the Continental Congress , contained the boldest assertion of the grievances and rights of the American colonies . In February 1775 , he wrote to his brother @-@ in @-@ law William Christian , suggesting they call another meeting of the freeholders to elect their delegates to the second Virginia Convention . With the news that William Christian was leaving with the Fincastle militia company to Williamsburg to fight , Trigg took over as chairman of the Committee of Safety . On October 7 , 1775 , they met to express their appreciation of Trigg , writing that " together with the most exemplary zeal and attachment to the liberties of your country , and your indefatigable industry in the service thereof , you merit and deserve our particular thanks . "
In 1776 , Cherokees entered the war with the aim of driving colonists from their lands , which meant the people living in southwestern Virginia were facing British @-@ armed Cherokees . The members of the Committee of Safety met at Fort Chiswell on June 11 , 1776 , and drafted a letter to Oconostota and Attacullaculla , chiefs of the Cherokee nation , to meet with them and come to terms for a peace agreement . The letter mentions the colonists ' dissatisfaction with Britain :
It is true that an unhappy Difference hath subsisted between the people beyond the great water , and the Americans for som [ sic ] years , which was intirely [ sic ] Owing to some of the great Kings Servants who wanted to take Our money without Our Consent , and otherwise to treat us , not like Children , but Slaves , which the people of America will not submit to .
Trigg was one of the signers of this letter . The conflict with the Cherokees was called the Christian Campaign ( presumably from Col. William Christian 's last name ) and Trigg was the paymaster in 1776 – 1777 . In 1777 , he was tasked with making a list of men who swore allegiance to several militia companies . By May 1778 , the inhabitants along the New River had either left or were ready to leave at a moment 's notice , due to increased hostilities with the Shawnee in the area . William Preston , an officer in the militia , felt exposed on the frontier , but was reluctant to abandon his home " Smithfield " , not only for the safety of his family , but also for the county records he safeguarded . Trigg was then leaving for his term in the General Assembly , and Preston urged him and the other delegate for a guard . When it was initially presented to the Governor 's Council , Preston 's petition was denied , but Trigg met several times with Governor Patrick Henry about Preston 's situation and won another hearing with the Council . Trigg made three separate appeals in all before carrying his point . When the governor agreed to send a guard of twelve men and a sergeant , Trigg sent Preston the news and also told him of the Treaty of Alliance that was signed in France in February .
= = = Last battle and death = = =
In 1782 , the British staged an invasion of Kentucky with the help of their Native American allies , including Wyandots , Ottawas and Ojibwas . When Trigg received word of their attack on Bryan Station , he was commanding the fort at Harrodsburg . He quickly assembled 135 local militiamen and met up with Colonel Daniel Boone and Major Levi Todd and more militia at Bryan Station . When they approached the Blue Licks , a salt lick next to the Licking River , officers suspected a trap and convened a war council , but unruly troops lost patience and crossed the river . The three leaders formed a column each , with Trigg commanding the right . When they met with the opposing force , Trigg 's column was ambushed . Trigg was killed and his men fell back after only five minutes of battle . When troops returned to the scene of battle , Trigg 's body was found quartered .
Trigg was buried in a mass grave near the battle site , in what is now Nicholas County , Kentucky . Kentucky later named a county Trigg County to honor him . There is a historical marker in Cadiz , on the courthouse lawn , US 68 . Historians Lewis and Richard Collins wrote of Trigg , " He was greatly beloved and very popular ; and if he had lived , would have taken rank among the most distinguished men of his time . "
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= Jabba the Hutt =
Jabba the Hutt is a character appearing in George Lucas 's space opera film saga Star Wars . He is depicted as a large , slug @-@ like alien . His appearance has been described by film critic Roger Ebert as a cross between a toad and the Cheshire Cat .
In the original theatrical releases of the original Star Wars trilogy , Jabba the Hutt first appeared in Return of the Jedi ( 1983 ) , though he is mentioned in Star Wars ( 1977 ) and The Empire Strikes Back ( 1980 ) , and a previously deleted scene involving Jabba the Hutt was added to the 1997 theatrical re @-@ release and subsequent home media releases of Star Wars . Jabba 's role in Star Wars is primarily antagonistic ; he is introduced as the most powerful crime boss in Tatooine , who has a bounty on Han Solo 's head . He employs a retinue of criminals , bounty hunters , smugglers , assassins and bodyguards to operate his criminal empire . He keeps a host of entertainers at his disposal at his palace : slaves , droids and alien creatures . Jabba has a grim sense of humor , an insatiable appetite , and affinities for gambling , slave girls , and torture .
The character was incorporated into the Star Wars merchandising campaign that corresponded with the theatrical release of Return of the Jedi . Besides the films , Jabba the Hutt is featured in non @-@ canon Star Wars Legends expanded universe literature . Jabba the Hutt 's image has since played an influential role in popular culture , particularly in the United States . The name is used as a satirical literary device and a political caricature to underscore negative qualities such as morbid obesity and corruption .
= = Appearances = =
Jabba the Hutt appears in three of the seven live @-@ action Star Wars films and The Clone Wars . He has a recurring role in Star Wars expanded universe literature and stars in the comic book anthology Jabba the Hutt : The Art of the Deal ( 1998 ) , a collection of comics originally published in 1995 and 1996 .
= = = Star Wars films = = =
Jabba is first seen in 1983 with the third installment of the original Star Wars trilogy , Return of the Jedi . Directed by Richard Marquand and written by Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas , the first act of Return of the Jedi features the attempts of Princess Leia Organa ( Carrie Fisher ) , the Wookiee Chewbacca ( Peter Mayhew ) , and Jedi Knight Luke Skywalker ( Mark Hamill ) to rescue their friend , Han Solo ( Harrison Ford ) , who had been imprisoned in carbonite in the previous film , The Empire Strikes Back .
The captured Han is delivered to Jabba by the bounty hunter Boba Fett ( Jeremy Bulloch ) and placed on display in the crime lord 's throne room . Lando Calrissian ( Billy Dee Williams ) , droids C @-@ 3PO ( Anthony Daniels ) and R2 @-@ D2 ( Kenny Baker ) , Leia , and Chewbacca infiltrate Jabba 's palace to save Han . Leia herself is soon enslaved by the Hutt , and she is forced to wear her iconic golden bikini , as well as being chained to Jabba . Soon after Leia is enslaved , Luke arrives to " bargain for Solo 's life " ; but Jabba condemns Luke , Han , and Chewbacca to the Sarlacc . At the Great Pit of Carkoon , Luke escapes execution with the help of R2 @-@ D2 and defeats Jabba 's guards . During the subsequent confusion , Leia strangles Jabba to death ; whereafter Luke , Leia , Han , Lando , Chewbacca , C @-@ 3PO , and R2 @-@ D2 escape .
The second film appearance of Jabba the Hutt is in the Special Edition of Star Wars which was released in 1997 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the original Star Wars . Here ( as in the original ) , Han Solo disputes with the alien bounty hunter Greedo ( Paul Blake and Maria De Aragon ) , whom he kills ; and Jabba confirms Greedo 's last words and demands that Han pay the value of the payload lost by him . Han promises to compensate Jabba as soon as he receives payment for delivering Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi ( Alec Guinness ) , Luke Skywalker , R2 @-@ D2 , and C @-@ 3PO to Alderaan ; but Jabba threatens to place a price on Solo himself , upon failure . This conversation was an unfinished scene of the original 1977 film , in which Jabba was played by Declan Mulholland in human form . In the 1997 Special Edition version of the film , a CGI rendering of Jabba replaces Mulholland , and his voice is redubbed in the fictional language of Huttese .
Jabba the Hutt makes his third film appearance in the 1999 prequel , Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace , in which Jabba gives the order to begin a podrace at Mos Espa on Tatooine . With this done , Jabba falls asleep , and misses the race 's conclusion .
Jabba makes his final appearance in Star Wars : The Clone Wars , wherein his son Rotta is captured by Separatists ; Anakin Skywalker and Ahsoka Tano return him to Jabba , in exchange for the safe passage of Republic ships through his territory . Jabba has also appeared in three episodes of the third season of the series : In the episode " Sphere of Influence " , Jabba is faced by Chairman Papanoida , whose daughters were kidnapped by Greedo , and Jabba allows a sample of Greedo 's blood to be taken to prove him the kidnapper . In the episode " Evil Plans " , Jabba hires the bounty hunter Cad Bane to bring him plans for the Senate building . When Bane returns successful , Jabba and the Hutt Council send Bane to free Ziro the Hutt from prison . Jabba makes one short appearance in the episode " Hunt for Ziro " in which he is seen laughing at Ziro 's death at the hand of Sy Snootles , and pays her for delivering Ziro 's holo @-@ diary . In the fifth season 's episode " Eminence " , Jabba and the Hutt Council are approached by Darth Maul , Savage Oppress , and Pre Vizsla ; and when disappointed by these , Jabba sends bounty hunters Embo , Sugi , Latts Razzi , and Dengar to capture them . After a battle , the Shadow Collective confront Jabba at his palace on Tatooine , where Jabba agrees to an alliance .
= = = Star Wars literature = = =
The first appearances of Jabba the Hutt in non @-@ canon Star Wars Legends literature were in Marvel Comics ' adaptations of A New Hope . In Six Against the Galaxy ( 1977 ) by Roy Thomas , What Ever Happened to Jabba the Hut ? ( 1979 ) and In Mortal Combat ( 1980 ) , both by Archie Goodwin , Jabba the Hutt ( originally spelled Hut ) appeared as a tall humanoid with a walrus @-@ like face , a topknot , and a bright uniform . The official " Jabba " was not yet established as he had yet to be seen .
While awaiting the sequel to Star Wars , Marvel kept the monthly comic going with their own stories , one of which includes Jabba tracking Han Solo and Chewbacca down to an old hideaway they use for smuggling . However , circumstances force Jabba to lift the bounty on Solo and Chewbacca , thus enabling them to return to Tatooine for an adventure with Luke Skywalker — who has returned to the planet in order to recruit more pilots for the Rebel Alliance . In the course of another adventure , Solo kills the space pirate Crimson Jack and busts up his operation , which Jabba bankrolled . Jabba thus renews the reward for Solo 's head and Solo later kills a bounty hunter who tells him why he is hunted once more . He and Chewbacca return to the rebels . ( Solo mentions an incident with a " bounty hunter we ran into on Ord Mantell " in the opening scenes of The Empire Strikes Back . )
The Marvel artists based this Jabba on a character later named Mosep Binneed , an alien visible only briefly in the Mos Eisley cantina scene of A New Hope . The 1977 mass market paperback novelization of Lucas 's Star Wars script describes Jabba as a " great mobile tub of muscle and suet topped by a shaggy scarred skull " , but gives no further detail as to the character 's physical appearance or species .
Later Non @-@ Canonical Expanded Universe novels and comics adopt a version of the character 's image as seen in the film . They also elaborate on his background prior to the events of the Star Wars films . For example , Zorba the Hutt 's Revenge ( 1992 ) , a young adult novel by Paul and Hollace Davids , reveals that Jabba 's father is a powerful crime lord named Zorba the Hutt and that Jabba was born 596 years before the events of A New Hope , making him around 600 years old at the time of his death in Return of the Jedi . Ann C. Crispin 's novel The Hutt Gambit ( 1997 ) explains how Jabba the Hutt and Han Solo become business associates and portrays the events that lead to a bounty being placed on Han 's head . Other Expanded Universe stories — especially the anthology of Dark Horse comics by Jim Woodring titled Jabba the Hutt : The Art of the Deal ( 1998 ) — likewise detail Jabba the Hutt 's rise to the head of the Desilijic clan , his role in the criminal underworld of the Star Wars universe , and the establishment of his crime syndicate on Tatooine in the Star Wars galaxy 's Outer Rim Territories .
Tales From Jabba 's Palace ( 1996 ) , a collection of short stories edited by science fiction author Kevin J. Anderson , pieces together the lives of Jabba the Hutt 's various minions in his palace and their relationship to him during the last days of his life . The stories reveal that few of the Hutt 's servants are loyal to him and most are in fact plotting to have him assassinated . When Jabba the Hutt is killed in Return of the Jedi , his surviving former courtiers join forces with his rivals on Tatooine and his family on the Hutt homeworld Nal Hutta make claims to his palace , fortune , and criminal empire . Timothy Zahn 's novel Heir to the Empire ( 1991 ) reveals that a smuggler named Talon Karrde eventually replaces Jabba as the " big fish in the pond " , and moves the headquarters of the Hutt 's criminal empire off Tatooine .
= = Characterization = =
Jabba the Hutt exemplifies lust , greed , and gluttony . The character is known throughout the Star Wars universe as a " vile gangster " who amuses himself by torturing and humiliating his subjects and enemies . He surrounds himself with scantily @-@ clad slave girls of all species , chained to his dais . The Star Wars Databank — an official online database of Star Wars information — remarks that residents of his palace are not safe from his desire to dominate and torture : in Return of the Jedi , the Twi 'lek slave dancer Oola is fed to the rancor monster .
Jabba the Hutt 's physical appearance reinforces his personality as a criminal deviant : in Return of the Jedi , Han Solo entitles Jabba a " slimy piece of worm @-@ ridden filth " ; and film critic Roger Ebert describes him as " a cross between a toad and the Cheshire Cat " ; and astrophysicist and science fiction writer Jeanne Cavelos gives Jabba the " award for most disgusting alien " . Science fiction authors Tom and Martha Veitch write that Jabba 's body is a " miasmic mass " , and that " The Hutt 's lardaceous body seemed to periodically release a greasy discharge , sending fresh waves of rotten stench " into the air . Jabba 's appetite is insatiable , and some authors portray him threatening to eat his subordinates .
Nonetheless , in one Expanded Universe story , Jabba prevents a Chevin named Ephant Mon from freezing to death on an ice planet ; whereafter Ephant Mon becomes his servant . In Star Wars : The Clone Wars , Jabba seems to have genuine affection for his son Rotta , and is worried by his kidnapping and angered by his supposed death .
Lucas has noted that there was a potential role for Jabba in future Star Wars films .
= = Concept and creation = =
= = = Episode IV : A New Hope = = =
The original script to A New Hope describes Jabba as a " fat , slug @-@ like creature with eyes on extended feelers and a huge ugly mouth " , but Lucas stated in an interview that the initial character he had in mind was much furrier and resembled a Wookiee . When filming the scene between Han Solo and Jabba in 1976 , Lucas employed Northern Irish actor Declan Mulholland to stand @-@ in for Jabba the Hutt , wearing a shaggy brown costume . Lucas planned to replace Mulholland in post @-@ production with a stop @-@ motion creature . The scene was meant to connect Star Wars to Return of the Jedi and explain why Han Solo was imprisoned at the end of The Empire Strikes Back . Nevertheless , Lucas decided to leave the scene out of the final film on account of budget and time constraints and because he felt that it did not enhance the film 's plot . The scene remained in the novelization , comic book , and radio adaptations of the film .
Lucas revisited the scene in the 1997 Special Edition release of A New Hope , restoring the sequence and replacing Mulholland with a CGI version of Jabba the Hutt and the English dialogue with Huttese , a fictional language created by sound designer Ben Burtt . Joseph Letteri , the visual effects supervisor for the Special Edition , explained that the ultimate goal of the revised scene was to make it look as if Jabba the Hutt was actually on the set talking to and acting with Harrison Ford and that the crew had merely photographed it . Letteri stated that the new scene consisted of five shots that took over a year to complete . The scene was polished further for the 2004 release on DVD , improving Jabba 's appearance with advancements in CGI techniques , although neither release looks exactly like the original Jabba the Hutt puppet .
At one point of the original scene , Ford walks behind Mulholland . This became a problem when adding the CGI Jabba , since he had a tail that happened to be in the way . Eventually , this problem was solved by having Han stepping on Jabba 's tail , causing the Hutt to react with a yelp of pain .
Lucas confesses that people were disappointingly upset about the CGI Jabba 's appearance , complaining that the character " looked fake " . Lucas dismisses this , stating that whether a character is portrayed as a puppet or as CGI , it will always be " fake " since the character is not real . He says he sees no difference between a puppet made of latex and one generated by a computer .
= = = Episode VI : Return of the Jedi = = =
Lucas based the CGI on the character as he originally appeared in Return of the Jedi . In this film , Jabba the Hutt is an immense , sedentary , slug @-@ like creature designed by Lucas 's Industrial Light & Magic Creature Shop . Design consultant Ralph McQuarrie claimed , " In my sketches Jabba was huge , agile , sort of an apelike figure . But then the design went into another direction , and Jabba became more like a worm kind of creature . " According to the 1985 documentary From Star Wars to Jedi , Lucas rejected initial designs of the character . One made Jabba appear too human — almost like a Fu Manchu character — while a second made him look too snail @-@ like . Lucas finally settled on a design that was a hybrid of the two , drawing for further inspiration on an O 'Galop ( Marius Rossillon ) cartoon figure flanking an early depiction of Bibendum , the " Michelin Man . " Return of the Jedi costume designer Nilo Rodis @-@ Jamero commented ,
My vision of Jabba was literally Orson Welles when he was older . I saw him as a very refined man . Most of the villains we like are very smart people . But Phil Tippett kept imagining him as some kind of slug , almost like in Alice in Wonderland . At one time he sculpted a creature that looked like a slug that 's smoking . I kept thinking I must be really off , but eventually that 's where it led up to . "
= = = Production and design = = =
Designed by visual effects artist Phil Tippett , Jabba the Hutt was inspired by the anatomy of several animal species . His body structure and reproductive processes were based on annelid worms , hairless animals that have no skeleton and are hermaphroditic . Jabba 's head was modeled after that of a snake , complete with bulbous , slit @-@ pupilled eyes and a mouth that opens wide enough to swallow large prey . His skin was given moist , amphibian qualities . Jabba 's design would come to represent almost all members of the Hutt species in subsequent Star Wars fiction .
In Return of the Jedi , Jabba is portrayed by a one @-@ ton puppet that took three months and half a million dollars to construct . While filming the movie , the puppet had its own makeup artist . The puppet required three puppeteers to operate , making it one of the largest ever used in a motion picture . Stuart Freeborn designed the puppet , while John Coppinger sculpted its latex , clay , and foam pieces . Puppeteers included David Alan Barclay , Toby Philpott , and Mike Edmonds , who were members of Jim Henson 's Muppet group . Barclay operated the right arm and mouth and read the character 's English dialogue , while Philpott controlled the left arm , head , and tongue . Edmonds , the shortest of the three men ( he also played the Ewok Logray in later scenes ) was responsible for the movement of Jabba 's tail . Tony Cox , who also played an Ewok , would assist as well . The eyes and facial expressions were operated by radio control .
Lucas voiced displeasure in the puppet 's appearance and immobility , complaining that the puppet had to be moved around the set to film different scenes . In the DVD commentary to the Special Edition of Return of the Jedi , Lucas notes that if the technology had been available in 1983 , Jabba the Hutt would have been a CGI character similar to the one that appears in the Special Edition scene of A New Hope .
Jabba the Hutt only speaks Huttese on film , but his lines are subtitled in English . His voice and Huttese @-@ language dialogue were performed by voice actor Larry Ward , whose work is not listed in the end credits . A heavy , booming quality was given to Ward 's voice by pitching it an octave lower than normal and processing it through a subharmonic generator . A soundtrack of wet , slimy sound effects was recorded to accompany the movement of the puppet 's limbs and mouth .
Jabba the Hutt 's musical theme throughout the film , composed by John Williams , is played on a tuba . One reviewer of Return of the Jedi 's soundtrack comments , " Among the new thematic ideas [ of the score is ] Jabba the Hutt 's cute tuba piece ( playing along the politically incorrect lines of tubas representing fatness ) .... " The theme is very similar to one Williams wrote for a heavyset character in Fitzwilly ( 1967 ) , though the theme does not appear on that film 's soundtrack album . Williams later turned the theme into a symphonic piece performed by the Boston Pops Orchestra featuring a tuba solo by Chester Schmitz . The role of the piece in film and popular culture has become a focus of study by musicologists such as Gerald Sloan , who says Williams ' piece " blends the monstrous and the lyrical . "
According to film historian Laurent Bouzereau , Jabba the Hutt 's death in Return of the Jedi was suggested by script writer Lawrence Kasdan . Lucas decided Leia should strangle him with her slave chain . He was inspired by a scene from The Godfather ( 1972 ) where an obese character named Luca Brasi ( Lenny Montana ) is garroted by an assassin .
= = = Portrayal = = =
Jabba the Hutt was played by Declan Mulholland in scenes cut from the 1977 release of Star Wars . In Mulholland 's scenes as Jabba , Jabba is represented as a rotund human dressed in a shaggy fur coat . George Lucas has stated his intention was to use an alien creature for Jabba , but the special effects technology of the time was not up to the task of replacing Mulholland . In 1997 , the " Special Edition " re @-@ releases restored and altered the original scene to include a computer generated portrayal of Jabba . In Return of the Jedi , he was played by puppeteers Mike Edmonds , Toby Philpott , David Alan Barclay and voiced by Larry Ward . Jabba is played by an uncredited voice @-@ actor in the 1997 special edition of " Star Wars IV " , and in The Phantom Menace . In The Phantom Menace 's end credits , Jabba is credited as playing himself . His puppeteers have appeared in the documentaries From Star Wars to Jedi : The Making of a Saga and Classic Creatures : Return of the Jedi . David Alan Barclay , who was one of the puppeteers for Jabba in the film , voiced Jabba in the Super NES video game adaptation of Return of the Jedi . In the radio drama adaption of the original trilogy , Jabba is played by Ed Asner . In the film Star Wars : The Clone Wars and the following television series , Jabba is portrayed by Kevin Michael Richardson . All other video game appearances of Jabba were played by Clint Bajakian . Jabba was supposed to appear in Star Wars : The Force Unleashed , but was left out due to time constraints . A cutscene was produced featuring a conversation between Jabba and Juno Eclipse ( voiced by Nathalie Cox ) , which was scrapped from the game . He appears in the Ultimate Sith Edition .
= = Cultural impact = =
With the premiere of Return of Jedi in 1983 and the accompanying merchandising campaign , Jabba the Hutt became an icon in American popular culture . The character was produced and marketed as a series of action figure play sets by Kenner / Hasbro from 1983 to 2004 . In the 1990s , Jabba the Hutt starred in his own comic book series collectively titled Jabba the Hutt : The Art of the Deal .
Jabba 's role in popular culture extends beyond the Star Wars universe and its fans . In Mel Brooks ' Star Wars spoof Spaceballs ( 1987 ) , Jabba the Hutt is parodied as the character Pizza the Hutt , a cheesy blob shaped like a slice of pizza whose name is a double pun on Jabba the Hutt and the restaurant franchise Pizza Hut . Like Jabba , Pizza the Hutt is a loan shark and mobster . The character meets his demise at the end of Spaceballs when he becomes " locked in his car and [ eats ] himself to death . " The Smithsonian Institution 's National Air and Space Museum in Washington , D.C. , included a display on Jabba the Hutt in the temporary exhibition Star Wars : The Magic of Myth , which closed in 1999 . Jabba 's display was called " The Hero 's Return , " referencing Luke Skywalker 's journey toward becoming a Jedi .
= = = Mass media = = =
Since the release of Return of the Jedi , the name Jabba the Hutt has become synonymous in American mass media with repulsive obesity . The name is utilized as a literary device — either as a simile or metaphor — to illustrate character flaws . For example , in Under the Duvet ( 2001 ) , Marian Keyes references a problem with gluttony when she writes , " wheel out the birthday cake , I feel a Jabba the Hutt moment coming on . " Likewise , in the novel Steps and Exes : A Novel of Family ( 2000 ) , Laura Kalpakian uses Jabba the Hutt to emphasize the weight of a character 's father : " The girls used to call Janice 's parents Jabba the Hutt and the Wookiee . But then Jabba ( Janice 's father ) died , and it didn 't seem right to speak of the dead on those terms . " In Dan Brown 's first novel Digital Fortress , an NSA technician is affectionately nicknamed Jabba the Hutt .
In his book of humor and popular culture The Dharma of Star Wars ( 2005 ) , writer Matthew Bortolin attempts to show similarities between Buddhist teachings and aspects of Star Wars fiction . Bartolin insists that if a person makes decisions that Jabba the Hutt would make , then that person is not practicing the proper spiritual concept of dharma . Bortolin 's book reinforces the idea that Jabba 's name is synonymous with negativity :
One way to see if we are practicing right livelihood is to compare our trade with that of Jabba the Hutt . Jabba has his fat , stubby fingers in many of the pots that led to the dark side . He dealt largely in illegal " spice " trade — an illicit drug in the Star Wars galaxy . He also transacts business in the slave trade . He has many slaves himself , and some he fed to the Rancor , a creature he kept caged and tormented in his dungeon . Jabba uses deception and violence to maintain his position .
Outside literature , the character 's name has become an insulting term of disparagement . To say that someone " looks like Jabba the Hutt " is commonly understood as a slur to impugn that person 's weight and / or appearance . The term is often employed by the media as an attack on prominent figures .
In another sense of the term , Jabba the Hutt has come to represent greed and anarchy , especially in the business world . Jabba the Hutt ranked # 4 on the Forbes Fictional 15 list of wealthiest fictional characters in 2008 .
Jabba the Hutt has likewise become a popular means of caricature in American politics . William G. Ouchi uses the term to describe what he sees as the inefficient bureaucracy of the public school system : " With all of these unnecessary layers of organizational fat , school districts have come to resemble Jabba the Hutt — the pirate leader in Star Wars . "
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= Charlotte Lewis ( Lost ) =
Dr. Charlotte Staples Lewis is a fictional character on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) television series Lost , played by Rebecca Mader . Charlotte is introduced in the second episode of season four and is a cultural anthropologist on a mission to the island where Oceanic Flight 815 crashed . On the island she is initially held hostage by one of the plane crash survivors , John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , but is freed when another person from her team switches place with her . She helps prevent poison gas from being released over the island , and develops a relationship with Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) . Charlotte dies in Daniel 's arms after the frequent time traveling causes her headaches to worsen into something unexplainable .
Although conceived by the show 's creators to be American , Charlotte 's nationality was changed to British after the producers were impressed with English actress Rebecca Mader 's audition . She was supposed to feature in just eight episodes of season four , but after the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike the role was expanded , which resulted in her starring in fifteen episodes over the fourth and fifth seasons . Charlotte 's introduction , along with the three other new characters from the freighter introduced in season four , was well received , but her storylines in later episodes had a mixed reception , though Mader 's acting was praised .
= = Arc = =
During season five , a young Charlotte Lewis is shown living with her parents as part of a scientific community known as the Dharma Initiative , on the island where Oceanic Flight 815 would later crash . She is confronted by an adult Daniel Faraday , who attempts to persuade her never to return to the island once she leaves , and is seen evacuating the island during the fifth season finale " The Incident " . Charlotte grows up in Bromsgrove , unaware of where she was born , and goes on to study at the University of Kent for her undergraduate degree . She earns a doctoral degree in cultural anthropology from the University of Oxford , with her interest in anthropology stemming from a desire to find her birthplace . While visiting an excavation site in the Sahara Desert , Charlotte discovers the remains of a polar bear , which has a collar bearing a Dharma Initiative logo . Businessman Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) selects Charlotte along with Daniel Faraday , Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) , and Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) , to travel on a freighter to the island where she was born , and find Widmore 's rival Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) . She is forced to eject from a helicopter during a lightning storm over the island .
Charlotte arrives on the island on December 23 , 2004 , where she is held hostage by a number of the survivors of Oceanic Flight 815 , who believe that she is dangerous . She spots a flare that belongs to a member of her team , but none of the survivors wish to investigate . Charlotte becomes impatient and attempts to leave , so Ben shoots her . As she is wearing a bulletproof vest she survives , forcing Ben to reveal that Charlotte 's team are looking for him , and not on a rescue mission for the survivors . When the group encounters fellow survivors Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) with Miles , they agree for Miles to switch places with Charlotte . After reuniting with Faraday , she tests his memory with playing cards , noting he has made progress when he can remember two out of three cards . That night , Charlotte and Faraday sneak off to the Tempest Dharma Initiative station , where they neutralize a potential source of poison gas . While getting medical supplies at the Staff Dharma Initiative station , Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) notices Charlotte smiling after his wife Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) remarks in Korean that Charlotte will know Faraday likes her as she is a woman . Jin confronts Charlotte in Korean , saying he will hurt Faraday if she does not promise to take Sun off the island . Later Faraday begins to ferry survivors to the freighter , but Charlotte chooses to remain on the island , as she believes she has found her birthplace . She kisses him , then watches on as he leaves .
After Ben causes the island to vanish , Charlotte , Faraday and the remaining survivors begin to randomly travel through time . Charlotte experiences nosebleeds and headaches , and realizes she is unable to remember her mother 's maiden name . During one time jump Charlotte , Faraday and Miles are captured by the Others in 1954 , where Faraday proclaims his love for her . After a further time jump , her nosebleed becomes more severe , and she collapses . As she dies , Charlotte relays to Faraday that she now remembers living on the island as a child , and that she recognizes Faraday as the man who told her not to return once she left the island . In season six the afterlife experienced by the characters is shown , in which Charlotte is set up as a blind date for James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) . The two spend the night together but when Sawyer catches her going through his belongings he throws her out of the apartment . He comes to her apartment later to apologize but she refuses , telling him he blew his chance . At a concert in the series finale , she and Faraday are reunited .
= = Development = =
= = = Creation and casting = = =
After Naomi ( Marsha Thomason ) parachuted onto the island in season three , the producers began to plan who else would be on the freighter she came from . They wanted these new characters to be scientists , who would be interested in finding the island for their own personal reasons . They decided to create a character who would be interested in lost civilizations , and named her Charlotte Staples Lewis as a reference to C. S. Lewis , which Lost producer Damon Lindelof said was a clue to the direction the show would be taking during season four .
The role was originally offered to Kristen Bell , however she chose to join Heroes as Elle Bishop instead . The producers cast English actress Rebecca Mader because " she won [ them ] over with her charm and presence and charisma " . During casting , Charlotte was described as " a hot twentysomething ... precocious , loquacious and funny ... a very successful academic who also knows how to handle herself in the real world " . She also has " lots of repressed and pent @-@ up emotions " beneath the surface . The Lost producers described her as a female version of Indiana Jones . During auditions , the producers provide fake scenes , to keep new characters ' identities a secret . Mader 's audition scene was a flashback that she was disappointed was not used for the show . Whilst recording her audition , a producer who was with her noticed that the shows on her résumé were from the British Broadcasting Corporation , so asked her to redo the audition again with a British accent . According to Lindelof , this " opened up another dimension [ to the character that the producers ] hadn 't foreseen " , so Charlotte was changed from American to English . Mader was pleased to be able to use her own accent , as many of her previous roles had been American characters .
Mader subsequently began to watch the first three seasons of Lost on DVD and was watching the fourth episode when she received the news that she had been chosen for the role . She watched all the previous episodes of Lost in the few weeks before she started working on the show . She found it " a really amazing moment " and felt like she had just stepped into the show . When she was cast , Mader was unaware of whether she would be a guest star , or would develop into a regular , and was planned to feature in eight episodes of season four . Mader helped develop Charlotte 's outfit and was pleased to be wearing comfortable jeans and boots for the role . She only required a small amount of hair and makeup done , and stated " I just wanted to rough it . I wanted to roll around in the mud with a gun " . This was a welcome change to her usual roles which required " full @-@ on hair , makeup and heels " .
= = = Storyline progression = = =
Charlotte 's discovery of a polar bear with a Dharma Initiative collar caused fan speculation about her connection with the island . Mader herself was unaware of Charlotte 's backstory beyond the flashback in " Confirmed Dead " — she noted " I feel like I 'm almost in the same seat as the audience , like ' What the hell is going on ? ' and ' What the hell is going to happen next ? ' , it 's really exciting actually " . She found it freeing to not know her character 's history , and felt it made her give a natural performance . Mader felt Charlotte 's relationship with Faraday allowed her character to develop and show a softer , more human side , and thought their relationship resonated with the audience as she and Jeremy Davies had good chemistry . Eight episodes of season four were written before production stopped due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . Once the strike was resolved , a further six episodes were written , two less than originally planned for the season , and as a result Charlotte 's role continued into season five . She enjoyed speaking Korean in " Something Nice Back Home " and wished the full scene had been aired . Mader was excited when she discovered that Charlotte grew up on the island , and hoped to have scenes with Nestor Carbonell who plays Richard Alpert , as his character also has a history on the island . However when negotiating contracts in June 2008 she found out that her character would die during season five ; Mader summed up Charlotte 's season five arc as her demise . Charlotte 's death scene was written by Eddy Kitsis and Adam Horowitz and was amongst their favourite scenes they wrote during season five . Horowitz loved the emotion in the scene due to the audience only just learning Charlotte 's backstory , and Kitsis thought Mader 's performance " elevate [ d ] the words to a whole other level " . Mader called it " the best thing [ she ] ha [ d ] ever done in [ her ] entire career " and enjoyed playing a significant role within the episode .
Three episodes after Charlotte 's death , Faraday sees a young Charlotte in a scene set in 1974 . This created a continuity error as her date of birth was given in " Confirmed Dead " as July 2 , 1979 . Lost producers Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse explained in the " Official Lost Audio Podcast " that Mader changed the age of Charlotte so she would not be portraying someone in their mid @-@ thirties . However Mader retaliated on her Facebook page that the timeline error was their fault and was unhappy about being blamed for it . Lindelof and Cuse clarified that it was their mistake and apologized for blaming Mader . Fellow Lost producer Greggory Nations had noticed Mader was eight years younger than the age Charlotte was originally conceived to be , so suggested Charlotte 's birthday be changed to the same as Mader 's , without realizing the effect this would have on the subsequent season .
Mader returned to the show for two guest appearances in season six to show Charlotte in the afterlife . Mader described Charlotte as " the role of a lifetime " , and cited it as a reason that she was cast in better roles following the series ' conclusion .
= = Reception = =
The producers of Lost were nervous about how well the new characters would be received after two characters introduced in season three , Nikki ( Kiele Sanchez ) and Paulo ( Rodrigo Santoro ) , were hated by the fan community . However , according to Jon Lachonis of UGO , Charlotte has been well received by fans , describing her as " one of the most speculated @-@ about characters " . Paige Albiniak of the New York Post praised the cast addition , while IGN 's Chris Carabott described Charlotte , as well as the other new characters from the freighter , as " great " and " exciting " . James Poniewozik of Time liked the introduction of the new characters from the freighter because " Each got just one flashback and a little time on the island , and yet by the end of the episode , [ he ] felt [ he ] had a true handle on what they were like as individuals " . Jeff Jensen from Entertainment Weekly liked that the " fascinating " new characters brought " mind @-@ blowing new possibilities , and exciting new theory fodder " . Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV called it the " perfect introduction " . Michael Ausiello of TV Guide also liked their introduction , and praised the actors ' performances .
During the season Charlotte 's storylines had mixed reactions . Jensen thought Charlotte and Faraday 's mission to the Tempest in " The Other Woman " felt " forced " . Dan Compora from Airlock Alpha liked Charlotte and Juliet 's fight scene in this episode . BuddyTV 's Oscar Dahl thought the whole plot at the Tempest was " filler " and wondered if it had been added just to give Charlotte and Faraday something to do . After Charlotte speaks Korean in " Something Nice Back Home " , James Poniewozik from Time became curious about her past because she is " the member of the four freighties whom we know the least about , and the most secretive and sinister @-@ seeming of the bunch " . Chris Carabott was also intrigued after this scene , which he called " one of the more unexpected scenes " .
Carabott felt Charlotte 's death could have been explored further , but as there was so much happening in the episode not enough time was made for her death . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger noted it was Jeremy Davies portrayal of Faraday 's grief that made him care about her death . Cynthia Littleton from Variety said this was one of the few times Charlotte did not annoy her , as she acts as a translator for Jin , " finally do [ ing ] something worthwhile " . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club felt distracted by Charlotte in this episode , because her reaction to time travel was different from what was shown in " The Constant " , and found it " incredibly awkward " when Charlotte explained her whole backstory to Faraday . TV Guide 's Mickey O 'Connor praised Mader 's acting , saying " Well done , Rebecca Mader , who has really done some fine work on Lost " .
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= Nikki and Paulo =
Nikki Fernandez and Paulo / ˈpaʊloʊ / are fictional characters on the ABC drama television series Lost , which chronicles the lives of over forty people after their plane crashes on a remote island somewhere in the South Pacific . American actress Kiele Sanchez and Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro play the survivors of the crash of Oceanic Flight 815 .
The couple is introduced early in the third season . The producers of the show were often asked what the rest of the plane @-@ crash survivors were doing because the show only focuses on approximately fifteen of the survivors , and the characters of Nikki and Paulo were created in response . Reaction to the characters was generally negative , with show runner , Damon Lindelof , acknowledging the couple are " universally despised " by fans . As a result of this , the couple was killed off later in the same season when they are accidentally buried alive while thought to be dead .
= = Appearances = =
Originally from Brazil , Paulo is a con artist working with his American girlfriend Nikki , an actress . Paulo works as a chef for a wealthy television executive in Sydney . Nikki guest stars on the executive 's show and also seduces him , which makes Paulo uncomfortable . Paulo murders the executive by poisoning his food , allowing him and Nikki to steal his bag of diamonds , which are worth $ 8 million . Three days later , on September 22 , 2004 , Nikki and Paulo board Oceanic Flight 815 to return to Nikki 's home in Los Angeles .
They lose the diamonds in the plane crash and spend much of their time on the island searching for them . Paulo suspects they are the only reason for their relationship , and thus does not tell Nikki when he finds them on their thirty @-@ third day after the crash . One day while looking in the jungle , they come across the DHARMA Initiative 's Pearl Station , a scientific research station built in the early 1980s . Nikki is uninterested , but Paulo later returns by himself on his forty @-@ ninth day on the island , hiding the diamonds in the toilet . While in the washroom , Paulo overhears two of the mysterious and dangerous island inhabitants known as the Others speak of capturing some of Paulo 's fellow survivors ; however , he keeps this information to himself .
On their seventy @-@ second day on the island , Nikki and Paulo join Locke when he ventures back to the Pearl Station , hoping to communicate with the Others . Paulo returns to the toilet to retrieve the diamonds , storing them in his underwear thereafter . As they leave , the group witnesses Mr. Eko 's death and burial not far from The Pearl . Eighty @-@ one days after the crash , Nikki finds out about Paulo hiding the diamonds from her . Furious , she releases a venomous spider on him that causes Paulo to be paralyzed for the next eight hours . As he is entering the state of paralysis , Paulo admits he only kept the diamonds from her because he thought she would leave him after she got them . To Nikki 's dismay , the death of the venomous spider only attracted more spiders which bite Nikki , so she is also temporarily paralyzed . The pair are mistaken for dead after being discovered by the survivors . Nikki and Paulo are then buried alive by James " Sawyer " Ford and Hugo " Hurley " Reyes after tossing the diamonds in the grave with them as they consider them to be of no value on the island . Much later , Miles Straume − a psychic who can read people 's thoughts from their time of death − indicates he knows about the diamonds .
= = Characteristics = =
Paulo was written to be unlikable , with the hope he would redeem himself when his backstory was revealed in his final episode . Paulo either resents or is indifferent toward the often heroic actions of some of the survivors , spending much of his time golfing . He complains to Nikki about not being included ; however , he does little to help out around the camp and does not try to improve his status in the survivors ' hierarchy . When he does get chances to participate in treks , for example , when Hurley finds a car , Paulo is uninterested and discourages Nikki from joining Hurley on his adventure . Nikki tries to participate , tending to a wounded Mr. Eko and volunteering to go with Locke to the Pearl station , much to the surprise of Paulo . Paulo accompanies her , and he exhibits a constant sarcastic behavior in the Pearl .
Nikki is manipulative of Paulo and appears to care more about the diamonds than her relationship . After the crash , Paulo becomes suspicious Nikki is just using him to get the diamonds . The first thing she asks him after the crash is the whereabouts of the diamonds , and avoids answering Paulo when he asks if they would still be together if she did not need him to help find the diamonds . Paulo does what Nikki tells him to because of his fear of losing her , which results in their deaths .
= = Creation = =
At the end of the first season , the writers had the idea one of the background survivors would emerge and receive an on @-@ island flashback episode to help answer the question , " What the hell is going on with the other 35 people who nothing ever happens to ? " The first of those was Leslie Arzt , only for him to explode a few episodes later . It was originally conceived only a woman , who was previously an actress , would be introduced into the main storyline , but the idea later changed to include her boyfriend as well . Nikki and Paulo were also originally set " to have anchored a winking arc of stories " . However the writers instead decided to tell their story in one episode and quickly remove the characters , due to complaints about the characters and the third season 's decline in viewership . It also became a running gag that Sawyer did not know who Nikki and Paulo were , calling them " Nina " and " Pablo " and asking " who the hell [ they were ] " . Lindelof later stated , " We had the feeling with Nikki and Paulo that it wasn 't right about a month before the fans started reacting . We were already starting to think , ' Maybe our instinct here has been wrong . ' "
Nikki and Paulo 's original introduction onto the show was deleted for time from the final cut of the episode , " Further Instructions " . They were supposed to be accidentally found by Claire Littleton in Jack 's tent having sex in the middle of the episode . They were instead introduced at the end of the episode when Locke makes a speech .
= = Casting = =
Half @-@ French , half @-@ Puerto Rican Kiele Michelle Sanchez portrayed Nikki in six episodes of the third season of Lost . She had trouble filming her burial scene due to her claustrophobia . Rodrigo Santoro , who has been called " the Brazilian Tom Cruise " and " the Brazilian Russell Crowe " , was cast in his first major American television role as Paulo on Lost . Appearing in a total of seven episodes , Santoro was reportedly paid " between $ 2634 and $ 6427 a week " . Lindelof called Santoro " talented " and " perfect for Lost because he 's a face that the American audience is not familiar with " , despite being an award @-@ winning actor in his home country of Brazil . Part of the reason Santoro was cast over other actors was because his physique was deemed attractive ; however , the writers said that they were not interested in writing for his character with that in mind , nor did he want them to . Santoro has stated he enjoyed working with Sanchez and hoped to return to work on Lost .
= = Reception = =
Reaction to the " devious , but doomed " characters was more negative than for other Lost characters . One Entertainment Weekly journalist gave Paulo the nickname " Paulo Poops @-@ a @-@ Lot " , referencing scenes from the episodes " The Cost of Living " and " Enter 77 " . America Online 's TV Squad criticized the writing for the characters , and the characters were called " incredibly annoying " by Maclean 's magazine . Television Without Pity called Paulo " walking collateral damage " . TV Guide wrote they were " too darn perfect @-@ looking to be believable as humans " . Entertainment Weekly included them in their list of the " 21 Most Annoying TV Characters Ever " , commenting " no one could have predicted how grating the pair 's whiny inanity would become . "
When rumors circulated on the Internet and were mentioned in ABC commercials that the characters were going to die , some viewers hoped for a " double murder " of Nikki and Paulo and rejoiced when their wish was granted . Over three months before the episode aired on television , Santoro stated in an interview with Brazilian Rolling Stone that his character would die in the middle of the third season . It was also announced that Sanchez had signed on to film a fall 2007 pilot for another ABC show , Football Wives , and thus , it would have been unlikely for her to continue to act as a " murderous femme fatale " .
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= HMS Hood ( 1891 ) =
HMS Hood was a modified Royal Sovereign @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Royal Navy in the early 1890s . She differed from the other ships of the class in that she had cylindrical gun turrets instead of barbettes and a lower freeboard . She served most of her active career in the Mediterranean Sea , where her low freeboard was less of a disadvantage . The ship was placed in reserve in 1907 and later became the receiving ship at Queenstown , Ireland . Hood was used in the development of anti @-@ torpedo bulges in 1913 and was scuttled in late 1914 to act as a blockship across the southern entrance of Portland Harbour after the start of World War I.
= = Design = =
Hood , the last of the eight Royal Sovereign @-@ class battleships to be built , differed significantly from the other ships of her class in that she had a forward freeboard of only 11 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 43 m ) compared to 19 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 94 m ) of the other ships . The Royal Sovereigns had reverted to a higher freeboard after several classes of low @-@ freeboard vessel had been constructed , the last being the Trafalgar class . Low freeboard had been popular for around ten years since it required less armour and made a smaller target for gunfire to hit , although it had the disadvantage that it reduced seaworthiness . This low freeboard meant that Hood was very wet in rough weather and her maximum speed reduced rapidly as the wave height increased , making her only suitable for service in the relatively calm Mediterranean . This was seen as a vindication of the barbette / high @-@ freeboard design in the rest of her class , and all subsequent British battleship classes had high freeboard .
The lower freeboard was required by her use of armoured gun turrets — a heavy type of rotating gun mounting of the mid @-@ and @-@ late 19th century very different from what would later be known as " turrets " . Hood 's half @-@ sisters mounted their guns exposed on top of barbettes , a much lighter arrangement that allowed their freeboard to be substantially increased . The heavy , old @-@ fashioned type of turrets added to the amount of weight high up in the ship compared to barbettes and decreased the ship 's stability .
Because the stability of a ship is largely due to freeboard at high rolling angles , she was given a larger metacentric height ( the vertical distance between the metacenter and the centre of gravity below it ) of around 4 @.@ 1 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) instead of the 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) of the rest of the Royal Sovereigns to make her roll less in rough seas . This had the effect of making her roll period shorter by around 7 % compared to her sisters , which in turn made her gunnery less accurate . Bilge keels were fitted in 1894 which improved her maneouverability .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Hood had an overall length of 410 feet 6 inches ( 125 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 m ) , and a draught of 28 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 7 m ) at deep load . She displaced 14 @,@ 780 long tons ( 15 @,@ 020 t ) at normal load and 15 @,@ 588 long tons ( 15 @,@ 838 t ) at deep load . Her crew numbered 690 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship was powered by two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller . Eight water @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines , which produced a maximum of 11 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 200 kW ) when forced . This was intended to allow them to reach a speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 490 long tons ( 1 @,@ 510 t ) of coal , enough to steam 4 @,@ 720 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 740 km ; 5 @,@ 430 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship was armed with four 30 @-@ calibre BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I – IV guns in two twin gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Each gun was provided with 80 shells per gun . Hood 's secondary armament consisted of ten 40 @-@ calibre 6 @-@ inch Mk I @-@ III guns mounted in casemates in the superstructure . A major problem with the four of these guns mounted on the upper deck was that they were mounted low in the ship and were unusable at high speed or in heavy weather . They were removed as useless in 1904 . The ship carried 200 rounds for each gun .
Defence against torpedo boats was provided by eight QF 6 @-@ pounder guns , although the exact type of gun is not known . Four of these were mounted on the main deck in casemates on the sides of the hull and suffered from the same problems as the six @-@ inch guns . Hood also mounted a dozen QF 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns mounted in the superstructure and fighting tops . Like her sisters , the ship was fitted with seven 18 @-@ inch Torpedo tubes . Two of these were mounted in the bow below the waterline , four were placed in the sides of the hull , two on each broadside , and one in the stern . These last five tubes were all above water . She also was fitted with a plough @-@ shaped underwater ram .
In 1897 one of these 3 @-@ pounder guns was mounted on each turret top and , three years later , the 3 @-@ pounders in the fighting tops were transferred to the forward superstructure . At the same time the above @-@ water torpedo tubes were removed . About 1902 – 03 the 6 @-@ pounders on the main deck were removed ; two were remounted on the superstructure , but the other two were not replaced . In 1905 the 3 @-@ pounders on the forward superstructure were removed while the 3 @-@ pounders in the lower fighting tops were removed while the ship was in reserve from 1907 – 09 .
= = = Armour = = =
Hood 's protection used both compound armour and nickel steel armour . Her waterline main belt ranged in thickness between 14 to 18 inches ( 356 to 457 mm ) thick . It covered the middle 250 feet ( 76 @.@ 2 m ) of the ship and was 8 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) high of which 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) was below the waterline at normal load . Fore and aft bulkheads , 16 – 14 @-@ inch ( 406 – 356 mm ) thick respectively , closed off the ends of the central citadel at the level of the waterline . The upper strake of 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) armour was 150 feet ( 45 @.@ 7 m ) long and protected the ship 's side between the barbettes . Oblique bulkheads 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick connected this strake to the armour protecting the bases of the turrets . The gun turrets and their bases were protected by 17 inches ( 432 mm ) of armour that thinned to 16 inches ( 406 mm ) behind the oblique bulkheads . Below the armoured deck their armour was reduced to 11 inches ( 279 mm ) . The armour of the main deck casemates was six inches thick and that of the forward conning tower was 14 inches thick . The armoured deck was three inches thick over the machinery , but thinned to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) outside the central citadel and ran to the ends of the ship . At the bow it dipped down to reinforce the ship 's ram .
= = Construction and career = =
Hood was laid down at Chatham Dockyard on 12 August 1889 and was launched on 30 July 1891 , the Viscountess Hood christening her . She finished her sea trials in May 1893 and was commissioned on 1 June 1893 at the cost of £ 926 @,@ 396 . Her assignment to the Mediterranean Fleet was delayed when she sprang a leak in her forward compartments on 7 June as a result of faulty riveting and excessive strain on the hull when she had been docked . Repairs took only two days , and the ship left Sheerness for the Mediterranean on 18 June .
Hood arrived at Malta on 3 July , relieving the battleship Colossus . In 1897 and 1898 the ship served as part of the International Squadron blockading Crete and maintaining order during the Greco @-@ Turkish uprising there . Captain Alvin Coote Corry was appointed in command in December 1898 . She was ordered to return home in April 1900 and paid off into reserve at Chatham Dockyard on 29 April 1900 . Seven months later , on 12 December 1900 , Hood recommissioned to relieve the elderly ironclad Thunderer as port guard ship at Pembroke Dock .
The ship rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet at the end of 1901 , and Captain Robert Lowry was appointed in command on 1 May 1902 . She participated in combined exercises with the Channel Squadron and the Cruiser Squadron off the coasts of Cephalonia and Morea in late 1902 . Two days before the exercises ended , Hood damaged her rudder on the seabed while leaving Argostoli Harbor on 4 October . She went first to Malta for temporary repairs , then on to England for permanent repairs at Chatham Dockyard , using her twin screws to steer for the entire voyage . The repairs began on 5 December 1902 and she transferred to Devonport for a refit upon their completion .
On 25 June 1903 Hood relieved the battleship Collingwood in the Home Fleet . She took part in combined exercises of the Channel Fleet , Mediterranean Fleet , and Home Fleet off the coast of Portugal from 5 to 9 August . The battleship Russell relieved Hood on 28 September 1904 . Hood was placed into reserve at Devonport on 3 January 1905 , where she remained until February 1907 . In April 1909 , the ship was refitted and partially stripped at Devonport , after which she began service as a receiving ship at Queenstown , Ireland . In September 1910 Hood recommissioned to serve as flagship of the Senior Naval Officer , Coast of Ireland while continuing as a receiving ship . On 2 April 1911 the ship was in Cork Harbour for the 1911 Census .
Later in 1911 , Hood was towed to Portsmouth and listed for disposal . During 1913 – 14 she was employed as a target for underwater protection experiments and was used in secret tests of anti @-@ torpedo bulges . Subsequently she was photographed in dry dock at Portsmouth by the crew of Naval Airship No. 18 in June 1914 , before being placed on the sale list in August 1914 . On 4 November 1914 Hood was scuttled in Portland harbour to block the Southern Ship Channel , a potential access route for U @-@ boats or for torpedoes fired from outside the harbour . Her wreck became known as " Old Hole in the Wall " . Despite her 1914 scuttling , the Royal Navy included Hood on its sale list in both 1916 and 1917 .
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= The Legend of Zelda : Phantom Hourglass =
The Legend of Zelda : Phantom Hourglass ( Japanese : ゼルダの伝説 夢幻の砂時計 , Hepburn : Zeruda no Densetsu : Mugen no Sunadokei ) is an action @-@ adventure game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . It is the fourteenth installment in the The Legend of Zelda series and the sequel to the 2002 GameCube title The Wind Waker . Phantom Hourglass was released in Japan in June 2007 ; in North America , Australia , and Europe in October 2007 ; and in Korea in April 2008 . The game was re @-@ released for the Wii U via the Virtual Console service in the PAL region in November 2015 and in North America in May 2016 .
The game features 3D cel @-@ shaded graphics with an overhead camera perspective , employs controls involving the console 's touchscreen and microphone , and takes advantage of the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection for online play . The game 's story follows that of The Wind Waker , focusing on series protagonist Link 's journey to save his friend Tetra from the story 's antagonist , Bellum , with the help of Captain Linebeck and his ship , the S.S. Linebeck .
Critics were generally positive towards Phantom Hourglass . Its control scheme was praised , while criticism focused on its online features , which were considered too simple . The game received several video game industry awards , including the Nintendo DS Game of the Year award from GameSpot , GameSpy , and IGN . Phantom Hourglass was the best @-@ selling game in its first month in Japan , with 302 @,@ 887 copies sold . In the United States , it was the fifth best @-@ selling game in the month it debuted , with 262 @,@ 800 copies sold . 4 @.@ 13 million copies of Phantom Hourglass were sold worldwide by March 2008 .
= = Gameplay = =
The Legend of Zelda : Phantom Hourglass is an action @-@ adventure game with gameplay similar to other games in the The Legend of Zelda series . The player controls Link , the protagonist , and explores the world to find new items , information , and allies to help him save his friend Tetra and defeat the antagonist Bellum . The game is divided into two gameplay types : sailing between islands , and exploring the islands and their dungeons on foot . While on land , Link discovers and utilizes many items , including the classic boomerang , bow , and bombs . When sailing , the game shows a map of the area on the Nintendo DS 's top screen , and a 3D top @-@ down view of Link and his nearby surroundings on the lower touchscreen . The player can bring down the map from the top screen to the lower screen to make notes . During certain events , including most boss battles , a 3D view is shown on both screens , allowing the player to have a wider view of their surroundings . The player controls Link with the stylus , moves him by pointing to the sides of the screen , and uses the stylus to interact with objects and people or attack foes by pointing at them . To travel between islands on the Great Sea , the player controls a paddle steamer called the S.S. Linebeck . The player can plot a course by drawing on a sea chart , redraw the course to make any necessary alterations , shoot at enemies that attack the ship using a cannon , and jump to avoid obstacles .
The game includes a one @-@ on @-@ one multiplayer battle mode . In an arena , one player controls Link , while the other player , on defense , controls three Phantom Guardians . Players of both sides are aided by power @-@ up items that appear on the playing field . Link 's goal is to grab a Force Gem and carry it to his base . The other player , controlling the three Phantom Guardians , must find and catch Link before he returns any Force Gems . When Link is caught , or if the round is over , players switch sides . Each multiplayer game consists of three rounds , and in each round , each player takes a turn at both sides . The maximum length of a multiplayer game is 12 minutes , assuming Link does not get caught . The game supports multiplayer both locally and online through the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection , as well as Download Play . The game is the third The Legend of Zelda game to include multiplayer , following Four Swords and Four Swords Adventures .
Phantom Hourglass introduces the game mechanic of a large dungeon central to the game 's story , in this case the Temple of the Ocean King . Link visits the Temple multiple times during the course of the game 's story , in order to obtain sea charts that allow him to sail to other parts of the ocean . Throughout the game , the Temple has a curse placed on it that drains Link 's life whenever he is inside , but upon obtaining the Phantom Hourglass , Link is able to explore the Temple without being affected by the curse for a limited amount of time . In addition to the curse , Link must contend with Phantoms , a type of enemy exclusive to the Temple . Phantoms are invincible for the most part , necessitating the use of stealth in order to get past them . " Safe zones " are scattered throughout the Temple , and allow Link to avoid both the Phantoms and the Temple 's curse . As Link progresses through the game , he is able to access deeper levels of the Temple and stay inside for longer . The Temple , including the puzzles within , will reset whenever Link leaves , but as he obtains new items , he can unlock new routes and shortcuts that enable him to travel through the Temple quicker .
= = Plot = =
Picking up immediately after The Wind Waker , in which Link defeats Ganon who turns to stone and remains at the bottom of a now sealed away Hyrule , Link and Tetra travel over the flooded Hyrule called the Great Sea on board Tetra 's pirate ship . Along the way , the pair discover the Ghost Ship and Tetra enters it ; however , immediately after entering the Ghost Ship , she screams for help . While Link attempts to follow her , he slips and falls into the ocean . Washed ashore on an island , Link is awakened by Ciela , a fairy . Exploring the island , Link finds the Phantom Hourglass , filled with the Sands of Hours , and meets an old man named Oshus , who wants to help Link find the Ghost Ship and reunite with Tetra . To aid him in his quest , Link enlists the help of Captain Linebeck and his ship , the S.S. Linebeck , which Link , Ciela , and Linebeck use to visit islands across the Great Sea . While Linebeck was initially reluctant to team up with the two , Ciela makes mention of a huge treasure , prompting him to agree to help them .
After scouring the Great Sea , Link learns that he must use maps and clues hidden in the Temple of the Ocean King to find the Spirits of Courage , Wisdom , and Power , which in turn will help him locate the Ghost Ship . With the help of the Phantom Hourglass , Link finds the Spirits of Wisdom and Power . When Link asks Oshus where to find the Spirit of Courage , Oshus explains that it is in fact Ciela , after which she transforms into her true form . Now in possession of the three Spirits , Link , along with Ciela and Oshus , locate the Ghost Ship and find Tetra on board , who has been turned to stone . While Link determines how to save Tetra , Oshus reveals that he is the Ocean King and that he and Ciela had to change their appearances to hide from Bellum , a life @-@ eating monster that Link must destroy to save Tetra . Oshus also mentions that Bellum was the one who created the Ghost Ship and turned Tetra into a statue , and that he has taken residence deep in the Temple of the Ocean King . Linebeck quickly readies to abandon their quest ; outraged at the lack of treasure to be found . However , his loyalties instantly return when Oshus promises the captain one wish in return for his continued aid .
To defeat Bellum , Link learns that he must forge the Phantom Sword from three unique , " pure " metals located on nearby islands . After collecting and using the metals to forge the Phantom Sword , Link descends to the bottom level of the Temple of the Ocean King to face Bellum . After intense fighting , Link appears to defeat Bellum , and Tetra is freed from stone . After Link and Tetra hurry back to the S.S. Linebeck to find Oshus , Bellum emerges and sinks the ship , capturing Tetra and knocking Link unconscious in the process . Linebeck finally shows some devotion when he fights off Bellum while Link wakes up . Then , Linebeck gets possessed by Bellum , forcing Link to fight him , eventually defeating Bellum for good , saving Tetra and Linebeck , and releasing the sand from the Phantom Hourglass back into the sea . Oshus , now in his true form as a white whale , readies to depart with the three spirits , while Linebeck , surprising everyone , wishes not for treasure but for his ship back , and Tetra and Link teleport back onto Tetra 's pirate ship , where its crew tells them that only ten minutes had passed since the pair left the ship , insisting that their journey was a dream . However , Link still possesses the now @-@ empty Phantom Hourglass , and sees Linebeck 's ship on the horizon , knowing that his adventure was real .
= = Development = =
Development started in May 2004 , at which point the game still had gameplay similar to Four Swords Adventures . At a press conference in Japan for the Nintendo DS on October 6 , 2004 , Shigeru Miyamoto of Nintendo said , " We 're thinking of bringing Four Swords to the DS . " In an interview at E3 2005 , Nintendo 's Eiji Aonuma confirmed that they were working on a game for the Nintendo DS . In 2006 , Nintendo presented the keynote address at the annual Game Developers Conference , where they also revealed Phantom Hourglass for the first time and presented a demo . At the conference , Nintendo announced that the game would be released in late 2006 . For the holiday season , Nintendo launched two special edition Nintendo DS bundles , each in a different color , on November 23 , 2007 . One of the bundles , the Gold edition , was emblazoned with The Legend of Zelda 's signature Triforce logo and sold alongside Phantom Hourglass .
The same development team that worked on Four Swords Adventures also worked on what would become Phantom Hourglass . In the game 's first prototype , the action took place in the upper screen while the touchscreen was a flat map that allowed Link to be controlled . However , the developers believed that this interface caused the player to be too disconnected from the game 's action , thereby prompting them to switch the two screens . They felt that this interface would appeal to Japanese players , who they said prefer simple interfaces . The developers added a battle mode that was played over Wi @-@ Fi to appeal to American players .
The game takes advantage of the Nintendo DS 's stylus in several different ways . The player can draw shapes to open certain doors and plot out the path of ships on the ocean , among other tasks . The device 's touchscreen can also be used to direct Link 's boomerang . Phantom Hourglass features cel @-@ shaded graphics , similar to that of The Wind Waker , with some influence from Four Swords Adventures . Link and Zelda 's appearances in Phantom Hourglass closely resemble those from The Wind Waker .
At E3 2007 , Aonuma said that Phantom Hourglass " opened up the [ Zelda ] series and [ gave ] a fresh , new control scheme to the aging Zelda formula " . He also said that , despite the disappointing sales of The Wind Waker affecting him personally , he still wished to continue the game 's style in another Zelda iteration , leading to the inspiration for Phantom Hourglass . Aonuma believed that the game 's simple controls , with the help of the Nintendo DS 's touchscreen , helped make Phantom Hourglass the first Zelda game to attract casual gamers .
= = Reception = =
Phantom Hourglass was released in Japan on June 23 , 2007 , in North America on October 1 , 2007 , in Australia on October 11 , 2007 , in Europe on October 19 , 2007 , and in Korea on April 3 , 2008 . The game was considered to have received " universal acclaim " , receiving aggregated scores of 90 / 100 from Metacritic and 88 @.@ 82 % from GameRankings . Praise focused on the game 's use of unique Nintendo DS features , while criticism targeted its more casual gameplay compared to previous games in The Legend of Zelda series . Phantom Hourglass was the best @-@ selling game in its debut month of June 2007 in Japan , selling 302 @,@ 887 copies . In the United States , Phantom Hourglass was the fifth best @-@ selling game in its debut month of October 2007 , selling 262 @,@ 800 copies . As of March 2008 , 4 @.@ 13 million copies of the game have been sold worldwide , with 910 @,@ 000 of those copies in Japan .
Computer and Video Games called Phantom Hourglass one of the few " masterpieces " on the Nintendo DS , which made it " worth every penny " . Believing that Phantom Hourglass improves on everything that was great about its predecessor , The Wind Waker , GamePro predicted that the sequel would be another successful game in the franchise . Although feeling that the game does not live up to the standards set in Twilight Princess , Game Informer still felt that the adventure is worthy of The Legend of Zelda series , and noted that it " has enough great stuff going for it " for them to consider it one of the year 's best video game adventures . GameZone enjoyed the " spectacular blend of touch @-@ screen combat , brilliant puzzles , and Wind Waker beauty " in Phantom Hourglass , calling it a " can 't @-@ miss adventure " and one of Nintendo 's and the year 's best games . Hyper 's Jonti Davies commended Phantom Hourglass for its " perfect controls and supreme world and dungeon designs " . However , he criticized the game for only giving around 30 hours of gameplay .
Game Revolution appreciated the game 's graphics , and noted that it uses the Nintendo DS 's features better than any other game for the console . Praising its " innovative " and " fun " control scheme , GameSpot felt that Phantom Hourglass " gives new life to several of the series ' age @-@ old concepts " . X @-@ Play wrote that Phantom Hourglass definitely felt like a The Legend of Zelda game , calling it another successful video game for the franchise and a " must @-@ have " for anyone that owns a Nintendo DS . The Onion 's entertainment newspaper The A.V. Club remarked that Phantom Hourglass exploits the Nintendo DS 's touchscreen to the fullest extent in an " imaginative and genuinely fun way " . In a perfect 5 @-@ star review , Empire stated that " Phantom Hourglass is one of Nintendo 's greatest achievements and a contender for the best handheld adventure in console history . "
Issues that were mentioned in reviews regarding the game included its more casual gameplay compared to previous The Legend of Zelda games , which was not well received by some . GameSpy felt that the game was both easy and approachable enough for casual gamers to play , but sufficiently rewarding and challenging to satisfy hardcore fans of The Legend of Zelda series . IGN believed the game to be " more casual than we 'd like " , but still found it captivating , entertaining , and " a true adventure worthy of the Zelda name " , calling it " different , but it 's still the real deal " . GameTrailers stated that the short dungeon levels and hand @-@ holding exploration are " outright disappointing " , but when comparing Phantom Hourglass to other Nintendo DS games , they conceded that it was still an impressive game , but just a good game when compared to The Legend of Zelda standards . 1UP.com pointed out that the biggest problem with Phantom Hourglass is that it falls back on using innovations from previous The Legend of Zelda games , rather than including new and original ideas : " Innovation arrives in tiny steps , touch screen controls be damned . "
Finding it difficult for hardcore gamers to fully enjoy Phantom Hourglass , Nintendo World Report claimed that the game 's lack of alternative control schemes was a telling sign that Nintendo did not have The Legend of Zelda fans in mind when creating the game . They still described the game as " decent " , but felt that " it ’ s also a game apart from the rest of the series . It just feels different , and I think it demonstrates that Nintendo is reluctant to sail into the murky waters beyond Wind Waker . " The American newspaper The New York Times enjoyed Phantom Hourglass for the most part , but complained about the timer in the Temple of the Ocean King as unnecessary and gimmicky , remarking that the game 's dungeons are only " fun to go through once , but none of them are fun enough to go through 20 times " . They noted that the time spent traveling through dungeons " removed all thoughts of it being perfect " .
Several websites named Phantom Hourglass the 2007 DS Game of the Year , including IGN and GameSpy . It was also mentioned in Best of the Year lists from Wired , Time , and Edge . The game received Editor 's Choice awards from GameSpot and IGN . It was also named Best Adventure Game by 1UP.com. The game was designated the Best Handheld Game at the 2008 Golden Joystick awards , the 2007 Game Developers Choice Awards , the 2007 GamePro Editors ' Choice awards , the 2007 Spike Video Game Awards , and the 2008 Interactive Achievement Awards . At E3 2006 , Phantom Hourglass was designated as the Best Nintendo DS Game by GameSpot and the Best Handheld Game at the Game Critics Awards . The game placed 38th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's 100 Greatest Nintendo Games of All @-@ Time .
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= Tupolev Tu @-@ 142 =
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 142 ( Russian : Туполев Ту @-@ 142 ; NATO reporting name : Bear F / J ) is a maritime reconnaissance and anti @-@ submarine warfare ( ASW ) aircraft derived from the Tu @-@ 95 turboprop strategic bomber . A specialised communications variant designated Tu @-@ 142MR was tasked with long @-@ range communications duties with Soviet ballistic missile submarines . The Tu @-@ 142 was designed by the Tupolev design bureau , and manufactured by the Kuibyshev Aviation and Taganrog Machinery Plants from 1968 to 1994 . Formerly operated by the Soviet Navy and Ukrainian Air Force , the Tu @-@ 142 currently serves with the Russian and Indian Naval Air Arm .
Developed in response to the American Polaris programme , the Tu @-@ 142 grew out of the need for a viable Soviet ASW platform . It succeeded the stillborn Tu @-@ 95PLO project , Tupolev 's first attempt at modifying the Tu @-@ 95 for maritime use . The Tu @-@ 142 differed from the Tu @-@ 95 in having a stretched fuselage to accommodate specialised equipment for its ASW and surveillance roles , a reinforced undercarriage to support rough @-@ field capability , improved avionics and weapons , and enhancements to general performance . The Tu @-@ 142 's capability was incrementally improved while the type was in service , eventually resulting in the Tu @-@ 142MZ , the final long @-@ range Tu @-@ 142 with highly sophisticated combat avionics and a large payload . Tupolev also converted a number of Tu @-@ 142s as avionics ( Tu @-@ 142MP ) and engine ( Tu @-@ 142LL ) testbeds .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Early designs = = =
In the late 1950s the US Navy developed the UGM @-@ 27 Polaris , a submarine @-@ launched ballistic missile ( SLBM ) with a range of more of than 1 @,@ 800 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 000 nm ) . The Navy test @-@ fired rocket boosters to perfect the design , culminating in the first underwater launch of a ballistic missile by USS George Washington on 20 July 1960 . Polaris became operational on 15 November that year , when the George Washington left Charleston , South Carolina , with a complement of nuclear @-@ armed Polaris missiles .
The Soviet government consequently ordered Tupolev and other aircraft design bureaus to study possible dedicated anti @-@ submarine warfare ( ASW ) designs . Tupolev initially designed the Tu @-@ 95PLO ( protivolodochnaya oborona , or ASW ) , a development of the Tu @-@ 95 equipped with sonobuoys , anti @-@ submarine mines and torpedoes . It was to carry a 9 @,@ 000 kg ( 19 @,@ 841 lb ) payload with a maximum loiter time of 10 @.@ 5 hours . The design was dropped , however , because it lacked a powerful radar , thermal imaging ( infrared ) system and magnetic anomaly detector ( MAD ) . On 28 February 1963 , the Council of Ministers ( the highest executive and administrative body of the Soviet Union ) issued a directive to Tupolev requiring his bureau to develop a long @-@ range ASW aircraft .
The resultant design was named Tu @-@ 142 and had features in common with the Tu @-@ 95RT . The ventral and dorsal gun turrets were removed , as was the large dielectric radome housing the Uspeh radar system , which was replaced by a thermal imaging system located in a smaller fairing . This left the tail turret with twin 23 @-@ mm AM @-@ 23 cannons , along with electronic countermeasures , as the only defensive armament . The aircraft 's search @-@ and @-@ targeting system featured Berkut ( Golden Eagle ) 360 ° radar . A complex navigation system was integrated with the weapons targeting system . Structural differences included an airfoil change to the wing , expanding its area to 295 m2 ( 3 @,@ 172 ft2 ) . The area of the elevators was increased by 14 % , and improved hydraulic actuators were fitted . Metal fuel tanks replaced rubber bladders . To allow the Tu @-@ 142 to operate from semi @-@ prepared runways , the Tu @-@ 95 's four @-@ wheel main undercarriage bogies were replaced with six @-@ wheel units ; the main undercarriage fairings were also modified .
The first Tu @-@ 142 ( construction number 4200 ) was built at the Kuibyshev Aviation Plant in Samara . It performed its first flight on 18 June 1968 , with test pilot I. K. Vedernikov at the controls , taking off from Zhukovsky Airfield southeast of Moscow . Early testing indicated that the fuselage needed to be lengthened by at least 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) to accommodate new combat equipment . Therefore , the second prototype ( c / n 4201 ) joined the flight @-@ test programme on 3 September with a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) front fuselage stretch , a modification found on all subsequent Tu @-@ 142s . The third and final development Tu @-@ 142 entered flight test on 31 October , complete with the full equipment suite . In May 1970 , the Soviet Naval Aviation ( AV @-@ MF ) – the air arm of the Soviet Navy – began receiving production Tu @-@ 142s for operational trials .
= = = Improved variants = = =
During early operations , the Tu @-@ 142 revealed several shortcomings . The aircraft 's rough @-@ field capability was found to be of limited use , so the two six @-@ wheel bogies used on the first 12 of 36 aircraft were replaced with four @-@ wheel reinforced bogies from the Tu @-@ 114 airliner ; consequently , the wheel @-@ wells in the engine nacelle were made slimmer . These changes , along with the deletion of the thermal imaging system and parts of the electronic countermeasure ( ECM ) equipment , reduced the empty weight by 4 @,@ 000 kg ( 8 @,@ 818 lb ) . The modified aircraft also introduced a crew rest area for long @-@ duration missions , and was assigned the codename ( " Bear F " Mod 1 ) ; from 1968 to 1972 the Kuibyshev Plant produced a total of 18 Tu @-@ 142s .
In the early 1970s , production of Tu @-@ 142s was switched to the Taganrog Machinery Plant near the Black Sea . It has been speculated that the change to the idle plant was to give employment to the workers there . The move required many improvements to the plant and the surrounding area , including the establishment of new assembly shops , the installation of new machinery and tooling , the re @-@ training of the workforce , and the building of a new airfield . Preparation took place until 1975 , when production of the first Tu @-@ 142 began . The Tu @-@ 142s built by Taganrog incorporated the changes found on the last of the Kuibyshev aircraft . Differences included a 30 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) stretch to the front fuselage and a redesigned cockpit . Additional changes included new two @-@ axle main undercarriage bogies . This version was given the factory designation Tu @-@ 142M , which was not adopted by the Soviet Navy ; NATO codenamed it " Bear @-@ F " Mod 2 .
As the 1970s progressed , silencing technology in submarines rendered acoustic @-@ band sonobuoys and trigger devices ineffective . During 1961 and 1962 , the Soviet Union conducted research and development into an explosive sound system ( ESS ) – used to locate deep @-@ diving submarines – under the name Udar ( Blow ) . In 1965 , work had started on sonobuoy systems using ESS to be integrated with the Berkut radar . The programme was postponed when one of the aircraft intended to carry it , the Ilyushin Il @-@ 38 , was found to be incompatible . The developments instead resulted in the Udar @-@ 75 , which was featured in a new search and targeting system ( STS ) of the Taganrog @-@ built Tu @-@ 142Ms .
A new target acquisition system dubbed Korshun @-@ K , the cornerstone of which was the Korshun ( Kite ) radar , was installed on all subsequent Tu @-@ 142s . This system was used for detecting surfaced and submerged submarines , communicating with other ASW aircraft and ground bases , and performing navigational and tactical tasks . The first three Tu @-@ 142Ms were the first aircraft to be equipped with this system , and thus were redesignated Tu @-@ 142MK ( " Bear F " Mod . 3 ) . It was the first Tu @-@ 142 to feature a MAD , its MMS @-@ 106 Ladoga system being mounted in an aft @-@ facing fairing atop the vertical stabiliser . The first of three Tu @-@ 142MKs that underwent Stage A of the trials programme made its first flight on 4 November 1975 ; despite the dismal performance figures , a production go @-@ ahead was given . Stage B , conducted during April – October 1978 , found that the aircraft 's avionics were extremely unreliable ; like Stage A , these problems were apparently ignored when a directive issued on 19 November 1980 cleared the Tu @-@ 142MK for operational service .
= = = Technological upgrades = = =
Even as the Tu @-@ 142MK entered service , its Korshun @-@ K STS was already becoming obsolete . Work began on yet another improved Tu @-@ 142 , resulting in the Tu @-@ 142MZ ( " Bear F " Mod . 4 ) with the Korshun @-@ KN @-@ N STS . This consisted of Nashatyr @-@ Nefrit ( Ammonia / Jade ) ASW avionics , which included the Zarechye sonar system . As well as the RGB @-@ 1A and RGB @-@ 2 buoys of the Berkut , the Tu @-@ 142MZ was compatible with the RGB @-@ 16 and RGB @-@ 26 buoys . When working with the ASW avionics , these buoys provided 50 % greater coverage . The Kuznetsov NK @-@ 12MV were replaced by the more @-@ powerful NK @-@ 12MP engines , and for the first time , the Tu @-@ 142 had an independent engine @-@ starting capability with the addition of the TA @-@ 12 auxiliary power unit . This variant was distinguished from earlier " Bear Fs " by the chin fairings housing several antennas .
The flight test programme started in 1985 with the maiden flight of a converted Tu @-@ 142M fitted with the advanced avionics ; state acceptance trials began within two years . Test results proved excellent , as the aircraft successfully tracked nuclear @-@ powered submarines of the Northern and Pacific Fleets . The aircraft became operational with Russian Naval Aviation ( AV @-@ MP ) in 1993 . The last Tu @-@ 142MZ rolled off the Taganrog production line the following year , bringing an end to a 26 @-@ year production run during which 100 Tu @-@ 142s were produced .
A communications variant designated Tu @-@ 142MR ( " Bear J " ) was the last production version of the Tu @-@ 142 . It was tasked with long @-@ range communications duties with Soviet ballistic missile submarines , a role similar to that of the Boeing E @-@ 6 Mercury . The Tu @-@ 142MR differed from the ASW Tu @-@ 142s in having less @-@ sophisticated avionics , but had a long trailing wire radio aerial to relay messages to submerged Soviet submarines in times of nuclear war . This was amongst the many distinctive features of the Tu @-@ 142MR that allows it to communicate with satellites , airborne and ground @-@ based command posts , and submarines . The aircraft replaced the Ilyushin Il @-@ 80 in the airborne command and control role . Tu @-@ 142s are currently operated by the 76th Naval Aviation Regiment from Kipelovo . Other developments of the Tu @-@ 142 include the one @-@ off Tu @-@ 142MRT maritime reconnaissance variant , and the unbuilt Tu @-@ 142MS missile @-@ carrying variant .
= = Operational history = =
To prepare for Tu @-@ 142 operations , on 22 June 1960 the Soviet Navy began selecting personnel for conversion training . The first group began its three @-@ month training period on 4 March 1970 at the seaside town of Nikolayev ( since renamed Mykolaiv ) . Meanwhile , the first Tu @-@ 142s were delivered to the Northern Fleet at Kipelovo AB , where they were initially tasked with tracking and monitoring nuclear @-@ powered submarines as part of the type 's operational trials . Throughout the test programme , effort focused on the verification of the ASW avionics , notably the Berkut @-@ 95 radar , as the airframe itself was not a major concern . The Tu @-@ 142 reached initial operational capability in December 1972 after a successful flight @-@ test programme . Prior to that , in December 1971 , the second group selected for Tu @-@ 142 operations started its own conversion training . Deliveries of the aircraft at first proceeded slowly ; as more Tu @-@ 142s were produced , the type was allocated to the Pacific Fleet .
Throughout its operational history , the Tu @-@ 142 demonstrated significant capabilities . On 19 – 22 August 1974 , four Tu @-@ 142s shadowed a foreign submarine in the Barents Sea ; one of the aircraft was reported to have maintained continuous contact for 2 hours and 55 minutes . In 1975 , a Tu @-@ 142 managed to trail a Soviet submarine for 3 hours and 16 minutes . On 10 October 1977 , a group of five Tu @-@ 142s tracked a US submarine in the Philippine Sea ; one of the Tu @-@ 142s reportedly trailed the submarine for 4 hours and 5 minutes . Soviet Tu @-@ 142s , besides operating domestically , were sent to friendly overseas bases in Angola , Cuba , Ethiopia , Vietnam , and Yemen . In the early 1990s , with the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the Soviet fleet of Tu @-@ 142s was handed to the Russian Navy , although the Ukrainian Air Force gained a few Tu @-@ 142s that had been left in its territory . Ukrainian Tu @-@ 142s were later dismantled as a result of the bilateral START I treaty signed between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1991 , which came into effect in late 1994 .
Besides the Tu @-@ 142 's military applications , a one @-@ off Tu @-@ 142MP was used to test a new ASW suite . Another Tu @-@ 142 was converted to replace the Tu @-@ 95LL for the testing of turbojet engines . Designated Tu @-@ 142LL , the ASW equipment and armament were removed to allow an engine test bed to be carried under the belly . Some of the engines installed were the NK @-@ 25 for the Tu @-@ 22MZ , RD36 @-@ 51A for the Tu @-@ 144D , and the NK @-@ 32 for the Tu @-@ 160 . The first Tu @-@ 142MK was converted for an airborne laboratory role , setting several altitude @-@ in @-@ horizontal and time @-@ to @-@ altitude records in its class .
In 1981 the Indian Navy began considering a long @-@ range maritime reconnaissance and anti @-@ submarine warfare aircraft for its Naval Air Arm . The Soviet Union initially offered to refurbish some of its own Tu @-@ 142s for India , rather than construct new aircraft . The Indian Navy was at first hesitant about the large Tu @-@ 142 , which was heavy and thus would require runways to be reinforced and lengthened at potential operating bases . Consequently , the service requested three Ilyushin Il @-@ 38s – then being phased out of service with the Soviet Navy – be refurbished for Indian operations . This request fell through , and so in December 1984 an agreement to purchase eight Tu @-@ 142s was signed .
For the twelve @-@ month period stating from May 1987 , the Indian Navy sent 40 pilots and observers , 16 technical officers and 128 sailors to Riga for training . On 30 March 1988 , the first three Tu @-@ 142s arrived at the Indian naval air station of INS Hansa , Goa , after a flight from Simferopol ( Gvardeyskoye Air Base ) in the Crimean peninsula . On 13 April two more aircraft arrived , prior to the commissioning of INAS 312 , the operator of Indian Tu @-@ 142s ; by the end of October the fleet of eight Tu @-@ 142s was delivered . In May 1992 , the squadron was relocated to its current operating base at INS Rajali on the Indian east coast . The Tu @-@ 142s are expected to be replaced by twelve smaller Boeing P @-@ 8Is .
= = Variants = =
Tu @-@ 142
A lengthened Tu @-@ 95 with much defensive armament removed , and instead incorporating ASW systems . Twelve aircraft initially had six @-@ wheel main undercarriage bogies . Six later aircraft had four @-@ wheel bogies . Built by Kuibyshev Aviation Plant .
Tu @-@ 142M
A 30 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) stretch to front fuselage , redesigned cockpit and two @-@ axle main undercarriage bogies . Built by Taganrog .
Tu @-@ 142MK
Greatly improved variant with new Korshun radar , avionics and ASW equipment . 43 Tu @-@ 142MKs were constructed by Taganrog .
Tu @-@ 142MK @-@ E
Eight downgraded Tu @-@ 142MKs purchased by the Indian Naval Air Arm . E stands for " export " .
Tu @-@ 142MZ
The last production variant of the " Bear F " , with new NK @-@ 12MP engines and a new avionics suite . Can be distinguished from other Tu @-@ 142s by its chin fairings . Built by Taganrog .
Tu @-@ 142MZ @-@ K
Proposed commercial cargo variant of the Tu @-@ 142MZ ( the K standing for " kommercheskiy " ) , with ASW avionics removed . Also designated Tu @-@ 142MZ @-@ C.
Tu @-@ 142MP
Modified single Tu @-@ 142M used as avionics testbed .
Tu @-@ 142MR
Modified Tu @-@ 142MKs built as submarine communications relay aircraft . Has distinctive external fairings and components . NATO codename " Bear J " .
Tu @-@ 142LL
Two converted earlier Tu @-@ 142s used for testing of turbofan engines . ASW equipment was removed .
= = Operators = =
India
The Indian Naval Air Arm had 8 Tu @-@ 142MKEs in service as of December 2010 , based at INS Rajali , Arakkonam , Tamil Nadu .
Russia
The Russian Naval Aviation had 15 Tu @-@ 142s in service as of December 2010 .
Former
Soviet Union
The Soviet Naval Aviation 's Tu @-@ 142s were distributed between the Russian Naval Aviation and Ukrainian Air Force following the collapse of the Soviet Union .
Ukraine
The Ukrainian Air Force inherited an unknown number of Tu @-@ 142s following the collapse of the Soviet Union . These were dismantled in accordance with the START I agreement .
= = Notable accidents = =
On 7 November 2009 , eleven crew were killed when their Tu @-@ 142 crashed over the Strait of Tartary near Japan during a training flight . Flights of aircraft belonging to the Pacific Fleet were suspended pending an investigation into the crash . There was no indication that the crew made use of emergency equipment , although a lifeboat on board the plane was fitted with a device that transmits a signal in the event of an accident . Chief of the General Staff Nikolay Makarov believed an engine failure could have caused the crash . A memorial service was held for the crew on 16 December 2009 . A search for the bodies of the eleven crew members was suspended several times due to ice floes and bad weather .
= = Specifications ( Tu @-@ 142MZ ) = =
Data from Donald and Lake
General characteristics
Crew : 11 – 13
Length : 53 @.@ 08 m ( 162 ft 5 in )
Wingspan : 50 @.@ 00 m ( 167 ft 8 in )
Height : 12 @.@ 12 m ( 39 ft 9 in )
Wing area : 311 @.@ 10 m ² ( 3 @,@ 348 @.@ 76 ft ² )
Empty weight : 90 @,@ 000 kg ( 198 @,@ 000 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 185 @,@ 000 kg ( 407 @,@ 848 lb )
Powerplant : 4 × Kuznetsov NK @-@ 12MP turboprops , 11 @,@ 033 kW ( 14 @,@ 795 shp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 925 km / h ( 500 kt , 575 mph )
Cruise speed : 711 km / h ( 384 kt , 442 mph )
Combat radius : 6 @,@ 500 km ( 3 @,@ 454 nmi , 3 @,@ 977 mi )
Service ceiling : 12 @,@ 000 m ( 39 @,@ 000 ft )
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= SM UB @-@ 17 =
SM UB @-@ 17 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The submarine disappeared during a patrol in March 1918 .
UB @-@ 17 was ordered in November 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in February 1915 . UB @-@ 17 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 17 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Antwerp for reassembly . She was launched in April 1915 and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 17 in May .
UB @-@ 17 spent her entire career in the Flanders Flotilla and sank 13 ships , most of them British fishing vessels . She also captured two ships as prizes and damaged one tanker . On 11 March 1918 , UB @-@ 17 departed for a patrol in the Hoofden but was never seen again . There have been several suggestions as to UB @-@ 17 's fate , but none match the U @-@ boat 's operation details .
In July 2013 , UB @-@ 17 was found off England 's east coast , near the county of Suffolk by archaeologists .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes .
UB @-@ 17 and sister boat UB @-@ 16 comprised an order of two submarines ordered on 25 November from AG Weser of Bremen , a little more than three months after planning for the class began . UB @-@ 17 was laid down by Weser in Bremen on 21 February 1915 . As built , UB @-@ 17 was 27 @.@ 88 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Körting 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 7 @.@ 45 knots ( 13 @.@ 80 km / h ; 8 @.@ 57 mph ) , surfaced , and 6 @.@ 24 knots ( 11 @.@ 56 km / h ; 7 @.@ 18 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 17 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 17 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 17 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
After work on UB @-@ 17 was complete at the Weser yard , she was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . In early 1915 , the sections of UB @-@ 17 were shipped to Antwerp for assembly in what was typically a two- to three @-@ week process . After UB @-@ 17 was assembled and launched on 21 April , she was loaded on a barge and taken through canals to Bruges where she underwent trials .
= = Early career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 17 on 4 May 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Kapt . ) Ralph Wenninger , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old former skipper of UB @-@ 11 . On 10 May , UB @-@ 17 joined the Flanders Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) , which had been organized on 29 March . When UB @-@ 17 joined the flotilla , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom , were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag .
