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= 4 + 3 " or " 2 × 5 =
5 × 2 " , the property can also be used in more advanced settings . The name is needed because there are operations , such as division and subtraction , that do not have it ( for example , " 3 − 5 ≠ 5 − 3 " ) , such operations are not commutative , or noncommutative operations . The idea that simple operations , such as multiplication and addition of numbers , are commutative was for many years implicitly assumed and the property was not named until the 19th century when mathematics started to become formalized .
= = Common uses = =
The commutative property ( or commutative law ) is a property generally associated with binary operations and functions . If the commutative property holds for a pair of elements under a certain binary operation then the two elements are said to commute under that operation .
= = Mathematical definitions = =
The term " commutative " is used in several related senses .
= = Examples = =
= = = Commutative operations in everyday life = = =
Putting on socks resembles a commutative operation since which sock is put on first is unimportant . Either way , the result ( having both socks on ) , is the same . In contrast , putting on underwear and trousers is not commutative .
The commutativity of addition is observed when paying for an item with cash . Regardless of the order the bills are handed over in , they always give the same total .
= = = Commutative operations in mathematics = = =
Two well @-@ known examples of commutative binary operations :
The addition of real numbers is commutative , since
<formula>
For example 4 + 5
= 5 + 4 , since both expressions equal 9 .
The multiplication of real numbers is commutative , since
<formula>
For example , 3 × 5 =
5 × 3 , since both expressions equal 15 .
Some binary truth functions are also commutative , since the truth tables for the functions are the same when one changes the order of the operands .
For example , the logical biconditional function p ↔ q is equivalent to q ↔ p . This function is also written as p IFF q , or as p ≡ q , or as Epq .
The last form is an example of the most concise notation in the article on truth functions , which lists the sixteen possible binary truth functions of which eight are commutative : Vpq |
= Vqp ; Apq ( OR ) =
Aqp ; Dpq ( NAND ) |
= Dqp ; Epq ( IFF ) =
Eqp ; Jpq |
= Jqp ; Kpq ( AND ) =
Kqp ; Xpq ( NOR ) |
= Xqp ; Opq =
Oqp .
Further examples of commutative binary operations include addition and multiplication of complex numbers , addition and scalar multiplication of vectors , and intersection and union of sets .
= = = Noncommutative operations in everyday life = = =
Concatenation , the act of joining character strings together , is a noncommutative operation . For example ,
<formula>
Washing and drying clothes resembles a noncommutative operation ; washing and then drying produces a markedly different result to drying and then washing .
Rotating a book 90 ° around a vertical axis then 90 ° around a horizontal axis produces a different orientation than when the rotations are performed in the opposite order .
The twists of the Rubik 's Cube are noncommutative . This can be studied using group theory .
Also thought processes are noncommutative : A person asked a question ( A ) and then a question ( B ) may give different answers to each question than a person asked first ( B ) and then ( A ) , because asking a question may change the person 's state of mind .
= = = Noncommutative operations in mathematics = = =
Some non @-@ commutative binary operations :
= = History and etymology = =
Records of the implicit use of the commutative property go back to ancient times . The Egyptians used the commutative property of multiplication to simplify computing products . Euclid is known to have assumed the commutative property of multiplication in his book Elements . Formal uses of the commutative property arose in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , when mathematicians began to work on a theory of functions . Today the commutative property is a well known and basic property used in most branches of mathematics .
The first recorded use of the term commutative was in a memoir by François Servois in 1814 , which used the word commutatives when describing functions that have what is now called the commutative property . The word is a combination of the French word commuter meaning " to substitute or switch " and the suffix -ative meaning " tending to " so the word literally means " tending to substitute or switch . " The term then appeared in English in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1844 .
= = Propositional logic = =
= = = Rule of replacement = = =
In truth @-@ functional propositional logic , commutation , or commutativity refer to two valid rules of replacement . The rules allow one to transpose propositional variables within logical expressions in logical proofs . The rules are :
<formula>
and
<formula>
where " <formula> " is a metalogical symbol representing " can be replaced in a proof with . "
= = = Truth functional connectives = = =
Commutativity is a property of some logical connectives of truth functional propositional logic . The following logical equivalences demonstrate that commutativity is a property of particular connectives . The following are truth @-@ functional tautologies .
Commutativity of conjunction
<formula>
Commutativity of disjunction
<formula>
Commutativity of implication ( also called the law of permutation )
<formula>
Commutativity of equivalence ( also called the complete commutative law of equivalence )
<formula>
= = Set theory = =
In group and set theory , many algebraic structures are called commutative when certain operands satisfy the commutative property . In higher branches of mathematics , such as analysis and linear algebra the commutativity of well @-@ known operations ( such as addition and multiplication on real and complex numbers ) is often used ( or implicitly assumed ) in proofs .
= = Mathematical structures and commutativity = =
A commutative semigroup is a set endowed with a total , associative and commutative operation .
If the operation additionally has an identity element , we have a commutative monoid
An abelian group , or commutative group is a group whose group operation is commutative .
A commutative ring is a ring whose multiplication is commutative . ( Addition in a ring is always commutative . )
In a field both addition and multiplication are commutative .
= = Related properties = =
= = = Associativity = = =
The associative property is closely related to the commutative property . The associative property of an expression containing two or more occurrences of the same operator states that the order operations are performed in does not affect the final result , as long as the order of terms doesn 't change . In contrast , the commutative property states that the order of the terms does not affect the final result .
Most commutative operations encountered in practice are also associative . However , commutativity does not imply associativity . A counterexample is the function
<formula>
which is clearly commutative ( interchanging x and y does not affect the result ) , but it is not associative ( since , for example , <formula> but <formula> ) . More such examples may be found in Commutative non @-@ associative magmas .
= = = Symmetry = = =
Some forms of symmetry can be directly linked to commutativity . When a commutative operator is written as a binary function then the resulting function is symmetric across the line y |
= x . As an example , if we let a function f represent addition ( a commutative operation ) so that f ( x , y ) =
x + y then f is a symmetric function , which can be seen in the image on the right .
For relations , a symmetric relation is analogous to a commutative operation , in that if a relation R is symmetric , then <formula> .
= = Non @-@ commuting operators in quantum mechanics = =
In quantum mechanics as formulated by Schrödinger , physical variables are represented by linear operators such as x ( meaning multiply by x ) , and <formula> . These two operators do not commute as may be seen by considering the effect of their compositions <formula> and <formula> ( also called products of operators ) on a one @-@ dimensional wave function <formula> :
<formula>
According to the uncertainty principle of Heisenberg , if the two operators representing a pair of variables do not commute , then that pair of variables are mutually complementary , which means they cannot be simultaneously measured or known precisely . For example , the position and the linear momentum in the x @-@ direction of a particle are represented respectively by the operators <formula> and <formula> ( where <formula> is the reduced Planck constant ) . This is the same example except for the constant <formula> , so again the operators do not commute and the physical meaning is that the position and linear momentum in a given direction are complementary .
= = = Books = = =
Axler , Sheldon ( 1997 ) . Linear Algebra Done Right , 2e . Springer . ISBN 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 98258 @-@ 2 .
Abstract algebra theory . Covers commutativity in that context . Uses property throughout book .
Copi , Irving M. ; Cohen , Carl ( 2005 ) . Introduction to Logic . Prentice Hall .
Gallian , Joseph ( 2006 ) . Contemporary Abstract Algebra , 6e . Boston , Mass . : Houghton Mifflin . ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 51471 @-@ 6 .
Linear algebra theory . Explains commutativity in chapter 1 , uses it throughout .
Goodman , Frederick ( 2003 ) . Algebra : Abstract and Concrete , Stressing Symmetry , 2e . Prentice Hall . ISBN 0 @-@ 13 @-@ 067342 @-@ 0 .
Abstract algebra theory . Uses commutativity property throughout book .
Hurley , Patrick ( 1991 ) . A Concise Introduction to Logic 4th edition . Wadsworth Publishing .
= = = Articles = = =
http : / / web.archive.org / web / 20070713072942 / http : / / www.ethnomath.org / resources / lumpkin1997.pdf Lumpkin , B. ( 1997 ) . The Mathematical Legacy Of Ancient Egypt - A Response To Robert Palter . Unpublished manuscript .
Article describing the mathematical ability of ancient civilizations .
Robins , R. Gay , and Charles C. D. Shute . 1987 . The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus : An Ancient Egyptian Text . London : British Museum Publications Limited . ISBN 0 @-@ 7141 @-@ 0944 @-@ 4
Translation and interpretation of the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus .
= = = Online resources = = =
Hazewinkel , Michiel , ed . ( 2001 ) , " Commutativity " , Encyclopedia of Mathematics , Springer , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55608 @-@ 010 @-@ 4
Krowne , Aaron , Commutative at PlanetMath.org. , Accessed 8 August 2007 .
Definition of commutativity and examples of commutative operations
Weisstein , Eric W. , " Commute " , MathWorld . , Accessed 8 August 2007 .
Explanation of the term commute
Yark . Examples of non @-@ commutative operations at PlanetMath.org. , Accessed 8 August 2007
Examples proving some noncommutative operations
O 'Conner , J J and Robertson , E F. MacTutor history of real numbers , Accessed 8 August 2007
Article giving the history of the real numbers
Cabillón , Julio and Miller , Jeff . Earliest Known Uses Of Mathematical Terms , Accessed 22 November 2008
Page covering the earliest uses of mathematical terms
O 'Conner , J J and Robertson , E F. MacTutor biography of François Servois , Accessed 8 August 2007
Biography of Francois Servois , who first used the term
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= Bon Voyage ( Kumi Koda album ) =
Bon Voyage is the eleventh studio album by Japanese recording artist Kumi Koda . It was released on February 26 , 2014 by Rhythm Zone . Bon Voyage is Koda 's first album since her 2012 Japonesque , and her longest album in production since her 2008 studio album Kingdom . The album 's production was handled by several music producers , such as Joseph Lawrence , Toby Gad , T @-@ Sk , Mats Lie Skare , Figge Bosstrom , Tommy Henriksen , Badur Haberg , and Clarabell . It also features guest appearances from Sean Paul and OVDS . Five different formats were released to promote the album : a standalone CD , a CD and DVD bundle , a CD and Blu @-@ ray bundle , a fan package featuring a live DVD , and a digital release in Japan .
Upon the album 's release , it was met with favourable reviews from music critics . Critics highlight individual songs for their production and composition , and commended the singles . Bon Voyage became Koda 's seventh studio album to reach the top spot on Japan 's Oricon Albums Chart , but her first album to not ship over 100 @,@ 000 units in that region . Because of this , it became her first studio album to fail to achieve a certification by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . Three singles and one EP were released from the album . Koda promoted the album through her 2014 Bon Voyage concert tour .
= = Development and composition = =
Bon Voyage is Koda 's first album since her 2012 Japonesque . It is also her longest album in production since her 2008 studio album Kingdom , both of which spanned a total of two years . For the album , Koda 's record label Rhythm Zone and its parent company Avex Trax hired several producers , such as Joseph Lawrence , Toby Gad , T @-@ Sk , Mats Lie Skare , Figge Bosstrom , Tommy Henriksen , Badur Haberg , and Clarabell . Producers such as Henriksen and Bosstrom have collaborated with Koda in the past with her albums Kingdom and Universe ( 2010 ) . Bon Voyage is Koda 's second album to be handled primarily with Western producers and composers ; Koda 's first album handled by Western producers was Japonesque . Western producers and composers carried on working with Koda on her next studio album Walk of My Life ( 2015 ) .
Bon Voyage is a J @-@ pop album with numerous elements of country rock , pop , R & B , electronic dance music , and reggae . It is Koda 's first album to emphasize full English language songs ; in total , Bon Voyage features nine English , five bilingual ( Japanese / English ) , and two Japanese tracks . Each song from the album is co @-@ written by Koda , including the English , Japanese and interlude tracks . The album includes two interlude tracks ; " Introduction : Bon Voyage " and " Interlude : Bon Voyage " , both boasting electronic music and sirens noises . EDM elements are used in tracks " Show Me Your Holla " , " Crank tha Bass " ( featuring OVDS ) , " LOL " , " Go to the Top " , " Dreaming On " , and " U Know " . " Loaded " , which features Jamaican rapper and musician Sean Paul , incorporates elements of reggae and dancehall music , as does the following tracks " Winner Girls " and " On Your Side " . Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Shot Discs reviewed the singles " Go to the Top " and " Koishikute " , and identified musical elements of electronic dance , dubstep , and 8 @-@ bit music in the former , and a pop ballad melody in the latter . Koda 's summer EP Summer Trip featured " Lalalalala " and " Touch Down " , and Hiraga noted elements of country rock in the former , and R & B in the latter track .
= = Release and packaging = =
Bon Voyage was released on February 26 , 2014 by Rhythm Zone and Avex Taiwan in five different formats . The stand @-@ alone CD featured the sixteen tracks in a cardboard slipcase , with first press editions including a glossy sticker of Koda . The CD and DVD bundle featured the sixteen tracks and a bonus DVD , including the music videos for : " Show Me Your Holla " , " LOL " , " Dreaming Now ! " , " Touch Down " , " Lalalalala " , and " Koishikute " . The DVD also included the making videos for " Show Me Your Holla " and " LOL " . The CD and Blu @-@ ray bundle includes the same tracks and videos from the CD and DVD bundle , but features a hologram sticker , one postercard , and a slipcase . A special edition was released on Koda 's website , entitled the " Fan Club Edition " . This format features the original CD , and a DVD featuring live performances from Koda 's Fanclub Live Tour in 2013 . The format was housed in an A5 @-@ sized digipak . The final format is the digital release , which was released only in Japan . This is Koda 's only studio album not to be released worldwide .
Visually based on cruise ship members , the five Bon Voyage cover sleeves feature different images all photographed by Kazuyoshi Shimomura . The CD cardboard sleeve has Koda squatting and holding onto a cruise ship steering wheel ; the jewel case has Koda holding a life buoy . The CD and DVD cardboard sleeve has a close @-@ up shot of Koda wearing a captain 's uniform ; the jewel case has Koda posing on top of a life buoy . The Blu @-@ ray cardboard sleeve and jewel case has Koda posing with a pair of binoculars , while the Fan Club edition has a close @-@ up of Koda sitting down holding a cruise ship steering wheel . The digital release uses the CD and DVD close @-@ up shot . The booklet and photo shoot were designed by members of United Lounge Tokyo , and each booklet from the five format features different images of Koda .
= = Critical reception = =
Bon Voyage received favourable reviews from music critics . A reviewer from CD Journal was positive towards the album , commending the song 's production and " danceable " material . The reviewer complimented how Koda " transformed " her previous look from Japonesque into a more " Westernized " adaptation . The reviewer highlighted " Go to the Top " and the " pop ballad gem " " Koishikute " as the album 's best tracks . A reviewer from Amazon.co.jp was positive towards the album 's musical variety , labelling it " Koda flow " . The reviewer also complimented how the " entertainment factor " was " jam @-@ packed " into the album . Japako Music ’ s Kirsty H. gave the album a positive review , saying that it " shows Koda Kumi 's experiences perfectly " . Kirsty praised Koda 's " personal songs " and the album 's musical variation . On the album ’ s overall sound , she wrote the following : " The album overall is very good and catchy and clearly shows how mature and experienced Koda Kumi is . All of the songs are catchy and this makes the album all the more fun to listen to ” . Jaylee and Zero from GK : AD , a sub @-@ site from JPopJRocks.com , awarded the album a B- , calling the dance tracks gems and praising a majority of the album 's ballads . Zero highlighted " Imagine " as the album 's best track . However , they both were critical toward the composition of the second half of the album .
= = Commercial performance = =
Bon Voyage debuted at number one on both the Japanese Daily and Weekly Oricon Albums Chart , with over 46 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week . It became Koda 's sixth studio album to reach the top spot , but became her lowest first week sales since her debut album Affection ( 2002 ) . It fell to 21 in its second week , shifting over 5 @,@ 000 units . The album stayed in the top 100 for four weeks , and the overall top 300 for twelve weeks . As of January 2016 , Bon Voyage has sold an estimated 59 @,@ 499 units , making it her first album to not sell over the 100 @,@ 000 limit . Because of this , it failed to achieve a certification by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . It was her lowest selling studio album at the time , until her next album Walk Of My Life sold less by May 2015 ( with 50 @,@ 000 units ) . Bon Voyage reached number five on Japan 's Billboard Top Albums Sales .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Singles = = =
" Go to the Top " was released as the album 's lead single on October 24 , 2012 . The song was used as the opening theme song for the Âge – developed anime series Muv @-@ Luv Alternative : Total Eclipse . Upon its release , it garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics commended the song 's composition , lyrical content , and Koda 's vocal delivery . Minor criticism was towards the song 's musical elements of 8 @-@ bit music . " Go to the Top " was successful in Japan , peaking at number one on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart , Koda 's eighth number one single . It also reached number 10 on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . The accompanying music video for the single was shot in Tokyo by Tomoe Nakano ; it features an animated Koda flying a large robot in a racing circuit with another racer .
" Koishikute " was released as the album 's second single on December 26 , 2012 . Upon its release , it garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics commended the song 's composition , lyrical content , and Koda 's vocal delivery ; critics had highlighted it as an album stand out , and labelled it a " gem " . The single suffered in physical sales in Japan , reaching number seven on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart and selling over 23 @,@ 000 units . It remains Koda 's lowest selling single since " Hot Stuff " in 2005 . However , the song was certified gold by RIAJ for digital sales of 100 @,@ 000 units . The accompanying music video for the single was shot in Tokyo by Ryuji Seki ; it features Koda singing the song in a subway and in a small room .
Summer Trip was released as the album 's third single and first extended play single on July 31 , 2013 . The EP consists of four interlude tracks , two album tracks : " Lalalalala " and " Touch Down " , and an unreleased track " Is This Trap ? " . Upon its release , Summer Trip received garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics commended the tracks individually for its composition and its song writing . Summer Trip debuted at number six on the Japanese Singles Chart , and sold over 20 @,@ 000 units . " Lalalalala " charted on Japan 's Hot 100 at number 23 . This is Koda 's lowest selling EP to date , surpassing Gossip Candy ( 2010 ) which sold over 84 @,@ 000 units . Music videos for " Lalalalala " and " Touch Down " were shot in Venice Beach , California .
" Dreaming Now ! " was released as the album 's fourth and final single on November 13 , 2013 , which was the same day as Koda 's 30th birthday . The song was written by Koda in honor of Japan 's part in the 2013 Volleyball World Grand Champion Cup for men and women , both of which were held in Japan . Upon its release , it garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics commended the tracks composition and labelled it an anthem for the games . Despite out selling both " Koishikute " and Summer Trip with over 26 @,@ 000 units sold , it charted lower on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart at number nine . It charted at number 33 on Japan 's Hot 100 chart . An accompanying music video for " Dreaming Now ! " was shot in Tokyo .
= = = Concert tour and other releases = = =
To promote Bon Voyage , Koda went on her 2014 Bon Voyage concert tour . The concert tour went throughout Japan , and carried on the cruise theme from the album . All of the album tracks , apart from " On Your Side " and " Introduction : Bon Voyage " , were included on the set list for the tour ; " Is This Trap ? " from Summer Trip also appeared on the set list . The concert tour was released in two formats ; a double @-@ DVD bundle , and a Blu @-@ ray release . The bonus disc on the DVD bundle featured a new track " Money in my Bag " from Walk of My Life , alongside the backdrop visual of " Crank tha Bass " and the documentary of the tour . This material was included on the one disc for Blu @-@ ray . Despite the release , it did not chart on the Oricon DVD and Blu @-@ ray charts . To promote the material from Bon Voyage , remixes of " Crank tha Bass " , " Loaded " , " Is This Trap ? " , " Dreaming Now ! " , " Touch Down " , " Winner Girls " , and " Lalalalala " were later featured on Koda ’ s eight remix album Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's 6 ( 2014 ) .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Bon Voyage .
= = Charts and sales = =
= = Alternate Versions = =
Crank Tha Bass feat . OVDS
Crank Tha Bass feat . OVDS : Found on the album ( 2014 )
Crank Tha Bass feat . OVDS [ sumijun vs M.A.D Remix ] : Found on Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's 6 ( 2014 )
Crank Tha Bass feat . OVDS [ OVDS Remix ] : Found on Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's 6 ( 2014 )
LOADED feat . Sean Paul
LOADED feat . Sean Paul : Found on the album ( 2014 )
LOADED feat . Sean Paul [ ELMER VoVo Remix ] : Found on Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's 6 ( 2014 )
Winner Girls
Winner Girls : Found on the album ( 2014 )
Winner Girls [ Dank @-@ One Glitch @-@ Hop Remix ] : Found on Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's 6 ( 2014 )
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= New York State Route 18F =
New York State Route 18F ( NY 18F ) is a 9 @.@ 80 @-@ mile ( 15 @.@ 77 km ) long state highway in northwestern Niagara County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an interchange with NY 104 and the Niagara Scenic State Parkway just east of the village of Lewiston . The northern terminus is at an intersection with NY 18 near Four Mile Creek State Park in Porter . NY 18F parallels NY 18 for most of its alignment , taking a more westerly course than its parent . NY 18F is the only remaining suffixed route of NY 18 .
The portion of modern NY 18F south of Youngstown was originally designated as part of NY 34 in 1924 ; however , NY 34 was absorbed into NY 18 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . The change was part of a larger extension of NY 18 east to Rochester . NY 18 was realigned in 1949 to follow its modern alignment between Lewiston and Lake Ontario , at which time its former routing alongside the Niagara River became NY 18F .
= = Route description = =
Officially , NY 18F begins at the eastern edge of the village of Lewiston at an interchange between NY 104 and the Niagara Scenic Parkway . Signage for NY 18F , however , exists as far south as the interchange between NY 104 and NY 18 south of the village . According to signage , NY 18F is concurrent to NY 104 from NY 18 north to the interchange between NY 104 and the Moses Parkway , where NY 18F and NY 104 split at the western extent of the interchange . The Seaway Trail , routed along NY 104 from Niagara Falls north to Lewiston , follows NY 18F west into Lewiston along the path of Ridge Road , here named Center Street . At 4th Street , NY 18F turns northward , following 4th Street for four blocks to Oneida Street . NY 18F cuts west on Oneida for two blocks before continuing northward out of the village on 2nd Street .
North of the Lewiston village limits , NY 18F is the closest roadway to the Niagara River , a trait reflected in its name of Lower River Road . As it progresses northward along the eastern bank of the river , NY 18F parallels both the Niagara Scenic State Parkway and NY 18 . At Stella Niagara , NY 18F meets Pletcher Road , the first road north of Lewiston that provides a connection to all three roadways . NY 18F continues on , passing through the western extent of Joseph Davis State Park south of the village of Youngstown in the town of Lewiston . In Youngstown , NY 18F becomes Main Street and intersects the western terminus of NY 93 in the village center . At the northern fringe of the community , NY 18F intersects the southern entrance to the Fort Niagara State Park . NY 18F bypasses the park , turning east onto Jackson Street , then north onto Lake Road as it follows the perimeter of the park .
Near the Lake Ontario shoreline , NY 18F connects to the Fort Niagara spur of the Niagara Scenic State Parkway via a partial diamond interchange . Only westbound access is permitted at the location ; access to the eastbound spur , and thus the parkway mainline , is provided via NY 93 in Youngstown or by NY 18 farther east . Past the exit , NY 18F turns east and begins to parallel the lakeshore . The route also parallels the mainline Moses Parkway for a short distance before curving south to cross over the parkway and terminate at NY 18 in the vicinity of Four Mile Creek State Park in Porter .
Ownership and maintenance of NY 18F is split between three different entities . The section of NY 18F from Center Street in Lewiston to the northern village line of Youngstown is maintained by Niagara County . From Main Street in Youngstown to the northern village line , NY 18F is concurrent to the unsigned County Route 138 ( CR 138 ) ; the remainder of the county @-@ maintained segment is co @-@ designated as CR 907 . All of NY 18F north of Youngstown is maintained by the town of Porter while the rest — Center Street between NY 104 and 4th Street — is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation .
= = History = =
All of what is now NY 18F south of Youngstown was originally designated as part of NY 34 in 1924 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 34 became part of NY 18 , which was extended north to Youngstown and east to Rochester as part of the renumbering . NY 18 was originally state @-@ maintained from the village of Lewiston to Youngstown ; however , the state of New York relinquished ownership and maintenance of NY 18 between Center Street in Lewiston and the village of Youngstown on July 24 , 1947 . The section within the village of Lewiston was transferred to village control , while the remainder of the route was given to Niagara County . In December 1947 , Lewiston petitioned the county to also assume maintenance of the portion of NY 18 within the village ; the request was eventually granted .
On January 1 , 1949 , NY 18 was realigned to follow a more inland routing between the village of Lewiston and what is now Four Mile Creek State Park . The former riverside and lakeside routing of NY 18 between the two locations was redesignated as NY 18F . At the time , NY 18F was one of five spur routes of NY 18 , which at the time extended southward to the Pennsylvania state line . NY 18A , NY 18B , and NY 18D were assigned to spurs of NY 18 south of Lewiston , while NY 18E was assigned to a spur of NY 18 in the village of Lewiston that connected the village to the second Queenston – Lewiston Bridge . When NY 18 was truncated to Lewiston c . 1962 , NY 18A , NY 18B , and NY 18D were either renumbered or absorbed by pre @-@ existing routes . NY 18E also ceased to exist around this time as the Queenston – Lewiston Bridge was removed and replaced with the modern Lewiston – Queenston Bridge just upstream .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Niagara County .
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= International Development Association =
The International Development Association ( IDA ) is an international financial institution which offers concessional loans and grants to the world 's poorest developing countries . The IDA is a member of the World Bank Group and is headquartered in Washington , D.C. , United States . It was established in 1960 to complement the existing International Bank for Reconstruction and Development by lending to developing countries which suffer from the lowest gross national income , from troubled creditworthiness , or from the lowest per capita income . Together , the International Development Association and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development are collectively generally known as the World Bank , as they follow the same executive leadership and operate with the same staff .
The association shares the World Bank 's mission of reducing poverty and aims to provide affordable development financing to countries whose credit risk is so prohibitive that they cannot afford to borrow commercially or from the Bank 's other programs . The IDA 's stated aim is to assist the poorest nations in growing more quickly , equitably , and sustainably to reduce poverty . The IDA is the single largest provider of funds to economic and human development projects in the world 's poorest nations . From 2000 to 2010 , it financed projects which recruited and trained 3 million teachers , immunized 310 million children , funded $ 792 million in loans to 120 @,@ 000 small and medium enterprises , built or restored 118 @,@ 000 kilometers of paved roads , built or restored 1 @,@ 600 bridges , and expanded access to improved water to 113 million people and improved sanitation facilities to 5 @.@ 8 million people . The IDA has issued a total $ 238 billion USD in loans and grants since its launch in 1960 . Thirty @-@ six of the association 's borrowing countries have graduated from their eligibility for its concessional lending . However , eight of these countries have relapsed and have not re @-@ graduated .
= = History = =
During the 1940s and 1950s , developing countries with the poorest incomes began realizing that they could no longer afford to borrow capital and needed more @-@ favorable lending terms than offered by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) . At the onset of his inaugural term in 1949 , then @-@ President of the United States Harry S. Truman assembled an advisory group to suggest ways to accomplish his Point Four Program , of which a significant component was an effort to strengthen developing countries , especially those nearest to the Eastern Bloc , to dissuade them from aligning with other communist states . The advisory group recommended an international mechanism that would function somewhere in between providing strictly @-@ loaned and strictly @-@ granted funds . The UN and United States government published reports expressing support for the creation of a multilateral , concessional lending program for the poorest developing countries . However , the United States was largely unresponsive and ultimately distracted by its involvement in the Korean War and unconvinced that development needed greater financial stimulation .
Developing countries grew increasingly frustrated with not being able to afford IBRD lending and perceived the Marshall Plan as a comparatively generous gift to European nations . In the late 1940s and early 1950s , developing countries began calling for the United Nations ( UN ) to create a development agency that would offer technical support and concessional financing , with a particular desire that the agency adhere to other UN bodies ' convention of each country having one vote as opposed to a weighted vote . However , the United States ultimately opposed proposals of that nature . As the United States grew more concerned over the growth of the Cold War , it made a concession in 1954 at the behest of its Department of State by backing the conception of the International Finance Corporation ( IFC ) . Despite the launch of the IFC in 1956 , developing countries persisted in demanding the creation of a new concessional financing mechanism and the idea gained traction within the IBRD . Then @-@ President of the IBRD Eugene R. Black , Sr. began circulating the notion of an International Development Association , as opposed to an idea of a concessional named the Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development ( SUNFED ) governed by the United Nations . Paul Hoffman , the Marshall Plan 's former Administrator , proposed the idea of a soft @-@ loan facility within the World Bank , where the US would have a preponderant voice in the allocation of such loans.Democratic Senator Mike Monroney of Oklahoma supported this idea . As Chairman of the Senate Subcommittee on International Finance , Monroney proposed a resolution recommending a study of the potential establishment of an International Development Association to be affiliated with the IBRD . Monroney 's proposal was more preferred received within the United States than the SUNFED . The resolution passed the senate in 1958 , and then @-@ U.S. Treasury Secretary Robert B. Anderson encouraged other countries to conduct similar studies . In 1959 , the World Bank 's Board of Governors approved a U.S.-born resolution calling for the drafting of the articles of agreement . SUNFED later became the Special Fund and merged with the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance to form the United Nations Development Programme .
By the end of January 1960 , fifteen countries signed the articles of agreement which established the International Development Association . The association launched in September of that same year with an initial budget of $ 913 million ( $ 7 @.@ 1 billion in 2012 dollars ) . Over the next eight months following its launch , the IDA grew to 51 member states and loaned $ 101 million ( $ 784 @.@ 2 million in 2012 dollars ) to four developing countries .
= = Governance and operations = =
The IDA is governed by the World Bank 's Board of Governors which meets annually and consists of one governor per member country ( most often the country 's finance minister or treasury secretary ) . The Board of Governors delegates most of its authority over daily matters such as lending and operations to the Board of Directors . The Board of Directors consists of 25 executive directors and is chaired by the President of the World Bank Group . The executive directors collectively represent all 187 member states of the World Bank , although decisions regarding IDA matters concern only the IDA 's 172 member states . The president oversees the IDA 's overall direction and daily operations . As of July 2012 , Jim Yong Kim serves as the President of the World Bank Group . The association and IBRD operate with a staff of approximately 10 @,@ 000 employees .
The IDA is evaluated by the Bank 's Independent Evaluation Group . In 2009 , the group identified weaknesses in the set of controls used to protect against fraud and corruption in projects supported by IDA lending . In 2011 , the group recommended the Bank provide recognition and incentives to staff and management for implementing activities which implement the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness principles of harmonization and alignment , promote greater use of sector @-@ wide approaches to coordination , and explain the reasons why when a country 's financial management system is not used so that the client country may address those shortcomings . It also recommended that the Bank collaborate with development partners to strengthen country @-@ level leadership of development assistance coordination by offering greater financial and technical support . Development economists , such as William Easterly , have conducted research which ranked the IDA as featuring the most transparency and best practices among donors of development aid .
Researchers from the Center for Global Development expect that the IDA 's collection of eligible borrowing countries will decrease by half by the year 2025 ( marking the 65th anniversary of the association 's establishment ) due to graduations and that remaining borrowers will consist primarily of African countries and will face substantial population declines . These changes will imply a need for the association to carefully examine its financial models and business operations to determine an appropriate strategy going forward . The center recommended that the World Bank leadership begin discussing the long @-@ term future of the IDA .
= = Membership = =
The IDA has 173 member countries which pay contributions every three years as replenishments of its capital . The IDA lends to 81 borrowing countries , nearly half of which are in Africa . Membership in the IDA is available only to countries who are members of the World Bank , particularly the IBRD . Throughout its lifetime , 36 borrowing countries have graduated from the association , although a number of these countries have relapsed as borrowers after not sustaining their graduate status .
To be eligible for support from the IDA , countries are assessed by their poverty and their lack of creditworthiness for commercial and IBRD borrowing . The association assesses countries based on their per capita income , lack of access to private capital markets , and policy performance in implementing pro @-@ growth and anti @-@ poverty economic or social reforms . As of 2012 , to borrow from the IDA 's concessional lending programs , a country 's gross national income ( GNI ) per capita must not exceed $ 1 @,@ 175 ( in 2010 dollars ) .
= = = Countries graduated from IDA lending = = =
The following countries have graduated from their eligibility for IDA lending .
= = = Countries relapsed to IDA lending = = =
The following countries have relapsed to their eligibility for IDA lending and have not yet re @-@ graduated or have instead become partially eligible ( also referred to as a blend country ) .
Cameroon ( 1994 )
Congo ( 1994 )
Cote d 'Ivoire ( 1992 )
Honduras ( 1991 )
Nicaragua ( 1991 )
Nigeria ( 1989 )
Papua New Guinea ( 2003 , partially eligible )
Zimbabwe ( 1992 )
= = Replenishment rounds = =
The IDA is a unique part of the World Bank as it requires continuous replenishment of its resources . Member countries replenish its funds through contributions in addition to supplementary funds provided by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Finance Corporation ( IFC ) . Whereas the IBRD acquires most of its funds by raising capital on international financial markets , the IDA heavily depends on contributions from its member states . The IDA received 2 billion in special drawing rights ( $ 3 billion USD ) from the IBRD and IFC . Approximately half of the IDA 's resources come from the 45 donating member countries . In its early years , the IDA received most of its replenishments from the United Kingdom and United States but , because they were not always reliable sources of funding , other developed nations began to step in and fill the economic gaps not met by these two countries . Every three years , member nations that provide funds to the IDA gather together to replenish the IDA 's resources . These funds come primarily from well @-@ developed countries including the United States , Japan , France , Germany , and the United Kingdom with 58 % from the US , 22 % from France , and 8 % from the UK . As of 2014 , there have been 17 IDA replenishment rounds . Fifty one member countries participated in the IDA 's 16th replenishment of $ 49 @.@ 3 billion USD . The IDA 's loans and grants are usually not paid in full to the borrower at the outset , but rather disbursed incrementally as needed by the project . Most of the donor countries such as the United States commit letters of credit to the IDA which bear no interest and are not able to be transferred or revoked , and which are exchanged for cash as needed for project disbursal . Other countries pay their contributions in full on the date of commitment to the IDA so that it may cover its operating expenses . Donors receive no return of funds and repayments from borrowers are again loaned to future projects such that donors won 't need to commit those funds again in the future .
Although the IDA 's funds are now regularly replenished , this does not happen without some financial and political challenges for the donating countries . When donor countries convene to negotiate the replenishments , there is often intense discussion about redefining the association 's goals and objectives or even about reforming the IDA . Due to delays in the United States Congress impeding the approval of IDA funding , the association 's members implemented a set of policy triggers outlining the commitment threshold necessary for replenishment to take effect . The threshold imposed a requirement that an aggregate share of 85 % in voting stock is necessary for executing a replenishment . The threshold was implemented with the aim to compel the United States to participate in replenishment rounds . Though countries intended for the triggers to hold the United States to its commitments , the threshold ultimately provided the United States a de facto veto power over replenishment and capital increase negotiations due to its ability to bring replenishment negotiations to an impasse by threatening to withhold support . The U.S. has used this influence to further its long @-@ term foreign policy objectives and short @-@ term political and economic goals by imposing conditionality on replenishment negotiations .
= = Lending = =
The IDA lends to countries with the aim to finance projects that will develop infrastructure and improve education , healthcare , access to clean water and sanitation facilities , and environmental responsibility . It is considered to be the soft lending window of the World Bank , while the IBRD is considered to be the hard lending window . The association offers grants and loans with maturities ranging from 25 to 40 years , grace periods of 5 to 10 years , and interest rates of 2 @.@ 8 % or 1 @.@ 25 % depending on whether the borrower is a blend country and to which degree it is eligible . Regular IDA @-@ eligible borrowers may take advantage of no @-@ interest loans . Financial resources are allocated to eligible countries based on their success at implementing pro @-@ growth and a poverty @-@ reducing domestic policies . The IDA uses the World Bank 's Country Policy and Institutional Assessment ( CPIA ) development indicator to determine each country 's place in a resource allocation index . It then prioritizes its lending to those countries which are indicated to be most promising in terms of favorable policies and aid effectiveness . The IDA adopted the Crisis Response Window in 2007 to enable the rapid provision of emergency financing in response to crises . The association adopted the Immediate Response Mechanism in 2011 to provide IDA borrowers with immediate access to withdraw undisbursed portions of their loans , should a crisis arise that meets the mechanism 's criteria .
= = = Africa = = =
Because African countries face some of the most severe poverty and underdevelopment , and because 39 of those countries are the IDA 's poorest member states , the association allocates approximately half of the IDA 's resources toward financing projects in those countries . As a result of its efforts to improve the region , the IDA has helped bring electricity to an additional 66 million Africans since 1997 , helped build or restore 240 @,@ 000 kilometers of paved roads , and helped enroll an additional 15 million African children in school since 2002 . The IDA was approved in May 2012 to provide $ 50 million USD worth of credit to the Women Entrepreneur Development Project as part of an effort to help women in Ethiopia participate in business as skilled employees or leaders . Although the positive outcomes of the IDA 's efforts in Africa had been historically slow , the large allocation of funding to African countries led to positive outcomes particularly within agriculture and infrastructure development efforts .
= = = Asia = = =
The IDA 's efforts in Asia have been particularly successful . Numerous Asian countries have graduated from the IDA lending program , including the Philippines , China , South Korea , and Thailand . Of the association 's borrowing countries , approximately 20 are in Asia . The association 's efforts in South Asia have focused primarily on projects for education , healthcare , transportation , agriculture , and energy . Due to rapid growth in Asian countries ' populations , some pockets of poverty have emerged . To mitigate this effect , the IDA adopted an economic plan of action which established organizations to improve education and healthcare , with a focus on reducing poverty across Asian nations in ways that are compatible with local culture .
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= Lerkendal Stadion =
The Lerkendal Stadion ( Norwegian pronunciation : [ ˈlærkənˈdɑːl ˈstɑːdɪun ] ) is an all @-@ seater football stadium located at Lerkendal in Trondheim , Norway . The home ground of the Tippeligaen side Rosenborg BK , it has a capacity for 21 @,@ 166 spectators , making it the second @-@ largest football stadium in the country .
Lerkendal opened as a multi @-@ purpose stadium on 10 August 1947 , as the main football and athletics stadium in Trondheim . Originally the venue was mostly used by the football teams SK Freidig and FK Kvik , and Rosenborg did not became a tenant until 1957 . A new grandstand with roof was completed in 1962 , and floodlights were installed in 1968 . The oldest of the current stands were built in 1996 , along with new lighting . Three more grandstands were built between 2000 and 2002 , which also saw the removal of the athletics facilities and the sale of the stadium from Trondheim Municipality to Rosenborg . Further expansions plans have been launched , to increase capacity by filling in the corners and possibly by building a retractable roof .
The record attendance of 28 @,@ 569 dates from the decisive league match against Lillestrøm in 1985 . Ten international matches were held at Lerkendal between 1951 and 1990 . One domestic cup final has been held at Lerkendal ; the Women 's Cup Final in 1986 .
= = History = =
Construction of Lerkendal started as a public works during the 1930s , as a measure to create jobs . It opened on 10 August 1947 , and consisted of a main grass field , two gravel fields , two handball courts and two tennis courts . The main field had a spectator capacity for 37 @,@ 000 on temporary stands , making it the second @-@ largest stadium in the country . The long sides consisted of temporary wooden stands , with seating on the south stand and standing places on terraces on the north stand . The end sides of the stadium consisted of grass embankments at a 30 percent angle , allowing for standing space for spectators without having to build stands . Changing rooms were located in a nearby German @-@ built barracks dating from the Second World War .
The first major rebuilding of the venue took place ahead of the 1962 season , when the wooden stands were torn and replaced with concrete stands on both long sides . On the south side , a wave @-@ shaped roof was built ; originally designed to be self @-@ supporting , the contractor , Reinertsen , did not trust their own calculations and made a last @-@ minute decision to install support columns . The new stands were taken into use on 3 May 1962 . Floodlighting was installed in 1968 to allow UEFA club tournament matches to be held at the venue . An all @-@ weather running track was subsequently also laid . On 1 December 1988 , Lerkendal Station opened , allowing train passengers a short walk to the stadium . In 1994 , the first pitch with Desso GrassMaster was laid .