On 18 July , Wenninger torpedoed the British tanker Batoum just off the Southwold lighthouse . Despite the loss of six men , Batoum 's crew was able to beach the ship , listed as 4 @,@ 054 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Early the next month , on 6 August , Wenninger and UB @-@ 17 sank four British fishing vessels while patrolling in the Yarmouth – Lowestoft area . All four of the sunken ships were smacks — sailing vessels traditionally rigged with red ochre sails — which were stopped , boarded by crewmen from UB @-@ 17 , and sunk with explosives .
On 18 August , the chief of the Admiralstab , Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff , issued orders suspending the first offensive in response to American demands after German submarines had sunk the Cunard Line steamer Lusitania in May 1915 and other high profile sinkings in August and September . Holtzendorff 's directive ordered all U @-@ boats out of the English Channel and the South @-@ Western Approaches and required that all submarine activity in the North Sea be conducted strictly along prize regulations . Six days later , UB @-@ 17 seized the Belgian sailing vessel Leon Mathilde as a prize off Ostende .
Enemy naval targets were not subject to the prize regulations , so on 23 September , Wenninger torpedoed and sank the Saint Pierre I , a trawler of the French Navy off the Dyck lightship . There was only one survivor from the 303 @-@ ton ship 's eighteen @-@ man crew . Three months later , Wenninger misidentified the 74 @-@ ton French fishing ship Jesus Maria as a destroyer . UB @-@ 17 launched a torpedo which struck the ship and killed all six men of Jesus Maria 's crew .
On 31 January 1916 , in the Lowestoft – Aldeburgh area , UB @-@ 17 sank an additional four fishing ships : three British , and one Belgian . The next day , UB @-@ 17 's war journal ( German : Kriegstagebücher or KTB ' ' ) records the torpedoing of the 957 @-@ ton British steamer Franz Fischer off the Kentish Knock . British records list the cargo ship as being sunk by bombs from a zeppelin . Franz Fischer was the last ship sunk with Wenninger in command . On 7 February , he was relieved by Oberleutnant zur See ( Oblt . ) Arthur Metz for a month , Kapt . Werner Fürbringer for a week , and Oblt . Friedrich Moecke for another month . Wenninger resumed command on 16 April .
In the meantime , Germany had begun its second submarine offensive against merchant shipping at the end of February in reaction to the British blockade of Germany . By early 1916 , the British blockade was having an effect on Germany and her imports . The Royal Navy had stopped and seized more cargo destined for Germany than the quantity of cargo sunk by German U @-@ boats in the first submarine offensive . UB @-@ 17 sank no ships during this offensive , which was called off near the end of April by Admiral Reinhardt Scheer , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the High Seas Fleet .
= = Grand Fleet ambush attempts = =
In mid @-@ May , Scheer completed plans to draw out part of the British Grand Fleet . The German High Seas Fleet would sortie for a raid on Sunderland , luring the British fleet across " ' nests ' of submarines and mine @-@ fields " . In support of the operation , UB @-@ 17 and five other Flanders boats set out at midnight 30 / 31 May to form a line 18 nautical miles ( 33 km ; 21 mi ) east of Lowestoft . This group was to intercept and attack the British light forces from Harwich , should they sortie north to join the battle . Unfortunately for the Germans , the British Admiralty had intelligence reports of the departure of the submarines which , coupled with an absence of attacks on shipping , aroused British suspicions .
A delayed departure of the German High Seas Fleet for its sortie ( which had been redirected to the Skagerrak ) and the failure of several of the U @-@ boats stationed to the north to receive the coded message warning of the British advance caused Scheer 's anticipated ambush to be a " complete and disappointing failure " . In UB @-@ 16 's group , only UB @-@ 10 sighted the Harwich forces , and they were too far away to mount an attack . The failure of the submarine ambush to sink any British capital ships allowed the full Grand Fleet to engage the numerically inferior High Seas Fleet in the Battle of Jutland , which took place 31 May – 1 June .
Wenninger left UB @-@ 17 for good on 27 June and was succeeded by Kapt . Günther Suadicani , who commanded the boat for just under two weeks . He was followed by Oblt . Hans Degetau , who commanded the boat from July to December . Under Degetau 's leadership , UB @-@ 17 added another ship to her tally when she captured and sank the Dutch ship Zeearend on 1 September . The 462 @-@ ton steamer was en route to London from Rotterdam with a cargo of piece goods when she was sunk 19 nautical miles ( 35 km ; 22 mi ) from the Mass Lightship . UB @-@ 17 's next success was the capture of the Norwegian steamer Birgit in the Hoofden area under the command of Kapt . Ulrich Meier , who had taken command on 4 December . Birgit was the last success for UB @-@ 17 for the next twelve months .
= = Conversion to minelayer = =
UB @-@ 17 and three sister boats , UB @-@ 10 , UB @-@ 12 , and UB @-@ 16 , were all converted to minelaying submarines by 1918 . The conversion involved removing the bow section containing the pair of torpedo tubes from each U @-@ boat and replacing it with a new bow containing four mine chutes capable of carrying two mines each . In the process , the boats were lengthened to 105 feet ( 32 m ) , and the displacement increased to 147 tonnes ( 145 long tons ) on the surface , and 161 tonnes ( 158 long tons ) below the surface . Exactly when this conversion was performed on UB @-@ 17 is not reported , but UB @-@ 17 was at the dockyard from November 1916 to January 1917 , and it is possible UB @-@ 17 was converted during this same timeframe .
While Meier remained in command of UB @-@ 17 , Kaiser Wilhelm II personally approved a resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare to begin on 1 February 1917 to help force the British to make peace . Although the new rules of engagement specified that no ship was to be left afloat , UB @-@ 17 did not contribute to the effort until December 1917 , when she captured and sank a single fishing smack off Aldeburgh under the direction of Oblt . Johannes Ries . In January 1918 , Ries was replaced by Oblt . Albert Branscheid .
= = Sinking = =
On 11 March 1918 , Branscheid led UB @-@ 17 out from Zeebrugge for a patrol in the Hoofden and the U @-@ boat was never seen again . One postwar account tells of two British seaplanes that bombed a U @-@ boat in the North Sea on 12 March , but , according to author Dwight Messimer , the account provides no details to support the claim . Messimer also discounts an account that attributes UB @-@ 17 's sinking to British destroyer Onslow on 25 February south of Portland by pointing out that UB @-@ 17 was in port in Zeebrugge on that date . A German postwar study also rejected a British claim that destroyers HMS Thruster , Retriever , and Sturgeon sank UB @-@ 17 at 21 : 25 on 11 March at position 57 ° 7 ′ N 2 ° 43 ′ E because UB @-@ 17 didn 't depart Zeebrugge until 30 minutes after the attack took place . Whatever the specific cause of UB @-@ 17 's demise , all eighteen crewmen on board the submarine were killed .
= = Discovery = =
In July 2013 , archaeologists found the remains of 44 submarines , including UB @-@ 17 , off the United Kingdom 's southern and east coasts , near the county of Suffolk . The find was made up mostly of vessels from the German Imperial Navy dating to World War I. Der Spiegel reported divers located 41 German U @-@ boats , and three of English submarines , found at depths of up to 50 feet , off England 's southern and eastern coasts .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
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= Case of the Hooded Man =
R v Williams ( 1913 ) 8 Cr App R 133 ( known as the Case of the Hooded Man and the Eastbourne Murder ) was a 1912 murder in England that took its name from the hood the defendant , John Williams , wore when travelling to and from court . After the murder of a police inspector in Eastbourne , with no witnesses and little forensic evidence , Edgar Power , a former medical student , told the police that his friend John Williams had committed the murder . Power helped the police conduct a sting operation to catch Williams ; police also interrogated Williams 's girlfriend Florence Seymour , who then confessed to having helped Williams hide the murder weapon .
However , Seymour later recanted her story , and another man came forth claiming to know the identity of the real killer . This new evidence , along with the behaviour of the judge in both the initial case and the appeal , made the case controversial enough that Members of Parliament from the three major political parties directly questioned the Home Secretary on the matter . Despite many requests for clemency , all appeals were denied , and Williams was executed in 1913 . The case was one of the first investigations in Britain to use the emerging science of ballistics .
= = Background = =
On 9 October 1912 , the driver of a horse @-@ drawn carriage noticed a man crouching near the front door of the house of Countess Flora Sztaray , located on South Cliff Avenue in Eastbourne . Sztaray was known to possess large amounts of valuable jewellery and to be married to a rich Hungarian nobleman . The driver , who was Sztaray 's coachman , informed Sztaray of the man 's presence , whereupon Sztaray telephoned the police . Inspector Arthur Walls was sent to investigate . When Walls arrived on the scene , he observed a man lying on the portico above the front door . Walls called out , " Now then , my man , you just come down . " The man fired two shots , the first of which struck and killed Walls .
The police had only two clues : some footprints in the garden , and a hat that they found in a nearby gutter . The police took moulds of the footprints and endeavored to trace the hat , but with no success . However , during routine questioning of local residents , police learned that earlier in the afternoon of the murder , a man had been seen sitting with a heavily @-@ pregnant young woman on a bench at one end of South Cliff Avenue ; the man had also been seen wandering the street while the young woman sat on the bench alone , leading police to suspect that the man was assessing the lay of the land .
The following day , a former medical student named Edgar Power visited the police , claiming that he knew the identity of the murderer . Power said that the murderer was one George McKay , who was living in Eastbourne under the name " John Williams " with his pregnant girlfriend , Florence Seymour . Power knew Williams through Williams 's brother , who was Power 's best friend . Williams 's brother had received a note that morning from Williams , which he had passed on to Power . Power gave the note to the police . It read :
If you would save my life come here at once to 4 Tideswell Road . Ask for Seymour . Bring some cash with you . Very Urgent .
Power told the police that the letter had been written by Williams and that Williams had tried to burgle Sztaray 's house and killed Inspector Walls . According to Power , Williams met with his girlfriend — Florence Seymour — after the murder , and the two decided to bury the gun on the beach and send a letter to Williams ' brother asking for money to return to London , which was then given to Power . Power 's motive in coming to the police was that he was in love with Seymour .
In order to trap Williams , Power asked Williams to meet him at Moorgate Street Station the following day . Police were lying in wait and arrested both Power and Williams at the Moorgate station . Police covered Williams 's head with an apron to prevent him from being photographed and thus possibly influencing witnesses . However , no one had glimpsed the murderer 's face , and no one selected Williams from an identity parade . Power was immediately released .
Upon his release , Power went to Seymour and told her that the police knew what had happened and that the only way to save Williams was to dig up the gun and move it somewhere safer . Seymour and Power retrieved the gun on 15 October ; several police officers were lying in wait and immediately arrested both Seymour and Power . Power was released a few hours later ; Seymour was retained for questioning . Seymour was pregnant and in poor condition both physically and mentally ; after a few hours of questioning , she wrote and signed a statement which incriminated Williams . In her statement , Seymour stated that Williams
had left her for half an hour near the Countess 's house on the night of the murder , returning without his trilby hat , and afterwards throwing away a burglar 's rope with a hook on the end of it , also with him burying a revolver on the beach he had broken in two .
Despite Seymour 's statement , Williams maintained that he was innocent of the murder and the burglary , saying that " whoever did that did it to get to [ Sztaray 's ] papers for political purposes . No doubt she is mixed up in some foreign political business . I would not commit a crime like that . "
Williams appeared at the Magistrates Court in Eastbourne for an initial hearing . He was not represented by either a solicitor or a barrister , and pleaded not guilty . On his way to and from the court Williams 's head was again covered with an apron to prevent him from being photographed ; the press accordingly dubbed him " the hooded man . " The police decided that Seymour should take the witness stand as soon as possible to avoid her going back on what she had told the police . As such she was called to the witness box by Cecil Whiteley ( who was Treasury Counsel at the time ) to go through her statement line by line . She was physically exhausted and fainted four times in the witness box ; this and other interruptions meant that the initial hearing took four days . Eventually the case was referred to the Assizes for trial .
= = Trial = =
The trial of John Williams for the murder of Inspector Arthur Walls began on 12 December 1912 at the Lewes Assizes , with Arthur Channell sitting as a judge . By this time , Williams had found a solicitor who had arranged for Patrick Hastings and C. F. Baker to represent him in court . The Crown was represented by Sir Frederick Low and Cecil Whiteley . The trial proved a popular one , with crowds of people outside the court house trying to see the defendants or barristers involved . A local newspaper described it as " the most sensational murder trial ... within living history . "
Florence Seymour was the first person called to the witness box . She said that her statement was false , and that she had only made it because Edgar Power had told her that she would be charged with murder if she did not . This immediately disrupted the case for the prosecution ; Frederick Low had made it clear in his opening statement that their case rested primarily on Seymour 's testimony . Low received permission from the judge to treat Seymour as a hostile witness ; despite this , she refused to say anything that would incriminate Williams . Hastings did not cross @-@ examine her , only asking if what she had said in court was true ; she said that it was and then burst into tears .
After calling a number of minor witnesses ( including the cab driver and the owner of the building Williams and Seymour lived in ) , the prosecution called Edgar Power . Power testified that Williams had bragged about shooting Walls in response to Powers ' chaffing him about being a poor shot . According to Power , Williams responded to the chaff by saying , " Well , that was a good shot anyhow , " referring to the shot that had killed Walls . Williams ' barrister Hastings later described Power as " [ the most ] utterly contemptible human being I have ever met , " and during his cross @-@ examination Hastings highlighted Power 's betrayal of his close friends , Williams and Seymour .
The defendant , John Williams , was called next . Williams claimed that the package containing the rope and the gun had been given to him by a fellow thief called " Freddy Mike " , who had asked him to keep the package until Mike came to collect it . After the murder , Williams was scared that he would be suspected , since he had a gun and had been arrested previously for burglary .
Following the testimony of Seymour , Power , and Williams , it became clear the jury could not convict Williams based on witness testimony alone . There was , however , some circumstantial evidence : an empty holster found by the police among Williams ' possessions showed evidence of a revolver recently being inside it . The police enlisted the aid of an expert in the new science of forensic ballistics , Robert Churchill ; it was one of the first times the police made use of ballistics in a case .
Churchill was able to prove , by firing a different gun of the same design , that the bullet that killed the police officer had been fired from a revolver of the same make and calibre as the gun reported to be Williams ' . However , the prosecution needed proof that the bullet had been fired from that particular revolver . At the suggestion of Chief Inspecter Bower , photographers attempted to photograph the inside of the gun barrel in order to prove that the bullet had been fired from that particular revolver ; the attempts were unsuccessful , and Churchill instead made a cast of the inside of the gun from dental wax . The method has been called " far from satisfactory , " but it was sufficient to convict Williams .
In his summing up , Judge Channell commented that the acts of the defendant in hiding the gun and fleeing Eastbourne " were acts which a guilty man would be very likely to do . " He also told the jury that , while there was no direct evidence linking Williams to the murder , many cases had resulted in a conviction with even less evidence . After around fifteen minutes of deliberations , the jury returned a verdict of guilty , and Channell sentenced Williams to death .
= = Court of Criminal Appeal = =
Immediately after the verdict was read , Williams ' solicitor announced that he would appeal the verdict . He asked Hastings again to represent the defendant , this time in the Court of Criminal Appeal . The Court met on 13 January 1913 , and consisted of Lord Alverstone , Mr Justice Phillimore and Mr Justice Ridley . Hastings argued that that Mr Justice Channell had misdirected the jury in the initial case , and that therefore their decision was void . Lord Alverstone dismissed the appeal without hearing the other side of the argument , saying that he could find no evidence of misdirection . Hastings felt that Alverstone had been biased from the start , later writing that " from the outset of the hearing it was apparent that he was satisfied with the prisoner 's guilt , and no legal argument seemed to make the least impression on him . "
= = Further appeals and execution = =
Shortly after the appeal was dismissed , Williams received a letter from " Freddy Mike " , who stated that not only did he know the real murderer , but that the murderer was his twin brother who had killed the police inspector before fleeing to France . Williams immediately showed the letter to his solicitor , who contacted Scotland Yard . Accompanied by Chief Inspector Bower , Williams ' solicitor visited Freddy Mike , who again told the same story . A copy of the letter was sent to the Home Secretary , Reginald McKenna , along with a statement by Florence Seymour in which she claimed that her confession had been given after threats by the police .
When Freddy Mike 's statement became known to the public , various petitions and campaigns to free Williams were organised throughout the country . A petition containing 35 @,@ 000 signatures requesting a reprieve was sent to the Home Secretary . As soon as the House of Commons opened on 23 January 1913 , McKenna was questioned by Labour , Conservative , and Liberal MPs . Robert Munro , MP for Wick Burghs , made a speech asking the Home Secretary to take into account the conflicting accounts , lack of any direct evidence , and the way the judge had directed the jury , and pardon Williams . In this he was supported by Will Crooks , the Marquess of Tullibardine , and Ian Macpherson .
McKenna replied that :
" The house will understand that there is no part of the Home Secretary 's duty which throws greater responsibility upon him or is indeed more painful , then that which has to be exercised in connection with the prerogative of mercy . Of course , any man would be only too glad to find a scintilla of evidence or reason , or I might say to invent a reason , which would enable him to save a human life . But my duty , as I understand it , is to act in accordance with the law and the traditions of my office .
I have investigated [ the story of Freddy Mike ] to its very foundation . I have traced the family history of the man who calls himself Freddy Mike , and I find beyond question , and I may say even on his own admission , that there is not a shred or shadow of foundation for his story from beginning to end . He said that he had a twin brother . He had no twin brother . He said that the twin brother or a friend of the twin brother was in Eastbourne that night . There were no such people , and the whole story is an invention because , having known John Williams in the past , he did not like to think of his being hanged . "
McKenna concluded by saying that the law must take its course , and refused to grant a pardon .
Williams applied to Home Secretary McKenna for permission to marry Florence Seymour ; McKenna denied Williams 's request , and did so again when Williams petitioned a second time . Williams was executed on 30 January 1913 .
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= Crescent honeyeater =
The crescent honeyeater ( Phylidonyris pyrrhopterus ) is a passerine bird , of the honeyeater family Meliphagidae , native to south @-@ eastern Australia . A member of the genus Phylidonyris , it is most closely related to the common New Holland honeyeater ( P. novaehollandiae ) and the white @-@ cheeked honeyeater ( P. niger ) . Two subspecies are recognized , with P. p. halmaturinus restricted in range to Kangaroo Island and the Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia .
It is a fairly nondescript bird of dark grey plumage and paler underparts , highlighted by yellow wing patches and a broad , black crescent , outlined in white , down the sides of its breast . The species exhibits slight sexual dimorphism , with the female being duller in colour than the male . Juvenile birds are similar to the female , though the yellow wing patches of male nestlings can be easily distinguished .
The male has a complex and variable song , which is heard throughout the year . It sings from an exposed perch , and during the breeding season performs song flights . The crescent honeyeater is found in areas of dense vegetation including sclerophyll forest and alpine habitats , as well as heathland , and parks and gardens , where its diet is made up of nectar and invertebrates . It forms long @-@ term pairs , and often stays committed to one breeding site for several years . The female builds the nest and does most of the caring for the two to three young , which become independent within 40 days of egg @-@ laying .
The parent birds use a range of anti @-@ predator strategies , but nestlings can be taken by snakes , kookaburras , currawongs , or cats . While the crescent honeyeater faces a number of threats , its population numbers and distribution are sufficient for it to be listed as of Least Concern for conservation .
= = Taxonomy = =
The crescent honeyeater was originally described by ornithologist John Latham in 1801 as Certhia pyrrhoptera , because of an assumed relationship with the treecreepers , Certhia . It was later named Certhia australasiana by George Shaw in 1812 , Melithreptus melanoleucus by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1817 , and Meliphaga inornata by John Gould in 1838 . The generic term comes from the French phylidonyre , which combines the names for a honeyeater and a sunbird ( previously thought to belong to the same family ) . The specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek stems pyrrhos , meaning " fire " , and pteron , meaning " wing " , in reference to the yellow wing patches . Some guidebooks have the binomial name written as Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera ; however , a review in 2001 ruled that the genus name was masculine , hence pyrrhopterus is the correct specific name . Two subspecies are recognised , the nominate form P. p. pyrrhopterus over most of its range , and P. p. halmaturinus which is restricted to Kangaroo Island and the Mount Lofty Ranges .
A recent molecular study showed its close relatives to be the New Holland honeyeater and the white @-@ cheeked honeyeater , the three forming the now small genus Phylidonyris . DNA analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily .
Other common names for the crescent honeyeater include chinawing , Egypt and horseshoe honeyeater . Gould called it the Tasmanian honeyeater .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
The crescent honeyeater measures 14 – 17 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) , in length , with a wingspan of 16 – 23 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) , and weighs about 16 grams ( 0 @.@ 56 oz ) . It is sexually dimorphic , with the female a paler version of the male . The male is dark grey with clear yellow wing @-@ patches with a broad , black crescent , outlined in white , down the sides of its breast , and a white streak above his eye . The top of the tail is black , with yellow edges to the feathers forming distinctive yellow panels on the sides of the tail . White tips on the undertail are usually only visible in flight . The underparts are pale brownish @-@ grey fading to white . The female is duller , olive brown with faded yellow wing patches with similar , though less clear , crescentic markings . Both sexes have dark grey legs and feet , deep ruby eyes and a long , downcurved black bill . The gape is also black . Young birds are similar to the adults , though not as strongly marked , and have dark grey bills , duller brown eyes and yellow gapes . Male nestlings can be distinguished by their more extensive yellow wing patches from 7 days old . Moulting patterns of the species are poorly known ; crescent honeyeaters appear to replace their primary flight feathers between October and January .
While both subspecies have the same general appearance , the female of halmaturinus has paler plumage than the nominate race , and both male and female have a smaller wing and tail and longer bill . The halmaturinus population on Kangaroo Island has a significantly shorter wing and longer bill than the Mount Lofty population , although this size variation of an insular form is at odds with Allen 's and Bergmann 's rules .
= = = Vocalisation = = =
The crescent honeyeater has a range of musical calls and songs . One study recorded chatter alarm calls similar to the New Holland honeyeater , a number of harsh monosyllabic or tri @-@ syllabic contact calls , and complex and diverse songs . The most common contact call is a loud , carrying " e @-@ gypt " , while the alarm call is a sharp and rapid " chip @-@ chip @-@ chip " . The male also has a melodic song which is heard throughout the year , at any time of the day . The structure of the song is complex and diverse , and includes both a descending whistle and a musical two @-@ note call . The male 's song is performed from an exposed perch or within the tree canopy , and it engages in mating displays ( song flights ) during the breeding season . When the female is on the nest and the male nearby , they utter low soft notes identified as " whisper song " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
There are records of scattered populations of the crescent honeyeater on the Central Tablelands , the Mid North Coast , and in the Hunter Region of New South Wales , and it is widespread in the areas of New South Wales south of Dharug National Park and east of Bathurst . In Victoria it is widespread across an area from the NSW border south west to Wallan with scattered populations recorded further west . It is widespread in Tasmania , except in the north @-@ east part of the state where it is more sparsely distributed . It is restricted to sclerophyll forest in eastern South Australia , where isolated populations have been recorded in the Mount Lofty Ranges and on Kangaroo Island . Local influxes have occurred outside its normal range in response to changes in habitat . Recorded population densities range from 0 @.@ 3 birds per hectare ( 0 @.@ 1 per acre ) near Orbost , to 8 @.@ 7 pairs per hectare ( 3 @.@ 4 per acre ) in Boola Boola State Forest , also in Victoria .
While the crescent honeyeater occupies a wide variety of habitats including coastal heath , rainforest , wet sclerophyll forest , mountain forest , alpine woodland , damp gullies and thick tea @-@ tree scrub , they all demonstrate its preference for dense vegetation . It has been frequently recorded in wet sclerophyll forest dominated by eucalypts and with a thick mid @-@ story and understory of shrubs such as blackwood , silver wattle , Cassinia , Prostanthera , and Correa . At higher altitudes it occurs in alpine heathlands and in woodlands of stunted eucalypt or conifers .
The movements of the crescent honeyeater within its range are incompletely known . There is widespread evidence of seasonal migration to lower altitudes in cooler months , yet a proportion of the population remains sedentary . Autumn and winter migration to the lowland coastal areas is seen in southern Tasmania , where it is not unusual to see it in urban parks and gardens , as well as Gippsland , and the New South Wales Central and South Coast . In the Sydney region , some birds appear to move down from the Blue Mountains to Sydney for the cooler months , yet others remain in either location for the whole year . It is only seen in alpine and subalpine areas of the Snowy Mountains in warmer snow @-@ free months ( mainly October to April ) . Other populations of crescent honeyeaters follow a more nomadic pattern of following food sources ; this has been recorded in the Blue Mountains and parts of Victoria .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Crescent honeyeaters occupy territories during the breeding season of July to March , with pairs often staying on in the territory at the end of the season and committing to one breeding site for several years . Banding studies have recaptured birds within metres of the nest in which they were raised , and one female was re @-@ trapped at the banding place almost ten years later . The pairs nest solitarily , or in loose colonies with nests around 10 metres ( 33 ft ) apart . The male defends the territory , which is used both for foraging and breeding , though during the breeding season he is more active in protecting the area , and therefore much more vocal . During courtship the male performs song flights , soaring with quivering wings and continuously calling with a high piping note .
The female builds the nest close to the boundary of the territory , usually near water , low in the shrubs . It is a deep , cup @-@ shaped , bulky nest of cobweb , bark , grass , twigs , roots and other plant materials , lined with grass , down , moss and fur . The long strips of bark from stringybark or messmate trees are often used . The clutch size is 2 or 3 , occasionally 4 . Measuring 19 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) by 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) , the eggs are pale pink , sometimes buff @-@ tinged , with lavender and chestnut splotches . The base colour is darker at the larger end . The female incubates and broods the eggs , but both sexes feed the nestlings and remove fecal sacs , although the female does the majority of caring for the young . The young birds are fed insects , with flies making up much of the regurgitated material according to one study . The incubation period is 13 days , followed by a fledging period of 13 days . The parent birds feed the fledglings for around two weeks after they leave the nest , but the young do not remain long in the parents ' territory . The young are independent within 40 days of egg @-@ laying .
Parent birds have been observed using a range of anti @-@ predator strategies : the female staying on the nest until almost touched ; one or other of the pair performing distraction displays , fluttering wings and moving across the ground ; the female flying rapidly at the intruder ; and both birds giving harsh scolding calls when a kookaburra , tiger snake or currawong approached . The nests of the crescent honeyeater are usually low in the shrubs , which makes the birds and their young vulnerable to predation by birds and snakes ; however , domestic and feral cats are the most likely predators to hunt this species .
Crescent honeyeaters pair in long @-@ term relationships that often last for the whole year ; however , while they are socially monogamous they appear to be sexually promiscuous . One study found that only 42 % of the nestlings were sired by the male partner at the nest despite paternity guards such as pairing and territorial defence . The crescent honeyeaters observed exhibited a number of characteristics consistent with genetic promiscuity : sexual dimorphism , with sex @-@ specific plumages identifiable at nestling stage ; reduced male contribution to feeding and caring for the young ; vigorous defence of the territory by the male ; and frequent intrusions into other territories by females which were tolerated by the males holding those territories .
= = = Feeding = = =
The crescent honeyeater is arboreal , foraging mainly among the foliage and flowers in the understory and tree canopy on nectar , fruits and small insects . It has been recorded eating the honeydew of psyllids , soft scale and felt scale insects . It feeds primarily by probing flowers for nectar , and gleaning foliage and bark and sallying for insects . While regularly observed feeding singly or in pairs , the crescent honeyeater has also been recorded moving in loose feeding flocks , and gathering in large groups at productive food sources . A study in forest near Hobart in Tasmania found that the crescent honeyeater 's diet was wholly composed of insects during the breeding season , but nectar was a significant component during winter . Insects consumed include moths and flies , and the tree trunks were the site of foraging around two thirds of the time , and foliage a third . It fed on nectar as plants came into flower in the autumn and winter , and then foraged in Tasmanian blue gum ( Eucalyptus globulus ) during the breeding season in spring . The flowering of royal grevillea ( Grevillea victoriae ) over summer in subalpine areas in the Snowy Mountains attracted large numbers of crescent honeyeaters . It feeds intensively when sources are plentiful and when feeding on flame heath ( Astroloma conostephioides ) it was recorded visiting an average of 34 flowers per minute . Other plants it has been recorded visiting include a number of Banksia species , waratah ( Telopea ) , tubular flowered genera including Astroloma , Epacris and Correa , mistletoes of the genus Amyema , and eucalypts in the Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia . In Bondi State Forest it was also recorded feeding at cluster @-@ flower geebung ( Persoonia confertiflora ) , native holly ( Lomatia ilicifolia ) , tall shaggy @-@ pea ( Oxylobium arborescens ) , silver wattle ( Acacia dealbata ) and blackthorn ( Bursaria spinosa ) . Local differences in flower foraging patterns have been observed in South Australia ; populations on Kangaroo Island forage more often at Adenanthos flowers than those in the nearby Fleurieu Peninsula , while the latter forage more often at eucalypt blooms , and at a higher diversity of plants overall .
= = Conservation status = =
While the population numbers and distribution are sufficient for the crescent honeyeater to be listed as of Least Concern for conservation , numbers have fluctuated significantly over the past twenty @-@ five years and currently seem to be in decline . The threats to the crescent honeyeater include habitat destruction , as the alpine forests in which it breeds are being reduced by weed infestations , severe bush fires , drought and land clearing . The crescent honeyeater 's dependence on long @-@ term partnerships and breeding territories means that breeding success is threatened by the death of one partner or the destruction of habitual territory . The influx of birds to urban areas also places them at increased risk of accidents and predation . Cats have been recorded preying on crescent honeyeaters , and at least one guide urges cat owners to keep their cats in enclosures when outside the house or to provide a stimulating indoor environment for them .
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= Vernon Sturdee =
Lieutenant General Sir Vernon Ashton Hobart Sturdee , KBE , CB , DSO ( 16 April 1890 – 25 May 1966 ) was an Australian Army commander who served two terms as Chief of the General Staff . A regular officer of the Royal Australian Engineers who joined the Militia in 1908 , he was one of the original Anzacs during the First World War , participating in the landing at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915 . In the campaign that followed , he commanded the 5th Field Company , before going on to lead the 8th Field Company and 4th Pioneer Battalion on the Western Front . In 1918 he was seconded to General Headquarters ( GHQ ) British Expeditionary Force as a staff officer .
Promotion was stagnant between the wars , and Sturdee remained at his wartime rank of lieutenant colonel until 1935 . He served in a series of staff posts , and attended the Staff College at Quetta in British India and the Imperial Defence College in Britain . Like other regular officers , he had little faith in the government 's " Singapore strategy " , and warned that the Army would have to face an effective and well @-@ equipped Japanese opponent .
Ranked colonel at the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , Sturdee was raised to lieutenant general in 1940 and became Chief of the General Staff . He proceeded to conduct a doomed defence of the islands to the north of Australia against the advancing Japanese forces . In 1942 , he successfully advised the government to divert the Second Australian Imperial Force troops returning from the Middle East to Australia . He then became head of the Australian Military Mission to Washington , D.C. , where he represented Australia before the Combined Chiefs of Staff . As commander of the First Army in New Guinea in 1944 – 45 , Sturdee directed the fighting at Aitape , and on New Britain and Bougainville . He was charged with destroying the enemy when opportunity presented itself , but had to do so with limited resources , and without committing his troops to battles that were beyond their strength .
When the war ended , Sturdee took the surrender of Japanese forces in the Rabaul area . As one of the Army 's most senior officers , he succeeded General Sir Thomas Blamey as Commander in Chief of the Australian Military Forces in December 1945 . He became the Chief of the General Staff a second time in 1946 , serving in the post until his retirement in 1950 . During this term , he had to demobilise the wartime Army while fielding and supporting the Australian contingent of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan . He developed a structure for the post @-@ war Army that included regular combat formations . As a result , the Australian Regular Army was formed , laying the foundations for the service as it exists today .
= = Education and early life = =
Vernon Ashton Hobart Sturdee was born in Frankston , Victoria , on 16 April 1890 , the son of Alfred Hobart Sturdee and his wife Laura Isabell , née Merrett . Alfred Sturdee , a medical practitioner from England , came from a prominent naval family and was the brother of Doveton Sturdee , who later became an admiral of the fleet . Alfred emigrated to Australia in the 1880s , travelling as a ship 's doctor . He served in the Boer War , where he was mentioned in despatches after he rode under fire to a donga near the enemy 's position to aid wounded men . Re @-@ enlisting in the Australian Army Medical Corps as a captain in January 1905 , he was promoted to major in August 1908 and lieutenant colonel in December 1912 . He later commanded the 2nd Field Ambulance at Gallipoli and , with the rank of colonel , was Assistant Director of Medical Services of the 1st Division on the Western Front . He received three more mentions in despatches and was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George . His Australian @-@ born wife Laura , known as Lil , was the sister of Charles Merrett , a prominent businessman and Militia officer . Her half @-@ brother , Colonel Harry Perrin , was another Militia officer .
Vernon Sturdee was educated at Melbourne Grammar School , before being apprenticed to an engineer at Jaques Brothers , Richmond , Victoria . Commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers , the Militia 's engineer component , on 19 October 1908 , he was promoted to lieutenant in the Royal Australian Engineers , as the permanent component was then known , on 1 February 1911 . He married Edith Georgina Robins on 4 February 1913 at St Luke 's Church of England , North Fitzroy , Melbourne .
= = First World War = =
= = = Gallipoli = = =
Sturdee joined the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 25 August 1914 with the rank of lieutenant . He was promoted to captain on 18 October , and appointed adjutant of the 1st Division Engineers . He embarked from Melbourne for Egypt on the former P & O ocean liner RMS Orvieto on 21 October 1914 . He participated in the landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915 , disembarking from the transport SS Minnewaska before 9 : 00 . His duties included supervising the engineer stores park on the beach at Anzac Cove , as well as the construction of jam tin grenades . He was evacuated twice for hospital treatment for enteric fever and for serious damage to his stomach lining from internal burns as a result of too much " Condy 's crystals " disinfectant being put into drinking water . As a result , he was to suffer stomach problems for the rest of his life . In July , Sturdee contracted influenza and was evacuated from Anzac Cove .
Sturdee was promoted to major on 28 August 1915 , and in September assumed command of the 5th Field Company , a unit raised in Egypt to support the newly formed 2nd Division . From then until the end of the campaign , he was responsible for all engineering and mining work at Steele 's , Quinn 's and Courtney 's Posts , three of the northernmost and most dangerous and exposed parts of the line . He departed Anzac Cove for the last time on 17 December 1915 , two days before the final evacuation .
= = = Western Front = = =
On returning to Egypt after the evacuation of Anzac , Sturdee assumed responsibility for the provision of hutting at the AIF reinforcement camp at Tel el Kebir . There was already another 5th Field Company in Egypt , which had been raised in Australia . Accordingly , Sturdee 's 5th Field Company was renumbered 8th , and assigned to the 5th Division when it was formed in February 1916 . This move gave the new division an experienced field company , but at the expense of items of the company 's mail going to France for a time and arriving back in Egypt marked " Not Fifth , try Eighth . "
The 5th Division moved to France in June 1916 , where it participated in the disastrous Battle of Fromelles in July . During the action , Sturdee 's 8th Field Company supported the 8th Infantry Brigade . A trench dug by the former facilitated the latter 's withdrawal across no man 's land . For his service at Gallipoli and Fromelles , he was mentioned in despatches , and awarded the Distinguished Service Order . Heavy losses in the fighting at Fromelles prevented the 5th Division from participating in the Battle of the Somme . To free up another division to participate , II ANZAC Corps organised " Franks Force " to take over a divisional frontage in the Houplines sector , and Sturdee became its Commander Royal Engineers ( CRE ) . When the 5th Division finally moved to the Somme sector in November , he became CRE in charge of the road from Albert to Montauban .
On 13 February 1917 , Sturdee was appointed to command the 4th Pioneer Battalion , with the rank of lieutenant colonel . Pioneer battalions were organised as infantry but contained a high percentage of tradesmen and were employed on construction tasks under engineer supervision . Over the next nine months the 4th Pioneer Battalion maintained roads , built camps , laid cables and dug trenches and dugouts . By 1917 , the Australian government was pushing strongly for British Army officers holding Australian commands and staff posts to be replaced by Australians . As part of this " Australianisation " of the Australian Corps , Sturdee became CRE of the 5th Division on 25 November 1917 , replacing a British Army officer . On 27 March 1918 , Sturdee was seconded to General Headquarters ( GHQ ) British Expeditionary Force as a staff officer , remaining there until 22 October 1918 . This provided a rare opportunity , for an Australian officer , of observing the workings of a major headquarters engaged in active operations . For his service on the Western Front , Sturdee was mentioned in despatches a second time , and appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his work at GHQ .
= = Between the wars = =
Sturdee embarked for Australia on 16 November 1918 , and his AIF appointment was terminated on 14 March 1919 . He was entitled to his AIF rank of lieutenant colonel as an honorary rank , but his substantive rank was still only that of a captain . He was given the brevet rank of lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1920 , but this did not become substantive until 1 April 1932 . Sturdee initially served as Senior Engineer Officer on the staff of the 3rd Military District at Victoria Barracks , Melbourne . In 1921 , he attended the Staff College at Quetta in British India . He was an instructor in military engineering and surveying at the Royal Military College , Duntroon from 16 February to 31 December 1924 , before returning to Melbourne to serve on the staff of the 4th Division until 26 March 1929 . Posted to the United Kingdom , he served at the War Office and attended the Imperial Defence College in 1931 . From 1 January 1931 to 31 December 1932 , he was the military representative at the High Commission of Australia in London .
Sturdee was Director of Military Operations and Intelligence at Army Headquarters in Melbourne from 14 February 1933 to 1 March 1938 , a period " when the Army was at rock bottom " , and then served as Director of Staff Duties until 12 October 1938 . He was given the brevet rank of colonel on 1 July 1935 ; this became temporary on 1 July 1936 and finally substantive on 1 July 1937 , over twenty years after he had become a lieutenant colonel in the AIF . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the New Year Honours in 1939 for his services on the Army Headquarters staff .
Like his predecessor as Director of Military Operations and Intelligence , Colonel John Lavarack , and many other officers , Sturdee had little faith in the government 's " Singapore strategy " , which aimed to deter Japanese aggression through the presence of a powerful British fleet based at Singapore . In 1933 , Sturdee told senior officers that the Japanese
would all be regulars , fully trained and equipped for the operations , and fanatics who like dying in battle , whilst our troops would consist mainly of civilians hastily thrown together on mobilisation with very little training , short of artillery and possibly of gun ammunition .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Defence of Australia = = =
In 1939 , the Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Ernest Squires , implemented a reorganisation of the Army in which the old military districts were replaced by larger commands led by lieutenant generals . On 13 October 1939 , Sturdee was promoted from colonel to lieutenant general and assumed control of the new Eastern Command . He had to supervise the raising , training and equipping of the new Second Australian Imperial Force units being formed in New South Wales , as well as the now @-@ conscript Militia .
On 1 July 1940 , Sturdee accepted a demotion to major general in order to become the commander of Second AIF 's newly raised 8th Division , receiving the Second AIF serial number NX35000 . His period in this command was brief . On 13 August 1940 , the Chief of the General Staff , General Sir Brudenell White , was killed in the Canberra air disaster . Sturdee was restored to his rank of lieutenant general and appointed Chief of the General Staff . As such , he was responsible for the training and maintenance of the AIF in the Middle East and the Far East — although not their operational control — and for the administration and training of the Militia .
As the prospect of war with Japan became more likely , so also did the need to make appropriate arrangements for leading the defence of Australia . In 1935 , Lavarack had recommended that in the event of war , the Military Board be abolished and its powers vested in a Commander @-@ in @-@ chief . In April 1941 , the Minister for the Army , Percy Spender , recommended that this now be done , with Sturdee becoming Commander in Chief of the Australian Military Forces . Instead , the government elected to adopt the British system , in which the Military Board ( or Army Council as it was called there ) continued to operate , with a separate GOC Home Forces . On 5 August 1941 , Major General Sir Iven Mackay was appointed to this newly created post . However , the idea of a Commander in Chief did not go away and editorials in the Sunday Telegraph and The Sydney Morning Herald advocated the appointment .
= = = East Indies campaign = = =
Sturdee attempted to defend the islands to the north of Australia as best he could . With only one AIF infantry brigade available , the 23rd , he could only afford to protect the islands most strategically important to the defence of Australia . He sent the 2 / 21st Infantry Battalion to Ambon , the 2 / 22nd to Rabaul , and the 2 / 40th Infantry Battalion and 2 / 2nd Independent Company to Timor . Sturdee knew that their prospects were slim but expected them " to put up the best possible defence " with what resources they had , and hopefully slow the Japanese advance to allow time for reinforcements to arrive in Australia . When there were doubts about the morale of one commander , Sturdee replaced him with a staff officer from Army Headquarters who volunteered for the position despite being well aware of the odds . All the garrisons were overrun after a spirited defence , except for the 2 / 2nd Independent Company , which managed to hold on in East Timor .
In February 1942 , on advice from Lavarack that the Dutch East Indies would soon fall , Sturdee urged the Australian government that the 17 @,@ 800 troops returning from the Middle East , originally bound for Java , be diverted to Australia . Sturdee contended that Java could not be held , and that Allied resources should instead be concentrated in an area from which an offensive could be launched . The best place for this , he argued , was Australia . When Prime Minister John Curtin backed his Chief of the General Staff , it brought him into conflict with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who suggested that the AIF be diverted to Burma . In the end , Curtin won his point , and subsequent events vindicated Sturdee 's appreciation of the situation . Official historian Lionel Wigmore concluded :
It is now evident that the 7th Division would have arrived only in time to help in the extraction from Pegu and to take part in the long retreat to India . In that event it could not have been returned to Australia , rested and sent to New Guinea in time to perform the crucial role it was to carry out in the defeat of the Japanese offensive which would open there in July , 1942 . The Allied cause therefore was well served in sound judgement and solid persistence of General Sturdee who maintained his advice against that of the Chiefs of Staff in London and Washington .
= = = Island campaigns = = =
In March 1942 , the Military Board was abolished and General Sir Thomas Blamey was appointed Commander in Chief . Blamey decided that after the hectic events of the previous months , Sturdee needed a rest and appointed him as Head of the Australian Military Mission to Washington , D.C. , where the war 's strategy was now being decided . Sturdee accepted on condition that after a year 's duty in Washington he would be appointed to an important command . In Washington , Sturdee represented Australia before the Combined Chiefs of Staff and managed to obtain the right of direct access to the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General George Marshall . For his services as Chief of the General Staff , Sturdee was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 1 January 1943 .
Sturdee returned to Australia and assumed command of the First Army on 1 March 1944 . His headquarters was initially located in Queensland , but on 2 October 1944 it commenced operations in Lae , and Sturdee assumed command of the troops in New Guinea . These included Lieutenant General Stanley Savige 's II Corps , with its headquarters at Torokina on Bougainville ; Major General Alan Ramsay 's 5th Division on New Britain ; Major General Jack Stevens ' 6th Division at Aitape ; and the 8th Infantry Brigade west of Madang . On 18 October , Blamey issued an operational instruction that defined the role of the First Army : " by offensive action to destroy enemy resistance as opportunity offers without committing major forces . "
Sturdee was concerned by this order 's ambiguity and sought clarification from Blamey . The Commander in Chief responded by stating that " my conception is that action must be of a gradual nature " involving the use of patrols to determine Japanese strengths and positions before large offensives were undertaken . The situation on New Britain was straightforward enough ; the enemy was known to be stronger than the Australian forces there — although it was not realised just how much stronger — and so the best that could be done was to eliminate small numbers of Japanese troops by aggressive patrolling . At Aitape , Stevens was tasked on the one hand with pushing the Japanese back far enough to protect the airfields ; but on the other , with not allowing the 6th Division to become heavily engaged since it might be required for use elsewhere . On Bougainville , Savige had the strength and ability to conduct a major campaign , but Blamey counselled caution .
Juggling a number of contradictory requirements , Sturdee had to conduct three widely separated campaigns , the Aitape – Wewak campaign , the New Britain campaign and the Bougainville Campaign , and do so with limited resources . Shipping , which was controlled by General Douglas MacArthur 's GHQ South West Pacific Area , was a source of " continual anxiety " . On 18 July 1945 , Sturdee wrote to Savige :
We are on rather a hair trigger with operations in Bougainville and in 6 Division area in view of the political hostility of the Opposition and the Press criticism of the policy of operations being followed in these areas . The general policy is out of our hands , but we must conduct our operations in the spirit of the role given us by C. in C. [ Blamey ] , the main essence of which is that we should attain our object with a minimum of Australian casualties . We have in no way been pressed on the time factor and to date have managed to defeat the Japs with very reasonable casualties considering the number of the Japs that have been eliminated .
Sturdee 's operations were effective . On Bougainville , at a cost of 516 Australian dead and 1 @,@ 572 wounded , Savige 's troops had occupied much of the island and killed 8 @,@ 500 Japanese ; another 9 @,@ 800 died from malnutrition and disease . On New Britain , where 74 Australians died and 140 were wounded , the heavily outnumbered 5th Division had overrun central New Britain . Meanwhile , the 6th Division at Aitape and Wewak had lost 442 dead and 1 @,@ 141 wounded while clearing the Japanese from the coast and driving them into the mountains , killing 9 @,@ 000 and taking 269 prisoners .
On 6 September 1945 , Sturdee received the surrender of Japanese forces in the First Army area from General Hitoshi Imamura , the commander of the Japanese Eighth Area Army , and Admiral Jinichi Kusaka , the commander of the South East Area Fleet , in a ceremony held on the deck of the British aircraft carrier HMS Glory at Rabaul . The two Japanese swords handed over in the surrender ceremony , together with the sword worn by Sturdee , which was his father 's , were presented to the Australian War Memorial by Lady Sturdee in 1982 . For his service in the final campaigns , Blamey recommended Sturdee for a knighthood , but this was reduced to a third mention in despatches .
= = Later life = =
In November 1945 , the Minister for the Army , Frank Forde , informed Blamey that the government had decided to re @-@ establish the Military Board and he should therefore vacate his office . Sturdee became acting Commander in Chief on 1 December 1945 . On 1 March 1946 , the post of Commander in Chief was abolished and Sturdee became Chief of the General Staff again . There was much work to be done ; the wartime Army had a strength of 383 @,@ 000 in August 1945 , of whom 177 @,@ 000 were serving outside Australia .
These troops had to be demobilised , but what should replace the wartime Army had not yet been determined . Sturdee and his Vice Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Sydney Rowell , had to develop an appropriate structure . The proposal submitted to Cabinet called for national service , a regular army of 33 @,@ 000 and reserves of 42 @,@ 000 , but the government baulked at the £ 20m per annum price tag . A smaller force of 19 @,@ 000 regulars and 50 @,@ 000 reservists at a cost of £ 12.5m per annum was finally approved in 1947 . Conditions of service were also overhauled .
At the same time , the Army had to handle huge stockpiles of equipment , stores and supplies . Some were far in excess of the Army 's needs and had to be disposed of . Hospitals still had to be run , although some were transferred to the Department of Repatriation . The Army had to maintain its schools and training establishments . Moreover , the Army had to field and maintain part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan . Over next fifty years , operations would be conducted by the new Australian Regular Army that Sturdee created , rather than the Militia or specially enlisted expeditionary forces .
Sturdee retired on 17 April 1950 . In recognition of his services , he was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1951 . In retirement , he continued to live in Kooyong , Melbourne . He became a director of the Australian arm of Standard Telephones and Cables and was honorary colonel of the Royal Australian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers from 1951 to 1956 . The Army named the Landing Ship Medium Vernon Sturdee after him . He died on 25 May 1966 at the Repatriation General Hospital , Heidelberg . He was accorded a funeral with full military honours , and cremated . Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring , a boyhood friend from Melbourne Grammar , was principal pall bearer . Sturdee was survived by his wife , their daughter and one of their two sons . Before he died , he burned all his private papers . " I have done the job , " he said . " It is over . "
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= U.S. Route 27 in Michigan =
US Highway 27 ( US 27 ) is a part of the US Highway System that now runs from Miami , Florida , to Fort Wayne , Indiana . In the US state of Michigan , it was a state trunkline highway that entered the state south of Kinderhook and ended south of Grayling . Its route consisted of a freeway concurrency with Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) from the state line north to the Lansing area before it followed its own freeway facility northward to St. Johns . From there north to Ithaca , US 27 was an expressway before continuing as a freeway to a terminus south of Grayling .
Created with the rest of the US Highway System on November 11 , 1926 , US 27 replaced a pair of state highways between the state line and the Cheboygan area . For a time , US 27 even extended from Cheboygan to St. Ignace over the Mackinac Bridge . The highway was converted into a series of freeways starting in the late 1950s . The northernmost section between Grayling and Mackinaw City , bypassing Cheboygan , became part of I @-@ 75 , and US 27 was truncated to Grayling . Starting in the 1960s , the southern sections were included in I @-@ 69 . The last section of Interstate in Michigan was completed in 1992 when I @-@ 69 / US 27 opened southwest of Lansing . In the 1990s , a bypass of St. Johns north of Lansing was built , the last freeway segment of US 27 to open under that designation . On April 16 , 1999 , the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) approved the removal of the US 27 designation from the state of Michigan ; this change was put into place when the highway number was removed from signage in 2002 . Former segments of US 27 from its pre @-@ freeway configuration are still state highways in the form of M @-@ 27 between Indian River and Cheboygan or the various business routes in the state that previously bore Business US 27 ( Bus . US 27 ) designations .
= = Route description = =
= = = Southern Michigan = = =
I @-@ 69 / US 27 in Michigan began at the Indiana state line southeast of Kinderhook , just north of an interchange with the Indiana Toll Road ( I @-@ 80 / I @-@ 90 ) . From there , I @-@ 69 / US 27 ran northward through a mixture of Southern Michigan farmland and woodland in Branch County . A few miles north of the state line , the freeway passes Coldwater Lake State Park and its namesake body of water ; north of the lake , there is a welcome center for the northbound lanes . I @-@ 69 / US 27 curved around the east side of Coldwater , connecting to the city 's business loop on the south of town . The freeway intersects the northern end of the business loop immediately east of downtown at an interchange that also features US 12 ( Chicago Road ) . A third interchange , some three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) further north , features a distribution center for Walmart stores in the region . Further north , the freeway curves around to the northwest into Calhoun County and crosses over the St. Joseph River . I @-@ 69 / US 27 turned back northward and bypassed Tekonsha to the town 's west , intersecting M @-@ 60 in the process .
Curving around Nottawa Lake , I @-@ 69 / US 27 continued northward through southern Calhoun County . It passed through an interchange that marked the southern terminus of M @-@ 227 , a highway that runs northward into Marshall . The freeway crosses the Kalamazoo River and through an interchange with M @-@ 96 west of downtown Marshall . From that interchange northward , the BL I @-@ 94 designation was overlaid on I @-@ 69 / US 27 ; the business loop ends at the cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 94 northwest of Marshall . North of I @-@ 94 , I @-@ 69 / US 27 had one more interchange before crossing into Eaton County .
In southern Eaton County , the freeway parallels the Battle Creek River north of the junction with M @-@ 78 . Near Olivet , I @-@ 69 / US 27 began to turn in a northeasterly direction . As it continued in that direction , it ran to the north side of Olivet . On the south side of Charlotte , I @-@ 69 / US 27 turned northward , traversing an area to the east of downtown and crossing the former routing of US 27 , which is now part of the business loop for the city . Further north , the freeway has a junction with M @-@ 50 , a bridge over the Battle Creek River , and an interchange with the northern end of the business loop next to Fitch H. Beach Airport . North of the airport , I @-@ 69 / US 27 turned northeasterly again and paralleled Lansing Road , the former route of US 27 / M @-@ 78 . The freeway meets the southern end of M @-@ 100 near Potterville and continues onto the Lansing – East Lansing metropolitan area . Southwest of the state 's capital city , I @-@ 69 / US 27 crossed over Lansing Road near Lansing Delta Township Assembly , a factory for General Motors ; northeast of the complex , I @-@ 69 / US 27 merged into I @-@ 96 . The combined I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 69 / US 27 ran northward through the suburban edges of the Lansing area , intersecting the western ends of I @-@ 496 and the BL I @-@ 69 for Lansing . The freeway enters Clinton County , and just north of a crossing of the Grand River , I @-@ 69 / US 27 turned eastward to separate from I @-@ 96 . As a part of the larger interchange with I @-@ 96 , I @-@ 69 / US 27 crossed BL I @-@ 96 ( Grand River Avenue ) without any connections .
= = = Mid @-@ Michigan to Grayling = = =
After leaving the I @-@ 96 concurrency , I @-@ 69 changes cardinal orientation and is signed as east – west from that point on . The freeway continues parallel to the Looking Glass River through suburban areas north of Capital Region International Airport . North of East Lansing , I @-@ 69 / US 27 met US 127 at a cloverleaf interchange , and US 27 turned northward to separate from I @-@ 69 . The US 27 freeway ran through farmland and crossed the Looking Glass River . At Price Road , US 27 met its southernmost business loop , the Bus . US 27 for St. Johns . The freeway continues due north and intersects M @-@ 21 east of town before it turns northwesterly to round the northern side of St. Johns . North of downtown , US 27 met the northern end of the business loop and the freeway ends . Continuing northward as an expressway , the highway has four lanes divided by a median with at @-@ grade intersections at the cross roads .
In Gratiot County , US 27 was named Bagley Road . North of Wilson Road , the expressway crosses the Maple River on a causeway through a wetland area in the Maple River State Game Area . North of the river , the expressway crosses a branch line of the Great Lakes Central Railroad , then has an interchange with M @-@ 57 . About six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) further north , US 27 turned to the northwest , separating from Bagley Road . The expressway transitions back to a full freeway as the trunkline turns north and curves around the east side of Ithaca , meeting the southern end of Ithaca 's business loop at Center Road , and the opposite end north of town .
Further north , US 27 angled northwesterly between Alma and St. Louis . Each city has its own business loop , accessible on the south side through a pair of partial interchanges at Lincoln and State roads . The freeway crosses the Pine River before intersecting M @-@ 46 and the two business loops at another pair of interchanges north of downtown Alma . After US 27 crossed into Isabella County , it turned northwesterly near Shepherd . After a few miles , a short freeway spur carrying the Bus . US 27 for Mount Pleasant splits off and the main freeway turns back to the north . The two highways continue in parallel through town before turning to converge north of Mount Pleasant by the airport . After the freeway stub at the northern end of the business loop merges in , the main freeway crosses the Chippewa River .
US 27 continued through northern Isabella County to pass east of Rosebush . South of the Clare County line in Clare , US 27 met the southern end of Clare 's Bus . US 27 . The freeway turns northeasterly , crosses Bus . US 10 and the county line before merging with US 10 . US 27 / US 10 curved around Lake Shamrock on the northern end of town before meeting the northern end of Bus . US 27 / Bus . US 10 . The freeway continues north , past a welcome center in the median , and US 10 splits off to the west .
North of Clare , US 27 ran through forest , where it passed to the east of Harrison . On the east side of that town , the freeway crosses between Little Long and Sutherland lakes before meeting the northern end of the Harrison business loop . The freeway then crosses into Roscommon County . East of the community of Houghton Lake Heights and the city of Houghton Lake , US 27 intersected M @-@ 55 . North of that interchange , the freeway parallels the western shore of Houghton Lake and crosses the Muskegon River . The freeway then turns a bit northeasterly toward Higgins Lake and follows that lake 's western shore before crossing into Crawford County . Once across the county line , US 27 curved around to the northeast for about 5 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) before terminating at I @-@ 75 south of Grayling .
= = History = =
= = = Predecessor highways = = =
The first major overland transportation corridors in the future state of Michigan were the Indian trails . Only one of these followed part of the path of US 27 ; the Mackinac Trail roughy paralleled the route of US 27 from Grayling north .
The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , no one of the system 's divisions corresponded to US 27 . Division 3 followed a course from Lansing northward to an intersection with Division 2 . Combined with the northernmost sections of Division 2 to the Straits of Mackinac , these highways roughly described the future route of US 27 . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and two different highways followed sections of the future US 27 corridor . The original M @-@ 29 ran from the Indiana state line north to Lansing . The second highway was M @-@ 14 from Lansing north to Cheboygan .
= = = United States Numbered Highways era = = =
On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , and the new US 27 replaced M @-@ 29 from the state line northward to Lansing ; from Lansing northward , US 27 replaced M @-@ 14 to Cheboygan . By the end of the next year , M @-@ 78 was extended from Charlotte along US 27 to run north and east of Lansing to a junction with M @-@ 47 near Pittsburg . In 1929 , the route of US 27 / M @-@ 18 was realigned south of Roscommon on the east side of Higgins Lake . The same year , another realignment moved US 27 to run due north from the Clinton – Gratiot county line to M @-@ 43 at Ithaca , and a third change rounded a corner near Shepherd in Isabella County .
When a new roadway was built in the St. Louis area in 1930 , the former routing into Alma was redesignated US 27A ; another US 27A was created in Shepherd around the same time . By the middle of 1936 , the US 27 / M @-@ 78 routing through Lansing was split into two . The mainline was restricted to cars only and moved to run along Capitol Avenue . The former routing was restricted to trucks only and designated as a truck route . By the end of the year , another realignment straightened out a series of turns from the county line northward to Wolverine in Cheboygan County . The following year , US 27 was extended to follow US 23 between Cheboygan and Mackinaw City . That year , the last section of the highway was also paved southwest of Houghton Lake . In 1938 , the route of US 27 on the north side of downtown Lansing was realigned on an extended Larch Street . The US 27A loop into Shepherd was removed the next year .
In the latter half of 1940 , US 23 was rerouted to follow the Lake Huron shoreline northwest of Alpena ; after this change was completed , US 27 's concurrency with US 23 was shortened to start in downtown Cheboygan instead of south of town . Later in the decade , US 27 was rerouted to run to the west of Houghton and Higgins lakes in 1949 . The next year , the truck route designation in Lansing was decommissioned when the mainline was rerouted to replace it . In the early 1950s , the highway was rerouted to the south of St. Johns , and by early 1952 a business loop was created for the city ; this four @-@ lane divided highway extended as far south as the DeWitt area . By the end of 1952 , a four @-@ lane divided highway segment opened southwest of Lansing to bypass Millett .
= = = Conversion to freeways = = =
The first planning maps from 1947 for what later became the Interstate Highway System did not include a highway along US 27 's route ; instead a highway further west connecting South Bend , Indiana , with Kalamazoo was included . This alternative highway was maintained on the 1955 plan for the " National System of Interstate and Defense Highways " , and numbered I @-@ 67 in August 1957 . By June 1958 , this freeway had been shifted further east and renumbered I @-@ 69 , connecting Indianapolis , Indiana , with Marshall ; no connections north and east to Lansing were planned as part of the Interstate Highway System .
The Mackinac Bridge was opened to traffic on November 1 , 1957 ; a new section of freeway and an interchange connected US 2 to the bridge . The US 27 designation was initially extended across the bridge from Mackinaw City to St. Ignace . In November 1960 , sections of I @-@ 75 freeway opened from Indian River north to the southern Mackinac Bridge approaches in Mackinaw City , and US 27 was removed from the bridge .
In 1961 , the MSHD had proposed that the section of US 27 south of Lansing be built as an electronic highway under a bid through General Motors ; the testing for such a roadway was ultimately done at Ohio State University instead . That September , the section of I @-@ 75 between Gaylord and Vanderbilt was completed , and in October 1961 , the first segment of I @-@ 75 near Grayling opened , connecting M @-@ 18 with the city . By the end of the year , the former segment of US 27 between Grayling and Gaylord was turned back to local control , and the section of highway between Indian River and Cheboygan was redesignated M @-@ 27 . After this individual segment of freeway was completed , there was a gap between Gaylord and Indian River that was designated " TO I @-@ 75 " on maps along the former segment of US 27 , and US 27 was truncated to about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of Grayling . Also by the end of the same year , the highway was shifted to follow a new freeway routing from the southwest of Ithaca to Grayling , bypassing Ithaca , St. Louis , Mount Pleasant , Clare and Harrison . The old route was turned over to local control except through the aforementioned cities where it was reused for business loops . The US 27A through Alma was also bypassed by the new freeway , and it was redesignated Bus . US 27 as well . Another non @-@ freeway bypass was built around Charlotte , and the former route was redesignated Bus . US 27 .
On December 12 , 1962 , I @-@ 96 was completed around the Lansing area , and M @-@ 78 was rerouted to follow it . The route of US 27 / M @-@ 78 through downtown Lansing became US 27 / Bus . M @-@ 78 . On October 11 , 1967 , the first segment of I @-@ 69 / US 27 was scheduled to open between the Indiana state line and Tekonsha . By the end of the year , the freeway was extended north to Marshall . The former route of US 27 in Coldwater was redesignated as a Business Loop I @-@ 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) as well .
The MSHD requested additional Interstate Highway mileage in 1968 under the Federal @-@ Aid Highway Act of 1968 including an extension of I @-@ 69 from Marshall to Port Huron ; this extension was approved as far as I @-@ 75 / US 23 in Flint on December 13 , 1968 . This extension encompassed the US 27 corridor between Marshall and Lansing .
In 1970 , the I @-@ 69 / US 27 freeway was extended from Marshall to just south of Olivet . The next year , the freeway was extended north to , and incorporated , the previous Charlotte bypass . Bus . US 27 through Charlotte remains unchanged . In 1973 , the M @-@ 78 concurrency from Olivet northeasterly along US 27 was removed , and the connection along US 27 northeast of the existing I @-@ 69 freeway was designated TEMP I @-@ 69 . The following year , Bus . US 27 in Charlotte was renumbered as a BL I @-@ 69 . In the middle of 1974 , Indiana and Michigan petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation north of Fort Wayne , Indiana , including the entire length in Michigan ; this request was denied .
A northern freeway bypass of the Lansing area opened in 1984 . MDOT rerouted US 27 to follow I @-@ 96 around the west side of the city and over the new freeway to reconnect with the exiting routing north of Lansing . The former US 27 through downtown Lansing was redesignated Bus . 27 that that time . Another segment of freeway opened in 1987 in Clinton County between US 127 near DeWitt and TEMP I @-@ 69 near Bath .
In 1991 , MDOT and the Indiana Department of Transportation petitioned AASHTO to remove the US 27 designation from its concurrency with I @-@ 69 in the two states ; this request was denied by the association 's Special Committee on U.S. Route Numbering at its October 11 , 1991 , meeting because it would have resulted in a section of US 27 north of Lansing disconnected from the remainder of the highway south of Fort Wayne . The final segment of I @-@ 69 / US 27 to be completed was located southwest of Lansing . It opened on October 17 , 1992 , when the ribbon was cut by Governor John Engler . This Interstate Highway segment was the last in the state and completed Michigan 's portion of the Interstate Highway System . At the time it was complete , I @-@ 69 was concurrent with US 27 from the state line north to the DeWitt area ( exit 87 ) and then concurrent with US 127 to exit 89 .
A few years later , the statutory definition of the I @-@ 73 corridor was amended in 1995 to have a branch that would encompass the section of US 27 north of Lansing . This new Interstate was to follow US 223 and US 127 between Toledo , Ohio , and Lansing before continuing north to I @-@ 75 near Grayling . From Grayling northward , the I @-@ 73 corridor was defined to follow I @-@ 75 to Sault Ste . Marie .
The St. Johns Bypass on US 27 opened on August 31 , 1998 ; US 27 was extended along I @-@ 69 about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to connect to the bypass , and US 127 was removed from its short concurrency with I @-@ 69 . After this opening , US 27 was a full freeway in Michigan from the state line north to St. Johns and from Ithaca to the Grayling area . The last signalized intersection on US 27 in the state was removed in 2000 when the junction with M @-@ 57 was converted to an interchange in southern Gratiot County .
= = = Decommissioning in Michigan = = =
The previous year , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved by AASHTO on April 16 , 1999 . The department considered three options to build the southern segments of I @-@ 73 in 2000 ; MDOT abandoned further study of these southern alignments after June 12 , 2001 , diverting remaining funding to safety improvement projects along the corridor . The department stated there was a " lack of need " for sections of the proposed freeway , and the project website was closed down in 2002 .
The approved removal of US 27 was finally done in the middle of 2002 . MDOT 's stated reason for the modification was to " reduce confusion along the US 27 / US 127 corridor " . After US 27 's signage was removed , the highway north of the Lansing area was renumbered US 127 , and the US 27 designation was removed from I @-@ 69 . All of the business loops were updated to reflect their new parent highway .
On August 19 , 2010 , the Michigan House of Representatives passed a resolution recognizing " Old US 27 " as a historic road in the state . According to press reports in 2011 , a group advocating on behalf of I @-@ 73 is working to revive the freeway project in Michigan . According to an MDOT spokesman , " to my knowledge , we ’ re not taking that issue up again . "
= = Exit list = =
At the time the US 27 designation was decommissioned in Michigan , only the interchanges along the section concurrent with I @-@ 69 used exit numbers .
= = Related trunklines = =
Over its history , US 27 had several business loops associated with it . Since the conversion of the highway into a freeway starting in the 1950s , these business loops served Marshall , Charlotte , Lansing , St. Johns , Ithaca , Alma , St. Louis , Mount Pleasant , Clare and Harrison . The business loops north of Lansing were redesignated as business loops of US 127 in 2002 while the Charlotte loop had been reassigned BL I @-@ 69 with the completion of I @-@ 69 through the area . In addition , Michigan had a US 27A designation through Alma and a Truck US 27 in Lansing .
= = = Marshall business route = = =
Business US Highway 27 ( Bus .. US 27 ) was a business route running through downtown Marshall . The designation ran concurrently with BL I @-@ 94 from I @-@ 69 / US 27 on Michigan Avenue easterly from that freeway into downtown . At the intersection with Kalamazoo Avenue , Bus . US 27 turned northward , separating from BL I @-@ 94 . The business route ended north of downtown at an interchange with I @-@ 94 after running for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) .
In 1967 , the first segment of I @-@ 69 opened in Michigan , bypassing Marshall to the east . The state shifted US 27 out of downtown Marshall to follow the new freeway . From the temporary end of I @-@ 69 at I @-@ 94 , US 27 followed I @-@ 94 back to its existing routing north of Marshall . The former route of US 27 through downtown Marshall was then redesignated Bus . US 27 , using BL I @-@ 94 to connect to the new freeway carrying US 27 west of downtown . This arrangement lasted until 1972 when the Bus . US 27 designation was decommissioned and the section of highway between BL I @-@ 94 and I @-@ 94 turned over to local control .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Calhoun County .
= = = Truck route = = =
Truck US 27 was a former truck route through the city of Lansing . It started at the corner of Capitol Avenue and Main Street and ran along Main Street to Grand Avenue . There , it turned north on Grand Avenue to Kalamazoo Street and turned east on Kalamazoo over the Grand River . At Larch Street , Rtuck US 27 continued north to rejoin the mainline at the corner of Larch and Saginaw streets .
By the middle of 1936 , the US 27 / M @-@ 78 routing through Lansing was split into two . The mainline was restricted to cars only and moved to run along Capitol Avenue . The former routing was restricted to trucks only and designated as a truck route . In 1950 , the bridge for Main Street over the Grand River was completed and mainline US 27 / M @-@ 78 was rerouted to use it to connect to Larch Street . From there north , US 27 / M @-@ 78 followed Larch Street supplanting the truck route , which was decommissioned at that time .
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= Neon Genesis Evangelion =
Neon Genesis Evangelion ( Japanese : 新世紀エヴァンゲリオン , Hepburn : Shin Seiki Evangerion , literally " Gospel of a New Century " ) , commonly referred to as Evangelion or Eva , is a Japanese animated television series ( anime ) produced by Gainax and Tatsunoko Production , and directed by Hideaki Anno . It was broadcast on TV Tokyo from October 1995 to March 1996 . The original Japanese cast includes Megumi Ogata as Shinji Ikari , Megumi Hayashibara as Rei Ayanami , and Yūko Miyamura as Asuka Langley Soryu . The music was composed by Shirō Sagisu .
Evangelion is an apocalyptic anime , set in a futuristic Tokyo fifteen years after a worldwide cataclysm . The story centers on Shinji , a teenage boy who is recruited by the shadowy organization NERV to pilot a giant bio @-@ machine mecha called an Evangelion in combat against monstrous beings known as Angels . The series explores the experiences and emotions of Evangelion pilots and members of NERV as they attempt to prevent another catastrophe . It features religious symbolism throughout the series , including themes and imagery derived from Kabbalah , Christianity , Judaism , Buddhism , and Shinto .
Neon Genesis Evangelion gained widespread critical acclaim . Regarded as a critique and deconstruction of the mecha genre , the series has become a cultural icon and influenced an artistic and technical revival of the anime industry . Subsequent film , manga , home video and other products in the Evangelion franchise have achieved record sales in Japan and strong sales in overseas markets , and by 2013 gross revenues had reached over 150 billion yen ( approximately $ 1 @.@ 32 billion ) .
= = Plot = =
In 2015 , fifteen years after a global cataclysm known as the Second Impact , teenager Shinji Ikari is summoned to the futuristic city of Tokyo @-@ 3 by his estranged father Gendo Ikari , the director of the special paramilitary force NERV . Shinji witnesses the United Nations forces battling an Angel : one of a race of giant monstrous beings whose awakening was foretold by the Dead Sea Scrolls . Because of the Angels ' near @-@ impenetrable force @-@ fields , NERV 's giant Evangelion bio @-@ machines , synchronized to the nervous systems of their pilots and possessing their own force @-@ fields , are the only weapons capable of keeping the Angels from annihilating humanity . NERV officer Misato Katsuragi escorts Shinji into the NERV complex beneath the city , where his father pressures him into piloting the Evangelion Unit @-@ 01 against the Angel . Without training , Shinji is quickly overwhelmed in the battle , causing the Evangelion to go berserk and savagely kill the Angel on its own .
Following hospitalization , Shinji moves in with Misato and begins settling in to life in Tokyo @-@ 3 . In his second battle , Shinji destroys an Angel but runs away after the battle , distraught . Misato confronts Shinji and he decides to remain a pilot . Evangelion Unit @-@ 00 is repaired and Shinji tries to befriend its pilot , a mysterious , and socially isolated teenage girl named Rei Ayanami . With Rei 's help , Shinji defeats another Angel .
Ritsuko Akagi , NERV 's chief scientist , reveals that the Second Impact was not caused by a meteor strike as officially reported , but instead resulted when the first Angel to arrive on Earth , codenamed Adam , exploded in the Antarctic . The pilot of Evangelion Unit @-@ 02 , teenage girl Asuka Langley Soryu , moves in with Misato and Shinji and joins her fellow pilots in defeating the next Angels . Shinji 's schoolfriend Toji Suzuhara is selected for Unit @-@ 03 , but during his first test synchronization with the Evangelion , Unit @-@ 03 is hijacked by an Angel . When Shinji refuses to destroy the rogue unit , his control over Unit @-@ 01 is cut off and supplanted by a prototype autopilot system known as the " Dummy Plug " system , and his Evangelion rips apart Unit @-@ 03 crushing Toji 's cockpit . Shinji is devastated and quits piloting the Evangelion , but is forced to return to destroy an Angel that has defeated both Asuka and Rei . Asuka loses her self @-@ confidence following her defeat and spirals into a deep depression . In the next battle , Rei self @-@ destructs Unit @-@ 00 and dies to save Shinji 's life . Misato and Shinji later visit the hospital where they find Rei alive but claiming she is " the third Rei " . Misato forces Ritsuko to reveal the dark secrets of NERV , the Evangelion graveyard and the Dummy Plug system which operates using clones of Rei .
Asuka is reduced to a catatonic state by her depression , and Kaworu Nagisa replaces her as pilot of Unit @-@ 02 . Kaworu , who initially befriends Shinji , is revealed to be the final Angel . Kaworu fights Shinji , then realizes that he must die if humanity is to thrive and asks Shinji to kill him . Despite his initial hesitation , Shinji kills Kaworu . Soon after this act , NERV and SEELE trigger the forced evolution of humanity , termed the " Human Instrumentality Project " , in which the souls of all mankind are merged into one through Rei . Shinji 's soul grapples with the reason for his existence and reaches an epiphany that he needs others to thrive , enabling him to destroy the wall of negative emotions that torment him . This allows him to be reunited with all of the main characters , who congratulate him .
= = Characters = =
Anno attempted to create characters that reflected parts of his own personality . The characters of Evangelion struggle with their interpersonal relationships , their personal problems , and traumatic events in their past . The human qualities of the characters have enabled some viewers of the show to identify with the characters on a personal level , while others interpret them as historical , religious , or philosophical symbols .
Shinji Ikari is the series protagonist and the designated pilot of Evangelion Unit @-@ 01 . After witnessing his mother Yui Ikari 's death as a child , Shinji was abandoned by his father , Gendo Ikari . He is emotionally hyper @-@ sensitive and sometimes does as expected out of fear of rejection , but he has often rebelled and refused to pilot the Eva because of the extremely excruciating harm that has been done to him , or done to his friends . After some difficulty taking the first steps , Shinji gains supremely excellent control of the Eva , surpassing all other pilots ; piloting Evas has become his most well known talent . Throughout the series he says to himself " I mustn 't run away " as a means of encouraging himself to face the threats of the day , and this sometimes actually gives him bravery in battle , but he has a lingering habit of withdrawing in response to traumatic events . He has an Oedipus complex , and likes Rei because she somehow resembles his mother . Anno has described Shinji as a boy who " shrinks from human contact " and has " convinced himself that he is a completely unnecessary person " .
The withdrawn and mysterious pilot of Evangelion Unit @-@ 00 , Rei Ayanami , is a clone made from the salvaged remains of Yui and is plagued by a sense of negative self @-@ worth stemming from the realization that she is an expendable asset . She at one time despised Shinji for his lack of trust in his father Gendo , with whom Rei is very close . However , after Shinji and Rei successfully defeat the Angel Ramiel , she takes a friendly liking to him . Towards the end of the series it is revealed that she is one of many clones , whose use is to replace the currently existing Rei if she is killed .
Asuka Langley Soryu is a child prodigy who pilots Evangelion Unit @-@ 02 and possesses a fiery temper and an overabundance of pride and self @-@ confidence , which often gets her in trouble and difficulty , especially during battles . As a little girl , Asuka discovered the body of her mother shortly after she committed suicide , leading the child to repress her emotions and vow never to cry . Asuka and Rei are presented with their own flaws and difficulty relating to other people .
Misato Katsuragi is the caretaker and commanding officer for Shinji and Asuka . Her professional demeanor at NERV contrasts dramatically with her carefree and irresponsible behavior at home . Character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto conceived her as an older " girl next door " and promiscuous loser who failed to take life seriously . Misato has an Electra complex and is consumed with conflicting love and hate for her father , which manifests as a driving force in her decision to work at NERV and her attempts to " [ seek ] her father in Kaji 's embrace . " Anno described Shinji and Misato as " afraid of being hurt " and " unsuitable — lacking the positive attitude — for what people call heroes of an adventure . "
The teenaged Evangelion pilots are ordered into battle by the steely Gendo Ikari , Shinji 's father and the commander of NERV . He abandoned Shinji and recalled him only to serve as an Evangelion pilot . Gendo salvaged the remains of his dead wife 's soul and body to create Rei , whom he viewed as a mere tool at his disposal to defeat the Angels . Similar to Shinji , he is somewhat asocial and is afraid of being insulted by others and often runs away from such , often committing immoralities in the process . He is depicted as relentless in his drive to win , a man who " takes drastic and extreme measures , by fair means or foul , or by hook or by crook , in order to accomplish his own purpose . " According to Sadamoto , the characters of Gendo and Fuyutsuki are based on Ed Straker and Alec Freeman of the television series UFO .
Sadamoto designed the visual appearance of the characters so that their personalities " could be understood more or less at a glance " . The distinctive aesthetic appeal of the female lead characters ' designs contributed to high sales of Neon Genesis Evangelion merchandise . The design of Rei in particular became so popular that the media referred to the character as " Premium Girl " due to the high sales of books with Rei on the cover .
= = Production = =
Director Hideaki Anno fell into a deep depression following completion of work on Nadia : The Secret of Blue Water and the 1992 failure of the Royal Space Force : The Wings of Honnêamise sequel project . According to Yasuhiro Takeda , Anno agreed to a collaboration between King Records and Gainax while drinking with King representative Toshimichi Ōtsuki ; King Records guaranteed Anno a time slot for " something , anything " . Anno began development of the new series in 1993 around the notion of not running away , which had been the underlying theme of Aoki Uru , an earlier Anno project that had failed to move into production . Early into the production , Anno stated his intent to have Evangelion increase the number of otaku ( anime fans ) by attracting interest in the medium . According to him , the plot of the series reflects his four @-@ year depression . In the early design phase of the Evangelion project several formats were considered , including a film , a television series and an original video animation ( OVA ) series . The producers finally opted for the television series as it was the most widely accessible media in Japan at that time . The proposed title Alcion was rejected due to its lack of hard consonant sounds .
Evangelion borrowed certain scenarios and the use of introspection as a narrative device from a previous Anno project entitled Gunbuster . He incorporated the narrative structure of Nadia and multiple frames of reference to leave the story open to interpretation . Over the course of the writing process , elements of the Evangelion storyline evolved from the original concept . A female protagonist was initially proposed for the series , but the idea was scrapped . Originally , the first episode presented the battle between an Angel and Rei , while the character of Shinji was only introduced after the Angel had been defeated . Further changes to the plot were made following the Aum Shinrikyo sect 's sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in March . Azuma Hiroki has said that the original Evangelion story was " too close to reality " from Anno 's point of view . Basically , Anno thought that the original scenario was not suitable for broadcasting , and he feared censorship . However , he also criticized Aum Shinrikyo , because " they lost any contact with reality " . For this reason , Azuma stated that Evangelion " is an intrinsic critique of Aum " .
The final version of the story reflects inspiration drawn from numerous other anime and fictional works . Chief among these are Space Battleship Yamato , Mobile Suit Gundam , Devilman and Space Runaway Ideon . The series also incorporates tributes to Childhood 's End , the novels of Ryū Murakami , The Andromeda Strain , The Divine Invasion , the poem Pippa Passes , The Hitcher , and several television series including The Prisoner , Thunderbirds , Ultraman and Ultra Seven .
The development of the Neon Genesis Evangelion series ran close to deadlines throughout its production run . The initial cuts of the first two episodes were screened at the second Gainax festival in July 1995 , only three months before they were aired on television . By episode 13 the series began to deviate significantly from the original story , and the initial script was abandoned . The number of Angels was reduced to 17 instead of the original 28 , and the writers changed the story 's ending , which had originally described the failure of the Human Instrumentality Project after an Angel attack from the moon . Starting with episode 16 , the show changed drastically , discarding the grand narrative concerning salvation for a narrative focusing on the individual characters . This change coincided with Anno 's development of an interest in psychology after a friend lent him a book on mental illness . This focus culminated in a psychoanalysis of the characters in the two final episodes . The production ran so close to the airing deadline that the completed scenes used in the preview of the twenty @-@ fifth episode had to be redesigned to work with the new ending . These episodes feature heavy use of abstract animation , flashbacks , simple line drawings , photographs and fixed image scenes with voice @-@ over dialogue . Some critics speculated that these unconventional animation choices resulted from budget cuts , but Toshio Okada stated that Anno " couldn 't decide the ending until the time came , that 's his style " . These two episodes sparked controversy and condemnation among fans and critics of the series , including significant vitriol directed at Anno himself . Hideaki Anno and Studio Gainax released in 1997 , two animated feature films : Death & Rebirth and The End of Evangelion .
= = Themes = =
The Evangelion series is permeated with references to Kabbalah , Christianity , Judaism , Buddhism , Shinto , and Gnosticism , complicating viewers ' attempts to form an unambiguous interpretation of the series . Of particular influence are the Midrash , the Zohar and other Kabbalistic texts on the Book of Genesis , which are reworked within the series to create a new Evangelion @-@ specific mythology while still maintaining a connection with the original texts . Assistant director Kazuya Tsurumaki said the religious visual references were intended to make the series more " interesting and exotic " , and denied the existence of a " Christian meaning " for the use of Christian visual symbols in the show . However , according to Anno : " As the symbols are mixed together , for the first time something like an interrelationship or a meaning emerges " . The plot combines elements of esotericism and mysticism of the Jewish Kabbalah , including the Angels , which have many common features with the Angels of the religious tradition , such as Sachiel , Sandalphon and Ramiel .
The series contains numerous allusions to the Kojiki and the Nihongi , the sacred texts of Shinto . The Shinto vision of the primordial cosmos is referenced in the series , and the mythical lances of the Shinto deities Izanagi and Izanami are used as weapons in battles between Evangelions and Angels . Elements of the Judeo @-@ Christian tradition also feature prominently throughout the series , including references to Adam , Lilith , Eve , the Lance of Longinus , the Dead Sea Scrolls , the Kabbalistic concept of Adam Kadmon , the Tree of Life , among many others . The merging of all human souls into one through the Human Instrumentality Project at the end of the series is similar to the Kabbalistic concept of tikkun olam . The Evangelions have been likened to the golem of Jewish folklore , and their visual design in the series resembles the traditional depictions of oni ( Japanese demons or ogres ) .
Evangelion has been interpreted as a deeply personal expression of Hideaki Anno 's own emotional struggles . During the production of the series , he became interested in mental illness and psychology . According to him , Rei is a schizophrenic character and she represents the unconscious of Shinji . Shinji has an Oedipus complex , and is characterized by a libido @-@ destrudo conflict . Similarly , Ritsuko has an Electra complex , in which she loves Gendo , a sort of substitute of her father figure . Anno himself stated that the main character reflects his character , " both in conscious and unconscious part " , referring also to Kaworu as his Jungian shadow . It has even been suggested that Shinji 's entering into Unit @-@ 01 is a Freudian " return to the womb " , and that his struggle to be free of the Eva is his " rite of passage " into manhood . In the series there are many references to psychoanalytic concepts , such as the oral stage , introjection , oral personality , ambivalence , and the death drive . In particular , the series references elements of the works of Sigmund Freud , Jacques Lacan , Arthur Schopenhauer , Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , Jean @-@ Paul Sartre and others .
= = Related media = =
= = = Music = = =
Shiro Sagisu composed most of the original music for the series . The soundtracks released to high rankings on the Oricon charts , with Neon Genesis Evangelion III reaching the number one slot for highest sales in 1997 ; that same year , Sagisu received the Kobe Animation award for " Best Music Score " for his work on Evangelion . Classical music by Ludwig van Beethoven , Johann Sebastian Bach , Giuseppe Verdi and George Frideric Handel were also featured throughout the series . Additional classical works and original symphonic compositions were used to score later movies produced within the Neon Genesis Evangelion franchise . In total , the series ' discography includes 21 full studio , live , compilation and soundtrack albums and six CD singles .
The series ' opening theme was " A Cruel Angel 's Thesis " , performed by Yoko Takahashi . It ranked on two TV Asahi polls , reaching # 55 for best anime theme songs of all time , and # 18 for best anime theme songs of the 1990s . Fifteen years after its release , the theme won JASRAC 's annual award for the royalties it continues to generate from its usage in pachinko , pachislo , karaoke and other venues . The end theme of the series was a version of " Fly Me to the Moon " arranged and sung by Claire Littley .
= = = Films = = =
In May 1996 , Gainax announced an Evangelion film in response to fan dissatisfaction with the series finale . In advance of the promised film , on March 15 , 1997 Gainax released Death & Rebirth , consisting of 60 minutes of clips taken from the first 24 episodes of the series and 40 minutes of the upcoming movie , The End of Evangelion .
The End of Evangelion , which premiered on July 19 , 1997 , provided a complete retelling of the final two episodes of the television series . Rather than depicting series ' climax within the characters ' minds , the film provides a more conventional , action @-@ based resolution to the series ' plot lines . The film won numerous awards and grossed 1 @.@ 45 billion yen within six months of its release . EX.org ranked the film in 1999 as the fifth best ' All @-@ Time Show ' , with the television series at # 2 @.@ and in 2009 CUT Magazine ranked it the third greatest anime film of all time .
On September 9 , 2006 , Gainax confirmed a new animated film series called Rebuild of Evangelion , consisting of four movies . The first film retells the first five episodes from the series but from the second film onward the story is completely different , including new characters , EVAs and Angels . The first film , Evangelion : 1 @.@ 0 You Are ( Not ) Alone was released in Japan on September 1 , 2007 , with Evangelion : 2 @.@ 0 You Can ( Not ) Advance and Evangelion : 3 @.@ 0 You Can ( Not ) Redo released on June 27 , 2009 and November 17 , 2012 . The final film , titled Evangelion : 3 @.@ 0 + 1 @.@ 0 , was said to be released in winter 2015 , but a final release date is still unknown .
= = = Manga = = =
Ten months prior to the television broadcast of Evangelion , Anno worked with author and illustrator Yoshiyuki Sadamoto to publish a manga version of the story designed to generate popular interest in the upcoming anime series . The first installment of the manga was published in the February issue of Shōnen Ace in December 1994 with subsequent installments produced on an irregular basis over an eighteen @-@ year period . The final installment was published in June 2013 . Several publishers were initially concerned at the selection of Sadamoto to develop the manga adaptation , viewing him as " too passé to be bankable " . These concerns proved unfounded upon the strong commercial success of the manga : the first 10 volumes sold over 15 million copies , and the eleventh volume reached number one on the Tohan charts , selling an additional two million copies . The manga series won the 1996 Comicker fan manga poll .
= = = Other media = = =
Several video games based on the series have been developed , ranging from RPG and adventure games to mahjong and card games . The series has also spawned numerous art books and visual novels , one of which inspired the derivative manga series Angelic Days . The story has been adapted into two other manga series in addition to the original Sadamoto project : Petit Eva : Evangelion @ School , a parody series which received its own original net animation serial show , and Campus Apocalypse , a character @-@ focused story that omits the Evangelion robots . Several radio dramas have been released on CD and cassette to make the material more accessible to non @-@ traditional audiences .
On February 8 , 2015 , Evangelion : Another Impact , a 3D rendered short directed by Shinji Aramaki was released and streamed by Japan Animator Expo . It depicts " the story of an Evangelion 's activation , rampage and howling in another world " .