By the time Rosenborg had qualified for the 1995 – 96 UEFA Champions League , UEFA had for security reasons introduced restrictions which reduced Lerkendal 's capacity to 12 @,@ 200 spectators . In addition , a total ban on standing places would be introduced from 1997 . In 1995 , a debate arose between Rosenborg and Trondheim Municipality regarding the construction of a new grandstand , to be located on the north side of the stadium . Rosenborg 's Nils Skutle stated that if it was not built ahead of the 1997 – 98 season , Rosenborg would only be allowed to sell 2 @,@ 800 tickets to their home Champions League matches , and that they instead would be forced to play their games at Ullevaal Stadion in Oslo . The new grandstand cost 32 million , and opened in 1996 season . The upgrades also included a new floodlight and public announcement system .
Rosenborg started laying plans for further construction , at first looking at construction of a new grandstand on the east end . In May 1998 , Lerkendal Eiendom AS , owned 44 % by Rosenborg , was established to build three new grandstands , including removing the running track to make it a football @-@ only stadium . An alternative was to move and build an all @-@ new stadium at Ranheim . Following the announcement of the Ranheim plans , Mayor Anne Kathrine Slungård stated that she did not want to sell Lerkendal , as she wanted public ownership of cultural infrastructure . In April 1999 , Trondheim Municipality 's chief of administration , Knut Sæther , recommended that the municipality sell Lerkendal to Rosenborg , who would then along with private investors be free to construct the necessary facilities . At the time , the municipality estimated the value of Lerkendal to between NOK 50 and 100 million . The football district stated they were in favor of conversion of Lerkendal , and that they feared that if Rosenborg moved Lerkendal would incur high costs on the municipality , giving Granåsen as an example of a little used skiing facility which used half the municipal funding for sports venues .
On 5 October 1999 , the club and the municipality signed a letter of intent which indicated that the two would cooperate constructing a new venue along with private investors . The final contract was made with Reinertsen on 20 April 2000 , and other involved investors included Fokus Bank , Gjensidige NOR , I. K. Lykke , Eiendomspar , Siemens and Trondheims Næringsbygg . The club received a 47 % share of the stadium company , while the municipality received 14 % in exchange for the company taking over the ownership of the land and existing structure . As compensation for losing Lerkendal as an athletics venue , the municipality spent NOK 32 million upgrading Øya stadion as the city 's new main athletics stadium . NOK 20 million was financed by Rosenborg , while the remainder was spent using public funds .
Construction of the end stands started in January 2001 , and they were completed in November . The demolition of the 1962 stand started on 24 October 2001 , and the new stand was completed on 30 September 2002 . The cost of constructing the new Lerkendal , including all four stands from 1996 to 2002 , was NOK 335 million , of which NOK 253 million was for the 2001 and 2002 work . To give optimal conditions for the turf , the corners were not built out and the south stand was built with a transparent roof . However , the harsh climate forced the turf to be replaced two years later . In a 2012 survey carried out by the Norwegian Players ' Association among away @-@ team captains , Lerkendal was found to be the league 's second @-@ best stadium , with a score of 4 @,@ 40 on a scale from one to five .
= = Facilities = =
Lerkendal Stadion consists of four , three @-@ tier grandstand without corners . The stadium has a capacity for 21 @,@ 166 spectators , of which 1 @,@ 338 are in club seating and luxury boxes on the center tier of all four stands . The Hent Stand on the north side of the pitch , built in 1996 , is the largest and the only to have red seats . It holds a capacity of 7 @,@ 457 spectators . Originally named the Adidas Stand , it was renamed before the 2013 @-@ season . Opposite lies the EiendomsMegler1 Stand , which was completed in 2002 . In addition to change rooms and an honor stand , it has a capacity for 6 @,@ 194 spectators . The Rema Stand to the west , opened in 2001 , houses the supporter shop , a pizza restaurant and commercial offices . The upper tier has since its opening been used as a family tier . While the lower tier was used by Kjernen , Rosenborg 's singing supporters . Since Kjernen in 2009 moved to the upper tier of the opposite Adressa Stand , the whole Rema Stand has been used as a family stand . The Adressa Stand opened at the same time , and both have a seating capacity for 3 @,@ 810 people . The latter hosts office space for Rosenborg Arena and the football district , as well as change rooms for the training pitch . The upper tier is used by Kjernen , Rosenborg 's supporter club . The lower tier was earlier used by the away fans . But after Kjernen 's move to the upper tier , the away fans was moved to the western end of the Hent stand . The pitch has Desso GrassMaster , a natural grass pitch with artificial fibers sown in for increase strength . This includes an automatic watering system and a built @-@ in heating 25 centimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) below the surface .
The stadium is part of Lerkendal idrettspark , which also consists of three training pitches , two in full size and of which one has artificial turf . The main training pitch is the natural grass Skoglunden , while the artificial turf venue is Lerkendal kunstgress . The two pitches both have flood lighting , heating and are often used for matches by Rosenborg 's recruit and reserve teams . The team has a health club located within the south stand . The club 's offices are located in Brakka , a German @-@ built barracks dating from World War II .
The stadium is located at Lerkendal , 3 kilometers ( 2 mi ) south of the city center . It is located on the southern main road into town , with good bus service . In addition , it is located next to Lerkendal Station , the southern terminus of the Trøndelag Commuter Rail . Parking near the stadium is very limited , and ad @-@ hoc park and ride are established on matchdays at Stavset and City Syd .
= = Events = =
The venue was opened with a friendly football match between the Trondheim city team and the Vestfold county team , which Trondheim won 4 – 3 . The opening , attended by 8 @,@ 000 spectators , also saw several track and field events . The original main football tenants were SK Freidig and FK Kvik . The latter played in the Main League in 1951 – 52 and 1955 – 56 , and otherwise remained in the Second Division throughout most of the 1950s and 60s . A record 18 @,@ 000 spectators watched Freidig lose the 1948 Norwegian Football Cup semifinal against Viking . On 18 October 1950 , Lerkendal hosted a friendly between Kvik and Spartak Moscow .
Lerkendal hosted its first international on 26 June 1951 , when Norway beat Iceland 3 – 1 . On 28 August 1953 it hosted a B international game against Finland . Later national games consist of 5 – 0 against Malta on 3 July 1962 , 2 – 0 against Finland on 20 August 1964 , 4 – 2 against Luxembourg on 27 May 1965 , with the record international audience of 22 @,@ 319 , 2 – 1 against Iceland on 21 July 1969 , 0 – 1 against Denmark on 23 September 1973 , 2 – 0 against West Germany on 26 September 1979 , 1 – 0 against Wales on 6 June 1984 , 1 – 0 against Bulgaria on 26 May 1987 @.@ and 1 – 2 against Denmark on 6 June 1990 , The Football Association of Norway no longer plays international matches elsewhere than Ullevaal Stadion because of the conditions in its sponsorship agreements . On 26 May 1977 , the Norway national under @-@ 21 football team lost 2 – 3 against Sweden at Lerkendal .
Rosenborg took Lerkendal into use from the 1957 – 58 season , when they were promoted to the Regional League . The season ended in relegation and Rosenborg played the following season at their old home ground , Rosenborgbanen . With the promotion ahead of the 1959 – 60 season , Rosenborg returned to Lerkendal and have remained there since . In 1959 , Lerkendal was the venue of a neutral quarter final in the cup between Nessegutten from Levanger and Viking , which attracted 25 @,@ 043 spectators , mostly from Innherred , setting a new stadium record . From the 1960 – 61 season , Rosenborg established itself in the Main League .
The opening game of the new stands on 3 May 1962 was a Rosenborg friendly against Dunfermline Athletic . Freidig moved to Eberg idrettsanlegg when it was completed ahead of the 1965 season . A new stadium spectator record was set in the cup semifinal against Brann in 1967 , which was watched by 25 @,@ 551 people . Rosenborg qualified for the 1968 – 69 European Cup and met SK Rapid Wien in the first round . The game was spectated by 22 @,@ 492 and remains the record for UEFA tournaments . Per @-@ season average attendance for Rosenborg 's league matches lay between five and ten thousand people during the 1970s and early 1980s , with an all @-@ time low of 2 @,@ 549 in 1978 , when Rosenborg played in the Second Division . The venue hosted the Norwegian Athletics Championships four times , in 1963 , 1967 , 1973 and 1983 . Lerkendal hosted the Women 's Cup Final in 1986 , where Sprint @-@ Jeløy beat Trondheims @-@ Ørn . Strindheim IL played in the top division in 1984 and 1995 , both times playing their home games at Lerkendal . Kvik remained at Lerkendal until the upgrades started in 2000 , after which they moved to Øya stadion . Bodø / Glimt played their home game in the 1999 – 2000 UEFA Cup against Werder Bremen at Lerkendal , attracting 1 @,@ 425 spectators .
The official all @-@ time record at Lerkendal is the final game of the 1985 season , when Rosenborg won the league in the last game against Lillestrøm in a league final which attracted 28 @,@ 569 . Starting with Rosenborg 's success in the late 1980s , attendance rose and lay between eleven and thirteen thousand until 2001 . After the opening of the new stadium in 2002 , attendance again rose , peaking at an average 19 @,@ 903 in 2007 , although it has fallen somewhat since . The high of most seasons is the 16 May game held every year : the 1994 edition against Tromsø saw 27 @,@ 661 spectators , and in 1985 as many as 30 @,@ 000 may have seen the game , as the gates were opened . Since the opening of the current stadium , the attendance record is 22 @,@ 330 , set in the 2006 edition against Odd Grenland . Between 1995 and 2007 , Rosenborg played 11 seasons and 37 home matches in UEFA Champions League . The venue has been used for numerous concerts , including A @-@ ha , Iron Maiden and Kiss .
= = Future = =
Ahead of the failed Nordic bid to host the Euro 2008 , Lerkendal was , along with Ullevaal Stadion , proposed as Norwegian venues . To reach the required spectator capacity of 30 @,@ 000 seats , the plans called for the roof of the Adidas stand to be removed to allow for a temporary third tier . Additional seating would be created by adding a single row at the bottom of the four stands , and building capacity in the corners . The proposal would have given a spectator capacity of 30 @,@ 849 , although it would have been reduced after the championship by removing the extra tier . Similar plans were launched for the Norwegian – Swedish bid for Euro 2016 , where the cost of the stadium upgrades was estimated at NOK 800 million . In 2007 , the club management stated that they wanted to sell out all matches before they made further expansions to the stadium , independent of the plans to host the Euro . Construction of stands in the corners could give 4 @,@ 000 additional seats , although these would be the most costly to build and at the same time give the worst view of the pitch . Construction could be done by first building two of the corners . Since then , Rosenborg has experienced a significant drop in attendance . The failed Trondheim bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics , launched in 2007 , called for Lerkendal to be the Olympic Stadium and host the opening and closing ceremonies .
Rosenborg had originally planned to build additional commercial facilities and a tower hotel during the 2002 construction , but this was canceled . At the 2011 annual meeting , the plans were again launched by Skutle , who stated that construction might start as early as 2011 . In March 2005 , Rosenborg announced plans to build a retractable roof over the pitch and lay artificial turf . The roof was estimated to cost NOK 100 million , and the club estimated that it could generate NOK 30 million per year in increased revenue from concerts and events . By 2007 , the roof plans were delayed , with management stating that it would be necessary to complete the construction of all stands before a roof was built , and that they believed the stadium would soon be expanded .
On 19 September 2014 , Lerkendal was awarded the right to host the 2016 UEFA Super Cup , marking the first time a Norwegian stadium would host a European final .
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= The Cats of Ulthar =
" The Cats of Ulthar " is a short story written by American fantasy author H. P. Lovecraft in June 1920 . In the tale , an unnamed narrator relates the story of how a law forbidding the killing of cats came to be in a town called Ulthar . As the narrative goes , the city is home to an old couple who enjoy capturing and killing the townspeople 's cats . When a caravan of wanderers passes through the city , the kitten of an orphan ( Menes ) traveling with the band disappears . Upon hearing of the couple 's violent acts towards cats , Menes invokes a prayer before leaving town that causes the local felines to swarm the cat @-@ killers ' house and devour them . Upon witnessing the result , the local politicians pass a law forbidding the killing of cats .
Influenced by Lord Dunsany , the tale was a personal favorite of Lovecraft 's and has remained popular since his death . Considered one of the best short stories of Lovecraft 's early period , aspects of The Cats of Ulthar would be referenced again in the author 's works The Other Gods and The Dream @-@ Quest of Unknown Kadath . It was first published in the literary journal Tryout in November 1920 and now resides in the public domain .
= = Synopsis = =
An unnamed narrator , while gazing upon his pet cat , begins to reminisce about a law in the town of Ulthar that forbids the killing of cats and relates the story of how this law came to be . The tale begins with the introduction of an old cotter and his wife who delight in trapping and violently killing any cats who venture onto their property . The people of the town are too afraid of the couple to speak against these acts , so they instead focus their efforts on keeping their felines from approaching the cotter 's house . One night a caravan of travelers from a distant land arrives and passes through the village . They bring with them an orphan named Menes who , having lost his family to a plague , has only a small , black kitten to keep him company . After being unable to find his kitten on the third day of his stay , Menes hears the stories of the old cotter and his wife , and decides to take action .
Menes spends time meditating prior to unleashing a prayer that affects the shapes and movements of the clouds in the sky . The caravan leaves Ulthar that night , shortly before the townspeople notice that all of their cats have gone missing . The townspeople suspect both the old couple and the wanderers , but the innkeeper 's son Atal witnesses the felines circling the property of the cotter . The next morning , the cats have returned to their owners well @-@ fed , but the cotter and his wife have vanished . When the townspeople explore their abandoned house , they discovered nothing more than two skeletons that have been picked clean . The local burgesses , after reviewing the evidence and stories of the townspeople , decide to pass a law that forbids the killing of cats in Ulthar .
= = Background = =
Lovecraft outlined the plot to his friend Rheinhart Kleiner in May 1920 and wrote The Cats of Ulthar on June 15 , 1920 , five months after completing his previous tale , The Terrible Old Man . Conceived during the author 's early period , Lovecraft was influenced by the writing of Anglo @-@ Irish writer Lord Dunsany and attempted to mimic his style . Among the literary aspects that Lovecraft borrows are the " vengeance motif " and the " ponderous tone " of Dunsany . Dunsany 's influence is evident on the surface of the text as well : wanderers , similar to the ones portrayed in The Cats of Ulthar , appear in Dunsany 's earlier tale Idle Days on the Yann . Lovecraft ’ s character of Menes shares his name with Menes , the semi @-@ mythical founder of the ancient city of Memphis , Egypt . The ancient Egyptians were admirers of cats who made it a crime to kill or export felines .
Prior to The Cats of Ulthar , Lovecraft had penned several tales in the style of Lord Dunsany , including The White Ship , The Street , The Doom that Came to Sarnath , The Terrible Old Man , and The Tree . His next Dunsanian tale , Celephaïs , was considered by Lovecraft scholar S. T. Joshi to be " one of his best and most significant " . The Cats of Ulthar was first published in the literary journal Tryout in November 1920 , and later appeared in Weird Tales in February 1926 and 1933 , as well as being privately reprinted in a forty two @-@ copy run in December 1935 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Cats of Ulthar was a personal favorite of Lovecraft 's , who was an ardent cat lover . A number of contemporary critics , as well as Lovecraft himself , consider the story to be the best of all his Dunsanian tales . Other critics have noted that the story is one of Lovecraft 's most famous tales that fits both the Dunsanian and the " weird fantasy " style . Literary critic Darrell Schweitzer , however , comments that The Cats of Ulthar resembles Dunsany in " mood and execution " only and that " [ it ] has no obvious parallels in any Dunsany story " . Schweitzer refers to the prose as " restrained " , and notes that , unlike Lovecraft , Dunsany preferred dogs and would have been unlikely to have written such an enthusiastic tribute . Lovecraft scholar S. T. Joshi disagrees , claiming that " [ t ] his tale owes more to Dunsany than many of his other ' Dunsanian ' fantasies " .
The character of Atal , the innkeeper 's son who witnesses the cats of Ulthar circling the antagonists ' cottage , would later appear in Lovecraft 's The Other Gods . In this short story , written in August 1921 and first published in November 1933 , Atal , now an adult , becomes an apprentice to Barzai the Wise and travels with him to seek out the tale 's eponymous deities . Barzai even mentions the law against killing cats in Ulthar , further cementing the connection . Atal also appears as a priest in the long The Dream @-@ Quest of Unknown Kadath — written in 1927 but not published until 1943 — when protagonist Randolph Carter visits the city 300 years after the events in The Cats of Ulthar , when the town is still heavily populated by felines . Carter is later able to summon the cats of Ulthar to his aid . Cats would be used in what scholar Katharine M. Rogers calls " a more original way " in Lovecraft 's 1923 work The Rats in the Walls . Here , as in others of Lovecraft later tales , cats embody the attraction to horror while , unlike the human protagonists , " never pursuing horror to the point of becoming horrible themselves " . The text of The Cats of Ulthar , like many of Lovecraft 's works , has fallen into the public domain and can be accessed in several compilations of the author 's work as well as on the Internet .
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= Alright , Still =
Alright , Still is the debut studio album by English singer and songwriter Lily Allen , released on 13 July 2006 by Regal Recordings . After being rejected by several labels , Allen signed to London Records , who eventually lost interest in Allen , leading her to meet production duo Future Cut and sign to Regal Recordings . Recording for the album began in 2004 with sessions between Allen and Future Cut , and Allen 's work garnered publicity on the Internet as she posted demos to her Myspace account before they were officially released . Allen later traveled to the United States to work with Greg Kurstin and Mark Ronson , to complete the final half of the album in 2006 .
Alright , Still is predominately a pop album , with songs that are heavily influenced by Jamaican ska music , reggae and hip hop . The lyrics are conversational and farcical , while discussing past relationships and a dark sense of humour . Due to the instances of strong language in a great majority of the songs , the album was released with a Parental Advisory warning , although the song " Friday Night " remains censored on all versions of the album .
Upon release , Alright , Still received acclaim from the British music press , with international critics calling the record and Allen " original " . It was commercially successful in the United Kingdom , where it debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart and was later certified triple platinum . Alright , Still has sold over 2 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . The album earned a nomination for Best Alternative Music Album at the 50th Grammy Awards . It was promoted by the release of four singles , including the chart @-@ topper " Smile " and the top @-@ 10 hit " LDN " .
= = Background = =
When her family went to Ibiza on holiday , Allen told her mother that she was staying with friends but remained in Sant Antoni de Portmany instead . She earned money by working at a Plastic Fantastic record store and dealing ecstasy . Allen met her first manager , George Lamb , in Ibiza . She was rejected by several labels , which she attributed to her drinking and being the daughter of actor Keith Allen . She eventually used her father 's connections to get signed to London Records in 2002 . When the executive who had signed her left , the label lost interest and she left without releasing the folk songs that had been written for her , many of which were written by her father . She then studied horticulture to become a florist , but changed her mind and returned to music . Allen began writing songs , while her manager introduced her to production duo Future Cut in 2004 . They worked in a small studio in the basement of an office building .
= = Development = =
Allen 's manager introduced her to production duo Future Cut in 2004 . They worked in a small studio in the basement of a Manchester office building . In 2005 , Allen was signed to Regal Records ; the label gave her £ 25 @,@ 000 to produce an album , though they were unable to provide much support for it due to their preoccupation with other releases such as Coldplay 's X & Y and virtual band Gorillaz ' Demon Days .
Allen created an account on Myspace and began posting demos in November 2005 . The demos attracted thousands of listeners , and 500 limited edition 7 " vinyl singles of one of the demos , a song titled " LDN " , were rush @-@ released and sold for as much as £ 40 . Allen also produced two mixtapes titled My First Mixtape and My Second Mixtape to promote her work , including tracks by the band Creedence Clearwater Revival , and rapper Dizzee Rascal , and Ludacris . As she accumulated tens of thousands of MySpace friends , The Observer Music Monthly ( OMM ) , a magazine published in The Observer , took interest . Few people outside of her label 's A & R department had heard of Allen , so the label were slow in responding to publications who wanted to report about her .
In March 2006 , OMM published an article about Allen 's success through MySpace , and she received her first major mainstream coverage appearing in the magazine 's cover story two months later . The popularity of her songs convinced her label to allow her more creative control over the album and to use some of the songs that she had written instead of attempting to work with mainstream producers . Allen found herself distracted by the publicity , so to focus on finishing the album , she traveled to the United States to work with producers Greg Kurstin and Mark Ronson . There , she was able to complete the second half of the album in approximately two weeks .
The album 's title is used in a line from the second track , " Knock ' Em Out " : " You look alright still , yeah what 's your name ? " Allen borrowed the phrase from a slang term that her brother Alfie Owen @-@ Allen and his friends used as a synonym for cool . She stated that she liked Albert Einstein 's aphorism " Nothing changes until something moves " and the idea that " everything is [ alright ] as long as it 's still " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
In her songs , Allen develops various personas . She stated that she tried to " write about stuff that happens to people from all different backgrounds " . The lyrics are conversational , with a dark sense of humour . In many of the songs , one of Allen 's personae disparages someone around her . In " Smile " , " Not Big " , and " Shame for You " , she insults an ex @-@ boyfriend . In " Knock ' Em Out " , she mocks suitors at a bar , and Lily reprimands her brother Alfie on the song of the same name .
Joe Strummer , a close friend of Allen 's father Keith , played mixtapes of Brazilian music and Jamaican reggae and ska when she was young . Allen stated that she had " always been into very black music " such as ska , reggae , and hip hop music . Since she did not know how to rap , she chose to use reggae as a point of reference when making Alright , Still . The album 's music blends ska and reggae with pop melodies . Allen 's melodies are influenced by the jazz improvisation techniques of American singers Blossom Dearie and Ella Fitzgerald . The album 's beats are influenced by various genres such as jazz and grime .
= = Promotion = =
In 2007 , Allen played the newly launched Park Stage at the Glastonbury Festival , replacing M.I.A. who had cancelled . During the festival she reunited two members of The Specials , an act that guitarist Lynval Golding claimed played a " massive part " in the group 's 2009 reunion .
On the day " Smile " was released , Allen appeared on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge with DJ Jo Whiley , performing an acoustic version of " Smile " and a cover of The Kooks ' song " Naïve " . At the Secret Garden Party , in September 2006 , Allen made a rendition of the song and afterwards stated : " The festival was well good , particularly as Lester , my ex , who I wrote ' Smile ' about , and subsequently sold his story to the papers , had a tent called ' the shit tent ' positioned directly opposite the main stage . So he and his new girlfriend had no option but to watch me perform to a couple of thousand people singing ' Smile ' back to me . Oh , it 's the little things eh ! " " Smile " was performed live as part of the setlist of Allen 's 2007 concert tour . During the 2007 South by Southwest music festival , Allen said , " I 'm so sick of this song , but I 'll play it for you , Austin " before singing it . On 3 February 2007 , the singer was invited as a musical guest on Saturday Night Live , where she performed " Smile " and " LDN " .
= = Critical reception = =
Alright , Still received acclaim from the British music press . The album holds a score 79 out of 100 based on 27 critical reviews which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , according to the music review aggregator Metacritic . The Observer 's Rosie Swash stated that Allen 's " uniquely acidic brand of pop " music justified the publicity it generated and that " the icing on the cake is that brutally barbed tongue " . Ron Webb wrote for Drowned in Sound that the album " is almost a brilliant record , easily a good one and one that promises to divide opinion like Marmite " . In a review for The Guardian , Sophie Heawood stated that " the album is rough round the edges , that amateurism serves to bring the listener in " , noting that it gave the album a more personal touch . The NME 's Priya Elan remarked that " with a personality this size , this isn 't the last time you 'll be hearing from [ Allen ] " .
The album generally received positive reviews from international music press . Rob Sheffield wrote for Rolling Stone that Allen 's sense of irony was " just more proof that [ she 's ] an original " . Heather Phares of AllMusic stated that " enough of Alright , Still works — as pure pop and on the meta level Allen aims for — to make the album a fun , summery fling , and maybe more " . Praising Allen for her " genuine personality with wit and attitude to spare " , Pitchfork 's Mark Pytlik remarked that the album " isn 't anything else but a fantastic success " . In his review for Blender , Jon Dolan complimented Allen 's " little @-@ sisterly " personality , describing it as a combination " of panache and self @-@ doubt , courage and chaos " .
On the other hand , Stylus Magazine dismissed the album as " nothing more than pop for people who hate pop music " and " phony music for people who can 't let go of their inhibitions " , while Slant Magazine deemed it " rubbish " and called Allen " sickeningly contemptuous " . The mastering of Alright , Still , done by Tim Burrell and Tim Debney , has been criticised . In January 2007 , The Guardian ran a piece about loudness wars , the practice of increasing the loudness of tracks which often results in distortion and the loss of dynamic range . It included Alright , Still in a list of CDs in which sound quality was compromised for loudness . Rolling Stone published a similar story in December 2007 , and it also identified Alright , Still as an album " so unrelentingly loud that the sound is actually distorted " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The Guardian ranked it the seventh best album of the year and commented , " For her lyrical nous and her quick delivery alone , get that toast on . " Pitchfork called it " one of 2006 's most enduringly rewarding pop albums " and listed it as the 29th best album of 2006 . " Rolling Stone " ranked the album 13th on its list of the best albums of 2007 . Uncut called it " a terrific , bolshy , eclectic stew of London street pop " , listing Alright , Still at number 38 on its " Definitive Albums of 2006 " . The Observer ranked the album tenth on its list of the best albums of 2006 . At the 2008 Grammy Awards , the album was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album but lost to The White Stripes ' Icky Thump . Ronson 's production on " Littlest Things " helped him win a Grammy Award for Producer of the Year , Non @-@ Classical .
= = Commercial performance = =
Alright , Still debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart , selling 62 @,@ 701 copies in its first week . During the week ending 3 February 2007 , all top 10 places on the UK Albums Chart were occupied by British artists for the first time since the chart was established in 1956 ; Alright , Still was number nine that week . The British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified it triple platinum on 14 March 2008 . As of May 2014 , the album had sold 1 @,@ 117 @,@ 604 copies in the United Kingdom .
In Ireland , the album debuted at number six on the Irish Albums Chart and was certified platinum by the Irish Recorded Music Association ( IRMA ) . The album was less successful in continental Europe ; it charted inside the top 20 in Norway , the top 30 in Belgium and the Netherlands , and the top 50 in France and Sweden . In April 2007 , Alright , Still received a Platinum Europe Award by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting sales in excess of one million copies across Europe .
Alright , Still debuted at number 20 on the Billboard 200 in the United States , with first @-@ week sales of 34 @,@ 000 copies . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) awarded the album a gold certification on 6 December 2007 , and by November 2013 , it had sold 627 @,@ 000 copies in the US . Alright , Still peaked at number seven on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart , and in 2009 , it received a platinum accreditation by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , shipping over 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the album reached number 26 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipments in excess of 7 @,@ 500 copies . As of February 2009 , the album had sold more than 2 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" Smile " contains replayed elements of " Free Soul " by Jackie Mittoo and Clement Dodd .
" Knock ' Em Out " contains replayed elements of the work " Big Chief " by Earl King .
" LDN " contains replayed elements of " Reggae Merengue " .
" Littlest Things " contains elements from " Theme from Emmanuelle ( Instrumental ) " and " Emmanuelle in the Mirror " written by Pierre Bachelet and Hervé Roy .
" Friend of Mine " contains elements from " For the Love of You " written and composed by O 'Kelly Isley , Jr . , Ernest Isley , Rudolph Isley , Ronald Isley , Marvin Isley and Chris Jasper .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Alright , Still .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Cannabis in Oregon =
Cannabis in Oregon relates to a number of legislative , legal , and cultural events surrounding use of cannabis ( marijuana , hashish , THC , kief , etc . ) . Oregon was the first U.S. state to decriminalize the possession of small amounts of cannabis , and among the first to authorize its use for medical purposes . An attempt to recriminalize possession of small amounts of cannabis was turned down by Oregon voters in 1997 .
From 1999 through 2005 , the ratio of Oregonians using cannabis outpaced the general United States population by 32 – 45 % . In surveys conducted in 1974 and 1975 — one and two years after decriminalization — it was found that 2 % of respondents said they did not use marijuana or cannabis because they were unavailable , 4 % for legal or law enforcement reasons , 53 % reported lack of interest , and 23 % cited health dangers . The remaining 19 % were using or had used it at one time .
Measure 91 was approved in 2014 , legalizing non @-@ medical cultivation and uses of marijuana . It followed perennial , unsuccessful efforts to legalize marijuana by ballot initiative , including in 1986 and in 2012 which made it to the ballot , but voters rejected .
In 2015 the Oregon state governor signed an emergency bill declaring marijuana sales legal to recreational users from dispensaries starting October 1st , 2015 .
= = Cannabis culture in Oregon = =
= = = Usage = = =
According to the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) , cannabis is readily available in Oregon . According to a 2006 report by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration , in 2003 – 2004 Oregon ranked in the top fifth of states for cannabis usage in three age categories : 12 to 17 , 18 to 25 , and 26 and older . In 2005 , while most states that had passed medical marijuana bills over the past decade saw marijuana use among teenagers decline faster than the national average ( a 43 % decrease ) , Oregon , Nevada , and Maine saw smaller decreases than the average .
The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration estimates and publishes the number of people to have used cannabis in the previous 30 days , as compiled by the Oregon chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws ( NORML ) :
= = = Cultivation = = =
Oregon imports cannabis from Washington , California , Mexico and Canada , while also producing a large quantity locally . Large indoor and outdoor growing operations have been discovered on private , state , and forest lands , with plants numbering in the thousands . Allegedly large outdoor growing operations run by Mexican cartels drug trafficking were assumed to be operating in remote locations . Highly potent cannabis grown in Oregon is consumed locally , and distributed to other parts of the U.S.
In 1988 , due to the success of the DEA 's Campaign Against Marijuana Planting in California , Oregon rivaled California nationally in cannabis production . In the 1990s , Oregon was a national leader in indoor cannabis cultivation , along with California , Washington , Kentucky and South Florida . For the decade ending in 1991 , the DEA considered Oregon the " nation 's cradle of indoor marijuana growing . " In 2006 , Oregon was the fourth largest indoor cannabis producing state , and the tenth largest cannabis producing state overall .
= = = Events and attitudes = = =
According to Nick Budnick of the Willamette Week , medical marijuana has " helped legitimize pot culture in Oregon . " In 2005 , Multnomah County Circuit Judge Doug Beckman said " I think there 's a broader social acceptance for users of marijuana . And gradually there 's increasing public pressure , I think , to decriminalize marijuana . "
In 2007 , nearly 20 @,@ 000 people attended the third annual Hempstalk Festival at Sellwood Riverfront Park in Portland , Oregon . While organizers insisted smoking would not be tolerated , the smell of marijuana lingered in the air and some festival goers chose to consume various forms of cannabis foods . No festival attendees were arrested . Seattle Hempfest is an annual event in Seattle , Washington also attended by Oregonians , known as the world 's largest annual gathering advocating decriminalization of marijuana for uses including but not limited to medicinal , industrial , and recreational . The 2008 Seattle Hempfest , which took place August 16 – 17 , set a new record with around 150 @,@ 000 people in attendance .
The first International Cannabis Business Conference ( ICBC ) took place in Portland , on September 13 and 14 , 2014 , at the Oregon Convention Center . The conference brought together entrepreneurs , professionals and advocates from across the globe , with the goal to further mainstream the global cannabis industry . The ICBC is a collaboration between veteran activists Anthony Johnson , Alex Rogers and Debby Goldsberry . Johnson has served as chief petitioner of statewide cannabis reforms and is currently Director of the Oregon Cannabis Industry Association ; Rogers is CEO of Northwest Alternative Health and lead producer of the Oregon Medical Marijuana Business Conference ; Goldsberry is a co @-@ founder of the Berkeley Patients Group and serves as an ambassador for Magnolia Wellness . The ICBC further cements Portland has a prominent locale for cannabis activism .
= = Legality = =
Measure 91 was approved in 2014 , legalizing non @-@ medical cultivation and uses of marijuana in Oregon starting July 1 , 2015 .
Cannabis was completely legal in Oregon until 1935 , when the state passed the Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act . The legislative record contains no mention of those substances causing any problems , but they were simply included as part of the package . The Oregon Decriminalization Bill of 1973 abolished criminal penalties for possession of small amounts of marijuana . As a result , possession of up to an ounce of marijuana in Oregon was a violation ( not a crime ) , punishable only by a fine of $ 500 to $ 1000 . There is one exception , however , which is : if possession of such an amount occurs in a public place within 1000 feet of a school attended by minors , the person committing the offense is guilty of a Class C misdemeanor instead . Possession of more than one ounce , no matter the proximity to a school , was a Class B felony until July 3 , 2013 , at which point it became a Class B misdemeanor . The actual use of marijuana in private , and being under the influence of marijuana , are not punishable offenses under Oregon law . However , public use , and also driving under the influence of intoxicants are punishable offenses .
Intentionally growing even one marijuana plant ( Unlawful manufacture of marijuana ) , was a Class A felony in Oregon ( ORS 475 @.@ 856 , 475 @.@ 858 ) until July 1 , 2015 . Selling or giving away marijuana was an offense ( Unlawful delivery of marijuana ) that varied in severity and penalty depending on the amount of marijuana involved in the transaction , whether or not consideration was involved , the relative ages of the people involved , and the proximity of the transaction to nearby schools attended by minors ( ORS 475 @.@ 860 , 475 @.@ 862 ) . Giving away five grams ( approx . 0.18oz ) of marijuana or less by an adult to another adult for no payment at a location at least 1000 feet from the closest school was only a violation , punishable by a fine of $ 500 to $ 1000 . However , if greater amounts of marijuana were involved , if any payment at all were involved , if delivery was by an adult to a minor , and / or if delivery occurred within 1000 feet of a school ( even if both parties are adults ) , the severity of the offense ranged from Class C misdemeanor to Class A felony with increasing penalties .
The preceding convictions and penalties applied to any person , minor or adult , Oregon resident or otherwise , when the offense occurred within the state of Oregon . However , Oregon marijuana law is further complicated due to the existence of Oregon 's medical marijuana program . The Oregon Medical Marijuana Program allows individuals with a medical history of one or more qualifying illnesses and a doctor 's recommendation to apply for registration with the program . Accepted applicants are issued a Medical Marijuana Card , which entitles them to different treatment under the law . Essentially , medical marijuana patients are allowed to possess , without fear of citation , arrest , or penalty , up to 1 @.@ 5 pounds of marijuana at a time . Possession of a greater amount , however , does become punishable by law . In addition to legal possession , cardholders may also legally grow , without fear of citation , arrest , or penalty , up to 18 immature cannabis plants and 6 mature ones at a single time . Cardholders are also allowed to designate a primary caregiver and a grower of their choice , if so inclined . These people enjoy the same freedoms , in regard to possession , as the cardholder as long as they remain officially registered . The above limits of legal possession apply to the total combined property of the cardholder , caregiver , and grower . If a grower is growing plants for more than one cardholder , he or she may possess up to 18 immature plants per cardholder . A grower may not grow plants for more than four cardholders at a time . Also , in addition to legal possession and manufacture as outlined above , cardholders , caregivers , and growers may legally deliver marijuana to each other , and to other cardholders , so long as the delivery is made without consideration . The privileges which normally protect cardholders , caregivers , and growers from citation , arrest , and penalty do not excuse possession , manufacture , or delivery in cases where they are simultaneously guilty of certain offenses listed in ORS 475 @.@ 316 , such as driving under the influence of marijuana or using marijuana in public .
In June 2010 , the Oregon Board of Pharmacy reclassified marijuana from a Schedule I drug to a Schedule II drug . According to a press release from the board , " The Board of Pharmacy ’ s action to reschedule marijuana on the state list does not supersede federal law or create a direct conflict with federal law . It simply does not address federal law , " and , " Marijuana or products containing any amount of marijuana will not be available by prescription in Oregon unless they have been approved by the FDA . " News reports noted that this reclassification makes Oregon the " first state in the nation to make marijuana anything less serious than a Schedule I drug . " ( See also Removal of cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act )
A ballot measure of the November 2010 election would have established a state licensing system for marijuana producers and dispensaries , allowed the sale of marijuana from the dispensaries to medical marijuana patients , provide low income assistance for those patients , and set up a research program to evaluate the effects of the new law . It was defeated with 43 @.@ 85 % support and 56 @.@ 15 % opposition .
The Oregon Cannabis Tax Act is another recent citizens ' initiative . It qualified for the November 2012 state ballot , with the petition having 88 @,@ 887 valid signatures . If approved , it would have legalized marijuana for recreational adult use , regulate and tax the cultivation and sale of marijuana , and legalize the production , use , and sale of hemp . It appeared as Measure 80 on the ballot , but was defeated by a margin of approximately 53 % -47 % .
= = = Decriminalization = = =
In 1973 , Oregon became the first state to decriminalize cannabis . Possession of 28 @.@ 35 grams ( 1 ounce ) or less is a violation ( not a crime ) punishable by a $ 500 to $ 1 @,@ 000 fine ; stricter punishments exist for sale or cultivation . Possession of 1 ounce to 110 grams is a class B felony punishable by 10 years in prison , and possession of more than 110 grams is a felony with punishment depending on the defendant 's prior record . In 1986 , Oregon 's Ballot Measure 5 sought to legalize cannabis . The Oregon Marijuana Initiative spent about $ 50 @,@ 000 promoting the proposition , and collected the 87 @,@ 000 signatures necessary to place it on the ballot . In 1986 , by some estimates , cannabis was Oregon 's largest cash crop , estimated in 1985 at between $ 1 billion and $ 1 @.@ 15 billion . The ballot measure was rejected by Oregon voters with 279 @,@ 479 " Yes " and 781 @,@ 922 " No " votes , or 26 @.@ 33 % support .
In 1995 , Oregon House Bill 3466 , which would have recriminalized marijuana in Oregon , died . According to bill sponsor Jerry Grisham ( R – Beavercreek ) , HB 3466 was meant to counter a circulating initiative petition called The Oregon Cannabis Tax Act of 1997 , which would have allowed state liquor stores to sell marijuana and permitted hemp production for paper , fabric , oil , and protein . Taxes on these products would go to schools to replace funding allegedly lost by Measure 5 . The petition was sponsored by a political action committee named Pay for Schools by Regulating Cannabis .
HB 3466 would have increased penalties for possession of under an ounce of marijuana from an infraction ( traffic ticket @-@ like offense ) to a Class A misdemeanor , the worst non @-@ felony offense , with a fine of $ 100 to $ 1 @,@ 000 per gram , up to a maximum of $ 5 @,@ 000 . The bill also would have created a new crime — being under the influence of marijuana — punishable by a fine of up to $ 5 @,@ 000 . The bill would have passed according to the positions of state senators , but was blocked on a technical basis which prevented it from coming to the floor the same day it was read — which allows public input — unless overridden by a vote .
In 1997 , the Oregon Legislature passed House Bill 3643 , making the possession of less than an ounce of marijuana a Class C misdemeanor , which added a possible jail sentence of up to 30 days . According to Eric Schlosser of Rolling Stone , John Kitzhaber , then Oregon 's governor , signed the bill because he did not want to appear soft on crime . Activists opposing HB 3643 collected twice as many signatures as were required to force a referendum on the bill . John Sperling , Peter Lewis , and George Soros were the principal financial backers of the referendum signature drive . Measure 57 , which would have upheld HB 3643 , was turned down by a margin of 2 – 1 .
The Oregonians For Cannabis Reform 2010 hoped to make cannabis products legal and available in a retail environment by enacting the Oregon Cannabis Tax Act of 2010 ( OCTA ) , but the effort failed to collect the minimum 83 @,@ 000 signatures by the July 2 deadline to qualify for the 2010 ballot . Backers of the initiative say 90 % of the proceeds from the state 's sale of marijuana would have gone to Oregon 's general fund ( as much as $ 300 million ) , lowering the state tax burden , while 10 % of the revenue would have been used to fund drug abuse education and treatment programs . Advocates claim the marijuana market would be removed from the underground economy , where young people and drug abusers often take control , and place it in liquor stores regulated by the Oregon Liquor Control Commission so the minimum age of 21 can be enforced . According to Madeline Martinez , Executive Director of NORML 's Oregon chapter , U.S. Congressman Barney Frank ( D – Massachusetts ) has endorsed the idea , though support from Oregon state officials has been limited .