= = Releases = =
The original home video releases in Japan included VHS and Laserdisc sets using a release structured around " Genesis 0 : ( volume number ) " , with each of the first 12 releases containing two episodes each . " Genesis 0 : 13 " and " Genesis 0 : 14 " contained the original and the Neon Genesis Evangelion : Death & Rebirth versions of episodes 25 and 26 . The fifteenth and final release for Laserdisc , entitled " Genesis 0 : X " , contained episodes 21 to 24 and was a special mail @-@ in offer for fans who purchased all 14 discs . The Japanese DVD release was spread across seven volumes ; all contained four episodes except the seventh volume , which included both the original and alternate versions of episodes 25 and 26 . The Second Impact Box released in 2001 contained the 26 uncut and remastered original episodes and both movies . In 2003 , the Japanese @-@ only , nine volume " Renewal of Evangelion " DVDs were released , with improved acoustic effects , remixed dialogue and remastered soundtrack for 5 @.@ 1 stereo sound . The first eight volumes covered the original 26 episodes , including two versions of episodes 21 to 24 : the uncut version and a reconstruction of the edited version ) . The ninth volume , containing two discs , was named Evangelion : The Movie and contained Death ( true ) ² and End of Evangelion . The Renewal Project release formed the basis for the western " Platinum Edition " . On December 1 , 2014 , Studio Khara announced a Blu @-@ ray boxset that will contain a new HD @-@ remastering of the television series , the video versions of Episodes 21 @-@ 24 , as well as the two movies and the Renewal of Evangelion . In addition , another DVD set was announced that contains the broadcast version of the television series , as well as the broadcast version of Death ( True ) & Rebirth . Both sets were released on August 26 , 2015 , to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the TV series .
The series is distributed in North America and Europe by ADV Films . The 13 English VHS tapes , released from August 20 , 1997 to July 7 , 1998 , contained two episodes each and were released using the same " Genesis 0 : ( volume number ) " titling convention as the first Japanese home video release . Two laserdisc collections were released as Collection 1 Deluxe Edition and Collection 2 Deluxe Edition , containing episodes one to four and five to eight , respectively . The first DVD release by ADV Films was the eight disk Perfect Collection in 2002 , containing the original 26 installments . In 2004 , ADV released two DVD compilations titled Neon Genesis Evangelion : Resurrection and Neon Genesis : Reborn , encompassing the directors ' cuts of Episodes 21 through 24 . In the same year , the Platinum Edition release was announced by ADV in 2004 , consisting of seven DVDs released between July 27 , 2004 and April 19 , 2005 . The Platinum Edition contained the original 26 episodes and the four " Director 's cut " versions of episodes 21 to 24 . A six @-@ disc version of the Platinum Edition , the Platinum Complete Edition , was released on November 22 , 2005 , and omitted several extras included in other versions , including commentary and trailers .
= = Reception = =
Neon Genesis Evangelion received critical acclaim both domestically and internationally . Evangelion has developed into a social phenomenon beyond its primary otaku fan base , generating national discussion in Japan . The series has also been the subject of numerous media reports , debates and research studies .
Following the conclusion of the series ' original television broadcast , the public and critical reception to Neon Genesis Evangelion was polarized , particularly with regard to the final two episodes . The experimental style of the finale confused or alienated many fans and spawned debate and controversy ; Hideaki Anno received anonymous online death threats . The criticism was largely directed toward the lack of storyline resolution in the final two episodes . Opinion on the finale was mixed , with the audience broadly divided between those who considered the episodes " deep " , and those who felt their meaning was " more apparent than real " . The show 's American voice actors admitted that they also had trouble understanding the series ' conclusion . The Mainichi Times wrote that after episode 25 , " nearly all viewers felt betrayed ... When commentator Eiji Ōtsuka sent a letter to the Yomiuri Shimbun , complaining about the end of the Evangelion series , the debate went nationwide . " Despite the criticism , Anno stood by his artistic choices for the series ' conclusion . The controversy surrounding Evangelion has not negatively influenced the popularity of the series , which retains strong popularity within and outside the otaku subculture .
Neon Genesis Evangelion has scored highly in numerous popularity polls . In 1996 , the series won first place in the " Best Loved Series " category of the Anime Grand Prix , a reader @-@ polled award series published in Animage magazine . The show was again awarded this prize in 1997 by a large margin . The End of Evangelion won first place in 1998 , making Neon Genesis Evangelion the first anime franchise to win three consecutive first place awards . The website IGN ranked Evangelion as the 10th best animated series in its " Top 100 Animated TV Series " list . The series placed third in Animage 's " anime that should be remembered in the 21st Century " . In 1998 , EX.org 's readers voted Neon Genesis Evangelion the # 1 US anime release and in 1999 , the # 2 show of all time . In 2007 , a large @-@ scale poll by TV Asahi found Evangelion was the second most appreciated anime in Japan . The series was ranked as the most popular of all time in a 2006 survey of 80 @,@ 000 attendees at the Japan Media Arts Festival . Evangelion won the Animation Kobe award in 1996 , and 1997 . The series was awarded the Nihon SF Taisho Award and the Excellence Award Japan Media Arts Festival in 1997 . The film ranked # 6 on Wizard 's Anime Magazine on their " Top 50 Anime released in North America " .
In the August 1996 issue of Animage , Evangelion characters placed high in the rankings of best characters with Rei ranked first , Asuka third , Kaworu fourth and Shinji sixth . Rei Ayanami won in the Female Character category in 1995 and 1996 and Shinji Ikari won the Male Character category in 1996 and 1997 . In 2010 , Newtype magazine recognized Rei Ayanami as the most popular character of the 1990s in the female category , and Shinji Ikari in the male category . TV Asahi recognized the " suicide of Ayanami Rei " as the ninth most touching anime scene ever . " A Cruel Angel 's Thesis " won the Animage award in the Best Song category in 1996 , and TV Asahi recognized it as the 18th best anime song since 1990 .
The series has captured the attention of cultural theorists inside and outside Japan , and many critics have analyzed or commented on it , including Susan J. Napier , William Rout , Mick Broderick , Mari Kotani , and the sociologists Shinji Miyadai , Hiroki Azuma , Yuriko Furuhata , and Marc Steinberg . The series has been described as both a critique and deconstruction of the mecha genre . Mike Hale of The New York Times described it as " a superior anime , a giant @-@ robot tale of unusual depth , feeling and detail " . Theron Martin ( Anime News Network ) described the character design as " distinctive , designed to be sexy rather than cutesy " , and the mecha designs as " among the most distinctive ever produced for an anime series , with sleek , lithe appearances that look monstrous , fearsome , and nimble rather than boxy and knight @-@ like " . Mike Crandol stated " It no longer seems contrite to say that Evangelion is surely one of the all @-@ time great works of animation " . Zac Bertschy remarked that " Most of the backlash against Evangelion existed because people don 't like to think " . Evangelion has been described as possessing complex characters and richness of narrative .
= = Influence and legacy = =
Evangelion has had a significant impact on Japanese popular culture . The series also had a strong influence on anime , at a time when the anime industry and televised anime series in particular were in a slump period . CNET reviewer Tim Hornyak credits the series with revitalizing and transforming the giant mecha genre . In the 1980s and 1990s , Japanese animation knew a period of crisis and decreased production that coincided with the economic crisis in Japan . This was followed by a crisis of ideas in the years to come . Against this background , Evangelion imposed new standards for the animated serial , ushering in the era of the " new Japanese animation serial " , characterized by innovations that allowed a technical and artistic revival of the industry . The production of anime serials began to reflect greater author control , the concentration of resources in fewer but higher quality episodes ( typically ranging from 13 to 26 ) , a directorial approach similar to live film , and greater freedom from the constraints of merchandising .
Evangelion has influenced numerous subsequent anime series , including Serial Experiments Lain , Eureka Seven , RahXephon , Texhnolyze , Gasaraki , Boogiepop Phantom , Blue Submarine No. 6 , Mobile Battleship Nadesico , Rinne no Lagrange , Dual ! Parallel Trouble Adventure , Argento Soma , Pilot Candidate , Generator Gawl , Brain Powerd , and Dai @-@ Guard . FLCL contains allusions to Evangelion , and the series is also mentioned in the third episode of Magical Shopping Arcade Abenobashi . References and homages to the show are also contained in Koi Koi Seven , Hayate the Combat Butler , Baka and Test , Regular Show , My Little Pony : Friendship is Magic and Keroro Gunso . The show 's mixture of religion and mecha also influenced several Japanese video games , including Xenogears and El Shaddai : Ascension of the Metatron . The design and personality traits of the character Rei Ayanami were reused for many anime characters of the late 1990s , such as Ruri Hoshino of Nadesico , Ruriko Tsukushima ( The Droplet ) , Miharu ( Gasaraki ) , Anthy Himemiya ( Revolutionary Girl Utena ) , and Lain Iwakura ( Serial Experiments Lain ) . The character of Asuka was parodied by Excel ( Excel Saga ) , and some of her traits were used to create the character of Mai in Gunparade March . Evangelion 's mecha design , characterized by a greater resemblance to the human figure , and the abstract designs of the Angels , also had a significant impact on the designs of future anime productions .
According to Keisuke Iwata , the global spread of Japanese animation dramatically expanded due to the popularity of Evangelion . After the success of the show , otaku culture gained wide attention . In Japan , Evangelion prompted a review of the cultural value of anime , and with its success , anime reached a new point of maturity . With the interest in the series , otaku culture became a mass social phenomenon . The show 's regular reruns increased the number of otaku , which Lynden links to a boom in interest in literature on the Dead Sea Scrolls , Kabbalah and Christianity . Anime director Makoto Shinkai declared that the genre of anime owes a cinematographic debt to Evangelion . In the aftermath of Evangelion , Anno reused many of its stylistic conceits in the live @-@ action Love & Pop and the anime romance Kare Kano . The UK band Fightstar 's debut album , Grand Unification , was heavily influenced by Neon Genesis Evangelion . The Japanese band Rey derived its name from that of the character Rei Ayanami .
= = Merchandising = =
The popularity of Neon Genesis Evangelion extends to its merchandising which exceeded $ 400 million within two years of its release . The series has established itself greatly on the Japanese market , developing a varied range of products for adult consumers , such as cell phones ( including a special NERV and MAGI @-@ themed Sharp SH @-@ 06D smartphone released in 2012 ) , laptop computers , many soundtracks , DVDs , action figures , and telephone cards . The stylized mecha design that would later earn praise for Evangelion was initially criticized by certain toy companies as being too difficult to manufacture , with some expressing concern that models of the Evangelions " would never sell . " Eventually , Sega agreed to license all toy and video game sales . At the time of the release of the Japanese film Death & Rebirth and The End of Evangelion , estimated sales of Evangelion merchandise topped $ 300 million , of which 70 % derived from sales of video and laser discs , soundtrack CDs , single CDs , computer software and the three @-@ volume manga . Multiple merchandising products were released during the Renewal Project , such as CDs , video games , cel @-@ art illustrations and collectible models .
The commercial exploitation of the series for the home video market achieved record sales and remained strong over a decade later . The fame of the show has grown through home video sales , which exceeded two or three times the sales of other contemporary anime series and films . The series contributed significantly to the spread of the DVD format in Japan and generated a considerable impact on the Japanese economy , calculated in billions of yen . A 2007 estimate placed the total value of the franchise at over 150 billion yen .
= = = Official websites = = =
( Japanese ) Neon Genesis Evangelion — Gainax official Evangelion page
Madman Entertainment Evangelion page
( Japanese ) 新世紀エヴァンゲリオン — King Records Evangelion page
= = = Articles and information = = =
Neon Genesis Evangelion at the Internet Movie Database
Neon Genesis Evangelion ( anime ) at Anime News Network 's encyclopedia
Neon Genesis Evangelion at DMOZ
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= Hurricane Newton ( 1986 ) =
Hurricane Newton was one of the few tropical cyclones that were intercepted by Hurricane Hunter flights during the moderately active 1986 Pacific hurricane season . A tropical depression formed near Central America on September 18 ; two days later , the depression was upgraded into a tropical storm . Moving towards to northwest , Newton strengthened into a hurricane on September 21 . After paralleling the coast , Newton move ashore near Cabo San Lucas on September 22 . Shortly after entering the Gulf of California , the hurricane attaining its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 145 km / h ) . The following day , Newton moved ashore the Mexican mainland . Newton dissipated on September 23 . However , the remnants of Newton continued across the United States and eventually emerged into the Atlantic Ocean . While 40 homes lost their roofs , damage in Mexico was fairly minor , and no fatalities were reported in association with Newton , though the remnants produced fairly heavy rains in the Great Plains .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Newton were from a tropical disturbed weather near Nicaragua in mid @-@ September . Steered by an upper @-@ level trough located over the Western United States , the system moved westward and developed into a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on September 18 . It was located beneath an anticyclone situated the Central United States and over sea surface temperatures of 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) . The system steadily intensified as it paralleled the Mexican coast , and was upgraded into Tropical Storm Newton early on September 20 . Within 24 hours , Newton had attained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Meanwhile , the storm turned northwest . At 0600 UTC September 21 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) reported that Newton had attained hurricane strength while located about 200 mi ( 320 km ) west @-@ northwest of Manzanillo , Colima .
Shortly after becoming a hurricane , a NOAA Hurricane Hunter aircraft investigated Newton . The aircraft passed the center on 1800 UTC September 21 , observing winds of 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) to 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) . Six hours later , the hurricane reached its minimum pressure of 984 mb ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . Hurricane Newton was one of the few storms to be intercepted by the aircraft that season . After moving north @-@ northwest , the hurricane briefly turned northwest , in the general direction of the Baja California Peninsula the next day . On 1800 UTC September 22 , Hurricane Newton made landfall 29 mi ( 47 km ) from Cape Pulmo , a town situated northeast of Cabo San Lucas as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . After emerging into the Gulf of California , the storm reached its peak wind speed of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . At this time the tropical cyclone was situated about 60 mi ( 97 km ) north of La Paz , Baja California Sur . By 1800 UTC , the hurricane moved ashore near Punta Rosa and quickly dissipated . The remains of the cyclone moved into New Mexico . The remnants of Hurricane Newton transversed the Central United States and the Mid @-@ Atlantic States until it entered the Atlantic Ocean later in the month .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
Prior to system 's first landfall , the EPHC noted the threat high waves , storm surge , and flooding . In addition , the navy , army , and police were on high alert in populated areas like La Paz due to the hurricane . On the mainland , roughly 700 people evacuated to shelters in Huatampo , a city that at that time had a population of 9 @,@ 000 , and Yavaros prior to landfall , but within hours after the passage of the hurricane , all but 127 had returned home .
Upon making landfall on the Baja California Peninsula , moderate rainfall was recorded though officials reported no emergencies . In Huatabampo , roofs were blown off of 40 homes . High winds blew down trees and utility poles . In addition , a peak rainfall total of 9 @.@ 23 inches ( 234 mm ) was reported in Jopala . Overall , damage in Mexico was minor and less than anticipated . No injuries or fatalities were reported in association with Newton . Because Hurricane Newton , along with a cold front , was predicted cause heavy rains over portions of the United States , flash flood warnings and watches were issued by the National Weather Service for parts of western Texas , New Mexico , and Arizona . Across the country , the highest rainfall was 5 @.@ 88 inches ( 149 mm ) in Edwardsville , Kansas . The rainfall extended as far east as Pennsylvania . In Kansas City , Missouri , 20 @,@ 000 customers were without power since heavy rainfall downed power lines .
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= Slap @-@ Happy =
Slap @-@ Happy is the sixth and final studio album by the American rock band L7 . It was released on August 24 , 1999 by Bong Load Records in collaboration with Wax Tadpole Records , an independent record label that the band formed after being dropped by Reprise Records in 1997 . L7 recorded the album as a trio formed by founding members Donita Sparks and Suzi Gardner , and longtime drummer Demetra Plakas following the departure of bassist Gail Greenwood . It was made with a low budget and produced by the band and their friend Brian Haught .
Unlike previous L7 albums , Slap @-@ Happy more varied and slower @-@ paced songs , with some of which borrowing elements from other genres like hip hop . Upon release , the album received generally mixed reviews from music critics and suffered dismal sales partly due to the poor distribution and support by Bong Load . Some critics found the album predictable and too similar to previous L7 albums , but others highlighted certain songs for their nifty musical style .
= = Background and recording = =
Slap @-@ Happy is the follow @-@ up to L7 's 1997 album The Beauty Process : Triple Platinum . Like its predecessors , The Beauty Process was released by Slash Records in collaboration with Reprise , a major record label owned by the Warner Music Group . After the release of The Beauty Process , bassist Gail Greenwood , who replaced founding member Jennifer Finch in 1996 , left the band due to uncoordinated schedules ; Greenwood was rooted in Rhode Island , while L7 was based in Los Angeles , California . L7 would then continue as a trio formed by founding members Donita Sparks and Suzi Gardner , and longtime drummer Demetra Plakas . In 1998 , the band released a live album , Live : Omaha to Osaka , through the independent record label Man 's Ruin Records .
After being dropped by Reprise in 1997 , L7 was interested in maintaining an independent , do it yourself approach . Sparks and Gardner explained that the band wanted to release an album in 1999 , and if they opted for another major label opportunity , they would certainly have to wait until 2000 for a release slot . As a result , the band signed a deal with Bong Load Records and formed Wax Tadpole Records , an independent record label named after the first song of their self @-@ titled debut album . Although the band had left the indie music scene before due to distribution problems , Sparks said that she would be watching the Bong Load deal to ensure the distribution of Slap @-@ Happy , noting that " there 's nothing more painful to tour for a record and the fans not being able to find your record in stores . "
Most of the songs on Slap @-@ Happy were recorded before the band decided to form Wax Tadpole . Sparks and Gardner wrote all the songs , usually at Gardner 's home , even though the whole group contributed to the album in one form or another . Unlike its predecessor , Slap @-@ Happy was made with a low budget . According to Sparks , " We utilized a lot of home studios , did a lot of our tracking ourselves , used a lot of first takes . I think there 's a lot of life in this record , and yet I think when we started our own label we were fearing having to take a major step down in production because of the financial aspects . " The album was produced by Brian Haught , a friend of the band who let the band use his studio " just out of the kindness of his heart . " It was recorded and mixed at Synical Labs , PCS Studios , Sound City , de Prume Studios , Sonors Studios , and King Sound and Pictures in Los Angeles . Audio mastering took place at Precision Mastering in Los Angeles .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Slap @-@ Happy was considered more varied than previous L7 albums . Although the album features several songs with aggressive guitar riffs that are reminiscent of the band 's previous releases , as seen in the tracks " On My Rockin ' Machine " , " Long Green " and " Mantra Down " , it also contains slow @-@ paced and guitar @-@ driven ballads like " Livin ' Large " and " Freezer Burn " . The former song was described by Marc Weingarten of Rolling Stone as " a kind of rallying cry for the indie @-@ rock underclass " , while the latter was seen as a melodic song that " juxtaposes harsh words delivered in mellow , floating vocals . " Slap @-@ Happy also contains songs that borrow elements from genres other than rock . For example , the song " Little One " contains elements of both polka and country music . As Sparks noted , " We 're all into all kinds of music , but I listen to very little rock , actually . Our approach was to pretty much do what we 've always done , but we 're not concerned with sticking with a particular style . There 's diversity in our songwriting . "
The track " Freeway " , which was referred by the band as " the feel bad dance hit of the year " , features a hip hop @-@ influenced style with sampled voices . Its lyrics were inspired by an article in Los Angeles Times about a man who stopped his truck on a Los Angeles freeway and committed suicide after litting his truck on fire and obstructing the traffic . The sampled voices were taken from Casio keyboards that Sparks and Suzi had previously bought at a Guitar Center store . The album features humorous and irreverent lyrics . Sparks noted that many songs are " double @-@ sided . There 's a lot of masking of fuck @-@ you 's going on . " She also said that Slap @-@ Happy was " almost a spit in the eye of our label , who had dropped us . It was like , ' Fuck you , we ’ re going to make another record anyway , so fuck off ! ' Some of the writing on [ the ] record is very angry , because we were pissed . " The opening track " Crackpot Baby " , which is the first L7 song that features a three @-@ part vocal harmony , features " unforgiving lyrics about plastic L.A. types " , while " Stick to the Plan " is about a " chronic masturbator / With love in his eyes " .
= = Promotion and release = =
Slap @-@ Happy was released on August 24 , 1999 on vinyl and CD . A different version of " Freeway " was released by the online record label Atomic Pop in February 1999 . To promote the album , a plane flew over the crowd during the Lilith Fair concert tour at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena , California on July 17 , 1999 , with a banner that read : " Bored ? Tired ? Try L7 . " The following day , an airplane towed a banner over the crowd during the Warped Tour at the Stone Pony lot in Asbury Park , New Jersey . The banner read : " Warped Needs More Beaver , Love L7 . " The band supported the album with a tour across the US that started on August 15 , 1999 in San Diego , California and ended on September 24 , 1999 in Cleveland Heights , Ohio . Bassist Janis Tanaka , formely of the San Francisco band Stone Fox , joined the band as part of the touring group . The band also toured across Europe in 2000 . Unlike previous L7 albums , Slap @-@ Happy did not chart in either the US or the UK . In 2008 , Sparks revealed that the album suffered dismal sales partly due to the poor distribution and support by Bong Load .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , Slap @-@ Happy received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Marc Weingarten of Rolling Stone praised the band for " doing punk metal right " , commenting that Slap @-@ Happy " is all hopped @-@ up , pared @-@ down riffage with no apologies or gratuitous change @-@ ups . " Q magazine highlighted the album for its " distinctive punk noise " , which " stays roughly the same but evolves enough to be interesting . " In contrast , Craig Daniels of Exclaim ! criticized the album 's sound for being " sterile and lacking in energy " compared to previous L7 albums , but overall considered Slap @-@ Happy to be " a fairly solid record " .
Entertainment Weekly editor Natasha Stovall highlighted the album 's different approach , stating that although the " neo @-@ Go @-@ Go 's vibe " of songs like " Livin ' Large " and " Little One " can be disappointing " for those addicted to the ultra @-@ macha @-@ punk throb of L7 watersheds " , Slap @-@ Happy 's " harmonious pop sweetness " has " a super @-@ catchy , Joan Jett @-@ meets @-@ the @-@ Breeders feel that zestfully floors the accelerator . " Jason Hardy of Daily Nebraskan stated similar pros , noting that the album 's new style introduced a " groovy " side of L7 that " most probably didn 't know existed . " AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the album as " a respectable but predictable effort " , stating that it " leaves very little lasting impression " even though " a few of the songs hit hard , and the band sounds energetic and muscular . "
Not all reviews were favorable , though . Erik Himmelsbach of Spin criticized Slap @-@ Happy for essentially being the same as all of the band 's previous albums , commenting " What was once fast and loose and dump now sounds lazy and stupid " . Raoul Hernandez of The Austin Chronicle heavily criticized the second half of the album for being " one long , nasal , wise @-@ ass line after wise @-@ ass line from Donita Sparks , who [ ... ] is quickly becoming self @-@ parody . " Although the album received a mixed reaction from media outlets , Sparks retrospectively regards Slap @-@ Happy as " a good record " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Donita Sparks and Suzi Gardner .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
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= Lone Survivor ( film ) =
Lone Survivor is a 2013 American war film written and directed by Peter Berg , and starring Mark Wahlberg , Taylor Kitsch , Emile Hirsch , Ben Foster , and Eric Bana . The film is based on the 2007 nonfiction book of the same name by Marcus Luttrell with Patrick Robinson . Set during the war in Afghanistan , Lone Survivor dramatizes the unsuccessful United States Navy SEALs counter @-@ insurgent mission Operation Red Wings , during which a four @-@ man SEAL reconnaissance and surveillance team was tasked to track down and kill Taliban leader Ahmad Shah .
Berg first learned of the book Lone Survivor in 2007 , while he was filming Hancock ( 2008 ) . He arranged several meetings with Luttrell to discuss adapting the book to film . Universal Pictures secured the film rights in August 2007 after bidding against other major film studios . In re @-@ enacting the events of Operation Red Wings , Berg drew much of his screenplay from Luttrell 's eyewitness accounts in the book , as well as autopsy and incident reports related to the mission . After directing Battleship ( 2012 ) for Universal , Berg returned to work on Lone Survivor . Principal photography began in October 2012 and concluded in November after 42 days ; filming took place on location in New Mexico , using digital cinematography . Luttrell and several other Navy SEAL veterans acted as technical advisors , while multiple branches of the United States Armed Forces aided the film 's production .
Lone Survivor opened in limited release in the United States on December 25 , 2013 , before opening across North America on January 10 , 2014 , to strong financial success and a generally positive critical response . Most critics praised Berg 's direction , as well as the acting , story , visuals and battle sequences . Other critics , however , derided the film for focusing more on its action scenes than on characterization . Lone Survivor grossed over $ 154 million in box @-@ office revenue worldwide — of which $ 125 million was from North America . The film received two Academy Award nominations for Best Sound Editing and Best Sound Mixing .
= = Plot = =
In Afghanistan , Taliban leader Ahmad Shah is responsible for killing over twenty United States Marines , as well as villagers and refugees who were aiding American forces . In response to these killings , a United States Navy SEALs unit is ordered to execute a counter @-@ insurgent mission to capture Shah . As part of the mission , a four @-@ man SEAL reconnaissance and surveillance team is tasked with locating Shah . These four SEALs include team leader Michael P. " Murph " Murphy ; snipers Marcus Luttrell and Matthew " Axe " Axelson ; and communications specialist Danny Dietz .
The team is inserted into the Hindu Kush region of Afghanistan , where they make a trek through the mountains . Here , they begin to encounter communications problems , which would play a critical role in the following events . Upon arriving at their designated location , the SEALs are accidentally discovered by an elderly shepherd and two teenage goat herders . Knowing that if they release them , the herders will likely alert Taliban to their presence , the team is split about whether to execute the herders or not . After a brief debate , Luttrell convinces the others that they will incite backlash if they kill the three herders . The team decides to release the herders and abort the mission , but before they can escape , they are discovered by Taliban forces . Although they manage to kill several Taliban soldiers , they find themselves heavily outnumbered and at a significant tactical disadvantage . Each of the men suffers serious injuries during the firefight , and in an attempt to flee from the insurgents , they jump off the edge of a precipitous ridge and into a large ravine .
Despite their injuries , the SEALs continue a defensive retreat through the steep woods . Dietz begins to lose consciousness and shouts questions to Luttrell , unwittingly revealing the team 's position to the Taliban . Murphy and Axelson jump off another ridge to flee from the Taliban fighters . Luttrell tries to carry Dietz down the mountain , but Dietz is shot in the shoulder ; the impact forces Luttrell to lose his grip and fall forward off the cliff . A dying Dietz remains at the top of the cliff and is killed by the Taliban insurgents . Murphy decides to try climbing back up the cliff to get a phone signal in order to call in support forces via satellite phone . Axelson and Luttrell shoot at the Taliban fighters to provide Murphy with cover . When he finally reaches higher ground , Murphy is able to alert the SEAL base of his team 's location and request emergency assistance right before he is shot dead by Taliban fighters .
In response to Murphy 's distress call , a quick reaction force team assembles , boards two CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters , and heads toward the location without fighter escort seeking to extract the remaining members of the reconnaissance and surveillance team . During an attempt to insert the arriving forces , the Taliban insurgents shoot down one of the helicopters , killing eight Navy SEALs and eight Special Operations aviators who were on board . The second helicopter is forced to turn back . After witnessing the attack , Luttrell and a badly injured Axelson are left behind . Axelson attempts to find cover , but is killed when he leaves his hiding spot to attack several approaching insurgents . When Luttrell is discovered by the Taliban , one of the insurgents fires a rocket @-@ propelled grenade , and its impact causes him to land at the bottom of a rock crevice where he is able to hide from the Taliban fighters .
Luttrell stumbles upon a small body of water and submerges himself , only to find upon surfacing that a local Pashtun villager , Mohammad Gulab , has discovered his location . Gulab takes Luttrell into his care , returning to his village , where he attempts to hide Luttrell in his home . Gulab then sends a mountain man to the nearest American air base to alert military forces of Luttrell 's location . The Taliban fighters arrive at the village to capture and kill Luttrell , but Gulab and the villagers intervene , threatening to kill the fighters if they harm Luttrell . The fighters leave , but later return to punish the villagers for protecting Luttrell . Gulab and his fellow militia are able to fend off several fighters during the ensuing attack . American forces , arriving via helicopters , shatter the advancing Taliban and , in the process , kill the bulk of the insurgents with concentrated weaponry fire . The American forces evacuate Luttrell back to base .
Photos of the real @-@ life Marcus Luttrell , Mohammad Gulab and the fallen service members who died during the mission are shown during a four @-@ minute montage , and an epilogue reveals that the Pashtun villagers agreed to help Luttrell as part of a traditional code of honor known as the Pashtunwali .
= = Cast = =
Mark Wahlberg as Marcus Luttrell :
The hospital corpsman and sniper of a four @-@ man reconnaissance and surveillance team , SEAL Team 10 . Wahlberg was the first actor to sign on as a star of the film during its early stages of development . He agreed to portray Luttrell after reading Peter Berg 's script . Wahlberg chose not to read Luttrell 's book Lone Survivor during production to avoid arguments with Berg over events and details that were left out in the book . " The problem when adapting a piece of material like that is that you always feel like something is missing , ” he explained . “ I wanted to come at it from this perspective . " Of Wahlberg 's portrayal , Luttrell stated , " Wahlberg is a consummate professional , and he ’ s a great actor . It was a little strange watching somebody trying to play me , but we talked about it and I knew it would turn out great . I was more worried about the other guys because they ’ re not around to speak for themselves . ” Wahlberg has since cited Lone Survivor as his favorite film role as an actor and producer : “ This is the best working experience I ’ ve ever had , under the toughest conditions . I remember early on as an actor , you worked a long , hard day , but you did something you felt was special , and that car ride home you couldn ’ t stop thinking about it . I had that feeling every day on this movie . "
Taylor Kitsch as Lieutenant Michael P. " Murph " Murphy :
The team leader and spotter of SEAL Team 10 . Lone Survivor is Kitsch 's second feature film collaboration with Berg after Battleship ( 2012 ) . Kitsch said , “ Murph ’ s actions speak louder than anything he ’ s ever said , and they should . I think he was that type of leader who just loved his guys , and getting the nod to play this guy was something special . ” Prior to production of the film , Kitsch prepared for the role by performing high @-@ intensity workouts with body armor and long runs with a 40 @-@ lb weighted vest .
Emile Hirsch as Danny Dietz :
SEAL Team 10 's communications specialist and spotter . Hirsch was approached by Berg in 2009 , and physically prepared for the role by attending a 90 @-@ minute weight program for nearly four months . " I wanted a challenge , so I started to train and work out on my own , " he said . " I genuinely didn ’ t know what was going to happen . Months went by and it was to the point where I was passing on other movies , but I didn ’ t have this job . I was willing to do anything . I ended up training six days a week , four to five hours a day . "
Ben Foster as Matthew " Axe " Axelson :
SEAL Team 10 's sniper . Wahlberg recommended Foster to Berg , as they had previously collaborated on Contraband ( 2012 ) . Prior to filming , Foster met with the fallen serviceman 's family and friends to understand the person he would be portraying . " It was such a rich opportunity to listen to the Axelsons talk about their son . Their generosity and inclusiveness with me was so touching and open . They love to talk about their boy because they love him ; so we , in turn , love him . We can ’ t bring him back , but what we can do is aim , every day , to do the best that we can to honor him . "
Eric Bana as Lieutenant Commander Erik S. Kristensen :
SEAL Team 10 's quick @-@ reaction force ( QRF ) commander . Bana had read the book Lone Survivor prior to production , and was willing to appear in the film , regardless of which role was offered to him . Upon being cast as Kristensen , Bana researched the fallen serviceman and his family . On joining the production of Lone Survivor , Bana stated , " There are two factors that make this story special , and they are the reasons why I jumped on board . One is the story itself , and two is who chooses to direct a project like this . I knew how involved [ Berg ] would be and that he would know how to portray SEAL teammates . That was what I wanted to be a part of . The greatest way to honor these guys is to make a great film and have it stand the test of time . " Bana did not physically prepare for the role . " My responsibility was really to understand the role of the mission commander and the relevant information with respect with the chain of command and what it means to go in the QRF and the processes involved , " he explained . " It was far more important to be the person that was responsible for that part of the story and understand that completely . There 's no purpose in me going out and firing an M4 in this case . "
Ali Suliman , who previously collaborated with Berg on the 2007 film The Kingdom , plays Mohammad Gulab , an Afghan villager ; Alexander Ludwig plays Navy SEAL Machinist 's Mate Shane Patton . Marcus Luttrell appears in the film in an uncredited role . He first appears as a SEAL teammate who lightheartedly hazes Patton , then during a briefing scene where he is seen shaking his head when the Rules of Engagement are being explained , and later as one of the servicemen who perishes when an CH @-@ 47 Chinook is shot down . Luttrell said of the latter scene , " I was on the other side of the mountain when those guys came to help me , so getting to die on the helicopter in the movie was a very powerful moment for me . "
The cast is rounded out by Yousuf Azami as Ahmad Shah , a Taliban leader ; Sammy Sheik as Taraq , a field commander of the Taliban group ; Rich Ting as SO2 James Suh ; Dan Bilzerian as Senior Chief Special Operator ( SOCS ) Daniel Healy ; Jerry Ferrara as United States Marine Corps Sgt Hasslert ; Scott Elrod as Peter Musselman ; Rohan Chand as Gulab 's son ; and Corey Large as US Navy SEAL Captain Kenney . Zarin Mohammad Rahimi , who acted as a technical advisor during production , appears as an elderly shepherd who discovers the four @-@ man SEAL team during the mission ; Nicholas Patel and Daniel Arroyo play the goat herders who assist the shepherd .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Following publication of Marcus Luttrell and Patrick Robinson 's nonfiction book Lone Survivor ( 2007 ) , producer Barry Spikings met Luttrell ’ s attorney , Alan Schwartz , who was interested in adapting the book to film . Schwartz suggested that Spikings 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Akiva Goldsman , write the screenplay . Goldsman however did not believe he was the right screenwriter for the project ; he suggested that Peter Berg write and direct the film . Spikings and Goldsman passed the book on to Berg 's producing partner Sarah Aubrey . Berg first learned of Lone Survivor while filming Hancock , and after Aubrey had read the book herself . After Berg had read the book , he and Aubrey arranged several meetings with Luttrell to discuss a film adaptation . Luttrell also viewed a rough cut of Berg 's then @-@ upcoming 2007 film The Kingdom , and was impressed by Berg 's direction . " [ Berg ] caught me with his attention to detail , " he said , " and how he portrayed the enemy in the film . "
The film rights to the book had become the subject of a bidding war among a host of established film studios , including Warner Bros. , Sony Pictures Entertainment , Paramount Pictures , DreamWorks and Universal Pictures . Universal eventually secured the rights in August 2007 for more than $ 2 million . The studio had also acquired the United States distribution rights as part of a negative pickup deal with the film 's producers . Berg however chose to direct Battleship ( 2012 ) for Universal before resuming production on Lone Survivor .
When Mark Wahlberg read the script and expressed an interest in portraying Marcus Luttrell , he and his manager Stephen Levinson pitched the concept to producer Randall Emmett , the co @-@ founder of Emmett / Furla Films , during the 2012 filming of 2 Guns — another film starring Wahlberg and produced by Emmett . After reading Berg 's script , Emmett traveled to Los Angeles , where he met with Berg and Aubrey to discuss production of Lone Survivor . After Universal secured the rights to distribute Lone Survivor in the United States , executive producer Mark Damon 's independent film company Foresight Unlimited took Berg and Emmett to the 2012 Cannes Film Festival to secure worldwide pre @-@ sales for the film . The film attracted $ 30 million in worldwide pre @-@ sales to distributors in 40 international markets .
Lone Survivor had an estimated production budget of $ 40 – 50 million ; three production companies , Emmett / Furla Films , Herrick Entertainment and Envision Entertainment , collaborated to co @-@ finance the film . In addition , as part of the negative pickup deal with Universal , Lone Survivor 's producers — Berg , Aubrey , Spikings , Goldsman , Emmett , Wahlberg , Levinson , Norton Herrick and Vitaly Grigoriants — contributed at least $ 1 million each to finance production costs . To avoid further production costs , Berg directed Lone Survivor for the minimum salary allowed under Directors Guild of America rules — $ 17 @,@ 000 a week — and was able to convince several cast and crew members to lower their asking prices .
Berg had discussed the project with Wahlberg , Taylor Kitsch , Emile Hirsch and Ben Foster years earlier . Universal held an open casting call in Los Angeles , aiding in the filmmakers ' search for supporting actors , extras , photo doubles and stand @-@ ins . In August 2012 , it was announced that Alexander Ludwig and Eric Bana had joined the cast .
Although Wahlberg , Kitsch , Hirsch and Foster had physically trained for their roles prior to filming , Luttrell organized a three @-@ week training regimen at a bootcamp in New Mexico , where the actors were trained by elite military personnel in weapons , as well as military communications and tactics . Military advisor Mark Semos trained the four actors in live @-@ firing exercises so that they could feel the physical impact of firing military rifles . They also practiced " shoot move cover " drills that would improve their muscle memory and enable them to react convincingly as Navy SEALs during filming .
= = = Writing = = =
While the book Lone Survivor chronicles Marcus Luttrell 's 1999 enlistment and training , as well as his 2005 deployment to Afghanistan , Berg decided that the film adaptation would focus mainly on the events of the failed United States Navy SEALs mission Operation Red Wings , as well as the bonding and camaraderie of Luttrell and his fallen teammates . Prior to writing the screenplay , Berg met with the families of the deceased . “ My research started with meeting the families of the SEAL teammates who were killed , " he said . " I went to New York and met the Murphys . I went to Colorado and met the Dietzes , and I went to Northern California and met the Axelsons . After spending time with them , you realize that these kids were the best and the brightest ; they were the stars of the families . The grief and the wounds are still very raw . You would have to be inhuman to not feel the responsibility when that kind of grief gets shared with you . " Berg also expressed that he was motivated by the families to make the story as realistic as possible ; his goal was " to put [ the viewer ] into the experience of what these guys went through . And it was obviously a traumatic and violent and exhausting experience " .
To provide authenticity , Luttrell moved into Berg ’ s home for one month while Berg was writing the script . Luttrell acted as a consultant , detailing to Berg his eyewitness account of the events that unfolded during Operation Red Wings . Berg later embedded with a Navy SEAL team — becoming the first civilian to do so — and lived with them for a month in Iraq while he continued writing the screenplay . In re @-@ enacting the injuries and deaths of the fallen Navy SEAL servicemen , Berg relied on Luttrell 's eyewitness accounts from the book , as well as autopsy reports of the deceased and after @-@ action reports . The United States Navy provided incident reports related to the mission , as well as archival military training footage , which is shown during the film 's opening credits sequence . Still photographs shown during the opening credits sequence were taken from Richard D. Schoenberg 's war photography book The Only Easy Day Was Yesterday : Making Navy SEALs . During filming , there were some dialogue changes in comparison to Berg 's script , as the filmmaker occasionally encouraged the actors to improvise their lines .
= = = Filming = = =
= = = = Principal photography = = = =
Filming for Lone Survivor was scheduled to start on September 15 , 2012 . Principal photography commenced in October 2012 and concluded in November after 42 days ; filming took place in New Mexico . The production received a 25 % tax credit for filming in the state . Berg shot Lone Survivor with creative autonomy as Universal did not fully oversee the film 's production . " Not having the studio there every day ... I respect Universal and get along great with them , but we were on our own completely , and in many ways , it was a more autonomous experience " .
With Lone Survivor , Berg continued his trademark of having war veterans as part of his film crew . Luttrell , along with several other Navy SEAL veterans , acted as technical advisors during the production . In addition , senior military advisor Harry Humphries , a former Navy SEAL who had worked with Berg on Hancock and The Kingdom , served as an associate producer . Berg explained , " I always looked to hire vets . And not just because I 'm a generous person . But selfishly , vets have turned out to be some of the hardest working people . It 's self @-@ serving " .
Filming first took place at the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of the Santa Fe National Forest . Eight days were spent on mountains ranging from 11 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 – 3 @,@ 700 m ) . In recreating the Hindu Kush mountain range that stretches between Afghanistan and Pakistan , the film crew shot at 10 separate locations in the national forest . Stunt coordinator and second unit director Kevin Scott was tasked with depicting the four Navy SEALs tumbling down rugged terrain with sixty @-@ degree inclines . Scott did not choreograph the stunt work , nor did he have the stunt performers use wires or dummies ; he told them to fall 15 to 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 1 m ) off cliffs and avoid looking at the ground until right before impact . “ We had to say , ‘ Jump off the rock , land however you land , and go with it , ’ ” he said . “ When you ’ re doing that on a true hillside , you don ’ t have a choice . Gravity takes over . The only thing stopping the stunt people from dropping another thousand feet down the hillside was padding set up just outside of the shot . ” Several stunt performers were injured after falling from the mountains , as the falls proved too difficult to control . Berg recalled , " Some guys got hurt , some guys got bumped up and ribs were broken , a lung was punctured , some concussions , but these guys were determined to try and do everything they could to capture what Marcus described in the book . "
Production moved to Chilili , New Mexico for two weeks of filming . The location ’ s wooded areas were used to film several battle scenes , and the art department built sets to create an Afghan village occupied by Ahmad Shah ( Yousuf Azami ) and his Taliban insurgents , as well as a Pashtun village where Luttrell ( Mark Wahlberg ) is rescued . Filming then moved to Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque , New Mexico , which doubled for scenes set in Bagram Airfield , a U.S. military base in Afghanistan . Principal photography concluded on soundstages at I @-@ 25 Studios in Albuquerque . The production occupied two 26 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m2 ) stages in the facility for interior scenes and bluescreen work . The art department built the character Gulab 's house , as well as interiors for Bagram Airfield 's patrol base Camp Ouellette . The bluescreen work involved scenes depicting a CH @-@ 47 Chinook in a gimbal , and a 4 @-@ foot scale model of a Hindu Kush mountain cliff built by the art department team in Los Angeles , California .
= = = = Cinematography = = = =
Lone Survivor was director of photography Tobias Schliessler 's fifth collaboration with Berg , as well as Berg 's first film shot with digital cinematography . Schliessler intended to shoot Lone Survivor with Arri Alexa cameras , but instead shot the film with Red Epic digital cameras , using Fujinon and Angénieux lenses . Schleissler chose the Red Epic camera " due to its compact size and lightweight body . "
In preparing to shoot Lone Survivor , Schliessler was inspired by British @-@ American photojournalist Tim Hetherington 's war photography book Infidel , which details a single U.S. platoon assigned to an outpost in the Korengal Valley during the war in Afghanistan . The book 's images became a guide to creating the overall look of the film after Schliessler had shown them to Berg , as well as the art and costume departments . Prior to filming , Schleissler and Berg shot test footage with the digital cameras and brought it to digital colorist Stefan Sonnenfeld at post @-@ production facility Company 3 for color grading .
The Santa Fe National Forest 's rocky terrain and steep inclines proved difficult for conventional camera equipment — such as cranes and dollies — which resulted in much of the film 's scenes being shot by the camera operators , who were rigged to aerial ski lifts above the action . " The location we picked was on top of the ski area above 12 @,@ 000 feet in Santa Fe , and the high altitude made it extremely physically demanding , " Schleissler explained . " All our equipment had to be hand @-@ carried into some of our remote locations , which meant we had to limit ourselves to the bare minimum ... No one ever hiked to the set empty @-@ handed , including our producers . It was one big team effort that made us a close film family . "
Digital cinema post @-@ production facility DeLuxe supplied the Lone Survivor production with a 40 @-@ foot trailer , known as the EC3 ( a joint venture between Company 3 and EFILM ) . The equipment enabled Schleissler to overlook every shot of the film in the EC3 trailer . He also collaborated with colorist Adrian Delude in changing the exposure for all cameras used which , according to Schliessler , " would have been more difficult when shooting on film . " Digital imaging technician Jeff Tomcho was tasked with ensuring that the Red Epic cameras were properly set up and successfully capturing the filmed footage . Company 3 carried out the digital intermediate .
= = = = Design and effects = = = =
To produce the many injuries received by the four @-@ man SEAL team , the filmmakers recruited KNB Effects team Gregory Nicotero and Howard Berger . To aid Nicotero and Berger in recreating the injuries of the fallen servicemen , Berg provided autopsy reports of the deceased . The film 's special effects supervisor Bruno van Zeebroeck created RPG explosions and bullet hits for the battle sequences that occur in the roads around Gulab 's home . Multiple branches of the United States Armed Forces supplied the Lone Survivor production with military vehicles . The United States Air Force provided two Sikorsky HH @-@ 60 Pave Hawks from Kirtland Air Force Base , both of which were manned by military personnel and used to depict a combat search and rescue . The United States Army provided the production with two MH @-@ 47 Chinooks and two Boeing AH @-@ 64 Apaches from Fort Hood , Texas . The United States Marine Corps provided thirty Marine Corps reservists for scenes set in Bagram Airfield and Jalalabad .
= = = = Costume design = = = =
Costume designer Amy Stofsky ensured that the military wardrobe seen in the film reflected the 2005 time period . According to Stofsky , what the fallen servicemen wore back then is no longer current issue , as the United States Armed Forces stopped manufacturing the uniforms in 2006 . While researching the time period , Stofsky met with the fallen servicemen 's families , as well as Navy SEAL teammates . Stofsky and the wardrobe department collaborated with the Hollywood @-@ based costume facility Western Costume to find the right fabric for the military uniforms . She and her team manufactured uniforms for the film 's lead actors , extras , stunt and photo doubles , and military personnel who were also acting as extras . Stofksy noted that a total of " 36 cookie cutter uniforms " were produced for Mark Wahlberg ’ s character Marcus Luttrell .
In designing the costumes for the Pashtun people and Taliban forces , Stofsky aimed to create a visual distinction between the villagers and Taliban fighters . " Luttrell survived because of the age @-@ old tradition of the Pashtun culture in providing hospitality and safety to those that enter their home , " she explained . " We dyed the Taliban ’ s costumes black , charcoal , wine , and indigo and kept the villagers light . Their humanity prevails . This is what we hoped to get across . " Stofsky utilized a North Hollywood @-@ based Afghan vendor , Moe Noorzai , for traditional Afghan clothing including vests , pants , dresses and Kashmir scarves . Stofsky also had a New Mexico @-@ based tailor produce all of the turbans featured in the film . Zarin Mohammad Rahimi , an Afghan refugee who fled to the United States to avoid the Taliban , and his sons , Muhammad Nawroz Rahimi and Nawaz Rahimi , were hired to act as technical advisors during production . The Rahimis collaborated with Stofsky , as well as the wardrobe and casting departments , to help them understand the language , customs and fighting methods of the Pashtun villagers and Taliban fighters . The eldest Rahimi also played the role of an elderly shepherd in a crucial scene .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
= = = = Editing = = = =
Editing and post @-@ production work on Lone Survivor took roughly seven months to complete . Colby Parker Jr. served as editor , having previously worked with Berg on editing Battleship . Parker spent six months editing Lone Survivor at the Lantana Entertainment Media Campus in Santa Monica , California . The editorial department used four Avid Media Composer systems to edit the film . Parker edited Lone Survivor during principal photography , but was not on location . " I like to blast through the footage to keep up with the camera . This way I can let [ Berg ] know if any extra coverage is needed , " he explained . " Often I ’ ll get word to the 1st [ assistant director ] and he ’ ll sneak in extra shots if the schedule permits . Although I will have a first assembly when the production wraps , Peter will never sit though a complete viewing of that . He works in a very linear manner , so as we start to view a scene , if there ’ s something that bothers him , we ’ ll stop and address it . "
The first cut of the film was two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours long . Parker then cut the film down to two hours when he realized there was a way to further trim the film . " There were a number of scenes that paced well when we intercut them rather than letting them play as written in a linear fashion . For instance , we wanted to let the mission briefing scene play normally — this is where the SEAL team is briefed on their target . That scene was followed by a scene of the target beheading a local . We realized that an actual briefing is very technical and rote , so intercutting these scenes helped keep the audience engaged . "
Sound editing and mixing work took place at Todd Soundelux , with Wylie Stateman serving as the supervising sound editor . Stateman recorded on @-@ location sound during filming , placing microphones on the actors ' backpacks and clothing " so [ the viewers ] would hear explosions and bullets going by as though [ they ] were with these guys as they were being attacked . " In creating sound effects for the environment of each scene , Stateman relied on foley design , rather than traditional sound effects .
= = = = Visual effects = = = =
The two visual effects companies for Lone Survivor were Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) and Image Engine , with overall supervision by Jesper Kjölsrud and Grady Cofer . In total , the film has over 400 visual effects shots . ILM was responsible only for creating a helicopter crash sequence in the film . Berg requested that the sequence be done by ILM , who had also worked on his previous film Battleship . Image Engine 's effects work consisted mainly of set extensions and location enhancements ; scenes were supplemented with computer @-@ generated mountains , buildings and backgrounds , as well as muzzle flashes for firearms . Film editor Colby Parker Jr. explained , " The sets of the villages were only one or two huts and then Image Engine built everything around those . Same for the SEAL base . There were only a few real buildings and from that they built out a larger base . "
= = = Music = = =
American post @-@ rock band Explosions in the Sky scored the film with music composer Steve Jablonsky . The band had previously scored Berg 's 2004 film Friday Night Lights , and Jablonsky had previously scored Battleship . Jablonsky said of the collaboration , " It was great . I didn 't work directly with them because they 're in Austin , Texas and I 'm in L.A. I spoke to them on the phone and I think sixty , sixty ‑ five percent of the scores is them . We ended up doing our own things . We tried to not have two totally different sounding scores . "
Berg said , " [ Jablonsky ] did the last reel ; the band Explosions in the Sky did pretty much did everything else . They have an emotional , tender quality to their music , even when it gets aggressive . I didn ’ t want the score to be overly aggressive , I wanted it to be haunting and emotional . Steve Jablonsky came in at the end to do something more traditional , but when Steve does “ traditional , ” it ’ s not the usual strings . He created a wonderful sound at the very end . " Songs featured in the film include " Canned Heat " by Jamiroquai , and " Heroes " performed by Peter Gabriel and the New Blood Orchestra , which is played at the end of the film during a four @-@ minute montage that features actual photos and videos of the fallen servicemen .
The motion picture soundtrack for Lone Survivor was released on December 17 , 2013 by record label Metropolis Movie Music .
= = Historical accuracy = =
While based on true events , a number of historical inaccuracies in the film have been noted . Early in the film , the four @-@ man SEAL reconnaissance team is discovered by three goat herders — an elderly man and two teenage boys . In fact , Marcus Luttrell wrote in his book that only one of the goat herders was a teenage boy , not two .
Also in dispute is the number of Taliban fighters involved in the ambush . In Luttrell ’ s original after @-@ action report , he stated that he and his teammates were attacked by 20 @-@ 35 insurgents , while his book places the number at over 200 . The screenplay describes “ A solid line of at least fifty Taliban in firing positions on top of the hill above them . " The summary of action for Lt. Murphy 's posthumous Medal of Honor describes the enemy force as numbering " more than 50 , " while the official citation puts the number at " between 30 and 40 enemy fighters . "
The film shows Luttrell ( Wahlberg ) being able to walk after the Taliban ’ s ambush on the four @-@ man SEAL team . In reality , Luttrell explained that his legs were numb immediately after the ambush , and when feeling did return to them , the pain from the shrapnel in his legs made it too painful to walk ; he had to crawl seven miles looking for water and sanctuary . Luttrell also expressed that he did not witness the MH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopter being shot down , as seen in the film . At the end of the film , the Pashtun villagers fight off a Taliban attack in a firefight that never actually happened . In reality , the Taliban fighters were outnumbered by the villagers and had no intentions of attacking the village . They did , however , try to sneak in and capture Luttrell in secret . Luttrell also did not go into cardiac arrest after he was rescued , nor was he near death , as seen in the film .
During a briefing , early in the film , an officer states that a SEAL on a previous mission in the Afghan mountains was bitten by a rattlesnake . As the four @-@ man SEAL team are fighting and withdrawing down a rocky slope , one of them encounters a large rattlesnake which is heard rattling before it is seen on screen . Rattlesnakes are found in almost every mainland country of the Americas , from Canada to Argentina , excluding Panama , Ecuador and Chile , but they do not occur outside the Americas . The venomous snakes encountered in the rocky valleys of the Pashtun region would be the Saw @-@ scaled viper ( Echis carinatus ) and the Levant viper ( Macrovipera lebetina ) , with an outside chance of a rare Persian horned viper ( Pseudocerastes persicus ) . The sound of the saw @-@ scale viper rubbing its scales together as a defensive warning is not dissimilar to that made by a small rattlesnake vibrating its tail . It is likely that U.S. troops , upon hearing this sound , would automatically attribute it to the familiar rattlesnake from back home .
= = Release = =
= = = Strategy = = =
Berg first screened Lone Survivor to a number of professional American football teams to generate a strong word @-@ of @-@ mouth for the film . He expressed that the screenings were not a marketing ploy , explaining that it was " just a cool thing to do . " Lone Survivor was screened to the Dallas Cowboys , Denver Broncos , Carolina Panthers , and Cleveland Browns as well as the University of Alabama Crimson Tide football team . The film received a generally positive response from several football players who took to social media to praise the film . A gala premiere screening of Lone Survivor was held during the AFI Film Festival at the TCL Chinese Theatre on November 12 , 2013 . Lone Survivor held its red carpet premiere on December 3 , 2013 at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City , where the film received a standing ovation . The premiere also doubled as a tribute to the fallen servicemen of Operation Red Wings ; in addition to several cast and crew members , Marcus Luttrell and family members of the deceased were in attendance . Mohammad Gulab , the Afghan villager who helped rescue Luttrell , also attended the premiere , marking his first time in New York City and in a movie theatre .
In what the film industry calls a " platform release " , Lone Survivor was released in a small number of theaters before opening wide in other countries ; it opened in New York and Los Angeles on December 25 , 2013 before being released across North America on January 10 , 2014 . Entertainment One distributed Lone Survivor in Canadian markets . Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures International released the film in the Philippines on January 8 , 2014 .
= = = Box office = = =
Lone Survivor 's limited release in the United States saw it take $ 153 @,@ 839 — an average of $ 45 @,@ 436 per theater — in its first five days . The film grossed an additional $ 326 @,@ 685 on the following weekend . Pre @-@ release tracking estimated that Lone Survivor would gross between $ 17 and $ 28 million during its opening weekend of wide release . Released to a total of 2 @,@ 875 theaters in the United States and Canada , Lone Survivor grossed $ 14 @,@ 403 @,@ 750 on its opening day , and by the end of its opening weekend it had grossed $ 38 @,@ 231 @,@ 471 , securing the number one position at the domestic box office . Lone Survivor 's opening weekend gross made it the second largest debut for any film released widely in January , after the 2008 film Cloverfield 's opening weekend gross of $ 40 @.@ 1 million . With its opening weekend gross , Lone Survivor had become the highest @-@ grossing film among recent " post @-@ 9 / 11 war films " , surpassing the 2009 film Brothers , which ended its domestic theatrical run with over $ 28 @.@ 5 million .
The film saw a significant drop in attendance during its second weekend of wide release ; it had earned $ 6 @,@ 665 @,@ 470 , which was a 135 @.@ 4 % increase from its opening Friday . However , by the end of its second weekend , the film earned $ 25 @,@ 929 @,@ 570 , a 41 @.@ 7 % overall decrease from the previous weekend . As a result , Lone Survivor went from first to second place behind the action @-@ comedy film Ride Along . The film remained in second place during its third weekend , grossing an additional $ 12 @,@ 900 @,@ 960 , which was a 41 @.@ 5 % decrease from its second weekend . It grossed an additional $ 7 @,@ 096 @,@ 330 during its fourth weekend , moving to fifth place in the top 10 rankings . Lone Survivor remained in fifth place during its fifth weekend , grossing an additional $ 5 @,@ 565 @,@ 860 , which was a 21 @.@ 6 % decrease from the previous weekend . By its sixth weekend , the film went from fifth place to ninth , earning $ 4 @,@ 086 @,@ 435 . By its seventh weekend , Lone Survivor had dropped out of the top ten , earning an additional $ 1 @,@ 978 @,@ 380 . Lone Survivor completed its theatrical run in North America on April 10 , 2014 after 107 days ( 15 @.@ 3 weeks ) of release .
Lone Survivor grossed $ 125 @,@ 095 @,@ 601 in the United States and Canada ; coupled with its international take of $ 29 @,@ 707 @,@ 311 , the film accumulated $ 154 @,@ 802 @,@ 912 in worldwide box office totals . Outside of North America , the film 's biggest markets were in Australia , the United Kingdom , Spain , Japan , France , South Korea and Germany ; the film grossed approximately $ 3 @.@ 5 million in Australia , $ 3 @.@ 4 million in the United Kingdom , $ 2 @.@ 5 million in Spain , $ 2 @.@ 2 million in Japan , $ 1 @.@ 5 million in France , $ 1 @.@ 2 million in South Korea , and $ 1 million in Germany . In North America , Lone Survivor is the twenty @-@ fourth highest grossing film of 2013 , and the sixth @-@ highest @-@ grossing R @-@ rated film of that year .
= = = Critical response = = =
Lone Survivor has received " largely positive reviews " from film critics , according to The Hollywood Reporter . The Los Angeles Times reported the critics ' consensus was that " the film succeeds in bringing the mission to life , although it avoids probing the deeper issues at hand . " Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes sampled 195 reviews , and gave the film a score rating of 75 % , with an average score of 6 @.@ 6 / 10 . The website 's consensus reads , " A true account of military courage and survival , Lone Survivor wields enough visceral power to mitigate its heavy @-@ handed jingoism . " Another review aggregator , Metacritic , assigned the film a weighted average score of 60 out of 100 , based on 44 reviews from mainstream critics , indicating to be " mixed or average reviews " . CinemaScore polls conducted during Lone Survivor 's opening weekend of wide release reported that male and female audiences gave the film a rare " A + " ( on an A + to F scale ) , with exit polls showing that 57 % of the audience was male , while 57 % was at least 30 years of age or older .
Justin Chang , writing for Variety magazine , gave the film a positive review and called it " the most grueling and sustained American combat picture since Black Hawk Down , as well as a prime example of how impressive physical filmmaking can overcome even fundamental deficiencies in script and characterization . " Alonso Duralde , writing for The Wrap , stated , " The film never makes a grand statement about whether or not the war in Afghanistan is , per se , a mistake , but it does portray war itself as a disgusting folly . Berg sets up the cathartic moments we ’ re used to in movies like this , but then he pulls out the rug , reminding us that the cavalry doesn ’ t always miraculously show up in time to save the day . " Todd McCarthy , writing for The Hollywood Reporter , described the film as being " rugged , skilled , relentless , determined , narrow @-@ minded and focused , everything that a soldier must be when his life is on the line , " while Scott Bowles of USA Today called Lone Survivor " brutal , unrelenting and ultimately moving . " Leonard Maltin described the film as " visceral , " while praising Berg , the main actors , and the stunt performers for successfully reenacting the events of Operation Red Wings . Maltin concluded that the film " is a tough movie but a rewarding one . It ’ s humbling to watch this dramatization of the sacrifices these men make , without hesitation . Peter Berg was determined to do justice to them , and he has succeeded . " Betsy Sharkey , writing for The Los Angeles Times , praised the overall look of the film : " The production and costume designers have paid a great deal of attention to the details , from the uniforms and tribal robes , to the bullet wounds and blood . It certainly adds to the film 's verisimilitude . "
Several reviewers criticized Lone Survivor for focusing more on its action scenes than on characterization . In his review for The Star @-@ Ledger , Stephen Whitty wrote , " This is the sort of bare @-@ bones story that well served plenty of World War II movies once , and it would work here , if Berg had the sense to develop these men as characters , first . But we don 't really get to know any of them , or what they might bring personally to this life @-@ or @-@ death emergency . " Rafer Guzman of Newsday wrote , " The movie seems more concerned with military @-@ style action than with telling us who these fallen heroes really were . "
One of the film 's strongest detractors was Time Out magazine 's Keith Uhlich , who called the film " war porn of the highest order " . Geoff Pevere wrote in his review for The Globe and Mail , " The sensation of being pinned down and shot apart is so harrowingly conveyed ... that one almost forgives the movie ’ s failure to be quite as persuasive in almost every other respect . " While praising the film for its visuals and sound effects , as well as Berg 's atmospheric direction , Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave Lone Survivor a mixed review . Smith concluded his review by describing it as " a movie about an irrelevant skirmish that ended in near @-@ total catastrophe , during a war we are not winning . " Film critic Steven Boone , writing for Roger Ebert 's website , compared the film 's violence to that of Mel Gibson 's 2004 film The Passion of the Christ : " What 's in between amounts to The Passion of the Christ for U.S. servicemen : a bloody historic episode recounted mainly in images of hardy young men being ripped apart , at screeching volume . Though Berg 's source material isn 't the New Testament , he often handles Navy SEAL Marcus Luttrell 's account ... with the thunderous reverence Mel Gibson brought to Christ 's crucifixion and resurrection . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Lone Survivor has received various awards and nominations , in categories ranging from recognition of the film itself to its screenplay , direction , stunts and sound editing , to the performance of its lead actor , Mark Wahlberg . Lone Survivor received two Academy Award nominations for Best Sound Editing and Best Sound Mixing , although the film failed to win any of the awards ; at the 86th Academy Awards , the film had lost in both categories to Gravity . In addition to the following list of awards and nominations , the film was named one of the ten best films of 2013 by the Las Vegas Film Critics Society , who also ranked it as the Best Action Film of 2013 .
= = = Home media = = =
Lone Survivor was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD formats on June 3 , 2014 by Universal Studios Home Entertainment in the United States , and by Entertainment One in Canada . In the United Kingdom , the film was released on both home video formats on June 9 , 2014 .
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= Controversy over the discovery of Haumea =
Haumea was the first of all the current IAU @-@ recognized dwarf planets to be discovered since Pluto in 1930 . However , its naming and formal acceptance as a dwarf planet were delayed by several years due to controversy over who should receive credit for discovering it . A California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) team headed by Michael E. Brown first noticed the object , but a Spanish team headed by José Luis Ortiz Moreno were the first to announce it , and so normally would receive credit .
However , Brown suspects the Spanish team of fraud , by using Caltech observations to make their discovery , while the Ortiz team accuses the American team of political interference with the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) . The IAU officially recognized the Californian team 's proposed name Haumea over the name proposed by the Spanish team , Ataecina , in September 2008 .
= = Discovery and announcement = =
On December 28 , 2004 , Mike Brown and his team discovered Haumea on images they had taken with the 1 @.@ 3 m SMARTS Telescope at the Palomar Observatory in the United States on May 6 , 2004 , while looking for what he hoped would be the tenth planet . The Caltech discovery team used the nickname " Santa " among themselves , because they had discovered Haumea on December 28 , 2004 , just after Christmas . However , it was clearly too small to be a planet , because it was significantly smaller than Pluto , and Brown did not announce the discovery . Instead he kept it under wraps , along with several other large trans @-@ Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) , pending additional observation to better determine their natures . When his team discovered Haumea 's moons , they realized that Haumea was more rocky than other TNOs , and that its moons were mostly ice . They then discovered a small family of nearby icy TNOs , and concluded that these were remnants of Haumea 's icy mantle , which had been blasted off by a collision . On July 7 , 2005 , while he was finishing the paper describing the discovery , Brown 's daughter Lilah was born , which delayed the announcement further . On July 20 , the Caltech team published an online abstract of a report intended to announce the discovery at a conference the following September . In this Haumea was given the code K40506A .
At around that time , Pablo Santos Sanz , a student of José Luis Ortiz Moreno at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía at Sierra Nevada Observatory in southern Spain , claims to have examined the backlog of photos that the Ortiz team had started taking in December 2002 . He says that he found Haumea in late July 2005 , on images taken on March 7 , 9 , and 10 , 2003 . He further said that in checking whether this was a known object , the team came across Brown 's internet summary , describing a bright TNO much like the one they had just found . Googling the reference number for object K40506A on the morning of July 26 , they found the Caltech observation logs of Haumea , but according to their account , those logs contained too little information for Ortiz to tell if they were the same object . The Ortiz team also checked with the Minor Planet Center ( MPC ) , which had no record of this object . Wanting to establish priority , they emailed the MPC with their discovery on the night of July 27 , 2005 , titled " Big TNO discovery , urgent " , without making any mention of the Caltech logs . The next morning they again accessed the Caltech logs , including observations from several additional nights . They then asked Reiner Stoss at the amateur Astronomical Observatory of Mallorca for further observations . Stoss found precovery images of Haumea in digitized Palomar Observatory slides from 1955 , and located Haumea with his own telescope that night , July 28 . Within an hour , the Ortiz team submitted a second report to the MPC that included this new data . Again , no mention was made of having accessed the Caltech logs . The data was published by the MPC on July 29 .
In a press release on the same day , the Ortiz team called Haumea the " tenth planet " . On July 29 , 2005 , Haumea was given its first official label , the temporary designation 2003 EL61 , with the " 2003 " based on the date of the Spanish discovery image . On September 7 , 2006 , it was numbered and admitted into the official minor planet catalogue as ( 136108 ) 2003 EL61 .
= = Reaction to the announcement = =
The same day as the MPC publication , Brown 's group announced the discovery of another Kuiper belt object , Eris , more distant and brighter ( and apparently larger ) than Pluto , as the tenth planet . The announcement was made earlier than planned to forestall the possibility of similar events with that discovery , when the MPC told them that their observational data was publicly accessible , and they realized that not only Haumea data but by that time their Eris data had been publicly accessed . The same day Ortiz announced the discovery of Haumea , Brown submitted his own draft with the data on the first of its moons that he had discovered on January 26 , 2005 , to The Astrophysical Journal .
Brown , though disappointed at being scooped , congratulated the Ortiz team on their discovery . He apologized for immediately overshadowing their announcement of Haumea with his announcement of Eris , and explained that someone had accessed their data and he was afraid of being scooped again . Ortiz did not volunteer to say that it had been he who accessed the data . Upon learning from web server records that it was a computer at the Sierra Nevada Observatory that had accessed his observation logs the day before the discovery announcement — logs which included enough information to allow the Ortiz team to precover Haumea in their 2003 images — Brown came to suspect fraud . He emailed Ortiz on August 9 and asked for an explanation . Ortiz did not respond , and on August 15 the Caltech team filed a formal complaint with the IAU , accusing the Ortiz team of a serious breach of scientific ethics in failing to acknowledge their use of the Caltech data , and asked the MPC to strip them of discovery status . Ortiz later admitted he had accessed the Caltech observation logs but denied any wrongdoing , stating this was merely part of verifying whether they had discovered a new object . Brown began to wonder if the Spanish team had actually identified Haumea at all before they saw his own abstract and telescope log .
= = Official naming = =
IAU protocol is that discovery credit for a minor planet goes to whoever first submits a report to the MPC with enough positional data for a decent orbit determination , and that the credited discoverer has priority in naming it . This was Ortiz et al . , and they proposed the name Ataecina , an Iberian goddess of the underworld . She is the equivalent of the Roman goddess Proserpina , who was in turn one of Pluto 's lovers . However , as a chthonic deity , Ataecina would only have been an appropriate name for an object in orbital resonance with Neptune , which Haumea was not .
Following guidelines established by the IAU that classical Kuiper belt objects be given names of mythological beings associated with creation , in September 2006 the Caltech team submitted formal names from Hawaiian mythology to the IAU for both ( 136108 ) 2003 EL61 and its moons , in order " to pay homage to the place where the satellites were discovered " . The names were proposed by David Rabinowitz of the Caltech team . Haumea is the tutelary goddess of the island of Hawaiʻi , where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located . In addition , she is identified with Papa , the goddess of the earth and wife of Wākea ( space ) , which is appropriate because 2003 EL61 is thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock , without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects . Lastly , Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth , with many children who sprang from different parts of her body ; this corresponds to the swarm of icy bodies thought to have broken off the dwarf planet during an ancient collision . The two known moons , also believed to have been born in this manner , were thus named after two of Haumea 's daughters , Hiʻiaka and Nāmaka .
The dispute over who had actually discovered the object delayed the acceptance of any name , or of formal classification of the object as a dwarf planet . On 17 September 2008 , the IAU announced that the two bodies in charge of naming dwarf planets , the Committee on Small Body Nomenclature ( CSBN ) and the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature ( WGPSN ) , had decided on the Caltech proposal of Haumea . At the CSBN , the outcome of the voting was very close , eventually being decided by a single vote . However , the date of the discovery was listed on the announcement as March 7 , 2003 , the location of discovery as the Sierra Nevada Observatory , and the name of the discoverer was left blank .
= = Aftermath = =
Brian G. Marsden , head of the MPC at Harvard , supported Brown 's claim saying that " Sooner or later , posterity will realise what happened , and Mike Brown will get the full credit " . He also went on to state , in reference to the name of the discoverer , which was left blank in the IAU listing , that " It 's deliberately vague about the discoverer of the object [ ... ] We don 't want to cause an international incident . " He called the whole controversy the worst since the early 17th century dispute over who found the four biggest satellites of Jupiter between Galileo Galilei and Simon Marius , ultimately won by Galileo .
The Ortiz team has objected , suggesting that if Ataecina were not accepted the IAU could at least have chosen a third name favoring neither party , and accusing the IAU of political bias . Rumors appeared that Dagda , the name of a god from Irish mythology and a " neutral " name , was indeed proposed by a member of the CSBM but was not used in the end . Ortiz went to say " I am not happy , I think the [ IAU ] decision is unfortunate and sets a bad precedent . " The Spanish newspaper ABC went on to call the decision a " US conquest " , asserting that politics played a major role as the US had 10 times more scientists in the IAU than Spain had .
Immediately after the announcement of the name , Brown noted that it is unusual to be allowed to name an object without being acknowledged as its official discoverer but declared that he is pleased with the outcome and that he " think [ s ] this is as good a resolution as we 'll get " . He did get full recognition for the discovery of the two moons , Hiʻiaka and Namaka . On the fifth anniversary of the discovery he wrote a blog with his thoughts on the importance of the discovery , but did not mention any events regarding the controversy .
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= Italian cruiser Minerva =
Minerva was a torpedo cruiser of the Partenope class built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . The second of eight ships , Minerva was built by Gio . Ansaldo & C. ; her keel was laid down in February 1889 , she was launched in February 1892 , and she was commissioned in August that year . Her main armament were her five torpedo tubes , which were supported by a battery of ten small @-@ caliber guns . Minerva spent most of her career in the main Italian fleet , where she was primarily occupied with training exercises . She was converted into a minelayer in 1909 – 10 . She did not see significant action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 or World War I in 1915 – 18 , though she was used to lay defensive minefields during the latter conflict . The ship was sold for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Minerva was 73 @.@ 1 meters ( 240 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 @.@ 0 ft ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 @.@ 4 ft ) . She displaced 833 metric tons ( 820 long tons ; 918 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . On speed trials with a displacement of 828 t ( 815 long tons ; 913 short tons ) , Minerva 'S engines produced an average top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) from 3 @,@ 884 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 kW ) with forced draft . The ship had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 96 – 121 .
Minerva was armed with a main battery of one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 gun and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 43 guns mounted singly.α She was also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 20 guns in single mounts . Her primary offensive weapon was her six 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .
= = Service history = =
Minerva was laid down on 1 February 1889 at the Gio . Ansaldo & C. shipyard in Genoa , and was launched on 27 February 1892 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed less than six months later , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 20 August . During the 1893 fleet maneuvers , Minerva served with the 1st Division of the Reserve Squadron , along with the ironclads Re Umberto and Caio Duilio and four torpedo boats . During the maneuvers , which lasted from 6 August to 5 September , the ships of the Reserve Squadron defended against a simulated attack by the Active Squadron , which gamed a French attack on the Italian fleet . In 1895 , Minerva was stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department , split between Taranto and Naples , along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet . These included her sister ships Partenope , Aretusa , Euridice , Iride , Urania , and Caprera , the four Goito @-@ class cruisers , and Tripoli .
In 1903 , Minerva was assigned to the 1st Squadron , along with Euridice . The unit also included eight battleships , six other cruisers , and six destroyers . The 1st Squadron was kept in active service for seven months of the year for training , and had reduced crews for the remainder of the year . She remained in the squadron the following year , which was reduced in size , with the two oldest battleships having been withdrawn , though three destroyers were added . Between 1909 and 1910 , the ship was modernized and converted into a minelayer . She received new oil @-@ fired boilers and had her armament reduced to two 3 in ( 76 mm ) guns , four 57 mm guns and two 37 mm guns . Minerva 's speed was reduced to 18 @.@ 28 knots ( 33 @.@ 85 km / h ; 21 @.@ 04 mph ) on 3 @,@ 524 ihp ( 2 @,@ 628 kW ) . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Minerva was attached to the 4th Division of the 2nd Squadron of the Italian fleet . By this time , she was being used as a minelayer . She did not see significant action during the war .
Italy had declared neutrality at the start of World War I , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that the threat from Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and naval mines in the narrow waters of the Adriatic was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Minerva was initially used to lay a series of defensive minefields , along with her sister Partenope and the cruiser Goito , in support of this strategy . Minerva survived the war and was discarded in May 1921 , the last surviving member of her class . She was subsequently broken up for scrap .
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= Homerun ( film ) =
Homerun ( Chinese : 跑吧孩子 ; pinyin : pǎo bà háizǐ ) is a 2003 Singaporean Mandarin @-@ language film . A remake of the award @-@ winning Iranian film Children of Heaven , Homerun is a drama about two poor siblings and their adventures over a lost pair of shoes . Set in 1965 , the year Singapore separated from Malaysia , the film satirises the political relations between the two countries , leading to its banning in Malaysia .
The film was written and directed by Singaporean filmmaker Jack Neo , and produced by MediaCorp Raintree Pictures . It stars Huang Wenyong , Xiang Yun , Shawn Lee and Megan Zheng . Filming took place in the rural outskirts of Kuala Lumpur during November and December 2002 , but post @-@ production delays pushed back the film 's release date .
Released in cinemas on 7 August 2003 , Homerun grossed over S $ 2 @.@ 3 million during its nine @-@ week box office run . It was nominated for two awards at the 2003 Golden Horse Awards ; Megan Zheng , then 10 , became the first Singaporean to win a Golden Horse . Generally , however , critical reception of the film was mixed .
= = Plot = =
In 1965 , two poor Singaporean children , Chew Kiat Kun ( Shawn Lee ) and his younger sister Seow Fang ( Megan Zheng ) live with their mother ( Xiang Yun ) who is late in her third pregnancy and their father ( Huang Wenyong ) who is in debt to a local rice merchant . The children make the best of what little they have , while their father works long hours doing odd jobs .
The family 's problems are compounded when Kiat Kun accidentally loses Seow Fang 's only pair of shoes after taking them to be repaired . The children conduct a frantic search but find nothing ; a karung guni man had claimed the shoes as unwanted rubbish . The Chew siblings are frustrated and rendered helpless by the situation until their father inspires Kiat Kun to share his shoes with his sister , trading off between classes so they can both attend school . Unfortunately , this plan brings additional problems : Seow Fang is chastised for wearing oversized shoes to school , while Kiat Kun is repeatedly late as he must wait for his sister to exchange shoes with him .
At school , a wealthy schoolmate of Kiat Kun 's named Tan Beng Soon ( Joshua Ang ) runs an amateur football team with his friends . Kiat Kun and his friends strike a bargain with Beng Soon to play on the team using the other boys ' football shoes , in exchange for helping them cheat on their homework . However , the boys quarrel , causing an angry Beng Soon to renege on the deal and remove Kiat Kun and his friends from the team .
Without their assistance , Beng Soon and his friends are punished for producing substandard homework . Although the boys try to resolve their differences , they eventually give up on reaching an agreement . Beng Soon 's grades continue to fall , and his parents decide to send him away to study in England .
Meanwhile , Seow Fang sees her classmate wearing her lost shoes to school . She and Kiat Kun follow the girl home , but after realising her father is blind and that her family was in a more dire situation than theirs , they decide not to reclaim the shoes . However , a few days later , Seow Fang notices that her classmate is wearing a new pair ; upon confronting her , she discovers that the girl has discarded the old pair at the kampung rubbish dump . The Chew siblings frantically search the rubbish dump for her shoes , but only discover them as they are destroyed during a trade unionist riot against a policeman ( Wakin Chau ) .
Kiat Kun is dejected until he learns that the third prize in the 1965 National Primary School Cross Country Competition is a pair of shoes . Because he was sick on the day his school selected representatives for the race , he pleads with his P.E. teacher to let him enter . The teacher , initially reluctant , relents when Kiat Kun rushes to get his cough medicine , demonstrating his running ability . As the competition begins , Kiat Kun notices that Beng Soon is also participating .
Once the starting gun fires , Kiat Kun pushes himself to the limit and eventually establishes himself among the lead runners . Kiat Kun appears assured of third place , but unexpectedly trips over a stone and thus finishes first . Beng Soon ends the race in third place . While Kiat Kun is running , Mrs Chew goes into labour , forcing Seow Fang to run across a long path littered with broken glass to find a midwife . Finally , Mrs Chew gives birth to a baby boy and Beng Soon gives Kiat Kun and Seow Fang new pairs of shoes before departing .
= = Production and distribution = =
While watching the Iranian film Children of Heaven , Singaporean filmmaker Jack Neo and his wife were moved to " holding hands and crying after seeing the love shared by the children " . Children of Heaven inspired Neo to explore issues faced by Singaporean youths in his 2002 film I Not Stupid . Following the success of I Not Stupid , he decided to adapt Children of Heaven to a 1960s Singaporean kampung setting , to emphasise the messages of friendship and kinship . Homerun was produced by MediaCorp Raintree Pictures on a budget of S $ 1 @.@ 5 million . It was shot on 35mm film . The production crew included Titus Ho as executive producer ; Chan Pui Yin and Daniel Yun as producers ; Kane Chen as cinematographer and Lawrence Ang as film editor . In addition to writing and directing , Neo also penned the lyrics to the theme song , which was sung by Koh Mei Xian and composed by Li Yi . Filming took place in the rural outskirts of Kuala Lumpur during November and December 2002 . The cast endured a rigorous schedule , including extensive travel times to the filming location and many running scenes . The child actors ' school commitments made the planning of reshoots difficult ; moreover , the production team decided to delay post @-@ production work in Thailand due to the SARS outbreak .
On 7 August 2003 , distributor United International Pictures released Homerun in 37 theatres , at the time a record for a Singaporean film . Homerun 's worldwide theatrical distribution was carried out by the production company , Raintree Pictures , while the Hong Kong screenings were carried out by Golden Scene following their previous success with I Not Stupid . A Chinese language version was released as both a two @-@ disc VCD and one @-@ disc DVD by Panorama Entertainment , one of the Hong Kong @-@ based " mainstays " of independent film distribution .
= = Political commentary = =
Elements of Homerun compare and contrast Singapore 's situations in 1965 and in 2003 . For example , while Mrs Chew is giving birth , Lee Kuan Yew 's voice can be heard on a radio in the background , announcing Singapore 's separation from Malaysia . Other events in the film parallel those in Singapore 's history , such as the riot at the rubbish dump alluding to the labour strikes and riots of the 1960s , as well as the threat of terrorism in the new millennium . One of Kiat Kun 's friends is nicknamed " Little Red Dot " , a phrase used by former Indonesian president Jusuf Habibie to disparage Singapore . The final scene in the film shows the Chew siblings standing before a long muddy path , which symbolises the uncertainly faced by both the newly independent nation in 1965 and the country in transition in 2003 .
A number of scenes in Homerun contain references to political disputes between Singapore and Malaysia . The water dispute is portrayed by Kiat Kun ( Singapore ) quarrelling with Beng Soon ( Malaysia ) over the right to draw water from the kampung well . In another scene , one of Kiat Kun 's friends produces a sheet of paper with details of the deal Beng Soon reneged on , prompting one of Beng Soon 's friends to remark that this was like " writing a letter to a girlfriend and revealing it to the world " . This echoes a comment made by Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad , comparing Singapore 's disclosure of letters between the two countries to " revealing letters sent to one 's girlfriend " .
When asked about the references , Neo said he would " leave the movie open to interpretation , which will make it more mysterious and beautiful " . Nevertheless , Malaysian censors decided to ban the screening of Homerun in Malaysia , citing scenes that will " bring about negative elements and bad examples to education " . Raintree filed an appeal , arguing that the positive messages in the film were more salient than the political satire , but it was unsuccessful . Malaysian moviegoers polled by Life ! and the China Press expressed disappointment with the ban , calling it " unnecessary " and stated a desire to watch the film via unlicensed VCD .
= = Reception = =
Having earned S $ 110 @,@ 300 from sneak previews , Homerun made S $ 610 @,@ 400 over the National Day weekend , achieving the most successful opening weekend for a local film . It rose to the top of the local box office , beating American blockbusters such as Lara Croft : Tomb Raider . In total , the film grossed more than S $ 2 @.@ 3 million over nine weeks of screenings , the second longest box office run for the year .
Critical reception of Homerun was mixed . Sanjuro of LoveHKFilm.com wrote that the film " succeeds in delivering a relatively simple , intimate story that should prove moving for even the most jaded audience " , while Nick England of the San Diego Asian Film Foundation described Homerun as " a film with certain beauteous qualities that we can genuinely enjoy , but end up choking on when it is all over with " . In contrast , FilmsAsia reviewer Soh Yun @-@ Huei panned its use of political satire , which she felt " [ causes ] the film to be devoid of innocence and replaced with a sense of agenda and manipulation " .
The film won several awards , including the Grand Prix Prize at the 2003 Golden Swan Awards , the Golden Butterfly Prize for Best Direction at the Isfahan International Children 's Film Festival , and a trio ( Best Director , Best Newcomer , and People 's Choice Award ) at the Montreal Film Festival . It also received two nominations at the 2003 Golden Horse Awards , for Best Theme Song ( 拥有 ) and Best New Performer . Megan Zheng , then 10 years old , became the first Singaporean to win a Golden Horse Award , sharing her Best New Performer award with Wang Baoqiang of Blind Shaft .
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= Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia =
The Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia ( Romanian : Corpul Voluntarilor români din Rusia ) , or Volunteer Corps of Transylvanians @-@ Bukovinans ( Corpul Voluntarilor ardeleni @-@ bucovineni , Corpul Voluntarilor transilvăneni și bucovineni ) , was a military formation of World War I , created from ethnic Romanian prisoners of war held by Russia . Officially established in February 1917 , it comprised abjurers of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army , mainly contingents from Transylvania and Bukovina . These had been obliged to fight against Romania , and , once in Russian custody , volunteered for service against the Central Powers . As campaigners for self @-@ determination and union with Romania , they passed political resolutions which , in both tone and scope , announced those adopted on Union Day 1918 .
The Corps was effectively an active military reserve of the Romanian Land Forces , and regularly dispatched new units to the Romanian front after June 1917 . It helped defend the last stretches of Romania against the Central Powers ' unified offensive , and met success in the Battle of Mărășești , but it still lacked a unitary command structure . When the October Revolution in Russia and the Romanian armistice took Romania out of the Entente camp , the Corps was left without backing and purpose . However , it inspired the creation of similar units in Entente countries , most successfully the Romanian Legion of Italy .
Mobilized volunteers or prisoners symbolically tied to the Corps were left behind in Russia after the Russian Civil War was ignited . Various such individuals formed the Romanian Legion of Siberia , which resisted the Bolsheviks in cooperation with the Czechoslovak Legions and the White movement . These units were ultimately repatriated to Greater Romania in 1920 .
= = Darnytsia Corps = =
= = = Origins = = =
During 1916 , Romania entered World War I as an Entente country , in alliance with the Russian Empire against Austria @-@ Hungary and the other Central Powers . After a while , Romania began investigating the fate and loyalties of Austria @-@ Hungarian Romanians who were held in Russian POW camps . Estimates for that period place the total population of Bukovinan and Transylvanian Romanians in such facilities , throughout Russia , at 120 @,@ 000 or 130 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , in Romania itself there were several thousand Romanian refugees from Austria @-@ Hungary who immediately signed up for service in the Romanian Armed Forces .
In Russia , Romanian captives were complained about being worse off than prisoners from other Austro @-@ Hungarian backgrounds , a matter which may have contributed to their decision of volunteering into Romanian service . Russian authorities were undecided about letting them join , and initially prohibited such initiatives ; those who insisted to establish contact with Romania were arrested by Russian police forces . During the same year , after consultations with Romania , the Russian executive reverted such policies . It was decided that Russia would free at most 15 @,@ 000 of this demographic group , transferring them to Romania in exchange for a similar number of non @-@ Romanian prisoners from Romanian camps .
Subsequently , those who chose to enlist were together relocated at the special camp in Darnytsia — a suburb of Kiev , known to Romanians as Darnița . In December 1916 , that facility held some 200 officers and 1 @,@ 200 non @-@ commissioned officers , who formed the nucleus ( and general command ) of a " Romanian Corps " . Elected First Senior of the Camp , the 40 @-@ year @-@ old Victor Deleu was a legal professional , rank @-@ and @-@ file member of the Romanian National Party ( PNR ) and opinion journalist from Transylvania , who came to Darnytsia after internment in Kineshma . The other members of Darnytsia camp 's leadership body were Pompiliu Nistor , Vasile Chiroiu , Emil Isopescu , Valeriu Milovan , Octavian Vasu and Ioan Vescan .
Regardless of such initiatives , Romania tended to give little attention to the potential of recruitment in Russia , as many decision @-@ makers were still uncertain about the devotion of Transylvanians and Bukovinans , and worried that they might be welcoming Austro @-@ Hungarian spies into army ranks . Additionally , probably half of the 120 @,@ 000 men excluded themselves from the pool of recruits , as Austrian loyalists , invalids or men who had reason to fear Austria @-@ Hungary 's retaliation . Support from within Romania was therefore weak , and Russian obstruction still had a part to play , but in January the camp was visited by Lieutenant Colonel Constantin Gh . Pietraru of the Romanian Land Forces , on a mission to evaluate the recruitment project . The reversal of fortunes on the Romanian front had brought a Central Powers ' invasion into southern Romania , and the Romanian military authority became pressured into finding new soldiers for the defensive action .
= = = February Revolution = = =
Shortly after these events , Russia experienced the February Revolution , which brought to power a liberal Russian Provisional Government . As a consequence of these , the whole transfer project was delayed , but the Russian acceptance of self @-@ determination facilitated renewed political action . According to veteran Simion Gocan , the soldiers were inspired by both these revolutionary promises and the American entry into World War I , which seemingly made Wilsonian Self @-@ Determination an official Entente policy .
By Order 1191 of March 8 [ O.S. February 23 ] 1917 , Romania 's Minister of War , Vintilă Brătianu , created the Volunteer Corps as a special formation of the national army . On the same day , in Darnytsia , Pietraru was tasked by Chief of Staff Constantin Prezan with equipping the new recruits and organizing them into units . The honorary command was assigned to Constantin Coandă , who was already the military attaché with Russia 's Stavka ( General Headquarters ) . Over the next month , in Mogilev , Coandă again negotiated the Corps ' recognition by Stavka . Coandă received the permission , but the number of recruits was no longer clearly specified .
On March 18 , Coandă issued a " Pledge " ( Angajament ) , which regulated the status of Corps soldiers in relation to the Romanian Army , and which the recruits had to sign . It integrated the former Austro @-@ Hungarian officers into the Romanian Army , with equivalent ranks , and equated their Austrian service , including time they spent in the POW camps , with active duty under Romanian banners . The pledge ended with the words : " May God help us , so that through our blood we may liberate our lands and create a Greater Romania , unified in substance and everlasting . " All those who backed out after signing the document were to be considered deserters . Demand for enlistment remained considerable , even though rumor spread that Austro @-@ Hungarian repression forces were by then murdering the families of volunteers and confiscating their property . However , Corps veteran Petru Nemoianu ( Nemoian ) was later to state that envy and class conflict were also characteristic for the formation , where the intellectual leaders quarreled over the better paid assignments .
In April , Pietraru met with the Provisional Government 's Alexander Guchkov , and an agreement was reached regarding the maximum total of troops to be enlisted in the Romanian Corps . Answering to special pleas from Romanian Premier Ion I. C. Brătianu , Guchkov allowed for the recruitment of 30 @,@ 000 prisoners in his custody . The order was revised by Alexander Kerensky , who reduced that number to 5 @,@ 000 prisoners , noting that they were sorely needed as working hands in Russia 's agriculture and industry . In practice , Quartermaster Ivan Pavlovich Romanovsky only allowed recruitment to take place in Moscow Military District , ordering that no more than 1 @,@ 500 prisoners should be taken into account .
= = = Darnytsia manifesto = = =
By then , revolutionary examples also inspired the prisoners of Darnytsia to proclaim their own political goals , and openly demand the union of Transylvania with Romania . Their manifesto of April 26 ( April 13 ) , reviewed for publishing by the Transylvanian poet Octavian Goga , was signed by 250 officers and 250 soldiers , and is probably the first unionist statement to be issued by a Transylvanian representative body . The document states : " we Romanians , like all other subjugated nations , have grown aware that once and for all that we [ ... ] cannot carry on with our lives within the frame of the Austro @-@ Hungarian state ; we [ ... ] demand , with unwavering will , our incorporation into Romania , so that together we may form a single national Romanian state . [ ... ] For the sake of this ideal , we throw in the balance all of what we have , our lives and fortunes , our women and children , our descendants ' life and happiness . And we never will stop , lest we vanquish or perish . "
The text , which also survives in slightly different versions , included a brief analysis of the international scene . It paid homage to Russia 's democratic program , referenced the " generous " Wilsonian doctrine on self @-@ determination , and looked forward to a congress of " blissful , national and democratic states " . The manifesto made ample reference to the activity of " traitors " to the Transylvanian cause . As Nemoianu later recounted , there was a disguised reference to the PNR , whose moderate leaders , ostensibly loyal to the Austro @-@ Hungarian monarchy , still tried to achieve Austrian devolution . More leniently , Gocan argued that the PNR at home was " deeply terrorized " and bound to government by a forcefully signed " declaration of loyalty " .
Goga , a civilian refugee in transit through Russia , was supposed to have left Darnytsia with a copy of the appeal . Some argue that he did , and that the subsequent popularization is largely owed to his work as publicist . Such accounts are contradicted by the recollections of another unionist activist , Onisifor Ghibu : " [ The appeal ] was supposed to be handed down to Goga , on his stopover in Darnița . For whatever reason Goga stopped for a day in Kiev . In such circumstances I was the one designated to hold it " . In this version , Ghibu passed it on to Romania 's executive , King Ferdinand I and General Prezan .
In Russian and French translations , the document was distributed to various institutions : the Provisional Government , the Mossovet , the Petrograd Soviet and the Central Rada . It was also presented individually to representatives of Russian political life and to the foreign press agencies , and circulated among the national emancipation movements of Czechs , Poles , Serbs and " Ruthenians " . A copy was later taken to the United States by Romania 's special delegates Vasile Stoica , Vasile Lucaciu and Ioan Moța , and reprinted in the Romanian American community press . According to one account , it was also included in airborne leaflet propaganda dropped over the Austro @-@ Hungarian trenches on the Italian front .
The Darnytsia soldiers soon gave themselves a special banner , based on the Romanian tricolor , with the added slogan Trăiască România Mare ( " Long Live Greater Romania " ) . Seven such items were sewn in all , of which one was kept by Banat @-@ born soldier Dimitrie Lăzărel ( Lăzărescu ) .
= = = Arrival in Iași = = =
Six recruiting commissions were then dispatched from Romania to Russia . During May 1917 , they received the Romanian volunteers , relocated from Darnytsia to the Girls ' Lycée in Podil , where work also began on tailoring of the new Romanian uniforms . From Podil , a newly formed battalion was quickly sent into Romania to reinforce defense . Comprising some 1 @,@ 300 men , this unit traveled by chartered train , stopping first in Kishinev ( Chișinău ) . The largely Romanian @-@ inhabited Russian city gave them a warm welcome : the battalion received another Romanian tricolor as war flag , and were presented with an Orthodox icon .
The battalion arrived in the city of Iași , Romania 's provisional capital , where the volunteers were welcomed as heroes . On June 9 , at Iași 's marching ground , they took their oath and were officially integrated into the Land Forces . The ceremony was attended by King Ferdinand , Premier Brătianu , General Prezan , by representatives of Entente missions ( Alexander Shcherbachov , Henri Mathias Berthelot ) and by ambassadors of neutral countries . Manuel Multedo y Cortina of Spain recalled the sermon as " a solemn act " , clamoring " the national aspiration " of Romanians .
At a later banquet and public rally in Union Square , Victor Deleu addressed the civilian population , describing the Corps ' arrival as a rescue mission : " We had the duty of coming over here on this day , when you are living through such hardships . We left a foreign country , but did so with just one thought on our minds : coming home . That 's why there was only road meant for us , the one leading us ahead . [ ... ] We 'll be the victors , for the Carpathians cannot reach as high as our hearts have been elevated ! " As politician Ion G. Duca recalled , no other speech left as deep an impression on the public : " Deleu [ ' s speech ] was a pure and simple marvel , something unforgettable . "
There was a noted effort on the part of Corps staff and other Transylvanian exiles ( Ion Agârbiceanu , Laurian Gabor , Octavian Tăslăuanu etc . ) to encourage the rapid integration of Podil @-@ formed units into the Romanian line of defense . After a quick session of retraining , the Corps units were attached to the 11th Division , which was recovering in Iași . It was , however , decided that the formations , particularly those from Transylvania , were to be kept distinguished from the rest under the common command structure . An official act of 1918 explained the rationale behind this act : " Transylvanians should fight as Transylvanians [ ... ] against the Hungarian state , so as to assert , clearly and beyond all doubt , that the Romanian nationals of the Hungarian state do not recognize its authority . To have fought against Hungary , however the war may end , ought to have been a badge of honor for the Romanian nation in Hungary and a moral reinforcement during the battles to come " . When it was proposed that men from the Corps be assigned noms de guerre so as to avoid execution if captured , Deleu reacted strongly : " We intend to be the army of Transylvania ! We aim to be the conscience of Transylvania , which is for absolute freedom and The Union ! We do not want [ to receive ] a conquered land , we wish to liberate ourselves with our own forces ! Hangings ? Let them hang us ! But let them be aware that Transylvania herself is fighting for liberty and The Union ! "
= = = During and after Mărășești = = =
In July 1917 , Corps offices in Kiev circulated the first issue of a recruitment gazette , România Mare ( " Greater Romania " ) , which became the essential component of its propaganda effort in Russia . It was a new edition of the Bucharest gazette founded by Voicu Nițescu , and , in this new form , was managed by a team of pro @-@ union activists : the Transylvanians Sever Bocu , Ghiță Popp , Iosif Șchiopu and the Bukovinan Filaret Doboș . România Mare was successful , despite the fact that only between 3 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 copies were published per issue .
Recruitment itself continued at a steady pace , and the Romanian General Staff created Biroul A. B ( " T [ ransylvania ] and B [ ukovina ] Bureau " ) to keep evidence of Austro @-@ Hungarian abjurers , on and behind the front . Its founding members were three Sub @-@ lieutenants : Deleu , Vasile Osvadă , Leonte Silion . Biroul A. B. was assisted by a Consultative Commission of intellectuals and politicians of Transylvanian or Bukovinan backgrounds ( Goga , Ion Nistor , Leonte Moldovan ) and represented in Russia itself by a deputation of Transylvanian officers — Elie Bufnea , Victor Cădere .
Units of the Volunteer Corps earned distinction in the defense of eastern Romania , which postponed the Central Powers ' advance during summer 1917 . With the 11th Division , the Transylvanians @-@ Bukovinans participated in the battles of Mărăști , Oituz and Mărășești . At the time , they were split between five regiments of the 11th Division : 2nd , 3rd Olt , 5th Chasseurs , 19th Caracal , 26th Rovine .
The three battles to hold back the Central Powers ended in early autumn 1917 , by which time there were 31 dead and 453 wounded among the volunteers ; 129 received distinction . Dimitrie Lăzărel was one to have survived all three engagements , and legend has it that he never went into combat without the banner . Deleu had left reserve duty to join the 10th Chasseurs Battalion in the Mărășești combat , but fell severely ill and was reassigned to other offices .
The divisive command structure was a disappointment for the Transylvanian and Bukovinan volunteers . In a complaint they sent to King Ferdinand during September , they requested reintegration into a special Corps , arguing : " Through such legions the free will of the formerly oppressed citizens would be expressing a common will . One would not be enrolling isolated individuals [ ... ] , but an entire people free from the [ Austrian ] yoke . " Like his army staff , the monarch disapproved of this initiative , informing Deleanu and Tăslăuanu that , at most , units overseen by Biroul A. B. could expect to form special regiments within the existing divisions . Parallel negotiations continued between Russia and Romania over the total number of volunteers allowed to leave Russian soil . During early June , Stavka approved the release of 5 @,@ 000 Romanian Austro @-@ Hungarian prisoners , all of them from the Moscow Governorate . According to historian Ioan I. Șerban , the approval was creating problems for the Romanian side : of the soldiers in question , the majority were held deep inside Russia , and employed " in the agricultural regions and the various industrial centers of southern Russia , the Ural , western Siberia etc . " As the Mărășești battle was waging , the Romanian government called on the Russian leadership to allow yet more recruits to be sent to the front , and received a confirmation of Guchkov 's earlier 30 @,@ 000 directly from Chief of Staff Lavr Kornilov . As a result , two of the recruiting commissions relocated to the Pacific port of Vladivostok , and set in motion a plan for recruiting more volunteers throughout Asiatic Russia .
After Kornilov 's promise , the Romanian high command took measures of creating a single and distinct division , comprising both those who had passed through Podil and those refugees already in Romanian service . Biroul A. B. was replaced by a Central Service , answering to General Staff . In early December 1917 , the Corps was reformed a final time , as a division @-@ sized formation . Colonel Marcel Olteanu was placed in charge of the central Volunteer Corps ' Command , based in Hârlău . By the early days of 1918 , it had three new regiments under its command : 1st Turda ( commander : Dragu Buricescu ) , 2nd Alba Iulia ( Constantin Pașalega ) , 3rd Avram Iancu .
Reenlisted prisoners of war formed a large section of the approximately 30 @,@ 800 former Austria @-@ Hungarian citizens who were registered as active on the Romanian side by late 1917 . By the time it stopped recruiting ( January 1918 ) , the Corps had enlisted some 8 @,@ 500 to 10 @,@ 000 men . However , the Kornilov order came too late in the war for there to have been a more significant Transylvanian @-@ Bukovinan contribution to the Romanian effort .
= = = October Revolution and Romanian truce = = =
The October Revolution shook Russia and placed most of it under a Bolshevik government which had no intention of continuing with war against the Central Powers . Although the Romanian presence in Kiev was set back by the November Uprising and the January Rebellion , then dispersed by the anti @-@ Entente Skoropadsky regime , Constantin Gh . Pietraru and a small force remained behind in the new Ukrainian People 's Republic ( UNR ) , where they signed up the last group of Romanian volunteers . Some of these efforts were hampered by a diplomatic tensions between the UNR and Romania . Ukrainian officials refused to either rally with the Entente or negotiate border treaties with Romania , but tacitly permitted Deleu , Bocu , Ghibu and other Transylvanian Romanians activists who worked against Austria @-@ Hungary to work on UNR territory .
România Mare gazette , which still had Bocu as chief editorial manager , closed down in December 1917 , having published 23 issues in all . By then , Ion Agârbiceanu and family had left their temporary home in Yelisavetgrad for Hârlău , where he became the Corps ' chaplain .
A last group of Romanian units left the UNR and headed for Kishinev , where a Romanian @-@ friendly Moldavian Democratic Republic was vying for power with the local Bolsheviks . The volunteers had dressed as Russian soldiers during their passage to Iași , but were recognized as Romanian units by the Bolshevik garrisoned in Kishinev City Station , where their train stopped on January 6 . A skirmish followed , and the Bolsheviks killed or kidnapped Corps soldiers . The survivors were held captive in the same place as Moldavian Army founder Gherman Pântea , and were released later that day by Republican troops . Years later , suspicion arose that Pântea had in fact helped the Bolsheviks , as an alleged enemy of Romanian interests in Bessarabia .
Romania 's own armistice with the Central Powers put the recruitment project on a complete standstill , and diminished the effort to move Transylvanian @-@ Bukovinan soldiers into the single new force . According to his own account , Sever Bocu attempted to quickly dispatch Hârlău troops to the Western Front , but his project vetoed by the Romanian commander in chief Alexandru Averescu .
As Romania faced indecision about its future , the Corps was still the subject of unionist propaganda , spread by Romanian intellectuals in the capitals of Entente nations . From his temporary home in France , Bocu reestablished România Mare as the tribune of Romanian diaspora politics and unionist aspirations . He was joined there by Octavian Goga , who had crossed over Bolshevik territory and Finland with false papers , claiming to be a Volunteer Corps veteran .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Diaspora units and the cut @-@ off troops = = =
By spring 1918 , Transylvanian @-@ Bukovinan prisoners held in France and Italy proceeded to form their own abjurers ' units , based upon the existing Romanian Corps . Luciano ( Lucian ) Ferigo became Commander of the newly formed Romanian Legion in Italy ( Legione Romena d 'Italia ) which took its ceremonial flag from the Regio Esercito on July 28 and contributed the Austrians ' defeat at Vittorio Veneto . On the Western Front , a similar formation was being created , mainly by Romanian citizens who resented their country for surrendering , but also by soldiers who clandestinely left Romania to continue the fight . Its Transylvanian @-@ Bukovinian membership was small , reflecting the number of Austro @-@ Hungarian prisoners in France , who had been taken mainly in the Serbian and Macedonian operations . The 135 who signed up in October 1918 were put off by the refusal of French officials to recognize their Austro @-@ Hungarian officer 's ranks . Their unit was attached to the French Foreign Legion , to be joined by the various other categories of Romanian recruits , but the effort was stopped midway ; in November , the Entente 's victory over Germany ended World War I for both France and Romania .
As the dissolution of Austria @-@ Hungary was taking effect in October 1918 , other such units were spontaneously formed on Austrian territory , mainly from rogue components of the Imperial Army . The Romanian Legion of Prague helped the Czechoslovak National Council and the Sokols gain the upper hand during an anti @-@ Austrian uprising , while other Romanian units were breaking away from Austrian command in Vienna . Romanians also formed a distinct segment of the k.u.k. Kriegsmarine personnel who rioted on the Austrian Littoral and elsewhere in the Adriatic .
A more complex situation reigned in Russia . As early as April 1918 , some Romanian volunteer groups joined up with the Bolshevik Red Army , taking their orders from Commissar Béla Kun , but some of their members continued to serve the nationalist cause . In June 1918 , a number of Romanian prisoners who had signed up for the Volunteer Corps were cut off from Romania by the Russian Civil War and left to fend for themselves . Some crossed into Bolshevik Russia hoping to be repatriated together with the Romanian consulate , while others took to areas controlled by the White movement , reaching Irkutsk ; still others escaped through northern routes into Sweden . The various groups were monitored by French public opinion , and plans were drafted to merge them into the Romanian Legion on the Western Front , or even to have them open up a new Eastern Front .
Meanwhile , in tandem with larger Serb and Czech national units , Romanian prisoners on the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway were involved in creating new armed formations . Their original goal was to show to the Entente that Romanians were still eager to fight against the Central Powers , but the Romanians also defended the line in skirmishes with the Bolshevik or anarchist cells . They resisted especially when the Bolshevik Russian government asked them to surrender all weapons .
= = = " Horia " Regiment and Romanian Legion of Siberia = = =
Some prisoners or drifting units in Russia joined up with new arrivals from Kiev . They created the 1 @,@ 300 @-@ strong battalion of Kinel , which was effectively a subunit of the Czechoslovak Legions . Romanian officers ' clubs were organizing themselves in lands held by the Komuch Democrats and the White Russian Siberian Autonomy . The original force to emerge from such schemes was formed at Samara by Valeriu Milovan . Criticized for his eccentric idea of imitating egalitarian Bolshevik practices and doing away with military ranks , he also sparked a conflict when he arrested the more conservative officer Voicu Nițescu . Nițescu escaped imprisonment and fled to Chelyabinsk , but support for his cause continued to be eroded by the privates ' growing support for the Bolsheviks . As a result of Nițescu 's activity , supported by Gocan and Nicolae Nedelcu , Dr. iur . , Romanian loyalists in Chelyabinsk created a " Horia " Battalion ( or Regiment ) . Major Ioan Dâmbu was assigned to lead it , and , under Czechoslovak orders , the new Mărășești and Reserve battalions were sent on mission to other localities .
At the time , the two recruiting commissions in Vladivostok were also reactivated by the arrival of an international anti @-@ Bolshevik force . Their propaganda leaflets , drafted by Bukovinan Iorgu G. Toma , reached all 40 POW camps in the region , urging any volunteer to make his own way to Chelyabinsk . That city emerged as a main site of Romanian political and military activity , with a reported population of 3 @,@ 000 liberated Romanians ( July 1918 ) . Major Dâmbu put a momentary stop to Bolshevik influence by arresting Milovan and ordering the Samaran unit to Chelyabinsk . A complex set of sanctions were imposed , in the hope of curbing dissent , ranks were reintroduced , uniforms on the Romanian Land Forces model were distributed around , and a patriotic cultural section began to function .
Taking a long and perilous journey , Elie Bufnea and some other officers of the original Darnytsia Corps joined up with " Horia " in mid autumn , at a moment when the Romanian soldiers were celebrating the breakup of Austria @-@ Hungary . The union between " Horia " and various new arrivals from the western Siberian camps became a second Volunteer Corps , grouping as many as 5 @,@ 000 volunteers . Through the alliance it formed with the anti @-@ Bolshevik Czechoslovak Legions , it was a Romanian national contribution to the international coalition , but reluctantly so . Once relocated to Irkutsk and Omsk in late 1918 , the volunteers expressed their lack of interest in fighting against the Bolsheviks : after rebelling against Colonel Kadlec , their Czech technical adviser , the Corps was placed under Maurice Janin of the French Mission .
A Romanian Legion of Siberia was formed from this structure , but only 3 @,@ 000 soldiers still volunteered in its ranks — 2 @,@ 000 others were progressively transferred out of the combat zone , shipped out to Romania or taken back to prisoner of war camps . As Șerban notes , the Western Front victory had opened the way for Transylvania 's union , and " their only thought was to regain , as fast as possible , their families and their places of origin " . A special case was that of Bolshevik sympathizers : in October , Dâmbu was killed by his own soldiers , partly in retaliation for Milovan 's arrest .
The combative Legion defended the Trans @-@ Siberian between Tayshet and Nizhneudinsk , where they forced the Bolsheviks into a truce and established their reputation for brutality with the nickname Dikaya Divizia ( Дикая Дивизия , " Wild Division " ) . The anti @-@ Bolshevik formation and the Romanian non @-@ combatants were eventually retrieved from the Russian Far East upon the end of foreign intervention , and were fully repatriated with the other Romanians from May 1920 . Milovan , court @-@ martialled by the Legion , was cleared of the charges by a higher authority ; however , those who killed Dâmbu were sentenced as mutineers and assassins .
= = = Late echoes = = =
The original Volunteers ' Corps went out of service in December 1918 , soon after German defeat and Transylvania 's de facto union ( see Great Union Day ) . The Romanian volunteers ' rally in support of self @-@ determination was judged by some Romanian authors as a direct predecessor of Alba Iulia 's " Great National Assembly " , whereby union was being endorsed on Wilsonian principles . They call the Corps ' April 26 meeting a " 1st Alba Iulia " . Within Transylvania itself , opinion was more divided . Shortly before the Hungarian – Romanian War erupted , members of Corps were required to present themselves for reenlistment . The old rivals from within the Romanian National Party , who led the Directory Council of Transylvania after 1918 , allegedly refused to welcome the Corps back as a single unit , and plans for its mobilization had to be dropped . A new " Horia " Volunteer Corps was reportedly formed on the Crișul Alb River , as a first line of defense against the Hungarian Soviet Republic .
In 1923 , the old Corps set up a veterans ' association , the Union of Volunteers , which carried the reputation of being a fascist @-@ inspired section of the PNR . Petru Nemoianu strongly dismissed the accounts as " enormities " , and stated that the Union had good cause to reject the PNR for its handling of the Transylvanian issue . More sympathetic to the PNR , Simion Gocan was President of the Union in Bihor County , and complained about tensions with Nemoianu . The Union even ran for Transylvanian seats in Parliament during the 1931 general election . It formed an electoral cartel with Nicolae Iorga 's Democratic Nationalist Party and against PNR 's successors ( the National Peasants ' Party ) , but was only assigned non @-@ eligible positions on the electoral lists .
All praise for the Corps ' contributions was toned down between 1948 and 1989 , when Romania was a communist state . According to Șerban , communist historiography presented the story " superficially , usually truncated or in the context of other events " . During the first wave of communization , repression touched several figures once associated with the Corps : Bufnea , Sever Bocu ( beaten to death in Sighet prison ) , Ghiță Popp .
Interest in the Volunteer Corps ' activity was only revived after the Romanian Revolution of 1989 . Among the relics left behind by the Corps is Dimitrie Lăzărel 's banner , probably the only one of seven to have survived . In 1923 , Lăzărel paraded it at the Volunteers ' Union reunion in Arad . Referred to as the Darnița Banner , it was donated to a local church , then exhibited by the Museum of Banat , Timișoara . The Kishinev flag was donated by the Corps to ASTRA National Museum Complex of Sibiu .
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= Galapagos shark =
The Galapagos shark ( Carcharhinus galapagensis ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , found worldwide . This species favors clear reef environments around oceanic islands , where it is often the most abundant shark species . A large species that often reaches 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , the Galapagos reef shark has a typical fusiform " reef shark " shape and is very difficult to distinguish from the dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) and the grey reef shark ( C. amblyrhynchos ) . An identifying character of this species is its tall first dorsal fin , which has a slightly rounded tip and originates over the rear tips of the pectoral fins .
Galapagos sharks are active predators often encountered in large groups . They feed mainly on bottom @-@ dwelling bony fishes and cephalopods ; larger individuals have a much more varied diet , consuming other sharks , marine iguanas , sea lions , and even garbage . As in other requiem sharks , reproduction is viviparous , with females bearing litters of 4 – 16 pups every 420 to over 9000 years . The juveniles tend to remain in shallow water to avoid predation by the adults . Galapagos sharks are bold and have behaved aggressively towards humans , and are thus regarded as dangerous . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as near threatened , as it has a slow reproductive rate and there is heavy fishing pressure across its range .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Galapagos shark was originally described as Carcharias galapagensis by Robert Evans Snodgrass and Edmund Heller in 1905 ; subsequent authors moved this species to the genus Carcharhinus . The holotype was a 65 cm ( 2 @.@ 13 ft ) long fetus from the Galapagos Islands , hence the specific epithet galapagensis .
Garrick ( 1982 ) placed the Galapagos shark and the dusky shark at the center of the " obscurus group " , one of two major groupings within Carcharhinus . The group consisted of the bignose shark ( C. altimus ) , Caribbean reef shark ( C. perezi ) , sandbar shark ( C. plumbeus ) , dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) , and oceanic whitetip shark ( C. longimanus ) , all large , triangular @-@ toothed sharks and is defined by the presence of a ridge between the two dorsal fins . Based on allozyme data , Naylor ( 1992 ) reaffirmed the integrity of this group , with the additions of the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) and the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) . The closest relatives of the Galapagos shark were found to be the dusky , oceanic whitetip , and blue sharks .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Galapagos shark is found mainly off tropical oceanic islands . In the Atlantic Ocean , it occurs around Bermuda , the Virgin Islands , Madeira , Cape Verde , Ascension Island , Saint Helena and São Tomé Island . In the Indian Ocean , it is known from Walter 's Shoal off southern Madagascar . In the Pacific Ocean , it occurs around Lord Howe Island , the Marianas Islands , the Marshall Islands , the Kermadec Islands , Tupai , the Tuamotu Archipelago , the Hawaiian Islands , the Galapagos Islands , Cocos Island , the Revillagigedo Islands , Clipperton Island , and Malpelo . There are a few reports of this species in continental waters off the Iberian Peninsula , Baja California , Guatemala , Colombia , and eastern Australia .
Galapagos sharks are generally found over continental and insular shelves near the coast , preferring rugged reef habitats with clear water and strong converging currents . They are also known to congregate around rocky islets and seamounts . This species is capable of crossing the open ocean between islands and has been reported at least 50 km ( 31 mi ) from land . Juveniles seldom venture deeper than 25 m ( 82 ft ) , while adults have been reported to a depth of 180 m ( 590 ft ) .
= = Description = =
One of the larger species in its genus , the Galapagos shark commonly reaches 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long . The maximum length is probably 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) ; a recorded maximum length of 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) has been questioned by several authors . The maximum recorded weight is 195 kg ( 430 lb ) for a 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long female . This species has a slender , streamlined body typical of the requiem sharks . The snout is wide and rounded , with indistinct anterior nasal flaps . The eyes are round and of medium size . The mouth usually contains 14 tooth rows ( range 13 – 15 ) on either side of both jaws , plus one tooth at the symphysis ( where the jaw halves meet ) . The upper teeth are stout and triangular in shape , while the lower teeth are narrower ; both upper and lower teeth have serrated edges .
The first dorsal fin is tall and moderately falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) , with the origin over the pectoral fin rear tips . It is followed by a low midline ridge running to the second dorsal fin . The second dorsal fin originates over the anal fin . The pectoral fins are large with pointed tips . The coloration is brownish gray above and white below , with a faint white stripe on the sides . The edges of the fins are darker but not prominently marked . The Galapagos shark can be distinguished from the dusky shark in having taller first and second dorsal fins and larger teeth , and it can be distinguished from the grey reef shark in having a less robust body and less pointed first dorsal fin tip . However , these characters can be difficult to discern in the field . These similar species also have different numbers of precaudal ( before the tail ) vertebrae : 58 in the Galapagos shark , 86 – 97 in the dusky shark , 110 – 119 in the grey reef shark .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The Galapagos shark is often the most abundant shark in shallow island waters . In their original description of this species , Snodgrass and Heller noted that their schooner had taken " several hundred " adult Galapagos sharks and that " thousands " more could be seen in the water . At the isolated Saint Peter and Paul Rocks along the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge , the resident Galapagos sharks have been described as " one of the densest shark populations of the Atlantic Ocean " . At some locations they form large aggregations , though these are not true schools .
During group interactions , Galapagos sharks are dominant to blacktip sharks ( C. limbatus ) but deferent to silvertip sharks ( C. albimarginatus ) of equal size . When confronted or cornered , the Galapagos shark may perform a threat display similar to that of the grey reef shark , in which the shark performs an exaggerated , rolling swimming motion while arching its back , lowering its pectoral fins , puffing out its gills , and gaping its jaw . The shark may also swing its head from side to side , so as to keep the perceived threat within its field of vision . A known parasite of the Galapagos shark is the flatworm Dermophthirius carcharhini , which attaches to the shark 's skin . In one account , a bluefin trevally ( Caranax melampygus ) was seen rubbing against the rough skin of a Galapagos shark to rid itself of parasites .
= = = Feeding = = =
The primary food of Galapagos sharks are benthic bony fishes ( including eels , sea bass , flatfish , flatheads , and triggerfish ) and octopuses . They also occasionally take surface @-@ dwelling prey such as mackerel , flyingfish , and squid . As the sharks grow larger , they consume increasing numbers of elasmobranchs ( rays and smaller sharks , including of their own species ) and crustaceans , as well as indigestible items such as leaves , coral , rocks , and garbage . At the Galapagos Islands , this species has been observed attacking Galapagos fur seals ( Arctocephalus galapagoensis ) and sea lions ( Zalophus wollebaeki ) , and marine iguanas ( Amblyrhynchus cristatus ) . While collecting fishes at Clipperton Island , Limbaugh ( 1963 ) noted that juvenile Galapagos sharks surrounded the boat , with multiple individuals rushing at virtually anything trailing in the water and striking the boat bottom , oars , and marker buoys . The sharks were not slowed by rotenone ( a fish toxin ) or shark repellent , and some followed the boat into water so shallow that their backs were exposed .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other requiem sharks , the Galapagos shark exhibits a viviparous mode of reproduction , in which the developing embryos are sustained by a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac . Females bear young once every 2 – 3 years . Mating takes place from January to March , at which time scars caused by male courtship bites appear on the females . The gestation period is estimated to be around one year ; the spring following impregnation , females move into shallow nursery areas and give birth to 4 – 16 pups . The size at birth has been reported to be 61 – 80 cm ( 2 @.@ 00 – 2 @.@ 62 ft ) , though observations of free @-@ swimming juveniles as small as 57 cm ( 1 @.@ 87 ft ) long in the eastern Pacific suggest that birth size varies geographically . Juvenile sharks remain in shallow water to avoid predation by larger adults . Males mature at 2 @.@ 1 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 6 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 6 – 8 years old , while females mature at 2 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 7 @.@ 2 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 7 – 9 years old . Neither sex is thought to reproduce until 10 years of age . The lifespan of this species is at least 24 years .
= = Human interactions = =
Inquisitive and persistent , the Galapagos shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans . However , several live @-@ aboard boats take divers to Wolf and Darwin , the northernmost Galapagos islands , every week specifically to dive in open water with these sharks where they and the scalloped hammerheads accumulate in numbers , and no incidents have been reported . They are known to approach close to swimmers , showing interest in swim fins or hands , and are drawn in large numbers by fishing activities . Fitzroy ( 1839 ) observed off St. Paul 's Rocks that " as soon as a fish was caught , a rush of voracious sharks was made at him , notwithstanding blows of oars and boat hooks , the ravenous monsters could not be deterred from seizing and taking away more than half the fish that were hooked " . Limbaugh ( 1963 ) reported that at Clipperton Island " at first , the small sharks circled at a distance , but gradually they approached and became more aggressive ... various popular methods for repelling sharks proved unsuccessful " . The situation eventually escalated to the point at which the divers had to retreat from the water . Excited Galapagos sharks are not easily deterred ; driving one away physically only results in the shark circling back while inciting others to follow , whereas using weapons against them could trigger a feeding frenzy . As of 2008 , the Galapagos shark has been confirmed to have attacked three people : one fatal attack in the Virgin Islands ; a second fatal attack in the Virgin Islands , at Magens Bay on the north shore of St. Thomas ; and a third non @-@ fatal , attack off Bermuda .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the Galapagos shark as near threatened , as its low reproductive rate limits its capacity to withstand population depletion . There is no specific utilization data available , though this species is certainly caught by commercial fisheries operating across many parts of its range . The meat is said to be of excellent quality . While still common at areas such as Hawaii , the Galapagos shark may have been extirpated from sites around Central America and its fragmented distribution means other regional populations may also be at risk . The populations at the Kermadec and Galapagos Islands are protected within marine reserves .
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= Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons =
Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , often referred to as Captain Scarlet , is a 1960s British science @-@ fiction television series produced by the Century 21 Productions company of Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , John Read and Reg Hill . First broadcast on ATV Midlands from September 1967 to May 1968 , it has since been transmitted in more than 40 other countries , including the United States , Australia , New Zealand and Japan . Characters are presented as marionette puppets alongside scale model sets and special effects in a filming technique that the Andersons termed " Supermarionation " . This technology incorporated solenoid motors as a means of synchronising the puppet 's lip movements with pre @-@ recorded dialogue .
Set in 2068 , Captain Scarlet presents the hostilities between Earth and a race of Martians known as the Mysterons . After human astronauts attack their city on Mars , the vengeful Mysterons declare war on Earth , initiating a series of reprisals that are countered by Spectrum , a worldwide security organisation . Spectrum boasts the extraordinary abilities of its primary agent , Captain Scarlet . During the events of the pilot episode , Scarlet acquires the Mysteron healing power of " retro @-@ metabolism " and is thereafter considered to be virtually " indestructible " , being able to recover fully from injuries that would normally be fatal .
Captain Scarlet , the eighth of ten puppet series that the Andersons produced during the 1950s and 1960s , was preceded by Thunderbirds and followed by Joe 90 and The Secret Service . In terms of visual aesthetic , the series represented a departure from Thunderbirds on account of its use of non @-@ caricatured puppets sculpted in realistic proportions . Re @-@ run a number of times in the UK and purchased by the BBC in 1993 , the 32 @-@ episode series has entailed tie @-@ in merchandise since its first appearance , from dolls to original novels and comic strips in the Century 21 Publications children 's magazine , TV Century 21 .
In comparisons to Thunderbirds and other earlier series , Captain Scarlet is generally considered " darker " in tone and less suited to child audiences due to stronger on @-@ screen violence and themes of extraterrestrial aggression and interplanetary war . The transition in the puppets ' design has polarised critical opinion and drawn a mixed response from former production staff , although the series has been praised for its inclusion of a multinational , multiethnic puppet cast and its depiction of a utopian future Earth . Having decided to revive the series in the late 1990s , Gerry Anderson supervised the production of a computer @-@ animated reboot , Gerry Anderson 's New Captain Scarlet , which was broadcast in the UK in 2005 .
= = Plot summary = =
In the pilot episode , a team of Zero @-@ X astronauts investigate the surface of Mars in 2068 after unidentified radio signals emanating from the planet are detected on Earth . The source is discovered to be an extraterrestrial base , which is attacked and destroyed when the explorers mistake a harmless sensor device for a weapon . The inhabitants of the settlement , the Mysterons , are sentient computers that form a collective consciousness . They are the remnants of the original Mysteron race , extraterrestrial life forms that originated in a galaxy other than the Milky Way and maintained their colony on Mars for 3 @,@ 500 years before abandoning the planet at the turn of the 20th century . Possessing partial control over matter , the Mysteron computers draw on their power of " reversing matter " to rebuild the complex before vowing revenge for the unwarranted aggression .
Reversing matter , also described as " retro @-@ metabolism " , allows the Mysterons to re @-@ create the likeness of a person or object in the form of a facsimile that is under their control . This ability is used to conduct a " war of nerves " against Earth , in which the Mysterons issue threats against specific targets ( from world leaders and military installations to whole cities and continents ) and then destroy and reconstruct whatever instruments are required ( whether human or machine ) to execute their plans . The presence of the Mysterons is indicated by two circles of green light ( the " Mysteron rings " ) that trail across scenes of destruction and reconstruction . Although the Mysterons are able to manipulate events from Mars , their actions on Earth are usually performed by their replicated intermediaries .
The primary agent of the Mysterons , Zero @-@ X mission leader Captain Black , is killed and reconstructed during the encounter on Mars . Before the events of the pilot episode , Black held a senior officer rank in Spectrum , an international security organisation inaugurated in 2067 that mobilises all its personnel , vehicles and other resources in response to the threat posed by the Mysterons . The Spectrum Organisation is directed from Cloudbase , an airborne headquarters stationed at a height of 40 @,@ 000 feet above the Earth 's surface , and has a presence in all major cities . The organisation employs operatives of many nationalities , of whom the most senior hold military ranks and colour @-@ based codenames , are posted to Cloudbase , and answer directly to the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of Spectrum , Colonel White . Cloudbase is defended by the Angels , a squadron of five female pilots named Destiny ( squadron leader ) , Harmony , Melody , Rhapsody and Symphony , who fly the Angel Interceptor fighter aircraft . In addition , the organisation incorporates a fleet of Spectrum Pursuit Vehicles ( SPV ) hidden in secret locations around the world .
Captain Scarlet becomes Spectrum 's foremost weapon in its fight against the Mysterons after the events of the pilot episode , in which the Mysterons threaten to assassinate the World President as their first act of retaliation . The original Scarlet is killed in a car accident engineered by the Mysterons and replaced with a Mysteron reconstruction . However , when the Scarlet duplicate is shot by Spectrum officer Captain Blue and falls to his death from a tall structure , it returns to life with the consciousness of its human template restored , and is thereafter free from Mysteron control . Scarlet 's ex @-@ Mysteron body possesses two remarkable abilities : he is able to sense the presence of other Mysteron duplicates in his vicinity , and if he is injured or killed , retro @-@ metabolism restores him to a state of top health . Now able to deploy suicidally reckless tactics to thwart Mysteron threats , Scarlet repeatedly braves the pain of death in the knowledge that he will recover to face the Mysterons once more .
While Scarlet and Spectrum defend Earth against the threat from Mars , it is found that Mysteron reconstructions are particularly vulnerable to electricity and that they are detectable on X @-@ rays , to which their biology is impervious . Consequently , two anti @-@ Mysteron devices , the " Mysteron Gun " and the " Mysteron Detector , " are developed to aid Spectrum . A three @-@ episode story arc charts the uncovering of a second Mysteron complex under construction on the Moon , its destruction by Spectrum , and efforts to negotiate with the Mysterons on Mars via a crystal power source , salvaged from the complex , which is converted into an interplanetary communication device . A failed attempt at satellite surveillance of the Martian surface , aborted military conferences and the sabotaged construction of a new space fleet hinder Spectrum 's plans to return to Mars , and the organisation is unsuccessful on two occasions in apprehending Captain Black . The penultimate episode of the series depicts a Mysteron assault on Cloudbase with the use of armed spacecraft , which is ultimately revealed to be a nightmare dreamt by one of the Angel pilots . The finale is a flashback episode that ends inconclusively with regards to the war between Earth and Mars and the fate of Spectrum and the Mysterons .
= = Production = =
When talks to find an American broadcaster for Thunderbirds fell through in July 1966 , production for the series ' second season ended with the completion of just six episodes at the behest of ITC financier Lew Grade . Having overseen Gerry Anderson 's work since the creation of Supercar in 1960 – and going on to buy his production company , AP Films , during the making of Fireball XL5 – Grade was enthusiastic for Anderson 's programmes to be transmitted abroad , in the lucrative American market , and decided that a new concept would do more to attract potential bidders than a second season of Thunderbirds .
As a result of the cancellation , Anderson was required to come up with an idea for another Supermarionation series . He had once been inspired by the thought of creating a live @-@ action police drama in which the hero would have unexpectedly been murdered halfway through the series and replaced by a new lead character . Now giving fresh consideration to this idea , Anderson resolved that a selling point for his new series could be a character that can be killed at the end of each episode and resurrected by the beginning of the next . This , coupled with contemporary theories about the possibility of life on Mars , led to the idea of an interplanetary war raging between Earth and its neighbour and a worldwide security organisation being called on to defend human civilisation . After further thought , Anderson decided that " Scarlet " would make an unusual codename for this organisation 's " indestructible " agent who can come back to life , while " Blue " could be his partner 's designation . From this , Anderson reasoned that all the personnel should have colours for names so as to form the whole " Spectrum " of colours , and decided that someone called " White " should be the leader of the Spectrum Organisation , much in the same way that white light is composed of , and can be broken down into , the colours of the spectrum .
Intrigued by the often @-@ heard phrase " life as we know it " , Anderson wanted to set the aliens of his new series apart from the conventional extraterrestrials of 1960s television and cinema . He therefore worked from a basis of " life as we don 't know it " , and made the Mysterons that were to feature in the series a race of sentient computers as opposed to organic lifeforms , although this is not explicitly stated in the television episodes . The initial intention was that the original Mysteron civilisation came from another galaxy . Having established a settlement on Mars in the distant past , they fled the planet centuries later , abandoning their computer complex .
Contemporary recollections of the Second World War proved to be an inspiration for a number of design aspects . For instance , Anderson recalled that RAF pilots had found it difficult to counter German attacks during the Battle of Britain , since taking off from the ground meant that it took considerable time to intercept the enemy . He therefore made Spectrum 's headquarters an airborne aircraft carrier called " Cloudbase " . The Mysteron rings were inspired by an advertisement for the Oxo line of food products , which included an image of the brand name sliding over a frying pan and the outline of a woman 's body .
= = = Writing = = =
With a provisional series title of The Mysterons , Anderson and his wife , Sylvia , wrote a pilot script in August 1966 . This differed significantly from the final draft of the pilot episode . Initially , it was decided that the Mysteron duplicate of Captain Scarlet would be artificially resurrected by an advanced Spectrum computer rather than reviving naturally , and that thereafter he would no longer be truly human but a " mechanical man " akin to an android . Another early ambition was for each episode to feature a guest star voiced by a well @-@ known actor of the day . To this end , the role of the World President in the pilot episode was originally intended to be voiced by the American @-@ born actor Patrick McGoohan .
With Anderson serving chiefly as executive producer , the majority of the writing input for Captain Scarlet was provided by Tony Barwick , who had previously written for the short @-@ lived second season of Thunderbirds . Originally given the role of script editor , Barwick went on to pen 18 of the 32 episodes himself , and was also often required to make substantial changes to other writers ' work . While discussing his approach to writing episodes in a 1986 interview , he drew parallels between the premise and characters of Captain Scarlet and those of Thunderbirds , suggesting , for example , that Spectrum was similar to International Rescue and that the character of Captain Black was like the earlier recurring villain from Thunderbirds , The Hood .
= = = Filming = = =
After a two @-@ month pre @-@ production period lasting from November to December 1966 , filming for the pilot episode , " The Mysterons " , began on 2 January 1967 , with a budget of £ 1 @.@ 5 million for the 32 @-@ episode series . At an average cost of £ 46 @,@ 000 per episode , or £ 2 @,@ 000 per minute , it was the most expensive Anderson production to date . A month before , Anderson and his team had dropped the name " AP Films , " since Arthur Provis was no longer working alongside Anderson on a full @-@ time basis , and renamed their company " Century 21 Productions " . Many of the directors for earlier Anderson series , such as Alan Pattillo , David Elliott and David Lane , had either left AP Films or were involved in the production of Thunderbird 6 , the second Thunderbirds feature film , at the time that Captain Scarlet was being produced . Although Desmond Saunders and Lane were available to direct the first and second episodes , while veteran AP Films director Brian Burgess also contributed , the Andersons needed to transfer some of the more junior production personnel to replace the outgoing staff . To this effect , Alan Perry and Ken Turner were promoted from the camera operator and art departments . Directors drafted in from outside AP Films were Peter Anderson , Leo Eaton and finally Robert Lynn , who had worked as an assistant director on the 1958 Hammer films Dracula and The Revenge of Frankenstein .
The Slough Trading Estate in Buckinghamshire had served as Anderson 's production base since the filming of Stingray in 1964 . To accelerate production on earlier Supermarionation series , pairs of episodes had been filmed simultaneously on separate sound stages , a practice that continued for Captain Scarlet . Some filming coincided with the production of Thunderbird 6 , which was recorded on a separate puppet stage and released in July 1968 . Editing rooms , post @-@ production offices and a preview theatre were housed in a separate building on the Slough Trading Estate ; the crew collaborated with the Standard Telecommunication Laboratories at Harlow in Essex on the technical and electronic side of the production .
A third unit , headed by Derek Meddings and his assistant Mike Trim , handled special effects and miniatures and was tasked with creating all the permanent sets and models to be used from the pilot episode , such as the Cloudbase interiors and scaled @-@ down Spectrum Pursuit Vehicles . A design innovation for this series meant that the noses of the miniature vehicles would " dip " when stopped , to imitate the sudden application of brakes and deceleration on a real @-@ life vehicle . The miniature of the Cloudbase exterior , which ran to six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in length , proved to be too heavy to be held up with strings and was instead supported by a metal pole . To transfer the Mysteron rings from script to screen , the production team acted on the advice of producer Reg Hill , who suggested that a transparency be made that could be panned across the puppet sets using a slide projector .
By the time the series started broadcasting on ATV in September 1967 , principal photography had been completed for the first 20 episodes . In general , turnaround for completing all the puppet shots for each episode was two weeks or 11 working days . It was originally predicted that shooting would be wrapped within eight months , but filming overran until late October due to the demands of the Thunderbird 6 shoot . While production on the next Supermarionation series , Joe 90 , began in November it was not until early 1968 that the last episodes of Captain Scarlet were edited and completed for broadcast .
= = = Music = = =
Music for Captain Scarlet was composed by Barry Gray , an innovator in electronic music , who had scored all the Supermarionation series preceding it . The opening title sequence theme , " The Mysterons " , was rendered electronically and accompanied by a staccato drum beat to introduce the lead character of Captain Scarlet . This seven @-@ note beat was also used to link scenes within episodes , and to cut to advertisement breaks , for which it was accompanied by a zooming image of the Spectrum logo as designed by Tony Dunsterville of the art department . On the subject of the beat , Anderson recalls , " When I went to the recording session , I heard the drum beat he had come up with and I thought , ' Christ , is this all he could produce ? ' Looking back on it , however , I can see that what he came up with worked very well . "
The closing credits theme , " Captain Scarlet " , underwent significant change after the completion of the first 14 episodes . The first version had been mainly instrumental , with the words " Captain Scarlet ! " sung in time to the aforementioned staccato drum beat after which a vocoded repetition of the words " Captain Scarlet ! " provided by Gray himself would be heard . This was then revised as a song performed by a London @-@ based pop group The Spectrum , assembled by RCA Victor as an imitation of the American band The Monkees , who happened to share their name with the organisation that appears in Captain Scarlet .
The seven @-@ note beat is now used during " The Through the Window " on Q Radio .
In addition to the main theme , Gray scored incidental music for 18 episodes of Captain Scarlet between March and December 1967 . Musical accompaniment for the remaining 14 episodes was achieved by re @-@ using these completed tracks as well as music from previous Anderson productions such as Thunderbirds . In composing his incidental music , Gray made extensive use of two contrasting , yet similar , themes to illustrate Spectrum and the Mysterons . In their notes to the soundtrack release , Ralph Titterton and Tim Mallett suggest that the music is dominated by a " military feel " , with an emphasis placed on percussion , brass and wind instruments , by contrast to the full orchestral sound of the Thunderbirds score . With the exception of the four @-@ note Mysteron motif , Gray generally restricted his use of electronic synthesisers , including an Ondes Martenot , to space sequences , preferring traditional instruments for Earth @-@ bound action . Captain Scarlet 's motif , heard in both versions of the end credits theme and the incidental music , is a melodic variation on the Mysteron theme , emphasising Scarlet 's history as an ex @-@ Mysteron .
Awarding the soundtrack CD release a rating of four stars out of five , Bruce Eder of the website AllMusic describes the collection of theme and incidental music as " a strange mix of otherworldly ' music of the spheres ' , late @-@ 50s / early @-@ 60s ' space @-@ age pop ' , ' British Invasion ' beat , Scottish folk @-@ inspired tunes , kids @-@ style ' Mickey Mouse ' scoring , martial music , light jazz , and light classical " , and singles out both " Cocktail Music " , from " Model Spy " , and the piano track , performed by Gray , from " The Inquisition " , for particular praise . In his BBC Online review , Peter Marsh opines that the darker tone of the music is reflective of Captain Scarlet as a programme featuring realistic puppets and death , frightening alien villains and " no laughs " , stating that " dissonant vibraphone chords shimmer under hovering , tremulous strings contrasted with urgent , militaristic drums and pulsing brass – driving the action ever onto its climax ( and , no doubt , a big explosion ) . "
On 8 October 2015 , Fanderson released a 3 @-@ disc set exclusively for club members . It contains music either written for , or used in , all but three episodes ( " The Heart of New York " and " Treble Cross " contain no original music and the cue recordings for " Traitor " are lost ) .
Captain Scarlet soundtrack releases :
= = Puppets = =
Supermarionation , a technique in which the movement of the marionette puppet 's mouth is electronically synchronised with character dialogue , had been formulated by Gerry Anderson for Four Feather Falls in 1960 . Until production for Captain Scarlet , the head of the puppet had been disproportionately large in comparison to its body , as the head contained a solenoid that formed the key component of the lip @-@ synch mechanism . The production team was not able to scale up the body to match the head , as this would have made the puppets hard to operate and have necessitated a proportionate scaling @-@ up in the size of the puppet sets . Since Gerry Anderson had expressed frustration with this caricatured design during the production of earlier Supermarionation series , and wished that the puppets would more accurately reflect human biology , before production commenced on Captain Scarlet the producer , Reg Hill , and his associate , John Read , designed a new type of puppet in which the solenoid was instead placed inside the chest , to permit a head of realistic proportion . The costume designer for Captain Scarlet was Sylvia Anderson , who was influenced by the work of French fashion designer Pierre Cardin , in particular his 1966 " Cosmonaut " collection , in designing the Spectrum uniforms .
After test @-@ sculpting in Plasticine , the puppet heads were moulded on a silicone rubber base and made using fibreglass . At heights ranging from 20 to 24 inches ( approximately one @-@ third life @-@ size ) the next @-@ generation puppets were no shorter than their predecessors . For previous series , puppet eyes had been sized out of proportion to the heads , but as part of the realistic look introduced in Captain Scarlet , the eyes of production personnel were photographed and the images scaled down for attachment to the eye sockets . As had been the case for earlier series , a number of alternative heads displaying a range of expressions were created for main character puppets , including " smilers " , " frowners " and " blinkers " . Since episodes of Captain Scarlet were filmed in pairs , one on each of the puppet stages available at the Century 21 Studios , duplicates were made of the " expressionless " template of each main character . For the pilot episode , an " agony " head was specially sculpted for the Captain Scarlet puppet for a brief reaction shot of Scarlet 's Mysteron double being shot by Captain Blue .
The increased realism of the puppets meant that their mobility was significantly reduced , ironically leaving the new design less lifelike than Anderson had hoped , as he recalls : " Suddenly , all the movements had to be as realistic as the puppets and that made it difficult for the puppeteers to animate them . " To minimise the amount of movement required , the puppets were made to stand on moving walkways or sit at moving desks : for example , Colonel White 's desk on Cloudbase is seen to rotate , while Lieutenant Green is seen to operate the Cloudbase main computer from a sliding chair . Puppeteer Jan King recalls :
The Captain Scarlet puppets were not built to walk . They were too heavy and not weighted properly anyway ... It is virtually impossible to get a string puppet to walk convincingly on film unless it is a very caricatured puppet . In Captain Scarlet , if a puppet had to move off @-@ screen , it was done in a head @-@ and @-@ shoulders shot – the floor puppeteer would hold the legs of the puppet and then move the puppet physically out of shot at the right time , trying to make the body and shoulders move as if the puppet were walking .
The " under control " puppets described by King were stringless and controlled from the waist . One resulting advantage was that a puppet could be moved through a doorway without necessitating a break in the shot . For shots displaying characters such as the Angels seated in aircraft cockpits , variations of the " under control " design , comprising just a head and torso , were manipulated by levers and wires positioned underneath the set . This development of Supermarionation would be named " Supermacromation " when Anderson returned to puppetry in the 1980s with his later production , Terrahawks .
= = = Revamp puppets and likenesses = = =
Before Captain Scarlet , supporting character puppets had been specially sculpted in clay as and when episodes required them . The guest parts in Captain Scarlet , however , were filled by a permanent " repertory company " of over 50 puppets made to the same standards of workmanship as the main characters . Known as " revamp puppets " or " revamps " , these puppets appeared on an episode @-@ by @-@ episode basis , cosmetically altered for each role in aspects such as hairstyle and hair colour . An initial intention was for each episode to include a " guest star " puppet , to be sculpted on , and voiced by , a known public figure , but this idea was abandoned due to budgetary constraints . Both main character and revamp puppets from Captain Scarlet appeared in Anderson 's final two Supermarionation series , Joe 90 and The Secret Service .
The likeness of the Captain Scarlet character has , since his first appearance , been attributed to Francis Matthews , who voiced Scarlet in the series , Cary Grant and Roger Moore . Ed Bishop later claimed that Captain Blue had been modelled on his likeness , but sculptor Terry Curtis states that he made the puppet to resemble himself and simply added a blond wig when he learnt that Bishop was to voice Blue . Curtis , a James Bond fan , based the appearance of Captain Grey on Sean Connery and Destiny Angel on Ursula Andress , Connery 's co @-@ star in the 1962 Bond film Dr No . Meanwhile , the character of Lieutenant Green was sculpted on its voice actor , Cy Grant ; Rhapsody Angel on model and actress Jean Shrimpton ; Melody Angel on singer and actress Eartha Kitt ; and Harmony Angel on actress Tsai Chin .
= = Casting and characters = =
The regular puppet cast of Captain Scarlet was the largest of all the Anderson Supermarionation series . While earlier productions had emphasised the benefits of futuristic technology , for Captain Scarlet it was decided to develop and deepen the cast of characters . Further to the enhanced realism of the puppet design , voice roles for Captain Scarlet were , as opposed to Thunderbirds and other predecessors , also intended to be less caricatured . Anderson biographers Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn note that , between Thunderbirds and Captain Scarlet , a proliferation of English @-@ accented voices altered the sound of the Supermarionation production and its impression on the viewer .
Francis Matthews , voicing Captain Scarlet , had previously turned down offers for voice @-@ acting on Thunderbirds . Matthews claims that Gerry Anderson went to great lengths to get him to sign on to Captain Scarlet because of the skilled Cary Grant impression that he had once used for a radio programme , and indeed the English actor based the tones of Scarlet on Grant 's Mid @-@ Atlantic accent . In contrast , Anderson claims in his biography that the impression was Matthews 's choice at audition , and that whilst it was not what had been intended for Captain Scarlet , the production team nevertheless elected to use it . Matthews 's filmography prior to Captain Scarlet included the Hammer films The Revenge of Frankenstein ( 1958 ) , Rasputin , the Mad Monk ( 1966 ) and Dracula : Prince of Darkness ( 1966 ) .
Matthews 's co @-@ star in Dracula : Prince of Darkness had been Charles Tingwell , who was chosen to voice Dr. Fawn , the Cloudbase chief medical officer . Tingwell , who had provided voices for the second season of Thunderbirds and its first feature film , Thunderbirds Are Go , had initially been recommended to the Andersons by Ray Barrett , a fellow Australian actor who had worked on Stingray and Thunderbirds . However , due to theatre commitments , Tingwell could only contribute to the first 12 produced episodes of Captain Scarlet . Also departing after the completion of " Shadow of Fear " was the voice of Captain Grey , Paul Maxwell , a Canadian actor who had voiced the character of Steve Zodiac three years earlier in Fireball XL5 .
Cy Grant , a Guyanese actor selected for the role of Lieutenant Green ( Colonel White 's assistant and Cloudbase 's main computer operator and public announcer ) , had been known to the Andersons for singing topical calypsos on the current affairs programme Tonight . His casting influenced the decision to accept Edward Bishop as Captain Blue ( Captain Scarlet 's friend and mission partner ) , as Bishop recalled in an interview recorded in 1995 : " It was just that a girl in my agent 's office happened to be on the ball . She represented this black actor by the name of Cy Grant and Gerry and Sylvia wanted to use him ... And the girl said , ' Oh , by the way , Mr Anderson , we 've just taken on a new , young American actor ' – shows you how long ago it was – ' a new American actor , name of Edward Bishop . And we know how much you like American voices . Would you like to meet him as well ? ' He said , ' Okay , send him out . ' So I went out and auditioned and got the job . "
Donald Gray , who had found himself typecast after appearing in the lead role in Saber of London , a detective series , was having to resort to voice work to support his acting career . The South African actor was selected for three regular roles : Colonel White , Captain Black and the Mysterons . After his mind is hijacked in the pilot episode , Black speaks with the same voice that the Mysterons are heard to use when transmitting threats to Earth . For his portrayals of Black and his Mysteron masters , Gray 's voice was electronically deepened , by running the tape at high speed whilst he was recording his lines and playing it back at normal speed , to produce a haunting effect .
The voice of Captain Ochre was provided by English @-@ born Canadian , Jeremy Wilkin . Having served in the role of Virgil Tracy during the second series of Thunderbirds , Wilkin remained to voice Ochre for the subsequent production . The character of Captain Magenta , meanwhile , was voiced by Gary Files . Another Australian actor , Files was a fresh addition to Century 21 Productions , and was cast for a number of roles in the second Thunderbirds film , Thunderbird 6 , before progressing to the role of Magenta for Captain Scarlet . Like Files , Welsh actress Liz Morgan was new to the Anderson productions and voiced the regular characters of Destiny Angel , the lead pilot of the Spectrum Angel fighter squadron , and one of her subordinates , Rhapsody Angel .
Sylvia Anderson , the voice of Lady Penelope from Thunderbirds , voiced Melody Angel , while Canadian actress Janna Hill was given the part of Symphony . The character of Harmony Angel was voiced by Morgan for five episodes before being replaced by Chinese actress Lian @-@ Shin about one @-@ third of the way through the recording sessions . Although Lian only provided the voice of Harmony for one episode , " The Launching , " she received billing for 20 episodes .
Supporting character voices were performed by Anderson , Files , Hill , Maxwell , Morgan , Tingwell and Wilkin . Completing the supporting cast were American actor David Healy and British actor Martin King . Canadian Shane Rimmer , who had performed the voice of Scott Tracy in Thunderbirds and its films , made a number of uncredited contributions in addition to writing for the series . Fellow Canadian Neil McCallum , who had provided the voice of the character of Dr Ray Pierce in Thunderbirds Are Go , can be heard in four episodes , though he was not credited . Six members of the voice cast would continue their association with the Andersons after Captain Scarlet . Healy would voice the character of Shane Weston in the penultimate Supermarionation series , Joe 90 , while Files would voice Matthew Harding on The Secret Service . Wilkin , Morgan and King were all given small roles for these final two Supermarionation series , while Bishop appeared as SHADO Commander Edward Straker in Anderson 's live @-@ action series , UFO , which was transmitted in the United Kingdom from 1970 .
= = = Voice recording = = =
Character dialogue was recorded on a fortnightly basis , with lines for up to four episodes taped at each session , at the Anvil Films Recording Studio at Denham in Buckinghamshire . Each actor , regardless of the size of their contribution , was paid 15 guineas ( £ 15 15 shillings ) per episode with repeat fees . The cast were not given the opportunity to tour the Century 21 studios in Slough until all their work was finished and therefore had no visualisation of their characters during the recording itself . This was to the regret of Liz Morgan : " We all said that we wished we had seen the puppets before doing the dialogue , as it would have been helpful to have something physical to base the voices on . I knew that Destiny was French and that Rhapsody had to be frightfully ' Sloaney , ' but that was about it . "
= = Titles and credits = =
All Captain Scarlet episodes , with the exception of the pilot episode , incorporate two sets of opening titles . The first of these sequences displays the title card and the primary production credits . The camera moves forward through the scale @-@ model set of a run @-@ down , night @-@ time alleyway , forming the point @-@ of @-@ view shot of an unseen assassin , who turns a corner only to meet his death at the gun barrel of Captain Scarlet . The two seven @-@ letter words " Captain Scarlet " gradually appear in time with the seven strikes of the Captain Scarlet staccato drum beat composed by Barry Gray . This opening sequence is accompanied by a voice @-@ over from Ed Bishop , which states , " The Mysterons . Sworn enemies of Earth . Possessing the ability to recreate an exact likeness of an object or person . But first , they must destroy ... Leading the fight , one man fate has made indestructible . His name : Captain Scarlet . " The sequence is intended to demonstrate Scarlet 's indestructibility , with the assassin 's machine @-@ gun bullets having no effect on their target .
A number of variations of the voice @-@ over have been used . Bishop 's introduction to the pilot , which is unique to that episode , runs : " The finger is on the trigger . About to unleash a force with terrible powers , beyond the comprehension of Man . This force we shall know as ' the Mysterons ' ... This man will be our hero , for fate will make him indestructible . His name : Captain Scarlet . " A little @-@ used alternative version runs : " One man . A man who is different . Chosen by fate . Caught up in Earth 's unwanted conflict with the Mysterons . Determined . Courageous . Indestructible . His name : Captain Scarlet . " Later prints feature an additional voice @-@ over by Donald Gray , warning : " Captain Scarlet is indestructible . You are not . Remember this . Do not try to imitate him . " This served both to establish the background to the series and to warn child viewers not to risk their safety by copying Scarlet 's actions . It was either placed after the alternative " One man ... " voice @-@ over or used in isolation , such that no voice @-@ over by Bishop was heard .
From the second episode onwards , a secondary opening sequence runs immediately after an initial teaser : as the Mysterons announce their latest threat against Earth , the " Mysteron rings " pass over the primary puppet cast in a number of environments to demonstrate the aliens ' omnipresence . Meanwhile , the characters ' Spectrum codenames are flashed up on @-@ screen . The Mysterons invariably begin their threat with the words , " This is the voice of the Mysterons . We know that you can hear us , Earthmen . "
The end credits sequence was originally intended to feature images of printed circuit boards and other electronic components , to reflect the Andersons ' early conception of the resurrected Captain Scarlet as being a " mechanical man " . In the completed sequence , the end production credits are superimposed on a series of ten paintings , which depict Scarlet in moments of extreme danger . In earlier episodes , these images are accompanied by the instrumental version of Barry Gray 's Captain Scarlet theme music ; in later ones , this is replaced by the lyrical version sung by The Spectrum . The paintings were produced by comic artist Ron Embleton , who would later illustrate the adult comic strip " Oh , Wicked Wanda ! " for Penthouse magazine . In 2005 , the Animation Art Gallery in London released licensed limited editions of the paintings signed by Francis Matthews , the voice of Scarlet .
In Japan , the original opening credit sequences were replaced with a montage of action clips from various episodes , accompanied by a unique theme song performed by children . This version is included in the special features of the Captain Scarlet DVD box set .
= = Broadcasts = =
Captain Scarlet officially opened on British television on 29 September 1967 , in the late @-@ afternoon slot of 5 @.@ 25 pm , in the ATV Midlands region . Viewing figures for the pilot episode , " The Mysterons " , were promising at 0 @.@ 45 million . Five months earlier , on 29 April , the series opener had been given a late @-@ night test transmission in the London area . After the start of the Midlands broadcasts , London and Scotland followed on 1 October , with the Granada , Anglia , Southern , Westward and Channel areas all televising the series by the end of the month . However , it was not until the start of 1968 that the series was being broadcast all across the nation . In the Midlands region , the ratings averaged 1 @.@ 1 million . In 1968 , Captain Scarlet was also screened in more than 40 other countries , including Canada , Australia , New Zealand and Japan . In the United States , the series was transmitted on first @-@ run syndication . Meanwhile , only six episodes of the series were transmitted in the Netherlands .
Repeat runs have varied greatly according to region . While Granada , HTV and Tyne Tees continued to broadcast the series into 1972 , the Midlands received four colour re @-@ runs from 1969 to 1974 , while in other areas , such as Yorkshire , it was not repeated at all . All 32 episodes were purchased by ITV for broadcast on Saturday mornings between 1985 and 1986 , with broadcasting in segmented form on the ITV Night Network in 1987 . A BBC commission led to the series ' first simultaneous network broadcast on BBC2 starting on 1 October 1993 . On this occasion , the pilot episode attracted an audience of four million , high enough to award it third position in the BBC2 ratings chart for the week of transmission .
Digitally remastered , the series resurfaced on BBC Two in the autumn of 2001 . On this occasion , the episode schedule needed to be re @-@ arranged at short notice to avoid offence in the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks . The second episode , " Winged Assassin " , in which the Mysterons destroy and reconstruct a plane to assassinate a world leader , and the third , " Big Ben Strikes Again " , in which London comes under threat from an atomic device , were held back and replaced with the fourth episode , " Manhunt " , due to parallels between the plotlines and events in the real world . In the week after the attacks , the Captain Scarlet section on the Carlton website was also temporarily removed .
= = Reception = =
While Thunderbirds had run for two series , Lew Grade 's unexpected cancellation of the production led Anderson to assume that there was no possibility of Captain Scarlet lasting for more than one . In Anderson 's words , " I didn 't expect it to continue . I simply went to Lew and asked , ' What 's the next thing you want us to do ? ' "
Captain Scarlet has generally been viewed as much " darker " in tone compared to Gerry Anderson 's earlier science @-@ fiction programmes , as Andrew Billen noted in New Statesman when its remake was broadcast 2005 : " Whereas Thunderbirds was about rescuing people , Scarlet was about damnation , the soul of a resurrected man being fought for between Captain Scarlet and the equally indestructible Captain Black . It was Anderson 's Gothic period . " The horror factor of the Mysterons has been recognised , with the depiction of the extraterrestrials giving the series a ranking of 82nd in Channel 4 's 2003 list programme 100 Greatest Scary Moments . Simon Wickes of the TV Century 21 website asserts that serious writing of the scripts is ultimately due to the realism of the new , accurately @-@ proportioned puppets , and that this aesthetic change also answers for the heightened realism of the series ' scale models .
Parallels have been drawn between Captain Scarlet and the Cold War . Historian Nicholas J. Cull interprets the " war of nerves " between Earth and Mars as a reflection of the strain on international relations during the 1960s and likens the " enemy within " scenario of Martians taking physical control of humans to the plots of such films as Invasion of the Body Snatchers ( 1956 ) . According to Mark Bould , the series " seemed in tune with a decade of civil disobedience and anti @-@ imperialist guerrilla wars " – a view supported by Rebecca Feasey of the University of Edinburgh , who has written that it is one of a number of series that " exploited the fears of 1960s America by presenting civil disobedience and the potentially negative impact of new technologies . " Since 2001 , comparisons have been made to the September 11 attacks , as well as the ensuing War on Terror .
To other reviewers , Captain Scarlet remains a " camp classic " that , in Bould 's opinion , relates well to other Anderson productions due to a common depiction of " a utopian future benefiting from world government , high technology , ethnic diversity , and a generally positive sense of Americanisation . They articulate the commonly made connection between technological developments and economic prosperity . " He also states that Captain Scarlet espouses " Euro @-@ cool consumerism " . The concept of world government is common to Anderson 's work and was inspired by his thoughts on the matter at the time : " I had all sorts of fancy ideas about the future ... we had the United Nations and I imagined that the world would come together and there would be a world government . " Peter Wright , on the series ' depiction of technology , notes the " qualified technophilia " that it shares with Thunderbirds .
Since its first appearance , Captain Scarlet has been criticised for its filming , which has been considered too static due to the problem of moving the Supermarionation puppets convincingly . The return to a 25 @-@ minute episode format , as had been the case with series preceding Thunderbirds , has been blamed for a perceived drop in quality of storytelling and a lack of subplots . Concerns have also been raised about the development of the characters : in a 1986 interview , script editor Tony Barwick described Captain Scarlet as " hard @-@ nosed stuff " that lacked humour , stating , " It was all for the American market and to that extent there was no deep characterisation . [ The characters ] all balanced one against the other . " To Jeff Evans , writer of The Penguin TV Companion , it is " more detailed " ; he explains : " The agents were given private lives and real identities , and were furnished with other biographical data . "
Science @-@ fiction author John Peel considers Captain Scarlet inferior to Thunderbirds , arguing that although the special effects had improved , it was to the detriment of the scriptwriting . He compares this schism to the disappointing reception to Steven Spielberg 's Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom ( 1984 ) following the success of Raiders of the Lost Ark ( 1981 ) : " Anderson made the same mistake that George Lucas made , assuming that if the effects were praised in Thunderbirds , the public wanted a show with more effects . " Peel also finds fault with the nature of Scarlet himself , suggesting that the use of an " indestructible " hero made the conclusions to the episodes too predictable . Furthermore , he expresses a concern that Scarlet , who is often seen to risk his life in a bid to thwart Mysteron plots , served as a poor role model to a target audience of impressionable children .
Seen as a cult series by some critics , Captain Scarlet ranked 33rd in a 2007 Radio Times poll to determine the greatest science @-@ fiction series of all time . Despite concerns that it is not a true " children 's " series on account of its " dark " tone and violence , it appeared in 51st position in the 2001 Channel 4 list show 100 Greatest Kids ' TV Shows . Judging Captain Scarlet next to its immediate predecessor , Thunderbirds , Gerry Anderson 's own verdict is unambiguous : " Nothing was as successful as Thunderbirds . Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons was very successful , but once you 've had a smash hit , everything tends to look less successful in comparison . "
= = = Puppets = = =
Turning his attention to Sylvia Anderson 's costume design , Bould praises the " commitment to fashion " evident throughout the Anderson series , singling out the design of the Spectrum Angel uniforms . The realistic design of the new puppets has been praised by Vincent Terrace and criticised by others . Certain members of the production staff had the impression that they lacked the charm of the earlier generation of puppets due to the authentic proportions that were now being used . Director David Lane 's initial thoughts on a prototype , sculpted by head puppet @-@ maker John Brown , were , " it was as if there was a little dead person in [ the box ] ... because it was perfect in all its proportions it just looked odd . " Brown remembers placing the prototype next to the Lady Penelope puppet from Thunderbirds and gauging the response from colleagues : " When they saw it , some people were horrified by the difference . Some didn 't like it , some did . " Commentators have noted that facial expression was sacrificed in favour of a realistic design , a result on which Terry Curtis remembers :
The changes of expression on those puppets had to be perfect and in no way exaggerated like the old ones were . I remember when [ fellow puppet designer ] Tim Cooksey did Colonel White , he had a lot of trouble doing different expressions as the face was just so realistic . I had a similar problem with Captain Blue . I remember I did a Blue " smiler " head and people could hardly tell the difference between that and the normal one .
Sculptor John Blundall has called the new puppet design " ridiculous " , criticising Anderson 's attempts to make the puppets appear more lifelike on the basis that " We always try to do with puppets what you can 't do with humans . " Expressing a preference for the design Thunderbirds era , Blundall agrees that the transition from caricature to realism was at the expense of " character and personality " , asserting that " If the puppet appears completely natural , the audience no longer has to use its imagination . " Anderson states that he pushed for the reshaping of the puppets to please viewers , deeming it not " a case of moving to a new technique , but more a case of incorporating new ideas with existing methods . " Evans praises the new puppets , describing them as " perfect in proportion " and commending the fact the electronic circitry was now in the puppets ' bodies .
Summing up Captain Scarlet as " better puppets , bigger action and a huge step backwards in stories " compared to Thunderbirds , Peel disputes the claim that the next generation of puppets mark a failure on the part of the series , arguing that the increased realism could not have deterred an audience familiar with the previous design . Although to his mind the characterisation was less endearing , Peel suggests that it is an over @-@ emphasis on the visual , at the expense of characterisation , that truly accounts for the reduced credibility of Captain Scarlet .
= = = Race , gender and symbolism = = =
During its 1993 UK repeat run , Captain Scarlet attracted attention with regard to the black @-@ and @-@ white dualism debate for its use of the codenames " White " to designate the head of Spectrum , Colonel White , and " Black " for the villainous Captain Black . Defending the series against the accusations of racism and political incorrectness , Anderson pointed out that Lieutenant Green , Melody Angel and Harmony Angel are among the heroes of the series in spite of their African and Asian backgrounds . Green is the only male black character to be given a substantial role in any series produced by Anderson .
In academic works , the diversity of the Spectrum personnel in terms of both race and gender has been viewed highly . Bould praises the series for its " beautiful , multiethnic , female Angel fighter pilots " and " secondary roles played by capable women . " In an interview conducted in 2003 , Anderson confirmed that a conscious effort was made to feature ethnic minorities : " ... I think people who make television programmes have a responsibility , particularly when children are watching avidly and you know their minds can be affected almost irreversibly as they grow up . We were very conscious of introducing different ethnic backgrounds . "
Guyanese actor Cy Grant , who voiced the character of Lieutenant Green and believed that Captain Scarlet had positive multicultural value , discussed the allegorical nature of the series . According to him , Christian symbolism was heavily implied , with Colonel White assuming the role of God , opposed by the Devil in the form of Captain Black and descended by Captain Scarlet , who serves as a Christ allegory ; moreover , Cloudbase represented Heaven and was guarded by its own fleet of Angels . Grant has also lionised Green as an African trickster hero . On dualism , he argued , " the ' darkness ' of the Mysterons is most easily seen as the psychological rift – the struggle of ' good ' and ' evil ' – of the Western world as personified by Colonel White and his team . Dark and light are but aspects of each other . Incidentally , green is the colour of nature that can heal that rift . "
= = Other media = =
Since the 1960s , the TV series has been supplemented by tie @-@ in merchandise , example products ranging from toy dolls to a driving @-@ themed video game , released for the PlayStation 2 platform in 2006 . The ATV game show The Golden Shot , presented by Bob Monkhouse , adopted Captain Scarlet as the theme for its 1967 Christmas special . Broadcast live on 23 December , the programme featured guest appearances from Francis Matthews and " The Spectrum " , who performed their latest single , " Headin ' for a Heatwave " .
= = = Audio episodes = = =
To complement the TV episodes , Century 21 released five further Captain Scarlet stories as vinyl record EPs , each running to approximately 21 minutes , and starring the original voice cast , in 1967 . TV Century 21 script editor Angus P. Allan wrote Introducing Captain Scarlet , Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons and Captain Scarlet of Spectrum , while Captain Scarlet is Indestructible and Captain Scarlet versus Captain Black were scripted by his assistant , Richard O 'Neill .
The first of the audio adventures , Introducing Captain Scarlet , is set during the dénouement to the pilot episode , The Mysterons . The plot mainly focuses on a military conference investigating the events of the episode , with the inclusion of audio flashbacks to provide exposition . At the conclusion to the adventure , it is revealed that the Mysteron duplicate of Captain Scarlet has returned to life and that Scarlet 's loyalty to Spectrum can be restored with the aid of the advanced computer that featured in the Andersons ' pilot script for " The Mysterons " .
= = = Books and comics = = =
In the late 1960s , three tie @-@ in novels were published under the pen name " John Theydon " , a pseudonym for author John William Jennison , titled Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons ( 1967 ) , Captain Scarlet and the Silent Saboteur ( 1967 ) and The Angels and the Creeping Enemy ( 1968 ) . As implied by its title , the third novel places the focus on the Spectrum Angels as the primary protagonists . Later , in 1993 , Young Corgi Books published four novelisations , targeted at children , based upon the original series episodes " The Mysterons " , " Lunarville 7 " , " Noose of Ice " and " The Launching " .
Captain Scarlet also formed the basis of three comic strips drawn for the weekly children 's comic , TV Century 21 . Spanning 17 issues ( numbers 141 – 157 ) from September 1967 to January 1968 , the strip adventures were written by Angus P. Allan with artwork by Ron Embleton , and were titled We Will Destroy Unity City , We Will Destroy the Observatory Network and We Shall Make Earth a Planet of Silence . Following the end of the TV series , the comic continued the story of the Captain Scarlet universe , with later strips revealing that the Mysterons deactivate their Martian complex and relinquish their control over Captain Black , while Scarlet himself leaves Spectrum to make use of his powers in the fight against Earth @-@ bound criminals and threats . The Mysterons ultimately re @-@ awaken , prompting Scarlet and Spectrum to resume their struggle .
A manga adaptation of the series , titled Captain Scarlet , ran in the Japanese Shōnen Book anthology from January to August 1968 . Century 21 published annuals based on the series between 1967 and 1969 , while the original Captain Scarlet comic strips were reprinted in the 1968 and 1969 editions of TV21 Annual . Further annuals , published in 1993 and 1994 by Grandreams , coincided with the BBC2 repeats of the TV episodes . In 2002 , Carlton Books released a new edition to accompany the digitally remastered broadcasts that had started in 2001 .
= = = Home video = = =
In the United Kingdom , Carlton Video commercially released the series , as both eight separate volumes and as a " Complete Series Box Set " , from September 2001 to March 2002 . Presented with the same remastered video and audio quality that was introduced for the BBC Two repeats of 2001 , the box set incorporates a ninth tape including The Indestructible Captain Scarlet , a special programme that describes Spectrum , the Mysterons and the events of the TV series . Earlier releases , marketed by PolyGram and " Channel 5 " , had numbered the episodes in an order different from that of the 1960s broadcasts and , in the case of the first two volumes , had added to them with the insertion of footage specially filmed for the ITC Captain Scarlet compilation films of the 1980s .
Since September 2001 , Captain Scarlet has also been available in five volumes on PAL Region 2 DVD , also marketed by Carlton , with a new Dolby 5 @.@ 1 Surround Sound sound mix to complement the original mono track . Special features for these releases include audio commentaries with Gerry Anderson for the episodes " The Mysterons " and " Attack on Cloudbase " , the five audio episodes from 1967 , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes production photos , information about original ITC advertising and merchandise , and 1960s TV spots . As with the VHS releases , the five DVD volumes have also received a box set edition , which incorporates a bonus sixth disc including Captain Scarlet S.I.G. ( a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary produced and presented by Gerry Anderson ) and five sets of alternative opening credits .
The special features of the four @-@ disc NTSC North American Region 1 edition of the box set , released by A & E Home Video in 2002 , are mostly similar to those of the Region 2 version , with the additions of a text @-@ based " Introduction to Captain Scarlet " and DVD @-@ ROM content . In 2004 , Imavision unveiled a French @-@ language edition of the box set aimed at the Canadian market . The set is also available in Japan on Region 2 ( as six discs ) and Australia on Region 4 ( as five discs ) .
On February 10 , 2015 , Shout ! Factory , through their deal with ITV , re @-@ released the complete series on DVD in America through Timeless Media Group containing the 2 Gerry Anderson commentaries , 3 Spotlight on Captain Scarlet featurettes , and a never @-@ before @-@ seen interview with Gerry Anderson about his early career .
VHS releases ( UK )
DVD releases
Blu @-@ ray release
= = = Video games = = =
= = Later productions = =
Distribution rights to much of the ITC Entertainment catalogue have been transferred since the 1980s , initially to PolyGram Entertainment , ( or " PolyGram Television " ) then Carlton International in the late 1990s after a partial sale to the BBC in 1991 . In 2004 , Carlton International merged into Granada International , the current rights holder , which in 2008 was renamed ITV Global Entertainment , a division of ITV plc . Theatrical release rights are held by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) . In addition to other projects , Gerry Anderson announced plans for a live @-@ action film adaptation of Captain Scarlet in 2000 and again in 2002 during the production of the Thunderbirds film released in 2004 , but the idea has not been developed since .
= = = Compilation films = = =
In 1980 , the New York offices of ITC , under the supervision of Robert Mandell , combined episodes from the original series to make two compilation films for American audiences , with the aim of reviving transatlantic syndication sales . This became common practice for Anderson productions during the 1980s , with made @-@ for @-@ television films comprising episodes of Stingray and Thunderbirds airing to US cable audiences under the generic promotional banner of " Super Space Theater " . On 24 November 1988 , the second Captain Scarlet film , Revenge of the Mysterons from Mars , was broadcast as the second episode of the American television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 , from Minneapolis , on station KTMA .
= = = CGI test film and series = = =
In 1999 , Gerry Anderson supervised the production of a short computer @-@ animated test film , Captain Scarlet and the Return of the Mysterons , to explore the possibility of updating a number of his 1960s Supermarionation series for a 21st @-@ century audience . The working title was Captain Scarlet – The New Millennium . Produced in London by the Moving Picture Company , the film features Francis Matthews and Ed Bishop reprising the roles of Captains Scarlet and Blue . Made using a combination of Maya 3D computer graphics software and motion @-@ capture technology , the plot commences a few years after the Mysterons end their hostilities against Earth , but the reappearance of Captain Black sets the stage for a revival of the war with Mars . Although the film has yet to receive a home video release , it was publicly screened at a Fanderson convention in 2000 and at a science lecture in 2001 .
Plans for a full CGI Captain Scarlet television series to follow the test film finally resulted in Gerry Anderson 's New Captain Scarlet . A reboot of the original series , this was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on the Saturday @-@ morning CITV programme , Ministry of Mayhem , from 12 February 2005 . Produced by " Anderson Entertainment " and the " Indestructible Production Company " , the animation used to create the series is billed in the credits as " Hypermarionation " to acknowledge the 1960s puppet technique , Supermarionation .
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= Watsessing Avenue ( NJT station ) =
Watsessing Avenue ( also known as Watsessing ) is a New Jersey Transit rail station in Bloomfield , New Jersey , along the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line . It is located beneath the Bloomfield Police Benevolent Association meeting hall ( which formerly served as the station building ) near the corner of Watsessing Avenue and Orange Street in Bloomfield . It is one of two stations on the line where the boarding platform is below ground level ( the Glen Ridge Station , two stops away from it , is the other ) . The Watsessing station and the Kingsland station in Lyndhurst on the Main Line shared similar designs ( both station platforms are located below street level ) and were built about the same time .
The current Glen Ridge , Bloomfield and Watsessing stations along the Montclair branch were all built in 1912 during a grade separation program by the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad . During New Jersey Transit 's running of the line , two stations between Watsessing and Newark Broad Street were closed due to low ridership — the Roseville Avenue station in Newark , at the junction with the Morristown Line on September 16 , 1984 , and Ampere Station in East Orange on April 7 , 1991 . The word " Watsessing " is a Native American term that translates to " mouth of the creek " .
The station has been on the New Jersey State Historic Preservation Office listings since March 25 , 1998 , the last of the four stations from East Orange to Glen Ridge to receive the listing . On September 14 , 2005 , the entire Montclair Branch was added to the same listings , although Ampere , Bloomfield and Glen Ridge stations have been on the listings since March 17 , 1984 .
= = Station layout and services = =
Watsessing Avenue station is located on the corner of Watsessing Avenue and Orange Street at Westinghouse Plaza in Bloomfield and is just blocks from Bloomfield 's borders with East Orange and Orange . The former depot is currently used by the Bloomfield Police Benevolent Association . There are two below @-@ street @-@ level platforms at the Watsessing station . Ticket vending machines are available at street level on Watsessing Avenue and a $ 5 surcharge applies if riders buy them on the train ; the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line added vending machines to the remaining stations that did not have them in 2011 .
The Watsessing Avenue station is not handicap accessible . The two nearest accessible stations are Newark Broad Street Station , which is located one stop away from Watsessing Avenue , and Bay Street Station , which is located three stops away in Montclair , New Jersey . The station also has two parking lots for use . Maintained by the Bloomfield Parking Authority , the first is on Westinghouse Plaza ( near the former Westinghouse Lamp Plant ) and has fourteen parking spaces . The parking uses daily parking rules , paying six days a week at $ 0 @.@ 25 an hour , except for Sunday , when parking is free . A second lot is available at the intersection of Myrtle Street and Walnut Street . It has forty @-@ five parking spots , two of which are handicap accessible . The lot also contains permit spaces six days a week and free on Sundays , with a cost of $ 20 parking per quarter ( three months ) .
= = History = =
= = = Delaware , Lackawanna and Western ownership ( 1856 – 1976 ) = = =
The history of a station at Watsessing Avenue in the Watsessing district of Bloomfield dates back to the Newark and Bloomfield Railroad , established in 1856 . The station , a houseless station off of Dodd Street , was deemed first as Doddtown by a railroad conductor . This name soon gave way to Watsessing , and in 1865 , the line was bought by the Morris and Essex Railroad , running through trains . The Morris and Essex Railroad was soon bought out by the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad , and a new station was built , deemed Watsessing .
In 1911 , as the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad continued the project of eliminating at @-@ grade crossings between streets and railroads , the Montclair Branch was the next to receive the structural change . Bloomfield criticized the Lackawanna railroad for making a disgrace of the community . The railroad proposed using $ 700 @,@ 000 ( 1911 USD ) of funds to construct a brand new station at Watsessing Avenue along with a new downtown Bloomfield Station . The cost of elevating and depressing the railroad came up to about $ 20 @,@ 000 ( 1911 USD ) for the Lackawanna . This contract by the railroad and township was approved after negotiations dating back to 1908 . The negotiations included a park to be built between both stations on both sides of the railroad . The park land cost the township $ 50 @,@ 000 to buy for the construction , and it was to be turned over to the Essex County Park Commission .
Construction was completed on a 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long segment of the Montclair Branch from East Orange to Glen Ridge and was opened to rail service on November 15 , 1912 . The project laid 91 pounds ( 41 kg ) of track in addition to steel ties and stone ballast . The station has concrete crossings at Dodd Street , Arlington Avenue and Watsessing Avenue along with a new crossing of the Erie Railroad 's Orange Branch just south of the station . The design of Watsessing Avenue 's new station was difficult due to the limited right @-@ of @-@ way . While making the separation , a new trench had to be dug , which included retaining walls that prevented moving the existing track alignment to delay railroad traffic . When the station was finished , tracks were shifted to make room for a second track . The station depot was built over the railroad tracks with four concrete arches to support the building . A four @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) ceiling was constructed on the arches , and the station was widened to take more volume of train service .
The station served as the third station on the Montclair Branch , which was first electrified by technology created by Thomas Alva Edison in 1930 . The overhead catenary wires were installed , making the line the first electrically run line on the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western alignment . The station remained in service for the Lackawanna Railroad for three more decades , when the railroad merged with the Erie Railroad on October 17 , 1960 . Although the now Erie @-@ Lackawanna Railway continued to run the Montclair Branch , it reduced service , reducing the once two @-@ rail alignment to one lone track , and removed most of the tracks at Lackawanna Terminal in Montclair . On April 1 , 1976 , the station was transferred to the Consolidated Rail Corporation ( Conrail ) as the Erie @-@ Lackawanna Railway was dissolved into the Conrail program .