An initiative petition to allow recreational use of marijuana passed in November 2014 . In September 2014 , some of the municipalities revealed intention to apply sales tax on recreational use , ahead of it being legalized . Measure 91 only allows the state to tax marijuana , so local governments are hoping they ’ ll be able to get their taxes grandfathered in if they pass them now .
= = = Medical cannabis = = =
The Oregon Medical Marijuana Act was established by Ballot Measure 67 , a citizens ' initiative , in November 1998 , the same election as the referendum Measure 57 . It modified state law to allow the cultivation , possession , and use of marijuana by prescription by patients with certain medical conditions . The ballot measure passed by a margin of 54 @.@ 6 % to 45 @.@ 4 % . The Act does not affect federal law , which still prohibits the cultivation and possession of marijuana . Bernie Hobson , spokesman for the DEA 's Seattle regional office , said " From a federal standpoint , there is no such thing as medical marijuana . " Four other western states ( Alaska , Arizona , Nevada and Washington ) and the District of Columbia passed similar measures legalizing the use of marijuana for medical purposes in the same election .
The act created " The Oregon Medical Marijuana Program , " which administers the Medical Marijuana Act approved by the public in November 1998 . The Oregon Medical Marijuana Program administers the program within the Oregon Department of Human Services . As of April 1 , 2009 , there were 20 @,@ 974 patients registered , with 10 @,@ 626 caregivers holding cards for these patients . Virtually all patients benefiting from the program ( 18 @,@ 000 + ) suffer from severe pain and more than 3 @,@ 200 from nausea . The other conditions are given as epilepsy , HIV / AIDS , cancer , cachexia , chronic glaucoma and tremors caused by Alzheimer 's disease . Multiple states have requested information on Oregon 's program to use as a model for their own medical marijuana initiatives and registration systems .
In 2004 , an Oregon ballot measure that would have increased the amount of cannabis a patient can legally possess to six pounds was defeated by Oregon voters . In 2005 , the Oregon Medical Marijuana Program brought in more than $ 900 @,@ 000 to the state 's budget for the Department of Human Services .
An initiative seeking to legalize medical marijuana dispensaries appeared on the November 2010 ballot as Ballot Measure 74 where it was defeated with 56 % of voters opposing the initiative . However , the state legislature legalized medical dispensaries a few years later during its 2013 legislative session .
= = = Conflict with federal drug law = = =
= = = = Physician liability = = = =
Physicians cannot have their licenses revoked for recommending or supporting marijuana according to a September 7 , 2000 decision by the U.S. District Court . The case , Dr. Marcus Conant , et al . , v. McCaffrey et al . , arose from two events : the November 1996 passage of California Proposition 215 which authorized medical marijuana , and a December 30 , 1996 response to the law by the director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy which said :
The statement accompanied authorization for the U.S. Inspector General for Health and Human Services to exclude individuals from participation in Medicare and Medicaid programs , such as physicians who recommend marijuana to patients for medical purposes . Clarification two months later affirmed that mere discussion of any drugs with a patient was not grounds for sanction , but affirmed that physicians " may not intentionally provide their patients with oral or written statements in order to enable them to obtain controlled substances in violation of federal law . " The court 's decision acknowledged that the government has a legitimate concern that physicians might recommend marijuana in bad faith . However , physicians in good faith using honest medical judgment should not fear DEA sanctions . Furthermore ,
The government appealed the decision to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals , which agreed with the lower court on October 29 , 2002 , and expanded the grounds for the injunction to include free speech . The government appealed again to the Supreme Court which declined to hear it October 14 , 2003 , reaffirming the California Circuit Court 's injunction .
= = = = Law enforcement = = = =
In November 2007 , a California appeals court ruled that " it is not the job of the local police to enforce the federal drug laws . " The U.S. Supreme Court denied an appeal by the city of Garden Grove in December 2008 , upholding the decision . The case began in June 2005 with a medical marijuana patient from Garden Grove being pulled over by city police and cited for possession of marijuana , despite his immediate display of proper medical marijuana documentation . The charge against him was later dismissed , but the city refused to return his confiscated eight grams of marijuana , even after being instructed by Orange County Superior Court . The Supreme Court ruling affects 13 U.S. states with medical marijuana laws .
Police departments throughout Oregon decline to press charges , or charges have been dropped for possessing and growing marijuana , even for convicted drug dealers . Salem police estimated they received 30 or 40 calls for marijuana activity in 2007 which were not pursued because the grow operations were legal , even one next to a high school . One grower , a previously convicted felon , was found with evidence of making hash oil , which is not protected , though a grand jury did not indict him .
= = = Thermal imaging searches = = =
After a federal agent from the Department of the Interior used a thermal imaging device to determine that Danny Lee Kyllo was using grow lamps to grow marijuana in his Florence , Oregon home , the Supreme Court of the United States determined that the use of a thermal imaging device from a public vantage point to monitor the radiation of heat from a person 's home was a " search " within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment , and thus required a warrant . Because the police in this case did not have a warrant , the Court reversed Kyllo 's conviction for growing marijuana .
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= Rewrite ( visual novel ) =
Rewrite ( リライト , Riraito ) is a Japanese visual novel developed by Key , a brand of VisualArt 's . It was released on June 24 , 2011 for Windows PCs and is rated for all ages . Rewrite is Key 's ninth game , along with other titles such as Kanon , Air , and Clannad . Key released a fan disc expanding on the game 's story titled Rewrite Harvest festa ! on July 27 , 2012 for Windows . Rewrite was ported to the PlayStation Portable , PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 3 . The story follows the life of Kotarou Tennouji , a high school student with superhuman abilities who investigates supernatural mysteries with five girls from his school in the fictional city of Kazamatsuri . This ultimately leads him into the middle of a conflict between familiar summoners and superhumans with the fate of the world at stake .
The gameplay in Rewrite follows an interactive branching plot line with multiple scenarios , and focuses on the player character gaining the favor of the six female main characters . There are additional minigames and quests added into the gameplay , which are necessary to complete the game . The game ranked as the best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 twice more afterwards . There have been four manga adaptations based on Rewrite published by ASCII Media Works and Ichijinsha . Comic anthologies , light novels and an art book were also published , as were several music albums . A 13 @-@ episode anime television series adaptation , produced by 8 @-@ Bit and directed by Tensho , premiered in July 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
Rewrite is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Kotarou Tennouji . Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story 's narrative and dialogue . The text in the game is accompanied by character sprites , which represent who Kotarou is talking to , over background art . Throughout the game , the player encounters CG artwork at certain points in the story , which take the place of the background art and character sprites . When the game is completed at least once , a gallery of the viewed CGs and played background music becomes available on the game 's title screen . Rewrite follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
There are eight main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , three which are initially available and five more which can later become available . Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from , and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . Some decisions can lead the game to end prematurely , which offer an alternative ending to the plot . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction . When first playing the game , the scenarios for the heroines Kotori , Chihaya and Lucia are available . To access Sizuru 's scenario , Kotori 's must be completed first . Similarly , to access Akane 's scenario , Chihaya 's must be done first . After the plot lines for these five heroines have been completed , an additional scenario called Moon is made available . Upon the completion of the Moon route , another scenario called Terra is made available , which serves as the true conclusion to the story ; both Moon and Terra revolve around the main heroine , Kagari .
Throughout gameplay , the player encounters minigames accessed through an in @-@ game GPS system called Mappie , which is rendered as a point and click map . In most cases , the player can choose to automatically skip accessing Mappie , but sometimes the player is required to play through the minigame to move on to the next event . When accessing Mappie , the player meets various people who become Kotarou 's friends , and certain people and items encountered will lead the player to do a quest . The names of the friends and the completed quests are recorded in the Memory function , which serves as an encyclopedia of events . If the player completes all 31 quests , a bonus scenario called Oppai ( おっぱい , Breasts ) is made available . Oppai is a branch off Akane 's scenario and serves as a comedic plot line not important to the overall story .
The gear and dial in the bottom left of the game screen is related to the Kotarou 's Rewrite ability . The dial moves forward whenever this ability is used , and the outcome of certain scenes is determined by how much the dial has moved . Throughout most of the game , the text is presented in a dialog box on the lower portion of the game screen , but this is changed for the Terra scenario , where the text is overlaid across the entire screen .
In Rewrite Harvest festa ! , there are six separate scenarios , one for each heroine . The player is initially given the choice to play the scenarios for Kotori , Chihaya and Lucia from a character selection screen . Once these three scenarios are completed , the routes for Sizuru and Akane become available , and after those two are completed , Kagari 's scenario is made available . After the completion of Kagari 's scenario , a dungeon exploration role @-@ playing minigame called Rewrite Quest becomes available .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The main part of Rewrite 's story takes place in the fictional city of Kazamatsuri in Japan , where treeplanting and afforestation have caused the city to become overgrown with trees and vegetation . The protagonist Kotarou and his friends in the occult research society attend a high school in Kazamatsuri , and the characters also spend time in the society 's clubroom . Outside of the school , frequented locations include the forest around Kazamatsuri and Kotarou 's house . Throughout the story , Kotarou encounters an alternate dimension of Kazamatsuri where everything is silent and the sky is gray . There are many entrances to this dimension throughout the city . In this secret world developed by Gaia , a sustainable environment exists to support life . When on the Moon , a hill where daisies grow is prominently shown amid a ruined Kazamatsuri where the night is eternal . This hill appears again later on Earth in the forest of Kazamatsuri .
Kazamatsuri is the setting for a secret war being waged by two main groups : Gaia and Guardian . Gaia , an organization under the auspices of the environmental conservation group Martel , is populated by nihilistic and misanthropic people able to contract with familiars , which manifest as constructs fueled by the summoner 's life force . Martel itself used to be a church and contains within it a holy maiden group of girls with developmental disabilities . Guardian is dedicated to the destruction of familiars and is composed almost entirely of humans who possess special powers . Gaia and Guardian came to Kazamatsuri in the pursuit of the Earth 's familiar named Kagari , who manifests as a young , high school age @-@ looking girl . Kagari , the main heroine of Rewrite , has the power to initiate a period of re @-@ evolution , which restarts the process of evolving another means of intelligent life . However , this is done with the use of the Earth 's energy , and by the time the events of Rewrite occur , there is no more energy left to do another re @-@ evolution . Gaia wants to capture Kagari to ensure the destruction of humanity , but Guardian wishes to seek out Kagari to kill her , ensuring that human life continues .
= = = Principal characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Kotarou Tennouji , the protagonist of Rewrite . He is a second @-@ year high school student who has a bright personality and is sociable to others . Kotarou is a superhuman with two powers called Rewrite and Aurora . Rewrite enables him to permanently restructure and modify any part of his body , including his blood , so as to make himself stronger or faster . Every time Kotarou uses his Rewrite ability , he uses up some of his life @-@ force and becomes closer to being a full familiar . Aurora manipulates his energy to form weapons like a sword or claw . Kotarou is invited into his school 's occult research society by the club president Akane Senri , who is one year older than him and is referred to as the " School Witch " by other students because of her mysterious nature . Akane , a heroine in the game , is unenthusiastic towards Kotarou 's pursuit of the supernatural , which she initially claims she does not believe in , but is later shown to be a high ranking summoner in Gaia . Akane also invites into the club Chihaya Ohtori , a second @-@ year transfer student in Kotarou 's class who is very strong , but clumsy . Chihaya , who is also a heroine , has led a sheltered life and now lives with her butler Sakuya Ohtori , who poses as her brother at school . Like Akane , Chihaya is in Gaia and is a summoner .
Kotarou invites three other girls into the occult research society who are also heroines in the game . One is Kotori Kanbe , Kotarou 's childhood friend in his class who has few friends and starts attending school regularly after joining the club . She has a playful personality and has an extremely strong pet dog named Chibi @-@ Moth . Kotori , who is a summoner , is not affiliated with Gaia or Guardian , and instead follows in the path of an ancient sect of summoners called Druids who revered nature and protected Kagari with familiars . Kotarou meets first @-@ year student Sizuru Nakatsu , a shy girl on the public morals committee who has excellent hearing , eyesight and can read lips . She has heterochromia , though wears an eyepatch over her golden @-@ colored right eye as she is very self @-@ conscious about it ; her left eye is blue . Sizuru is a member of Guardian who has the ability to produce various chemicals inside her body which can be used to heal herself and others , paralyze and cause amnesia . Sizuru joins the club with her close friend Lucia Konohana , the class representative of Kotarou 's class . Lucia is easily agitated by the antics of boys and often punches Kotarou when he annoys her . She is obsessed with cleanliness and always wears gloves . Like Sizuru , Lucia is a member of Guardian and has the ability to produces poisonous miasma and pus as a result of an experiment by Guardian , which she takes medication for to suppress . She can also create vibrations within the objects she touches . Both Lucia and Sizuru have superhuman speed , agility , and reflexes in addition to their other abilities .
= = = Story = = =
Rewrite 's story revolves around the protagonist Kotarou Tennouji , a male high school student living in Kazamatsuri , and the story begins on October 3 , 2010 on the Moon . Kotarou , who is interested in the unidentified mysterious animals in the forest in and around Kazamatsuri , spends times with five girls in the occult research society at his school : Kotori Kanbe , Chihaya Ohtori , Sizuru Nakatsu , Lucia Konohana , and Akane Senri , who is also the club president . The club members spend fun , peaceful times together uncovering the supernatural mysteries of Kazamatsuri . During this time , Kotarou falls in love with each of them in separate plot lines determined by the choices the player makes . These plot lines represent various timelines in which the conflict between Gaia and Guardian occurs , although it is hinted that humanity is inevitably destroyed in every timeline .
After the five heroine 's routes are completed , the story shifts to a setting amid a ruined Kazamatsuri where Kotarou encounters Kagari in a world after re @-@ evolution , still on the Moon . Kotarou at this point is a unified entity of all the Kotarous from all timelines where humanity was destroyed and he has memories of these events . The Moon 's Kagari is trying to research a way so the Earth and humanity are not destroyed , and Kotarou attempts to buy her time while fighting a hoard of familiars summoned by Sakura Kashima of Gaia whose resolve is to annihilate humanity by killing Kagari . Kotarou and the entire cast rejoin together to protect Kagari , who manages to finish her plan to allow the Earth and humanity to coexist by sending the Moon 's life force back to Earth . In the past , the Earth had sent this energy to the Moon so life could continue . There is just enough energy and resources left for a final re @-@ evolution .
Prior to the initial events of Rewrite , Kotarou had been a low @-@ ranking member of Guardian posted in Kazamatsuri , where he encounters Kagari . In one timeline , Kotarou is badly injured by Kagari , though he is healed into a half @-@ familiar existence by a young Kotori with a piece of Kagari 's ribbon . Kotarou 's aging is also slowed as a consequence . Kotarou falls into a coma , and he is administered an amnesiac drug to forget about Gaia and Guardian . By the time he wakes up , Kotori is in junior high school , and Kotarou later graduates junior high with Kotori . He goes on to spend time in high school with the occult research society as shown before . In a different timeline when he encounters Kagari , Kotarou lets her go .
Kotarou becomes disillusioned with Guardian 's tactics and returns to Kazamatsuri where he meets Kagari again . She tells him she must initiate re @-@ evolution , but since this would lead to a dead world , Kagari must find good memories brought out through the betterment of life on Earth , as opposed to bad memories caused by war and conflict . Kotarou agrees to help her and he acts as a double agent , demolishing Gaia 's and Guardian 's infrastructure in Kazamatsuri and killing those on either side . Kazamatsuri is partly destroyed when Gaia attempts to force Kagari to initiate re @-@ evolution , but Kotarou manages to stop this from occurring . As a result , Kagari praises Kotarou and shows gratitude for showing her satisfactory memories . Kotarou unwillingly stabs Kagari , and after a kiss , they evolve into an orb of light inside a tree .
Humanity survives in the aftermath , but the world experiences an ice age outside of Kazamatsuri . In the city , a huge tree grows 500 meters tall in three years , which contains the orb of light from Kotarou and Kagari . The five heroines , now in high school , investigate the tree as members of the occult research society and transform Kotarou into a familiar , but he refuses to do what they demand . Kotarou takes the girls to the Moon where they are shown circled around a seedling ( as the embodiment of the Moon 's Kagari ) sprouting on the otherwise barren regolith .
= = Development = =
Rewrite is Key 's ninth game , and is the first of Key 's visual novels to feature a 16 : 9 image aspect ratio instead of the previously @-@ used 4 : 3 aspect ratio . Rewrite is also the first Key game to be developed on VisualArt 's ' game engine Siglus . The project 's planning was headed by Itaru Hinoue , who is also the art director and character designer for Rewrite . During the time when Key was developing their fifth game Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life in 2005 , Hinoue had more free time since she was just helping Fumio with the character design , and that is when Hinoue got the initial idea for Rewrite . Hinoue wrote a proposal for the basis of Rewrite 's premise and passed it on to Takahiro Baba , the president of VisualArt 's .
After the project was accepted , Hinoue consulted Key 's former main scenario writer Jun Maeda on various game scenario writers to employ for Rewrite . However , the one writer Hinoue wanted on the project was Romeo Tanaka , who she had become a fan of after she played FlyingShine 's 2003 visual novel Cross Channel , written by Tanaka . While he did not initially accept the offer , Tanaka decided to take the project when he was given the time he needed to do the job . When he accepted it , Tanaka was still unaware that Maeda had stepped down as Key 's main scenario writer , and he became more interested when he was told that he would write Rewrite 's overall story .
At the time , the only other scenario writer on the project was Yūto Tonokawa of Key , who previously contributed on Key 's sixth game Little Busters ! . Tanaka was tasked with drawing up the entire scenario framework , and during this time , Takahiro Baba suggested that one more heroine route be added to the story to bring the total to six , but to do that they had to hire another writer . Ryukishi07 of 07th Expansion , the creators of the Higurashi no Naku Koro ni and Umineko no Naku Koro ni game franchises , was brought in as the third scenario writer after Baba suggested in late 2007 that Key ask him to join the staff for Rewrite . Ultimately , Tanaka wrote the story leading up to the heroine 's routes , Kotori 's and Akane 's scanarios , the Moon and Terra routes , and the bonus Oppai route . Tonokawa wrote Chihaya 's and Sizuru 's routes , and Ryukishi07 wrote Lucia 's story . Tanaka initially planned on the length of Rewrite 's story to be on about the same scale as Key 's second game Air , but as it increased in size , he later attempted to keep it close to the scale of Little Busters ! .
Rewrite marked the first time since Key 's third game Clannad that Itaru Hinoue was staffed as the sole art director and character designer in a Key visual novel . The school uniforms for the heroines in the game are old designs that Hinoue created and used before in dōjinshi ( self @-@ published work ) . In particular , Hinoue spent much time on drawing the character art in Rewrite due in part to the design of the school uniforms , the fact that most of the female characters have long hair , and because of the increased aspect ratio . Six more graphic artists worked on Rewrite : Torino headed the background art , Ryou Shigawa designed and illustrated the monsters , and the computer graphics in the game were done by Na @-@ Ga , Shinory , Mochisuke , and Minimo Tayama . The game 's soundtrack was composed by Key 's signature composers Jun Maeda and Shinji Orito , in addition to Maiko Iuchi of I 've Sound , Sōshi Hosoi , and Ryō Mizutsuki . Maeda also contributed on the quality control for the game .
= = = Marketing and release = = =
Rewrite was announced on April 1 , 2008 , which led to some speculation whether it was an April Fool 's joke or an actual announcement of Key 's new game . It was announced the following day on Key 's blog that production on Rewrite had begun . On April 1 , 2010 , Rewrite 's official website was updated with the announcement that the game would be an adult game , but this turned out to be an April Fool 's joke the following day . It was later reported by Key in February 2011 that an adult version of Rewrite would definitely not be produced . On April 1 , 2011 , Key released an anime video featuring the song " Rewrite " by Psychic Lover . The video was animated by White Fox , and directed by Motoki Tanaka . Again there was some speculation on its validity , but Key confirmed the following day that the video and song would be used in Rewrite as the game 's second opening theme song .