= = = New Jersey Transit and historical status ( 1979 – present ) = = =
In 1979 , New Jersey Transit was formed to run bus and train service in place of Conrail and the New Jersey Department of Transportation . In 1983 , New Jersey Transit took over rail service from Conrail , and just one year later , the line became a temporary diesel rail line when the overhead catenary wires had to be adjusted for conversion to higher electrical voltage . The station itself was still the third on the Montclair Branch , but the line now ran into a new station at Bay Street in Montclair . On March 17 , 1984 all stations on the Montclair Branch but the Roseville Avenue station in Newark , Bay Street and Watsessing Avenue were added to the State Register of Historic Places . The same would occur on June 22 , 1984 at the national level with Ampere , Glen Ridge and Bloomfield Stations being added to the National Register of Historic Places . On September 16 , 1984 , Roseville Avenue station was closed , and just over six years later , on April 7 , 1991 , Ampere station in East Orange was closed . Since then , Watsessing Avenue has been the first station New Jersey Transit has served on the Montclair Branch , although East Orange has proposed reopening the station at Ampere as part of a redevelopment plan for the Ampere district .
On March 25 , 1998 , the station at Watsessing Avenue was given the State Historical Preservation Organization honor that Ampere , Glen Ridge and Bloomfield stations received just fourteen years prior . The station continued to receive service through the opening of Montclair Connection on September 30 , 2002 , which ended service as the Montclair Branch and began as the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line , still the first station on the line after Newark Broad Street Station . On September 10 , 2007 , New Jersey Transit announced the canopies of the old station , then 95 years old , were to be restored and repaired . The service contracted a $ 1 @.@ 7 million project to Watertrol Incorporated of Cranford . At that time , the station served an average of 200 people daily . Improvements for the station included brand new canopy lighting , repairs to the cantilever canopies , replacement of stairways and fencing , along with changing roof tiles and a new drainage system to replace the 1912 version . When the construction was finished in October 2008 , the station now served nearly 450 people daily on average . A ceremony to mark its completion was held on October 30 , 2008 .
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= The Trouble with Tribbles =
" The Trouble with Tribbles " is the 44th episode of the American science fiction television series , Star Trek , the 15th episode of the second season . It was first broadcast in the United States on December 29 , 1967 , on NBC . The episode was the first professional work of writer David Gerrold , and went through a variety of drafts before it reached the screen . Because of an error in the size of typeface , an approved version needed to be reduced by twenty pages before filming . Nichelle Nichols remarked that she had " never seen a script go through so many changes — and stay so much the same " . " The Trouble with Tribbles " was directed by Joseph Pevney , who was one of the most prolific directors of the series .
In this episode , the starship Enterprise arrives at Deep Space Station K7 to guard a consignment of grain bound for Sherman 's Planet . On arrival , a trader named Cyrano Jones ( Stanley Adams ) gives Lt. Uhura ( Nichelle Nichols ) a tribble , with dramatic consequences . Captain James T. Kirk and the crew also have to deal with the arrival of Captain Koloth ( William Campbell ) and his Klingon battlecruiser , but the tribbles unexpectedly reveal a plot to poison the grain .
Around 1 @,@ 500 tribbles were created for the episode , with special tribbles created for certain purposes with beanbags or surgical balloons inserted in them . Three additional sets were created for the episode , although there were problems with finding enough matching chairs for the trading post area . The chairs had to be pulled out of showrooms around Los Angeles County , and Pevney was warned to make sure they weren 't damaged during the episode 's brawl scene . William Campbell had previously appeared as Trelane in " The Squire of Gothos " and was intended to be a recurring villain as Koloth . Because of his other work commitments , these plans were not followed up on until he returned as Koloth in the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Blood Oath " in 1994 . William Schallert appeared as Nilz Baris , and later appeared as a Bajoran in the DS9 episode " Sanctuary " .
While initial fan reaction to the episode was mixed , it was more popular with the general public . Critical response to the episode was positive , and it was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation which instead went to fellow Star Trek episode " The City on the Edge of Forever " . It has since been included in several " best of " episode lists and features , including as part of the Best of DVD collection alongside three other episodes . It has also been released as part of the season two DVD box set .
" The Trouble with Tribbles " was intended to have a third @-@ season follow @-@ up episode , but it was not completed . The follow @-@ up episode was developed for Star Trek : The Animated Series as " More Tribbles , More Troubles " . Gerrold explained that the episode was almost uncut from the original premise . To celebrate the 30th anniversary of Star Trek in 1996 , the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " used digital techniques to insert the Deep Space Nine actors into the events of " The Trouble with Tribbles " . Gerrold appeared on @-@ screen as an extra , and the episode was nominated for three Emmy Awards and also for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise is called to Deep Space Station K7 by a distress call . It is near Sherman 's Planet , a world whose ownership is under dispute between the Federation and the Klingon Empire . On arrival , Captain James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) becomes furious when he finds out the reason for the distress call , which was made by Nilz Baris ( William Schallert ) , the under @-@ secretary of agriculture for the sector : Baris wants someone to guard the shipments of quadrotriticale ( related to triticale ) grain bound for Sherman 's Planet , since quadrotriticale is the only Earth grain that would grow on Sherman 's Planet and thus is required to resolve the ownership issue . Kirk assigns two crewmen to guard the grain , but afterwards he finds out the Starfleet Command share Baris ' concerns . In addition , a Klingon ship commanded by Captain Koloth ( William Campbell ) arrives , who requests permission for his crew to board K7 for shore leave . Kirk agrees , but limits the number of Klingons at any one time and they must travel under Starfleet guard while on the station .
Meanwhile , an independent trader , Cyrano Jones ( Stanley Adams ) , arrives on the station with some tribbles . He gives one to Lt. Uhura ( Nichelle Nichols ) , who brings it on board the Enterprise , where it and its quickly produced offspring are treated as adorable pets . The animals purr a relaxing trill that the crew find soothing . Klingons , however , find tribbles annoying , and the feeling is mutual : tribbles hiss and shriek whenever they are near Klingons .
Doctor Leonard McCoy ( DeForest Kelley ) is concerned that the increasing numbers of tribbles threaten to consume all the onboard supplies . It is discovered that they are entering ship systems , interfering with their functions and consuming any edible contents present . Kirk realizes that if the tribbles are getting into the ship 's stores , then they are a threat to the grain aboard the station . He examines the holds but learns that it is already too late : The tribbles have indeed eaten the quadrotriticale , and Kirk is literally buried in grain @-@ gorged tribbles when he opens a grain hold with an overhead hatch . Spock ( Leonard Nimoy ) and McCoy discover that about half the tribbles in the hold are dead and many of the rest are dying , alerting them that the grain has been poisoned .
Baris stubbornly holds Kirk responsible for this apparent fiasco , and Koloth additionally demands an apology from Kirk after some of the Enterprise crew were provoked into a brawl with the Klingons in the station 's bar . However , the tribbles incidentally give away the identity of a Klingon agent masquerading as a human : Arne Darvin ( Charlie Brill ) , Baris ' own assistant . He had infected the grain with a virus that becomes an inert material in an organism 's bloodstream which eventually prevents the organism from taking in enough nourishment to survive .
After Darvin 's exposure and arrest , Cyrano Jones is ordered to remove the tribbles from the station ( a task that Spock estimates will take 17 @.@ 9 years ) or he will be imprisoned for 20 years for transporting a dangerous life form off its native planet . Just before the Klingons depart , all the tribbles on the Enterprise are transported onto the Klingon vessel by Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott ( James Doohan ) where , in his words , " they 'll be no tribble at all . "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Writer David Gerrold had been a fan of science fiction since he was a child . When Star Trek was first broadcast , he was concerned that it might turn into something similar to Lost in Space , which he described as " one full @-@ color hour of trash reaching into millions of homes " . His first story outline was sent into Star Trek after his agent suggested that he waited until the shows started to air under the theory that the show might drop an existing episode in favor of a better script . The story was entitled " Tomorrow is Yesterday " and was about the Enterprise coming across a generation ship which had descended into a two @-@ tier class system . His agent received a rejection letter from producer Gene L. Coon dated October 3 , 1966 . The letter stated that the " outline was by no means inadequate . It is , as a matter of fact , very adequate . " It went on to say that it would require a budget larger than that available to television , but would have made a good film treatment . Coon offered to meet with Gerrold and explain what they were looking for , because they were not purchasing scripts at that time .
Coon suggested that Gerrold should wait until the following February to see if the show was renewed for a second season . They also discussed several story ideas , including some small furry creatures that bred too quickly . Coon thought it was a cute idea but would be too expensive as they 'd have to build each creature . In preparation for the second series submission , by January , Gerrold had put together five premises to pitch . He had his best hopes on two treatments called " Bandi " and " The Protracted Man " , but decided to submit his fifth story despite Coon 's earlier dismissal of the idea . It was called " The Fuzzies " . The idea was based on the introduction of rabbits in Australia in 1859 , who reproduced at a vastly increased rate owing to the lack of predators .
The initial premise placed the story on a space station to avoid the ecological damage that the creatures would have on a planet . However , Gerrold 's agent was concerned that requiring a miniature of the station to be built as well as the additional sets would cause it to be too expensive for a single episode . Because of his agents comments , Gerrold modified the pitch to place the action on a colony planet instead . This pitch included the plot points such as the creatures getting into a poisoned grain storage , but omitted the Klingons and Cyrano Jones was called Cyrano Smith . The five pitches were submitted by Gerrold 's agent in February 1967 , and received a response in June . At the time the show had already purchased too many scripts for the second season but story editor D. C. Fontana suggested that they should purchase the story and assign it to a staff writer as it was better than some of the other stories they already had .
At the time that Coon got in touch , Gerrold had just been employed at CBS as a typist working on scripts such as the pilot of Hawaii Five @-@ O. As soon as he got the response , he quit the job . Gerrold and Coon met once more , and revealed that the network had recently made a request for more episodes based on other planets . Coon told Gerrold to work up a further pitch . This version of the story added the Klingons , and moved the action from planetside to a space station . During a visit to the set , Gerrold had the opportunity to speak to Leonard Nimoy and ask his advice on how to write for Spock and was allowed to watch the dailies from each day 's shoot of the episode " The Doomsday Machine " which was being filmed at the time . This version of the story was entitled " A Fuzzy Thing Happened to Me ... " , which was purchased by Coon as a plot outline . He offered Gerrold a chance to write the script himself , by promising not to hand it to another writer for a month . But he made it clear that he was not offering Gerrold for a script , but giving him the option of submitting a draft .
Gerrold turned around the first draft script in two and a half days . Both Coon and Associate Producer Robert Justman gave feedback on the script , and pointed out a few gaps such as there needing to be some way in the plot for the crew to discover that Darvin was a Klingon agent . The following draft had Cyrano Jones discover that Darvin was an agent , which Coon thought wasn 't " punchy " enough . It was then re @-@ written so that the fuzzies were allergic to Klingons . Both Gerrold and Coon thought the idea was " trite ... shtick ... hokey " and " had been done before " . but Coon agreed that it was the direction the story should go . The re @-@ write of the script took a further week .
On a further visit to the set , Gerrold was called into Coon 's office . He was informed that he needed to change the name of the fuzzies as the legal department was concerned about similarities in the name with H. Beam Piper 's 1962 novel Little Fuzzy . He subsequently came up with a variety of alternative names . Through a process of elimination , he ended up with the name " tribble " . He took the name to Coon , who hated it . But after seeing the alternatives , he agreed to it . Gerrold turned in the script on July 17 , entitled " You Think You 've Got Tribbles ... ? " , which while despite Coon disliking the name , he bought it on behalf of the show . Such was the volume of subsequent edits made to the script by Coon , that Gerrold thought he should have been given a co @-@ credit . The problems were caused by the 12 point Elite typeface ( 12 characters per inch ) that Gerrold 's typewriter had used . Coon had approved only the second re @-@ write of the script after it was purchased , but when it was re @-@ typed in the standard 10 point Pica typeface ( 10 characters per inch ) , it ballooned to eighty pages . This meant that some twenty pages needed to be cut from the script .
Scenes which were cut from the script included the Enterprise chasing after Jones in his vessel , and resulted in the scene where Kirk has tribbles tumbling onto him while in the grain locker . Gerrold later explained that this process " tightened up the story and made for a better series of gags " . Nichelle Nichols said to Gerrold " I 've never seen a script go through so many changes – and stay so much the same " . The proposed title " You Think You 've Got Tribbles ... ? " had to be discarded after a Shulman short story was discovered with the title " You Think You 've Got Troubles ? " ( upon which the third @-@ season The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis episode " Dig , Dig , Dig " was based ) , which could possibly have presented a copyright infringement . The episode was then renamed " The Trouble with Tribbles " . The producers liked the result so much that Gerrold was later tasked with re @-@ writing the script for " I , Mudd " , but didn 't take any credit on the final script as he didn 't want to take the credit from Stephen Kandel , the creator of Harry Mudd .
Gerrold worked on " I , Mudd " before " The Trouble with Tribbles " began to film . He was surprised one morning when he was handed a copy of the tribbles script and told to sign it for Robert A. Heinlein . It turned out that the tribbles in the episode resembled the Martian flat cats in Heinlein 's 1952 novel The Rolling Stones . Gerrold was concerned that he had inadvertently plagiarized the novel which he had read fifteen years before . These concerns were brought up by a research team , who suggested that the rights to the novel should be purchased from Heinlein . One of the producers phoned Heinlein , who only asked for a signed copy of the script and later sent a note to Gerrold after it aired to thank him for the script . The grain mentioned in the script , triticale , was a fairly new invention at the time of the episode . However , the expectations of the show in that it would be revolutionary were not realised and it was eventually used as animal feed only . This changed in 2009 , the Canadian Government invested $ 15 million in research to find out if the grain had potential for use as a biofuel .
= = = Filming = = =
The use of live animals to represent the tribbles was immediately ruled out . The inspiration for the form of the tribble instead came from a fluffy keyring owned by Holly Sherman . Sherman 's Planet in this episode was subsequently named after her . The design came from Wah Chang , but they were individually sewn by Jacqueline Cumeré . She was paid $ 350 to sew five hundred tribbles from synthetic fur and stuff them with foam rubber . Six special tribbles were made which were converted from toy dogs . Unfortunately the toys were quite noisy which required the sound track to be looped in during editing . Other tribbles were created by Jim Rugg out of beanbags for when it was required for one to sit on a person or object , and the breathing tribbles were hollow with surgical balloons inserted . In total , some 1 @,@ 500 tribbles were created for the episode . Some of these tribbles were later displayed at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C. in 1992 . The sale at Christie 's auction house in 2006 included tribbles from this episode as part of a larger Star Trek sale . Because of the synthetic fur technology of the 1960s , relatively few original tribbles exist as of 2010 because the fur fell out over time and they went bald . An original tribble was sold at auction in 2003 for $ 1 @,@ 000 .
Filming began during the second week of August 1967 . Three temporary sets and a portion of corridor were constructed for specific use in this episode , which included the large trading post set . The chairs in that set were a problem , as the set designers wanted 24 matching chairs and decided that folding ones wouldn 't do . John M. Dwyer sourced them from a local company , but the numbers required meant that they had to be pulled out of showrooms from all over the county . When it came to the fight scene in the episode , Dwyer warned director Joseph Pevney not to damage the chairs . That scene was filmed twice after a cameraman with a handheld camera wandered onto the set . The scene where Kirk is covered with tribbles in the grain container needed to be filmed eight times , using all five hundred sewn tribbles . Gerrold had expected that scene to be cut at some point during production , as he thought that William Shatner wouldn 't agree to it . He said that Shatner was the " consummate professional and I believe he was eager to show off his comic abilities " .
Pevney was pleased with the outcome of the shoot , calling the episode " a delightful show from beginning to end " . In addition to directing , Pevney also sourced some of the parts to create the tribbles and was directly responsible for the casting of Stanley Adams . He had pushed for the episode to be made as he recalled that there was some resistance at the time against making a comedy @-@ style episode . These types of episodes were unusual for the series , as only " The Trouble with Tribbles " and " A Piece of the Action " were considered to be comedic episodes from season two . Pevney was one of the two most prolific Original Series directors alongside Marc Daniels , and directed fourteen episodes of the show . The cast responded favorably to the script . Nichelle Nichols was particularly pleased as it allowed Uhura to be a woman and took her off the bridge . It was one of her largest roles in any single episode in the series .
= = = Casting = = =
William Campbell had previously appeared in the first season episode " The Squire of Gothos " as Trelane . In " The Trouble with Tribbles " , he portrayed the Klingon Captain Koloth . It was Gene Roddenberry 's intention to bring back Koloth during the third season of The Original Series , as he felt that Kirk should have a recurring Klingon adversary . As Campbell was unavailable when the following Klingon @-@ centric episode ( " Day of the Dove " ) was filmed , the role was re @-@ written and Michael Ansara was cast instead , with the idea ultimately being dropped . Although Koloth returned in Star Trek : The Animated Series , Campbell did not voice the role . He returned to the role in 1994 for an episode of Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , entitled " Blood Oath " , where the character dies in his final battle .
At the time of casting , William Schallert had just finished filming the ABC sitcom The Patty Duke Show . He described himself not as a fan , and had not read any science fiction since 1948 . He thought that the role of Nilz Baris was just another guest spot , and the role of a " rather stuffy bureaucrat ... [ was ] not the most appealing character " . He did not remember the character 's name , only recalling it when he first attended a Star Trek convention at a hotel near Los Angeles Airport , as the fans called it out when he entered the lobby . He was later cast in the role of the Bajoran musician Varani in the DS9 episode " Sanctuary " .
Whit Bissell , who played the station manager , Lurry , was better known at the time in the main cast role of Lt. Gen. Heywood Kirk in the ABC science fiction television series The Time Tunnel . Michael Pataki , who portrayed the Klingon Korax , went on to play Karnas in Star Trek : The Next Generation first season episode " Too Short a Season " . Charlie Brill portrayed the Klingon agent Arne Darvin . Brill has previously been a sketch comedy artist with his wife Mitzi McCall , and had appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show when The Beatles made their first appearance .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
" The Trouble with Tribbles " was first broadcast in the United States on December 29 , 1967 on NBC . The initial fan reaction was undecided , but the episode connected better with the mass market . This effect was later explained in 2012 when Jordon Hoffman on StarTrek.com described the " The Trouble with Tribbles " as " quite possibly , the first episode of Star Trek you ever saw " . It entered popular culture and remained well known to the public outside of the Star Trek community .
NBC cancelled the series at the end of the season , but it was renewed after a letter writing campaign by fans . This campaign had origins in December 1967 , and was initially organised by John and Bjo Trimble . It was cancelled permanently after the third season and it went into broadcast syndication . " The Trouble With Tribbles " was remastered and was aired again in broadcast syndication on November 4 , 2006 as part of the remastered original series . It was the first time in sixteen years that the series had been syndicated in the United States , although it had been aired on cable during that period .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episodes after the end of the series . Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for The A.V. Club in July 2009 . He said that Cyrano Jones was his least favorite part of the episode , and with the exception of that character , it was one of the better scripts seen in The Original Series . He thought that despite the lack of a sense of real danger , the plot all comes together neatly and praised the story 's effects on Kirk , saying " The way the episode unfolds means Kirk 's constantly dealing with things he doesn 't really want to deal with , and there 's a surprising amount of enjoyment to be had in seeing him complain about it to Spock . " He gave the episode a grade of A. Michele Erica Green watched it for TrekNation in March 2006 . She thought that the episode would have dated , but found it was " as funny as ever " . She thought that Scotty 's lines were " unforgettable " and the scenes between McCoy and Spock were " priceless " .
Eugene Myers and Torie Atkinson reviewed it for Tor.com as part of their " tribbles week " in April 2010 . They described it as " easily the most celebrated episode of the entire original series ( if not the whole franchise ) " . They went on to describe it as a " perfect episode " , and both gave it maximum scores of six out of six . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " said that the team behind Star Trek were " at the top of their game " with this episode . He gave it a score of four out of four , saying that " ' Tribbles ' is perhaps the best , most enjoyable comic piece the franchise has ever put out . "
The New York Times described the scene with Kirk and the tribbles in the grain container as one of the " best @-@ remembered moments " of the series . Time magazine ranked " The Trouble with Tribbles " as the sixth best moment in Star Trek . IGN ranked it as the fifth best episode of The Original Series , while TechRepublic ranked it as the fourth best . The A.V. Club included " The Trouble with Tribbles " in a list of ten must @-@ see episodes , and USA Today ' listed as one of the three best . In 1998 , " The Trouble with Tribbles " was listed as the eighth best cult moment of all time by The Times newspaper . In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise , " The Trouble with Tribbles " was placed sixth by Charlie Jane Anders at io9 .
The episode was nominated for Best Dramatic Presentation at the 1968 Hugo Awards . All of the nominees that year were episodes of Star Trek , with the award instead going to " The City on the Edge of Forever " . From the number of votes , " The Trouble with Tribbles " was placed second .
= = Home media release = =
" The Trouble with Tribbles " was one of the first episodes to receive an official release by Paramount Home Entertainment . In 1980 , it was released on VHS on a two episode tape alongside " Let That Be Your Last Battlefield " . It was re @-@ released towards in 1991 as part of the first full season release on VHS . This was re @-@ released in 1993 , and was released on laserdisc . In 1998 , a " Talking Tribble Gift Set " was released which contained both " The Trouble with Tribbles and " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " on VHS . The first DVD release was in 2000 , when all of The Original Series episodes were released in individual releases of two episodes per disc . The first season set that the episode was included in was as part of the season two DVD set released in the United States on November 2 , 2004 .
In 2009 , it was included in a best of collection with three other episodes of The Original Series alongside " Amok Time " , " The City on the Edge of Forever " and " Balance of Terror " . The re @-@ mastered DVD sets were also re @-@ launched to coincide with the release of the film , Star Trek . The Blu ray release included the un @-@ changed scenes as alternative angles . Disc five of each set contained only " The Trouble with Tribbles " from The Original Series but otherwise contained tribble related extras . These included both " More Tribbles , More Troubles " and " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " .
= = Legacy = =
= = = More Tribbles , More Troubles = = =
" The Trouble with Tribbles " was originally intended to have a follow @-@ up episode during season three , but after Gene Roddenberry stepped back from the production of the show after a time @-@ slot change and further cuts in the budget , the idea was scrapped . In 1973 , Gerrold had become friends with D. C. Fontana from their time spent on the Star Trek convention circuit together . He had heard about Star Trek : The Animated Series , and offered to do an episode . Fontana responded that she wanted the tribble episode that was cut from season three . This episode was entitled " More Tribbles , More Troubles " . The episode introduces the natural predator of the tribbles and genetically engineered tribbles which no longer reproduce but instead grow much larger . As with his other Animated Series episode " Bem " , he later explained that almost nothing was cut from the original pitches for the third season of The Original Series as animation played out quicker and so everything still fit into the episode despite the reduced running time . Both of Gerrold 's Animated Series episodes were novelised by Alan Dean Foster , and Gerrold later said that he thought that he did " a fine job " .
= = = Trials and Tribble @-@ ations = = =
To celebrate the 30th anniversary of Star Trek in 1996 , producers of both Star Trek : Voyager and Star Trek : Deep Space Nine decided to incorporate elements of The Original Series into episodes . The Voyager episode " Flashback " showed events on board the Excelsior under Captain Hikaru Sulu during the period in which Kirk and McCoy were imprisoned in Rura Penthe in Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country . However , the Deep Space Nine homage used the original footage from nineteen scenes in " The Trouble with Tribbles " and other episodes in order to digitally insert the actors into the events of the episode , entitled " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " . The episode was nominated for three Emmy Awards and as with the original episode , the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation .
As the 30th anniversary approached , Gerrold had heard rumors of a tribble @-@ sequel in the works but had only heard denials from executive producer Rick Berman . Following an interview request from The New York Times , he telephoned Berman once more to ask what was happening as he didn 't want to say he didn 't know about the sequel episode and embarrass anyone if it actually was going to happen . Gerrold suggested that an acknowledgement of the creator of the tribbles might be in order and asked if he could be an extra . He was cast as a security redshirt . While Gerrold was on set , he also advised director Jonathan West on the integration of new scenes into " The Trouble with Tribbles " . Gerrold later said that " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " " turned out beautiful . I think it was the best episode of Deep Space Nine ever and possibly the best episode of Star Trek after the Original Series . " Charlie Brill returned as Arne Darvin to film new scenes set in the DS9 timeframe .
= = = Further appearances and parodies = = =
Tribbles have been further seen in other Star Trek episodes and films , including Star Trek III : The Search for Spock and the JJ Abrams @-@ helmed films Star Trek ( 2009 ) and Star Trek Into Darkness ( 2013 ) . While on a visit to the set of Star Trek , Gerrold was told by Abrams that the tribble had been deliberately " snuck in " to the scene . It appears in the scene where Kirk ( Chris Pine ) and Spock Prime ( Leonard Nimoy ) meet Scott ( Simon Pegg ) on the Vulcan moon . " The Trouble with Tribbles " was also re @-@ imagined in that timeline 's comic book series by IDW Publishing and entitled " The Truth About Tribbles " .
In 2003 , tribbles appeared in the Star Trek : Enterprise episode " The Breach " . In that episode , Doctor Phlox ( John Billingsley ) uses them as food for his medicinal pets in sickbay .
Gerrold has been in discussions with the fan @-@ created series Star Trek : New Voyages to bring back the tribbles for a further Original Series era episode . Both his Original Series pitch " The Protracted Man " and his Star Trek : The Next Generation script Blood and Fire have been turned into episodes of New Voyages .
Tribbles have been parodied in a variety of other television shows and types of media . Futurama featured a parody in the second season entitled " The Problem with Popplers " , which included several Star Trek jokes . These include a reference to " Roddenberries " and features Zapp Brannigan , whom the Futurama staff have said is intended to be a parody of Captain Kirk .
In the 2003 video game Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic , the player 's ship becomes infested with a frog @-@ like species called Gizka , prompting the player to receive the quest " The Trouble with Gizka " in order to remove the pests .
= = = Merchandising and adaptations = = =
Gerrold published a book describing his experiences in the creation of " The Trouble with Tribbles " . Entitled The Trouble with Tribbles : The Birth , Sale and Final Production of One Episode , it was published in 1973 . The book was well received by the former cast and crew of Star Trek and was used as a textbook for teaching screen @-@ writing .
A variety of tribble replicas have been made over the years , with the most recent licensed product coming from QMx , released in 2013 . A plate to commemorate the episode was the first to be launched as part of an eight plate Star Trek : The Commemorative Collection in 1986 . It featured an image of Kirk with the tribbles in the grain compartment created by artist Susie Morton . The first Original Series expansion for the Star Trek Customizable Card Game was launched in 2000 . It was entitled " The Trouble with Tribbles " and was based on this episode and the associated episode of Deep Space Nine . It also introduced the Tribbles game which used only tribble @-@ related cards .
In 2010 , two movie posters for " The Trouble with Tribbles " featuring Uhura and Spock being slowly covered in tribbles were created by Justin Ishmael for the art boutique attached to the Alamo Drafthouse Cinema in Austin , Texas . It was a follow @-@ up to earlier posters created for the episode " Space Seed " . Juan Ortiz later created a 1960s @-@ retro style poster for each of the eighty episodes of Star Trek . The " Trouble with Tribbles " poster made it appear that the warp nacelles of the Enterprise were sprouting tribbles which then bred rapidly as the ship flew on , creating a cloud of them behind the ship .
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= The Beginning of the End ( Lost ) =
" The Beginning of the End " is the fourth season premiere , and 73rd episode overall , of the American Broadcasting Company 's television drama series Lost . It was aired on ABC in the United States and CTV in Canada on January 31 , 2008 . Co @-@ creator / executive producer Damon Lindelof and executive producer Carlton Cuse wrote the premiere in late July 2007 , with most of the episode directed on location in Oahu , Hawaii , in August and September by executive producer Jack Bender . With this premiere , Jeff Pinkner no longer serves as an executive producer and staff writer . The episode was watched by 18 million Americans , bringing in the best ratings for Lost in 17 episodes . According to Metacritic , " The Beginning of the End " garnered " universal acclaim " .
The narrative takes place over 90 days after the crash of Oceanic Flight 815 , on December 23 , 2004 . The stranded crash survivors make contact with associates of Naomi Dorrit ( played by Marsha Thomason ) on a nearby freighter , but the survivors divide when they hear that those on the freighter may not be coming to rescue the survivors . Flashforwards show the post @-@ island lives of Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) and Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) . They are lying to the public about their time on the island . In flashforwards , Hurley has visions of his deceased friend Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) ; in the present , Hurley grieves over Charlie 's death on the island . Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) makes his first appearance in " The Beginning of the End " .
= = Plot = =
After being knifed in the back by John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) in the third season finale , Naomi uses her satellite phone to call George Minkowski ( Fisher Stevens ) on the freighter . Before she dies , she tells him that her injury was an accident and to give her love to her sister . Meanwhile , Hurley finds Jacob 's cabin . He looks through the window and sees an unidentified man in a rocking chair , before someone steps up to the glass , only the left eye visible . Hurley runs away , but finds the cabin again — in a different location . He squeezes his eyes shut and when he opens them , the building is gone and Locke appears .
Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) returns from the Looking Glass , bearing Charlie 's final message that the freighter offshore is not owned by Penny Widmore ( Sonya Walger ) . The survivors reunite at 815 's cockpit . Jack knocks Locke to the ground , takes his gun and pulls the trigger , but finds that the gun is not loaded because Locke had no intention of killing Jack earlier that day . Locke tells the castaways that they are in great danger and leaves for the Barracks with Hurley , James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) , Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) and her baby Aaron , Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) and her captive Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) , Alex ( Tania Raymonde ) and her boyfriend Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) , Vincent the dog ( Pono ) and four other survivors . Soon after , Jack and Kate see a helicopter and meet Daniel .
Flashforwards show that Hurley is famous as one of the " Oceanic Six " after his escape from the island and is keeping quiet about his time there . Hurley encounters an apparition of Charlie . Shocked , he speeds away in his Camaro and is apprehended by Los Angeles police . Hurley is interrogated by Ana Lucia Cortez 's ( Michelle Rodriguez ) former partner Detective " Big " Mike Walton ( Michael Cudlitz ) and he lies that he has no knowledge of Ana Lucia . Hurley , looking at the interrogation room 's mirror glass , imagines seeing Charlie swimming in water until he breaks the glass and floods the room . Hurley willingly returns to the Santa Rosa Mental Health Institution , where he is visited by Matthew Abaddon ( Lance Reddick ) , who claims to be an attorney for Oceanic Airlines . When Abaddon fails to supply a business card , he asks if they are still alive before stealthily exiting . An apparition of Charlie appears who tells Hurley that " they " need him . Finally , Hurley is visited by Jack , who is thinking of growing a beard . Jack confirms that Hurley will not reveal the Oceanic Six 's secrets . Hurley apologizes for going with Locke and insists that they return to the island , but Jack refuses ( which shows that these flashforwards occur before Jack 's flashforwards ) .
= = Production = =
During casting , fake names , occupations and scenes were temporarily assigned to limit the leak of spoilers . Lance Reddick was told that he was auditioning for the part of " Arthur Stevens " , a " ruthless corporate recruiter " , instead of Matthew Abaddon . " Matthew " and " Abaddon " were revealed as season 4 clue words in the alternate reality game Find 815 . The writers chose the character 's surname after they read the Wikipedia article on Abaddon , which states that it means " place of destruction " . The writer @-@ producers were originally interested in having Reddick play Mr. Eko during the second season , however , he was busy starring on HBO 's The Wire . Jeremy Davies was cast as Daniel because he is one of the writer @-@ producers ' favorite character actors , and they think that his " transformative quality [ and ] the tremendous intelligence that seems to emanate from him ... seemed perfect for [ the part ] " , which was originally planned to be a recurring role . When Davies met costume designer Roland Sanchez , he was wearing a thin black tie . Sanchez merged this " cool , edgy look " with his idea for the character 's clothes : a " nerdy " loosely woven dress shirt from J.Crew.
Several different titles were proposed for the episode . The ultimate title is a reference to a line in the previous episode when Ben warns Jack that contacting the freighter " is the beginning of the end " . Filming began on August 17 and ended on or just after September 7 , 2007 . Garcia felt " a little pressure " because he had the lead role in the episode , but " was really excited , too [ because it ] was a different direction for a season premiere [ that he ] felt the fans would probably dig " . In the mental institution , Hurley is seen painting a picture of an Inuit man and an igloo . This was painted by Garcia . When the episode was broadcast , Christian appeared in Jacob 's cabin ; however , the scene was shot with another Hurley inside . Additionally , when Garcia was filming his interrogation scene in an aquarium , he was unaware that Charlie would be swimming outside and breaking the glass in the finished product . Charlie 's swim was filmed weeks after the rest of the episode had been shot , alongside production of " Meet Kevin Johnson " and the Lost : Missing Pieces mobisodes in late November 2007 . The scene was filmed with stunt double Jake Kilfoyle at the Looking Glass set that was previously used for the third season episodes titled " Greatest Hits " and " Through the Looking Glass " .
Most Lost episodes feature crossovers and " Easter eggs " — intentionally hidden clues and references to the show 's mythology — and " The Beginning of the End " is no exception . Despite being dead , Christian appears for a couple of seconds in Jacob 's cabin with no dialogue . Big Mike , who appears in Ana Lucia 's flashbacks in the second season episode " Collision " , returns in Hurley 's flashforward . Randy Nations ( Billy Ray Gallion ) appears in a few seconds with no dialogue , videotaping Hurley 's arrest . When Hurley hallucinates that Charlie is swimming outside the interrogation room , Charlie has " they need you " written on his hand . This is what Charlie tells Hurley later in the episode .
Due to production of the fourth season being put on hold due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , the show runners wanted to hold the eight episodes that had been completed until they were able to make more of the season . ABC decided against this and announced that " The Beginning of the End " would be aired at the end of January 2008 , regardless of when the strike was to end . This was the first Lost episode to be aired on Thursday at 9 : 00 pm ET , a competitive and prestigious timeslot normally occupied by Grey 's Anatomy ; previous episodes had been aired on Wednesdays . Like the previous Lost season premieres , " The Beginning of the End " was scheduled for an outdoor premiere at Sunset on the Beach in Waikiki , Honolulu , where movies are regularly shown on a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 m ) screen free to the public , but it was cancelled due to the writers ' strike . The original television broadcast of the episode was immediately preceded by a clip @-@ show titled " Lost : Past , Present & Future " .
= = Reception = =
Don Williams of BuddyTV dubbed " The Beginning of the End " " the most anticipated season premiere of the year " . It was watched by approximately 16 @.@ 137 million American viewers live or within six hours with a 6 @.@ 7 / 17 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic , bringing in the best Nielsen ratings for Lost in seventeen episodes and ranking Lost eighth in the weekly charts . The episode was watched by a total of 17 @.@ 766 million viewers live or recorded and watched within seven days of broadcast and this number went toward the year @-@ end average . In Canada , " The Beginning of the End " was seen by 1 @.@ 855 million viewers , making Lost the sixth most watched program of the week . It brought in an audience almost double the size of that of the previous episode and greater than any third season episode , with the exception of the season premiere . The fourth season premiere was successful in the United Kingdom with 1 @.@ 1 million viewers . In Australia , Lost was the fifteenth most watched show of the night with 912 000 viewers , which was deemed disappointing by David Dale of The Sun @-@ Herald .
American critics were sent screener DVDs of " The Beginning of the End " and " Confirmed Dead " on January 28 , 2008 . Metacritic gave the episode a Metascore — a weighted average based on the impressions of a select twelve critical reviews — of 87 . Robert Bianco of USA Today wrote that " returning with a heart @-@ stopping , perfectly pitched episode ... Lost is an oasis in a strike @-@ parched TV desert . " Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times described " The Beginning of the End " as an " emotion @-@ churning chemical dump right in the old brain stem — horror , hysteria , regret , adrenaline and what ... will happen next ? " Adam Buckman of the New York Post gave the episode four out of four stars . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune " blissfully enjoyed every minute " and noted that " there aren 't any faults " . Diane Werts of Newsday raved the episode as " superb " and " insanely entertain [ ing ] " and concluded her review with " Lost seems to have found itself " . Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle declared that it and " Confirmed Dead " " are roller coasters of fast action and revelation [ that are ] good to see " . Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe pointed out that " Lost can still make the pulse race and the brain tingle ... [ and ] remains TV 's most gripping serial " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger was unsure " if Lost is ever going to give satisfying answers to its many , many remaining mysteries ... but when it 's as scary and hilarious and moving and exciting as these two episodes , I 'm okay with that . " In less positive reviews , Rodney Ho of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution called it " a satisfactory return episode with a fair share of drama and pathos ... [ that ] provides just enough revelations to keep fans hungry for more " and David Hinckley of the Daily News rated the episode with three stars out of a possible five .
Brian Lowry of Variety said that " Lost 's return goes down like a welcome tonic as scripted TV fades to black ... providing an unusually generous array of juicy moments for the large ( and , at times , neglected ) cast . " Mark Medley of the National Post called it " a brilliant season premiere " with multiple " jaw @-@ dropping moments " . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly felt that the premiere was mind @-@ blowing and featured good acting by Garcia . Frazier Moore of the Associated Press wrote that " Lost is further upping the ante , and heightening the pressure on us as the show 's vast mythology continues to metastasize . " Kristin Dos Santos of E ! called it " so well written , produced , acted and directed it felt like a movie " . Michael Ausiello of TV Guide described it as " easily one of the best hours of TV so far this season . " Bruce Fretts of TV Guide responded well to Reddick 's performance . Chris Carabott of IGN gave the episode 9 @.@ 1 / 10 , stating that it was " a great start to what promises to be an exciting ... season 4 . The momentum and pacing is on par with last season 's finale " . LTG of Television Without Pity graded it as an " A – " . Jon Lachonis of UGO gave the episode an " A + " , calling it " a crushingly emotional , action packed introduction ... [ which proves ] that ... Lost 's groundbreaking protean form still has plenty of blinding ways to dazzle and entertain in a way that is nonetheless unique unto itself . " Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV wrote that " the episode was pretty much a masterpiece " . Daniel of TMZ graded it as an " A " , saying that it was perfect and set up the rest of the season well .
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= HMS Indefatigable ( R10 ) =
HMS Indefatigable was an Implacable @-@ class aircraft carrier built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) during World War II . She was completed in 1944 , and her aircraft made several attacks that year against the German battleship Tirpitz , inflicting only light damage ; they also raided targets in Norway . The ship was transferred to the British Pacific Fleet ( BPF ) at the end of the year and attacked Japanese @-@ controlled oil refineries in Sumatra in January 1945 before joining the American forces in March as they prepared to invade the island of Okinawa in Operation Iceberg . Indefatigable and the BPF joined the Americans in attacking the Japanese Home Islands in July and August . Following the end of hostilities she visited ports in Australia , New Zealand and South Africa .
After returning to the UK in early 1946 , Indefatigable was modified for transport duties , and ferried troops and civilians for the rest of the year before she was reduced to reserve . She was recommissioned in 1950 as a training ship for service with the Home Fleet Training Squadron , participating in exercises and making several port visits overseas . The Board of Admiralty decided that she was redundant in early 1954 and decommissioned her later that year . Indefatigable was sold for scrap the following year .
= = Design and description = =
The Implacable class were ordered under the 1938 Naval Programme by the Chamberlain government as part of the general rearmament begun in response to the rise of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy . The design originated as an improved version of the Illustrious @-@ class aircraft carriers and was intended to be 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) faster and carry an additional dozen aircraft over the 30 @-@ knot ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) speed and 36 aircraft of the earlier ships . To remain within the 23 @,@ 000 long tons ( 23 @,@ 000 t ) limit allowed by the Second London Naval Treaty , these improvements could only be made by reducing armour protection . Indefatigable was 766 feet 6 inches ( 233 @.@ 6 m ) long overall and 730 feet ( 222 @.@ 5 m ) at the waterline . Her beam was 95 feet 9 inches ( 29 @.@ 2 m ) at the waterline , and she had a draught of 29 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . The Implacable @-@ class ships were significantly overweight and displaced 32 @,@ 110 long tons ( 32 @,@ 630 t ) at deep load . The ships had metacentric heights of 4 @.@ 06 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) at light load and 6 @.@ 91 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load as completed . Indefatigable 's complement was approximately 2 @,@ 300 officers and enlisted men in 1945 .
The ships had four Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one shaft , using steam supplied by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 148 @,@ 000 shp ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) , enough to give the Indefatigable @-@ class ships a maximum speed of 32 @.@ 5 knots ( 60 @.@ 2 km / h ; 37 @.@ 4 mph ) . On sea trials , Indefatigable reached speeds of 32 @.@ 06 knots ( 59 @.@ 38 km / h ; 36 @.@ 89 mph ) with 150 @,@ 935 shp ( 112 @,@ 552 kW ) . She carried a maximum of 4 @,@ 810 long tons ( 4 @,@ 890 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 6 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 800 km ; 7 @,@ 900 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
The 760 @-@ foot ( 231 @.@ 6 m ) armoured flight deck had a maximum width of 102 feet ( 31 @.@ 1 m ) . A single hydraulic aircraft catapult was fitted on the forward part of the flight deck . The Implacable @-@ class carriers were equipped with two lifts on the centreline , the forward of which measured 45 by 33 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 10 @.@ 1 m ) and served only the upper hangar , and the aft lift ( 45 by 22 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) ) , which served both hangars . The upper hangar was 458 feet ( 139 @.@ 6 m ) long and the lower hangar was 208 feet ( 63 @.@ 4 m ) long ; both had a maximum width of 62 feet ( 18 @.@ 9 m ) . Each hangar had a height of only 14 feet which precluded storage of Lend @-@ Lease Vought F4U Corsair fighters as well as many post @-@ war aircraft and helicopters . Designed to stow 48 aircraft in their hangars , the use of a permanent deck park allowed the Implacable class to accommodate up to 81 aircraft . The additional crewmen , maintenance personnel and facilities needed to support these aircraft were housed in the lower hangar . The ships were provided with 94 @,@ 650 imperial gallons ( 430 @,@ 300 l ; 113 @,@ 670 US gal ) of aviation gasoline .
= = = Armament , electronics and protection = = =
The ship 's main armament consisted of sixteen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 114 mm ) dual @-@ purpose guns in eight twin @-@ gun turrets , four in sponsons on each side of the hull . Unlike the Illustrious @-@ class ships , the roofs of the gun turrets were flat and flush with the flight deck . The gun had a maximum range of 20 @,@ 760 yards ( 18 @,@ 980 m ) . Indefatigable 's light anti @-@ aircraft defences included five octuple mounts for QF 2 @-@ pounder ( " pom @-@ pom " ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , two on the flight deck forward of the island , one on the aft part of the island , and two in sponsons on the port side of the hull . A single quadruple 2 @-@ pounder mount was also fitted on the port side of the hull . The 2 @-@ pounder gun had a maximum range of 6 @,@ 800 yards ( 6 @,@ 200 m ) . The ship was also fitted with 55 Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon in 17 single and 19 twin @-@ gun mounts . These guns had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 800 yards ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) , but some were replaced by 40 mm Bofors AA guns when the ships were transferred to the Pacific Theatre as the 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) shell was unlikely to destroy a kamikaze before it hit the ship . The Bofors gun had a maximum range of 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) . By August 1945 , Indefatigable had 10 single Bofors guns , plus 14 twin and 12 single Oerlikon mounts . By April 1946 these had been reduced to 11 Bofors guns , 6 twin and 7 single Oerlikon guns .
The specifics of the Implacable @-@ class ships ' radar suite are not readily available . They were fitted with the Type 277 surface @-@ search / height @-@ finding radar on top of the bridge and a Type 293 target indicator radar on the foremast . Victorious , one of the Illustrious @-@ class ships upon which Indefatigable 's design was based , also carried Type 279 and Type 281B early @-@ warning radars . Type 282 and Type 285 gunnery radars were mounted on the fire @-@ control directors .
The Implacable @-@ class ships had a flight deck protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour . The sides of the hangars were either 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) or 2 inches ( 51 mm ) . The ends of the hangars were protected by 2 @-@ inch bulkheads and the armour of the hangar deck ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 to 64 mm ) in thickness . The waterline armour belt was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , but only covered the central portion of the ship . The belt was closed by 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft . The underwater defence system was a layered system of liquid- and air @-@ filled compartments as used in the Illustrious class . The magazines for the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns lay outside the armoured citadel and were protected by 2 to 3 @-@ inch roofs , 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch sides and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @-@ inch ends .
= = Construction and career = =
Indefatigable was laid down by John Brown & Co. at their shipyard in Clydebank on 3 November 1939 as Yard Number 565 . She was launched on 8 December 1942 by Victoria of Hesse , Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven . Captain Quentin Graham was appointed to command the ship in August 1943 . While fitting out , in order to confound the enemy , a ruse known as Operation Bijou , initiated by London Controlling Section , was launched whereby it was made known that Indefatigable had already entered service . Ultra decrypts revealed that the Japanese believed the deception , with operatives including Malcolm Muggeridge and Peter Fleming supplying disinformation for more than a year , sufficient to make the enemy believe the vessel had gone to the Far East and returned to the Clyde for a refit , by which time she was actually finished .
The ship was commissioned on 8 December 1943 and began sea trials , which revealed many problems that required rectification and delayed her formal completion until 3 May 1944 . While Indefatigable was still conducting builder 's trials , a de Havilland Mosquito landed aboard on 25 March , piloted by Lieutenant Eric Brown . This was the first landing by a twin @-@ engined aeroplane on a carrier . The ship was assigned to the Home Fleet and was working up over the next several months while the Fairey Fireflies of 1770 Squadron flew aboard on 18 May . The squadron was followed by the Fairey Barracuda torpedo bombers of 826 Squadron in June .
= = = Norwegian operations = = =
Indefatigable 's first mission was a brief sortie on 1 July 1944 to provide air cover for the ocean liner RMS Queen Elizabeth that was ferrying American troops to Britain . Upon her return , Indefatigable embarked the Supermarine Seafire fighters of 887 Squadron and the Barracudas of 820 Squadron , completing No. 9 Naval Torpedo @-@ Bomber Reconnaissance Wing , over the next week . Her first combat mission was an attack on the battleship Tirpitz in Kaafjord on 17 July with two other Home Fleet carriers ( Operation Mascot ) . She contributed 23 Barracudas and 12 Fireflies to the mission ; the former attacked the battleship while the Fireflies strafed the flak positions defending her . A smoke screen prevented most of the Barracudas from seeing their target and they failed to hit Tirpitz . One Barracuda was forced to ditch near the carrier and its crew was rescued by the destroyer Verulam .
894 Squadron , equipped with Seafires , landed aboard after the attack on 24 July to complete No. 24 Naval Fighter Wing . Indefatigable and several escort carriers attacked targets in Norway on 10 August , destroying 6 Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters and sinking a minesweeper . For Operation Goodwood , a series of attacks on Tirpitz , the Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters of 1840 Squadron replaced the Barracudas of 826 Squadron . The first mission took place on the morning of 22 August when Indefatigable launched 12 Barracudas , 11 Fireflies , 8 Hellcats , and 8 Seafires against the German battleship and nearby targets . A smoke screen again protected Tirpitz and no damage was inflicted ; two Seafires failed to return . Another attack was made later in the day without effect . A further attack could not be mounted until 24 August because of bad weather ; for this mission the carrier contributed 12 Barracudas , 11 Fireflies and 4 Seafires , all of which returned . Tirpitz was lightly damaged by two hits during this attack , one a 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb and the other a 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armour @-@ piercing bomb . The latter penetrated the armoured deck but failed to explode and would probably have inflicted serious damage , possibly even sinking the ship , had it done so . A final attack was made five days later , again without effect . 887 Squadron sank seven seaplanes at their moorings at Banak during the operation .
= = = Indian Ocean and Pacific operations = = =
On 19 September 1944 , Indefatigable sortied from Scapa Flow to attack targets near Tromsø , but the operation was cancelled because of bad weather . The ship underwent a brief refit at her builder 's yard between 28 September and 8 November . She became the flagship of the 1st Aircraft Carrier Squadron ( 1st ACS ) when Rear Admiral Sir Philip Vian hoisted his flag on 15 November . The following day , King George VI inspected the ship ; the ground crews later embarked for 820 , 887 , 894 and 1770 Squadrons . Their aircraft , 40 Seafires , 12 Fireflies , and 21 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers , followed on 19 November , and she sailed for the Far East to join the British Pacific Fleet . Indefatigable arrived at Colombo , Ceylon , on 10 December and Vian transferred his flag to Indomitable .
Together with Victorious and Indomitable , Indefatigable attacked an oil refinery at Pangkalan Brandan , Sumatra on 4 January 1945 ( Operation Lentil ) . She embarked six photoreconnaissance Hellcats of 888 Squadron for the attack ; her only contribution to the attack itself was the Fireflies of 1770 Squadron , which used RP @-@ 3 rocket projectiles on their targets . The squadron claimed to have shot down a Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 " Oscar " , for the loss of a Firefly that ran out of fuel and had to ditch next to the ship . After Indefatigable 's return , Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten , Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Command , addressed the crew on 11 January . En route to Sydney to prepare for operations in the Pacific , the BPF 's carriers attacked oil refineries near Palembang , Sumatra , on 24 and 29 January ( Operation Meridian ) . The ship 's Seafires lacked the range to reach the targets so they were retained on combat air patrols ( CAP ) over the fleet for both attacks . She contributed 10 of her Avengers and all of her Fireflies to the first attack , which destroyed most of the oil storage tanks and cut the refinery 's output by half for three months . Five days later , the BPF attacked a different refinery and 820 Squadron again contributed 10 Avengers to the attack while 1770 Squadron added 9 Fireflies . The latter squadron also flew 2 Fireflies on an armed reconnaissance mission over an airfield that lay between the carriers and their target . The attack was very successful at heavy cost , but the losses of Indefatigable 's squadrons are not available . Her Seafires shot down a Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 46 " Dinah " reconnaissance aircraft searching for the fleet and 5 Kawasaki Ki @-@ 48 " Lily " bombers that attacked at low level .
The BPF arrived in Sydney on 10 February ; the crews received leave and the ships got some maintenance before they sailed for the BPF 's advance base at Manus Island , in the Admiralty Islands , on 27 February . They arrived on 7 March and exercised together before sailing for Ulithi on 18 March . The BPF joined the American Fifth Fleet there two days later to participate in the preliminary operations for the invasion of Okinawa . The British role during the operation was to neutralise airfields on the Sakishima Islands , between Okinawa and Formosa , beginning on 26 March . Her Seafires were again retained to defend the fleet and only her Avengers and Fireflies attacked the airfields . Her Seafire squadrons lacked 13 of their authorised strength of 50 pilots and could not sustain the pace of the first day of operations , when they flew 72 sorties . After a break at the end of the month to refuel , Indefatigable became the first British carrier to be hit by a kamikaze the day after flying operations resumed , when one of the Japanese planes evaded the CAP and struck the base of the carrier 's island on 1 April . The bomb it carried did not detonate and this limited casualties to 21 men killed and 27 wounded . Damage to the ship was minimal and the flight deck was back in operation thirty minutes later . On 12 and 13 April , the BPF switched targets to airfields in northern Formosa . On the first day , a pair of Fireflies encountered five Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 51 " Sonia " dive bombers and shot down four of them . A flight of four Seafires on CAP spotted four Japanese fighters , three Mitsubishi A6M Zeroes and a Kawasaki Ki @-@ 61 " Tony " later that morning , and shot down one Zero . The BPF returned to the Sakishima Islands on 17 April before retiring to Leyte Gulf to rest and resupply . Wastage of Seafires to all causes was very heavy during the operation with 25 out of 40 lost or damaged beyond repair and only 5 replacements received . Their short range and lack of endurance was considered by Vian to be a severe handicap for the BPF , which returned to action on 4 May and again attacked targets in the Sakishima Islands . Its aircraft continued to do so until they flew their last missions of Operation Iceberg on 25 May . Statistics complied by the BPF staff showed that 61 Seafires were lost or damaged beyond repair during both phases of the operation due to deck @-@ landing accidents .
The BPF arrived back at Sydney on 5 June and sailed for Manus three weeks later . Indefatigable was forced to remain behind as she required repairs to her machinery . Her air group flew aboard on 7 July ( 1772 Squadron and its Fireflies replacing 1770 Squadron ) when she sailed for Manus . She reached the coast of Japan on 20 July and her aircraft began attacking targets near Osaka and in the Inland Sea four days later . Her Seafire squadrons had adapted larger external fuel tanks for their aircraft and they were no longer limited to CAP duty . The BPF 's aircraft crippled the escort carrier Kaiyo and sank numerous smaller ships on 24 July . After replenishing , airstrikes resumed on 28 and 30 July , the British sinking the escort Okinawa near Maizuru . A combination of bad weather , refuelling requirements and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima delayed the resumption of air operations until 9 August . During the day , Indefatigable 's aircraft attacked targets in northern Honshu and southern Hokkaido . The attacks were repeated the next day , sinking two warships and numerous small merchantmen and destroying numerous railroad locomotives and parked aircraft .
The BPF had been scheduled to withdraw after 10 August to prepare for Operation Olympic , the invasion of Kyushu scheduled for November , and the bulk of the force departed for Manus on 12 August . Indefatigable , however , had been chosen to remain as part of the Allied occupation force . The next day her aircraft attacked targets in the vicinity of Tokyo . Flight operations resumed on the morning of the 15th after an operational pause to refuel . The first airstrike was tasked to attack Kisarazu Air Field with four Fireflies and six Avengers , escorted by eight Seafires , but was forced to divert to its secondary target because of bad weather . En route they were attacked by a dozen Zeros in the last British air combat of the war . The Japanese fighters shot down one Seafire on their first pass and crippled an Avenger . The Seafires claimed four Zeros shot down , four others probably shot down , and another four damaged . An Avenger also claimed one Zero as damaged . A Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bomber attacked the carrier after the ceasefire went into effect , but its two bombs missed . After the ceasefire , Indefatigable 's aircraft continued to fly CAP and flew reconnaissance missions looking for Allied prisoners of war , dropping supplies to them as they were located .
= = = Post @-@ war service = = =
On 17 August 1945 , Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser , commander of the BPF , came aboard and addressed the crew . Indefatigable continued flying operations until she entered Sagami Bay on 5 September . She departed three days later for Manus en route to Sydney . The ship arrived at Sydney on 18 September and began a leisurely refit that lasted until 15 November . On 1 November , Captain Ian MacIntyre relieved Graham as captain of the ship . She became Vian 's flagship on 22 November and sailed to New Zealand to show the flag . She arrived in Wellington on 27 November and was opened for public tours , during which time the Prime Minister , Peter Fraser , also visited . Indefatigable then sailed to Auckland , arriving on 12 December , and was again opened for tours . She returned to Sydney for the holidays and visited Melbourne on 22 January 1946 before departing for home nine days later . Vian transferred his flag to her sister ship Implacable that day and the ship stopped off at Fremantle and Cape Town en route . While Indefatigable was visiting the latter city , she was opened to the public , and the Governor @-@ General of South Africa toured the ship .
The carrier arrived at Portsmouth Dockyard on 16 March 1946 . Her hangars were modified to accommodate over 1 @,@ 900 passengers , including women , and she departed for Australia on 25 April carrying 782 RN personnel and 130 Australian war brides . Most of the RN personnel disembarked at Colombo and most of the war brides did the same at Fremantle . Indefatigable continued on to Sydney , where she embarked a complete naval hospital , with patients , and over 1 @,@ 000 RN officers and ratings . She departed on 9 June and arrived at Plymouth on 7 July . Her next voyage involved transporting a much smaller number of men to Malta and Colombo ; only 47 officers and 67 ratings , most of whom left the ship at Malta . When she arrived at Colombo on 15 August , she loaded a full complement of passengers from all three services to return to the UK . The ship arrived at Portsmouth on 9 September and her next voyage involved over 1 @,@ 200 RN personnel and civilians ferried to Malta , Colombo , and Singapore where almost 1 @,@ 300 personnel embarked . She returned to Portsmouth on 29 November and began a brief refit in preparation for her final trooping voyage . Indefatigable sailed empty for Norfolk , Virginia , where she loaded RN personnel before returning to Portsmouth on 21 November . The next month , she was placed in reserve and Captain MacIntyre retired on 7 January 1947 .
The Admiralty decided to recommission Indefatigable for use as a training ship in mid @-@ 1949 . Captain Henry Fancourt assumed command on 22 August to prepare for sea . The ship arrived at Devonport to begin the necessary modifications on 30 August and the following day Fancourt turned over command to the dockyard . Captain John Grindle was appointed to command on 24 March 1950 and the ship was recommissioned on 28 May . Two days later Captain Robert Sherbrooke , VC , relieved Grindle and Indefatigable began her sea trials on 28 June . She was inspected by Rear Admiral St John Micklethwaithe , Flag Officer Training Squadron , on 3 July and received her first trainees shortly afterwards . She participated in exercises with the Home Fleet and joined it in Gibraltar in September and October . On 12 March 1951 she sortied from Portland , flying Micklethwaite 's flag , to exercise with the Home Fleet before beginning a brief refit at Devonport in May . Captain John Grant relieved Sherbrooke on 6 June and the ship was opened to visitors as part of the Festival of Britain on 17 July . Five days later the visitors were stranded aboard ship overnight when a storm came up and forced Indefatigable to put to sea . The seas moderated the next day and the visitors departed in safety . Rear Admiral Royer Dick hoisted his flag aboard the carrier in September until she began a short refit at Devonport in January 1952 .
Indefatigable joined Implacable for her annual winter visit to Gibraltar after completing her refit in February 1952 . Over the summer she exercised with the Home Fleet and visited the Danish port of Aarhus , where she was visited by Queen Alexandrine of Denmark in July . Captain Ralph Fisher assumed command on 30 January 1953 and took her to sea three weeks later for exercises with the Home Fleet and her annual visit to Gibraltar . She returned to Portland in late March and visited Bournemouth at the end of May . She joined her sister and several other carriers on 9 June to sail for Spithead for the Coronation Fleet Review of Queen Elizabeth II on 15 June as one of a fleet of nine carriers . Indefatigable joined her sister for fleet exercises off the Scilly Isles and in the Bristol Channel in September and October before beginning her annual refit on 6 October . The Admiralty announced on 26 January 1954 that both ships would be replaced as training ships and reduced to reserve . This had no short @-@ term impact on their activities as they sailed for the Western Mediterranean on their annual winter cruise . The ship exercised with the Home Fleet and made a port visit to Casablanca , Morocco , before visiting Gibraltar . Captain Hugh Browne assumed command on 10 May after Fisher had been promoted . The ship welcomed home Queen Elizabeth II and her husband four days later as they returned from their tour of the Commonwealth . The following month , Indefatigable exercised with the Home Fleet in Scottish waters and visited Aarhus again . In August she began transferring her training duties to the carrier Ocean and arrived at Rosyth on 2 September to be paid off , a process that took until the following month to complete . She was towed to Gareloch in June 1955 where she was listed for disposal . Indefatigable was sold for scrap in September 1956 and subsequently broken up at Faslane .
= = Squadrons embarked = =
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= Jesper Blomqvist =
Lars Jesper Blomqvist ( born 5 February 1974 ) is a Swedish former footballer who played as a left winger .
Most recently he was the playing assistant manager of Superettan side Hammarby from December 2009 to November 2010 . He played at IFK Göteborg , where he won four straight Allsvenskan league titles between 1993 and 1996 , and Manchester United , where he was part of the team that won the treble in 1999 , consisting of the Premier League , FA Cup and UEFA Champions League . He returned to Swedish football in 2003 with Djurgården , where he won his final Allsvenskan title , before initially retiring in 2005 . An injury crisis prompted a playing return for Enköping in 2008 . Blomqvist has made 30 international appearances for Sweden and helped them to third place at the 1994 FIFA World Cup in the United States .
= = Club career = =
= = = Swedish football = = =
After an early spell at Tavelsjö IK , Blomqvist signed for then recently formed Umeå FC in 1992 . In the spring portion of his first season for the club , he helped them to the Division 2 Norra Norrland title , promoting the club to Division 1 Norra for the autumn . At the time this was the second tier of Swedish football . Subsequently , he signed for IFK Göteborg on 11 September 1993 . Blomqvist played a part in the club 's Allsvenskan win that year . He scored eight goals in 24 league appearances en route to the league title in 1994 . Furthermore , he played a part in Sweden 's advance to the semi finals of the World Cup and scored in the club 's 3 – 1 win over Manchester United in the Champions League , knocking them out of the competition . This performance caught the eye of United manager Alex Ferguson and helped the team qualify for the quarter @-@ finals of the tournament . Another title followed in 1995 , with Blomqvist 's goal against Helsingborgs IF , when he performed a variant of the Pelé runaround move , voted goal of the season . In his last season for Göteborg , he played against former club Umeå , who had reached the Allsvenskan for the first time in their history . In 1996 , Blomqvist was voted Fan 's Player of the Year and Midfielder of the Year . At the end of the 1996 season , he signed for newly crowned Serie A champions Milan .
= = = Serie A = = =
In his first season of Italian football , Milan failed to win a trophy , and Blomqvist often sat on the bench . He nearly decided against going to Old Trafford because he did not want a repeat of this season . The defending champions had an equally disappointing season , finishing 11th in Serie A and failing to qualify for European football . Blomqvist was subsequently sold to Serie A runners up Parma in the summer of 1997 . Blomqvist enjoyed more regular football , although the club finished 6th in the league and missed out on the knockout stages of the Champions League . The Swede 's sole league goal for the club was scored in a 4 – 0 win over Napoli at Stadio San Paolo .
= = = Premier League = = =
Manchester United purchased Blomqvist as a backup to Ryan Giggs in 1998 , for a fee of £ 4 @.@ 4 million . He featured in enough games to win a Premier League winner 's medal in the 1999 season , scoring his only goal for the club in a 4 – 1 away win against Everton . He received an FA Cup winners medal despite being an unused substitute in the final . He did , however , start against Bayern Munich in the Champions League final . He came close to scoring before eventually being replaced by Teddy Sheringham , who later scored , equalising the match after Bayern 's early goal . United went on to win the match 2 – 1 . He lost his Champions League medal in the celebrations but found it again before leaving Barcelona .
Due to a serious knee injury , Blomqvist did not play football in the next two seasons , which resulted in Manchester United deciding not to renew his contract ( During his time out , due to this injury , he did media work for MUTV , United 's in @-@ house television channel , and presented his own cookery show called " Cooking With Jesper " ) . Nonetheless , Ferguson persuaded Everton manager Walter Smith to offer the Swedish international a short term contract at Goodison Park , from November 2001 until the end of the season . Blomqvist played on the wings alongside compatriot Niclas Alexandersson , and scored his first goal for Everton against Sunderland in January 2002 . Injury problems persisted , however , and new manager David Moyes allowed him to leave the club in June 2002 . He had a trial at Middlesbrough , but was unhappy with the club 's handling of the situation , labelling it " a bit unprofessional " . Instead he signed for Alan Curbishley 's Charlton Athletic on a free transfer , for whom he made three league appearances .
= = = Return to Sweden = = =
Again struggling with injury , Blomqvist returned to his native Sweden after only four games with Charlton . He signed on a short term deal with Djurgårdens IF . This proved unpopular among supporters of IFK Göteborg , who labelled him " Judas " . Göteborg fans considered the decision to join Djurgården instead of them a betrayal . Blomqvist played a part as the side became Swedish champions that year . Injury problems , however , restricted him to only nine league appearances . As during the stint with Manchester United , he remained at the club for another two seasons , before finally deciding to retire due to injury in 2005 .
Blomqvist joined Enköpings SK as a coach in 2008 and went on to make a playing return in the Superettan , the second tier of Swedish football . Ironically , a shortage of players at the club due to injury forced Blomqvist 's playing return . The player shortage was highlighted when Blomqvist was sent off in his second game for the club . This resulted in a suspension for Blomqvist , and Enköping only having fifteen players available for the following match . On 15 September 2008 , he scored his first professional goal in five years in a 1 – 0 win against IK Sirius . In total , he made 10 Superettan appearances , but was unable to save Enköping from relegation to Division 1 for the 2009 season . He left Enköping after the season and later signed a contract with newly relegated Hammarby IF as assistant manager to Michael Borgqvist .
In 2010 Blomqvist played again , coming on as a substitute in the 85th minute for Hammarby against Trelleborg FF in the Swedish Cup , being one of very few coaches actually playing a game for their team . After a rough period at the club , he left Hammarby in a mutual consent in November 2010 .
In 2012 , Blomqvist effectively retired as a footballer by focusing on his civilian career . He did this by initiating studies in commerce .
= = International career = =
Blomqvist was part of the bronze medal @-@ winning Swedish national team at the 1994 FIFA World Cup . He gained his first international cap against Colombia in 1994 . His only World Cup match in the starting eleven came against Cameroon , although he also replaced Henrik Larsson in the second half of a draw against eventual champions Brazil . Each member of the squad was awarded a Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal in recognition of their third place in the tournament . Blomqvist was also considered for the 2002 FIFA World Cup squad . In total , Blomqvist has made 30 appearances for his country , without scoring .
= = Personal life = =
Blomqvist was born and raised in Tavelsjö , in the Umeå Municipality of Sweden . He currently resides in Sweden , although he has also purchased property in Croatia . After officially retiring in 2005 , he became a pundit ( football expert ) for Swedish television station TV4 . Blomqvist was the victim of an assault during a visit to his hometown Umeå in September 2006 , when he was struck twice across the face . His attacker was prosecuted for the incident .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Umeå
Division 2 Norra Norrland ( 1 ) : 1992
IFK Göteborg
Allsvenskan ( 4 ) : 1993 , 1994 , 1995 , 1996
Manchester United
Premier League ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99
UEFA Champions League ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99
Djurgården
Allsvenskan ( 1 ) : 2003
= = = Country = = =
FIFA World Cup
Third place ( 1 ) : 1994
= = = Individual = = =
Årets komet ( 1 ) : 1994
Swedish Goal of the Year ( 1 ) : 1995
Folkets lirare ( 1 ) : 1996
Swedish Midfielder of the Year ( 1 ) : 1996
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= Francium =
Francium is a chemical element with symbol Fr and atomic number 87 . It used to be known as eka @-@ caesium and actinium K. It is the second @-@ least electronegative element , behind only caesium . Francium is a highly radioactive metal that decays into astatine , radium , and radon . As an alkali metal , it has one valence electron .
Bulk francium has never been viewed . Because of the general appearance of the other elements in its periodic table column , it is assumed that francium would appear as a highly reflective metal , if enough could be collected together to be viewed as a bulk solid or liquid . Obtaining such a sample is highly improbable , since the extreme heat of decay ( the half @-@ life of its longest @-@ lived isotope is only 22 minutes ) would immediately vaporize any viewable quantity of the element .
Francium was discovered by Marguerite Perey in France ( from which the element takes its name ) in 1939 . It was the last element first discovered in nature , rather than by synthesis . Outside the laboratory , francium is extremely rare , with trace amounts found in uranium and thorium ores , where the isotope francium @-@ 223 continually forms and decays . As little as 20 – 30 g ( one ounce ) exists at any given time throughout the Earth 's crust ; the other isotopes ( except for francium @-@ 221 ) are entirely synthetic . The largest amount produced in the laboratory was a cluster of more than 300 @,@ 000 atoms .
= = Characteristics = =
Francium is the most unstable of the naturally occurring elements : its most stable isotope , francium @-@ 223 , has a half @-@ life of only 22 minutes . In contrast , astatine , the second @-@ least stable naturally occurring element , has a half @-@ life of 8 @.@ 5 hours . All isotopes of francium decay into astatine , radium , or radon . Francium is also less stable than all synthetic elements up to element 105 , dubnium .
Francium is an alkali metal whose chemical properties mostly resemble those of caesium . A heavy element with a single valence electron , it has the highest equivalent weight of any element . Liquid francium — if created — should have a surface tension of 0 @.@ 05092 N / m at its melting point . Francium 's melting point was calculated to be around 27 ° C ( 80 ° F , 300 K ) . The melting point is uncertain because of the element 's extreme rarity and radioactivity . Thus , the estimated boiling point value of 677 ° C ( 1250 ° F , 950 K ) is also uncertain .
Linus Pauling estimated the electronegativity of francium at 0 @.@ 7 on the Pauling scale , the same as caesium ; the value for caesium has since been refined to 0 @.@ 79 , but there are no experimental data to allow a refinement of the value for francium . Francium has a slightly higher ionization energy than caesium , 392 @.@ 811 ( 4 ) kJ / mol as opposed to 375 @.@ 7041 ( 2 ) kJ / mol for caesium , as would be expected from relativistic effects , and this would imply that caesium is the less electronegative of the two . Francium should also have a higher electron affinity than caesium and the Fr − ion should be more polarizable than the Cs − ion . The CsFr molecule is predicted to have francium at the negative end of the dipole , unlike all known heterodiatomic alkali metal molecules . Francium superoxide ( FrO2 ) is expected to have a more covalent character than its lighter congeners ; this is attributed to the 6p electrons in francium being more involved in the francium – oxygen bonding .
Francium coprecipitates with several caesium salts , such as caesium perchlorate , which results in small amounts of francium perchlorate . This coprecipitation can be used to isolate francium , by adapting the radiocaesium coprecipitation method of Glendenin and Nelson . It will additionally coprecipitate with many other caesium salts , including the iodate , the picrate , the tartrate ( also rubidium tartrate ) , the chloroplatinate , and the silicotungstate . It also coprecipitates with silicotungstic acid , and with perchloric acid , without another alkali metal as a carrier , which provides other methods of separation . Nearly all francium salts are water @-@ soluble .
= = Isotopes = =
There are 34 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic mass from 199 to 232 . Francium has seven metastable nuclear isomers . Francium @-@ 223 and francium @-@ 221 are the only isotopes that occur in nature , though the former is far more common .
Francium @-@ 223 is the most stable isotope , with a half @-@ life of 21 @.@ 8 minutes , and it is highly unlikely that an isotope of francium with a longer half @-@ life will ever be discovered or synthesized . Francium @-@ 223 is the fifth product of the actinium decay series as the daughter isotope of actinium @-@ 227 . Francium @-@ 223 then decays into radium @-@ 223 by beta decay ( 1149 keV decay energy ) , with a minor ( 0 @.@ 006 % ) alpha decay path to astatine @-@ 219 ( 5 @.@ 4 MeV decay energy ) .
Francium @-@ 221 has a half @-@ life of 4 @.@ 8 minutes . It is the ninth product of the neptunium decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium @-@ 225 . Francium @-@ 221 then decays into astatine @-@ 217 by alpha decay ( 6 @.@ 457 MeV decay energy ) .
The least stable ground state isotope is francium @-@ 215 , with a half @-@ life of 0 @.@ 12 μs . ( 9 @.@ 54 MeV alpha decay to astatine @-@ 211 ) : Its metastable isomer , francium @-@ 215m , is less stable still , with a half @-@ life of only 3 @.@ 5 ns .
= = Applications = =
Due to its instability and rarity , there are no commercial applications for francium . It has been used for research purposes in the fields of chemistry and of atomic structure . Its use as a potential diagnostic aid for various cancers has also been explored , but this application has been deemed impractical .
Francium 's ability to be synthesized , trapped , and cooled , along with its relatively simple atomic structure have made it the subject of specialized spectroscopy experiments . These experiments have led to more specific information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles . Studies on the light emitted by laser @-@ trapped francium @-@ 210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels which are fairly similar to those predicted by quantum theory .
= = History = =
As early as 1870 , chemists thought that there should be an alkali metal beyond caesium , with an atomic number of 87 . It was then referred to by the provisional name eka @-@ caesium . Research teams attempted to locate and isolate this missing element , and at least four false claims were made that the element had been found before an authentic discovery was made .
= = = Erroneous and incomplete discoveries = = =
Soviet chemist D. K. Dobroserdov was the first scientist to claim to have found eka @-@ caesium , or francium . In 1925 , he observed weak radioactivity in a sample of potassium , another alkali metal , and incorrectly concluded that eka @-@ caesium was contaminating the sample ( the radioactivity from the sample was from the naturally occurring potassium radioisotope , potassium @-@ 40 ) . He then published a thesis on his predictions of the properties of eka @-@ caesium , in which he named the element russium after his home country . Shortly thereafter , Dobroserdov began to focus on his teaching career at the Polytechnic Institute of Odessa , and he did not pursue the element further .
The following year , English chemists Gerald J. F. Druce and Frederick H. Loring analyzed X @-@ ray photographs of manganese ( II ) sulfate . They observed spectral lines which they presumed to be of eka @-@ caesium . They announced their discovery of element 87 and proposed the name alkalinium , as it would be the heaviest alkali metal .
In 1930 , Fred Allison of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute claimed to have discovered element 87 when analyzing pollucite and lepidolite using his magneto @-@ optical machine . Allison requested that it be named virginium after his home state of Virginia , along with the symbols Vi and Vm . In 1934 , H.G. MacPherson of UC Berkeley disproved the effectiveness of Allison 's device and the validity of this false discovery .
In 1936 , Romanian physicist Horia Hulubei and his French colleague Yvette Cauchois also analyzed pollucite , this time using their high @-@ resolution X @-@ ray apparatus . They observed several weak emission lines , which they presumed to be those of element 87 . Hulubei and Cauchois reported their discovery and proposed the name moldavium , along with the symbol Ml , after Moldavia , the Romanian province where Hulubei was born . In 1937 , Hulubei 's work was criticized by American physicist F. H. Hirsh Jr . , who rejected Hulubei 's research methods . Hirsh was certain that eka @-@ caesium would not be found in nature , and that Hulubei had instead observed mercury or bismuth X @-@ ray lines . Hulubei insisted that his X @-@ ray apparatus and methods were too accurate to make such a mistake . Because of this , Jean Baptiste Perrin , Nobel Prize winner and Hulubei 's mentor , endorsed moldavium as the true eka @-@ caesium over Marguerite Perey 's recently discovered francium . Perey took pains to be accurate and detailed in her criticism of Hulubei 's work , and finally she was credited as the sole discoverer of element 87 . All other previous purported discoveries of element 87 were ruled out due to francium 's very limited half @-@ life .
= = = Perey 's analysis = = =
Eka @-@ caesium was discovered in 1939 by Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris , when she purified a sample of actinium @-@ 227 which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 keV . Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV . Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product , one which was separated during purification , but emerged again out of the pure actinium @-@ 227 . Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being thorium , radium , lead , bismuth , or thallium . The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal ( such as coprecipitating with caesium salts ) , which led Perey to believe that it was element 87 , caused by the alpha decay of actinium @-@ 227 . Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in actinium @-@ 227 . Her first test put the alpha branching at 0 @.@ 6 % , a figure which she later revised to 1 % .
Perey named the new isotope actinium @-@ K ( it is now referred to as francium @-@ 223 ) and in 1946 , she proposed the name catium for her newly discovered element , as she believed it to be the most electropositive cation of the elements . Irène Joliot @-@ Curie , one of Perey 's supervisors , opposed the name due to its connotation of cat rather than cation . Perey then suggested francium , after France . This name was officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1949 , becoming the second element after gallium to be named after France . It was assigned the symbol Fa , but this abbreviation was revised to the current Fr shortly thereafter . Francium was the last element discovered in nature , rather than synthesized , following rhenium in 1925 . Further research into francium 's structure was carried out by , among others , Sylvain Lieberman and his team at CERN in the 1970s and 1980s .
= = Occurrence = =
= = = Natural = = =
223Fr is the result of the alpha decay of 227Ac and can be found in trace amounts in uranium and thorium minerals . In a given sample of uranium , there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1 × 1018 uranium atoms . It is also calculated that there is at most 30 g of francium in the Earth 's crust at any given time .
= = = Synthesis = = =
Francium can be synthesized in the nuclear reaction :
197Au + 18O → 210Fr + 5 n
This process , developed by Stony Brook Physics , yields francium isotopes with masses of 209 , 210 , and 211 , which are then isolated by the magneto @-@ optical trap ( MOT ) . The production rate of a particular isotope depends on the energy of the oxygen beam . An 18O beam from the Stony Brook LINAC creates 210Fr in the gold target with the nuclear reaction 197Au + 18O → 210Fr + 5n . The production required some time to develop and understand . It was critical to operate the gold target very close to its melting point and to make sure that its surface was very clean . The nuclear reaction embeds the francium atoms deep in the gold target , and they must be removed efficiently . The atoms quickly diffuse to the surface of the gold target and are released as ions , but this does not happen every time . The francium ions are guided by electrostatic lenses until they land in a surface of hot yttrium and become neutral again . The francium is then injected into a glass bulb . A magnetic field and laser beams cool and confine the atoms . Although the atoms remain in the trap for only about 20 seconds before escaping ( or decaying ) , a steady stream of fresh atoms replaces those lost , keeping the number of trapped atoms roughly constant for minutes or longer . Initially , about 1000 francium atoms were trapped in the experiment . This was gradually improved and the setup is capable of trapping over 300 @,@ 000 neutral atoms of francium a time . These are neutral metallic atoms in a gaseous unconsolidated state . Enough francium is trapped that a video camera can capture the light given off by the atoms as they fluoresce . The atoms appear as a glowing sphere about 1 millimeter in diameter . This was the first time that anyone had ever seen francium . The researchers can now make extremely sensitive measurements of the light emitted and absorbed by the trapped atoms , providing the first experimental results on various transitions between atomic energy levels in francium . Initial measurements show very good agreement between experimental values and calculations based on quantum theory . Other synthesis methods include bombarding radium with neutrons , and bombarding thorium with protons , deuterons , or helium ions . Francium has not been synthesized in amounts large enough to weigh .
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= James Dudley =
James Dudley ( May 12 , 1910 – June 1 , 2004 ) was an American baseball player , professional wrestling manager , and professional wrestling executive . He played Negro league baseball for nine years but is best known for his time with the World Wide Wrestling Federation . Dudley was the first African @-@ American to run a major United States arena ( Turner 's Arena in Washington , D.C. ) . He worked with four generations of wrestling 's McMahon family and was particularly close with Vincent J. McMahon . At age 74 , he was put back on the company 's payroll to show appreciation for his work for the McMahons . He also managed several wrestlers in the WWWF and was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame in 1994 .
= = Career = =
= = = Baseball = = =
Dudley was considered an " excellent athlete " and ran the 100 yard dash in under ten seconds on multiple occasions . Although he showed up for the trials for the 1924 United States Olympic team , he was not allowed to participate because African Americans were not permitted on the team . After playing semi @-@ professional baseball in Baltimore , Maryland , Dudley signed with the Baltimore Elite Giants at age 27 . Nicknamed " Big Train " , he played catcher but started out helping pitchers warm up in the bullpen . Playing alongside two other talented catchers , Roy Campanella and Eggie Clarke , Dudley 's playing time was limited . He remained with the Elite Giants until leaving professional baseball in 1945 . In total , he played about 60 games in the Negro leagues .
= = = Professional wrestling = = =
James Dudley began working for Jess McMahon in the 1950s , when McMahon was a co @-@ owner of the Capitol Wrestling Corporation . When McMahon and his partners broke away from the National Wrestling Alliance to form the World Wide Wrestling Federation ( WWWF ) in 1963 , Dudley continued to work for McMahon . Dudley performed many different jobs , from carrying buckets of waters to counting ticket sales . Dudley was a close friend of Vincent J. McMahon and continued working for the family when the younger McMahon took over the business from his father ; in particular , he drove McMahon 's limousine and served as his bodyguard . He has said that he thought of McMahon as a father figure . McMahon later increased Dudley 's responsibilities with the company several times , and eventually assigned him to manage Turner 's Arena in Washington , D.C. , which made Dudley the first African @-@ American to hold such a position in the United States . His role required him to oversee several other events , including the Town and Country Jamboree television show .
Dudley also managed several wrestlers , including Bobo Brazil . Prior to Brazil 's matches , Dudley excited the crowds by waving a towel while running to the ring . Over time , Dudley 's role with the company diminished and he ceased working for them ; the company 's operations were moved to Connecticut , and Turner 's Arena was demolished . Shortly before McMahon 's death in 1984 , he told his son , Vincent K. McMahon , who had taken over control of the promotion ( then known as the WWF ) , " Whatever else you do , you take care of James Dudley . " After Vincent J. McMahon 's death , Dudley was put back on the company payroll at age 74 and subsequently received several gifts from Vincent K. McMahon to show appreciation for Dudley 's contributions to the company . Dudley has been described as an " important cog " in the company , and McMahon once stated that " had there been no James Dudley , the WWF possibly wouldn 't exist as it does today " . Dudley continued to feel a sense of loyalty to the McMahons and their promotion . Dudley was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame in 1994 by Vincent K. McMahon .
Dudley 's final appearance with the company came during the January 4 , 2002 episode of SmackDown ! . According to the storyline , Stephanie McMahon was banned from the MCI Center . In an attempt to get past security , she pushed Dudley in a wheelchair but was still refused entrance . Following the scene , Dudley left the wheelchair , walked to his seat , and watched the show .
= = Personal life = =
Dudley continued to live in the District of Columbia after retiring from professional wrestling . He had 37 grandchildren , 34 great @-@ grandchildren , and 16 great @-@ great @-@ grandchildren . Dudley died of natural causes on June 1 , 2004 at the age of 94 .
= = In wrestling = =
Wrestlers managed
Bobo Brazil
Sweet Daddy Siki
Sailor Art Thomas
Bearcat Wright
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Hall of Fame ( Class of 1994 )
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= Mental status examination =
The mental status examination or mental state examination , abbreviated MSE , is an important part of the clinical assessment process in psychiatric practice . It is a structured way of observing and describing a patient 's current state of mind , under the domains of appearance , attitude , behavior , mood and affect , speech , thought process , thought content , perception , cognition , insight and judgment . There are some minor variations in the subdivision of the MSE and the sequence and names of MSE domains .
The purpose of the MSE is to obtain a comprehensive cross @-@ sectional description of the patient 's mental state , which , when combined with the biographical and historical information of the psychiatric history , allows the clinician to make an accurate diagnosis and formulation , which are required for coherent treatment planning .
The data are collected through a combination of direct and indirect means : unstructured observation while obtaining the biographical and social information , focused questions about current symptoms , and formalised psychological tests .
The MSE is not to be confused with the mini @-@ mental state examination ( MMSE ) , which is a brief neuro @-@ psychological screening test for dementia .
= = Theoretical foundations = =
The MSE derives from an approach to psychiatry known as descriptive psychopathology or descriptive phenomenology which developed from the work of the philosopher and psychiatrist Karl Jaspers . From Jaspers ' perspective it was assumed that the only way to comprehend a patient 's experience is through his or her own description ( through an approach of empathic and non @-@ theoretical enquiry ) , as distinct from an interpretive or psychoanalytic approach which assumes the analyst might understand experiences or processes of which the patient is unaware , such as defense mechanisms or unconscious drives .
In practice , the MSE is a blend of empathic descriptive phenomenology and empirical clinical observation . It has been argued that the term phenomenology has become corrupted in clinical psychiatry : current usage , as a set of supposedly objective descriptions of a psychiatric patient ( a synonym for signs and symptoms ) , is incompatible with the original meaning which was concerned with comprehending a patient 's subjective experience .
= = Application = =
The mental status examination is a core skill of qualified ( mental ) health personnel . It is a key part of the initial psychiatric assessment in an out @-@ patient or psychiatric hospital setting . It is a systematic collection of data based on observation of the patient 's behavior while the patient is in the clinician 's view during the interview . The purpose is to obtain evidence of symptoms and signs of mental disorders , including danger to self and others , that are present at the time of the interview . Further , information on the patient 's insight , judgment , and capacity for abstract reasoning is used to inform decisions about treatment strategy and the choice of an appropriate treatment setting . It is carried out in the manner of an informal enquiry , using a combination of open and closed questions , supplemented by structured tests to assess cognition . The MSE can also be considered part of the comprehensive physical examination performed by physicians and nurses although it may be performed in a cursory and abbreviated way in non @-@ mental @-@ health settings . Information is usually recorded as free @-@ form text using the standard headings , but brief MSE checklists are available for use in emergency situations , for example by paramedics or emergency department staff . The information obtained in the MSE is used , together with the biographical and social information of the psychiatric history , to generate a diagnosis , a psychiatric formulation and a treatment plan .
= = Domains = =
= = = Appearance = = =
Clinicians assess the physical aspects such as the appearance of a patient , including apparent age , height , weight , and manner of dress and grooming . Colorful or bizarre clothing might suggest mania , while unkempt , dirty clothes might suggest schizophrenia or depression . If the patient appears much older than his or her chronological age this can suggest chronic poor self @-@ care or ill @-@ health . Clothing and accessories of a particular subculture , body modifications , or clothing not typical of the patient 's gender , might give clues to personality . Observations of physical appearance might include the physical features of alcoholism or drug abuse , such as signs of malnutrition , nicotine stains , dental erosion , a rash around the mouth from inhalant abuse , or needle track marks from intravenous drug abuse . Observations can also include any odor which might suggest poor personal hygiene due to extreme self @-@ neglect , or alcohol intoxication . Weight loss could also signify a depressive disorder , physical illness , anorexia nervosa or chronic anxiety .
= = = Attitude = = =
Attitude , also known as rapport , refers to the patient 's approach to the interview process and the quality of information obtained during the assessment .
= = = Behavior = = =
Abnormalities of behavior , also called abnormalities of activity , include observations of specific abnormal movements , as well as more general observations of the patient 's level of activity and arousal , and observations of the patient 's eye contact and gait . Abnormal movements , for example choreiform , athetoid or choreoathetoid movements may indicate a neurological disorder . A tremor or dystonia may indicate a neurological condition or the side effects of antipsychotic medication . The patient may have tics ( involuntary but quasi @-@ purposeful movements or vocalizations ) which may be a symptom of Tourette 's syndrome . There are a range of abnormalities of movement which are typical of catatonia , such as echopraxia , catalepsy , waxy flexibility and paratonia ( or gegenhalten ) . Stereotypies ( repetitive purposeless movements such as rocking or head banging ) or mannerisms ( repetitive quasi @-@ purposeful abnormal movements such as a gesture or abnormal gait ) may be a feature of chronic schizophrenia or autism . More global behavioural abnormalities may be noted , such as an increase in arousal and movement ( described as psychomotor agitation or hyperactivity ) which might reflect mania or delirium . An inability to sit still might represent akathisia , a side effect of antipsychotic medication . Similarly a global decrease in arousal and movement ( described as psychomotor retardation , akinesia or stupor ) might indicate depression or a medical condition such as Parkinson 's disease , dementia or delirium . The examiner would also comment on eye movements ( repeatedly glancing to one side can suggest that the patient is experiencing hallucinations ) , and the quality of eye contact ( which can provide clues to the patient 's emotional state ) . Lack of eye contact may suggest depression or autism .
= = = Mood and affect = = =
The distinction between mood and affect in the MSE is subject to some disagreement . For example , Trzepacz and Baker ( 1993 ) describe affect as " the external and dynamic manifestations of a person 's internal emotional state " and mood as " a person 's predominant internal state at any one time " , whereas Sims ( 1995 ) refers to affect as " differentiated specific feelings " and mood as " a more prolonged state or disposition " . This article will use the Trzepacz and Baker ( 1993 ) definitions , with mood regarded as a current subjective state as described by the patient , and affect as the examiner 's inferences of the quality of the patient 's emotional state based on objective observation .
Mood is described using the patient 's own words , and can also be described in summary terms such as neutral , euthymic , dysphoric , euphoric , angry , anxious or apathetic . Alexithymic individuals may be unable to describe their subjective mood state . An individual who is unable to experience any pleasure may be suffering from anhedonia .
Affect is described by labelling the apparent emotion conveyed by the person 's nonverbal behavior ( anxious , sad etc . ) , and also by using the parameters of appropriateness , intensity , range , reactivity and mobility . Affect may be described as appropriate or inappropriate to the current situation , and as congruent or incongruent with their thought content . For example , someone who shows a bland affect when describing a very distressing experience would be described as showing incongruent affect , which might suggest schizophrenia . The intensity of the affect may be described as normal , blunted affect , exaggerated , flat , heightened or overly dramatic . A flat or blunted affect is associated with schizophrenia , depression or post @-@ traumatic stress disorder ; heightened affect might suggest mania , and an overly dramatic or exaggerated affect might suggest certain personality disorders . Mobility refers to the extent to which affect changes during the interview : the affect may be described as mobile , constricted , fixed , immobile or labile . The person may show a full range of affect , in other words a wide range of emotional expression during the assessment , or may be described as having restricted affect . The affect may also be described as reactive , in other words changing flexibly and appropriately with the flow of conversation , or as unreactive . A bland lack of concern for one 's disability may be described as showing la belle indifférence , a feature of conversion disorder , which is historically termed " hysteria " in older texts .
= = = Speech = = =
The patient 's speech is assessed by observing the patient 's spontaneous speech , and also by using structured tests of specific language functions . This heading is concerned with the production of speech rather than the content of speech , which is addressed under thought form and thought content ( see below ) . When observing the patient 's spontaneous speech , the interviewer will note and comment on paralinguistic features such as the loudness , rhythm , prosody , intonation , pitch , phonation , articulation , quantity , rate , spontaneity and latency of speech . A structured assessment of speech includes an assessment of expressive language by asking the patient to name objects , repeat short sentences , or produce as many words as possible from a certain category in a set time . Simple language tests form part of the mini @-@ mental state examination . In practice , the structured assessment of receptive and expressive language is often reported under Cognition ( see below ) .
Language assessment will allow the recognition of medical conditions presenting with aphonia or dysarthria , neurological conditions such as stroke or dementia presenting with aphasia , and specific language disorders such as stuttering , cluttering or mutism . People with autism or Asperger syndrome may have abnormalities in paralinguistic and pragmatic aspects of their speech . Echolalia ( repetition of another person 's words ) and palilalia ( repetition of the subject 's own words ) can be heard with patients with autism , schizophrenia or Alzheimer 's disease . A person with schizophrenia might use neologisms , which are made @-@ up words which have a specific meaning to the person using them . Speech assessment also contributes to assessment of mood , for example people with mania or anxiety may have rapid , loud and pressured speech ; on the other hand depressed patients will typically have a prolonged speech latency and speak in a slow , quiet and hesitant manner .
= = = Thought process = = =
Thought process in the MSE refers to the quantity , tempo ( rate of flow ) and form ( or logical coherence ) of thought . Thought process cannot be directly observed but can only be described by the patient , or inferred from a patient 's speech . Regarding the tempo of thought , some people may experience flight of ideas , when their thoughts are so rapid that their speech seems incoherent , although a careful observer can discern a chain of poetic associations in the patient 's speech . Alternatively an individual may be described as having retarded or inhibited thinking , in which thoughts seem to progress slowly with few associations . Poverty of thought is a global reduction in the quantity of thought and thought perseveration refers to a pattern where a person keeps returning to the same limited set of ideas . A pattern of interruption or disorganization of thought processes is broadly referred to as formal thought disorder , and might be described more specifically as thought blocking , fusion , loosening of associations , tangential thinking , derailment of thought , or knight 's move thinking . Thought may be described as circumstantial when a patient includes a great deal of irrelevant detail and makes frequent diversions , but remains focused on the broad topic . Flight of ideas is typical of mania . Conversely , patients with depression may have retarded or inhibited thinking . Poverty of thought is one of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia , and might also be a feature of severe depression or dementia . A patient with dementia might also experience thought perseveration . Formal thought disorder is a common feature of schizophrenia . Circumstantial thinking might be observed in anxiety disorders or certain kinds of personality disorders .
= = = Thought content = = =
A description of thought content would describe a patient 's delusions , overvalued ideas , obsessions , phobias and preoccupations . Abnormalities of thought content are established by exploring individuals ' thoughts in an open @-@ ended conversational manner with regard to their intensity , salience , the emotions associated with the thoughts , the extent to which the thoughts are experienced as one 's own and under one 's control , and the degree of belief or conviction associated with the thoughts .
A delusion can be defined as " a false , unshakeable idea or belief which is out of keeping with the patient 's educational , cultural and social background ... held with extraordinary conviction and subjective certainty " , and is a core feature of psychotic disorders . The patient 's delusions may be described as persecutory or paranoid delusions , delusions of reference , grandiose delusions , erotomanic delusions , delusional jealousy or delusional misidentification . Delusions may be described as mood @-@ congruent ( the delusional content in keeping with the mood ) , typical of manic or depressive psychoses , or mood @-@ incongruent ( delusional content not in keeping with the mood ) which are more typical of schizophrenia . Delusions of control , or passivity experiences ( in which the individual has the experience of the mind or body being under the influence or control of some kind of external force or agency ) , are typical of schizophrenia . Examples of this include experiences of thought withdrawal , thought insertion , thought broadcasting , and somatic passivity . Schneiderian first rank symptoms are a set of delusions and hallucinations which have been said to be highly suggestive of a diagnosis of schizophrenia . Delusions of guilt , delusions of poverty , and nihilistic delusions ( belief that one has no mind or is already dead ) are typical of depressive psychoses .
An overvalued idea is a false belief that is held with conviction but not with delusional intensity . Hypochondriasis is an overvalued idea that one is suffering from an illness , dysmorphophobia is an overvalued idea that a part of one 's body is abnormal , and people with anorexia nervosa may have an overvalued idea of being overweight .
An obsession is an " undesired , unpleasant , intrusive thought that cannot be suppressed through the patient 's volition " , but unlike passivity experiences described above , they are not experienced as imposed from outside the patient 's mind . Obsessions are typically intrusive thoughts of violence , injury , dirt or sex , or obsessive ruminations on intellectual themes . A person can also describe obsessional doubt , with intrusive worries about whether they have made the wrong decision , or forgotten to do something , for example turn off the gas or lock the house . In obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder , the individual experiences obsessions with or without compulsions ( a sense of having to carry out certain ritualized and senseless actions against their wishes ) .
A phobia is " a dread of an object or situation that does not in reality pose any threat " , and is distinct from a delusion in that the patient is aware that the fear is irrational . A phobia is usually highly specific to certain situations and will usually be reported by the patient rather than being observed by the clinician in the assessment interview .
Preoccupations are thoughts which are not fixed , false or intrusive , but have an undue prominence in the person 's mind . Clinically significant preoccupations would include thoughts of suicide , homicidal thoughts , suspicious or fearful beliefs associated with certain personality disorders , depressive beliefs ( for example that one is unloved or a failure ) , or the cognitive distortions of anxiety and depression . The MSE contributes to clinical risk assessment by including a thorough exploration of any suicidal or hostile thought content . Assessment of suicide risk includes detailed questioning about the nature of the person 's suicidal thoughts , belief about death , reasons for living , and whether the person has made any specific plans to end his or her life .
= = = Perceptions = = =
A perception in this context is any sensory experience , and the three broad types of perceptual disturbance are hallucinations , pseudohallucinations and illusions . A hallucination is defined as a sensory perception in the absence of any external stimulus , and is experienced in external or objective space ( i.e. experienced by the subject as real ) . An illusion is defined as a false sensory perception in the presence of an external stimulus , in other words a distortion of a sensory experience , and may be recognized as such by the subject . A pseudohallucination is experienced in internal or subjective space ( for example as " voices in my head " ) and is regarded as akin to fantasy . Other sensory abnormalities include a distortion of the patient 's sense of time , for example déjà vu , or a distortion of the sense of self ( depersonalization ) or sense of reality ( derealization ) .
Hallucinations can occur in any of the five senses , although auditory and visual hallucinations are encountered more frequently than tactile ( touch ) , olfactory ( smell ) or gustatory ( taste ) hallucinations . Auditory hallucinations are typical of psychoses : third @-@ person hallucinations ( i.e. voices talking about the patient ) and hearing one 's thoughts spoken aloud ( gedankenlautwerden or écho de la pensée ) are among the Schneiderian first rank symptoms indicative of schizophrenia , whereas second @-@ person hallucinations ( voices talking to the patient ) threatening or insulting or telling them to commit suicide , may be a feature of psychotic depression or schizophrenia . Visual hallucinations are generally suggestive of organic conditions such as epilepsy , drug intoxication or drug withdrawal . Many of the visual effects of hallucinogenic drugs are more correctly described as visual illusions or visual pseudohallucinations , as they are distortions of sensory experiences , and are not experienced as existing in objective reality . Auditory pseudohallucinations are suggestive of dissociative disorders . Déjà vu , derealization and depersonalization are associated with temporal lobe epilepsy and dissociative disorders .
= = = Cognition = = =
This section of the MSE covers the patient 's level of alertness , orientation , attention , memory , visuospatial functioning , language functions and executive functions . Unlike other sections of the MSE , use is made of structured tests in addition to unstructured observation . Alertness is a global observation of level of consciousness i.e. awareness of , and responsiveness to the environment , and this might be described as alert , clouded , drowsy , or stuporous . Orientation is assessed by asking the patient where he or she is ( for example what building , town and state ) and what time it is ( time , day , date ) .
Attention and concentration are assessed by the serial sevens test ( or alternatively by spelling a five @-@ letter word backwards ) , and by testing digit span . Memory is assessed in terms of immediate registration ( repeating a set of words ) , short @-@ term memory ( recalling the set of words after an interval , or recalling a short paragraph ) , and long @-@ term memory ( recollection of well known historical or geographical facts ) . Visuospatial functioning can be assessed by the ability to copy a diagram , draw a clock face , or draw a map of the consulting room . Language is assessed through the ability to name objects , repeat phrases , and by observing the individual 's spontaneous speech and response to instructions . Executive functioning can be screened for by asking the " similarities " questions ( " what do x and y have in common ? " ) and by means of a verbal fluency task ( e.g. " list as many words as you can starting with the letter F , in one minute " ) . The mini @-@ mental state examination is a simple structured cognitive assessment which is in widespread use as a component of the MSE .
Mild impairment of attention and concentration may occur in any mental illness where people are anxious and distractible ( including psychotic states ) , but more extensive cognitive abnormalities are likely to indicate a gross disturbance of brain functioning such as delirium , dementia or intoxication . Specific language abnormalities may be associated with pathology in Wernicke 's area or Broca 's area of the brain . In Korsakoff 's syndrome there is dramatic memory impairment with relative preservation of other cognitive functions . Visuospatial or constructional abnormalities here may be associated with parietal lobe pathology , and abnormalities in executive functioning tests may indicate frontal lobe pathology . This kind of brief cognitive testing is regarded as a screening process only , and any abnormalities are more carefully assessed using formal neuropsychological testing .
The MSE may include a brief neuropsychiatric examination in some situations . Frontal lobe pathology is suggested if the person cannot repetitively execute a motor sequence ( e.g. " paper @-@ scissors @-@ stone " ) . The posterior columns are assessed by the person 's ability to feel the vibrations of a tuning fork on the wrists and ankles . The parietal lobe can be assessed by the person 's ability to identify objects by touch alone and with eyes closed . A cerebellar disorder may be present if the person cannot stand with arms extended , feet touching and eyes closed without swaying ( Romberg 's sign ) ; if there is a tremor when the person reaches for an object ; or if he or she is unable to touch a fixed point , close the eyes and touch the same point again . Pathology in the basal ganglia may be indicated by rigidity and resistance to movement of the limbs , and by the presence of characteristic involuntary movements . A lesion in the posterior fossa can be detected by asking the patient to roll his or her eyes upwards ( Parinaud 's syndrome ) . Focal neurological signs such as these might reflect the effects of some prescribed psychiatric medications , chronic drug or alcohol use , head injuries , tumors or other brain disorders .
= = = Insight = = =
The person 's understanding of his or her mental illness is evaluated by exploring his or her explanatory account of the problem , and understanding of the treatment options . In this context , insight can be said to have three components : recognition that one has a mental illness , compliance with treatment , and the ability to re @-@ label unusual mental events ( such as delusions and hallucinations ) as pathological . As insight is on a continuum , the clinician should not describe it as simply present or absent , but should report the patient 's explanatory account descriptively .
Impaired insight is characteristic of psychosis and dementia , and is an important consideration in treatment planning and in assessing the capacity to consent to treatment .
= = = Judgment = = =
Judgment refers to the patient 's capacity to make sound , reasoned and responsible decisions . Traditionally , the MSE included the use of standard hypothetical questions such as " what would you do if you found a stamped , addressed envelope lying in the street ? " ; however contemporary practice is to inquire about how the patient has responded or would respond to real @-@ life challenges and contingencies . Assessment would take into account the individual 's executive system capacity in terms of impulsiveness , social cognition , self @-@ awareness and planning ability .
Impaired judgment is not specific to any diagnosis but may be a prominent feature of disorders affecting the frontal lobe of the brain . If a person 's judgment is impaired due to mental illness , there might be implications for the person 's safety or the safety of others .
= = Cultural considerations = =
There are potential problems when the MSE is applied in a cross @-@ cultural context , when the clinician and patient are from different cultural backgrounds . For example , the patient 's culture might have different norms for appearance , behavior and display of emotions . Culturally normative spiritual and religious beliefs need to be distinguished from delusions and hallucinations - these may seem similar to one who does not understand that they have different roots . Cognitive assessment must also take the patient 's language and educational background into account . Clinician 's racial bias is another potential confounder .
= = Children = =
There are particular challenges in carrying out an MSE with young children and others with limited language such as people with intellectual impairment . The examiner would explore and clarify the individual 's use of words to describe mood , thought content or perceptions , as words may be used idiosyncratically with a different meaning from that assumed by the examiner . In this group , tools such as play materials , puppets , art materials or diagrams ( for instance with multiple choices of facial expressions depicting emotions ) may be used to facilitate recall and explanation of experiences .
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= Women 's Appreciation =
" Women 's Appreciation " is the twenty @-@ second episode of the third season of the US version of The Office , and the third supersized episode of the season . In this episode , Phyllis is flashed in the parking lot , so Michael takes all the women to the mall for " women 's appreciation " , where the status of his relationship with Jan comes to light . Meanwhile , Pam makes a sketch supposedly of the man who flashed Phyllis , when it in fact resembles Dwight , who is unaware and posts the fliers throughout town .
The episode was written by Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg and directed by Tucker Gates . While the characters travel to Mall at Steamtown , a shopping center in Scranton , Pennsylvania , filming actually took place in Los Angeles . Cast members Jenna Fischer and Kate Flannery enjoyed the three @-@ day shoot outside the office , and the latter was able to perform her own driving stunts . While filming , the cast were often met with fans " in full force " yelling out Steve Carell 's name and taking pictures . Retailer Victoria 's Secret agreed to close their mall store to the public to allow for episode filming .
" Women 's Appreciation " first aired in the United States on May 3 , 2007 . It garnered an estimated 7 @.@ 0 million viewers , causing it to rank fourth in its timeslot . Television critics gave mixed reviews to the episode . Comedic elements , such as Pam 's prank on Dwight , were praised , but one reviewer felt that Michael 's relationship problems with Jan came out of nowhere .
= = Synopsis = =
After finding out that Phyllis Lapin ( Phyllis Smith ) was flashed in the parking lot , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) holds a misguided seminar on women 's issues . He closes the meeting by offering to take the women to the Mall at Steamtown . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) orders Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) to interview Phyllis and make a sketch of " the pervert " . Pam draws a picture of Dwight with a moustache and without glasses . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) assists an oblivious Dwight in posting fliers with the " predator 's " face .
At the mall , Michael relates his discomfort with his relationship with Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) . All of the women point out reasons for them to break up , except for Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) , who suggests that maybe they are " just having a rough patch " , obviously alluding to her own unstable relationship with Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) . Pam shoots the idea down by stating that " maybe you 're just wrong for each other " . Karen visibly takes this statement personally . Michael thanks them for their help by treating them to one item each at Victoria 's Secret . Pam is visibly upset when she overhears Phyllis helping Karen pick out a sexy outfit for Jim . Pam buys a robe because she is " between boyfriends " but can cut the robe into new hand towels . Later , she takes a step toward asserting herself by changing a flat tire on Meredith Palmer 's ( Kate Flannery ) car . At the office , Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) sneaks into the women 's bathroom and discovers a plush waiting room . The other men soon join him .
Upon returning to the office , Michael calls Jan to end their relationship , unwisely doing so by leaving a voicemail message . Jan walks into his office to apologize in person for their earlier conversation , but when she receives Michael 's voicemail , she storms out of the office . The episode ends with Jim calling Dwight , informing him he has information about the predator . He says he saw him two minutes before in the women 's bathroom . Dwight dashes to the bathroom and examines the room , looks in the mirror where someone had etched a moustache similar to the predator 's . Dwight realizes the prank and curses Pam .
= = Production = =
" Women 's Appreciation " was written by Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg , while Tucker Gates served as the episode 's director . The cold open featuring Jim receiving a demerit from Dwight was initially intended for " Business School " , and the opening of " Product Recall " , which featured Jim and Dwight impersonating each other , was first intended for this episode before it was moved because of time constraints . Michael 's talking head scene about Jan 's safeword was meant to serve as a " place holder " until a better version could be shot , but was left in the episode because the writers forgot about it . While the characters travel to Mall at Steamtown , a shopping center in Scranton , Pennsylvania , episode filming actually took place near Los Angeles , where the series is normally shot .
Kate Flannery , who plays Meredith , called the episode one of her favorites to shoot because she " was stuck in a van with Mindy Kaling , Jenna Fischer , Angela Kinsey , Rashida Jones , Phyllis Smith and Steve Carell for two days . " Fischer agreed , calling it a " fun episode to shoot " due to having three days of filming with Carell and The Office women . Believing Meredith 's minivan was " another character " in the series , Flannery enjoyed being able to drive and act simultaneously . In a reflection of the character 's personality , the production crew added props such as bottles of alcohol , chips , crushed soda cans , garbage , and 14 air fresheners to the vehicle . The cast however soon developed headaches , leading to the air fresheners ' removal . Flannery was able to perform her own stunts for the episode , explaining that she " was nervous at first , but I think I really could be a demolition @-@ derby star . "
The cast enjoyed shooting at the mall , but were faced with fans " in full force . " Crowds followed them while shooting , holding up camera phones and yelling Carell 's name . Flannery said of the episode , " We shot some really fun stuff with Steve and the ladies just running around the mall . The food @-@ court scene was so much fun . Steve is an amazing actor . " Lingerie retailer Victoria 's Secret agreed to close their store to the public for filming . In the episode , Angela reveals that she wears large sizes of clothes purchased from American Girl , a doll store chain , but will not shop at children 's retailer Gap Kids because it is " too flashy . " In the DVD audio commentary , Kinsey remarked that after the episode broadcast , people would bring up American Girl Doll catalogs for her to sign . Passerby also yelled out Carell 's name during the scene where Pam changes a tire .
The Season Three DVD contains a number of deleted scenes . Notable cut scenes include Kelly learning that Phyllis got flashed , Bob Vance , Vance Refrigeration , calming down Phyllis , Andy trying to earn back Dwight 's favor by bonding over cold soups , Michael imagining himself as a woman , Dwight escorting the women to Meredith 's car , Michael choosing lingerie for Pam , and an alternate version of Michael 's concluding talking head .
= = Reception = =
The episode first broadcast in the United States on May 3 , 2007 on NBC in a special timeslot , airing behind an episode of My Name Is Earl . " Women 's Appreciation " was a " supersized " episode , as it aired for forty minutes . It attracted an estimated 7 @.@ 0 million viewers , and ranked fourth in its timeslot , behind episodes of Survivor : Fiji , Ugly Betty , and Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader ? .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . IGN writer Brian Zoromski called " Women 's Appreciation " a " fairly solid episode worthy of the super @-@ sized treatment , " and rated it 7 @.@ 9 out of 10 . He highlighted Pam 's prank as well as Michael 's attempt to break up with Jan via voicemail , calling the latter " easily the funniest moment in the episode , and perfectly played by both Steve Carell and Melora Hardin . " Zoromski did however criticize the series for abandoning plot points , such as the publicity fiasco from the previous episode . Give Me My Remote 's Kath Skerry called it a " hilarious episode , " and observed " I don ’ t think The Office has ever pushed the envelope in terms of sexual discussion as much as it did tonight . "
Jay Black from AOL TV disliked the episode 's awkward moments and thought Michael 's unhappiness with Jan came out of nowhere . Black did however praise Pam 's prank as well as Dwight himself , but concluded his review : " A surprisingly weak handling of character combined with fewer laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments than I 'm used to forces me to give this episode 4 Creed number @-@ twos out of 7 . " Entertainment Weekly staff writer Abby West also critiqued " Women 's Appreciation " , explaining that it " felt exactly like a 30 @-@ minute episode stretched to fill 43 minutes . " She thought the episode " only came together " once the Office women performed an intervention for Michael .
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= The Sleeping Girl of Turville =
Ellen Sadler ( May 15 , 1859 – after 1901 ) , sometimes called The Sleeping Girl of Turville , was a resident of Turville , a small village in Buckinghamshire in the United Kingdom . In 1871 , aged eleven , she purportedly fell asleep and did not wake for nine years . The case attracted international attention from newspapers , medical professionals and the public .
Born to a large , impoverished family of farm workers , Ellen was sent to work as a nursemaid at the age of eleven . Soon afterwards , she began suffering periods of drowsiness and was referred to a local hospital . After four months her condition was declared incurable , and she was sent home . Two days later , Ellen had a series of seizures and — her mother claimed — fell into a deep sleep from which she could not be roused .
Ellen became a tourist attraction for the village , and her family made considerable money from visitors ' donations . As the years progressed with no sign of Ellen 's waking , speculation grew that her illness was either a hoax or caused by her mother , an issue that was never resolved . In late 1880 , soon after her mother 's death , Ellen awoke . She later married and had at least five children .
= = Background = =
Ellen Sadler was born on May 15 , 1859 to Ann and William Sadler , who lived in the small village of Turville , Buckinghamshire . The Sadlers were a large , impoverished family consisting mainly of farmhands ; Ellen , the youngest child , shared her home with her eleven siblings . Ellen 's father died while she was an infant ; Ann Sadler subsequently married Thomas Frewen .
= = Illness = =
= = = Initial symptoms = = =
In 1870 , aged eleven , Ellen began work as a nursemaid in nearby Marlow , but she began suffering periods of somnolence and her employment was terminated . She was subsequently attended by a local doctor , Henry Hayman F.R.C.S. , from nearby Stokenchurch . Ellen had been suffering for 13 weeks from " glandular swellings " or an abscess on the back of her head , and symptoms consistent with a spinal disease . The family did not have much money , so the parish vicar , The Reverend Studholme , asked Hayman to secure Ellen 's admission to a local hospital , where her condition worsened . Ellen stayed at the hospital for 18 weeks before being " discharged as incurable " in March 1871 .
= = = Fall into unconsciousness = = =
According to Ellen 's mother , upon the girl 's return home on a rickety cart , she began to feel drowsy and had several seizures . Hayman states that it was two days after her discharge that the seizures occurred . He visited Ellen at her home , where he was told that the previous night , March 17 , Ellen had endured a series of such attacks , after which she turned to lie " on her left side , with her hand under her head , and the lower extremities drawn upwards " . It was in this position that — her mother maintained — Ellen remained for the duration of her sleep . Hayman visited Ellen many times over the next few years and he later said that he " never found her otherwise " .
Ellen became something of a tourist attraction for Turville . She was visited by journalists , medical professionals , religious personnel and the " plain curious " from across the country , many of whom donated money to Ellen 's family to be allowed to see her . Some paid to take cuts of Ellen 's hair , until the " supply " began to run out . A Bucks Free Press journalist recounted his visit :
Her breathing was regular and natural , the skin soft and the body warm , as in a healthy subject ; the pulse rather fast . The hands were small and thin , but the fingers quite flexible ; the body somewhat emaciated ; the feet and legs like those of a dead child , almost ice cold ... the aspect of her features was pleasant , more so than might be expected under the circumstances ... her eyes and cheeks were sunken , and the appearance was that of death ... but although there was no colour on her cheeks , the paleness was not that heavy hue which betokens death .
A correspondent from The Daily Telegraph visited Ellen about 22 months after she fell ill . He wrote :
The girl 's face is by no means cadaverous . There is flesh on the cheeks , which have a pinkish tint , and there is some colour in the thin lips . The eyes are calmly closed , as though in healthy sleep . I ventured to raise one of the lids and touch the eye beneath ... but there was not even a quivering of the eyelash . ... The girl 's [ hand ] was quite warm and moist , and the finger nails were neatly trimmed . The fingers are not the least bit stiffened ... It is not a skeleton hand , neither are any of the girl 's limbs so emaciated as , under the extraordinary circumstances alleged , might be expected . ... The child 's body is very thin as compared with her limbs . ... There is not much substance in her flesh , however ; it is soft and flabby ... [ Her feet were ] almost ice @-@ cold . ... As regards the child 's breathing , it is so feeble that it is almost impossible to detect it ; you cannot feel it by holding the cheek to her mouth , and the only faintest flutter is felt when the hand is laid over the region of the heart .
By March 1873 , Ellen was believed to be suffering from starvation . At first , she had largely subsisted on port , tea and milk , given three times per day . After about 15 months — while her mother was attempting to administer arrowroot — Ellen 's jaw locked closed . Subsequently , according to Hayman , she was fed " wine , gruel and other things " using the " spout of a toy teapot inserted between two broken teeth " . The Daily Telegraph journalist expanded on Ellen 's feeding : " The feeding implements stand on a little table by the side of the stump bedstead , and , at first sight , give you the idea that they are toys placed there to attract her attention should she , by a merciful termination of her trance , presently awake to life . The toys in question are two tiny ' teapots ' , each not much larger than a full @-@ sized walnut and holding four small teaspoonfuls . One of these is filled with port wine , and the other with milk ... this quantity of liquid nourishment ... cannot weigh more than half an ounce ... " At this time , it was considered " manifestly out of the question to think of moving her " . How the family dealt with Ellen 's passing of urine and faeces is unclear , but in 1880 , Hayman said that Ann Frewen told him that no bowel movements had occurred for five years , and that approximately every four days " a somewhat large amount would pass from the bladder " .
= = = Scepticism = = =
Some visitors were sceptical of Ellen 's illness and attempted to uncover the alleged ruse through methods such as stabbing her with pins , to no effect . The Bucks Free Press journalist was suspicious of Ann 's practice of making visitors wait before seeing Ellen . Some neighbours were also " deeply sceptical " , as Ellen 's family was making a " healthy profit " from her illness . During summers , the family was taking as much as £ 2 per week ( £ 180 as of 2016 ) . Others said they sometimes saw Ellen sitting by her window at night . Ann consented to " fair tests " , but further suspicions were raised because medical personnel were not allowed to remain for too long , and Ann did not want Ellen to be moved to a hospital . Nor was Ellen listed as an invalid during the 1871 census . Hayman said that Ann was reluctant to allow handling of her daughter by medical personnel because they often concealed sharp objects with which to " test [ Ellen 's ] powers of feeling " . Her parents had also " strenuously opposed " Hayman 's recommendation to run an electric current through Ellen 's sleeping body .
Much speculation appeared in the press as to the cause of Ellen 's illness ; some linked the case to that of Sarah Jacob , a girl from Wales who , her parents claimed , was able to survive without nourishment , through divine intervention . Sarah died of starvation in 1869 , and her parents were subsequently convicted of manslaughter . A journalist for The Observer commented , " It is to be hoped that [ Sarah 's case ] is known in the obscure village of Turville , where — we are asked to believe — a fresh case of miraculous trance has taken place . ... [ Ellen 's case ] very much ... incites suspicion of deliberate imposture . " One correspondent to The Times wrote , " It is by widespread publicity that such cases are multiplied , and it is difficult to overstate the harm thus done . These impostures exist through a morbid love of sympathy on the part of the children , or from the gains that accrue to the parents . Once begun , they soon pass into real disease . " Another said the " ridiculous mystery " could be resolved if only Ellen were transferred , over her mother 's continued objections , to a London hospital , a sentiment echoed by many . Claims that Ellen was suffering from a form of catalepsy — a condition at the time considered " so rare that not one physician in a thousand has so much as seen a single case of it " — were also disregarded as unlikely , as was any thought of religious ecstasy .
Nevertheless , Hayman affirmed , " every effort [ had ] been made to discover the deception , if any , but without effect . " The Home Secretary and local Magistrate corresponded about the case but the law was powerless to interfere , because despite accepting donations , Ellen 's family never asked for money outright , and she " was not represented as a ' fasting girl ' " , as Sarah Jacob had been . The Daily Telegraph journalist said , " [ Ann Frewen ] ' s manner is that of a perfectly honest woman who would be too glad if her child could be restored to consciousness . " He spoke to neighbours , none of whom indicated anything other than trust in Ellen 's parents and Hayman , and claimed that the family was receiving no money from Ellen 's illness , although the latter point is contradicted by Hayman and others . The journalist concluded , " I have no medical knowledge , and [ am ] unqualified to give an opinion beyond what is justified by close observation of the ordinary kind . I went to Turville prepared to find an imposture . I have returned — puzzled . "
= = = Recovery = = =
Ann Frewen died in May 1880 . The inquest into her death was held at the nearby Bull and Butcher public house , presided over by the county coroner , Frederick Charsley . Part of the inquest 's remit was to consider the matter of Ellen 's subsequent care . Thomas Frewen was reported as being " quite evasive " when the coroner asked him how Ellen was fed , and although Hayman testified to reaffirm his stance that Ellen 's illness was genuine , Reverend Studholme was less certain . However , he could not offer any evidence to this effect , even though he had made several unannounced visits to Ellen 's home . Charsley concluded that Thomas could not look after Ellen , as his job left him absent from their home all day , and that the other members of the household would be too busy with its upkeep . Therefore , he turned Ellen 's care over to her married sisters , Elizabeth Stacey and Grace Blackall , both of whom lived in Turville . The cause of Ann 's death was found to be oedema of the heart , from which she had been suffering for many years .
Five months later , Ellen awoke ; by November , she had " fully recovered " . By this time , Ellen was twenty @-@ one and claimed to remember nothing of the previous nine years . She otherwise suffered few long @-@ term effects , save for slightly stunted growth and a " weak eye " .
= = Later life and legacy = =
In 1886 , Ellen married Mark Blackall in nearby Fawley . In the censuses of 1891 and 1901 , the pair are listed as living in Barkham and Caversham , respectively . They had five children : Ann ( b . 1888 ) , Elizabeth or Mable ( b . 1889 ) , Gladys ( b . 1890 ) , Sydney ( b . 1896 ) and Gertrude ( b . 1898 ) . Ellen and Mark appear in the 1911 census together with Sydney and Gertrude , all living in Lower Caversham . The census also records that they had six children of which one had died . The case of Ellen Sadler has remained a part of local folklore , spawning tales of witchcraft and rumours of royal attention in Turville . The Sadler family home became known as " Sleepy Cottage " , and was used for filming of the BBC situation comedy The Vicar of Dibley . No clear cause has ever been ascribed for Ellen 's condition ; modern diagnoses might include narcolepsy , or deliberate drugging , and the possibility that it was a hoax cannot be discounted . An embellished account of the story can be found in the 1973 collection , Witchcraft in the Thames Valley by Tony Barham .
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= Greaves Motorsport =
Greaves Motorsport is a British racing team , currently competing in the European Le Mans Series and the 24 Hours of Le Mans .
In 2006 , Greaves Motorsport , founded and run by Tim Greaves , entered the Le Mans Series ( LMS ) for the first time , running a Radical SR9 in conjunction with Radical , and competing under the Bruichladdich Radical banner . After four years of running Radicals in both the LMS and the 24 Hours of Le Mans , the team , now known as Team Bruichladdich , purchased a Ginetta @-@ Zytek GZ09S / 2 in 2010 to replace the old Radical SR9 . In 2011 , the team became known as Greaves Motorsport , and they switched to the new Zytek Z11SN , winning the LMP2 category of both the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the Le Mans Series . For 2012 , they entered the new European Le Mans Series ( ELMS ) and FIA World Endurance Championship ( WEC ) , finishing third in the LMP2 category of the ELMS , and fifth in the WEC .
= = History = =
= = = 2006 – 2007 = = =
In 2006 , it was announced that Greaves Motorsport would be running the works Radical team in the Le Mans Series ( LMS ) , with Tim Greaves and Stuart Moseley driving a LMP2 @-@ class Radical SR9 @-@ AER under the Bruichladdich Radical banner . The team entered the 1000 km of Nürburgring , and finished fifteenth overall , fifth in class . Ben Devlin joined the team for the following round , the 1000 km of Donington , but the team retired after 151 laps . Following this race , the team entered Greaves , Moseley , Ben Devlin and Colin McRae in the inaugural round of the Radical World Cup . McRae 's weekend proved unsuccessful , as he retired from the first race , and finished eleventh in the second . Having returned to the LMS , the team retired from the season 's final race , the 1000 km of Jarama , after 27 laps . Following this , Moseley and Michael Vergers were entered in the American Le Mans Series season finale at Laguna Seca , where they finished 22nd , and fifth in class .
In 2007 , Bruichladdich Radical competed in the entire LMS season . Having retired at the opening event , the 1000 km of Monza , the team took a ninth place overall finish and third in class at the 1000 km of Valencia ; in the latter race , Greaves and Moseley were joined by Robin Liddell . Following this event , the team participated in the 24 Hours of Le Mans for the first time , however , Tim Greaves crashed out after 90 minutes , forcing the team to withdraw . The following LMS race , which was the 1000 km of Nürburgring , was little more successful ; Greaves and Moseley finished 35th , and ninth in class , after a starter motor problem had cost the team around 30 minutes . A retirement at the 1000 km of Spa followed , due to engine failure after 81 laps , before the season finale , the 1000 km of Silverstone saw the team take 14th overall and seventh in class ; Jacob Greaves filling the third driver 's slot for the team . The team finished joint @-@ eighth in the LMP2 team 's standings ; level with Team LNT and Kruse Motorsport on eight points .
= = = 2008 – 2009 = = =
Bruichladdich Radical remained in the Le Mans Series in 2008 , but had an all @-@ new driver line @-@ up of Jens Petersen , Jan @-@ Dirk Leuders and Marc Rostan . The season opener , which was the 1000 km of Catalunya , saw the team finish 15th overall , and seventh in class . However , the rest of the season was unsuccessful , as the team did not finish above 30th overall in any of the remaining LMS races , or the 24 Hours of Le Mans ; although 30th at the 1000 km of Spa equated to seventh in class , due to attrition . As a result , the team slipped to joint @-@ eleventh in class , with four points .
For 2009 , Pierre Bruneau joined the team , and as a result , the team became known as the Bruichladdich @-@ Bruneau Team , with the team continuing to use the AER @-@ engined Radical SR9 . The opening round of the season , which was the 1000 km of Catalunya , saw Bruneau , partnered by Moseley and Nigel Greensall , finishing tenth overall , and fourth in the LM P2 category . At the 1000 km of Spa , Tim Greaves and Jonathon Coleman replaced Moseley and Greensall , but the team were disqualified from the event for an unspecified technical infringement . Rostan partnered Greaves and Bruneau at the 24 Hours of Le Mans , but retired from the race after just over fourteen and a half hours , having completed 91 laps . At the 1000 km of Algarve , Greaves and Bruneau were partnered by Francesco Sini , but could only finish 25th overall , and tenth in class . Michael Vergers replaced Greaves at the 1000 km of Nürburgring , but the team retired after 114 laps . Greaves returned for the 1000 km of Silverstone , the season finale ; the team finished 16th overall , and sixth in class . The team were classified seventh in the LM P2 standings , with eight points .
= = = 2010 – 2011 = = =
In 2010 , the team ended their association with Radical , and replaced the SR9 with a LM P2 class Ginetta @-@ Zytek GZ09S / 2 ; Tim Greaves , Karim Ojjeh and Thor @-@ Christian Ebbesvik were named as the team 's regular drivers , resulting in the team being known as Team Bruichladdich . The team 's first race with the car came at the LMS opener , the 8 Hours of Castellet , and they finished twelfth overall , fifth in class . The 1000 km of Spa proved to be less successful ; the team suffered a blown engine during qualifying , and Ebbesvik crashed out of the race after 15 laps . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Gary Chalandon replaced Ebbesvik , and the team finished tenth overall , fifth in the LM P2 class . Next up was the 1000 km of Algarve , and Ebbesvik returned to the team ; fifth overall , and second in class , for their first class podium of the season . The 1000 km of Hungaroring saw another fifth place overall , although mechanical difficulties with the LM P1 @-@ class cars meant that this also equated to fifth in class . The season finale , which was the 1000 km of Silverstone , saw the team end the season with a 19th overall , and eighth in class . The team finished the season ranked fifth in the LMP2 Team 's Championship , with 46 points .
In 2011 , the team changed their name to Greaves Motorsport , and were the first team to use the new LM P2 @-@ class Zytek Z11SN @-@ Nissan . With Ojjeh , Chalandon and Tom Kimber @-@ Smith driving the car , the team won the LM P2 class and came third overall at the 6 Hours of Castellet , which was the first round of the season . Although the team struggled at the 1000 km of Spa , finishing 37th overall , and eighth in class , the team won the LM P2 category of the 24 Hours of Le Mans for the first time , and finished eighth overall ; Chalandon was replaced by Olivier Lombard from this event onwards . Another eighth place overall , and class victory followed , at the 6 Hours of Imola ; the team then won the LM P2 class for the third race in a row at the 6 Hours of Silverstone , this time finishing tenth overall . The team finished the season with a fourth overall , and second in class , at the 6 Hours of Estoril ; this meant that the team won the LM P2 Championship , with Kimber @-@ Smith and Ojjeh being crowned as the LM P2 Driver 's Champions .
= = = 2012 – 2013 = = =
In 2012 , Greaves Motorsport entered both the European Le Mans Series ( ELMS ) and the new FIA World Endurance Championship ( WEC ) . Kimber @-@ Smith , Alex Brundle and Lucas Ordóñez were hired for the ELMS , whilst Elton Julian , Christian Zugel and Ricardo González were hired for the WEC . The team 's first event of the season came at the 12 Hours of Sebring , which formed part of the WEC and the American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) ; the team finished seventh of the WEC runners , and fourth in the LMP2 category . The team then entered the opening round of the ELMS , which was the 6 Hours of Castellet ; the team finished fourth overall , and in the LM P2 class . The next event the team entered was the 6 Hours of Spa @-@ Francorchamps , part of the WEC ; the team finished 16th overall , and seventh in the LM P2 class . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Greaves Motorsport entered two cars ; Zugel , Julian and González in the No. 41 car , and Alex Brundle , Martin Brundle and Ordóñez in the No. 42 car . The No. 41 car finished 12th overall , and fifth in class , whilst the No. 42 car finished 15th overall , and eighth in class . Next , the team returned to the ELMS , competing in the 6 Hours of Donington , finishing seventh overall and in the LM P2 class . The team then entered both cars in the 6 Hours of Silverstone , with the same drivers that had competed in the 24 Hours of Le Mans ; the No. 42 car finished 12th overall , and fifth in the LM P2 category , whilst the No. 41 car finished 20th overall , and 13th in class . Greaves Motorsport reverted to a single @-@ car entry for the 6 Hours of São Paulo round of the WEC , with Roberto González replacing his brother Ricardo ( whom had been selected to drive for Level 5 Motorsports instead ) ; the team finished eleventh overall , and fourth in the LM P2 class . Ricardo González returned to the team for the 6 Hours of Bahrain , and the team finished twelfth overall , seventh in the LMP2 category . The 6 Hours of Fuji was the team 's next race , and they finished 14th overall , and seventh in class . Greaves Motorsport then entered the final race of the ELMS season , which was the Petit Le Mans ( also part of the ALMS ) ; Alex Brundle , Kimber @-@ Smith and Alex Buncombe were selected to drive , and they finished 32nd overall , fifth in the P2 class . The team finished the 2012 season by competing in the 6 Hours of Shanghai , which was part of the WEC ; they finished 15th overall , and eighth in class . In the WEC , Greaves Motorsport were classified fifth in the LM P2 trophy , with 99 points ; whilst in the ELMS , they were classified third in the LM P2 standings , with 48 points .
In 2013 , Greaves Motorsport once again entered both the ELMS and the WEC . Chris Dyson and Michael Marsal were hired for the first round of the ELMS , whilst Dyson and Marsal were joined by Kimber @-@ Smith for the WEC . The team started the 2013 season by entering the opening round of the ELMS , which was the 3 Hours of Silverstone on 13 April ; the team retired after 23 laps . They then entered the 6 Hours of Silverstone , which was part of the WEC and held the following day ; this time , the team finished eleventh overall , and fifth in class . The next event the team entered was the 6 Hours of Spa @-@ Francorchamps , which was part of the WEC ; however , the team withdrew from the event after Dyson crashed heavily in qualifying , leaving the car too damaged to race . The team then returned to the ELMS , and entered the 3 Hours of Imola ; Kimber @-@ Smith and David Heinemeier Hansson were selected to drive , and they finished fifth overall , and in class . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Greaves Motorsport once again entered two cars ; Kimber @-@ Smith , Alexander Rossi and Eric Lux in the No. 41 car , whilst Ordóñez , Michael Krumm and Jann Mardenborough drove the No. 42 car . As Greaves Motorsport had signed a deal with Caterham , the No. 41 car was entered under the Caterham Motorsport banner . In the race , the No. 42 car proved to be the quicker of the two ; Krumm , Mardenborough and Ordóñez finished ninth overall , and third in the LM P2 class , whilst the Caterham Motorsport car finished 23rd overall , and tenth in the LM P2 class . Although the team initially entered the Caterham @-@ backed car in the 3 Hours of Red Bull Ring , part of the ELMS , they were forced to withdraw after they were unable to find any drivers to run ; this was the first time the team had withdrawn from an ELMS event since their first race in the series , back in 2006 . Zugel and Jeannette were partnered by Björn Wirdheim for the 6 Hours of São Paulo , which was part of the WEC ; although they were running third at one point of the race , they eventually finished seventh overall , and fourth in the LM P2 category . The team then attempted to return to the ELMS , by entering the 3 Hours of Hungaroring , but did not register any drivers or attend the event . Zugel , Dyson and Kimber @-@ Smith drove in the 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas , part of the WEC , and took fifth in the LM P2 category , and ninth overall . For the 6 Hours of Fuji , Greaves Motorsport announced a partnership with local Super GT team Gainer , which resulted in Gainer 's Katsuyuki Hiranaka partnering Björn Wirdheim and Masayuki Ueda ; the combined effort was entered under the " Gainer International " banner . The race was halted at around the three @-@ hour mark due to torrential rain , and the team were classified sixth overall , and third in class . The 6 Hours of Shanghai saw Greaves Motorsport hand Mark Shulzhitskiy his WEC debut , driving alongside Lux and Wirdheim ; the trio took another fifth place in class for the team , and ninth overall . The final round of the WEC season , which was the 6 Hours of Bahrain , saw Wolfgang Reip make his debut in the series with Greaves Motorsport ; he was partnered by fellow debutant Jon Lancaster and Wildheim . Despite the team 's inexperience , they were able to finish third in the LM P2 class , and fifth overall . The team finished the year classified fifth in the LM P2 category of the WEC , with 81 points , and ninth in the ELMS , with ten points .
= = = 2014 – 2015 = = =
In 2014 , Greaves Motorsport returned to the ELMS , once again campaigning two Zytek Z11SNs . After the team 's failure to secure a guaranteed spot at the 2014 24 Hours of Le Mans , Caterham withdrew their backing of Greaves Motorsport . At the 4 Hours of Silverstone , the team fielded three ELMS and LM P2 category débutantes ; Matt McMurry , James Littlejohn , and Tony Wells . It was to be a successful début for all three drivers ; McMurry , partnered by Dyson and Kimber @-@ Smith , finished fourth , whilst Littlejohn and Wells were partnered by James Walker and finished sixth . Littlejohn had actually lead the race at one point , and both he and McMurry were nominated for " Driver of the Day " by Radio Le Mans . For the 4 Hours of Imola , Greaves entered one car , driven by Kimber @-@ Smith and McMurry ; for the second race in succession , they finished fourth . Greaves Motorsport had two entries at the 24 Hours of Le Mans ; the # 41 car , which was driven by James Winslow , Alessandro Latif and Michael Munemann under their own name , and the # 42 car , which was driven by McMurry ( who became the youngest ever competitor at the event ) , Dyson and Kimber @-@ Smith under the Caterham Racing banner . Although the # 41 car was forced to retire due to suspension damage after Munemann crashed , the # 42 car was able to finish tenth in class , and 25th overall . Greaves Motorsport then returned to the ELMS for the 4 Hours of Red Bull Ring , where Luciano Bacheta and Mark Shulzhitskiy drove one car , and Kimber @-@ Smith , Mark Patterson and McMurry drove the other ; the two entries finished fourth and sixth respectively . The next race , which was the 4 Hours of Castellet , proved to be a mixed bag ; whilst Shulzhitskiy and Bacheta were able to challenge for the lead before eventually finishing fifth , the car of McMurry and Johnny Mowlem crashed out of the race at the first corner . At the final race of the season , which was the 4 Hours of Estoril , the team had another mixed race ; Shulzhitskiy and Bacheta were running third before an incident whilst lapping GT cars led to their eventual retirement , whilst McMurry , Miguel Faisca and James Fletcher took seventh place . Greaves Motorsport finished the season fourth in the LM P2 Team 's standings , tied with Morand Racing on 68 points .
On 16 December 2014 , it was announced that Greaves Motorsport would be competing in the LM P2 class of both the ELMS and the FIA WEC for the 2015 season , subject to their application 's approval , with Gibson Technology 's updated version of the Zytek Z11SN , renamed as the Gibson 015S .
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= High Virgo =
The High Virgo , also known as Weapons System 199C ( WS @-@ 199C ) , was a prototype air @-@ launched ballistic missile ( ALBM ) jointly developed by Lockheed and the Convair division of General Dynamics during the late 1950s . The missile proved moderately successful and aided in the development of the later GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt ALBM ; in addition , it was used in early test of anti @-@ satellite weapons .
= = Design and development = =
As part of the WS @-@ 199 project to develop new strategic weapons for the United States Air Force 's Strategic Air Command , the Lockheed Corporation and the Convair division of General Dynamics proposed the development of an air @-@ launched ballistic missile , to be carried by the Convair B @-@ 58 Hustler supersonic medium bomber . In early 1958 the two companies were awarded a contract for development of the weapon , designated WS @-@ 199C and given the code @-@ name " High Virgo " . While the project was intended to be strictly a research @-@ and @-@ development exercise , it was planned that the weapon would be quickly capable of being developed into an operational system if required .
The High Virgo missile was a single @-@ stage weapon , powered by a solid @-@ fueled Thiokol TX @-@ 20 rocket , and was equipped an advanced inertial guidance system derived from that of the AGM @-@ 28 Hound Dog cruise missile . Four tailfins in a cruciform arrangement provided directional control . The missile was developed by Lockheed , utilising components developed for several existing missiles in order to reduce the cost of the project , and also to reduce the development time required , while Convair was responsible for development of a pylon for carriage and launching of the missile from the prototype B @-@ 58 , the pylon replacing the aircraft 's normal weapons pod .
= = Operational history = =
Four test flights of the High Virgo missile were conducted ; due to development problems , the first two did not include the inertial guidance system , instead being fitted with a simple autopilot guiding the weapon on a pre @-@ programmed course . Launched from its B @-@ 58 carrier aircraft at high altitude and supersonic speed , the initial flight , conducted on September 5 , 1958 , was a failure when the missile 's controls malfunctioned ; the second test , three months later , proved more successful , with the missile flying over a range of nearly 200 miles ( 320 km ) . The third flight test , the following June , utilized the inertial guidance system for the first time ; it , too , was a successful flight .
= = = Anti @-@ satellite test = = =
The fourth High Virgo missile was utilized in a test mission intended to demonstrate the capability of the missile for use as a " satellite interceptor " , or anti @-@ satellite missile ( ASAT ) . the missile , modified with cameras to record the results of the test , was initially targeted at the Explorer 4 satellite , but due to errors in calculating the satellite 's orbit Explorer 5 was targeted instead .
The ASAT test mission , the final flight of the High Virgo missile , was conducted on September 22 , 1959 ; less than a minute after the launch of the missile from its B @-@ 58 carrier aircraft at Mach 2 , the telemetry signal was lost . No data was recovered from the test , and the camera data , intended to be recovered afterward , was not located ; therefore the test was inconclusive .
No further test firings of High Virgo were conducted , the research project having been concluded . However the Air Force was already undertaking work on what would become the GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt missile , which incorporated lessons learned from the WS @-@ 199 project in its construction .
= = Launch history = =
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= Pelagic stingray =
The pelagic stingray ( Pteroplatytrygon violacea ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae , and the sole member of its genus . It is characterized by the wedge @-@ like shape of its pectoral fin disc , which is much wider than long , as well as by the pointed teeth in both sexes , whip @-@ like tail with extremely long tail spine , and uniform violet to blue @-@ green coloration . It generally reaches 59 cm ( 23 in ) in width . The pelagic stingray has a worldwide distribution in waters warmer than 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) , and migrates seasonally to spend the summer closer to the continental shelf and at higher latitudes . The only stingray that almost exclusively inhabits the open ocean , this species is typically found in surface waters down to a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) . As a consequence of its midwater habits , its swimming style has evolved to feature more of a flapping motion of the pectoral fins , as opposed to the disc margin undulations used by other , bottom @-@ dwelling stingrays .
The diet of the pelagic stingray consists of free @-@ swimming invertebrates and bony fishes . It is an active hunter , using its pectoral fins to trap and move food to its mouth , and has been known to take advantage of seasonal feeding opportunities such as spawning squid . Like other stingrays , it is aplacental viviparous , meaning that the embryos are sustained initially by yolk and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . With a short gestation period of 2 – 4 months , females may bear two litters of 4 – 13 pups per year . Birthing generally occurs in warm water near the equator , with the exception of the Mediterranean Sea , with the timing varying between regions . Rarely encountered except by fishery workers , the pelagic stingray can inflict a severe , even fatal wound with its tail spine . This species is caught as bycatch throughout its range ; it is of little economic value and usually discarded , often with high mortality . However , there is evidence that its numbers are increasing , perhaps owing to the heavy fishing of its natural predators and competitors ( e.g. , sharks ) . Along with the pelagic stingray 's global distribution and prolific life history , this has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to assess it as of Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The pelagic stingray was originally described by French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in the 1832 third volume of Iconografia della fauna italica per le quattro classi degli animali vertebrati . He named it Trygon violacea , from the Latin viola ( " purple " ) , and designated two specimens collected off Italy as the species syntypes . The genus Trygon has since been synonymized with Dasyatis . In 1910 , American zoologist Henry Weed Fowler placed the pelagic stingray in the newly created subgenus Pteroplatytrygon , from the Greek pteron ( " fin " ) , platus ( " broad " ) , and trygon ( " stingray " ) . Later authors elevated Pterplatytrygon to the rank of full genus , though some taxonomists dispute whether this species is distinct enough to warrant separation from Dasyatis .
Lisa Rosenberger 's 2001 phylogenetic analysis , based on morphology , found that the pelagic stingray is one of the more basal members of its family , being the sister taxon to a clade that contains Pastinachus , Dasyatis , and Indo @-@ Pacific Himantura species . Other common names for the pelagic stingray include the blue stingray and the violet stingray .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The distribution of the pelagic stingray extends nearly worldwide in tropical to warm @-@ temperate pelagic waters , between the latitudes of 52 ° N and 50 ° S. In the western Atlantic , it has been reported from the Grand Banks of Newfoundland to North Carolina , the northern Gulf of Mexico , and the Lesser Antilles , Brazil and Uruguay . In the eastern Atlantic , this species has been recorded from the North Sea to Madeira , including the Mediterranean Sea , as well as around Cape Verde , in the Gulf of Guinea and off South Africa . In the Pacific , it is known from Japan to Australia and New Zealand in the west , British Columbia to Chile in the west , and around many oceanic islands including Hawaii , the Galápagos , and Easter Island . There have been no reports of this species from much of the Indian Ocean , but it is known to be common in the southwestern portion and around Indonesia .
Unique amongst stingrays in inhabiting the open ocean rather than the sea floor , the pelagic stingray is generally found from the surface to a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) over deep water . It has also been caught at a depth of 330 – 381 m ( 1 @,@ 083 – 1 @,@ 250 ft ) over the Kyushu @-@ Palau Ridge , indicating that it at least occasionally approaches the bottom . This species prefers water temperatures above 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) , and will die if the temperature drops to 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) .
The pelagic stingray performs seasonal migrations following warm water masses . In the northwestern Atlantic , it is found in or near the Gulf Stream from December to April , and moves north of the Stream to gather near the continental shelf from July to September . A similar migration seems to occur in the Mediterranean , though the specifics are unknown . In the Pacific , this species apparently spends the winter in oceanic waters near the equator and move into higher latitudes and towards the coast in spring . Two Pacific populations are known : one migrates from near Central America to California , and the other from the central Pacific to as far as Japan and British Columbia . Off southeastern Brazil , pelagic stingrays are displaced towards the coast by upwellings of cold water in late spring and summer ; in some years they may even be pushed into inshore waters less than 45 m ( 148 ft ) deep .
= = Description = =
The pelagic stingray has a very thick , distinctively wedge @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc one @-@ third wider than long , with broadly curved leading margins , rather angular outer corners , and nearly straight trailing margins . The snout is short with a rounded tip . The eyes are minute and , unlike in other stingrays , do not protrude above the body ; the spiracles ( paired respiratory openings ) follow immediate behind . There is a short but broad curtain of skin between the nostrils , with a weakly fringed rear margin . The mouth is small and gently arched , with deep furrows at the corners and a tiny projection at the center of the upper jaw that fits into an indentation on the lower jaw . There are anywhere from 0 to 15 forked papillae ( nipple @-@ like structures ) in a row across the floor of the mouth . There are 25 – 34 upper tooth rows and 25 – 31 lower tooth rows ; the teeth of both sexes have single , pointed cusps , but those of adult males are longer and sharper than those of adult females . The margins of the pelvic fins are nearly straight in front and become rounded at the tips and in back .
The whip @-@ like tail measures up to twice as long as the disc ; it is thick at the base and tapers significantly to the extremely long , serrated spine placed approximately one @-@ third to halfway along its length . Two spines may be present if a replacement grows in before the original drops off . Posterior to the spine origin , there is a low ventral fin fold that does not reach to the spine tip . Young rays are completely smooth @-@ skinned ; with age small prickles appear over the center of the back , as well as a row of small thorns along the midline from between the eyes to the origin of the spine . This species is a plain dark purple to blue @-@ green above , extending onto the tail fold , and a slightly lighter shade below . When captured and handled , it exudes a thick black mucus that covers its body . The pelagic stingray typically grows to 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long and 59 cm ( 23 in ) across . The largest individuals on record are from a captive rearing experiment conducted from 1995 to 2000 , in which a male reached 68 cm ( 27 in ) across and 12 kg ( 26 lb ) , and a female 94 cm ( 37 in ) across and 49 kg ( 108 lb ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
In adopting a midwater lifestyle , the pelagic stingray exhibits several characteristics different from those of its bottom @-@ dwelling relatives . While most stingrays propel themselves by undulating their disc margins , this species swims by oscillating ( flapping ) its pectoral fins in a manner approaching the " underwater flying " employed by eagle rays . Oscillatory fin motions generate lift , thus improving cruising efficiency in open water at a cost to maneuverability . The pelagic stingray is adept at swimming backwards , which may compensate for the lower fine control offered by its swimming mode .
Vision seems to be more important to the pelagic ray in finding food than in other stingrays . Compared to other members of its family , this species has less than one @-@ third the density of electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini on its underside . The ampullae also cover a smaller area , though not as small as in eagle rays , and are more evenly distributed between the ventral and dorsal surfaces . This ray can detect an electric field of well under 1 nV / cm at a distance of up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) , and may be able to pick up the minute electric fields produced by moving sea water . The lateral line of the pelagic stingray , a complex system of mechanoreceptors that detect nearby movement and ocean currents , remains similar to other stingrays in covering a greater area on the ventral than the dorsal surface . However , this species is less responsive to mechanical than to visual stimuli .
Pelagic stingrays may segregate by sex , vertically in that males are found in deeper water than females , and perhaps horizontally as well . Captive individuals often act highly aggressively towards ocean sunfish ( Mola mola ) , biting and harassing them , particularly if they are hungry . This species is preyed upon by oceanic whitetip sharks ( Carcharhinus longimanus ) , great white sharks ( Carcharodon carcharias ) , toothed whales , and other large , ocean @-@ going carnivores . Its all @-@ around dark coloration likely serves to camouflage it against its featureless habitat . The venom on its tail spine is also quite potent , causing it to be avoided by other fishes . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium benedeni , A. crassicolle , and A. filicolle , Rhinebothrium baeri and R. palombii , and Tetragonocephalum uarnak , and the monogenean Entobdella diadema .
= = = Feeding = = =
The pelagic stingray is an active predator that captures prey by wrapping its pectoral fins around it , before manipulating it to the mouth . It is the only stingray in which both sexes have pointed teeth , for grasping and cutting into slippery prey . A wide variety of organisms are represented in its diet : crustaceans including amphipods , krill , and larval crabs , molluscs including squid , octopus , and pteropods , bony fishes including herring , mackerel , sea horses and filefish , comb jellies and medusae , and polychaete worms . Off California , pelagic stingrays hunt large mating aggregations of squid that form from November to April . Off Brazil , this species follows groups of Atlantic cutlassfish ( Trichiurus lepturus ) towards the coast in January and February , with both predators seeking small schooling fishes . Juvenile rays consume 6 – 7 % of their body weight in food per day , which declines to just above 1 % in adults .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other stingrays , the pelagic stingray is aplacental viviparous : the developing embryos are at first nourished by yolk , which is later supplanted by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , containing proteins , lipids , and mucus ) ; the mother delivers the histotroph through numerous thread @-@ like extensions of the uterine epithelium called " trophonemata " , which feed into the enlarged spiracles of the embryo . Females have only one functional ovary and uterus , on the left , and may produce two litters per year . Mating occurs from March to June in the northwestern Atlantic , and in late spring in the southwestern Atlantic . Females are capable of storing sperm internally for more than a year , allowing them to wait for favorable environmental conditions in which to gestate their young . When first passed into the uterus , a batch of fertilized eggs are contained in a single membraneous capsule tapered at both ends . Shortly after , the capsule ruptures to release the eggs , and is expelled from the uterus . The gestation period may be the shortest of any shark or ray , lasting only 2 – 4 months , during which time the embryos increase a hundredfold in mass
In the Pacific , females give birth in winter from November to March in a nursery area near Central America , prior to their northward migration . Similarly , in the northwestern Atlantic , birthing seems to occur in winter when the females are in warm southerly waters , possibly off the West Indies . However , records also exist of two possibly anomalous females that were pregnant much earlier in the year and would given birth in August or September , before their southward migration . In the southwestern Atlantic , birthing occurs in summer around January , again in warmer water towards the equator . As opposed to other regions , in the Mediterranean females give birth in summer before moving to warmer waters . The litter size ranges from 4 to 13 ( average six ) , and does not increase with the size of the female . Newborns measure 15 – 25 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) across . Rays in captivity , with ample food , grow at an average annual rate of 8 @.@ 1 cm ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) ( disc width ) , while rays in the wild grow at an average annual rate of only 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) . The food intake and growth rate of adults are highest in January – February and July – August , and lowest in March – April and October – November . Males reach sexual maturity at 37 – 50 cm ( 15 – 20 in ) across and two years of age , and females at 39 – 50 cm ( 15 – 20 in ) and three years of age . This species may live up to 10 – 12 years . One of the most prolific rays , its intrinsic population growth rate is up to 31 % a year .
= = Human interactions = =
The pelagic stingray is not aggressive and rarely encountered because of its habitat preferences , but its very long tail spine demands extreme caution be exercised in handling it . It has been responsible for two known fatalities : a worker on a tuna longliner who was impaled by a captured ray , and another fishery worker who succumbed to tetanus days after being stung . This species has been kept in public aquariums for almost a century .
The meat and cartilage of the pelagic stingray are sometimes utilized , for example in Indonesia , but for the most part this species is considered worthless and discarded when caught . Susceptible to longlines , gillnets , purse seines , and bottom trawls , it is captured incidentally in large numbers throughout its range . Rays caught on longlines suffer high mortality , as fishers are wary of being stung and remove the rays from the hooks by smashing them against the side of the boat , causing severe damage to the mouth and jaws . The extent of this bycatch has yet to be quantified . Regardless , surveys in the Pacific suggest that pelagic stingray numbers have increased since the 1950s , possibly due to commercial fisheries depleting the dominant predators in the ecosystem , such as sharks and tuna . The lack of population declines , coupled with its wide distribution and high reproductive rate , has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to list this species under Least Concern . Recent research has been conducted into reducing pelagic stingray bycatch on longlines by switching to larger and / or " C " -shaped hooks .
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= Russian monitor Rusalka =
Rusalka ( Russian : Русалка , Mermaid ) , was one of two Charodeika @-@ class monitors built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1860s . She served for her entire career with the Baltic Fleet . Aside from hitting an uncharted rock not long after she was completed in 1869 , she had an uneventful career . Rusalka sank in a storm in 1893 with the loss of all hands in the Gulf of Finland . A memorial was built in Reval ( modern Tallinn ) to commemorate her loss almost a decade later . Her wreck was rediscovered in 2003 , bow @-@ down in the mud , which has prompted a new theory regarding her loss .
= = Design and description = =
Rusalka was 206 feet ( 62 @.@ 8 m ) long at the waterline . She had a beam of 42 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) and a maximum draft of 12 feet 7 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . The ship was designed to displace 1 @,@ 882 long tons ( 1 @,@ 912 t ) , but turned out to be overweight and actually displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew numbered 13 officers and 171 crewmen in 1877 .
The ship had two simple horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single propeller . The engines were designed to produce a total of 900 indicated horsepower ( 670 kW ) using steam provided by two coal @-@ fired rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers , but only achieved 705 ihp ( 526 kW ) and a speed of approximately 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) during her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 250 long tons ( 254 t ) of coal for her boilers .
Rusalka was initially armed with a pair of nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled Model 1867 guns in the forward gun turret and a pair of fifteen @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) smoothbore Rodman guns in the aft turret . The Rodman guns were replaced by a pair of Obukhov 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled guns in 1871 and all of the nine @-@ inch guns were replaced in their turn by longer , more powerful nine @-@ inch Obukhov guns in 1878 – 79 . No light guns for use against torpedo boats are known to have been fitted aboard the ship before the 1870s when she received 3 four @-@ pounder 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) guns mounted on the turret tops as well as a variety of smaller guns that included 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) Engström quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) Nordenfelt guns , single @-@ barreled QF 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns and QF 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolving cannon .
The ship had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships and thinned to 3 @.@ 75 inches ( 95 mm ) at the bow and 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 83 mm ) at the stern . The armor was backed by 12 to 18 inches ( 300 to 460 mm ) of teak . The circular turrets were protected by armor 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) thick and the walls of the ship 's oval conning tower were also 4 @.@ 5 inches thick . Her deck was 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick amidships , but reduced to 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 – 12 @.@ 7 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = Construction and service = =
Rusalka , named after the mythological creature , was ordered on 25 January 1865 and construction began on 10 June at the Admiralty Shipyard , Saint Petersburg , although the formal keel @-@ laying was not until 6 June 1866 . She was launched on 12 September 1867 and completed in 1869 at the cost of 762 @,@ 000 rubles . Construction was considerably delayed by late deliveries of drawings , material , and the death of her original builder . The ship struck an uncharted rock off the Finnish coast in June 1869 and damaged her bottom plating badly enough that she had to be run aground to prevent her from sinking . Rusalka served her entire career with the Baltic Fleet and was assigned to the Artillery Training Detachment in March 1870 . The ship had her boilers replaced in 1878 and 1891 and she was reclassified as a coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 .
= = = Sinking = = =
Rusalka , under the command of Captain 2nd Rank V. Kh . Ienish sailed from Reval harbor at 08 : 30 on 7 September 1893 , bound for Helsingfors ( Helsinki ) . She was escorted by the gunboat Tucha ( Russian : Туча , Cloud ) under Captain 2nd Rank N. M. Lushkov . Several hours after their departure the weather deteriorated into a storm , with gale force winds and rain ; Tucha lost her charge from sight around noon , but sailed on and arrived safely at Helsingfors .
No trace of the monitor was found until the corpse of a sailor in a dinghy and a few lifebuoys washed ashore on the Finnish island of Kremare . Extensive searches of the sea bottom also failed to locate the ship . In January 1894 a commission appointed to investigate convened and reprimanded Rear Admiral P. S. Burachek , commander of the detachment , for letting Rusalka go to sea in bad weather as well as Lushkov for losing contact with the monitor . The commission concluded that the ship 's steering gear failed or that water had entered the ship and caused her to lose power . Either would have caused Rusalka to turn parallel to the waves where her superstructure would have been demolished and extensive flooding would have soon overwhelmed her small reserve of buoyancy . Whatever the cause , Rusalka obviously broached and sank with the loss of all 177 members of her crew .
= = = Monument = = =
On 7 September 1902 , the ninth anniversary of the loss of the ship , a monument to Rusalka was erected in Tallinn . Sculpted by Amandus Adamson , it takes the form of a bronze angel standing on a granite pedestal .
= = = Discovery = = =
The wreck of Rusalka was claimed to have been found by divers of the Soviet EPRON salvage agency in 1932 , but they made no attempt to salvage it . EPRON 's location does not match that of the ship as discovered in 2003 .
In spring 2003 , a joint project was launched by the Estonian Maritime Museum and the commercial diving company Tuukritööde OÜ with the aim of finding Rusalka which had sunk 110 years earlier . On 22 July 2003 the wreck of Rusalka was located in the Gulf of Finland , 25 kilometers ( 16 mi ) south of Helsinki , by the museum 's research vessel Mare . Two days later , deep divers Kaido Peremees and Indrek Ostrat more precisely located and videoed the wreck . Most unusually , the wreck is in a near @-@ vertical position ; following her sinking , the vessel plunged , bow first , 74 meters ( 243 ft ) directly downward into the muddy bottom of the gulf , and is buried in the bottom to almost half her length . The divers found the stern of the lost vessel rising 33 meters ( 108 ft ) above the sea bed and her rudder turned to starboard .
The wreck is generally intact although draped with snagged fishing nets . The aft turret , however , has fallen out off the ship . The vertical position of the wreck has inspired a new theory of her loss by nautical archaeologist Vello Mäss . He believes that Rusalka was taking on water forward , perhaps from a leak or through ventilation hatches and was bow @-@ heavy when her captain decided to make a turn , possibly to return to Reval , and the ship capsized during the turn with her engines still running . Her forward speed and flooded forward hull meant that she descended vertically and drove her hull into the muddy sea bottom .
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= Ron " Pigpen " McKernan =
Ronald Charles McKernan ( September 8 , 1945 – March 8 , 1973 ) , known as Pigpen , was an American singer and musician . He was a founding member of the San Francisco band the Grateful Dead and played in the group from 1965 to 1972 .
McKernan grew up heavily influenced by African @-@ American music , particularly the blues , and enjoyed listening to his father 's collection of records and taught himself how to play harmonica and piano . He began socializing around the San Francisco Bay Area , becoming friends with Jerry Garcia . After the pair had played in various folk and jug bands , McKernan suggested they form an electric group , which became the Grateful Dead . He was the band 's original frontman as well as playing harmonica and electric organ , but Garcia and bassist Phil Lesh 's influences on the band became increasingly stronger as they embraced psychedelic rock . McKernan struggled to keep up , causing the group to hire keyboardist Tom Constanten , with McKernan 's contributions essentially limited to vocals , harmonica and percussion from November 1968 to January 1970 . He continued to be a frontman in concert for some numbers , including covers of Bobby Bland 's " Turn On Your Love Light " and the Rascals ' " Good Lovin ' " .
Unlike the other members of the Grateful Dead , McKernan avoided psychedelic drugs , preferring to drink alcohol ( namely whiskey and wine ) . By 1971 , his health had been affected by alcoholism and liver damage and doctors advised him to stop touring . Following a four @-@ month hiatus , he resumed touring with the group in December 1971 but was forced to retire from touring altogether in June 1972 . McKernan was found dead of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage on March 8 , 1973 , aged 27 and is buried at Alta Mesa Memorial Park in Palo Alto .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Ronald Charles McKernan was born on September 8 , 1945 , in San Bruno , California . He came from Irish ancestry , and his father , Phil McKernan , was an R & B and blues disc jockey , who had been one of the first white DJs on KDIA , a black radio station . Ronald grew up with African American friends and enjoyed black music and culture . As a youth , he taught himself blues piano , guitar and harmonica and developed a biker culture image . McKernan moved to Palo Alto , California with his family , where he became friends with musician Jerry Garcia at the age of 14 . He built up a substantial collection of old blues 78s from labels such as Kent Records and Chess Records .
McKernan began spending time around coffeehouses and music stores , and worked at Dana Morgan 's Music Store in Palo Alto with Garcia . One night Garcia invited McKernan on stage to play harmonica and sing the blues . Garcia was impressed and McKernan became the blues singer in local jam sessions . He was initially nicknamed " Blue Ron " before settling on " Pigpen " . Onomastician Adrian Room has suggested McKernan was given the name due to his untidy and unclean habits while band biographies say he got the nickname owing to his similarity to Pig @-@ Pen , the permanently dirty character in the comic @-@ strip Peanuts .
= = = Grateful Dead = = =
McKernan was a participant in the predecessor groups leading to the formation of the Grateful Dead , beginning with the Zodiacs and Mother McCree 's Uptown Jug Champions . Guitarist Bob Weir and drummer Bill Kreutzmann were added and the band evolved into the Warlocks . Around 1965 , McKernan urged the rest of the Warlocks to switch to electric instruments . Bassist Phil Lesh joined soon after , and they became the Grateful Dead . The group were keen to involve McKernan in the band , as he was the group 's original leader and was considered the best singer and frontman .
The Dead 's early sets centred around blues and R & B covers chosen by McKernan . By the end of 1966 , Garcia had improved his musical skills and wanted to assert himself more as a leader and musical director , changing the band 's direction and reducing McKernan 's contributions . In 1967 , drummer Mickey Hart joined the Grateful Dead , followed by classically trained keyboardist Tom Constanten in 1968 , further changing the group 's style . Constanten often replaced McKernan on keyboards in the studio , as McKernan found it difficult to adapt to the new material that Garcia and Lesh composed for the band .
In October 1968 , McKernan and Weir were nearly fired from the band after Garcia and Lesh believed their playing was holding the band back from lengthy and experimental jamming . Garcia delegated the task of firing them to Rock Scully , who said that McKernan " took it hard . " Weir promised to improve , but McKernan was more stubborn . According to Garcia biographer Blair Jackson , McKernan missed three Dead shows before vowing not to " be lazy " any more and rejoining , while Kreutzmann objected to replacing McKernan and said the event never happened . Following his discharge from the United States Air Force in November 1968 , Constanten officially joined the band , having only worked in the studio while on leave up to that point . Road manager Jon McIntire commented that " Pigpen was relegated to the congas at that point and it was really humiliating and he was really hurt , but he couldn 't show it , couldn 't talk about it . " He began to take Hammond organ lessons and learned how to use the various drawbars and controls .
After Constanten 's departure in January 1970 over musical and lifestyle differences , McKernan nominally resumed keyboard duties . He contributed instrumentation to only two tracks ( " Black Peter " and " Easy Wind , " the latter as lead vocalist ) on Workingman 's Dead ( 1970 ) , the band 's breakthrough studio release . Consequently , the group 's next studio album ( 1970 's American Beauty ) served as a showcase for session keyboardists Howard Wales and Ned Lagin , while the 1971 live album Grateful Dead featured three overdubbed organ parts from Merl Saunders in addition to McKernan 's contributions on " Big Railroad Blues " , " The Other One " , and " Me & Bobby McGee " . While Garcia expressed frustration at McKernan 's missed rehearsals and his inability to keep up with new material , Lesh was more forgiving , opining that " it was okay for Pigpen to lay out ... we kept wanting Pigpen to be there because he was ' one of us . ' "
= = Musical style and influences = =
While in the Grateful Dead , McKernan sang and played blues @-@ influenced organ and harmonica . He initially played a Vox Continental organ , but later switched to a Hammond . McKernan sang lead on several standards he wanted the Dead to cover , such as Otis Redding 's " Pain in My Heart " and Wilson Pickett 's " In the Midnight Hour , " with the latter serving as one of the band 's main improvisatory vehicles from 1966 to 1968 . Unlike fellow vocalists Garcia and Weir , he sang lead without playing any instrument except harmonica and actively interacted with the audience , occasionally walking out into the crowd . During the band 's first year when they played straightforward blues , McKernan performed the majority of lead vocals , attracting an early audience that came specifically to see him sing and play harmonica . He took on early management duties in the band , ensuring they would be paid and promoted properly for gigs .
Though McKernan 's garage rock style was appropriate for their early recordings , it was less suited to the group 's later psychedelic and jamming styles . He went from contributing to every song and singing lead on all of side two of 1968 's Anthem of the Sun to little more than sporadic appearances on the following year 's Aoxomoxoa . He continued to front the band for long stretches during their live performances and suggested new material for the Dead 's concert repertoire , including Redding 's " Hard to Handle " and James Brown 's " It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World . "
McKernan achieved a new prominence in 1969 covering " Turn On Your Love Light " ; initially introduced in 1967 , the song gradually evolved into the band 's show @-@ stopping finale , often taking fifteen to thirty minutes to complete . He improvised lyrics over the band 's accompaniment , using phrases he had heard from African American friends , such as " rider " ( slang for " lover " ) , " she 's got box @-@ black nitties " ( referring to female underwear ) and " boar hog 's eye " . When the Grateful Dead appeared at Woodstock , the band 's set ( which was marred by technical problems and general chaos and described as one of their worst shows ) ended with " Turn On Your Love Light " . Even as his instrumental contributions waned , McKernan 's vocal performances remained an integral part of the band 's live set ; by early 1971 , the band 's cover of The Rascals ' " Good Lovin ' " ( initially covered by the group in 1966 featured at shows at the Fillmore East later released as Ladies and Gentlemen ... the Grateful Dead ) began to emerge as a secondary showcase of his improvisatory talents alongside " Love Light . "
McKernan was not a prolific songwriter , preferring to concentrate on blues covers and improvised lyrics . He composed the infrequently performed " Operator " for 1970 's American Beauty . Several new songs emerged from a creatively fecund period coinciding with his health problems in 1971 , most notably " Mr. Charlie , " a collaboration with Dead lyricist Robert Hunter . The song appeared on the live album Europe ' 72 , his last with the group .
Tony Sclafani has compared McKernan 's role in the band , initially strong and pivotal but gradually declining , to that of Brian Jones in the Rolling Stones , particularly since both men were primarily influenced by the blues over rock ' n ' roll and died aged 27 . These comparisons are not entirely accurate as McKernan was always encouraged to sing material live and left the group due to ill health , while Jones was fired .
After McKernan 's death , a number of recordings were found in his apartment , which have appeared as the bootleg recording " The Apartment Tapes " . This included two songs recorded in 1964 with future Jefferson Airplane guitarist Jorma Kaukonen . On the bootleg , McKernan played acoustic guitar and piano , instruments he seldom used with the Dead .
= = Personal life = =
McKernan was close friends with American singer @-@ songwriter Janis Joplin due to common musical influences and lifestyles , particularly a shared love of alcohol over other drugs ; a poster from the early 1970s showed them together at 710 Ashbury . Joplin joined McKernan on stage at the Fillmore West on June 7 , 1969 , with the Grateful Dead to sing his signature " Turn On Your Love Light , " reprising this duet on July 16 , 1970 , at the Euphoria Ballroom in San Rafael , California .
McKernan was good friends with fellow band member Tom Constanten , based on their mutual aversion to psychedelics . He eventually served as best man at Constanten 's wedding . While his bandmates and friends were using cannabis , LSD , and other hallucinogenic drugs , McKernan preferred alcoholic beverages such as Thunderbird and Southern Comfort . Ironically , McKernan was arrested and fined after the cannabis bust on November 9 , 1967 , at 710 Ashbury Street , the Dead 's communal home , even though he did not use the drug . The event was covered in the first issue of Rolling Stone , where the reporter noted McKernan had a substantial rifle collection and McKernan 's picture appeared on a contemporary report in the San Francisco Chronicle . Because neither took illegal drugs , McKernan and Constanten were the only members of the band not arrested on the January 31 , 1970 , bust that inspired the lyrics of the band 's song " Truckin ' " .
In the early years of the Grateful Dead , McKernan was easily recognisable by his biker image , making him a minor celebrity . In 1969 , the band 's record company , Warner Bros. Records ran a " Pigpen Look @-@ Alike Contest " .
= = Health and death = =
McKernan 's alcohol abuse had begun to affect his health by his mid twenties . By the early 1970s , he also began to experience symptoms of congenital biliary cirrhosis , a rare autoimmune disease which was unrelated to his use of alcohol . After being hospitalized in August 1971 , doctors requested that he stop touring indefinitely . Pianist Keith Godchaux was subsequently hired and remained a regular member of the Grateful Dead until 1979 . McKernan rejoined the band in December 1971 to supplement Godchaux on harmonica , percussion , and organ . Manager Rock Scully alleged that McKernan passed out in front of his Hammond organ at one show during this period . After their Europe ' 72 tour , his health had deteriorated to the point where he could no longer continue playing live . He made his final concert appearance on June 17 , 1972 , at the Hollywood Bowl , in Los Angeles , California . He subsequently broke off all personal relationships with the band , explaining " I don 't want you around when I die . "
On March 8 , 1973 , aged 27 he was found dead of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage at his home in Corte Madera , California by his landlady . Though his contributions to the band had slowly diminished over the years , the other members were devastated at his death . McKernan was buried at the Alta Mesa Memorial Park in Palo Alto , California . Garcia spoke at his funeral , saying " After Pigpen 's death we all knew this was the end of the original Grateful Dead " .
= = Legacy = =
Despite his outward image , friends and band biographers have described McKernan as a quiet , kind and introspective person . Hart later said " Pigpen was the musician in the Grateful Dead . " Kreutzmann said McKernan was " the sweetest guy anybody had ever met . "
Weir later became influenced by McKernan 's ability to work a crowd and improvise lyrics . He took over de facto frontman duties in concert and began to reintroduce material originally chosen by McKernan into the Dead 's live set after his death . Weir began singing " Good Lovin ' " with the Dead in 1973 , and the group recorded the song on 1978 's Shakedown Street . " Turn On Your Love Light " was revived in 1981 , with Weir singing lead . He also revived the 1960s standard " Big Boy Pete " , originally sung by McKernan , as a one @-@ off in 1985 . Jimmy Reed 's " Big Boss Man " , covered by the group on Grateful Dead ( Skull and Roses ) with McKernan singing lead , was revived by Garcia and performed occasionally through the 1980s and 90s .
" He 's Gone " , originally appearing on the live album Europe ' 72 subsequently became a eulogy to McKernan by his former bandmates . Hunter said " it became an anthem for Pigpen " .
= = Discography = =
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= Everard Calthrop =
Everard Richard Calthrop ( 3 March 1857 – 30 March 1927 ) was a British railway engineer and inventor . Calthrop was a notable promoter and builder of narrow gauge railways , especially of 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) narrow gauge , and was especially prominent in India . His most notable achievement was the Barsi Light Railway ; however he is best known in his home country for the Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway . Calthrop has been described as a " railway genius " . Later in life he took an interest in aviation , patenting some early designs for parachutes .
= = Early life and career = =
Calthrop was born on 3 March 1857 , the eldest son of farmer Everard Calthrop . He had six brothers , one of whom was Sir Guy Calthrop , general manager of the London & North Western Railway . The family lived at Deeping Fen , Lincolnshire , where Calthrop was born , and later at Sutton in the Isle of Ely . Calthrop was educated at Uppingham School .
Calthrop started work with Robert Stephenson & Co and then was apprenticed to the London & North Western Railway at Crewe in 1874 . In 1879 he joined the Great Western Railway , where he rose to assistant manager of the Carriage and Wagon Works . In 1882 he went to India to join the Great Indian Peninsula Railway as a locomotive inspector .
Once in India , Calthrop came to see narrow gauge railways as a way to help develop the country . This led him to chairing a Government committee to investigate light railways throughout India . He then published a pamphlet entitled A System of Standard Details as applied to the Construction of Rolling Stock in India . As a result of this pamphlet , the Indian Government adopted systems of uniformity of gauge and equipment throughout the country , and eventually adopted 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge as the standard narrow gauge throughout the country .
Calthrop requested leave in 1886 to investigate proposals for independent branchlines . He identified two schemes of particular interest , a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) tramway connecting the Hindu religious centre of Nasik with the railway , and a 21 @-@ mile ( 34 km ) branchline to the town of Barsi . The Great Indian Peninsula Railway approved both schemes , and Calthrop undertook a survey of both lines . In 1887 he registered the Indian Railways Feeder Lines Company in London to promote the construction of feeders to the railway . The Great Indian Peninsula Railway suggested that he either return to his duties as a locomotive inspector , or , with their support , resign to further promote branch lines . His health was failing , and so in 1889 Calthrop resigned from the Great Indian Peninsula Railway . Working as a consultant he then supervised the construction of the 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge horse @-@ powered Nasik Tramway , using his previous survey .
= = Move to Liverpool = =
Returning to the United Kingdom in 1892 Calthrop established a railway engineering consulting practice in Liverpool , where three of his brothers had started a stockfeed company . Soon Calthrop had entered into a partnership with them and spent much of the next two years designing equipment for feed production . He took out a number of patents relating to the equipment and to refrigerated transport .
While Calthrop was resident in Liverpool the Chamber of Commerce was concerned future expansion was being limited by the railway companies that linked that city with Manchester , and invited proposals for alternative methods for moving goods . Calthrop proposed a system of narrow gauge railways linking the two cities , running along streets directly serving factories . His proposal was highly commended , but the proposed street running precluded its adoption .
Calthrop was also interested in road transport . He was a member of the Self @-@ Propelled Traffic Association and in May 1898 was a judge at their trials for " motor vehicles for heavy traffic " , held in Liverpool . The winner was a Thornycroft 4 @-@ ton steam wagon . Later he was a foundation member of the Royal Automobile Club .
= = Development of narrow gauge concepts and the Barsi Light Railway = =
During his time in India Calthrop developed his ideas on the construction of narrow gauge railways . He surmised that the axle load on the axles of all rolling stock , including locomotives , could be equal , allowing a maximum loading of goods wagons . He settled on a loading of 5 long tons ( 5 @.@ 1 t ; 5 @.@ 6 short tons ) per axle , which was light enough to allow railway lines to be built with 30 pounds per yard ( 14 @.@ 9 kilograms per metre ) rail . It also allowed the loading of one 20 long tons ( 20 @.@ 3 t ; 22 @.@ 4 short tons ) capacity 4 @-@ wheel standard gauge wagon to be carried on a single bogie narrow gauge wagon . Further , he argued that using a track gauge of 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gave the greatest capacity as a percentage of capital cost . He estimated a 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge railway could be built to four times the length of a standard gauge railway for the same capital cost .
Calthrop had been engaged in negotiations with the Indian government for concessions to build a railway from Barsi Road to Barsi since 1887 . In 1895 negotiations reached a satisfactory conclusion , and Calthrop formed a new company to build the Barsi Light Railway , and employed himself as consulting engineer . The railway became a showcase for his ideas . Five 0 @-@ 8 @-@ 4T locomotives , with even distribution of axle load , were constructed to Calthrop 's specification by Kitson & Co . The goods rolling stock was constructed on common 25 by 7 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m × 2 @.@ 1 m ) pressed steel underframes , reducing tare weight and maximising potential wagon loads . Calthrop recognised the importance of railways in warfare , and designed the rolling stock to facilitate the movement of troops and equipment . Rolling stock rode on pressed @-@ steel Fox bogies , using the Timmis system of double coiled springs . The line was constructed with rail inclination , then a new idea , which involves tilting the rail a few degrees to make its surface more nearly parallel with that of the tyre . Inclination is now applied universally to railways . The rolling stock could accept 100 @-@ foot ( 30 @.@ 48 m ) radius curves .
Prior to shipment of the rolling stock to India , Calthrop and the Leeds Forge Company , manufacturer of the rolling stock , conducted tests on a specially built test track located at Newlay , near Leeds . The line was opened for inspection by railway officials and journalists , and a number of reports were published in the technical railway press .
The Barsi Light Railway opened in 1897 , and was extended on a number of occasions until it reached a total length of 202 miles ( 325 km ) in 1927 . The example of the Barsi Light Railway is regarded as having revolutionised the narrow gauge railway system of Indian subcontinent , and the railway was immensely successful , establishing Calthrop as one of the leading figures in the field . Calthrop remained Consulting Engineer until he retired due to ill health two years prior to his death . The Barsi Light Railway continued to be operated as a privately owned railway until 1954 when it was purchased by the Indian government , and continued to operate as a narrow gauge railway until conversion to broad gauge began in the late 1990s as part of Indian Railways conversion program for all metre and narrow gauge lines .