Key hosted a promotional event on May 8 , 2011 called Rewrite Fes. in Akihabara . Displayed in the event hall were various large illustrations of Rewrite characters by Hinoue , as well as illustrations of the characters by various artists that were originally posted on Rewrite 's official website . The event featured live performances by NanosizeMir and Psychic Lover , as well as on @-@ stage discussions of Rewrite development staff members and voice actors featured in the game . The staff members included Tonokawa and Ryukishi07 who discussed the game 's scenario , and Orito and Hoshi who talked about Rewrite 's music . Orito also performed at the event on an electric guitar decorated with images of Rewrite including character images and the title logo . The guitar was later sold on Yahoo ! Auctions in July 2011 for 405 @,@ 000 yen . Promotional items that could be purchased at the event included a Rewrite introduction pamphlet , a Rewrite stationary set , a remix album titled Deejay Busters ! featuring remixes of music from Little Busters ! and Key 's eighth game Kud Wafter , and a Kanon light novel titled Kanojotachi no Kenkai ( 彼女たちの見解 , The Girls ' Opinions ) written by Mariko Shimizu and illustrated by Zen .
A lengthy game demo of Rewrite came bundled with the limited edition version of Kud Wafter released on June 25 , 2010 . Another slightly longer version of the demo , ver . 2 @.@ 00 , was released on Rewrite 's official website on March 26 , 2011 . A free benchmark program titled Chihaya Rolling became available for download at Key 's official website on August 20 , 2010 . The program , which also came with the previously released demo , features Chihaya rolling down a hill and hitting boulders and Kotori 's pet dog Chibi @-@ Moth . The purpose of the program is to test whether a given Windows computer will be able to play Rewrite or other games using the Siglus game engine . If a rank of D and above is shown , gameplay of Rewrite will be normal , but if E is shown , gameplay will be fairly normal other than a few exceptions . Between April 21 and May 9 , 2011 , VisualArt 's accepted orders for a " Rewrite Note PC " laptop in two versions : a normal version and an AKN version with higher specifications ; AKN refers to Akane . The AKN version has one random signature from either Hinoue , Orito or Tonokawa , though VisualArt 's also sold the AKN version without the signature . The AKN version also contained 16 Rewrite wallpaper images , with the normal version having nine . The laptops feature five separate themes of system sounds , which use dialogue of the voice actresses of five Rewrite heroines : Kotori , Chihaya , Akane , Sizuru and Lucia .
While Rewrite was originally planned to be released on April 28 , 2011 , the game was later released on June 24 , 2011 as a limited edition version , playable as a 2 @-@ disc DVD set on a Windows PC . The limited edition came bundled with an approximately 80 @-@ page official guide book titled Rewrite of the Life , a remix album titled Soil , a CD containing recordings of the Internet radio show Radio Rewrite , three original cards from the Weiß Schwarz trading card game , an original card from the Lycèe Trading Card Game , three extra DVD case covers , and a mobile phone strap . Over two dozen stores in Akihabara and online offered special promotional items if the limited edition version of the game was bought at their store . These items included telephone cards , gift cards , mobile phone straps , pin buttons , desk mats , posters , cushion covers , tote bags , tapestries , and bed sheets . The regular edition of Rewrite was released on September 30 , 2011 . Prototype released a PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) port of Rewrite on April 17 , 2014 ; those who pre @-@ ordered the game also received an exclusive drama CD . Prototype also released a PlayStation Vita ( PS Vita ) version on August 28 , 2014 , and the drama CD bundled with the PSP version was also bundled with the PS Vita version for a limited time only . Prototype released a PlayStation 3 version on February 11 , 2015 .
= = = Fan disc and Rewrite + = = =
In interviews before the release of Rewrite , Tonokawa expressed interest in expanding on the story if the game was well received . Shortly after Rewrite 's release , Tonokawa approached Takahiro Baba with the proposal , who gave his approval for the production of a fan disc . Titled Rewrite Harvest festa ! , the fan disc was produced by the same staff as Rewrite , and was released on July 27 , 2012 , playable on a Windows PC . It came bundled with the fan disc 's original soundtrack titled Feast , a CD containing recordings of Radio Rewrite , an original booklet , two mobile phone straps , and one promotional card each from the trading card games Weiß Schwarz , Lycèe and Phantasmagoria .
The scenario consists of spin @-@ off stories which expand on Rewrite 's story , the harvest festival from Rewrite 's story is expanded on in Harvest festa ! , and minigames are included during the course of gameplay , as in Rewrite . The size of the scenario in Harvest festa ! is roughly comparable in size to Tomoyo After . The fan disc also features official character art of Inoue , a supporting character who was not illustrated in Rewrite . Unlike Rewrite , Kotarou is fully voiced in the fan disc . The five system sound themes included with the Rewrite laptops were released with the fan disc , with the addition of dialogue of Kagari by Kana Hanazawa .
To advertise Harvest festa ! , Good Smile Racing produced an itasha ( a car featuring illustrations of anime @-@ styled characters ) of a 2008 Daihatsu Hijet Cargo decorated with images from the game , and drove it around Japan between May 30 and July 26 , 2012 . The car was put onto the Japanese Yahoo ! Auction website on September 3 , 2012 and sold for 1 @,@ 806 @,@ 000 yen after starting the auction at 1 yen . Like the previously held Rewrite Fes . , Key hosted a promotional event on June 10 , 2012 called Rewrite Harvest festa ! Fes. in Akihabara . The event featured live performances by NanosizeMir and Aoi Tada , as well as on @-@ stage discussions of development staff members Tonokawa and Orito , and voice actors featured in the game .
Key will released an updated version of Rewrite titled Rewrite + on July 29 , 2016 for Windows . It includes various improvements and revisions to the scenario led by Romeo Tanaka , and additional illustrations not in the original game . Rewrite + contains the additional content featured in the consumer ports , including fully voicing over 500 characters , and the official character art of Inoue . Rewrite + will come bundled with Rewrite Harvest festa ! , a remix album titled Selene featuring music from both Rewrite and Harvest festa ! , a CD containing recordings of the Internet radio show Radio Rewrite , and an original card from the Weiß Schwarz trading card game . An English version of Rewrite + has been announced .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Print media = = =
A manga adaptation , illustrated by Sakana Tōjō and titled Rewrite : Side @-@ B , began serialization in the October 2010 issue of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine . The manga ended serialization in the magazine 's May 2014 issue and continued serialization in Dengeki G 's Comic between the June 2014 and July 2015 issues . Eight tankōbon volumes for Side @-@ B were released between April 27 , 2011 and July 27 , 2015 . A second manga , illustrated by Shūichi Kawakami and titled Rewrite : Side @-@ R , was serialized between the April 2011 and September 2013 issues of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Daioh . Five volumes of Side @-@ R were released between June 27 , 2011 and October 26 , 2013 . Side @-@ B and Side @-@ R are meant to be read together as a pair . A third , four @-@ panel comic strip manga , illustrated by Miyura Yano and titled Rewrite : Okaken e Yōkoso ! ! ( Rewrite オカ研へようこそ ! ! ) , was serialized between the June 2011 and April 2014 issues of Ichijinsha 's Manga 4 @-@ koma Palette . Two volumes of Okaken e Yōkoso ! ! were released : the first on July 21 , 2012 and the second on August 22 , 2014 . A fourth manga , illustrated by Yayoi Hazuki and titled Rewrite : Okaken Blog ( Rewrite ‒ OKA ☆ KEN ぶろぐ ‒ ) , was serialized between volumes 20 and 29 of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic sold between October 26 , 2011 and April 26 , 2013 . Two volumes of Okaken Blog were released : the first on July 27 , 2012 , and the second on July 27 , 2013 .
There have also been several sets of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists . An anthology published by Taibundo and illustrated by Zen titled Earth Star Comics Rewrite was published in September 2011 . Two volumes of an anthology series released by Ichijinsha under the title Rewrite Comic Anthology were released between September and November 2011 . Enterbrain released two volumes of a collection of four @-@ panel comic strips under the title Magi @-@ Cu 4 @-@ koma Rewrite between December 2011 and March 2012 . A manga anthology titled Rewrite Comic A La Carte : Okaken Katsudō Hōkokusho ( Rewrite コミックアラカルト オカ研活動報告書 ) appeared in Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace and a single volume was released in October 2011 .
A series of seven short stories titled Official Another Story Rewrite : Ha Yure Sasayaku Shōkei de ( Official Another Story Rewrite -葉揺れささやく小径で- ) , written by the scenario writers of Rewrite and illustrated by Zen , were serialized between the September 2011 and March 2012 issues of Dengeki G 's Magazine . Self @-@ described as an official illustrated story for Rewrite , the short stories were collected into a single volume released on July 27 , 2012 . Three volumes of a short story compilation series by several authors titled Rewrite SSS were published by Harvest between October 2011 and January 2012 . Four volumes of a light novel anthology published by Paradigm under their VA Bunko imprint titled Rewrite Novel Anthology were released between November 2011 and February 2012 . A 224 @-@ page art book titled Rewrite Perfect Visual Book ( Rewrite パーフェクトビジュアルブック ) was released on November 30 , 2011 by ASCII Media Works . The art book contains story summaries of the game 's scenarios , information on the cast of characters , interviews from the production staff , and illustrations featuring art from the game .
= = = Internet radio show = = =
An Internet radio show to promote Rewrite called Radio Rewrite : Gekkan Tera Kazamatsuri Gakuin Shikyoku ( ラジオRewrite 月刊テラ ・ 風祭学院支局 , Radio Rewrite : Terra Monthly Magazine - Kazamatsuri Academy Branch ) broadcast 70 episodes between May 27 , 2011 and September 28 , 2012 . The show was streamed online every Friday , and was produced by the Japanese Internet radio stations Hibiki and Onsen . The show was hosted by Masakazu Morita and Chiwa Saitō , who voice Kotarou Tennouji and Kotori Kanbe from the game , respectively . Seven CD compilation volumes containing all 70 episodes were released between September 30 , 2011 and August 28 , 2013 .
= = = Anime = = =
A 13 @-@ episode anime television series adaptation , directed by Tensho and produced by 8 @-@ Bit , premiered on July 2 , 2016 . The series is also being streamed by Crunchyroll with English subtitles . The screenplay is written by Takashi Aoshima and Tatsuya Takahashi with Romeo Tanaka and Kai credited with collaborating on the composition and scripts . The series features character design by Masayuki Nonaka who based the designs on Itaru Hinoue 's original concepts . The series will be released on seven DVD and Blu @-@ ray compilation volumes between September 28 , 2016 and March 22 , 2017 by Aniplex . The fourth DVD and Blu @-@ ray volume will include a video game for Windows written by Ryukishi07 .
The opening theme is " Philosophyz ( TV animation ver . ) " sung by Runa Mizutani of NanosizeMir and the ending theme is " Sasayaka na Hajimari ( TV animation ver . ) " ( ささやかなはじまり 〜 TV animation ver . 〜 ) performed by NanosizeMir . Both songs are remixes of theme songs featured in the original Rewrite and Rewrite Harvest festa ! visual novels . The rest of the soundtrack for the anime series is sampled from the Rewrite Original Soundtrack .
= = Music = =
Rewrite has seven pieces of theme music : two opening themes and five ending themes . The first opening theme is " Philosophyz " by Runa Mizutani of the dōjin music group NanosizeMir . The second opening theme is " Rewrite " by Psychic Lover . The first ending theme is " Yami no Kanata e " ( 闇の彼方へ , Beyond the Darkness ) by NanosizeMir , and it is used for Kotori 's , Chihaya 's and Lucia 's scenarios . The next two ending themes are " Koibumi " ( 恋文 , Love Letter ) and " Itsuwaranai Kimi e " ( 偽らない君へ ) , both sung by Nagi Yanagi . " Koibumi " is used for Sizuru 's route , and " Itsuwaranai Kimi e " is used for Akane 's story . " Itsuwaranai Kimi e " is also used as an insert song during Lucia 's route . The last two ending themes are " Watari no Uta " ( 渡りの詩 ) used in the Moon route , and " Canoe " used in the Terra route , both sung by Aoi Tada .
In Rewrite Harvest festa ! , the opening theme is " Harvest " by Tada , and the ending theme is " Sasayaka na Hajimari " ( ささやかなはじまり ) by NanosizeMir . " Philosophyz " , " Itsuwaranai Kimi e " , and " Watari no Uta " are used in the fan disc as insert songs . Eight of the main characters from Rewrite have background music leitmotifs — the six heroines , Haruhiko Yoshino and Sakuya Ohtori . Kagari 's theme is " Hinagiku " ( ヒナギク , Daisy ) ; Kotori 's theme is " Nirinsō " ( ニリンソウ , Soft Windflower ) ; Chihaya 's theme is " Asagao " ( アサガオ , Morning Glory ) ; Akane 's theme is " Anthurium " ( アンスリウム , Ansuriumu ) ; Sizuru 's theme is " Carnation " ( カーネーション , Kānēshon ) ; Lucia 's theme is " Sunbright " ( サンブライト , Sanburaito ) ; Yoshino 's theme is " DIS is a Pain " ; lastly , Sakuya 's theme is " Sanka " ( 散花 ) .
The single for " Philosophyz " was released on January 28 , 2011 . The single contained " Philosophyz " and " Yami no Kanata e " in original , short and instrumental versions . A single for " Rewrite " was released on May 27 , 2011 . As with Key 's previous works ( excluding Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet ) , a music album came bundled with the limited edition release of the game ; the album , released on June 24 , 2011 , is titled Soil and contains arranged versions of ten tracks of the game 's music . Rewrite 's original soundtrack was first released on August 12 , 2011 at Comiket 80 containing 63 tracks ; it was later released for general sale on October 28 , 2011 . A remix album titled Branch was released on December 29 , 2011 at Comiket 81 . The original soundtrack for Rewrite Harvest festa ! , titled Feast , was released bundled with the fan disc on July 27 , 2012 . A remix album titled Dye Mixture featuring tracks from both Rewrite and Harvest festa ! was released on December 29 , 2012 at Comiket 83 . Another remix album titled Crann Mor featuring tracks from Rewrite was released on December 29 , 2015 at Comiket 89 . A single performed by Runa Mizutani and NanosizeMir will be released in July 2016 for the anime series titled " Philosophyz / Sasayaka na Hajimari " , which contains the anime 's opening and ending themes in original , short , and instrumental versions . A remix album titled Selene featuring tracks from both Rewrite and Harvest festa ! will be released on July 29 , 2016 bundled with Rewrite + . Each of the singles and albums released were on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label .
= = Reception = =
In 2011 , Rewrite ranked five times in the top ten in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . The rankings were at No. 9 in January , No. 4 in February , No. 3 in March , and twice at No. 1 in April and May . Rewrite ranked first in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in June 2011 . Rewrite would rank twice more in the top 50 highest selling PC games in Japan , at No. 14 in July and at No. 29 in August 2011 . According to public sales information published at Gamasutra , taken from the Japanese Amazon website , Rewrite was the number one top seller of PC games in Japan the day of its release . Rewrite premiered as the No. 1 game sold on Getchu.com , a major redistributor of visual novel and domestic anime products , during the month of its release , and at No. 30 in July . The game would go on to be the No. 8 game sold for the first half of 2011 , and at No. 11 for the whole year . In 2012 , Rewrite Harvest festa ! ranked three times in the top ten in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . The rankings were at No. 6 in April , No. 3 in May , and No. 1 in June . Harvest festa ! ranked first in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in July 2012 .
On the day of its release , two video game retailers in Akihabara opened two hours early for advance sales of Rewrite . The main Gamers store opened at 7 a.m. to a line of about 200 people . The Sofmap Amusement store opened at 9 a.m. and used two floors in the eight @-@ story building for sales of Rewrite : the fifth floor was used for general sale and advance orders of the game , while the eighth floor was used solely for those who had reserved their copy . The PSP port in 2014 was reviewed by the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu , which gave it an overall score of 30 / 40 ( out of the four individual review scores of 7 , 8 , 8 and 7 ) .
Key held a character popularity poll between December 15 – 31 , 2011 for every character from the game , even very minor ones . The top three winners would each get a downloadable wallpaper , and first place would get original artwork for the wallpaper . A voter could vote one time for up to three characters per day . While Sizuru led at first , Akane surged ahead near the end . The top three winners were Akane with 18 @,@ 042 votes , Sizuru with 16 @,@ 839 votes , and Lucia with 15 @,@ 047 votes .
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= Abby Cunningham =
Abby Fairgate ( formerly Cunningham , Ewing and Sumner ) is a fictional character from the CBS soap opera Knots Landing , a long @-@ running serial about middle class life on the fictional cul @-@ de @-@ sac known as Seaview Circle in Los Angeles , California . She was played by actress Donna Mills between 1980 and 1989 . Abby was created by producer David Jacobs as one of Knots Landing 's earliest characters . She debuted in the first episode of the second season . Mills remained a principal actor in the series until she left in its tenth season . She returned for the two @-@ part series finale to provide closure for the fans . The character made her last television appearance in 1997 , when she appeared in the Knots Landing reunion series Knots Landing : Back to the Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac , and was reunited with former cast members .
Prior to being cast on Knots Landing , Mills was predominantly known for playing " damsel in distress " roles , which is why the producers didn 't initially consider her . Abby 's storylines focused on business dealings , affairs and family troubles . Introduced as the sister of Sid Fairgate , she was initially portrayed as a friendly , warm @-@ hearted woman with great love for her children . In due time , she evolved into the series ' main antagonist , constantly causing mayhem in others ' lives . According to series creator David Jacobs , the producers always intended Abby to be a J.R. Ewing @-@ esque character . Jacobs said , " When we were casting the role of Abby , we were looking for a homey type , someone whom the other women characters would trust . It was our intention to have this nice person gain the trust of the other women and then cause trouble for them . We didn 't want the other characters and the audience to know that there was a scheming person under this nice facade . We wanted her to come on as a good person and then evolve into a vixen . "
The character became known for her manipulative behavior and was often labeled a " soap vixen " . She was praised by television critics , with Carolyn McGuire of The Chicago Tribune saying : " Whoever shows up as the next villain , chances are his or her work won 't be easy . That 's because at least one resident — Abby Ewing — knows how to dish nasty with the best of them . " When asked which character he wished he had created , Mike Kelly , the creator of ABC 's popular primetime @-@ soap opera Revenge , said : " Abby Ewing . Donna Mills , you rocked my world . " John Mapes of The Biography Channel said , " Any great soap opera needs a great villain . While viewers may identify more with the protagonist , the villains in a serial drama always spice things up , cause trouble , and make it more fun to watch . "
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Mills portrayed Abby from 1980 – 1989 . Prior to being cast in Knots Landing , Mills was primarily known for playing the " damsel in distress " archetype in both film and television media . The actress became somewhat famous for playing these roles , often leading to unwanted typecasting . In an interview with Jerry Buck for the Toledo Blade , Mills said : " I got tired of playing the victim . It 's a more active role . Abby keeps things stirred up , and I like that . " According to Jacobs , Abby was not planned when the show began . He knew that he wanted a female J.R. Ewing @-@ esque character . However , he had a different sense of the character and who would wind up in the role . With Mills ' reputation of playing the victim , he initially didn 't choose her for the part .