= = Involvement in other railways = =
With the success of the Barsi Light Railway , Calthrop was in demand as a consultant for other narrow gauge railway projects .
= = = Barbados Railway = = =
The Barbados Railway opened in 1883 as a 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 067 mm ) gauge railway from Bridgetown to St Andrew , Barbados . By 1897 the railway and its rolling stock was in very poor condition . Further much of the railway had been constructed with rail too light for the railway 's locomotives . A new company was established in 1898 to rebuild and operate the railway , and Calthrop was engaged as consulting engineer . Calthrop arranged for the railway to be rebuilt in 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge , and had Baldwin Locomotive Works build four new locomotives , two 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 2T 's , an 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T and an 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T .
= = = Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway = = =
Calthrop appeared at the Light Railway Inquiry for the Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway on 3 – 4 August 1897 and spoke particularly on the proposed open level crossings and the use of transporter wagons . Calthrop claimed it only took 3 minutes to transfer wagons , based on his experience on the Barsi Light Railway . However the Order was not made until 8 September 1899 and in early 1900 the proprietors reached agreement with the Cambrian Railways to build the line . Their engineer , Alfred J. Collins , took charge of the engineering requirements , with consequent conservative 4 @-@ wheel wagons and other provisions .
= = = Victorian Railways narrow gauge lines = = =
In 1898 Calthrop corresponded with the government of the colony of Victoria , Australia , regarding proposals for the construction of narrow gauge lines in that colony . Subsequently on his advice the gauge of the railways as built was changed from 2 ft ( 610 mm ) to 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) .
= = = Fayoum Light Railway = = =
Calthrop was appointed to advise on engineering matters for this 750 mm ( 2 ft 5 1 ⁄ 2 in ) gauge Egyptian light railway , construction of which began in 1898 . The railway comprised seven , mostly roadside , branch lines with a total length of 97 miles ( 156 km ) . The Fayoum Light Railway served an irrigation district south of Cairo , centred on the provincial capital of Medinet @-@ el @-@ Fayum . Calthrop used pictures of rolling stock from the railway to illustrate a chapter he wrote for the book Pioneer Irrigation and Light Railways .
= = = Serbian Narrow Gauge Railways = = =
Calthrop was one of several foreign concessionaires involved with the initial development of 760 mm ( 2 ft 5 15 ⁄ 16 in ) Bosnian gauge gauge railways in Serbia after 1898 .
= = = Cleobury Mortimer and Ditton Priors Light Railway = = =
The Cleobury Mortimer and Ditton Priors Light Railway was a 12 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 19 @.@ 8 km ) long standard gauge branch line linking the Great Western Railway at Cleobury Mortimer in Shropshire with mineral deposits in the Clee Hills . Calthrop was appointed Consulting Engineer in 1900 , responsible for surveying the route and preparing the construction plans .
= = = Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway = = =
In the United Kingdom Calthrop is most associated with the Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway . The line had been promoted under the Light Railways Act , and the initial plan was to build a railway of 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge to be powered by electricity . Under the influence of one of the Light Railway Commissioners the company directors commissioned a report on the proposed line from Calthrop in mid @-@ 1900 . In early December the railway 's engineer died , and on 19 December 1900 the Directors sat down to consider both a replacement and Calthrop 's report . Calthrop proposed specifications for the line which would result in substantial savings in construction costs , and so he was offered the position of engineer , which he promptly accepted .
Calthrop constructed the line for £ 35 @,@ 944 , £ 11 @,@ 000 less than the original estimate . He had Kitson & Co construct two 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T locomotives , similar in outline but smaller than the Barsi Light Railway locomotives . Goods rolling stock included four coaches , two bogie open wagons and one bogie van , once again similar to Barsi stock . He also introduced four transporter wagons , designed to transport standard gauge wagons . Each station on route had a short section of standard gauge track where the wagons could be placed . The use of transporter wagons eliminated transshipment , and removed the need for large numbers of goods wagons .
= = = Matheran Light Railway = = =
The Matheran Light Railway is a mountain railway near Mumbai , India , and opened in 1905 . Unusually for a railway for which Caltrhrop was consulting engineer , it was of 2 ft ( 610 mm ) gauge , with tight curves and 1 in 20 ( 5 % ) grades . Calthrop designed a 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T with Klein @-@ Linder articulated coupled axles to provide a flexible wheelbase , and four were supplied by Orenstein & Koppel . Calthrop 's firm also supplied the wagon stock and the points and crossings for the railway .
= = = Arakan Light Railway = = =
In 1910 Calthrop was engaged as consulting engineer by the promoters of a new railway between Buthidaung and Maungdaw in Burma , later known as the Arakan Light Railway . Calthrop had the proposed gauge changed from 2 ft ( 610 mm ) narrow gauge to 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) narrow gauge . For this railway Calthrop had built two 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 + 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 Garratt locomotives , to which he had attached plates reading " E.R.Calthrop 's System of Narrow Gauge Mountain Railways " . Calthrop was an early adopter of the Garratt type , this being the ninth order for Garratts taken by Beyer @-@ Peacock , and the smallest Garratt design ever built by them .
= = Patents for parachutes = =
Calthrop was a close personal friend of Charles Rolls , of Rolls @-@ Royce fame . Rolls was a pioneer aviator , being the first man to fly across the English Channel in both directions . On 12 July 1910 Calthrop accompanied him to the Bournemouth International Aviation Meeting , and was present when Rolls died after he lost control of his biplane and crashed . That and a similar , non @-@ fatal , accident involving his son Tev , led Calthrop to believe that a parachute could be used to save pilots in similar circumstances .
In 1913 he patented his first parachute . As World War I progressed he continued to develop his parachute . In 1915 he offered it to the Royal Flying Corps , and successful tests were completed at the time . An unofficial report offered the opinion that parachutes " might impair the fighting spirit of pilots " and the offer was rejected . Calthrop was encouraged to remain quiet about his invention , but faced with increasing losses of pilots he publicised the parachute in 1917 . Despite a campaign by some pilots , the Royal Flying Corps declined to introduce parachutes during World War One , although air forces of most other nations did so .
Calthrops " Guardian Angel " parachute received much praise and was used during the war to drop agents behind enemy lines . In October 1918 an article on use of parachutes stated that the " Guardian Angel " was one of the best known and that " balloonists can take their perilous leap , when attacked by a Hun scout , with real confidence in a safe landing " . By 1918 it was known that the Germans were fully aware of Calthrop 's work , and supplied their pilots with a similar design . However when the Royal Air Force finally adopted parachutes after the war , they chose an American design .
In 1916 Calthrop also patented an ejector seat for aircraft using compressed air .
= = Private life = =
During his time in India , Calthrop made occasional trips back to Britain . On one such trip he married Isabel Mary Earle , the daughter of the Reverend Walter Earle , a friend of his parents . The wedding took place on 19 November 1890 at the Bilton Parish Church , Rugby . They had four children , Everard Earle ( Tev , b . 1892 ) , Keith de Suffield ( b . 1894 ) , Isabelle Iris ( b . 1895 ) , and Betty Marion ( b . 1899 ) . Tev joined the army and became a Colonel in the Royal Engineers , while Keith , after a stint in the Royal Engineers went on to become Assistant General Manager and Mechanical Engineer of the Barsi Light Railway , a post he held until 1932 .
Calthrop had a great interest in breeding Arabian horses . Following the long @-@ term rental of a villa in Goldings Road , Loughton , Essex , he purchased a permanent home , Goldings , at Clays Lane in Loughton , with stables and 40 acres ( 160 @,@ 000 m2 ) of grounds . It was here that he bred his horses and developed his theories of horse training . Calthrop rejected the cruel methods of breaking horses common in that era , and practiced gentle methods . Such was his concern for his horses that he had them humanely destroyed rather than have them commandeered by the British army at the start of the First World War . After the war he was able to return to his horses , and wrote an authoritative book , The Horse , as Comrade and Friend , published in 1920 . Calthrop was a prominent member of the Arab Horse Society , and received commendations for his stallion , Fitz , at its first show in 1919 .
Developing and promoting his parachute had left Calthrop drained , both financially and physically . Failing health forced him to resign his position as consulting engineer for the Barsi Railway in 1925 , although he remained a director . Calthrop died at his Paddington , London , home on 30 March 1927 , in the company of his son , Tev . He was seventy years old .
Calthrop is commemorated by a blue plaque on Goldings , unveiled in June 2008 .
= = Other narrow gauge pioneers = =
Paul Decauville
Robert Fairlie
Abraham Fitzgibbon
Thomas Hall
Carl Abraham Pihl
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= Winter Is Coming =
" Winter Is Coming " is the first episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones . It was written by the show creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , in a faithful adaptation of the first chapters of George R. R. Martin 's book A Game of Thrones . The episode was directed by Tim Van Patten , redoing the work done by director Thomas McCarthy in an unaired pilot .
As the first episode of the series , it introduces the setting and the main characters of the show . The episode centers on the Stark family , and how its lord , Eddard Stark , gets involved in the court politics after the king chooses Eddard to replace his recently deceased chief administrator ( " Hand of the King " ) . The episode received largely positive reviews , and was seen initially by 2 @.@ 2 million viewers . A week before the episode first aired , HBO made the first 15 minutes available as an Internet preview .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins the process of interweaving action happening in multiple separate locations within and around the fictional continent of Westeros . Most of the action takes place in and around Winterfell where Lord Eddard Stark ( Sean Bean ) is the feudal overlord of the northern reaches of the kingdom . Outside of Westeros is a land across the Narrow Sea where the two surviving members of House Targaryen , previous rulers of Westeros , live in exile .
= = = Beyond the Wall = = =
The episode opens with three rangers of the Night 's Watch - Ser Waymar Royce ( Rob Ostlere ) , Will ( Bronson Webb ) and Gared ( Dermot Keaney ) - scouting beyond the Wall , a massive barrier of ice at the north end of the kingdom . After finding the mutilated corpses of some wildlings ( tribal humans who live north of the Wall ) , the rangers are confronted by White Walkers ( demonic creatures ) and undead wildlings . Two of the rangers are killed by the White Walkers , while the third , Will , is for some reason left alive . Fearing for his life , Will deserts the Night 's Watch .
= = = In King 's Landing = = =
Queen Cersei ( Lena Headey ) , and her twin brother , Jaime Lannister ( Nikolaj Coster @-@ Waldau ) , are watching as the dead body of Jon Arryn , The Hand of The King ( John Standing ) is tended to by the Silent Sisters . They discuss whether he revealed any dangerous information regarding the two of them to anyone before his death . Jaime assures his sister that if Arryn had spoken to anyone , they would already have been executed .
= = = In the North = = =
After the opening sequence , the Starks of Winterfell are introduced , including Lord Eddard " Ned " Stark , his wife , Lady Catelyn " Cat " Stark ( Michelle Fairley ) and his five children : their heir Robb ( Richard Madden ) , their elder daughter Sansa ( Sophie Turner ) , younger daughter Arya ( Maisie Williams ) , ten @-@ year @-@ old son Bran ( Isaac Hempstead @-@ Wright ) and youngest son , Rickon ( Art Parkinson ) . Also introduced are Ned 's illegitimate son Jon Snow ( Kit Harington ) and hostage / ward Theon Greyjoy ( Alfie Allen ) , who , like Robb , are older teenagers .
Ned is informed that a deserter of the Night 's Watch , Will , has been captured . Members of the Night 's Watch are sworn never to desert their posts , upon penalty of death . Ned takes his sons to witness Will 's execution . Will faces death bravely , admitting that he deserted the Wall after being attacked , but stands by his statement that he saw White Walkers . Ned himself passes sentence and beheads him . When Bran asks his father about the ranger 's talk of White Walkers , Ned dismisses it as a madman 's ravings , insisting that the Walkers have been considered extinct for thousands of years .
Upon their return , the Starks find a dead stag , sigil ( seal ) of House Baratheon . A bit farther they find a dead dire wolf and her surviving pups . Noting that the dire wolf is the sigil of the Stark family and there are as many pups as the Stark children ( even an albino runt for Jon ) , they take the pups in as companions .
Back at Winterfell , Catelyn informs her husband of a letter announcing the death of Lord Arryn , Eddard 's old mentor and Catelyn 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . An additional message , brought by a raven , reports that the king himself is coming to Winterfell . Winterfell receives the royal court , including King Robert Baratheon ( Mark Addy ) ; his wife Queen Cersei ; their three children : the heir Prince Joffrey ( Jack Gleeson ) , Princess Myrcella ( Aimee Richardson ) and the youngest Prince Tommen ( Callum Wharry ) ; as well as Cersei 's twin brother , Jaime Lannister , a member of the Kingsguard ; and their younger brother , Tyrion Lannister ( Peter Dinklage ) , a dwarf known as " The Imp . " As Robert pays his respects to Lyanna Stark , his late fiancée and Ned 's sister , Robert confides to his old friend that he doesn 't trust anyone around him . He decides to name Ned as the new Hand of the King , and to solidify the alliance between the two families , he suggests that Ned 's daughter , Sansa , be betrothed to his son , Joffrey .
At night , Catelyn receives a troubling message from her sister , Lord Arryn 's widow . She suspects her husband Jon was murdered by the king 's in @-@ laws , the powerful Lannisters . Ned , who at first was reluctant to accept the position of Hand of the King , does so in order to protect his old friend . Bran , who enjoys climbing the walls of Winterfell , climbs an abandoned tower where he stumbles on Queen Cersei and Jaime having sex . To keep the incestuous relationship a secret , Jaime shoves Bran out of the high window .
= = = In Pentos = = =
Exiled prince Viserys Targaryen ( Harry Lloyd ) plots to overthrow King Robert and reclaim his father 's throne . To this end , he brokers a marriage between his sister Daenerys ( Emilia Clarke ) and a powerful warlord Khal Drogo ( Jason Momoa ) , leader of a nomadic horde of Dothraki .
Daenerys voices her fear of the barbarian lord , but her brother tells her to marry him . During the wedding ceremony , Daenerys is given two wedding gifts . The first is a collection of books from the Seven Kingdoms , given by Ser Jorah Mormont ( Iain Glen ) , an exiled knight loyal to the Targaryens . The second gift is a chest containing three petrified dragon eggs , given by Magister Illyrio Mopatis ( Roger Allam ) , the man who helped arrange the marriage .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and development = = =
A number of Hollywood studios had contacted George R.R. Martin about possible adaption of his book series A Song of Ice and Fire into a film , however Martin expressed the opinion the books could not be made into a film as too much would have to be cut from the books , but thought it could be made into a television series . In January 2006 , David Benioff spoke to Martin 's literary agent about the books he represented for possible adaption , and the agent sent the first four books of A Song of Fire and Ice to David Benioff . Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first book in the series , A Game of Thrones , called D. B. Weiss and said : " Maybe I ’ m crazy , but I haven ’ t had this much fun reading anything in about 20 years . So take a look because I think it might make a great HBO series . " Weiss , who then read the first book in two days , was very enthusiastic about a possible television project based on the books . They arranged a meeting with George RR Martin , who asked them if they knew who Jon Snow ’ s real mother might be , and was satisfied with their answer .
In March 2006 , a few weeks after meeting Martin , Benioff and Weiss pitched the show to Showtime and Carolyn Strauss of HBO , who accepted their proposal . HBO acquired the rights to the novels to turn them into a television series , with Benioff and Weiss as writers and executive producers of the series . The series went into development in January 2007 . The series would begin with the 1996 first book of A Song of Fire and Ice , " A Game of Thrones " , with the intention that each novel in the series would form the basis for a season 's worth of episodes . However , Benioff and Weiss had to resubmit a proposal after Carolyn Strauss stepped down as president of HBO in 2008 . The first and second drafts of the pilot script , written by Benioff and Weiss , were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008 respectively . While HBO found both drafts to their liking , a pilot was not ordered until November 2008 .
= = = Writing = = =
Scripted by the show creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , the first episode includes the plot of the book 's chapters 1 – 7 , 9 and 12 ( Prologue , Bran I , Catelyn I , Daenerys I , Eddard I , Jon I , Catelyn II , Bran II , Daenerys II ) . Changes in the adaptation include the sequence of events in the prologue ( in the books it is Gared and not Will who survives and is beheaded by Eddard afterwards ) , new scenes showing the Lannister twins ' perspective , and Daenerys ' wedding night showing Drogo not waiting for her to consent to sex .
= = = Filming = = =
Tom McCarthy was chosen to direct the pilot episode , shot between 24 October and 19 November 2009 on location in Northern Ireland , Scotland and Morocco . However , the pilot was deemed unsatisfactory and had to be reshot .
The new pilot episode was filmed in 2010 by new director Tim Van Patten , and several actors appearing in the original pilot did not return for the series . Tamzin Merchant was replaced as Daenerys Targaryen by Emilia Clarke , and Jennifer Ehle was replaced as Catelyn Stark by Michelle Fairley . Additionally , Ian McNeice was replaced as Magister Illyrio by Roger Allam , Richard Ridings as Gared by Dermot Keaney , and Jamie Campbell Bower as Ser Waymar Royce by Rob Ostlere .
Another difference is that the original pilot featured scenes shot in Scotland and scenes in Pentos were shot in Morocco , but in the aired series , Winterfell was filmed in a combination of locations in Northern Ireland , while scenes from Pentos were from Malta . The Doune Castle in Scotland was originally used to recreate Winterfell , and its great hall was used for some interior shots . Some scenes survived , but as it was not practical to return to Scotland for the reshoot , an exact replica of Doune 's Great Hall was recreated in the soundstage in Belfast for the series . Castle Ward in Northern Ireland was used in the reshoot to film King Robert 's entourage entry into Winterfell castle . A car park stood in for the Winterfell castle 's courtyard and a wine cellar for the Stark family crypt . The Tollymore Forest Park was used for the opening scene of the encounter with the White Walkers .
All the scenes shot in Morocco were reshot in Malta . The original pilot reused the sets of Kingdom of Heaven in Morocco to stand in for Pentos and the site of Drogo and Daenerys ' wedding . In Malta , the Verdala Palace , the 16th century summer palace of the president of Malta , was used for the exterior scenes at Illyrio 's mansion . The Azure Window was used as the backdrop for the wedding . Filming at the Azure Window however caused some controversy when a protected ecosystem was damaged by a subcontractor .
In the sex scene , the then @-@ pregnant Lena Headey was substituted by a body double ; the production hid her pregnancy for the rest of the season . In the scene in which the Starks encounter a stag killed by a dire wolf as they return from the execution , an actual animal was used rather than a prop . As the stag had been dead for two days , it stank so much that the actors had to take much care not to let it show on their faces . Some scenes filmed were never aired , for the example a flashback to the death of Eddard Stark 's brother , and the death of Jon Arryn .
= = = The original pilot = = =
The original pilot from 2009 was poorly received in a private viewing with friends , one of whom , Craig Mazin , said to Benioff and Weiss , " You guys have a massive problem " , and said " change everything " when asked for ideas . Weiss said of the viewing : " Watching them watch the pilot was a deeply humiliating , painful experience , because these are very smart individuals , and it just clearly wasn ’ t working for any of them on a very basic level . " For example , it was never established that the two major characters , Jaime and Cersei Lannister were in fact brother and sister , a major plot point .
HBO did not make a decision for four months after the pilot was delivered . In March 2010 , HBO 's decision to greenlight the series including the pilot was announced , with the production of the series scheduled to start June 2010 . HBO however demanded extensive reshoot of the pilot , and wanted all the scenes from Morocco scrapped . A cameo appearance by George RR Martin as a Pentoshi nobleman at Daenerys ' wedding filmed in Morocco was therefore also cut . In all 90 percent of the pilot was re @-@ shot in 2010 , with some cast changes and a different director .
= = = Aired episode = = =
The original pilot remained unaired , although some footage from the original pilot was used in the first aired episode . This includes Sansa 's scenes with Catelyn ( Michelle Fairley 's footage as Catelyn was inserted over Jennifer Ehle 's performance ) , Will 's ride through the woods ( retained though also portrayed by a different actor ) , most of the feast at Winterfell , and Ned and Robert 's scene in the crypt . That scene is one of a few to be filmed on 35 mm film , and consequently slight film grain can be seen in the HD version of the episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Preview = = =
On April 3 , 2011 , two weeks before the series premiere aired , the first 15 minutes of " Winter Is Coming " were released as a preview on HBO 's website . Wired 's Dave Banks called the preview " much better than anticipated . ( How ’ s that even possible ? ) " Scott Stinson of Toronto 's National Post noted that " you know you aren ’ t watching a network drama when there have been two beheadings in the first 15 minutes . "
= = = Ratings = = =
The first episode of Game of Thrones obtained 2 @.@ 2 million viewers in its premiere airing , with an additional 2 million viewers in the reruns aired during the same night . The day after the premiere HBO aired the episode six additional times , adding another 1 @.@ 2 million to the viewer 's figures . Reruns aired during the following week upped the total viewership to 6 @.@ 8 million .
= = = International = = =
The show premiered on HBO Canada at the same time as its U.S. premiere . On April 18 , 2011 , the show premiered in United Kingdom and Ireland through Sky Atlantic , gathering 750 @,@ 000 viewers , a ratings record for the network . The series was broadcast throughout Latin America beginning on May 8 , 2011 . New Zealand 's Dominion Post noted in an article on copyright laws that the popular series was downloaded via file sharing service regularly before its release to that market . In Australia , the July 17 premiere of the series was largely overshadowed by the release of A Dance with Dragons , but according to The Sydney Morning Herald was successful " especially with women , who aren 't seen as a target market for sword @-@ fighting sagas " .
= = = Critical response = = =
The critical response to the first episode of the series was positive . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 10 reviews of the episode and judged 100 % of them to be positive . The website 's critical consensus reads , " ' Winter is Coming ' is an introduction to a wonderfully bleak journey that honors its source material with stellar execution and an impressive cast . " James Poniewozik from Time considered it an " epic win , " and Jace Lacob from The Daily Beast deemed it " unforgettable . " HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall wrote that while it was too early to say if Game of Thrones belonged to the HBO pantheon with shows like The Sopranos or The Wire , it had many things in common with those shows . IGN 's Matt Fowler wrote that the pilot " effortlessly takes us along , faithfully , through the book , but it also manages to capture the majestically morbid spirit of Martin 's pages and turn them into thrilling television . "
Much praise was given to the production values and the acting : Scott Meslow from The Atlantic states that " the show 's immense cast is almost universally strong , and the fantasy land of Westeros feels lived @-@ in , and looks terrific . " Alan Sepinwall also qualifies the casting as " really exceptional , " and states that the show is " feast for the eyes , " with all the different locations having their own memorable looks . The opening sequence , with an aerial view of the world where the series takes place with the different settings emerging from it , was also acclaimed .
On April 19 , less than two days after the initial airing , HBO announced that the series had been renewed for a second season . In a press teleconference , HBO executives announced their satisfaction with initial ratings , which they compared favorably to True Blood .
= = = Accolades = = =
Tim Van Patten received a 2011 Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series , and the episode was also nominated for Outstanding Makeup for a Single @-@ Camera Series ( Non @-@ Prosthetic ) .
= = = = Awards and nominations = = = =
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= Mick Harvey ( umpire ) =
Clarence Edgar ( Mick ) Harvey , ( born 17 March 1921 at Newcastle , New South Wales ) , is a former first @-@ class cricketer and Australian Test cricket umpire . He was the brother of Test batsmen Merv and Neil Harvey .
Harvey made his first @-@ class debut in 1948 – 49 , playing in the first three matches of the season for Victoria as an opening batsman . However , he was unproductive , scoring only 91 runs at a batting average of 15 @.@ 16 , and was dropped . He moved to Queensland the following season in search of more opportunities and was selected in one match .
Harvey had his best first @-@ class season in 1950 – 51 , scoring 490 runs at 37 @.@ 69 , including his maiden first @-@ class century against a full @-@ strength New South Wales team with several Test bowlers . However , he struggled the following season and was dropped , and did not play a single first @-@ class match in 1952 – 53 . Recalled the following season , he overcame a slow start to score two centuries later in the summer to end with 421 runs at 38 @.@ 27 for the summer . After a poor season , Harvey was dropped late in the 1955 – 56 season .
Harvey was dropped after two matches in 1956 – 57 , ending his first @-@ class career . After his playing career was over , Harvey took up umpiring , and made his first @-@ class debut in 1974 – 75 . He became a regular official over the next few seasons and then broke into international umpiring in 1978 – 79 . In that summer , Harvey stood in two One Day Internationals ( ODIs ) and one Test . The following season he made his final appearances at international level , presiding over another Test and four ODIs . His last season of top @-@ level domestic umpiring was in 1981 – 82 during which he officiated in two matches . He finished his career having presided over 31 first @-@ class and 13 List A matches .
= = Early years = =
Mick 's father Horace " Horry " Harvey moved to Broken Hill , New South Wales where he worked for BHP driving horse @-@ drawn trailers . In 1914 , he married Elsie May Bitmead and their first two children , daughter Rita and son Merv , were born in the mining town . The family relocated to Newcastle , a mining town and harbour in New South Wales , where Clarence Edgar Harvey — always known as Mick , as he was born on Saint Patrick ’ s Day — and Harold were born . In 1926 , the Harveys shifted to the inner @-@ Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy , a staunchly working @-@ class , industrial area . During their relocation , Ray was born in Sydney . Horace secured a job at the confectionery company Life Savers ( Australasia ) Ltd , located next door to their house at 198 Argyle Street . The 19th century two @-@ storey house was owned by the firm and was used as lodgings for the workers ’ families . It no longer exists , having been demolished to make way for a textile factory . The two youngest sons Neil and Brian were born in Fitzroy . The Cornish @-@ descended Horry raised his family as strict Methodists , disallowing gambling , alcohol , tobacco and profanity in his household . An ardent cricketer , he encouraged his children to play sport . He himself played for the Rita Social Club after moving to Fitzroy .
As recreational facilities and grass ovals were sparse in densely populated Fitzroy , the boys took to playing cricket in a cobblestone laneway between their terraced house . Here they played cricket with a tennis ball , home made cricket bat and a kerosene tin for a wicket . They were usually joined by other local children , two of whom became elite sportsmen : Allan Ruthven ( an Australian rules footballer ) and Harold Shillinglaw ( both an Australian rules footballer and first @-@ class cricketer ) — the group also played Australian rules football , kicking around rolled up cardboard and newspaper . Much of the batting skill displayed by the Harvey brothers has been attributed to these games played on the unpredictable bounce of the bumpy laneway . The surface also had a V @-@ shaped slope inwards towards the centre of the lane , causing balls to deviate sideways after bouncing . As the laneway meant that the playing area was long and narrow , the young boys also had to learn to play the ball straight in accordance with orthodox cricket technique . The Harveys played another form of cricket in their concreted backyard using a marble instead of a ball that sharpened their reflexes , and a miniature bat . All were right @-@ handed batsmen with the exception of Neil .
All of the children attended the nearby George Street State School and , one by one , the brothers joined the Fitzroy Cricket Club as they reached their early teens . The club had a program whereby they gave a medal for every local school to award to the best cricketer in their ranks in that year . The successful student would then be given access to all of the club 's facilities . All of the Harvey brothers were recipients were of this medal . At Fitzroy , they came under the influence of former Victorian all @-@ rounder Arthur Liddicut and the club ’ s veteran captain Joe Plant . The Harveys had no formal coaching , and their father , although a regular presence at the club , chose to stay in the background as their respective careers developed . Horace did not advise his sons on how to bat , allowing them to formulate their own style and technique . According to the Harvey brothers , it was their mother who was vocal and extroverted , in contrast to their reserved father . The boys who failed to score runs were given kitchen duty , and according to them , their parents never showed favouritism .
During the winter , they played baseball for Fitzroy , often competing in matches played as curtain raisers to the elite Australian rules football competition , the Victorian Football League . Saturday night entertainment for the family typically consisted of dinner after the day ’ s cricket matches for Fitzroy , and Plant , Liddicut and other cricket club personnel were often invited . Under the influence of Plant and Liddicut , the boys were taught to adopt an aggressive approach , using fast feet movement to attack spin bowling in particular .
= = World War II and first @-@ class debut = =
A printer by trade , Harvey first played in the Fitzroy First XI in 1938 – 39 . Mick opened the batting with Merv , and in 1942 – 43 , when Neil broke into the First XI , the family occupied the first four batting positions for the team ; Merv and Mick opened and Ray and Neil came in after them . During World War II , Harvey enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force at Fitzroy on 4 March 1943 and was a member of the 39th Infantry Battalion and went on to serve in Kokoda . He was discharged on 29 March 1946 with the rank of private . He resumed cricket with Fitzroy at the war ’ s end and made enough runs to be selected for Victoria ’ s first three Sheffield Shield matches of the 1948 – 49 season . Playing as an opening batsman , he made 10 and 13 on debut against Queensland , and was trapped leg before wicket ( lbw ) in both innings in an eight @-@ wicket win . In the next match against New South Wales , who boasted Australia ’ s new ball opening bowlers Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller , Harvey made 19 and 33 in a drawn match . In the subsequent match against South Australia , he made 4 and 12 , again being trapped lbw in both innings . The 1948 – 49 season was purely domestic with no touring Test team , so all of Australia ’ s international representatives were available for the whole season . Having scored only 91 runs at a batting average of 15 @.@ 16 , Harvey was dropped from the team . He did not play alongside Ray , who was dropped , and Merv , who had retired . It was Harvey 's last season for Fitzroy , and in 90 first @-@ grade matches , he scored 2 @,@ 601 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 24 .
= = Move to Queensland = =
At the time , Queensland were the least successful team in the Sheffield Shield , and Harvey moved north to Brisbane the following season to try to get more opportunities to play Sheffield Shield cricket . Harvey joined the Toombul grade club , and made his first @-@ class debut for Queensland against Victoria late in the season , although none of his brothers played for Victoria in this match ; Merv had already retired , Neil was representing Australia , and Ray had been dropped . In his only match for the summer , he scored 1 and 13 and took two catches in each innings as an opener . He was dropped after the match .
In 1950 – 51 , his most prolific first @-@ class season , he hit 490 runs at 37 @.@ 69 for Queensland . The season started with consecutive matches against a full @-@ strength New South Wales , who had an attack including Lindwall , Miller , Alan Walker and Alan Davidson . In the first match , in Brisbane , Harvey made 40 and 19 batting at No. 7 before being dismissed by Davidson and Lindwall respectively . The visitors won by an innings .
In the return match at the Sydney Cricket Ground , Harvey was promoted to bat at No. 3 . He made 38 in the first innings before being dismissed by Walker . Harvey broke through for his maiden first @-@ class century in the second innings , scoring an unbeaten 100 . Queensland declared at 4 / 237 as soon as he reached his milestone , only to see the hosts reach the victory target of 225 with all ten wickets intact .
Harvey played against an international outfit for the first time in the following match against the touring England cricket team , but made only three in his solitary innings . However , he continued to score consistently , making a half @-@ century in each of the next three matches . From the third of these matches — against South Australia — onwards , he generally opened the batting for Queensland . On his first innings back as an opener , he narrowly missed a century , being dismissed for 95 by Geff Noblet . However , it was enough for the Queenslanders to take a 162 @-@ run first innings lead in a low @-@ scoring match in which only one team surpassed 240 once , and set up an eight @-@ wicket victory , the only time his state won a match for the season . Harvey ’ s performance tapered away in the last two matches of the season . He made only 0 and 2 in the last match against Victoria , and 48 runs in his last four innings .
Harvey started the 1951 – 52 season poorly , scoring 9 and 5 against a full @-@ strength New South Wales team . In the following match , he made 90 in the first innings as Queensland defeated the touring West Indies by ten wickets . Harvey was sidelined for six weeks before returning in late December against Victoria . He struggled in this match and the next against New South Wales , scoring 9 , 20 , 9 and 3 . In the next match , he made 46 in the first innings before managing only five in the second , against South Australia . Nor did Queensland have success in these three matches . They were one wicket away from victory in the first match when time ran out , and lost the other two . Harvey was dropped for the remainder of the season , ending with 196 runs at 21 @.@ 77 .
Harvey was overlooked for Queensland selection for the whole 1952 – 53 season . He was recalled at the start of the 1953 – 54 campaign and made 26 and 20 in the first match against New South Wales , failing to convert his starts into big scores . He was retained despite making 15 and 0 in the next match against Victoria , but scored only 1 in the first innings of the match against South Australia starting on Christmas Day . Victoria were set 329 for victory , and having made only 62 runs in five innings for the season so far , he was the mainstay of the innings , scoring 102 , but his team were all out for 245 .
The century saw Harvey retained in the side and started a productive second half of the season . He made 2 and 58 in the next match starting on New Year ’ s Day , against New South Wales . Harvey then made 84 in the only innings of a drawn match against Victoria , before scoring 111 in an innings win against Western Australia . It was the first time in over two years that Harvey had played in a victorious Queensland side . He made only 2 in the final match of the season against South Australia to end with 421 runs at 38 @.@ 27 for the summer .
= = Decline = =
Harvey continued his good form at the start of the 1954 – 55 season , scoring 90 and 9 in the opening match against New South Wales . He then made 49 and 9 against the touring England cricket team of Len Hutton . In the Christmas match against South Australia , Harvey failed to capitalise on his starts , making 31 and 35 as Queensland won by 34 runs . The following week , he made only 0 and 3 not out in the New Year ’ s match against New South Wales . He finished the truncated season with only 16 in the following match against Victoria , ending the summer with 242 runs at 30 @.@ 25 .
Harvey had a poor season in 1955 – 56 . He scored only 37 runs in six completed innings in the first three matches . In the next match against Western Australia , he made only 8 in the first innings but scored 70 not out in the second innings as his team ’ s run @-@ chase petered away to a draw , and he retained his position in the team . He then made 17 and 28 in the next match against South Australia , run out in the latter innings after making a start . After making 10 and 20 in the next match against New South Wales , he was dropped for the remainder of the season , having made only 190 runs at 17 @.@ 27 for the season .
Recalled at the start of the 1956 – 57 season , Harvey made 40 and 28 in his first match of the summer against New South Wales , but after scoring only 2 and 2 not out against Western Australia in the next match , he was dropped for the final time .
Noted for his sound defence , he was a patient and dogged batsman , in contrast to the exciting styles of brothers Merv , Ray and Neil . According to Neil , Mick had a weakness against spin bowling . Harvey was a rare bowler during his first @-@ class career . He bowled only five overs in total , delivering one over in five different matches . He never took a wicket . Altogether , he made 1 @,@ 716 first @-@ class runs ( mostly as an opener ) in 37 matches at an average of 27 @.@ 23 . Harvey was also a regular choice for the Queensland baseball team during his career . His daughter Pauline Harvey @-@ Short represented Australia at softball , before becoming a sports administrator . She is a fellow of the Australian Council for Health , Physical Education and Recreation , and was a founding member of Womensport Queensland in 1993 , serving as the chair of the board from 2007 until 2010 . Her daughter Kirby Short plays cricket for the Queensland women 's team .
= = Umpiring career = =
After his retirement as a player , Harvey took up umpiring . His initial first @-@ class match was in 1974 – 75 , when he officiated in Queensland ’ s home match against Victoria late in the season ; at the time the host team provided both umpires . The following year , he was selected for four first @-@ class matches , one of which was against the touring West Indies . He also officiated in his first List A match , presiding over the final of Australia 's domestic limited @-@ overs tournament , which Queensland hosted against Western Australia . The following two seasons were similar ; Harvey stood in four first @-@ class matches including one against a touring international team , and one List A match , both of which were quarter @-@ finals .
In 1978 – 79 , Harvey ’ s appointments increased . Harvey stood in all of Queensland 's five home Shield matches , as well as their match against the touring Englishmen . He stood in one List A match involving Queensland and was then rewarded with his international debut in the second ODI between Australia and England at the SCG , before presiding over the next ODI at the MCG . At the end of the season , Harvey was selected for the first of his two Tests . The first , played by Australia against Pakistan at the MCG in March 1979 was dramatic . During the run @-@ chase , the Australians were stunned by a spell of 7 wickets for 1 run by Sarfraz Nawaz , just when they looked like winning . Sarfraz ended with 9 / 86 — the other wicket was run out — as Australia collapsed from 3 / 305 to 310 all out to lose by 71 runs . Harvey ’ s partner was Robin Bailhache .
Harvey ’ s other Test match was between Australia and the West Indies at the MCG during the Christmas @-@ New Year period of 1979 – 80 . It was won by the visitors by 10 wickets , with a bowling attack of Andy Roberts , Michael Holding , Colin Croft , and Joel Garner proving too powerful for their hosts . Harvey ’ s colleague was Tony Crafter . Harvey also stood in four ODIs played during the inaugural World Series Cup that season , which involved England , Australia and the West Indies . He presided in three of the round @-@ robin matches , the third of which was between the two visiting teams at the Gabba . It was the only time that Harvey umpired a match at his adopted home ground . He later presided over the first match of the finals series , between the West Indies and England at the MCG . This was his sixth and final appointment at ODI level . Harvey also officiated three Shield matches , Queensland ’ s tour match against England and one of their domestic one @-@ dayers during the season .
The following season , Harvey presided over four of the five home Shield matches , a tour match by India , and a domestic one @-@ dayer , but was overlooked for an international fixture . Harvey ’ s final fixtures were during the 1981 – 82 season . He officiated in two matches hosted by Queensland in November , a Shield match and a one @-@ dayer , both against Queensland . Altogether , he umpired 31 first @-@ class and 13 List A matches in his career . He continued to umpire interstate matches at youth level until 1988 and stood in six finals the first grade of Queensland 's local competition .
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= Schizophrenia =
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal social behavior and failure to understand what is real . Common symptoms include false beliefs , unclear or confused thinking , hearing voices , reduced social engagement and emotional expression , and a lack of motivation . People with schizophrenia often have additional mental health problems such as anxiety disorders , major depressive illness , or substance use disorder . Symptoms typically come on gradually , begin in young adulthood , and last a long time .
The causes of schizophrenia include environmental and genetic factors . Possible environmental factors include being raised in a city , cannabis use , certain infections , parental age , and poor nutrition during pregnancy . Genetic factors include a variety of common and rare genetic variants . Diagnosis is based on observed behavior and the person 's reported experiences . During diagnosis a person 's culture must also be taken into account . As of 2013 there is no objective test . Schizophrenia does not imply a " split personality " or " multiple personality disorder " — a condition with which it has been confused with in public perception .
The mainstay of treatment is antipsychotic medication along with counselling , job training , and social rehabilitation . It is unclear if typical or atypical antipsychotics are better . In those who do not improve with other antipsychotics , clozapine may be used . In more serious cases — where there is risk to self or others — involuntary hospitalization may be necessary , although hospital stays are now shorter and less frequent than they once were .
About 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 7 % of people are affected by schizophrenia during their lifetime . In 2013 there was estimated to be 23 @.@ 6 million cases globally . Males are more often affected than females . About 20 % of people do well and a few recover completely . Social problems , such as long @-@ term unemployment , poverty , and homelessness are common . The average life expectancy of people with the disorder is ten to twenty @-@ five years less than the average . This is the result of increased physical health problems and a higher suicide rate ( about 5 % ) . In 2013 an estimated 16 @,@ 000 people died from behavior related to , or caused by , schizophrenia .
= = Symptoms = =
Individuals with schizophrenia may experience hallucinations ( most reported are hearing voices ) , delusions ( often bizarre or persecutory in nature ) , and disorganized thinking and speech . The last may range from loss of train of thought , to sentences only loosely connected in meaning , to speech that is not understandable known as word salad . Social withdrawal , sloppiness of dress and hygiene , and loss of motivation and judgment are all common in schizophrenia . There is often an observable pattern of emotional difficulty , for example lack of responsiveness . Impairment in social cognition is associated with schizophrenia , as are symptoms of paranoia . Social isolation commonly occurs . Difficulties in working and long @-@ term memory , attention , executive functioning , and speed of processing also commonly occur . In one uncommon subtype , the person may be largely mute , remain motionless in bizarre postures , or exhibit purposeless agitation , all signs of catatonia . About 30 to 50 percent of people with schizophrenia fail to accept that they have an illness or comply with their recommended treatment . Treatment may have some effect on insight . People with schizophrenia often find facial emotion perception to be difficult .
People with schizophrenia may have a high rate of irritable bowel syndrome but they often do not mention it unless specifically asked .
= = = Positive and negative = = =
Schizophrenia is often described in terms of positive and negative ( or deficit ) symptoms . Positive symptoms are those that most individuals do not normally experience , but are present in people with schizophrenia . They can include delusions , disordered thoughts and speech , and tactile , auditory , visual , olfactory and gustatory hallucinations , typically regarded as manifestations of psychosis . Hallucinations are also typically related to the content of the delusional theme . Positive symptoms generally respond well to medication .
Negative symptoms are deficits of normal emotional responses or of other thought processes , and are less responsive to medication . They commonly include flat expressions or little emotion , poverty of speech , inability to experience pleasure , lack of desire to form relationships , and lack of motivation . Negative symptoms appear to contribute more to poor quality of life , functional ability , and the burden on others than do positive symptoms . People with greater negative symptoms often have a history of poor adjustment before the onset of illness , and response to medication is often limited .
= = = Cognitive dysfunction = = =
Deficits in cognitive abilities are widely recognized as a core feature of schizophrenia . The extent of the cognitive deficits an individual experiences is a predictor of how functional an individual will be , the quality of occupational performance , and how successful the individual will be in maintaining treatment . The presence and degree of cognitive dysfunction in individuals with schizophrenia has been reported to be a better indicator of functionality than the presentation of positive or negative symptoms . The deficits impacting the cognitive function are found in a large number of areas : working memory , long @-@ term memory , verbal declarative memory , semantic processing , episodic memory , attention , learning ( particularly verbal learning ) . Deficits in verbal memory are the most pronounced in individuals with schizophrenia , and are not accounted for by deficit in attention . Verbal memory impairment has been linked to a decreased ability in individuals with schizophrenia to semantically encode ( process information relating to meaning ) , which is cited as a cause for another known deficit in long @-@ term memory . When given a list of words , healthy individuals remember positive words more frequently ( known as the Pollyanna principle ) ; however , individuals with schizophrenia tend to remember all words equally regardless of their connotations , suggesting that the experience of anhedonia impairs the semantic encoding of the words . These deficits have been found in individuals before the onset of the illness to some extent . First @-@ degree family members of individuals with schizophrenia and other high @-@ risk individuals also show a degree of deficit in cognitive abilities , and specifically in working memory . A review of the literature on cognitive deficits in individuals with schizophrenia shows that the deficits may be present in early adolescence , or as early as childhood . The deficits which an individual with schizophrenia presents tend to remain the same over time in most patients , or follow an identifiable course based upon environmental variables .
Although the evidence that cognitive deficits remain stable over time is reliable and abundant , much of the research in this domain focuses on methods to improve attention and working memory . Efforts to improve learning ability in individuals with schizophrenia using a high- versus low @-@ reward condition and an instruction @-@ absent or instruction @-@ present condition revealed that increasing reward leads to poorer performance while providing instruction leads to improved performance , highlighting that some treatments may exist to increase cognitive performance . Training individuals with schizophrenia to alter their thinking , attention , and language behaviors by verbalizing tasks , engaging in cognitive rehearsal , giving self @-@ instructions , giving coping statements to the self to handle failure , and providing self @-@ reinforcement for success , significantly improves performance on recall tasks . This type of training , known as self @-@ instructional ( SI ) training , produced benefits such as lower number of nonsense verbalizations and improved recall while distracted .
= = = Onset = = =
Late adolescence and early adulthood are peak periods for the onset of schizophrenia , critical years in a young adult 's social and vocational development . In 40 % of men and 23 % of women diagnosed with schizophrenia , the condition manifested itself before the age of 19 . To minimize the developmental disruption associated with schizophrenia , much work has recently been done to identify and treat the prodromal ( pre @-@ onset ) phase of the illness , which has been detected up to 30 months before the onset of symptoms . Those who go on to develop schizophrenia may experience transient or self @-@ limiting psychotic symptoms and the non @-@ specific symptoms of social withdrawal , irritability , dysphoria , and clumsiness during the prodromal phase .
= = Causes = =
A combination of genetic and environmental factors play a role in the development of schizophrenia . People with a family history of schizophrenia who have a transient psychosis have a 20 – 40 % chance of being diagnosed one year later .
= = = Genetic = = =
Estimates of heritability vary because of the difficulty in separating genetic and environmental influences ; averages of 0 @.@ 80 have been given . The greatest single risk factor for developing schizophrenia is having a first @-@ degree relative with the disease ( risk is 6 @.@ 5 % ) ; more than 40 % of monozygotic twins of those with schizophrenia are also affected . If one parent is affected the risk is about 13 % and if both are affected the risk is nearly 50 % .
Many genes are believed to be involved in schizophrenia , each of small effect and unknown transmission and expression . Many possible candidates have been proposed , including specific copy number variations , NOTCH4 , and histone protein loci . A number of genome @-@ wide associations such as zinc finger protein 804A have also been linked . There appears to be overlap in the genetics of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder . Evidence is emerging that the genetic architecture of schizophrenia involved both common and rare risk variation .
Assuming a hereditary basis , one question from evolutionary psychology is why genes that increase the likelihood of psychosis evolved , assuming the condition would have been maladaptive from an evolutionary point of view . One idea is that genes are involved in the evolution of language and human nature , but to date such ideas remain little more than hypothetical in nature .
= = = Environment = = =
Environmental factors associated with the development of schizophrenia include the living environment , drug use , and prenatal stressors .
Parenting style seems to have no major effect , although people with supportive parents do better than those with critical or hostile parents . Childhood trauma , death of a parent , and being bullied or abused increase the risk of psychosis . Living in an urban environment during childhood or as an adult has consistently been found to increase the risk of schizophrenia by a factor of two , even after taking into account drug use , ethnic group , and size of social group . Other factors that play an important role include social isolation and immigration related to social adversity , racial discrimination , family dysfunction , unemployment , and poor housing conditions .
It has been hypothesised that in some people , development of schizophrenia is related to intestinal tract dysfunction such as seen with non @-@ celiac gluten sensitivity or abnormalities in the intestinal flora . A subgroup of persons with schizophrenia present an immune response to gluten different from that found in people with celiac , with elevated levels of certain serum biomarkers of gluten sensitivity such as anti @-@ gliadin IgG or anti @-@ gliadin IgA antibodies .
= = = = Substance use = = = =
About half of those with schizophrenia use drugs or alcohol excessively . Amphetamine , cocaine , and to a lesser extent alcohol , can result in a transient stimulant psychosis or alcohol @-@ related psychosis that presents very similarly to schizophrenia . Although it is not generally believed to be a cause of the illness , people with schizophrenia use nicotine at much higher rates than the general population .
Alcohol abuse can occasionally cause the development of a chronic , substance @-@ induced psychotic disorder via a kindling mechanism . Alcohol use is not associated with an earlier onset of psychosis .
Cannabis can be a contributory factor in schizophrenia , potentially causing the disease in those who are already at risk . The increased risk may require the presence of certain genes within an individual or may be related to preexisting psychopathology . Early exposure is strongly associated with an increased risk . The size of the increased risk is not clear , but appears to be in the range of two to three times greater for psychosis . Higher dosage and greater frequency of use are indicators of increased risk of chronic psychoses .
Other drugs may be used only as coping mechanisms by individuals who have schizophrenia , to deal with depression , anxiety , boredom , and loneliness .
= = = = Developmental factors = = = =
Factors such as hypoxia and infection , or stress and malnutrition in the mother during fetal development , may result in a slight increase in the risk of schizophrenia later in life . People diagnosed with schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in winter or spring ( at least in the northern hemisphere ) , which may be a result of increased rates of viral exposures in utero . The increased risk is about five to eight percent . Other infections during pregnancy or around the time of birth that may increase the risk include Toxoplasma gondi and Chlamydia .
= = Mechanisms = =
A number of attempts have been made to explain the link between altered brain function and schizophrenia . One of the most common is the dopamine hypothesis , which attributes psychosis to the mind 's faulty interpretation of the misfiring of dopaminergic neurons .
= = = Psychological = = =
Many psychological mechanisms have been implicated in the development and maintenance of schizophrenia . Cognitive biases have been identified in those with the diagnosis or those at risk , especially when under stress or in confusing situations . Some cognitive features may reflect global neurocognitive deficits such as memory loss , while others may be related to particular issues and experiences .
Despite a demonstrated appearance of blunted affect , recent findings indicate that many individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia are emotionally responsive , particularly to stressful or negative stimuli , and that such sensitivity may cause vulnerability to symptoms or to the disorder . Some evidence suggests that the content of delusional beliefs and psychotic experiences can reflect emotional causes of the disorder , and that how a person interprets such experiences can influence symptomatology . The use of " safety behaviors " ( acts such as gestures or the use of words in specific contexts ) to avoid or neutralize imagined threats may actually contribute to the chronicity of delusions . Further evidence for the role of psychological mechanisms comes from the effects of psychotherapies on symptoms of schizophrenia .
= = = Neurological = = =
Schizophrenia is associated with subtle differences in brain structures , found in forty to fifty percent of cases , and in brain chemistry during acute psychotic states . Studies using neuropsychological tests and brain imaging technologies such as fMRI and PET to examine functional differences in brain activity have shown that differences seem to occur most commonly in the frontal lobes , hippocampus and temporal lobes . Reductions in brain volume , smaller than those found in Alzheimer 's disease , have been reported in areas of the frontal cortex and temporal lobes . It is uncertain whether these volumetric changes are progressive or exist prior to the onset of the disease . These differences have been linked to the neurocognitive deficits often associated with schizophrenia . Because neural circuits are altered , it has alternatively been suggested that schizophrenia should be thought of as a collection of neurodevelopmental disorders . There has been debate on whether treatment with antipsychotics can itself cause reduction of brain volume .
Particular attention has been paid to the function of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway of the brain . This focus largely resulted from the accidental finding that phenothiazine drugs , which block dopamine function , could reduce psychotic symptoms . It is also supported by the fact that amphetamines , which trigger the release of dopamine , may exacerbate the psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia . The influential dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia proposed that excessive activation of D2 receptors was the cause of ( the positive symptoms of ) schizophrenia . Although postulated for about 20 years based on the D2 blockade effect common to all antipsychotics , it was not until the mid @-@ 1990s that PET and SPET imaging studies provided supporting evidence . The dopamine hypothesis is now thought to be simplistic , partly because newer antipsychotic medication ( atypical antipsychotic medication ) can be just as effective as older medication ( typical antipsychotic medication ) , but also affects serotonin function and may have slightly less of a dopamine blocking effect .
Interest has also focused on the neurotransmitter glutamate and the reduced function of the NMDA glutamate receptor in schizophrenia , largely because of the abnormally low levels of glutamate receptors found in the postmortem brains of those diagnosed with schizophrenia , and the discovery that glutamate @-@ blocking drugs such as phencyclidine and ketamine can mimic the symptoms and cognitive problems associated with the condition . Reduced glutamate function is linked to poor performance on tests requiring frontal lobe and hippocampal function , and glutamate can affect dopamine function , both of which have been implicated in schizophrenia ; this has suggested an important mediating ( and possibly causal ) role of glutamate pathways in the condition . But positive symptoms fail to respond to glutamatergic medication .
= = Diagnosis = =
Schizophrenia is diagnosed based on criteria in either the American Psychiatric Association 's fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM 5 ) , or the World Health Organization 's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems ( ICD @-@ 10 ) . These criteria use the self @-@ reported experiences of the person and reported abnormalities in behavior , followed by a clinical assessment by a mental health professional . Symptoms associated with schizophrenia occur along a continuum in the population and must reach a certain severity before a diagnosis is made . As of 2013 there is no objective test .
= = = Criteria = = =
In 2013 , the American Psychiatric Association released the fifth edition of the DSM ( DSM @-@ 5 ) . To be diagnosed with schizophrenia , two diagnostic criteria have to be met over much of the time of a period of at least one month , with a significant impact on social or occupational functioning for at least six months . The person had to be suffering from delusions , hallucinations , or disorganized speech . A second symptom could be negative symptoms , or severely disorganized or catatonic behaviour . The definition of schizophrenia remained essentially the same as that specified by the 2000 version of DSM ( DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR ) , but DSM @-@ 5 makes a number of changes .
Subtype classifications – such as catatonic and paranoid schizophrenia – are removed . These were retained in previous revisions largely for reasons of tradition , but had subsequently proved to be of little worth .
Catatonia is no longer so strongly associated with schizophrenia .
In describing a person 's schizophrenia , it is recommended that a better distinction be made between the current state of the condition and its historical progress , to achieve a clearer overall characterization .
Special treatment of Schneider 's first @-@ rank symptoms is no longer recommended .
Schizoaffective disorder is better defined to demarcate it more cleanly from schizophrenia .
An assessment covering eight domains of psychopathology – such as whether hallucination or mania is experienced – is recommended to help clinical decision @-@ making .
The ICD @-@ 10 criteria are typically used in European countries , while the DSM criteria are used in the United States and to varying degrees around the world , and are prevailing in research studies . The ICD @-@ 10 criteria put more emphasis on Schneiderian first @-@ rank symptoms . In practice , agreement between the two systems is high .
If signs of disturbance are present for more than a month but less than six months , the diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder is applied . Psychotic symptoms lasting less than a month may be diagnosed as brief psychotic disorder , and various conditions may be classed as psychotic disorder not otherwise specified , while schizoaffective disorder is diagnosed if symptoms of mood disorder are substantially present alongside psychotic symptoms . If the psychotic symptoms are the direct physiological result of a general medical condition or a substance , then the diagnosis is one of a psychosis secondary to that condition . Schizophrenia is not diagnosed if symptoms of pervasive developmental disorder are present unless prominent delusions or hallucinations are also present .
= = = Subtypes = = =
With the publication of DSM @-@ 5 , the APA removed all sub @-@ classifications of schizophrenia . The five sub @-@ classifications included in DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR were :
Paranoid type : Delusions or auditory hallucinations are present , but thought disorder , disorganized behavior , or affective flattening are not . Delusions are persecutory and / or grandiose , but in addition to these , other themes such as jealousy , religiosity , or somatization may also be present . ( DSM code 295 @.@ 3 / ICD code F20.0 )
Disorganized type : Named hebephrenic schizophrenia in the ICD . Where thought disorder and flat affect are present together . ( DSM code 295 @.@ 1 / ICD code F20.1 )
Catatonic type : The subject may be almost immobile or exhibit agitated , purposeless movement . Symptoms can include catatonic stupor and waxy flexibility . ( DSM code 295 @.@ 2 / ICD code F20.2 )
Undifferentiated type : Psychotic symptoms are present but the criteria for paranoid , disorganized , or catatonic types have not been met . ( DSM code 295 @.@ 9 / ICD code F20.3 )
Residual type : Where positive symptoms are present at a low intensity only . ( DSM code 295 @.@ 6 / ICD code F20.5 )
The ICD @-@ 10 defines two additional subtypes :
Post @-@ schizophrenic depression : A depressive episode arising in the aftermath of a schizophrenic illness where some low @-@ level schizophrenic symptoms may still be present . ( ICD code F20.4 )
Simple schizophrenia : Insidious and progressive development of prominent negative symptoms with no history of psychotic episodes . ( ICD code F20.6 )
Sluggish schizophrenia is in the Russian version of the ICD @-@ 10 . " Sluggish schizophrenia " is in the category of " schizotypal " disorder in section F21 of chapter V.
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Psychotic symptoms may be present in several other mental disorders , including bipolar disorder , borderline personality disorder , drug intoxication and drug @-@ induced psychosis . Delusions ( " non @-@ bizarre " ) are also present in delusional disorder , and social withdrawal in social anxiety disorder , avoidant personality disorder and schizotypal personality disorder . Schizotypal personality disorder has symptoms that are similar but less severe than those of schizophrenia . Schizophrenia occurs along with obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder ( OCD ) considerably more often than could be explained by chance , although it can be difficult to distinguish obsessions that occur in OCD from the delusions of schizophrenia . A few people withdrawing from benzodiazepines experience a severe withdrawal syndrome which may last a long time . It can resemble schizophrenia and be misdiagnosed as such .
A more general medical and neurological examination may be needed to rule out medical illnesses which may rarely produce psychotic schizophrenia @-@ like symptoms , such as metabolic disturbance , systemic infection , syphilis , HIV infection , epilepsy , limbic encephalitis , and brain lesions . Stroke , multiple sclerosis , hyperthyroidism , hypothyroidism and dementias such as Alzheimer 's disease , Huntington 's disease , frontotemporal dementia and Lewy Body dementia may also be associated with schizophrenia @-@ like psychotic symptoms . It may be necessary to rule out a delirium , which can be distinguished by visual hallucinations , acute onset and fluctuating level of consciousness , and indicates an underlying medical illness . Investigations are not generally repeated for relapse unless there is a specific medical indication or possible adverse effects from antipsychotic medication . In children hallucinations must be separated from typical childhood fantasies .
= = Prevention = =
Prevention of schizophrenia is difficult as there are no reliable markers for the later development of the disorder . There is tentative evidence for the effectiveness of early interventions to prevent schizophrenia . While there is some evidence that early intervention in those with a psychotic episode may improve short @-@ term outcomes , there is little benefit from these measures after five years . Attempting to prevent schizophrenia in the prodrome phase is of uncertain benefit and therefore as of 2009 is not recommended . Cognitive behavioral therapy may reduce the risk of psychosis in those at high risk after a year and is recommended in this group , by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence ( NICE ) . Another preventative measure is to avoid drugs that have been associated with development of the disorder , including cannabis , cocaine , and amphetamines .
= = Management = =
The primary treatment of schizophrenia is antipsychotic medications , often in combination with psychological and social supports . Hospitalization may occur for severe episodes either voluntarily or ( if mental health legislation allows it ) involuntarily . Long @-@ term hospitalization is uncommon since deinstitutionalization beginning in the 1950s , although it still occurs . Community support services including drop @-@ in centers , visits by members of a community mental health team , supported employment and support groups are common . Some evidence indicates that regular exercise has a positive effect on the physical and mental health of those with schizophrenia .
= = = Medication = = =
The first @-@ line psychiatric treatment for schizophrenia is antipsychotic medication , which can reduce the positive symptoms of psychosis in about 7 to 14 days . Antipsychotics , however , fail to significantly improve the negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction . In those on antipsychotics , continued use decreases the risk of relapse . There is little evidence regarding effects from their use beyond two or three years .
The choice of which antipsychotic to use is based on benefits , risks , and costs . It is debatable whether , as a class , typical or atypical antipsychotics are better . Amisulpride , olanzapine , risperidone and clozapine may be more effective but are associated with greater side effects . Typical antipsychotics have equal drop @-@ out and symptom relapse rates to atypicals when used at low to moderate dosages . There is a good response in 40 – 50 % , a partial response in 30 – 40 % , and treatment resistance ( failure of symptoms to respond satisfactorily after six weeks to two or three different antipsychotics ) in 20 % of people . Clozapine is an effective treatment for those who respond poorly to other drugs ( " treatment @-@ resistant " or " refractory " schizophrenia ) , but it has the potentially serious side effect of agranulocytosis ( lowered white blood cell count ) in less than 4 % of people .
Most people on antipsychotics have side effects . People on typical antipsychotics tend to have a higher rate of extrapyramidal side effects while some atypicals are associated with considerable weight gain , diabetes and risk of metabolic syndrome ; this is most pronounced with olanzapine , while risperidone and quetiapine are also associated with weight gain . Risperidone has a similar rate of extrapyramidal symptoms to haloperidol . It remains unclear whether the newer antipsychotics reduce the chances of developing neuroleptic malignant syndrome or tardive dyskinesia , a rare but serious neurological disorder .
For people who are unwilling or unable to take medication regularly , long @-@ acting depot preparations of antipsychotics may be used to achieve control . They reduce the risk of relapse to a greater degree than oral medications . When used in combination with psychosocial interventions they may improve long @-@ term adherence to treatment . The American Psychiatric Association suggests considering stopping antipsychotics in some people if there are no symptoms for more than a year .
= = = Psychosocial = = =
A number of psychosocial interventions may be useful in the treatment of schizophrenia including : family therapy , assertive community treatment , supported employment , cognitive remediation , skills training , token economic interventions , and psychosocial interventions for substance use and weight management . Family therapy or education , which addresses the whole family system of an individual , may reduce relapses and hospitalizations . Evidence for the effectiveness of cognitive @-@ behavioral therapy ( CBT ) in either reducing symptoms or preventing relapse is minimal . Art or drama therapy have not been well @-@ researched . Music therapy has been shown to improve mental state and social functioning when paired with regular care .
= = Prognosis = =
Schizophrenia has great human and economic costs . It results in a decreased life expectancy by 10 – 25 years . This is primarily because of its association with obesity , poor diet , sedentary lifestyles , and smoking , with an increased rate of suicide playing a lesser role . Antipsychotic medications may also increase the risk . These differences in life expectancy increased between the 1970s and 1990s .
Schizophrenia is a major cause of disability , with active psychosis ranked as the third @-@ most @-@ disabling condition after quadriplegia and dementia and ahead of paraplegia and blindness . Approximately three @-@ fourths of people with schizophrenia have ongoing disability with relapses and 16 @.@ 7 million people globally are deemed to have moderate or severe disability from the condition . Some people do recover completely and others function well in society . Most people with schizophrenia live independently with community support . About 85 % are unemployed . In people with a first episode of psychosis a good long @-@ term outcome occurs in 42 % , an intermediate outcome in 35 % and a poor outcome in 27 % . Outcomes for schizophrenia appear better in the developing than the developed world . These conclusions , however , have been questioned .
There is a higher than average suicide rate associated with schizophrenia . This has been cited at 10 % , but a more recent analysis revises the estimate to 4 @.@ 9 % , most often occurring in the period following onset or first hospital admission . Several times more ( 20 to 40 % ) attempt suicide at least once . There are a variety of risk factors , including male gender , depression , and a high intelligence quotient .
Schizophrenia and smoking have shown a strong association in studies world @-@ wide . Use of cigarettes is especially high in individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia , with estimates ranging from 80 to 90 % being regular smokers , as compared to 20 % of the general population . Those who smoke tend to smoke heavily , and additionally smoke cigarettes with high nicotine content . Some evidence suggests that paranoid schizophrenia may have a better prospect than other types of schizophrenia for independent living and occupational functioning . Among people with schizophrenia use of cannabis is also common .
= = Epidemiology = =
Schizophrenia affects around 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 7 % of people at some point in their life , or 24 million people worldwide as of 2011 . It occurs 1 @.@ 4 times more frequently in males than females and typically appears earlier in men — the peak ages of onset are 25 years for males and 27 years for females . Onset in childhood is much rarer , as is onset in middle or old age .
Despite the prior belief that schizophrenia occurs at similar rates worldwide , its frequency varies across the world , within countries , and at the local and neighborhood level . This variation has been estimated to be fivefold . It causes approximately one percent of worldwide disability adjusted life years and resulted in 20 @,@ 000 deaths in 2010 . The rate of schizophrenia varies up to threefold depending on how it is defined .
In 2000 , the World Health Organization found the percentage of people affected and the number of new cases that develop each year is roughly similar around the world , with age @-@ standardized prevalence per 100 @,@ 000 ranging from 343 in Africa to 544 in Japan and Oceania for men , and from 378 in Africa to 527 in Southeastern Europe for women . About 1 @.@ 1 % of adults have schizophrenia in the United States .
= = History = =
In the early 20th century , the psychiatrist Kurt Schneider listed the forms of psychotic symptoms that he thought distinguished schizophrenia from other psychotic disorders . These are called first @-@ rank symptoms or Schneider 's first @-@ rank symptoms . They include delusions of being controlled by an external force , the belief that thoughts are being inserted into or withdrawn from one 's conscious mind , the belief that one 's thoughts are being broadcast to other people , and hearing hallucinatory voices that comment on one 's thoughts or actions or that have a conversation with other hallucinated voices . Although they have significantly contributed to the current diagnostic criteria , the specificity of first @-@ rank symptoms has been questioned . A review of the diagnostic studies conducted between 1970 and 2005 found that they allow neither a reconfirmation nor a rejection of Schneider 's claims , and suggested that first @-@ rank symptoms should be de @-@ emphasized in future revisions of diagnostic systems .
The history of schizophrenia is complex and does not lend itself easily to a linear narrative . Accounts of a schizophrenia @-@ like syndrome are thought to be rare in historical records before the 19th century , although reports of irrational , unintelligible , or uncontrolled behavior were common . A detailed case report in 1797 concerning James Tilly Matthews , and accounts by Philippe Pinel published in 1809 , are often regarded as the earliest cases of the illness in the medical and psychiatric literature . The Latinized term dementia praecox was first used by German alienist Heinrich Schule in 1886 and then in 1891 by Arnold Pick in a case report of a psychotic disorder ( hebephrenia ) . In 1893 Emil Kraepelin borrowed the term from Schule and Pick and in 1899 introduced a broad new distinction in the classification of mental disorders between dementia praecox and mood disorder ( termed manic depression and including both unipolar and bipolar depression ) . Kraepelin believed that dementia praecox was probably caused by a long @-@ term , smouldering systemic or " whole body " disease process that affected many organs and peripheral nerves in the body but which affected the brain after puberty in a final decisive cascade . His use of the term " praecox " distinguished it from other forms of dementia such as Alzheimer 's disease which typically occur later in life . It is sometimes argued that the use of the term démence précoce in 1852 by the French physician Bénédict Morel constitutes the medical discovery of schizophrenia . However , this account ignores the fact that there is little to connect Morel 's descriptive use of the term and the independent development of the dementia praecox disease concept at the end of the nineteenth century .
The word schizophrenia — which translates roughly as " splitting of the mind " and comes from the Greek roots schizein ( σχίζειν , " to split " ) and phrēn , phren- ( φρήν , φρεν- , " mind " ) — was coined by Eugen Bleuler in 1908 and was intended to describe the separation of function between personality , thinking , memory , and perception . American and British interpretations of Bleuler led to the claim that he described its main symptoms as four A 's : flattened affect , autism , impaired association of ideas , and ambivalence . Bleuler realized that the illness was not a dementia , as some of his patients improved rather than deteriorated , and thus proposed the term schizophrenia instead . Treatment was revolutionized in the mid @-@ 1950s with the development and introduction of chlorpromazine .
In the early 1970s , the diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia were the subject of a number of controversies which eventually led to the operational criteria used today . It became clear after the 1971 US – UK Diagnostic Study that schizophrenia was diagnosed to a far greater extent in America than in Europe . This was partly due to looser diagnostic criteria in the US , which used the DSM @-@ II manual , contrasting with Europe and its ICD @-@ 9 . David Rosenhan 's 1972 study , published in the journal Science under the title " On being sane in insane places " , concluded that the diagnosis of schizophrenia in the US was often subjective and unreliable . These were some of the factors leading to the revision not only of the diagnosis of schizophrenia , but the revision of the whole DSM manual , resulting in the publication of the DSM @-@ III in 1980 .
The term schizophrenia is commonly misunderstood to mean that affected persons have a " split personality " . Although some people diagnosed with schizophrenia may hear voices and may experience the voices as distinct personalities , schizophrenia does not involve a person changing among distinct , multiple personalities ; the confusion arises in part due to the literal interpretation of Bleuler 's term " schizophrenia " ( Bleuler originally associated schizophrenia with dissociation , and included split personality in his category of schizophrenia ) . Dissociative identity disorder ( having a " split personality " ) was also often misdiagnosed as schizophrenia based on the loose criteria in the DSM @-@ II . The first known misuse of the term to mean " split personality " was in an article by the poet T. S. Eliot in 1933 . Other scholars have traced earlier roots . Rather , the term means a " splitting of mental functions " , reflecting the presentation of the illness .
= = Society and culture = =
In 2002 , the term for schizophrenia in Japan was changed from seishin @-@ bunretsu @-@ byō ( 精神分裂病 , lit . " mind @-@ split disease " ) to tōgō @-@ shitchō @-@ shō ( 統合失調症 , lit . " integration disorder " ) to reduce stigma . The new name was inspired by the biopsychosocial model ; it increased the percentage of people who were informed of the diagnosis from 37 to 70 % over three years . A similar change was made in South Korea in 2012 . A professor of psychiatry , Jim van Os , has proposed changing the English term to " psychosis spectrum syndrome " .
In the United States , the cost of schizophrenia — including direct costs ( outpatient , inpatient , drugs , and long @-@ term care ) and non @-@ health care costs ( law enforcement , reduced workplace productivity , and unemployment ) — was estimated to be $ 62 @.@ 7 billion in 2002 . The book and film A Beautiful Mind chronicles the life of John Forbes Nash , a Nobel Prize – winning mathematician who was diagnosed with schizophrenia .
= = = Violence = = =
Individuals with severe mental illness , including schizophrenia , are at a significantly greater risk of being victims of both violent and non @-@ violent crime . Schizophrenia has been associated with a higher rate of violent acts , although this is primarily due to higher rates of drug use . Rates of homicide linked to psychosis are similar to those linked to substance misuse , and parallel the overall rate in a region . What role schizophrenia has on violence independent of drug misuse is controversial , but certain aspects of individual histories or mental states may be factors .
Media coverage relating to violent acts by individuals with schizophrenia reinforces public perception of an association between schizophrenia and violence . In a large , representative sample from a 1999 study , 12 @.@ 8 % of Americans believed that individuals with schizophrenia were " very likely " to do something violent against others , and 48 @.@ 1 % said that they were " somewhat likely " to . Over 74 % said that people with schizophrenia were either " not very able " or " not able at all " to make decisions concerning their treatment , and 70 @.@ 2 % said the same of money @-@ management decisions . The perception of individuals with psychosis as violent has more than doubled in prevalence since the 1950s , according to one meta @-@ analysis .
= = Research directions = =
Research has found a tentative benefit in using minocycline to treat schizophrenia . Nidotherapy or efforts to change the environment of people with schizophrenia to improve their ability to function , is also being studied ; however , there is not enough evidence yet to make conclusions about its effectiveness . Negative symptoms have proven a challenge to treat , as they are generally not made better by medication . Various agents have been explored for possible benefits in this area . There have been trials on drugs with anti @-@ inflammatory activity , based on the premise that inflammation might play a role in the pathology of schizophrenia .
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= County Route 115 ( Tompkins County , New York ) =
County Route 115 ( CR 115 ) is a northwest – southeast county highway located mostly within the town of Caroline in Tompkins County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 12 @.@ 8 miles ( 20 @.@ 6 km ) from the Tioga County line south of the hamlet of Speedsville to an intersection with New York State Route 79 ( NY 79 ) just north of the Caroline town line in the town of Dryden . The highway continues into Tioga County as CR 33 . The portion of CR 115 north of the hamlet of Guide Board Corners was originally designated as New York State Route 330 and maintained by the state of New York . NY 330 existed from the early 1930s to 1980 , when ownership and maintenance of the highway was transferred to Tompkins County .
= = Route description = =
CR 115 begins at the Tioga County line in the town of Caroline , where it connects to Tioga County 's CR 33 . The county highway passes a mountain to the west and the Owego River 's west branch to the east as it heads northward . It crosses Boyer Creek as 76 Road and enters the hamlet of Speedsville , a small community located on top of a mountain . Here , CR 115 turns to the northwest to run along the base of a valley surrounding Boyer Creek . The creek reaches its source at an intersection with Yaple Road ; however , CR 115 continues northwestward to serve the hamlet of Caroline Center .
Outside of Caroline Center , CR 115 heads northwestward through a small valley to the community of Guide Board Corners . In the center of the hamlet , CR 115 turns north off 76 Road to follow Central Chapel Road . The highway emerges from the valley 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Guide Board Corners , at which point it meets CR 114 , a connector to NY 79 , and curves westward as Valley Road . CR 115 parallels the Sixmile Creek into the hamlet of Brooktondale , where it changes names once more to become Brooktondale Road . From Brooktondale , the route heads northwest alongside Sixmile Creek into the town of Dryden , where it ends at an intersection with NY 79 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
In the early 19th century , construction commenced on a highway connecting the Catskill Turnpike ( modern NY 79 ) to the hamlet of Speedsville near the Tioga County line . It began at Boiceville ( known today as West Slaterville ) and passed through the communities of Guide Board Corners and Caroline Center on its way to Speedsville . The roadway was built by community labor during the summers of 1804 through 1808 and was named " 76 Road " . According to the Bicentennial history of the Town of Caroline , the name refers to the Revolutionary War :
The first bee for cutting the road through was held near Augustine Boyer 's on 4 July 1804 . It was opened and dedicated ... by the settlers on July 4 , 1808 . Mr. Boyer was requested to name the road . He replied that he would name it the " ' 76 Road " . Mr. Boyer explained that he had spent seven days obtaining the services of the commissioners and surveyors to lay out the road , and these days were representative of the seven years of the Revolutionary struggle , and since the day was 4 July , and the spirit of ' 76 was in the air , and other spirits in their bottles , he would give the name of " ' 76 Road " in honor of the spirit of cooperation and dedication that the people had in working together on the project , and to honor the memory of those who worked together in laying the foundations of our country in 1776 .
In the early 1910s , the state of New York upgraded a local highway connecting the Catskill Turnpike near the hamlet of Besemer to Brookton ( now Brooktondale ) . It was added to the state highway system on November 4 , 1914 . The state also intended on improving an extension of the roadway east to 76 Road and 76 Road itself from the modern junction of Boiceville , Valley , and Central Chapel Roads south to Speedsville ; however , construction advanced no farther southeastward than Guide Board Corners . The Brookton – Guide Board Corners highway was added to the state highway system on February 8 , 1921 .
= = = Designations and developments = = =
The Besemer – Guide Board Corners state highway was designated as NY 330 c . 1931 . The NY 330 designation was removed on January 24 , 1980 , and ownership and maintenance of its former routing was transferred from the state of New York to Tompkins County on April 1 , 1980 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . By 1994 , NY 330 's former routing was designated as part of CR 115 , which continued south from Guide Board Corners to Speedsville via 76 Road .
In late June 2006 , the Tompkins County Highway Division temporarily closed off 76 Road ( CR 115 ) from Central Chapel Road to Caroline Center due to underground damage caused by heavy rains . Vehicular traffic weighing more than 5 short tons ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) was detoured at Speedsville to follow West Creek Road to NY 79 while traffic weighing less than 5 tons was directed onto Buffalo Hill Road at Caroline Center .
= = CR 115M = =
CR 115M is a spur route of CR 115 in the vicinity of Speedsville . It is named Mill Road and connects CR 115 in Speedsville to the Tioga County line , where it becomes CR 33 and changes names to West Creek Road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Tompkins County .
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= Capybara =
The capybara ( Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris ) is a large rodent of the genus Hydrochoerus of which the only other extant member is the lesser capybara ( Hydrochoerus isthmius ) . The capybara is the largest rodent in the world . Close relatives are guinea pigs and rock cavies , and it is more distantly related to the agouti , chinchillas , and the coypu . Native to South America , the capybara inhabits savannas and dense forests and lives near bodies of water . It is a highly social species and can be found in groups as large as 100 individuals , but usually lives in groups of 10 – 20 individuals . The capybara is not a threatened species and is hunted for its meat and hide and also for a grease from its thick fatty skin which is used in the pharmaceutical trade .
= = Etymology = =
Its common name is derived from Tupi ka 'apiûara , a complex agglutination of kaá ( leaf ) + píi ( slender ) + ú ( eat ) + ara ( a suffix for agent nouns ) , meaning " one who eats slender leaves " , or " grass @-@ eater " . The scientific name , both hydrochoerus and hydrochaeris , comes from Greek ὕδωρ ( hydor |
= water ) + χοίρος ( choiros =
pig , hog ) .
= = Classification and phylogeny = =
The capybara and the lesser capybara belong to the subfamily Hydrochoerinae along with the rock cavies . The living capybaras and their extinct relatives were previously classified in their own family Hydrochoeridae . Since 2002 , molecular phylogenetic studies have recognized a close relationship between Hydrochoerus and Kerodon supporting placement of both genera in a subfamily of Caviidae . Paleontological classifications have yet to incorporate this new taxonomy and continue to use Hydrochoeridae for all capybaras , while using Hydrochoerinae for the living genus and its closest fossil relatives , such as Neochoerus . The taxonomy of fossil hydrochoerines is also in a state of flux . In recent years , the diversity of fossil hydrochoerines has been substantially reduced . This is largely due to the recognition that capybara molar teeth show strong variation in shape over the life of an individual . In one instance , material once referred to four genera and seven species on the basis of differences in molar shape is now thought to represent differently aged individuals of a single species , Cardiatherium paranense .
= = Description = =
The capybara has a heavy , barrel @-@ shaped body and short head , with reddish @-@ brown fur on the upper part of its body that turns yellowish @-@ brown underneath . Its sweat glands can be found in the surface of the hairy portions of its skin , an unusual trait among rodents . The animal lacks under hair , and guard hair differs little from over hair . Adult capybaras grow to 106 to 134 cm ( 3 @.@ 48 to 4 @.@ 40 ft ) in length , stand 50 to 62 cm ( 20 to 24 in ) tall at the withers , and typically weigh 35 to 66 kg ( 77 to 146 lb ) , with an average in the Venezuelan llanos of 48 @.@ 9 kg ( 108 lb ) . The top recorded weights are 91 kg ( 201 lb ) for a wild female from Brazil and 73 @.@ 5 kg ( 162 lb ) for a wild male from Uruguay . The dental formula is 1 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 @.@ 31 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 . Capybaras have slightly webbed feet and vestigial tails . Their hind legs are slightly longer than their forelegs ; they have three toes on their rear feet and four toes on their front feet . Their muzzles are blunt , with nostrils , and the eyes and ears are near the top of their heads . Females are slightly heavier than males .
Its karyotype has 2n |
= 66 and FN =
102 .
= = Ecology = =
Capybaras are semi @-@ aquatic mammals found throughout almost all countries of South America ( except Chile ) . They live in densely forested areas near bodies of water , such as lakes , rivers , swamps , ponds , and marshes , as well as flooded savannah and along rivers in tropical forest . Capybara have flourished in cattle ranches . They roam in home ranges averaging 10 hectares ( 25 acres ) in high @-@ density populations .
Many escapees from captivity can also be found in similar watery habitats around the world . Sightings are fairly common in Florida , although a breeding population has not yet been confirmed . In 2011 , one was spotted in the Central Coast of California .
= = = Diet and predation = = =
Capybaras are herbivores , grazing mainly on grasses and aquatic plants , as well as fruit and tree bark . They are very selective feeders and will feed on the leaves of one species and disregard other species surrounding it . They eat a greater variety of plants during the dry season , as fewer plants are available . While they eat grass during the wet season , they have to switch to more abundant reeds during the dry season . Plants that capybaras eat during the summer lose their nutritional value in the winter and therefore are not consumed at that time . The capybara 's jaw hinge is not perpendicular and they thus chew food by grinding back @-@ and @-@ forth rather than side @-@ to @-@ side . Capybaras are autocoprophagous , meaning they eat their own feces as a source of bacterial gut flora , to help digest the cellulose in the grass that forms their normal diet , and to extract the maximum protein and vitamins from their food . They may also regurgitate food to masticate again , similar to cud @-@ chewing by a cow . As is the case with other rodents , the front teeth of capybaras grow continually to compensate for the constant wear from eating grasses ; their cheek teeth also grow continuously .
Like its cousin the guinea pig , the capybara does not have the capacity to synthesize vitamin C , and capybaras not supplemented with vitamin C in captivity have been reported to develop gum disease as a sign of scurvy .
They can have a life span of 8 – 10 years on average , but live less than four years in the wild , as they are " a favourite food of jaguar , puma , ocelot , eagle and caiman " . The capybara is also the preferred prey of the anaconda .
= = Social organization = =
Capybaras are gregarious . While they sometimes live solitarily , they are more commonly found in groups that average 10 – 20 individuals , with two to four adult males , four to seven adult females , and the remainder juveniles . Capybara groups can consist of as many as 50 or 100 individuals during the dry season when the animals gather around available water sources . Males establish social bonds , dominance , or , general group census . They can make dog @-@ like barks when threatened or when females are herding young .
Capybaras have two types of scent glands ; a morillo , located on the snout , and anal glands . Both sexes have these glands , but males have much larger morillos and use their anal glands more frequently . The anal glands of males are also lined with detachable hairs . A crystalline form of scent secretion is coated on these hairs and is released when in contact with objects like plants . These hairs have a longer @-@ lasting scent mark and are tasted by other capybaras . Capybara scent @-@ mark by rubbing their morillo on an object , or by walking over scrub and marking it with their anal glands . Capybara can spread their scent further by urinating ; however , females usually mark without urinating and scent @-@ mark less frequently than males overall . Females mark more often during the wet season when they are in estrus . In addition to objects , males will also scent @-@ mark females .
= = = Reproduction = = =
When in estrus , the female 's scent changes subtly and nearby males begin pursuit . In addition , a female will alert males she is in estrus by whistling though her nose . During mating , the female has the advantage and mating choice . Capybaras mate only in water , and if a female does not want to mate with a certain male , she will either submerge or leave the water . Dominant males are highly protective of the females , but they usually cannot prevent all the subordinates from copulating . The larger the group , the harder it is for the male to watch all the females . Dominant males secure significantly more matings than each subordinate , but subordinate males , as a class , are responsible for more matings than each dominant male . The lifespan of the capybara 's sperm is longer than that of other rodents .
Capybara gestation is 130 – 150 days , and usually produces a litter of four capybara babies , but may produce between one and eight in a single litter . Birth is on land and the female will rejoin the group within a few hours of delivering the newborn capybaras , which will join the group as soon as they are mobile . Within a week , the young can eat grass , but will continue to suckle — from any female in the group — until weaned at about 16 weeks . The young will form a group within the main group . Alloparenting has been observed in this species . Breeding peaks between April and May in Venezuela and between October and November in Mato Grosso , Brazil .
= = = Activities = = =
Though quite agile on land ( capable of running as fast as a horse ) , capybaras are equally at home in the water . They are excellent swimmers , and can remain completely submerged for up to five minutes , an ability they use to evade predators . Capybaras can sleep in water , keeping only their noses out of the water . As temperatures increase during the day , they wallow in water and then graze during the late afternoon and early evening . They also spend a lot of time wallowing in mud . They rest around midnight and then continue to graze before dawn .
= = Conservation and human interaction = =
Capybaras are not considered a threatened species ; their population is stable throughout most of their South American range , though in some areas hunting has reduced their numbers .
Capybaras are hunted for their meat and pelts in some areas , and otherwise killed by humans who see their grazing as competition for livestock . In some areas , they are farmed , which has the effect of ensuring the wetland habitats are protected . Their survival is aided by their ability to breed rapidly .
Capybaras have adapted well to the urbanization in South America . They can be found in many areas in zoos and parks , and may live for 12 years in captivity . Capybaras are gentle and will usually allow humans to pet and hand @-@ feed them , but physical contact is normally discouraged as their ticks can be vectors to Rocky Mountain spotted fever .
The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria ( EAZA ) tasked Drusillas Park in Alfriston , Sussex to keep the studbook for capybaras , to monitor captive populations in Europe . The studbook includes information about all births , deaths and movements of capybaras , as well as how they are related .
Capybaras are farmed for meat and skins in South America . The meat is considered unsuitable to eat in some areas , while in other areas it is considered an important source of protein . In parts of South America , especially in Venezuela , capybara meat is popular during Lent and Holy Week as the Catholic Church previously gave a special dispensation that allows for its consumption while other meats are generally forbidden .
Although it is illegal in some states , capybaras are occasionally kept as pets in the United States .
The image of a capybara features on the $ 2 coin of the Uruguayan peso .
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= M @-@ 67 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 67 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan . It connects with US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) and M @-@ 94 between Trenary and Chatham . The highway has largely been unchanged during its history , although the highways that connect to M @-@ 67 on each end have changed several times .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 67 starts at an intersection with US 41 near Trenary east of the West Branch of the Whitefish River . From that intersection the highway runs east crossing Scott Creek before running into downtown Trenary along relatively flat terrain . East of town , the highway turns north running parallel to the AuTrain River Basin . The trunkline crosses Dexter Creek between Paulsen and Trout Lake roads . About halfway along the north – south segment of the highway , M @-@ 67 passes through the community of Limestone and crosses Johnson Creek . After running for 12 @.@ 044 miles ( 19 @.@ 383 km ) , M @-@ 67 ends at a four @-@ way intersection with M @-@ 94 and Tunteri Road .
Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) traffic surveys in 2007 show that between 1 @,@ 200 and 1 @,@ 400 vehicles traveled the road daily in 2007 in a measure of the annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . The same surveys showed that only 90 trucks are included in that average . In comparison , US 41 south of M @-@ 67 carried an average of 2 @,@ 300 vehicles and 270 trucks . No segment of the trunkline is listed on the National Highway System , a system of strategically important highways .
= = History = =
M @-@ 67 is an original state trunkline dating back to 1919 . Its routing has been largely unchanged since designation . The southern terminus has been moved once , but the northern terminus has remained in the same location since 1919 . US 41 was rerouted in the Trenary area to run west of town in late 1937 and 1938 . M @-@ 67 was extended westerly along a former portion of US 41 to connect to the new highway on the south end of M @-@ 67 . The highway was fully paved at the end of the 1950s .
While the highway itself is largely unchanged since 1919 , the connections with other trunklines have changed . The intersection south of the community of Chatham where M @-@ 67 has ended since designation has remained unchanged . The other highways running through the intersection have changed twice . The first highway to connect with M @-@ 67 was M @-@ 25 . M @-@ 25 was replaced by M @-@ 28 in 1926 . The second change came in 1941 when the routings of M @-@ 28 and M @-@ 94 were exchanged between Harvey and Munising .
The original southern terminus was at an intersection with M @-@ 15 in Trenary . In 1926 , M @-@ 15 was replaced by US 41 . As stated previously , the southern terminus of M @-@ 67 was shifted to a new intersection with US 41 west of Trenary when the latter was rebuilt in the late 1930s resulting in the only physical change to M @-@ 67 's routing .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Alger County .
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= Miracle on Evergreen Terrace =
" Miracle on Evergreen Terrace " is the tenth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 21 , 1997 . Bart accidentally ruins Christmas for the Simpson family by burning down the tree and all their presents . It was written by Ron Hauge , directed by Bob Anderson , and guest starred Alex Trebek as himself . Hauge was inspired to write the episode after learning of an orphanage that had been ripped off . The episode was selected , among other Christmas @-@ themed episodes of the series , on a 2005 Christmas special DVD boxed set . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide criticized the episode as a rehash of older themes , but it was also described as one of The Simpsons ’ more memorable episodes in a review of the 2005 DVD boxed set release .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family are making their last @-@ minute Christmas preparations . At bedtime on Christmas Eve , Marge tells everyone nobody can open presents until 7 AM . However , Bart wakes up early to secretly unwrap his gifts . One of the presents is a remote @-@ controlled fire truck . Bart has fun playing with the truck , until it sprays water on an overloaded electrical socket , and the Christmas tree bursts into flames . The flames immediately engulf the plastic Christmas tree and all of the presents . Bart manages to extinguish the fire before it spreads , and hides the burned evidence outside beneath the snow in the front yard .
When the family come downstairs , and discover that the Christmas tree and presents are gone , Marge asks Bart what happened . Bart makes up a story about how he caught a burglary in progress . The police investigate , and Kent Brockman decides to do a story on what he believes is the Simpsons ' yuletide misfortune .
As a result of Brockman 's report , everyone in Springfield shows their community spirit by giving them $ 15 @,@ 000 . With the donations , Homer buys a new car . Driving it home , a speeding Homer unintentionally drives the car onto a frozen lake , where the ice cracks , causing the car to sink and explode .
The next morning , Bart 's conscience gets to him , and finally he admits the truth when he disobeyed his family , which prompts Homer and Lisa to choke him . Soon , Brockman and the news crew arrive to do a follow @-@ up story . After the family go along with the lie , the story quickly unravels when a cameraman , with help from Santa 's Little Helper , finds the burned remains of the Christmas tree . The family is forced to explain , but it is too late for the viewers , who feel they have been scammed . The citizens shun and harass them until the family can pay back the $ 15 @,@ 000 .
Later , when arriving home , the family find that everyone in Springfield is stealing their belongings in order to cover the $ 15 @,@ 000 debt . In the end , the family playfully fight over a tattered washcloth , the only item they have left .
= = Production = =
Writer Ron Hauge said he got the idea for the episode one day when he was heading to work . He was listening to the radio and heard of an orphanage getting ripped off , and they were getting back more than they gave . The spectators in the stands during Bart 's dreams are various animators . When Krusty says " 15 @,@ 000 Missoulians " it is a reference to Ron Hauge having lived in Missoula , Montana . When the Simpsons ' car says " I 'll Keell you " , this is a reference to a Wiffleball bat in the writer 's office that said that .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode has several references to Christmas films . The title is a play on Miracle on 34th Street while the scene where everyone rallies around to support the Simpsons is reminiscent of the last scene of the classic holiday movie It 's a Wonderful Life . The film is further spoofed when Homer tells Lisa to stop playing the piano which parodies a similar scene involving George Bailey . A Charlie Brown Christmas is also parodied when the senior citizens are dancing at the Springfield Retirement Castle — their dancing is based on the way the Peanuts characters dance . Marge appears as a contestant on Jeopardy ! with host Alex Trebek guest starring . One of the stuffed animals Chief Wiggum is carrying is Binky from Matt Groening 's comic strip Life in Hell .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Miracle on Evergreen Terrace " finished 23rd in ratings for the week of December 15 – 21 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following King of the Hill .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide said " A deliberately mawkish Christmas episode that is low on good jokes ( although the Simpsons watching their own fire on TV is a good start ) and a retread of any number of episodes where Bart does wrong , feels guilty and eventually has to fess up . The only real ray of sunshine is the closing moments when the neighbours get their revenge but the Simpsons find the family spirit after all . " In its review of a 2005 DVD boxed set of Christmas @-@ themed episodes of The Simpsons , The Journal described " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " , " Miracle On Evergreen Terrace " , " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " , and " Dude , Where 's My Ranch ? " among memorable episodes of the series . In his review of the same DVD , Digitally Obsessed critic Joel Cunningham wrote that " Miracle on Evergreen Terrace " is " a good one [ ... ] A nice combo of humor , satire , and heartwarming holiday fuzzies " . Andy Dougan wrote in Evening Times that the episode is " one of the darkest , blackest Christmas cartoons ever animated " .
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= Typhoon Joan ( 1997 ) =
Typhoon Joan of October 1997 was the longest @-@ lasting super typhoon at the time , maintaining 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of at least 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) for 4 @.@ 5 days . Joan , concurrently with Typhoon Ivan to its west , also became the strongest typhoons at the same time in the northwest Pacific Ocean . The 25th named storm during the active 1997 Pacific typhoon season , Joan developed from the same trough as Typhoon Ivan on October 11 . It moved northwestward and later to the west , undergoing explosive deepening to its peak intensity on October 15 . One typhoon warning agency estimated that Joan was among the strongest storms on record in the basin , and that Ivan and Joan marked the first occurrence of simultaneous super typhoons . While near peak intensity , Joan passed between Anatahan and Saipan in the Northern Marianas Islands . Later , the typhoon weakened and turned to the north and east , becoming extratropical on October 24 .
On Saipan , Typhoon Joan destroyed 37 houses and caused an island @-@ wide power outage . Three people were injured due to boarding up their house during the storm . On nearby Anatahan , high winds caused $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1997 USD ) worth of crop and property damage . Later , high waves affected southern Japan and northwestern Hawaii . On Chichi @-@ jima , Joan caused a boat to capsize , killing one of its occupants and leaving two others missing .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the first week of October 1997 , westerly winds near the equator in the western Pacific Ocean produced troughs – extended areas of low pressure – at a low latitude in the northern and southern hemisphere . The system in the South Pacific eventually developed into Tropical Cyclone Lusi , while the trough in the northern hemisphere eventually spawned two systems – Typhoon Ivan formed to the west , and the system that would eventually become Typhoon Joan developed along the eastern periphery . By October 10 , the eastern system consisted of an area of poorly @-@ organized convection , moving slowly to the northwest . On the next day , satellite imagery suggested a circulation had developed . The system increased in size and the convection organized further , prompting the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to initiate advisories on Tropical Depression 28W on October 13 . Also on that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression had developed near the Marshall Islands .
After its development , the depression turned more to the west , intensifying into Tropical Storm Joan on October 14 . Early in the storm 's duration , neither the JTWC nor most tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated significant strengthening beyond 1 @-@ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) ; this was due to a fairly weak monsoon trough and normal atmospheric pressures in the region . Late on October 15 , the JTWC upgraded Joan to typhoon status , and the JMA followed suit the next day . Over a 36 ‑ hour period beginning at 1800 UTC on October 15 , the JTWC estimated that the pressure decreased by 100 mbar ( 3 @.@ 0 inHg ) , or roughly 2 @.@ 4 mbar ( 0 @.@ 071 inHg ) per hour ; based on the agency 's assessment , Joan underwent explosive deepening during that time , reaching an estimated minimum pressure of 872 mbar ( 25 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Near peak intensity , Joan had a well @-@ defined eye within a circular area of very deep convection , organized to such an extent that it warranted a Dvorak rating of at least T8.0 , the highest number on the scale used to estimate tropical cyclone intensities via satellite imagery . If the estimate were correct , it would make Joan among the top five Pacific typhoons on record . On October 17 , the JTWC estimated 1 @-@ minute peak winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) , making Joan a super typhoon , the ninth of the season . By contrast , the JMA estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) with a pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) .
While near peak intensity on October 17 , Joan was located about 2100 km ( 1300 mi ) east of Typhoon Ivan , which had also reached super typhoon status ; the JTWC later noted that it was " the first observation of two tropical cyclones of such extreme intensity existing simultaneously in the Northwest Pacific . " Despite the proximity to Ivan , the two typhoons did not undergo the Fujiwhara effect . The JTWC estimated that Joan weakened slightly after reaching peak winds , although the JMA maintained the typhoon at peak intensity for nearly three whole days . Joan gradually turned more to the northwest , passing between Anatahan and Saipan in the Northern Marianas Islands ( NMI ) on October 18 . On October 20 , the JMA estimated that the typhoon began weakening , and on the same day Joan turned sharply to the north . On the next day , Joan weakened below super typhoon intensity for the first time in 4 @.@ 5 days , a record at the time based on JTWC analysis . This record was later surpassed by Typhoon Fengshen in 2002 and Typhoon Ioke in 2006 . By October 21 , the typhoon had accelerated to the east and was quickly weakening . The next day , Joan passed about 230 km ( 145 mi ) north of the Japanese island of Iwo Jima . On October 24 , the typhoon turned to the northeast while losing tropical characteristics , and that day the JMA ceased tracking Joan . The JTWC declared the typhoon as extratropical on October 25 around the same time it crossed the international date line . Former Typhoon Joan merged with a cold front and re @-@ intensified while approaching the Aleutian Islands , and was noted by the Mariners Weather Log as an extratropical storm on October 26 .
= = Impact and records = =
While passing about 80 km ( 50 mi ) of Saipan , Joan produced wind gusts of 157 km / h ( 98 mph ) , strong enough to destroy 37 homes and damage the roofs of several other houses . Residents were slow to prepare for the typhoon , and as a result , three people were injured while boarding up their house during the arrival of the strong winds . The passage of Joan left the entire island of Saipan without power , although electrical crews quickly worked to restore the outages . During the storm 's passage , about 900 people stayed in shelters , after the government opened six schools for residents . In nearby Anatahan , Joan left heavy damage to boats , machinery , and public buildings . The typhoon damaged various crops , and monetary damage was estimated at $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1997 USD ) . As a result of the damage , both islands within the NMI were declared disaster areas , which allowed residents and businesses to apply for federal loans through the United States Small Business Administration .
While passing between Saipan and Anatahan in the NMI , the eye of Joan was visible by NEXRAD from Guam , despite being 285 km ( 180 mi ) north of the island . An outer rainband moved across the island , producing 56 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) of rainfall at Anderson Air Force Base and a wind gust of 66 km / h ( 41 mph ) at the National Weather Service office in Tiyan .
Typhoon Joan produced waves as high as 7 m ( 22 ft ) in the southern islands of Japan . In Chichi @-@ jima , the typhoon dropped 115 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) and brought winds as strong as 91 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The combination of strong winds and high waves on the island broke a boat from a moorings , causing it to capsize when the boat struck rocks . Of the five people on board , two swam safely to shore , two were reported missing , and one person was confirmed killed . The extratropical remnants of Joan also produced high swells in Hawaii , with wave heights of 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) along northern shores .
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= From Elvis in Memphis =
From Elvis in Memphis is the fifteenth studio album by American rock and roll singer Elvis Presley , released on RCA Records . It was recorded at American Sound Studio in Memphis in January and February 1969 under the direction of producer Chips Moman and backed by its house band , informally known as " The Memphis Boys " . Following the success of Presley 's 1968 Christmas television special and its soundtrack , the album marked Presley 's return to non @-@ soundtrack albums after the completion of his film contract with Paramount Pictures .
Presley 's entourage convinced him to leave the RCA studios and record this album at American Sound , a new Memphis studio at the peak of a hit @-@ producing streak . The reason for going to Moman 's studio was for the soul sound of the house band , ' the Memphis Boys ' . The predominance of country songs among those recorded in these sessions gives them the feel of the " country soul " style . This impression is emphasized by the frequent use of the dobro in the arrangements . In any case , the Memphis Boys have a solidly southern soul sound .
From Elvis in Memphis was released in June 1969 to favorable reviews . The album peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 200 , number two on the country charts and number one in the United Kingdom , and its single " In the Ghetto " reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100 . The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1970 . In later years , it garnered further favorable reviews , while it was ranked number 190 on Rolling Stone magazine 's 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
After Presley 's 1960 return from military service , his manager , Colonel Tom Parker , shifted the focus of the singer 's career from live music and albums to films and soundtracks . In March 1961 , he performed what would become his last live concert for the next eight years : a benefit for the construction of the USS Arizona Memorial at Boch Arena in Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . During the first half of the 1960s , three of Presley 's soundtrack albums reached number one on the pop charts and a number of his most popular songs were from his films , including 1961 's " Can 't Help Falling in Love " and 1962 's " Return to Sender " .
After 1964 , Parker decided that Presley should only record soundtrack albums . He viewed the films and soundtracks as complementary , with each helping to promote the other . As it turned out , the commercial success of Presley 's films and soundtracks steadily diminished ( Paradise , Hawaiian Style ; Easy Come , Easy Go ; Speedway ) , while he was increasingly disappointed with the quality of his work . From 1964 to 1968 , Presley had just one top @-@ ten hit : " Crying in the Chapel " ( 1965 ) , a gospel number recorded in 1960 . Only one LP of new material by Presley was issued : the gospel album How Great Thou Art ( 1967 ) , which won him his first Grammy Award in the Best Sacred Performance category .
In 1968 , Colonel Parker arranged a deal with NBC for a Christmas television special starring Presley in front of a live audience . Parker originally planned to have Presley sing Christmas carols only , but producer Steve Binder convinced the singer to perform songs from his original repertoire . The high ratings received by the special and the success of its attendant LP re @-@ established Presley 's popularity . During the making of the special , Presley said to Binder : " I 'll never sing another song that I don 't believe in , I 'm never going to make another movie that I don 't believe in . " As part of his decision to refocus on music rather than film , Presley decided to record a new album .
= = Recording = =
Presley left his usual musicians and studios ( Radio Recorders in Hollywood , California and RCA Studio B in Nashville , Tennessee ) , recording new material in Memphis . After the special he approached Scotty Moore and D. J. Fontana , who had played with Presley during his early hit @-@ making career , and who rejoined him on the television show . Presley asked Moore about using Music City Recorders in Nashville , but that suggestion never came to fruition .
During a January 1969 meeting at Graceland , Presley told his usual producer , Felton Jarvis , that he did not want to record his next album at RCA Studios . Two of Presley 's friends , DJ George Klein and Marty Lacker , suggested that he use American Sound Studio , an up @-@ and @-@ coming studio with which Lacker was involved . RCA contacted the studio 's producer Chips Moman . Willing to work with Presley , Moman postponed a session with Neil Diamond after being asked to produce the sessions with Felton Jarvis as second producer . It was agreed that Presley 's recordings would take ten days and cost $ 25 @,@ 000 . He would be backed by the studio 's house band , the 827 Thomas Street Band ( informally known as " The Memphis Boys " ) , which consisted of Reggie Young on guitar , Tommy Cogbill and Mike Leech on bass , Gene Chrisman on drums , Bobby Wood on piano , and Bobby Emmons on organ .
Although RCA Records oversaw their company policy to record only in their own studios , the label sent their personnel out to American Sound . Recording began on January 13 , 1969 , when Presley arrived at the studio nursing a cold . In addition to his personal entourage , he was accompanied by Hill & Range publisher Freddy Bienstock , Colonel Parker 's assistant Tom Diskin , producer Felton Jarvis , executive Harry Jenkins and engineer Al Pachucki , representing RCA Records . With Pachucki on the board , American Sound engineer Ed Kollis joined the musicians on harmonica . The session , which produced recordings of " Long Black Limousine " , " Wearin ' That Loved On Look " and several non @-@ album songs , continued until 5 : 00 am . After the first day 's recording , Moman and his colleagues expressed discomfort with the size of Presley 's entourage , and the singer was accompanied by fewer people for the remaining sessions .
The next day Presley recorded " I 'm Moving On " and " Gentle on My Mind " , leaving the studio while working on the latter to rest his throat . The following night , he did not appear , as his cold worsened , and on January 15 and 16 the house band recorded backing tracks for subsequent sessions . Presley returned on January 20 , recording " In the Ghetto " in 23 takes and finishing the vocal track for " Gentle on My Mind " . On January 22 , he recorded Eddy Arnold 's " I 'll Hold You in My Heart ( Till I Can Hold You in My Arms ) " and the non @-@ album single " Suspicious Minds " . Presley then took a break from recording for a vacation trip to Aspen , Colorado to celebrate his daughter Lisa Marie 's first birthday .
During Presley 's absence , Moman was approached by Bienstock , who was concerned about possible future disputes concerning the songs ' publication . Moman and Presley decided not to record Hill & Range compositions , instead using songs by American Sound writers . Bienstock , particularly interested in the non @-@ album " Suspicious Minds " and " Mama Liked the Roses " , warned that Moman would have to surrender the publishing rights to release the songs . In response , Moman told Bienstock to take all the recordings and leave the studio . RCA vice @-@ president Harry Jenkins interceded , siding with Moman and ordering Bienstock to stay away from the studio and let Presley work with the staff . Meanwhile , Diskin informed Presley about the publishing issues . Presley supported Moman , assuring Diskin that he and the producer would handle the session work . Diskin contacted Parker , who told him to return to California . Moman retained the publishing rights , and the sessions were scheduled to resume several weeks later .
Presley returned on February 17 , recording " True Love Travels on a Gravel Road " and " Power of My Love " , and Eddy Arnold 's " After Loving You " and " Do You Know Who I Am ? " the following day . On February 19 , he devoted most of the session to the non @-@ album single " Kentucky Rain " , one of the few Hill & Range songs used on the American Sound recordings . Presley followed with a recording of " Only the Strong Survive " , a hit for Jerry Butler the previous year , which took twenty @-@ nine takes . On February 20 , he recorded Johnny Tillotson 's " It Keeps Right on a Hurtin ' " in three takes and " Any Day Now " in six . Presley 's final session was on February 22 , when he recorded vocal overdubs for " True Love Travels on a Gravel Road " and " Power of My Love " and vocals for several non @-@ album cuts . The following month , Mike Leech and Green Spreen began work on the string and horn overdubs to finish the album ; several brass overdubs were recorded by The Memphis Horns .
= = Music = =
Moman moved away from the usual Presley pop recordings aimed at an established audience . A developer of the Stax Records sound , he incorporated a Memphis sound integrating soul , country , gospel and rural and electric blues . Many arrangements lean heavily on the rhythm section , with lesser contributions from strings , brass and woodwinds . Arrangers Green Spreen and Mike Leech changed Presley 's image on the tracks with the addition of violas , cellos and French horns . The arrangers intended to blend the tracks for a distinctive sound ; the strings are used in counterpoint , rising when the track fades and vice versa . The violas play the same lines as the French horns , with cello used for darker tones . Syncopation was incorporated by bowing .
The twelve tracks on the album were selected from thirty @-@ one which were recorded in the American Sound sessions . The first song , " Wearin ' That Loved On Look " features an electric @-@ bass lead for the first time in a Presley recording . The second is " Only the Strong Survive " , with Presley backed by bass and drums . He plays piano on the third track , the country song " I Hold You in My Heart ( ' Till I Can Hold You in My Arms ) " . Presley 's voice is roughened by a cold on the fourth song , the country @-@ rhythm @-@ and @-@ blues " Long Black Limousine " featuring a trumpet solo . The fifth song , Johnny Tillotson 's traditional country @-@ western " It Keeps Right on A @-@ Hurtin ' " , was arranged to sound more like Memphis soul . Side one ends with a version of Hank Snow 's country @-@ western " I 'm Moving On " with a strong bass line and driving rhythm .
Side two begins with Florence Kaye and Bernie Baum 's " Power of My Love " . The song has a blues @-@ based sound , with Presley backed by a brass section , drums and electric guitar and organ . The lyrics include double entendres ( " Crush it , kick it / You can never win / I know baby you can 't lick it / I 'll make you give in ) " , with groans by backing female singers emphasizing sexuality . The second track , a cover of John Hartford 's " Gentle on My Mind " follows . The string @-@ laden arrangement was inspired by Glen Campbell 's 1967 Grammy @-@ winning version of the song . The next song , Eddy Arnold 's 1962 hit " After Loving You " , is arranged in a 12 / 8 tempo rhythm @-@ and @-@ blues style . This is followed by Dallas Frazier 's " True Love Travels on a Gravel Road " and Chuck Jackson 's 1962 hit , " Any Day Now " .
The twelfth and final song of the album , selected as a single , is Mac Davis ' " In The Ghetto " . The song was chosen by Billy Strange , who had previously picked material for other Presley sessions . The protest song denounces the consequences of poverty , with compassion for inner @-@ city youth . Because of " In the Ghetto " ' s lyrics , controversial for its time , Presley originally did not plan to record the song because he thought it might alienate fans . After Moman said he might give the song to Rosey Grier , Presley 's friends Joe Esposito and George Klein ( initially opposed to " In the Ghetto " ) , convinced the singer to record it .
The album cover is a still from the " Trouble " - " Guitar Man " production number of NBC 's Elvis special . Presley is featured with a red electric guitar , wearing a black leather suit with a red scarf around his neck , with silhouettes of guitar players at the back of the set . From Elvis in Memphis became one of American Sound Studio 's best @-@ known productions , with Dusty Springfield 's Dusty in Memphis ; both albums reflected similar times and musical trends on the Memphis scene .
= = Release and reception = =
The single " In the Ghetto " was released on April 15 , with 300 @,@ 000 copies shipped by RCA . In its second week after release it entered the charts , where it remained for thirteen weeks ( reaching number three on June 14 ) . The single sold a million copies in the United States . Meanwhile , it reached number two on the British Singles chart . However , its success triggered a confrontation between RCA and American Sound . During the sessions , Presley 's usual producer , Jarvis , grew increasingly worried about losing control of Presley and his recordings . During its first two weeks on the chart , " In the Ghetto " ' s production was credited to Jarvis . Lacker then called Billboard and had them correct the producer credit to Moman . During the fourth week , Parker asked Billboard to remove the production credit from the song 's entry entirely ( arguing that Presley 's records did not traditionally list a producer credit ) .
From Elvis in Memphis was released in June 1969 . The album topped the UK Albums Chart , disposing for one week Jethro Tull 's Stand Up . In the United States , it reached number thirteen on Billboard 's Top LP 's , and was ranked number seventeen on the magazine 's Top Country albums of 1969 . By January 28 , 1970 , the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America after selling over 500 @,@ 000 copies .
On August 23 , 1969 Presley was featured on the cover of Rolling Stone , with the album receiving the lead review . Peter Guralnick , the magazine 's reviewer , described it as " great ... Flatly and unequivocally the equal of anything ( Presley ) has ever done " and praised the " evident passion which ( Presley ) has invested in this music " , adding : " ( he ) is trying , and trying very hard , to please us. he needs to have our attention ... It is his involvement after all which comes as the surprise . " Billboard also published a positive review , saying that Presley had " never sounded better , and the choice of material is perfect " . High Fidelity wrote , " Elvis has been through a number of stages , and his latest is the best " .
From Elvis in Memphis has continued to receive praise in retrospective reviews . In 2009 Rolling Stone described it as " extraordinary " and attributed the sessions ' success to Presley 's " newfound maturity and soulfulness " and Moman 's " warm , distinctly Southern musical backing " . AllMusic gives it five stars out of five , and highlights it as an " AllMusic album pick " . Critic Bruce Eder said that together with 1956 's Elvis Presley , From Elvis in Memphis was Presley 's " greatest album " . Eder called it " one of the greatest white soul albums ( and one of the greatest soul albums ) ever cut " , with Presley " rejuvenated artistically ( while ) he 's supported by the best playing and backup singing of his entire recording history " .
PopMatters has described From Elvis in Memphis as " some of the best music Elvis Presley ever made " . Sputnik Music 's reviewer considered that the album " rivaled " Presley 's early recordings in " terms of historical importance and innovation " , and was " downright essential , for any Elvis fan and for any music fan " .
= = Legacy = =
Following the American Sound sessions , Presley returned to Hollywood . Between March – April 1969 , he recorded the soundtrack and starred in his thirty @-@ first and last motion picture as an actor , Change of Habit .
When the album was due for release , Parker arranged Presley 's return to live performing . He made a deal with Kirk Kerkorian , owner of the Las Vegas International Hotel for Presley to play the newly built , 2 @,@ 000 @-@ seat showroom for four weeks ( two shows per night , with Mondays off ) for $ 400 @,@ 000 . For his appearance , he assembled a band later known as the TCB Band : James Burton ( guitar ) , John Wilkinson ( rhythm guitar ) , Jerry Scheff ( bass @-@ guitar ) , Ronnie Tutt ( drums ) , Larry Muhoberac ( piano ) and Charlie Hodge ( rhythm guitar , background vocals ) . The band was complimented by the backing vocals of The Sweet inspirations and The Imperials . His initial Las Vegas show attracted an audience of 101 @,@ 500 , setting a new Vegas performance record . By 1970 , Presley began to tour the United States for the first time in thirteen years .
= = = Reissues = = =
In 2000 RCA released a remastered compact disc of From Elvis in Memphis , including six bonus tracks ( released as A- or B @-@ sides ) recorded during the album sessions . The reissue received five stars out of five from Rolling Stone . " Don 't Cry Daddy " and " Kentucky Rain " were minor hits in 1970 , but " Suspicious Minds " became one of Presley 's signature songs and was the final chart @-@ topper of his career . In 2003 , the album was number 190 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . In 2009 , Sony Music Entertainment issued a Legacy RCA Edition of the album for its 40th anniversary : two discs ( From Elvis In Memphis and the studio disk of From Memphis To Vegas / From Vegas To Memphis ) , four outtakes and ten tracks originally released as monaural singles ( including " Suspicious Minds " and " Kentucky Rain " ) .
= = Personnel = =
= = Track listings = =
= = = Original release = = =
= = = 1998 CD reissue = = =
= = = 2009 CD reissue = = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Certifications / sales = = =
= = Release history = =
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= American popular music =
American popular music has had a profound effect on music across the world . The country has seen the rise of popular styles that have had a significant influence on global culture , including ragtime , blues , jazz , swing , rock , bluegrass , country , R & B , doo wop , gospel , soul , funk , heavy metal , punk , disco , house , techno , salsa , grunge and hip hop . In addition , the American music industry is quite diverse , supporting a number of regional styles such as zydeco , klezmer and slack @-@ key .
Distinctive styles of American popular music emerged early in the 19th century , and in the 20th century the American music industry developed a series of new forms of music , using elements of blues and other genres of American folk music . These popular styles included country , R & B , jazz and rock . The 1960s and 1970s saw a number of important changes in American popular music , including the development of a number of new styles , such as heavy metal , punk , soul , and hip hop . Though these styles were not popular in the sense of mainstream , they were commercially recorded and are thus examples of popular music as opposed to folk or classical music .
= = Early " popular " music = =
The earliest songs that could be considered American popular music , as opposed to the popular music of a particular region or ethnicity , were sentimental parlor songs by Stephen Foster and his peers , and songs meant for use in minstrel shows , theatrical productions that featured singing , dancing and comic performances . Minstrel shows generally used African instruments and dance , and featured performers with their faces blackened , a technique called blackface . [ 1 ] By the middle of the 19th century , touring companies had taken this music not only to every part of the United States , but also to the UK , Western Europe , and even to Africa and Asia . Minstrel shows were generally advertised as though the music of the shows was in an African American style , though this was often not true .
Black people had taken part in American popular culture prior to the Civil War era , at least dating back to the African Grove Theatre in New York in the 1820s and the publication of the first music by a black composer , Francis Johnson , in 1818 . However , these important milestones still occurred entirely within the conventions of European music . The first extremely popular minstrel song was " Jump Jim Crow " by Thomas " Daddy " Rice , which was first performed in 1832 and was a sensation in London when Rice performed it there in 1836 . Rice used a dance that he copied from a stable boy with a tune adopted from an Irish jig . The African elements included the use of the banjo , believed to derive from West African string instruments , and accented and additive rhythms . [ 2 ] Many of the songs of the minstrel shows are still remembered today , especially those by Daniel Emmett and Stephen Foster , the latter being , according to David Ewen , " America 's first major composer , and one of the world 's outstanding writers of songs " . [ 3 ] Foster 's songs were typical of the minstrel era in their unabashed sentimentality , and in their acceptance of slavery . Nevertheless , Foster did more than most songwriters of the period to humanize the blacks he composed about , such as in " Nelly Was a Lady " , a plaintive , melancholy song about a black man mourning the loss of his wife . [ 4 ]
The minstrel show marked the beginning of a long tradition of African American music being appropriated for popular audiences , and was the first distinctly American form of music to find international acclaim , in the mid @-@ 19th century . As Donald Clarke has noted , minstrel shows contained " essentially black music , while the most successful acts were white , so that songs and dances of black origin were imitated by white performers and then taken up by black performers , who thus to some extent ended up imitating themselves " . Clarke attributes the use of blackface to a desire for white Americans to glorify the brutal existence of both free and slave blacks by depicting them as happy and carefree individuals , best suited to plantation life and the performance of simple , joyous songs that easily appealed to white audiences . [ 5 ]
Blackface minstrel shows remained popular throughout the last part of the 19th century , only gradually dying out near the beginning of the 20th century . During that time , a form of lavish and elaborate theater called the extravaganza arose , beginning with Charles M. Barras ' The Black Crook . [ 6 ] Extravaganzas were criticized by the newspapers and churches of the day because the shows were considered sexually titillating , with women singing bawdy songs dressed in nearly transparent clothing . David Ewen described this as the beginning of the " long and active careers in sex exploitation " of American musical theater and popular song . [ 7 ] Later , extravaganzas took elements of burlesque performances , which were satiric and parodic productions that were very popular at the end of the 19th century . [ 8 ]
Like the extravaganza and the burlesque , the variety show was a comic and ribald production , popular from the middle to the end of the 19th century , at which time it had evolved into vaudeville . This form was innovated by producers like Tony Pastor who tried to encourage women and children to attend his shows ; they were hesitant because the theater had long been the domain of a rough and disorderly crowd . [ 9 ] By the early 20th century , vaudeville was a respected entertainment for women and children , and songwriters like Gus Edwards wrote songs that were popular across the country . [ 10 ] The most popular vaudeville shows were , like the Ziegfeld Follies , a series of songs and skits that had a profound effect on the subsequent development of Broadway musical theater and the songs of Tin Pan Alley .
= = = Tin Pan Alley = = =
Tin Pan Alley was an area called Union Square in New York City , which became the major center for music publishing by the mid @-@ 1890s . The songwriters of this era wrote formulaic songs , many of them sentimental ballads . [ 11 ] During this era , a sense of national consciousness was developing , as the United States became a formidable world power , especially after the Spanish – American War . The increased availability and efficiency of railroads and the postal service helped disseminate ideas , including popular songs .
Some of the most notable publishers of Tin Pan Alley included Willis Woodward , M. Witmark & Sons , Charles K. Harris , and Edward B. Marks and Joseph W. Stern . Stern and Marks were among the more well @-@ known Tin Pan Alley songwriters ; they began writing together as amateurs in 1894 . [ 12 ] In addition to the popular , mainstream ballads and other clean @-@ cut songs , some Tin Pan Alley publishers focused on rough and risqué . Coon songs were another important part of Tin Pan Alley , derived from the watered @-@ down songs of the minstrel show with the " verve and electricity " brought by the " assimilation of the ragtime rhythm " . [ 13 ] The first popular coon song was " New Coon in Town " , introduced in 1883 , and followed by a wave of coon shouters like Ernest Hogan and May Irwin . [ 14 ]
= = = Broadway = = =
The early 20th century also saw the growth of Broadway , a group of theatres specializing in musicals . Broadway became one of the preeminent locations for musical theater in the world , and produced a body of songs that led Donald Clarke to call the era , the golden age of songwriting . The need to adapt enjoyable songs to the constraints of a theater and a plot enabled and encouraged a growth in songwriting and the rise of composers like George Gershwin , Vincent Youmans , Irving Berlin and Jerome Kern . [ 15 ] These songwriters wrote songs that have remained popular and are today known as the Great American Songbook .
Foreign operas were popular among the upper @-@ class throughout the 19th century , while other styles of musical theater included operettas , ballad operas and the opera bouffe . The English operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan were particularly popular , while American compositions had trouble finding an audience . George M. Cohan was the first notable American composer of musical theater , and the first to move away from the operetta , and is also notable for using the language of the vernacular in his work . By the beginning of the 20th century , however , black playwrights , composers and musicians were having a profound effect on musical theater , beginning with the works of Will Marion Cook , James Reese Europe and James P. Johnson ; the first major hit black musical was Shuffle Along in 1921 . [ 16 ]
Imported operettas and domestic productions by both whites like Cohan and blacks like Cook , Europe and Johnson all had a formative influence on Broadway . Composers like Gershwin , Porter and Kern made comedic musical theater into a national pastime , with a feel that was distinctly American and not dependent on European models . Most of these individuals were Jewish , with Cole Porter the only major exception ; they were the descendants of 19th century immigrants fleeing persecution in the Russian Empire , settled most influentially in various neighborhoods in New York City . [ 17 ] Many of the early musicals were influenced by black music , showing elements of early jazz , such as In Dahomey ; the Jewish composers of these works may have seen connections between the traditional African American blue notes and their own folk Jewish music .
Broadway songs were recorded around the turn of the century , but did not become widely popular outside their theatrical context until much later . Jerome Kern 's " They Didn 't Believe Me " was an early song that became popular nationwide . Kern 's later innovations included a more believable plot than the rather shapeless stories built around songs of earlier works , beginning with Show Boat in 1927 . George Gershwin was perhaps the most influential composer on Broadway , beginning with " Swanee " in 1919 and later works for jazz and orchestras . His most enduring composition may be the opera Porgy and Bess , a story about two blacks , which Gershwin intended as a sort of " folk opera " , a creation of a new style of American musical theater based on American idioms . [ 18 ]
= = = Ragtime = = =
Ragtime was a style of dance music based around the piano , using syncopated rhythms and chromaticisms ; [ 19 ] the genre 's most well @-@ known performer and composer was undoubtedly Scott Joplin . Donald Clarke considers ragtime the culmination of coon songs , used first in minstrel shows and then vaudeville , and the result of the rhythms of minstrelsy percolating into the mainstream ; he also suggests that ragtime 's distinctive sound may have come from an attempt to imitate the African American banjo using the keyboard . [ 20 ]
Due to the essentially African American nature of ragtime , it is most commonly considered the first style of American popular music to be truly black music ; ragtime brought syncopation and a more authentic black sound to popular music . Popular ragtime songs were notated and sold as sheet music , but the general style was played more informally across the nation ; these amateur performers played a more free @-@ flowing form of ragtime that eventually became a major formative influence on jazz . [ 21 ]
= = Early recorded popular music = =
Thomas Edison 's invention of the phonograph cylinder kicked off the birth of recorded music . The first cylinder to be released was " Semper Fidelis " by the U.S. Marine Band . At first , cylinders were released sparingly , but as their sales grew more profitable , distribution increased . These early recorded songs were a mix of vaudeville , barbershop quartets , marches , opera , novelty songs , and other popular tunes . Many popular standards , such as " The Good Old Summertime " , " Shine On Harvest Moon " , and " Over There " come from this time . There were also a few early hits in the field of jazz , beginning with the Original Dixieland Jazz Band 's 1917 recordings , and followed by King Oliver 's Creole Jazz Band , who played in a more authentic New Orleans jazz style . [ 22 ]
Blues had been around a long time before it became a part of the first explosion of recorded popular music in American history . This came in the 1920s , when classic female blues singers like Ma Rainey , Bessie Smith and Mamie Smith grew very popular ; the first hit of this field was Mamie Smith 's " Crazy Blues " . These urban blues singers changed the idea of popular music from being simple songs that could be easily performed by anyone to works primarily associated with an individual singer . Performers like Sophie Tucker , known for " Some of These Days " , became closely associated with their hits , making their individualized interpretations just as important as the song itself . [ 23 ]
At the same time , record companies like Paramount Records and OKeh Records launched the field of race music , which was mostly blues targeted at African American audiences . The most famous of these acts went on to inspire much of the later popular development of the blues and blues @-@ derived genres , including Charley Patton , Lonnie Johnson and Robert Johnson .
= = = Popular jazz ( 1920 – 1935 ) and swing ( 1935 – 1947 ) = = =
Jazz is a kind of music characterized by blue notes , syncopation , swing , call and response , polyrhythms , and improvisation . Though originally a kind of dance music , jazz has now been " long considered a kind of popular or vernacular music ( and has also ) become a sophisticated art form that has interacted in significant ways with the music of the concert hall " . [ 24 ] Jazz 's development occurred at around the same time as modern ragtime , blues , gospel and country music , all of which can be seen as part of a continuum with no clear demarcation between them ; jazz specifically was most closely related to ragtime , with which it could be distinguished by the use of more intricate rhythmic improvisation , often placing notes far from the implied beat . The earliest jazz bands adopted much of the vocabulary of the blues , including bent and blue notes and instrumental " growls " and smears .
Paul Whiteman was the most popular bandleader of the 1920s , and claimed for himself the title " The King of Jazz . " Despite his hiring many of the other best white jazz musicians of the era , later generations of jazz lovers have often judged Whiteman 's music to have little to do with real jazz . Nonetheless , his notion of combining jazz with elaborate orchestrations has been returned to repeatedly by composers and arrangers of later decades .
Whiteman commissioned Gershwin 's " Rhapsody in Blue " , which was debuted by Whiteman 's Orchestra . Ted Lewis 's band was second only to the Paul Whiteman in popularity during the 1920s , and arguably played more real jazz with less pretension than Whiteman , especially in his recordings of the late 1920s . Some of the other " jazz " bands of the decade included those of : Harry Reser , Leo Reisman , Abe Lyman , Nat Shilkret , George Olsen , Ben Bernie , Bob Haring , Ben Selvin , Earl Burtnett , Gus Arnheim , Rudy Vallee , Jean Goldkette , Isham Jones , Roger Wolfe Kahn , Sam Lanin , Vincent Lopez , Ben Pollack and Fred Waring .
In the 1920s , the music performed by these artists was extremely popular with the public and was typically labeled as jazz . Today , however , this music is disparaged and labeled as " sweet music " by jazz purists . The music that people consider today as " jazz " tended to be played by minorities . In the 1920s and early 1930s , however , the majority of people listened to what we would call today " sweet music " and hardcore jazz was categorized as " hot music " or " race music . "
The largest and most influential recording label of the time , The Victor Talking Machine ( RCA Victor after 1928 ) was a restraining influence on the development of “ sweet jazz ” until the departure of Eddie King in October 1926 . King was well known as an authoritarian who would not permit drinking on the job or severe departure from the written music , unless within solos acceptable by popular music standards of the time . This irritated many Victor jazz artists , including famed trumpeter Bix Beiderbecke . Sudhalter , in Lost Chords , cites an example of a 1927 recording by the Goldkette Orchestra in which musicians were allowed considerable freedom , and remarks “ What , one wonders , would this performance have been if Eddie King had been in charge , and not the more liberal Nat Shilkret . Since the Victor ledgers show no less than five recording sessions in January and February 1926 , when King actually conducted Goldkette ’ s Orchestra , comparison between the approach of Goldkette and King is readily available .
In 1935 , swing music became popular with the public and quickly replaced jazz as the most popular type of music ( although there was some resistance to it at first ) . Swing music is characterized by a strong rhythm section , usually consisting of a double bass and drums , playing in a medium to fast tempo , and rhythmic devices like the swung note . Swing is primarily a kind of 1930s jazz fused with elements of the blues and the pop sensibility of Tin Pan Alley . [ 25 ] Swing used bigger bands than other kinds of jazz had and was headed by bandleaders that tightly arranged the material , discouraging the improvisation that had been an integral part of jazz . David Clarke called swing the first " jazz @-@ oriented style ( to be ) at the center of popular music ... as opposed to merely giving it backbone " . [ 26 ] By the end of the 1930s , vocalists became more and more prominent , eventually taking center stage following the American Federation of Musicians strike , which made recording with a large band prohibitively expensive . [ 27 ] Swing came to be accompanied by a popular dance called the swing dance , which was very popular across the United States , among both white and black audiences , especially youth .
= = = Blues diversification and popularization = = =
In addition to the popular jazz and swing music listened to by mainstream America , there were a number of other genres that were popular among certain groups of people — e.g. , minorities or rural audiences . Beginning in the 1920s and accelerating greatly in the 1940s , the blues began rapidly diversifying into a broad spectrum of new styles . These included an uptempo , energetic style called rhythm and blues ( R & B ) , a merger of blues and Anglo @-@ Celtic song called country music and the fusion of hymns and spirituals with blues structures called gospel music . Later than these other styles , in the 1940s , a blues , R & B and country fusion eventually called rock and roll developed , eventually coming to dominate American popular by the beginning of the 1960s .
Country music is primarily a fusion of African American blues and spirituals with Appalachian folk music , adapted for pop audiences and popularized beginning in the 1920s . Of particular importance was Irish and Scottish tunes , dance music , balladry and vocal styles , [ 28 ] as well as Native American , Spanish , German , French and Mexican music . The instrumentation of early country revolved around the European @-@ derived fiddle and the African @-@ derived banjo , with the guitar added later . Country music instrumentation used African elements like a call @-@ and @-@ response format , improvised music and syncopated rhythms . Later still , string instruments like the ukulele and steel guitar became commonplace due to the popularity of Hawaiian music in the early 20th century and the influence of musicians such as Sol Hoopii and Lani McIntyre . [ 29 ] The roots of modern country music are generally traced to 1927 , when music talent scout Ralph Peer recorded Jimmie Rodgers and The Carter Family . Their recordings are considered the foundation for modern country music . There had been popular music prior to 1927 that could be considered country , but , as Ace Collins points out , these recordings had " only marginal and very inconsistent " effects on the national music markets , and were only superficially similar to what was then known as hillbilly music . [ 30 ] In addition to Rodgers and the Carters , a musician named Bob Wills was an influential early performer known for a style called Western swing , which was very popular in the 1920s and 30s , and was responsible for bringing a prominent jazz influence to country music .
Rhythm and blues ( R & B ) is a style that arose in the 1930s and 1940s , a rhythmic and uptempo form of blues with more complex instrumentation . Author Amiri Baraka described early R & B as " huge rhythm units smashing away behind screaming blues singers ( who ) had to shout to be heard above the clanging and strumming of the various electrified instruments and the churning rhythm sections . [ 31 ] . R & B was recorded during this period , but not extensively , and it was not widely promoted by record companies that felt it was not suited for most audiences , especially middle @-@ class whites , because of the suggestive lyrics and driving rhythms . [ 32 ] Bandleaders like Louis Jordan innovated the sound of early R & B. Jordan 's band featured a small horn section and prominent rhythm instrumentation and used songs with bluesy lyrical themes . By the end of the 1940s , he had produced nineteen major hits , and helped pave the way for contemporaries like Wynonie Harris , John Lee Hooker and Roy Milton .
Christian spirituals and rural blues music were the origin of what is now known as gospel music . Beginning in about the 1920s , African American churches featured early gospel in the form of worshipers proclaiming their religious devotion ( testifying ) in an improvised , often musical manner . Modern gospel began with the work of composers , most importantly Thomas A. Dorsey , who " ( composed ) songs based on familiar spirituals and hymns , fused to blues and jazz rhythms " . [ 33 ] From these early 20th @-@ century churches , gospel music spread across the country . It remained associated almost entirely with African American churches , and usually featured a choir along with one or more virtuoso soloists .
Rock and roll is a kind of popular music , developed primarily out of country , blues and R & B. Easily the single most popular style of music worldwide , rock 's exact origins and early development have been hotly debated . Music historian Robert Palmer has noted that the style 's influences are quite diverse , and include the Afro @-@ Caribbean " Bo Diddley beat " , elements of " big band swing " and Latin music like the Cuban son and " Mexican rhythms " . [ 34 ] Another author , George Lipsitz claims that rock arose in America 's urban areas , where there formed a " polyglot , working @-@ class culture ( where the ) social meanings previously conveyed in isolation by blues , country , polka , zydeco and Latin musics found new expression as they blended in an urban environment " . [ 35 ]
= = 1950s and 1960s = =
The middle of the 20th century saw a number of very important changes in American popular music . The field of pop music developed tremendously during this period , as the increasingly low price of recorded music stimulated demand and greater profits for the record industry . As a result , music marketing became more and more prominent , resulting in a number of mainstream pop stars whose popularity was previously unheard of . Many of the first such stars were Italian @-@ American crooners like Dean Martin , Rudy Vallee , Tony Bennett , Perry Como , Frankie Laine and , most famously , the " first pop vocalist to engender hysteria among his fans " Frank Sinatra . [ 36 ] The era of the modern teen pop star , however , began in the 1960s . Bubblegum pop groups like The Monkees were chosen entirely for their appearance and ability to sell records , with no regard to musical ability . The same period , however , also saw the rise of new forms of pop music that achieved a more permanent presence in the field of American popular music , including rock , soul and pop @-@ folk . By the end of the 1960s , two developments had completely changed popular music : the birth of a counterculture , which explicitly opposed mainstream music , often in tandem with political and social activism , and the shift from professional composers to performers who were both singers and songwriters .
Rock and roll first entered mainstream popular music through a style called rockabilly , which fused the nascent rock sound with elements of country music . Black @-@ performed rock and roll previously had limited mainstream success , and some observers at the time believed that a white performer who could credibly sing in an R & B and country style would be a success . Sam Phillips , of Memphis , Tennessee 's Sun Records , found such a performer in Elvis Presley , who became one of the best @-@ selling musicians in history , and brought rock and roll to audiences across the world . [ 37 ] Presley 's success was preceded by Bill Haley , a white performer whose " Rock Around the Clock " is sometimes pointed to as the start of the rock era . However , Haley 's music was " more arranged " and " more calculated " than the " looser rhythms " of rockabilly , which also , unlike Haley , did not use saxophones or chorus singing . [ 38 ]
R & B remained extremely popular during the 1950s among black audiences , but the style was not considered appropriate for whites , or respectable middle @-@ class blacks , because of its suggestive nature . Many popular R & B songs instead were performed by white musicians like Pat Boone , in a more palatable , mainstream style , and turned into pop hits . [ 39 ] By the end of the 1950s , however , there was a wave of popular black blues @-@ rock and country @-@ influenced R & B performers gaining unprecedented fame among white listeners ; these included Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry . [ 40 ] Over time , producers in the R & B field gradually turned to more rock @-@ based acts like Little Richard and Fats Domino .
Doo wop is a kind of vocal harmony music performed by groups who became popular in the 1950s . Though sometimes considered a kind of rock , doo wop is more precisely a fusion of vocal R & B , gospel and jazz with the blues and pop structures , [ 41 ] though until the 1960s , the lines separating rock from doo wop , R & B and other related styles were very blurry . Doo wop became the first style of R & B @-@ derived music " to take shape , to define itself as something people recognized as new , different , strange , theirs " ( emphasis in original ) . [ 42 ] As doo wop grew more popular , more innovations were added , including the use of a bass lead vocalist , a practice that began with Jimmy Ricks of The Ravens . [ 43 ] Doo wop performers were originally almost all black , but a few white and integrated groups soon became popular . These included a number of Italian @-@ American groups such as Dion & the Belmonts , while others added female vocalists and even formed all @-@ female groups in the nearly universally male field ; these included The Queens and The Chantels . [ 44 ]
The 1950s saw a number of brief fads that went on to have a great impact on future styles of music . Performers like Pete Seeger and The Weavers popularized a form of old @-@ time revival of Anglo @-@ American music . [ 45 ] This field eventually became associated with the political left @-@ wing and Communism , leading to a decline in acceptability as artists were increasingly blacklisted and criticized . Nevertheless , this form of pop @-@ folk exerted a profound influence in the form of 1950s folk @-@ rock and related styles . Alongside the rather sporadic success of popularized Anglo folk music came a series of Latin dance fads , including mambo , rumba , chachachá and boogaloo . Though their success was again sporadic and brief , Latin music continued to exert a continuous influence on rock , soul and other styles , as well as eventually evolving into salsa music in the 1970s .
= = = Country : Nashville Sound = = =
Beginning in the late 1920s , a distinctive style first called " old @-@ timey " or " hillbilly " music began to be broadcast and recorded in the rural South and Midwest ; early artists included the Carter Family , Charlie Poole and his North Carolina Ramblers , and Jimmie Rodgers . The performance and dissemination of this music was regional at first , but the population shifts caused by World War II spread it more widely . After the war , there was increased interest in specialty styles , including what had been known as race and hillbilly music ; these styles were renamed to rhythm and blues and country and western , respectively . [ 46 ] Major labels had some success promoting two kinds of country acts : Southern novelty performers like Tex Williams and singers like Frankie Laine , who mixed pop and country in a conventionally sentimental style . This period also saw the rise of Hank Williams , a white country singer who had learned the blues from a black street musician named Tee @-@ Tot , in northwest Alabama . [ 47 ] Before his death in 1953 , Hank Williams recorded eleven singles that sold at least a million copies each and pioneered the Nashville sound .
The Nashville sound was a popular kind of country music that arose in the 1950s , a fusion of popular big band jazz and swing with the lyricism of honky @-@ tonk country . [ 48 ] The popular success of Hank Williams ' recordings had convinced record labels that country music could find mainstream audiences . Record companies then tried to strip the rough , honky @-@ tonk elements from country music , removing the unapologetically rural sound that had made Williams famous . Nashville 's industry was reacting to the rise of rockabilly performer Elvis Presley by marketing performers that crossed the divide between country and pop . Chet Atkins , head of RCA 's country music division , did the most to innovate the Nashville sound by abandoning the rougher elements of country , while Owen Bradley used sophisticated production techniques and smooth instrumentation that eventually became standard in the Nashville Sound , which also grew to incorporate strings and vocal choirs . By the early part of the 1960s , the Nashville sound was perceived as watered @-@ down by many more traditionalist performers and fans , resulting in a number of local scenes like the Lubbock sound and , most influentially , the Bakersfield sound .
Throughout the 1950s , the most popular kind of country music was the Nashville Sound , which was a slick and pop @-@ oriented style . Many musicians preferred a rougher sound , leading to the development of the Lubbock Sound and Bakersfield Sound . The Bakersfield Sound was innovated in Bakersfield , California in the mid to late 1950s , by performers like Wynn Stewart , who used elements of Western swing and rock , such as the breakbeat , along with a honky tonk vocal style . [ 49 ] He was followed by a wave of performers like Buck Owens and Merle Haggard , who popularized the style .
= = = Soul = = =
Soul music is a combination of R & B and gospel that began in the late 1950s in the United States . Soul music is characterized by its use of gospel techniques with a greater emphasis on vocalists , and the use of secular themes . The 1950s recordings of Sam Cooke , Ray Charles , and James Brown are commonly considered the beginnings of soul music . Solomon Burke 's early recordings for Atlantic Records codified the style , and as Peter Guralnick writes , " it was only with the coming together of Burke and Atlantic Records that you could see anything resembling a movement " . [ 50 ]
The Motown Record Corporation in Detroit , Michigan became successful with a string of heavily pop @-@ influenced soul records , which were palatable enough to white listeners so as to allow R & B and soul to crossover to mainstream audiences . An important center of soul music recording was Florence , Alabama , where the FAME Studios operated . Jimmy Hughes , Percy Sledge and Arthur Alexander recorded at Fame ; later in the 1960s , Aretha Franklin would also record in the area . Fame Studios , often referred to as Muscle Shoals , after a town neighboring Florence , enjoyed a close relationship with Stax , and many of the musicians and producers who worked in Memphis also contributed to recordings done in Alabama .
In Memphis , Stax Records produced recordings by soul pioneers Otis Redding , Wilson Pickett , and Don Covay . Other Stax artists such as Eddie Floyd and Johnnie Taylor also made significant contributions to soul music . By 1968 , the soul music movement had begun to splinter , as James Brown and Sly & the Family Stone began to expand upon and abstract both soul and rhythm and blues into other forms . Guralnick wrote that more " than anything else ... what seems to me to have brought the era of soul to a grinding , unsettling halt was the death of Martin Luther King in April 1968 " . [ 51 ]
= = = 1960s rock = = =
Among the first of the major new rock genres of the 1960s was surf , pioneered by Californian Dick Dale . Surf was largely instrumental and guitar @-@ based rock with a distorted and twanging sound , and was associated with the Southern California surfing @-@ based youth culture . Dale had worked with Leo Fender , developing the " Showman amplifier and ... the reverberation unit that would give surf music its distinctively fuzzy sound " . [ 52 ]
Inspired by the lyrical focus of surf , if not the musical basis , The Beach Boys began their career in 1961 with a string of hits like " Surfin ' U.S.A. " . Their sound was not instrumental , nor guitar @-@ based , but was full of " rich , dense and unquestionably special " " floating vocals ( with ) Four Freshman @-@ ish harmonies riding over a droned , propulsive burden " . [ 53 ] The Beach Boys ' songwriter Brian Wilson grew gradually more eccentric , experimenting with new studio techniques as he became associated with the burgeoning counterculture .
The counterculture was a youth movement that included political activism , especially in opposition to the Vietnam War , and the promotion of various hippie ideals . The hippies were associated primarily with two kinds of music : the folk @-@ rock and country rock of people like Bob Dylan and Gram Parsons , and the psychedelic rock of bands like Jefferson Airplane and The Doors . This movement was very closely connected to the British Invasion , a wave of bands from the United Kingdom who became popular throughout much of the 1960s . The British Invasion initially included bands like the Beatles , the Rolling Stones , and The Zombies who were later joined by bands like the Moody Blues and The Who . The sound of these bands was hard @-@ edged rock , with the Beatles originally known for songs that resembled classic black rock songs by Little Richard , Chuck Berry , Smokey Robinson , The Shirelles and the Isley Brothers . [ 54 ] Later , as the counterculture developed , The Beatles began using more advanced techniques and unusual instruments , such as the sitar , as well as more original lyrics .
Folk @-@ rock drew on the sporadic mainstream success of groups like the Kingston Trio and the Almanac Singers , while Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger helped to politically radicalize rural white folk music . [ 55 ] The popular musician Bob Dylan rose to prominence in the middle of the 1960s , fusing folk with rock and making the nascent scene closely connected to the Civil Rights Movement . He was followed by a number of country @-@ rock bands like The Byrds and the Flying Burrito Brothers and folk @-@ oriented singer @-@ songwriters like Joan Baez and the Canadian Joni Mitchell . However , by the end of the decade , there was little political or social awareness evident in the lyrics of pop @-@ singer @-@ songwriters like James Taylor and Carole King , whose self @-@ penned songs were deeply personal and emotional .
Psychedelic rock was a hard , driving kind of guitar @-@ based rock , closely associated with the city of San Francisco , California . Though Jefferson Airplane was the only psychedelic San Francisco band to have a major national hit , with 1967 's " Somebody to Love " and " White Rabbit " , the Grateful Dead , a folk , country and bluegrass @-@ flavored jam band , " embodied all the elements of the San Francisco scene and came ... to represent the counterculture to the rest of the country " ; the Grateful Dead also became known for introducing the counterculture , and the rest of the country , to the ideas of people like Timothy Leary , especially the use of hallucinogenic drugs like LSD for spiritual and philosophical purposes . [ 56 ]
= = 1970s and 1980s = =
Following the turbulent political , social and musical changes of the 1960s and early 1970s , rock music diversified . What was formerly known as rock and roll , a reasonably discrete style of music , had evolved into a catchall category called simply rock music , an umbrella term which would eventually include diverse styles like heavy metal music , punk rock and , sometimes even hip hop music . During the 1970s , however , most of these styles were not part of mainstream music , and were evolving in the underground music scene .
The early 1970s saw a wave of singer @-@ songwriters who drew on the introspective , deeply emotional and personal lyrics of 1960s folk @-@ rock . They included James Taylor , Carole King and others , all known just as much for their lyric ability as for their performances . The same period saw the rise of bluesy Southern rock and country rock groups like the Allman Brothers Band and Lynyrd Skynyrd . [ 57 ] In the 1970s , soft rock developed , a kind of simple , unobtrusive and mellow form of pop @-@ rock , exemplified by a number of bands like America and Bread , most of whom are little remembered today ; many were one @-@ hit wonders . [ 58 ] In addition , harder arena rock bands like Chicago and Styx also saw some major success .
The early 1970s saw the rise of a new style of country music that was as rough and hard @-@ edged , and which quickly became the most popular form of country . This was outlaw country , a style that included such mainstream stars as Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings . [ 59 ] Outlaw country was very rock @-@ oriented , and had lyrics that focused on the criminal , especially drug and alcohol @-@ related , antics of its performers , who grew their hair long , wore denim and leather and looked like hippies in contrast to the clean @-@ cut country singers that were pushing the Nashville sound . [ 60 ]
By the mid @-@ 1970s , disco , a form of dance music , was becoming popular , evolving from underground dance clubs to mainstream America . Disco reached its zenith following the release of Saturday Night Fever and the phenomenon surrounding the movie and the soundtrack by The Bee Gees . Disco 's time was short , however , and by 1980 was soon replaced with a number of genres that evolved out of the punk rock scene , like new wave . Bruce Springsteen became a major star , first in the mid to late 1970s and then throughout the 1980s , with dense , inscrutable lyrics and anthemic songs that resonated with the middle and lower classes . [ 61 ]
= = = 1970s funk and soul = = =
In the early 1970s , soul music was influenced by psychedelic rock and other styles . The social and political ferment of the times inspired artists like Marvin Gaye and Curtis Mayfield to release album @-@ length statements with hard @-@ hitting social commentary . Artists like James Brown led soul towards more dance @-@ oriented music , which eventually evolved into funk . Funk was typified by 1970s bands like Parliament @-@ Funkadelic , The Meters , and James Brown himself , while more versatile groups like War , The Commodores and Earth , Wind and Fire also became popular . During the 1970s , some highly slick and commercial blue @-@ eyed soul acts like Philadelphia 's Hall & Oates achieved mainstream success , as well as a new generation of street @-@ corner harmony or city @-@ soul groups like The Delfonics and Howard University 's Unifics .
By the end of the 1970s , Philly soul , funk , rock and most other genres were dominated by disco @-@ inflected tracks . During this period , funk bands like The O 'Jays and The Spinners continued to turn out hits . After the death of disco in 1980 , soul music survived for a short time before going through yet another metamorphosis . With the introduction of influences from electro music and funk , soul music became less raw and more slickly produced , resulting in a genre of music that was again called R & B , usually distinguished from the earlier rhythm and blues by identifying it as contemporary R & B.
= = = 1980s pop = = =
By the 1960s , the term rhythm and blues had no longer been in wide use ; instead , terms like soul music were used to describe popular music by black artists . In the 1980s , however , rhythm and blues came back into use , most often in the form of R & B , a usage that has continued to the present . Contemporary R & B arose when sultry funk singers like Prince became very popular , alongside dance @-@ oriented pop stars like Michael Jackson and Madonna . [ 62 ]
By the end of the 1980s , pop @-@ rock largely consisted of the radio @-@ friendly glam metal bands , who used images derived from the British glam movement with macho lyrics and attitudes , accompanied by hard rock music and heavy metal virtuosic soloing . Bands from this era included many British groups like Def Leppard , as well as heavy metal @-@ influenced American bands Mötley Crüe , Guns N ' Roses , Bon Jovi and Van Halen . [ 63 ]
The mid @-@ 1980s also saw Gospel music see its popularity peak . A new form of gospel had evolved , called Contemporary Christian music ( CCM ) . CCM had been around since the late 1960s , and consisted of a pop / rock sound with slight religious lyrics . CCM had become the most popular form of gospel by the mid @-@ 1980s , especially with artists like Amy Grant , Michael W. Smith , and Kathy Troccoli . Amy Grant was the most popular CCM , and gospel , singer of the 1980s , and after experiencing unprecedented success in CCM , crossed over into mainstream pop in the 1980s and 1990s . Michael W. Smith also had considerable success in CCM before crossing over to a successful career in pop music as well . Grant would later produce CCM 's first # 1 pop hit ( " Baby Baby " ) , and CCM 's best @-@ selling album ( Heart In Motion ) .
In the 1980s , the country music charts were dominated by pop singers with only tangential influences from country music , a trend that has continued since . The 1980s saw a revival of honky @-@ tonk @-@ style country with the rise of people like Dwight Yoakam and the new traditionalists Emmylou Harris and Ricky Skaggs , [ 64 ] as well as the development of alternative country performers like Uncle Tupelo . Later alternative country performers , like Whiskeytown 's Ryan Adams and Wilco , found some mainstream success .
= = = Birth of the underground = = =
During the 1970s , a number of diverse styles emerged in stark contrast to mainstream American popular music . Though these genres were not largely popular in the sense of selling many records to mainstream audiences , they were examples of popular music , as opposed to folk or classical music . In the early 1970s , African Americans and Puerto Ricans in New York City developed hip hop culture , which produced a style of music also called hip hop . At roughly the same time , Latinos , especially Cubans and Puerto Ricans , in New York also innovated salsa music , which combined many forms of Latin music with R & B and rock . The genres of punk rock and heavy metal were most closely associated with the United Kingdom in the 1970s , while various American derivatives evolved later in the decade and into the 1980s . Meanwhile , Detroit slowly evolved a series of electronic music genres like house and techno that later became a major part of popular music worldwide .
= = = = Hip hop = = = =
Hip hop is a cultural movement , of which music is a part , along with graffiti and breakdancing . The music is composed of two parts , rapping , the delivery of swift , highly rhythmic and lyrical vocals , and DJing , the production of instrumentation either through sampling , instrumentation , turntablism or beatboxing . [ 65 ] Hip hop arose in the early 1970s in The Bronx , New York City . Jamaican immigrant DJ Kool Herc is widely regarded as the progenitor of hip hop ; he brought with him the practice of toasting over the rhythms of popular songs . In New York , DJs like Kool Herc played records of popular funk , disco and rock songs . Emcees originally arose to introduce the songs and keep the crowd excited and dancing ; over time , the DJs began isolating the percussion breaks ( the rhythmic climax of songs ) , thus producing a repeated beat that the emcees rapped over .
Rapping included greetings to friends and enemies , exhortations to dance and colorful , often humorous boasts . By the beginning of the 1980s , there had been popular hip hop songs like " Rappers Delight " by the Sugarhill Gang and a few major celebrities of the scene , like LL Cool J and Kurtis Blow . Other performers experimented with politicized lyrics and social awareness , while others performed fusions with jazz , heavy metal , techno , funk and soul . Hip hop began to diversify in the latter part of the 1980s . New styles appeared , like alternative hip hop and the closely related jazz rap fusion , pioneered by rappers like De La Soul and Guru . The crews Public Enemy and N.W.A did the most during this era to bring hip hop to national attention ; the former did so with incendiary and politically charged lyrics , while the latter became the first prominent example of gangsta rap .
= = = = Salsa = = = =
Salsa music is a diverse and predominantly Caribbean rhythm that is popular in many Latin American countries . Salsa incorporates multiple styles and variations ; the term can be used to describe most any form of the popular Cuban @-@ derived musical genres ( like chachachá and mambo ) . Most specifically however , salsa refers to a particular style was developed by mid @-@ 1970s groups of New York City @-@ area Cuban and Puerto Rican immigrants to the United States , and stylistic descendants like 1980s salsa romantica . [ 66 ]
Salsa music always has a 4 / 4 meter . The music is phrased in groups of two bars , using recurring rhythmic patterns , and the beginning of phrases in the song text and instruments . Typically , the rhythmic patterns played on the percussion are rather complicated , often with several different patterns played simultaneously . The clave rhythm is an important element that forms the basis of salsa . Apart from percussion , a variety of melodic instruments are commonly used as accompaniment , such as a guitar , trumpets , trombones , the piano , and many others , all depending on the performing artists . Bands are typically divided into horn and rhythm sections , led by one or more singers ( soneros or salseros ) . [ 67 ]
= = = Punk and alternative rock = = =
Punk was a kind of rebellious rock music that began in the 1970s as a reaction against the popular music of the day - especially disco , which was seen as insipid and uninspired . Punk drew on American bands including the Velvet Underground , The Stooges and the New York Dolls . [ 68 ] Punk was loud , aggressive and usually very simple , requiring little musical training to play . Later in the decade , British bands like the Sex Pistols and The Clash found short @-@ lived fame at home and , to a lesser degree , in the United States . American bands in the field included most famously The Ramones , as well as groups like the Talking Heads that played a more artsy kind of music that was closely associated with punk before eventually evolving into pop @-@ new wave . [ 69 ] Other major acts include Blondie , Patti Smith and Television . Most of these bands got their start at what is considered " ground zero " of punk rock , a club named CBGB . The small club in New York threw a festival in 1975 that showed off the " top 40 unrecorded rock bands " . Among these bands were the previously mentioned The Ramones , Sex Pistols , blondie and the like .
Hardcore punk was the response of American youths to the worldwide punk rock explosion of the late 1970s . Hardcore stripped punk rock and New Wave of its sometimes elitist and artsy tendencies , resulting in short , fast , and intense songs that spoke to disaffected youth . Hardcore exploded in the American metropolises of Los Angeles , Washington , DC , New York and Boston and most American cities had their own local scenes by the end of the 1980s . [ 70 ]
Alternative rock is a diverse grouping of rock bands that in America developed largely from the hardcore scene in the 1980s in stark opposition to the mainstream music scene . Alternative rock subgenres that developed during the decade include indie rock , Gothic rock , noise rock , grunge , and college rock . Most alternative bands were unified by their collective debt to punk , which laid the groundwork for underground and alternative music in the 1970s . Though the genre is considered to be rock , some styles were influenced by American folk , reggae and jazz . Like punk and hardcore , alternative rock had little mainstream success in America in the 1980s , but via the grassroots establishment of an indie scene through touring , college radio , fanzines , and word @-@ of @-@ mouth , alternative bands laid the groundwork for the breakthrough of the genre in the American public consciousness in the next decade .
= = = Heavy metal = = =
Heavy metal is a form of music characterized by aggressive , driving rhythms and highly amplified distorted guitars , generally with grandiose lyrics and virtuosic instrumentation . Heavy metal is a development of blues , blues rock , rock and prog rock . Its origins lie in the British hard rock bands who between 1967 and 1974 took blues and rock and created a hybrid with a heavy , guitar @-@ and @-@ drums @-@ centered sound . Most of the pioneers in the field , like Black Sabbath , were English , though many were inspired by American performers like Blue Cheer and Jimi Hendrix .
In the early 1970s , the first major American bands began appearing , like Blue Öyster Cult and Aerosmith , and musicians like Eddie Van Halen began their career . Heavy metal remained , however , a largely underground phenomenon . During the 1980s , a pop @-@ based form of hard rock , with a party @-@ hearty spirit and a glam @-@ influenced visual aesthetic ( sometimes referred to as " hair metal " ) dominated the music charts , led by superstars like Poison , Bon Jovi , Mötley Crüe , and Ratt . The 1987 debut of Guns N ' Roses , a hard rock band whose image reflected the grittier underbelly of the Sunset Strip , was at least in part a reaction against the overly polished image of hair metal , but that band 's wild success was in many ways the last gasp of the hard @-@ rock and metal scene . By the mid @-@ 1980s , as the term " heavy metal " became the subject of much contestation , the style had branched out in so many different directions that new classifications were created by fans , record companies , and fanzines , although sometimes the differences between various subgenres were unclear , even to the artists purportedly belonging to a given style . The most notable of the 1980s metal subgenres in the United States was the swift and aggressive thrash metal style , pioneered by bands like Anthrax , Megadeth , Metallica , and Slayer .
= = 1990s = =
Perhaps the most important change in the 1990s in American popular music was the rise of alternative rock through the popularity of grunge . This was previously an explicitly anti @-@ mainstream grouping of genres that rose to great fame beginning in the early 1990s . The genre in its early stages was largely situated on Sub Pop Records , a company founded by Bruce Pavitt and John Poneman . Significant grunge bands signed to the label were Green River ( half of the members from this band would later become founding members of Pearl Jam ) , Sonic Youth ( although not a grunge band they were influential on grunge bands and in fact it was upon the insistence of Kim Gordon that the David Geffen Company signed Nirvana ) and Nirvana . Grunge is an alternative rock subgenre with a " dark , brooding guitar @-@ based sludge " sound , [ 71 ] drawing on heavy metal , punk , and elements of bands like Sonic Youth and their use of " unconventional tunings to bend otherwise standard pop songs completely out of shape . " [ 72 ] With the addition of a " melodic , Beatlesque element " to the sound of bands like Nirvana , grunge became wildly popular across the United States . [ 73 ] Grunge became commercially successful in the early 1990s , peaking between 1991 and 1994 . Bands from cities in the U.S. Pacific Northwest especially Seattle , Washington , were responsible for creating grunge and later made it popular with mainstream audiences . The supposed Generation X , who had just reached adulthood as grunge 's popularity peaked , were closely associated with grunge , the sound which helped " define the desperation of ( that ) generation . " [ 74 ] Later Post Grunge bands such as The Foo Fighters and Creed became popular form of Alternative rock because it was and still is very radio friendly unlike the Grunge band of which they were musically influenced by . Pop punk bands like Green Day and Blink 182 also gained popularity . In the second half of the 1990s nu metal arose with bands such as Linkin Park , Korn , Limp Bizkit and Slipknot . The independent culture slumbered in the underground scenes with new genres such as lo @-@ fi ( Beck , Sparklehorse , Guided By Voices ) , math rock ( Slint , Shellac ) and post @-@ rock ( Mogwai , Explosions in the Sky ) . Emocore and Post @-@ hardcore became more known with bands such as At the Drive @-@ In and Fugazi .
Gangsta rap is a kind of hip hop , most importantly characterized by a lyrical focus on macho sexuality , physicality and a dangerous , criminal image . Though the origins of gangsta rap can be traced back to the mid @-@ 1980s raps of Philadelphia 's Schoolly D and the West Coast 's Ice @-@ T , the style is usually said to have begun in the Los Angeles and Oakland area , where Too Short , NWA and others found their fame . This West Coast rap scene spawned the early 1990s G @-@ funk sound , which paired gangsta rap lyrics with a thick and hazy tone , often relying on samples from 1970s P @-@ funk ; the best @-@ known proponents of this sound were the breakthrough rappers Dr. Dre and Snoop Doggy Dogg .
= = 2000s = =
By the end of the 1990s and into the early 2000s pop music consisted mostly of a combination of pop @-@ hip hop and R & B @-@ tinged pop , including a number of boy bands . Notable female singers also cemented their status in American and Worldwide popular music , such as Beyonce ( with her solo career and as lead singer of Destiny 's Child ) , Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera , Katy Perry , Lady Gaga and Taylor Swift . Also notable was the influence of hip @-@ hop producers on popular music in the mid @-@ late 2000s , including the Neptunes and Timbaland , who made the sounds first heard on Justin Timberlake 's FutureSex / LoveSounds and Nelly Furtado 's Loose imitated throughout popular radio with artists Madonna , Akon and Lady Gaga . In the late 2000s into the early 2010s , pop music began to move towards being heavily influenced by the European electronic dance music scene , taking root in the college crowd through producers like David Guetta , Calvin Harris , Swedish House Mafia and Skrillex .
Hip hop / pop combination had also begun to dominate 2000s and early 2010s . In the early 2010s , prominent artists like Bruno Mars , Drake , Lil Wayne , 2 Chainz , Kendrick Lamar , Machine Gun Kelly , and Macklemore began to dominate the mainstream music scene .
The predominant sound in 1990s country music was pop with only very limited elements of country . This includes many of the best @-@ selling artists of the 1990s , like Clint Black , Shania Twain , Faith Hill and the first of these crossover stars , Garth Brooks . [ 75 ]
On the other hand a guitar revival took place and raised a new generation of alternative guitar bands often described as post @-@ punk revival or garage rock revival . Prominent US bands of this generation are White Stripes , The Strokes , and The Killers . New Weird America or sometimes called Freak Folk is a new movement emphasizing the artistic individuality of genre crossing artists such as Antony and the Johnsons , Joanna Newsom , The Dodos , Animal Collective and Cat Power .
= = International and social impact = =
American popular music has become extremely popular internationally . Rock , hip hop , jazz , country and other styles have fans across the globe . BBC Radio DJ Andy Kershaw , for example , has noted that country music is popular across virtually the entire world . [ 76 ] Indeed , out of " all the contributions made by Americans to world culture ... ( American popular music ) has been taken ( most ) to heart by the entire world " . [ 77 ] Other styles of American popular music have also had a formative effect internationally , including funk , the basis for West African Afrobeat , R & B , a major source for Jamaican reggae , and rock , which has profoundly influenced most every genre of popular music worldwide . Rock , country , jazz and hip hop have become an entrenched part of many countries , leading to local varieties like Australian country music , Tanzanian Bongo Flava and Russian rock .
Rock has had a formative influence on popular music , which had the effect of transforming " the very concept of what popular music " is . [ 78 ] while Charlie Gillett has argued that rock and roll " was the first popular genre to incorporate the relentless pulse and sheer volume of urban life into the music itself " . [ 79 ]
The social impacts of American popular music have been felt both within the United States and in foreign countries . Beginning as early as the extravaganzas of the late 19th century , American popular music has been criticized for being too sexually titillating and for encouraging violence , drug abuse and generally immoral behavior .
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= Won 't Back Down ( Eminem song ) =
" Won 't Back Down " is a song by American hip hop artist Eminem , featuring American pop singer Pink , recorded as the fourth track on his seventh studio album Recovery ( 2010 ) . It features production from Aftermath Entertainment producer DJ Khalil , who helped write the song along with Eminem , Erik Alcock , and Columbus " Rahki " Smith .
Upon the release of Recovery , the song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised its aggressive nature and production . Although not released as a single , " Won 't Back Down " appeared on four national charts . It was used in the video game Call of Duty : Black Ops and its trailer as well as the trailers for the films Mission : Impossible – Ghost Protocol and Hitman : Agent 47 . It was performed on Saturday Night Live and Late Night with Jimmy Fallon .
= = Background and composition = =
" Won 't Back Down " was written by Eminem , DJ Khalil , Erik Alcock and Columbus " Rahki " Smith . Along with most of the songs from Recovery , " Won 't Back Down " was recorded at 54 Sound and Effigy Studios in Ferndale , Michigan , with recording carried out by Mike Strange . The song is one of the only Eminem songs not in a 4 : 4 time signature , along with Untitled ( also from Recovery ) and Underground ( from Relapse ) . Originally , the song was set to be a solo record , with Eminem singing the chorus himself . Later , Liz Rodriguez , who is also featured on Recovery 's " 25 to Life " and " Almost Famous " , recorded the song 's chorus . Eminem however , explained in an interview that after recording his vocals for the song , he decided to include Pink on the song as he " felt like she would really smash this record . " Rahki co @-@ produced the song with Khalil .
= = Reception = =
Although " Won 't Back Down " was not released as a single , it charted on four national charts worldwide due to digital sales on the release of Recovery . The song reached its highest position on the US Billboard Hot 100 , where it peaked at number 62 on the chart for the week ending of July 10 , 2010 , although it fell off the chart the following week . The song also charted in Australia , Canada and the United Kingdom , peaking at number eighty @-@ seven , sixty @-@ five and eighty @-@ two on their respective national charts , although on all three the song again only appeared for one week .
Upon its release , " Won 't Back Down " received generally positive reviews from most music critics . David Jeffries of Allmusic wrote positively of the song , describing the song as a " lurching heavy metal monster " that " could be used as the lead @-@ in to ' Lose Yourself ' on any ego @-@ boosting mixtape " , but wrote more critically of the lyrics , denouncing the pop culture jokes featured throughout the song , particularly ones aimed at Michael J. Fox , calling the line " Make like Michael J. Fox in your drawers , playin ' with an Etch @-@ A @-@ Sketch " " less effective " than other jokes aimed at him . Steve Jones of USA Today described it as " rock @-@ tinged " and stated that Pink 's appearance provides " outside star power " .
= = Appearances in media = =
A remixed version of the ESPN trailer of the video game Call of Duty : Black Ops featuring " Won 't Back Down " was released on June 14 , prior to the E3 Activision conference for which he also performed . The song was also featured in the game 's credits and zombie mode map " Five " as an easter egg . The official trailer for the 2011 action film , Mission : Impossible – Ghost Protocol , features " Won 't Back Down " . The song is also featured in TV spots for the 2015 movie Hitman : Agent 47 .
Eminem has performed the song on live sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live accompanied by Lil Wayne and hypeman and D12 member Mr. Porter . Eminem wore a black jacket and a skull cap . Idolator reacted positively to Eminem 's performance , stating that he proved " once again what a dynamic and energetic live performer he is on this exceptionally angry tune ( even by Slim Shady standards ) . " He also performed the song on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at : Effigy Studios in Ferndale , Michigan .
Personnel
Eminem – vocals , audio mixing and songwriting
DJ Khalil – producer , additional keyboards and drum programming
Mike Strange – recording and audio mixing
Joe Strange – engineering assistant
Eric Alcock – guitar
Pink – vocals
Rahki – keyboards and additional drum programming
Notes
Credits and recording information from Recovery 's booklet .
= = Charts = =
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= 2005 – 06 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 2005 – 06 season was the 108th season of competitive football played by Arsenal . It was the final season in which home matches were played at the club 's Highbury stadium after 93 years ; Arsenal intended to move to its new 60 @,@ 000 capacity Emirates Stadium in time for the following season . The club ended their Premier League campaign in fourth , having pipped local rivals Tottenham Hotspur to the position on the final day . Arsenal became the first London club to reach a UEFA Champions League final , though lost 2 – 1 to Barcelona in Paris . In the League Cup the club was eliminated in the semi @-@ finals on aggregate score by Wigan Athletic and knocked out of the FA Cup , against Bolton Wanderers in the fourth round .
Before the season commenced midfielder Patrick Vieira was sold to Juventus ; striker Thierry Henry assumed his club captaincy role . Alexander Hleb was purchased from Stuttgart for an undisclosed fee in July 2005 ; in the winter transfer window Arsenal signed midfielder Abou Diaby , and forwards Emmanuel Adebayor and Theo Walcott .
Arsenal lost to league champions Chelsea in the 2005 FA Community Shield at the Millennium Stadium . An indifferent start in the league saw Arsenal peak in second position after 13 matches , but a run of three consecutive defeats a month later had effectively ruled them out of title contention . On the final day , they beat Wigan Athletic 4 – 2 at Highbury ; Tottenham Hotpsur 's defeat at West Ham United meant Arsenal secured fourth place . The team 's performances in Europe were more striking ; they eliminated Real Madrid , Juventus and Villarreal in the knockout stages . In the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final held at the Stade de France in Paris on 17 May 2006 , goalkeeper Jens Lehmann was sent off for a professional foul on Barcelona 's Samuel Eto 'o . Although defender Sol Campbell gave Arsenal a first half lead from a set piece , the team conceded twice in the final 15 minutes to lose the match .
To mark the final season at Highbury , Arsenal held a valedictory campaign titled " Highbury – The Final Salute " . The club staged several themed matchdays and a redcurrant home kit replaced the common red to honour the shirts worn in 1913 .
= = Background = =
Arsenal began the preceding season as league champions ; a win against Blackburn Rovers in August 2004 ensured they eclipsed Nottingham Forest 's record of 42 league matches unbeaten . The run extended to six more matches , before losing 2 – 0 to Manchester United at Old Trafford on 24 October 2004 . Poor form throughout November allowed league leaders Chelsea to extend the gap at the top ; Wenger conceded retaining the title in April 2005 , calling his opponents " worthy champions ... they have been remarkably consistent . " A run of twelve league matches unbeaten , culminating in a 7 – 0 home win against Everton helped Arsenal finish in second place . In spite of exiting the Champions League to Bayern Munich in the second round , the team won the 2005 FA Cup Final against Manchester United – winning 5 – 4 on penalties after a goalless draw .
= = = Highbury – The Final Salute = = =
The 2005 – 06 season marked Arsenal 's final season at Highbury , their home since 1913 . The club planned to move half a mile to the Emirates Stadium , considered " vital to our future " by Wenger , as it financially would help them to compete at the top level . To mark the valedictory campaign titled " Highbury – The Final Salute " , the club staged many special activities on matchdays " ... to celebrate the many great players and moments that this fantastic stadium has witnessed . " A redcurrant home kit was designed to honour the shirts worn in the club 's first season at Highbury . It was adorned with gold lettering and accompanied by white shorts and redcurrant socks .
= = = Transfers = = =
Arsenal signed youth players Nicklas Bendtner , Vito Mannone and Armand Traoré in the summer transfer window . Belarusian Alexander Hleb joined the club for an undisclosed fee on 12 July 2005 . Arsenal made four more additions during the season : goalkeeper Mart Poom , signed on a permanent deal , midfielder Abou Diaby , who reportedly turned down an offer to join Chelsea and forwards Emmanuel Adebayor and Theo Walcott .
After the early departures of Jermaine Pennant and Stuart Taylor , club captain Patrick Vieira joined Italian side Juventus in a £ 13 @.@ 7 million deal . Wenger did not intend to sign a replacement , saying " I am not in a hurry . We have Gilberto , Flamini and Fàbregas . Pirès can play in there also so we have plenty of players . " English midfielder David Bentley made his loan deal at Blackburn Rovers permanent in the January transfer window .
= = Pre @-@ season = =
= = FA Community Shield = =
As winners of the FA Cup in the previous season , Arsenal contested the 2005 FA Community Shield against league champions Chelsea . Two goals scored by striker Didier Drogba in the first half meant Arsenal lost the match . Wenger commented afterwards that Chelsea 's gameplan made it difficult for the Arsenal defenders , and noted his opposition 's strength was playing long balls . When asked if he was concerned by the performance , Wenger replied : " Why should I worry ? Did you see the game ? You can worry for the Chelsea supporters . "
= = Premier League = =
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal began their final league season at Highbury against Newcastle United on 14 August 2005 . In spite of having a man advantage after midfielder Jermaine Jenas was sent off for a challenge on Gilberto Silva , striker Thierry Henry scored from the penalty spot in the 81st minute . Robin van Persie added a second , four minutes from the end of the match . A fortunate goal from Drogba inflicted Arsenal 's first defeat against Chelsea in the league for almost a decade . The team responded with a 4 – 1 victory against Fulham , whereby Henry and defender Pascal Cygan both scored twice . Arsenal lost away to Middlesbrough on 10 September 2005 , in a performance derided by Wenger as being " unacceptable " . A brace ( two goals ) from Sol Campbell against Everton was followed by a goalless draw against newly promoted West Ham United .
An own goal scored by Stephen Clemence gave Arsenal a 1 – 0 victory in the first week of October at home to Birmingham City . Despite being " technically the better side " away to West Bromwich Albion , Arsenal lost 2 – 1 ; Wenger after the match commented that the team " played with great spirit but … were punished for a lack of experience and maturity because we didn 't take advantage of the chances we created . " A penalty scored by Robert Pirès was enough to secure three points against Manchester City . The midfielder wasted a second penalty in the second half , choosing to recreate a spot kick executed by Johan Cruyff and Jesper Olsen for Ajax . Having attempted to roll the ball towards onrushing Henry , Pirès inadvertently flicked the ball twice , enabling referee Mike Riley to award a free @-@ kick to Manchester City . Although both players were scrutinised by Chelsea manager José Mourinho , they were commended by Cryuff for showing a desire to try something different . The final league match of October ended in a 1 – 1 draw against local rivals Tottenham Hotpsur .
= = = November – February = = =
A 3 – 1 win at home to Sunderland on 5 November 2005 meant Arsenal moved third in the league table . This was followed by a trip to the JJB Stadium ; Arsenal beat Wigan Athletic 3 – 2 in a " hugely entertaining game on a cold , frosty afternoon " . Henry scored his 100th goal at Highbury against Blackburn Rovers to extend a club unbeaten run of nine matches . Defeat at Bolton Wanderers in early December concerned Wenger , admitting the opponents showed the template required to beat his team . A further defeat against Newcastle United , where Gilberto Silva was sent off in the second half highlighted the " physical absence " of Vieira in midfield . In losing 2 – 0 to Chelsea a week after – their third successive defeat for the first time under Wenger , Arsenal lay in eighth position , 11 points behind Manchester United . An early morning kick @-@ off away to Charlton Athletic ended in a 1 – 0 victory for Arsenal ; José Antonio Reyes scored his second goal in the league . Four first @-@ half goals against Portsmouth helped Arsenal to close the gap on second place by nine points . They ended the calendar year and began 2006 with goalless draws against Aston Villa and Manchester United respectively .
Arsenal recorded the biggest win of the league season , against Middlesbrough at Highbury . Henry scored a hat @-@ trick in a 7 – 0 victory ; the striker post @-@ match deemed it was vital for the club to finish in the top four " … for me , for the club and for the fans . " They suffered two consecutive defeats : away to Everton and at home to West Ham United . In the latter match , Campbell was substituted at his request before the second half , having been at fault for Nigel Reo @-@ Coker and Bobby Zamora ’ s goals . He " went missing " after the match , subsequently returning to training five days later . Emmanuel Adebayor scored his first goal for Arsenal in a 2 – 0 win against Birmingham City on 4 February 2006 . A stoppage time goal scored by Gilberto earned the team a point against Bolton Wanderers at Highbury ; they went 1 – 0 down in the 12th minute after Kevin Nolan chipped the ball past goalkeeper Jens Lehmann . Arsenal conceded a late goal away to Liverpool on Valentine 's Day – a result which left the club 10 points behind their opponents . Defeat against Blackburn Rovers meant they lost for the second consecutive game . Having collected just three wins out of a possible 14 away from home , Wenger admitted the form of the team remained " a big worry " given they needed to play five more .
= = = March – May = = =
In the first week of March , Arsenal beat Fulham 4 – 0 with a " commanding performance " from Henry , who scored two goals . The striker scored the winning goal against Liverpool in their next match , from a Steven Gerrard backpass . A polished performance against Charlton Athletic was followed by a five @-@ goal win at home to Aston Villa on 1 April 2006 . Arsenal lost 2 – 0 to Manchester United and dropped two points against relegation @-@ threatened Portsmouth , meaning a fourth @-@ place finish was in Tottenham Hotspur 's favour .
Dennis Bergkamp scored his final goal for Arsenal against West Bromwich Albion in a 3 – 1 win ; he came on as a substitute in the second half to set up Pirès to score the winning goal , moments after Nigel Quashie had levelled the scoreline . Arsenal drew 1 – 1 at home to Tottenham Hotspur , with Wenger choosing to rest players in mind for the club 's Champions League semi @-@ final . A 3 – 0 win away at Sunderland was overshadowed by a tackle on Abou Diaby , ruling him out for the remainder of the season . Two late goals scored by Reyes against Manchester City moved Arsenal a point behind Tottenham Hotspur in fourth . In the final competitive match played at Highbury , Arsenal faced Wigan Athletic , needing to better their rivals result to guarantee Champions League qualification . Henry scored a hat @-@ trick in a six @-@ goal match , helping Arsenal end the season with 67 points from 38 matches . Tottenham Hotspur 's defeat against West Ham United meant Arsenal finished fourth , a position Gilberto felt the club " deserved " .
= = = Match results = = =
= = = Classification = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C ) |
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P ) |
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O ) |
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q ) |
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