In the early planning stages of season two , CBS executive Tony Barch suggested Mills for the role of Abby Cunningham . The character was initially conceived as the sister of Sid Fairgate ( Don Murray ) , one of the central characters on the show , who was killed off in the next season . Casting agent Barbara Miller @-@ Gidaly introduced Mills and Jacobs . After meeting with Miller @-@ Gidaly , Jacobs decided to have Mills test for the role , which was unusual for an established actress . She auditioned shortly after and convinced the producers that she was the right person for the part . Jacobs said , " She came back that afternoon and she read and she was great , and it meant reshaping the role a little bit , but , um , not that much . You know , she still came in , she drove up in the Volvo station wagon . She had the kids in the back . It was very middle class . "
In 1989 , Mills announced her intention to leave the long @-@ running nighttime soap after nine years as Abby . According to Mills , she wanted to take a break from acting for a while , and from Abby as well . In an interview with The Cedartown Standard , Mills explained : " I 'm tired of the show . It 's been too long . I 'm not particularly happy with the way they 've been writing Abby lately . She 's too soft . I 'd like Abby to get back to her old self . " Mills returned for the series finale and the subsequent reunion specials ( Knots Landing : Back to the Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac and Knots Landing Reunion : Together Again ) . Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times praised her scenes with fellow actor William Devane , saying : " The Jean Naté @-@ scented banter between the actors Donna Mills and William Devane is both the daffiest and the most enlightening part of the reunion special . "
= = = Characterization = = =
The producers always intended Abby to be the " pot stirrer " . Devane , who played Greg Sumner , said that the show was looking for a woman " in high heels with the throat of the guy – that 's what they wanted " . He added , " It was your character that influenced all these unhappy women today who have jobs and are out there working hard , trying to raise kids by themselves , going crazy . " Mark Harris of Entertainment Weekly said , " Michelle Phillips is the last of prime @-@ time 's great schemers , an essential element of the show since the departure of Donna Mills , whose Abby Cunningham was Knots ' resident harpy for years . "
In an interview with Greg Hernandez , Mills explained : " I knew that she was going to be a trouble maker but actually knowing the writers and the producers , I knew that the character would be rounded and have dimension and that was really fun for me to play . It wasn ’ t one @-@ note all the time , it was a lot of different colors . " Television personality Julie Chen said , " The women of Knots , Michele Lee , Joan Van Ark , and Donna Mills have been compared to earth , wind , and fire , with Donna Mills bringing the heat as Abby , the conniving vixen that everybody loved to hate . " According to Mills , many people were wary of meeting her in person because they assumed she would be like Abby . She said , " They were very trepedacious about what I was going to do . " Mike Celizic of NBC said that her character was " the archetypal predatory female " , while Meredith Vieira said " even the bad girl could show a tender side every once in a while " , in reference to her daughter 's on @-@ screen drug addiction . It was this very storyline that showed Abby at her most vulnerable and human , a story which audiences recall as perhaps one of her most desperate and motherly of moments . In addition to that , Abby also helped Val get her kidnapped babies back , even though she was blamed she said she " could never do a thing like that to anyone " . When Karen and Mack began to have some problems in their marriage and Karen distanced herself from Mack , Abby confronted Karen aggressively and told her she was wrong for doing so to him .
Mills became known for wearing a lot of eye makeup in her scenes , to the point where it became a major character trait for her fictional personality . Carole Glinez of Star magazine said , " Mills was so famous for her dramatic eye makeup on the show that she produced her own beauty video called The Eyes Have It . " Eddie Shapiro of Out magazine said that " Abby 's eye makeup was legendary ! " Glinez also referred to her as Knots " Fox " , saying : " Mills was one of the queens of the nighttime soap . Abby Cunningham Ewing was the conniving , bed hopping blonde beauty on the Dallas spin @-@ off Knots Landing .
= = = Relationships = = =
Abby was always intended to be the show 's promiscuous seductress . In an interview with Carolyn McGuire of The Chicago Tribune , Jacobs said : " When we were casting the role of Abby , we were looking for a homey type , someone whom the other women characters would trust . It was our intention to have this nice person gain the trust of the other women and then cause trouble for them . We didn 't want the other characters and the audience to know that there was a scheming person under this nice facade . We wanted her to come on as a good person and then evolve into a vixen . " Author June L. May of Monsters and Critics said , " In season two of Knots Landing , a catalyst moves into the neighborhood in the form of Sid ’ s sister , the drop dead gorgeous Abby Cunningham . Whether Abby is directly involved , or simply in the neighborhood , she has a detrimental affect on the harmony of couples . " Almost immediately , Abby sank her claws into Richard Avery ( John Pleshette ) , one of the neighborhood husbands . Though the affair was brief , it set the stage for what was to come .
In season three , Abby sets her sights on the wealthy Gary Ewing , the husband of her good friend Valene Ewing . While Gary initially thwarted her attempts , he eventually gave in and had a full @-@ fledged affair with her . Actress Joan Van Ark , who played Val , said : " I went in way early , whenever Donna Mills came on the show , and told David Jacobs that it made total sense that Gary would fall for Abby . Because they were celebrating Donna Mills and she became the center I can ’ t believe I did that but it really provided us with some great stories . And it was the longest running story on the show . " Dan Lewis of the Sarasota Journal said , " In a recent episode , Abby lures Gary Ewing into an affair , and sets it up so that his wife will discover it . After she completed the scene , Miss Mills recalls , the crew hissing at her – jokingly , of course . " The character was known for her numerous rivalries with other female characters , such as Paige and Karen . Carole Glinez said , " Mills ' character faced her rival Paige , played by future Desperate Housewives sexpot Nicollette Sheridan . "
= = Storylines = =
Before her first appearance , Abby meets and marries Jeff Cunningham . They move to San Luis Obispo , California , and have two children , Olivia and Brian . When she and Jeff divorce , Abby moves to San Diego . On the way she stops to visit her brother , Sid , and decides to stay in Knots Landing . She rents a house on Seaview Circle , and has an affair with Richard Avery . Abby soon sets her eyes on neighbor Gary Ewing , which becomes obvious after she starts working as a bookkeeper for Knots Landing Motors . She and Gary get the company involved with the mob , which results in her brother Sid 's death . At the same time , Jeff kidnaps her children . She eventually gets them back . Abby and Gary go into a methanol business together and start an affair . Valene finds out and kicks Gary out , so he moves in with Abby . Gary soon inherits millions from his father Jock Ewing 's death . Abby uses the money to manipulate those around her , and Gary starts drinking again . Gary sobers up and buys a ranch , similar to Southfork , the ranch his family owns . They move there and marry .
Abby begins running Gary 's company , and uses his money to fund her own corporation , Apaloon , which she uses to develop Lotus Point . She becomes involved with politician Greg Sumner and the Wolfbridge group . When Gary finds out about her illegal dealings , he leaves her . After Abby is kidnapped , he takes her back , and makes Karen a partner in Lotus Point . Abby soon finds out that Val is pregnant with Gary 's twins . She expresses her displeasure to employee Scott Easton , who has Val 's twins kidnapped at birth . Abby works to find out where the twins are , and brings Val to them . Abby finagles her way to become a part of the " real " Empire Valley . After Gary blows it up , he leaves Abby again . She attempts to get him back , but instead they divorce . Abby soon starts an affair with Peter Hollister as a way to get information on Greg . Then Charles Scott , her first love , returns . He is married , but he divorces his wife and asks Abby to marry him .
Abby is in love again , but then finds out that Charles is the front for a group of thugs wanting to build a marina at Lotus Point for drug trafficking . Abby pretends to go along with the marriage and accepts a two million dollar wedding gift from Charles . After the ceremony she has the marriage annulled , but keeps the money . After this , Abby marries Greg Sumner . It isn 't love , but rather a political marriage . Abby forms another company , Morikame , in order to buy Lotus Point . When her former partners find out and threaten to have her arrested for fraud , she donates Lotus Point to the government as a wildlife preserve . Abby goes after a political appointment that Greg wants , and leaves Knots Landing to be a trade representative in Japan . Abby later forms another illegal company with Nigel Treadwell , and tries to take over the Sumner Group , but her plan fails . She moves back into her old house on the cul @-@ de @-@ sac .
In the 1997 reunion mini @-@ series , Abby sells her house and prepares to leave the cul @-@ de @-@ sac and move to Malibu . However , the IRS freezes her assets for non @-@ payment of back taxes , and she temporarily moves in with Karen and Mack , and gets a job from Gary at the construction company he runs with Karen . However , Abby 's motives are to obtain a legal document from their company in order to help Greg Sumner , who is being sued . Should she obtain the document , Greg will pay her the $ 1 million she needs . Greg then informs her he no longer needs the document . Abby tries to infiltrate his other business dealings to her advantage . Instead of paying her off , Greg offers her a job overseeing one of his business operations in Thailand , which will make her rich again . Before departing , Abby learns that Brian 's girlfriend ( Kate Whittaker ) is expecting their first child , thus making her a grandmother .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Abby was well received by television critics . Carolyn McGuire of The Chicago Tribune commented , " Whoever shows up as the next villain , chances are his or her work won 't be easy . That 's because at least one resident — Abby Ewing — knows how to dish nasty with the best of them . Only Alexis Carrington Colby Dexter , played by Joan Collins on Dynasty , and Angela Channing , portrayed by Jane Wyman on Falcon Crest , rival Abby Ewing , played by Donna Mills , for best prime @-@ time female villain . " When asked which character he wished he had created , Mike Kelly , the creator of ABC 's popular primetime @-@ soap Revenge , said : " Abby Ewing . Donna Mills , you rocked my world . " Jamey Giddens of Zap2it said , " While I readily admit Alexis will go down in soap history as the most famous of the 80 's primetime soap vixens , she was never truly my cup of detergent . I much preferred the more subdued , methodical villainy of characters like Abby Fairgate ( Donna Mills ) , who slept her way through Seaview Circle , and to the top of Corporate California on Knots Landing . God I miss that damn Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac ! "
Josh Mapes of The Biography Channel listed her in the category " 10 Primetime Stars We Love to Hate " . He said , " Any great soap opera needs a great villain . While viewers may identify more with the protagonist , the villains in a serial drama always spice things up , cause trouble , and make it more fun to watch . From tongue lashings to catfights , underhanded tricks to boldface lies , the characters we love to hate have each brought a fair share of great moments to primetime soaps . While Larry Hagman played the bad guy on Dallas , Donna Mills played bad girl on its spin @-@ off , Knots Landing . Unapologetically going after what she wanted , Mills ' character engaged in affairs with two of the husbands on the Knots Landing cul @-@ de @-@ sac . But , like most vixens on primetime soaps , she was only out for money , not love . " Steve Eighinger of the Quincy Newspapers listed Abby as the third @-@ most memorable TV character in an article he wrote for the Quincy Herald @-@ Whig . He said , " No one , absolutely no one , rocked eye shadow and the messy @-@ hair look like Abby Ewing , who was this marvelous combination of vixen and corporate sleuth . As her character developed , life on the cul @-@ de @-@ sac made Knots Landing destination TV every Thursday night for more than a decade . "
Marta Hoelsher of Technorati Media said : " The biggest news of season two , though , is the appearance of Donna Mills as Abby Cunningham , the blonde bombshell who wreaks havoc all through the neighborhood . With the appearance of Abby , things really started to heat up and get interesting . No marriage is off limits when Abby sets her eyes on it . Played to perfection by Donna Mills , Abby is wicked , vicious , bitchy , and heartless enough to keep us loving and hating her for years . Abby 's clashes with Karen MacKenzie and Val were legendary , and season two gets things rolling . After a fairly peaceful start to the season , we start to see the beginnings of the rivalry that defines the show for years : Karen vs. Abby . It 's fun watching their early friendship evolve into a bitter rivalry . "
= = = Accolades = = =
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= HMS Boadicea ( H65 ) =
HMS Boadicea was a B @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) around 1930 . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , she was transferred to the Home Fleet in 1936 . Before her departure , the ship evacuated civilians from Spain during the beginning of the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 . Boadicea later spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . During World War II , the ship spent the bulk of the war on convoy escort duty in British waters and participated in the Battle of the Atlantic , Operation Torch , the Russian Convoys , and in the Normandy landings . Badly damaged by German dive bombers in 1940 , she was sunk almost exactly four years later by aerial torpedoes .
= = Description = =
Boadicea displaced 1 @,@ 360 long tons ( 1 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 790 long tons ( 1 @,@ 820 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 32 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Boadicea carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and enlisted men , although it increased to 142 during wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Boadicea had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship was fitted with a Type 119 ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
By October 1940 , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased when the rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun . The ' Y ' gun was later removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . When Boadicea was converted into an escort destroyer at the end of 1943 , her ' A ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and additional depth charge stowage replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun . In addition , two QF 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns were added to deal with surfaced submarines at close range and the 2 @-@ pounder guns were replaced by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon and four additional Oerlikon guns were also added .
= = Construction and service = =
The ship was ordered on 4 March 1929 from Hawthorn Leslie , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down at Hebburn @-@ on @-@ Tyne on 11 July 1929 , and launched on 23 September 1930 , as the fifth RN ship to carry this name . Boadicea was completed on 9 April 1931 at a cost of £ 225 @,@ 325 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until 1936 . She was damaged whilst refuelling at sea with the battleship Revenge on 15 March 1935 ; her repairs lasted until 18 April . Later that year she was deployed to Famagusta , Cyprus , and Haifa , Palestine to assist British forces in putting down riots from December 1935 – January 1936 . Boadicea had to return to Haifa in June to help put down the beginnings of the Arab Revolt . Afterwards the ship was deployed to Cartagena and Valencia to evacuate civilians at the start of the Spanish Civil War before beginning a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 26 September . She remained with the 4th Flotilla until January 1939 and made multiple deployments off the coast of Spain enforcing the embargo until April 1938 when she was again refitted . After leaving the 4th Flotilla , Boadicea served as the plane guard for the aircraft carriers of the Mediterranean Fleet for a few months until she became the emergency destroyer at the Nore . She was attached to the Reserve Fleet at Portland for the Fleet Review in August 1939 .
On 29 August , Boadicea was assigned to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla based at Dover where she escorted the troopships of the British Expeditionary Force through October . The ship was then transferred to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla at Harwich for two months before rejoining the 19th Flotilla where she escorted convoys through the English Channel . On 4 March 1940 , she towed the oil tanker Charles F. Meyer to Southampton Water after that ship struck a mine . Boadicea began a refit at Chatham Dockyard on 2 May and was not operational until she sailed for Le Havre , France on 9 June to assist in the evacuation of British troops before advancing German troops . The next afternoon , she was severely damaged by Junkers Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bombers that knocked out her engines and boilers . After all depth charges and torpedoes were jettisoned to reduce her topweight and temporary repairs made to the holes in her hull , Boadicea was towed by the destroyer Ambuscade and the tugboat Krooman to Dover .
Repairs at Portsmouth lasted until 14 February 1941 and included the installation of a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar . Upon completions , the ship was assigned to Home Fleet and participated in the search for the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau which had broken out into the North Atlantic . In March , Boadicea was transferred to the 4th Escort Group at Greenock for convoy escort duties and remained with them until February 1942 when the group was disbanded . She was then assigned to the Western Approaches Command until July . The ship was detached to escort Convoys PQ 15 and Convoy QP 12 to and from Murmansk in April – May . Boadicea was refitted between August and October , after which she escorted a convoy to Gibraltar as part of the preparations for Operation Torch , the invasion of French North Africa . She escorted British ships to Oran during the invasion and was struck by a shell from a French L 'Adroit @-@ class destroyer on 8 November that did little damage . Three days later , the ship was escorting the empty ocean liner RMS Viceroy of India when the latter ship was torpedoed . The destroyer attempted to take the troopship under tow , but was unable to save the ship . Boadicea rescued 449 passengers and crew and delivered them to Gibraltar . Upon her return home , the ship was assigned to the 20th Escort Group where she escorted Convoys JW 51A , JW 53 and RA 53 to and from Russia . She was badly damaged by sea ice during the latter convoy in March and required repairs that lasted until May .
Upon their completion , Boadicea was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone where she served as a local escort . On 19 July , she rescued 220 survivors from the torpedoed ocean liner MV Incomati . The ship returned to the Home Fleet in September and briefly assigned to the 8th Escort Group before she started her conversion into an escort destroyer in November . This included the addition of Type 271 target indication radar and the replacement of the Type 286 radar by a Type 290 . After this was completed in January 1944 , Boadicea rejoined the 8th Escort Group and escorted Convoys JW 57 , RA 58 and RA 59 to Russia from February through April . In preparation for Operation Overlord , the invasion of Normandy , she was transferred to Portsmouth where she escorted convoys arriving in England as well as the convoys across the Channel . Boadicea was sunk on 13 June off Portland Bill by two torpedoes dropped by Junkers Ju 88 medium bombers while escorting a convoy of merchant ships to France . The torpedoes caused a magazine explosion and Boadicea sank quickly , with only 12 of her crew of 182 surviving .
The ship is included on the Chatham Naval Memorial ; her wreck is 16 miles ( 26 km ) southwest of the Isle of Portland at 50 ° 28 ′ 12 ″ N 02 ° 29 ′ 30 ″ W in 53 metres ( 174 ft ) of water . Her bow is blown off forward of the engine rooms . Her stern section is upright and reasonably intact . The wreck site is designated as a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 .
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= Apex Hides the Hurt =
Apex Hides the Hurt is a 2006 novel by American author Colson Whitehead . The novel follows an unnamed nomenclature consultant who is asked to visit the town of Winthrop , which , rather conveniently for the nomenclature consultant , is considering changing its name . During his visit , the main character is introduced to several citizens attempting to persuade him in favor of their preferred name for the town .
The novel has received mostly positive reviews from critics , with few negative comments . In a positive review for American magazine Entertainment Weekly , Jennifer Reese called the book " a blurry satire of American commercialism , " adding that " it may not mark the apex of Colson Whitehead 's career , but it brims with the author 's spiky humor and intelligence . " The book was featured among the 100 Most Notable Books of The Year for 2006 , as published by The New York Times .
= = About the author = =
Colson Whitehead ( born 1969 ) is an American author . Whitehead was born and raised in Brooklyn , New York and wrote for The Village Voice for two years during his early career , and has since authored three other novels : The Intuitionist , John Henry Days and The Colossus of New York . Since Whitehead began writing , he has had his books and writing reviewed and mentioned in The New York Times , New York Magazine , Harper 's Magazine and has been a recipient of the MacArthur and Whiting Award .
= = Plot = =
The book is set in the fictional town of Winthrop . The protagonist of the book is an unnamed African @-@ American " nomenclature consultant " who has had recent success in branding and selling Apex bandages , which come in multiple colors to better match a broad array of skin tones . The novel begins with the main character being contacted by his former employer , which he had left after losing a toe . He travels to the town of Winthrop after requests from the town council , which has proposed that the town be renamed . However , three key citizens disagree what the name should be : Albie Winthrop , descendant of the town 's namesake ( who 'd made his fortune in barbed wire ) ; Regina Goode , the mayor ( descendant of one of the town 's two founders ) ; and Lucky Aberdeen , a software magnate who 's leading the drive to rename the town . Winthrop wants to keep the name ; Goode wants the town to revert to the name it bore at its founding as a town of free blacks , Freedom ; while Aberdeen wants to call it " New Prospera . "
As the consultant talks with the residents of the town and investigates its history , the backstory of his injury is gradually revealed . After repeatedly stubbing his toe and covering it up with Apex bandages , the consultant accidentally stepped into pig feces during a company team retreat . Because of the colored bandage , he never discovered how his toe was badly infected , and fainted on the sidewalk after fleeing from an awards party . This led to the amputation of his toe , his departure from the nomenclature firm , and the beginning of his hermetic lifestyle .
After much deliberation , the consultant decides on the name " Struggle , " the original idea of the other of the two original founders , Field . Following this , the consultant promptly returns home , where his foot injury continues to bother him even more than before .
= = Themes = =
In an interview with Alma Books , Whitehead states that the concept of the book originated from an article about the naming process for new pharmaceuticals such as Prozac . The article made Whitehead question how a similar process is used to assert a certain control over one 's environment ( his example is a boulevard named after a particular person ) , and yoking the two concepts was the beginning of the ideas that led to his composition of the novel .
= = Reception = =
Overall , the novel was critically well received . It was highlighted among The New York Times ' 100 Most Notable Books of the Year , and also highlighted among 100 noteworthy books from 2006 , as published by The Charleston Gazette . In a review in The Boston Globe , Saul Austerlitz called it a " wickedly funny new novel . " USA Today noted that " no novelist writing today is more engaging and entertaining when it comes to questions of race , class and commercial culture than Colson Whitehead , " concluding that the novel " gets to the heart of the thing , but in a delightfully roundabout way . " The San Francisco Chronicle gave the novel a mixed review , commenting that " It 's pure joy to read writing like this , but watching Whitehead sketch out a minor character 's essence with one stroke , while breathtaking , makes one wish the same treatment was afforded the people who ostensibly inhabit the novel 's complex ideas . " American trade news magazine Publishers Weekly reacted negatively to the book , writing that " Whitehead disappoints in this intriguingly conceived but static tale of a small town with an identity crisis . "
Erin Aubry Kaplan of the Los Angeles Times noted that " too often , [ Whitehead ] can 't resist the temptation of irony , and his big ideas are sometimes overwhelmed by one wink @-@ wink or metaphor too many . " Kirkus Reviews praised the book , writing that " while making no attempt at depth of characterization , Whitehead audaciously blurs the line between social realism and fabulist satire . " The Library Journal praised the book , noting that " In spare and evocative prose , Whitehead does Shakespeare one better : What 's in a name , and how does our identity relate to our own sense of who we are ? " The New York Observer was critical of the book but noted that " readers not looking for direct emotional access to the characters may find it gratifying to solve the intellectual puzzle set here by Colson Whitehead . "
Scott Esposito of webzine PopMatters gave the novel mixed comments , writing that " it is no surprise that Apex Hides the Hurt , Whitehead 's third novel , is packed with a number of allegorical elements blended into a multi @-@ layered structure . What 's unfortunate , however , is that all this technical artistry is in the service of unremarkable themes and ideas . Entertainment newspaper The A.V. Club complimented the book , writing that " perhaps taking his cues from his protagonist 's profession , Whitehead keeps his prose as streamlined as it comes , and he uses it to craft a satiric novel in tune with a moment where marketing overshadows content and even the lowliest blogger thinks in branding terms . " Michael McGirr of The Sydney Morning Herald called it " a book of abundant irony . "
= = Honors = =
PEN Oakland / Josephine Miles Literary Award
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= 1 + 1 ( song ) =
" 1 + 1 " is a song recorded by American recording artist Beyoncé for her fourth studio album , 4 ( 2011 ) . It was released by Columbia Records in the United States on May 25 , 2011 , as a promotional single . Serving as the opening track on 4 , it was written and produced by Beyoncé , The @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart . " 1 + 1 " was originally titled " Nothing But Love " and The @-@ Dream had initially planned to include it on his second studio album , Love vs. Money ( 2009 ) . A down @-@ tempo contemporary R & B and soul music power ballad , " 1 + 1 " Beyoncé expressing her endless love to her soul mate ; the lyrics make strong statements about the power of the relationship .
" 1 + 1 " garnered acclaim from music critics , who noted its resemblance to the work of American singers Prince and Sam Cooke . It was also complimented for its subtle instrumentation , which provides emphasis on Beyoncé 's vocals . " 1 + 1 " peaked at number 82 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart and at number 57 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Its accompanying music video was directed by Beyoncé herself , alongside Lauren Briet and Ed Burke , and it premiered on August 26 , 2011 . The video was a " different " direction in the sense that it does not incorporate the heavy dance routines Beyoncé is known for , and that it experiments with psychedelic visual effects as well as innovative lighting , which give the clip a cinematic feel . The clip met with generally positive reception from music critics , who praised its aesthetic and sexual theme and claimed that it will be remembered as one of Beyoncé 's most iconic visual work .
Soon after Beyoncé 's performance on American Idol , a video that surfaced online received considerable coverage from different media . It was filmed by Jay @-@ Z with a camera phone and shows Beyoncé rehearsing " 1 + 1 " backstage at American Idol . The ballad was included on Beyoncé 's set list for a free concert as part of Good Morning America 's Summer Concert Series , the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé , and her revue , 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé , held at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City . Beyoncé 's live performances of " 1 + 1 " have received positive reception ; a writer from The Huffington Post described her live performance at the American Idol as " an epic , emotionally @-@ charged [ one ] . " American singers Dondria and Tiffany Evans have performed covers of the ballad , with lyrical modifications .
= = Conception and release = =
" 1 + 1 " was initially written and titled " Nothing but Love " by Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash , who intended to include it on his second studio album , Love King ( 2010 ) . He later gave it to Beyoncé Knowles for her fourth studio album 4 , where she and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart did some additional writing . The song was produced by the trio at the Studio at the Palms in Paradise , Nevada and Triangle Sound Studio in Atlanta , Georgia , where Beyoncé recorded the song . The @-@ Dream and Stewart did the musical arrangements and Beyoncé worked on arranged the vocals . Lee Blaske , Nikki Gallespi and Pete Wolford played the instruments , while Brian Thomas alongside Pat Thrall assisted in recording the music . Jordan Young then recorded Beyoncé 's vocals . Tony Maserati mixed the track with assistance from Val Brathwaite , and Jason Sherwood , Mark Gray , Steven Dennis and Wolford all assisted in the audio engineering .
Shortly after " 1 + 1 " was released online , Beyoncé debuted the ballad by performing a piano version on the finale of the tenth season of American Idol on May 25 , 2011 . " 1 + 1 " was made available for download only a few hours after her performance ; its cover art was photographed by Anthony Duran . The song was released through the iTunes Store as a promotional single from 4 in the United States . People who pre @-@ ordered 4 at the iTunes Store received a free download of " 1 + 1 " . The song was not sent for airplay in the US as " Best Thing I Never Had " was favored as the second single , following the release of the lead single " Run the World ( Girls ) " .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" 1 + 1 " is a downtempo R & B and soul music power ballad with influences of indie rock music . The song features " a soft , almost non @-@ existent " backing beat and makes use of a guitar and a piano as its foundation , while wind chimes , sprinkling strings , synthesizers , funk @-@ influenced bass and a pipe organ are also present . " 1 + 1 " is set in 12 / 8 time with a slow tempo of 50 beats per minute and was written in the key of G ♭ major . Beyoncé 's voice spans from the low note of F # 3 to the high note of C6 . " 1 + 1 " essentially demonstrates her " urgent " and " raw " vocals ; in an interview with Ray Rogers of Billboard magazine , Beyoncé stated that she wanted to use her album 4 to showcase this side of her vocal abilities : " I used a lot of the brassiness and grittiness in my voice that people hear in my live performances , but not necessarily on my records . " Nadine Cheung wrote that the subtle instrumentation allows Beyoncé 'ss voice to emphasise the emotional lyrics Amos Barshad of New York magazine and Tim Finney of Pitchfork Media described the vocals as similar to those of Whitney Houston 's work .
Several critics including Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone noted that " 1 + 1 " is comparable to Sam Cooke 's 1960 song " Wonderful World " and Prince 's 1984 song " Purple Rain " . Brandon Soderberg of Pitchfork Media explained that " Wonderful World " ' s line , " don 't know much about algebra " , was retained during the conception of " 1 + 1 " by its producers , who however accentuated its " love song sentiment " . Soderberg further wrote that " 1 + 1 " bears resemblance to " Purple Rain " as they both have similar " delicate guitars , melodramatic piano , and [ Beyoncé affects Prince 's ] high @-@ register whimper a few times " . Jillian Mapes of Billboard magazine wrote that the guitar solo is similar to the ones in Bon Jovi 's power ballads .
" 1 + 1 " begins with a low fidelity indie rock arrangement which is brought about by distorted guitar arpeggios and a discreet pipe organ . Beyoncé sings a meandering melody as she alternately references the pleasures of love and sex . Using simple arithmetic to describe her undying love for her partner , she begins the first verse as she affirms to her romantic interest that the only thing she is sure about is her feelings for him , " I don 't know much about algebra , but I know that one plus one equals two ... If I ain 't got something , I don 't give a damn / ' Cause I got it with you " . In the pre @-@ chorus lines , Beyoncé expresses her reliance on her man without whom she believes to be incomplete as she sings , " And it 's me and you , that 's all we 'll have when the world is through / Because baby we ain 't got nothing without love / Darling , you got enough love for the both of us " .
Brandon Soderberg of Pitchfork Media commented that Beyoncé mixes " vulnerability and confidence " while singing the chorus lines , where she repeatedly pleads her romantic interest , " Make love to me when my days look low / Pull me in close and don 't let me go / Make love to me when the world 's at war / That our love will heal us all " , while the music stays steady and soft with only a few piano chords and a baseline plucked guitar riff . As she continues to chant about making love in apocalyptic circumstances , " So when the world 's at war / Let our love heal us all " , she projects a universal " all you need is love " feeling , as noted by Jillian Mapes . In the second verse , Beyoncé sings , " Hey ! I don 't know much about guns but I ... I 've been shot by you " , as she pushes the final word " you " up at a full octave . She then continues : " Hey ! And I don 't know when I 'm gonna die , but I hope that I 'm gonna die by you / Hey ! And I don 't know much about fighting , but I , I know I will fight for you / Hey ! Just when I ball up my fist , I realize that I 'm laying right next to you " . According to Thomas Conner of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , these lines are intended to show that love conquers all . The song ends with an intense electric guitar solo .
= = Critical reception = =
" 1 + 1 " garnered acclaim from music critics , who complimented the effective display of Beyoncé 'ss emotive vocals due to the use of light instrumentation , and approved that the ballad was the opening song on 4 . AOL Music 's Contessa Gayles called it " an achy , screechy ballad – in the best way possible " and Nadine Cheung from AOL Radio noted that the minimal instrumentation highlights the song 's lyrics , and effectively show Beyoncé 's " powerful voice and impressive control " , further writing , " The professions are so intense that there 's no need for a complicated bridge or dramatic key change . " Brandon Soderberg from Pitchfork Media wrote , " she really digs in and sells the song 's knotty qualities , and when that over @-@ the @-@ top guitar break appears exactly when it should , it 's cathartic . At that precise moment , this passionate pastiche of timeless pop becomes a classic all its own . " Ryan Dombal , writing for the same music webzine , commented that Adele 's ' Someone Like You ' is the only recent pop ballad which comes close to " the power " of " 1 + 1 " . Michael Cragg of The Guardian called the song a " loved up ballad " and praised Beyoncé for showcasing her raw vocals . Describing " 1 + 1 " as " [ having ] no interest in [ Beyoncé 'ss ] typical pursuit of forward @-@ thinking , energetic fare , preferring to throw the emphasis on her radio @-@ destroying vocal chords " , David Amidon of PopMatters wrote that the song " is the best result of this , finally providing Beyoncé a song that can compete with the favorites of this generation 's parents . "
Jocelyn Vena of MTV News wrote , " Beyoncé may not know a thing about algebra , but when it comes to the math of power ballads , she totally gets it . " Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone wrote that " the album [ 4 ] opens with its most tender ballad , a slow @-@ burning number that calls back to both Sam Cooke 's ' Wonderful World ' and Prince 's ' Purple Rain ' without sounding like a retread of either tune [ ... ] it sounds best in the context of the album , where its slow , steady build to a cathartic guitar break is the perfect introduction to a set of mostly low @-@ key tracks about love and heartbreak . " Similarly considering " 1 + 1 " to be " the perfect opener " of 4 , Joanne Dorken of MTV UK wrote that it exposes a more vulnerable side of Beyoncé and that it will remain " a classic stripped @-@ back slow jam from the diva . " Praising Beyoncé 's vocals , Jon Caramainca of The New York Times stated that " [ ' 1 + 1 ' ] requires a vocal muscle few singers possess , and even fewer would care to deploy . " Writing for The Baltimore Sun , Wesley Case included " 1 + 1 " in his list of Five Great Songs and praised song 's concept , writing that he began crying when he heard the album version and called it " gut @-@ wrenching " and " gorgeous " . Case appreciated Beyoncé 's sensitivity and concluded that it " fades to black like an ellipsis and it 's so damn beautiful . "
Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun wrote that " 1 + 1 " is an " amazing [ and ] arguably the most honest and tender Beyoncé has sounded , singing ' help me let my guard down , make love to me ' " . Similarly , Claire Suddath of Time magazine commented that " 1 + 1 " is probably the finest ballad Beyoncé has delivered in years . Amos Barshad of New York magazine described " 1 + 1 " as " a big grand love ballad " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic picked " 1 + 1 " as one of the album 's top songs , describing it as " a sparse and placid vocal showcase , [ which ] fades in with a somber guitar line , throws up occasional and brief spikes in energy , and slowly recedes . " Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound commented that in contrast to the geometry taught at school , there is something interesting in " 1 + 1 " ; he further wrote that ballad focuses on Beyoncé 's " amazing vocal range " as it is not upbeat like most of her previous offerings . Leah Collins of Canada 's Dose described the song as a " melodramatic soul ballad " . A reporter from The Huffington Post stated that " 1 + 1 " is a departure from " Run the World ( Girls ) " , noting that Beyoncé " replac [ es ] the defiance of [ ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' ] with devotion " [ in ' 1 + 1 ' ] " . He added that it is one of the first representations that " Beyoncé is keeping her promise that a whole new array of sounds will make their way into 4 . " Similarly , Rap @-@ Up favored the track stating that " If ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' wasn 't your thing , this should do the trick . " By contrast , Katy Hasty from HitFix criticized the song 's lyrics and wrote that it " seem [ s ] the lyrics to ' 1 + 1 ' were penned by a second @-@ grader . "
= = = Recognition = = =
The Guardian 's critic Sean Michaels ranked " 1 + 1 " at number one on his list of The 10 Best Tracks of 2011 . The song was also ranked on The Guardian 's writers ' year @-@ end list of Best Songs of 2011 at number 30 . Allison Stewart of The Washington Post placed the ballad at number one on her list of the Special Year @-@ End Best @-@ of Edition , writing that Beyoncé " just kills this otherwise unremarkable ballad . Her obvious pride in her abilities , in her Beyonce @-@ ness , informs every note , but it doesn 't seem showoff @-@ y . It 's just sweet . " On The Village Voice 's 2011 year @-@ end Pazz & Jop singles list , " 1 + 1 " was ranked at number 77 . The staff members of Pitchfork Media placed the " 1 + 1 " at number 26 on their list of The Top 100 Tracks of 2011 , writing :
Following Beyoncé 's work on " 1 + 1 " is like a journey to the center of her craft , a stripping away of every distraction until all that 's left is her voice . Without it , " 1 + 1 " would be a muted ballad : Its simple guitar line and stardust @-@ sprinkled strings serve no purpose other than to evoke a sense of familiar romantic intimacy , and then to elegantly step aside while Beyoncé delivers one of her most wonderfully impassioned performances ever . " 1 + 1 " possesses that slightly scary intensity that has been R & B 's worst @-@ kept secret weapon since Whitney Houston 's " I Have Nothing " , but it also demonstrates perfectly how Beyoncé stands apart from every other big @-@ chested diva getting her Whitney on . She lets the song sing through her with a clarity that is never clinical , a strength that never sabotages , and an expressiveness that is precisely as sentimental as its subject matter requires . Beyoncé is R & B 's field marshal , demanding of her listeners and herself an absolute fidelity to the music 's emotional possibilities , with a perfectly modulated vehemence that is as captivating as it is tyrannical .
Writing for The New Yorker , Jody Rosen credited the jarring timbral and tonal variations on the song for giving a new musical sound that didn 't exist in the world before Beyoncé . He further wrote , " If they sound ' normal ' now , it 's because Beyoncé , and her many followers , have retrained our ears . "
= = Chart performance = =
" 1 + 1 " entered the US Hot Digital Songs chart at number 33 on June 11 , 2011 , having sold 57 @,@ 000 downloads in the previous week . As a result , the song also appeared at number 57 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . The following week , it fell to number 89 on the Hot 100 chart . Overall , it charted for only two weeks . For the week ending June 11 , 2011 , the song charted on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles at number 5 . That same week , " 1 + 1 " entered the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number 82 . Following the release of 4 and based solely on digital downloads , " 1 + 1 " appeared on the UK Singles Chart at number 67 and on the UK R & B Chart at number 23 in the July 9 , 2011 issue . After the release of its music video , " 1 + 1 " moved from number 125 to number 71 on the UK Singles Chart on September 11 , 2011 . The following week , it reached a high point of number 21 on the R & B chart . Selling 18 @,@ 263 downloads , the song opened at number 25 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart for the week ending July 2 , 2011 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
It was reported in early August 2011 that Beyoncé was recording new music videos for several songs from 4 , including " 1 + 1 " which was shot by August 3 , 2011 . The video premiered on August 26 , 2011 on E ! News at 7 : 00 pm EST / PST and it was posted on Beyoncé 's website one hour later . It was directed by Beyoncé herself , alongside Lauren Briet and Ed Burke . The video was described by her official website as " the story of love at its best . It 's about commitment and fulfillment and it 's Beyoncé at her most beautiful . The video experiments with psychedelic visual effects and innovative lighting that gives the clip a cinematic feel . " The music video for the song is four and a half minutes long . The director 's cut of " 1 + 1 " was released on November 1 , 2011 . It features slightly different scenes to the original .
The song 's video features close @-@ up shots of Beyoncé and incorporates psychedelic light effects and symmetrical filming photography . As the acoustic guitar begins playing , Beyoncé 's face comes into view . She stands with her blond hair draped just below her exposed shoulders . As she intently stares into the camera , her skin glistens as though it has been coated with a honey @-@ like and glittery substance . Turning her head from right to left , with her eyes fixed off @-@ camera , Beyoncé starts belting out the first verse . As the chorus is reached , scenes of Beyoncé in a darkened room are shown . Additionally , she places her face delicately against dripping water , gently brushing it with her lips and palms . The scenery changes and Beyoncé is back in the darkened chamber , where she removes her dress .
A quick shot of the " IV " tattoo inked on Beyoncé 's left ring finger is shown ( a reference to her album 's title , 4 ) , before she bathes in a tub of flowers as well as berries and blows billows of smoke . As she continues to caress her upper @-@ body , an array of light imagery is projected behind her , serving as a backdrop . During the second verse , the video begins to use symmetrical visual arts . Beyoncé appears standing in front of a purple background , draped by large and billowing garments . As the song progresses , her emotions are heightened ; zoomed shots of tears trickling down her cheeks are shown . A man appears behind Beyoncé and begins closely embracing her in endearment . The man is nondescript , and his muscular arms grip Beyoncé 's body before taking her through a series of dips and bends , while he remains mostly in the background . With tears still rolling down her cheeks , Beyoncé chants to her love interest to make love to her on the song 's vocal finale . As the guitar melodies close the song , Beyoncé is seen engulfed by the colorful light and special effects . The video ends with the camera returning to a glistening Beyoncé with blackened scenery in the background .
= = = Reception = = =
Jennifer Cady of E ! News found the video " sexy " and " pretty stripped down " , further writing : " There are no catchy choreographed dances or freakum dresses , just Queen Bey looking gorgeous in lingerie and belting out her love and devotion to her man . " Cady added that that the video was entertaining because of Beyoncé " seriously magical hair " and her skin , which was sparkling like Edward Cullen . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly concluded that although the video was different from the previous " heavily produced spectacles " Beyoncé has made , " it 's hard to take your eyes off it " . Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic criticized the sex appeal which was used in the videos for Lady Gaga 's " You and I " ( 2011 ) and Katy Perry 's " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " ( 2011 ) but felt that " Beyonce 's game is unique in its reliance on pure visual magnetism " . He wrote that even when Beyoncé is " inhabiting apocalyptic warzones or Mad Men @-@ era domestic scenes " , she is always classical . Kornhaber concluded that the video for " 1 + 1 " is " catchy , fun dance , pretty face , pretty body " , which according to him , is what " Beyonce [ has ] always been about " . Melinda Newman from the website HitFix found " some lovely kaleidoscopic shots and billowing sheets " . She added that " we never see her ' + 1 ' other than an arm and back shot , but that works to the video 's advantage " .
Similarly , Willa Paskin of New York magazine praised the final minute of the video in which " we are treated to what is supposed to be the instrumental equivalent of an orgasm " , illustrated by split @-@ screen kaleidoscope effects and capped off by Beyoncé staring into the camera " in postcoital contentment " . Mawuse Ziegbe of The Boston Globe noted that Beyoncé 'ss sex appeal was at its maximum in the video for " 1 + 1 " . She compared the kaleidoscope effects with Lady Gaga 's " Born This Way " ( 2011 ) and finished her review by writing , " ultimately , the clip shows the diva doesn 't need the elaborate costumes , club @-@ anthem rhythms and booty @-@ quivering grooves to bring the heat . But a lustrous , fling @-@ ready mane is always handy . " Similarly , a writer for MTV UK praised the video 's " light effects and symmetrical camera tricks " which " [ sell ] sex as art " . Leah Collins of the Canadian magazine Dose commented that Beyoncé was " gifted with seemingly supernatural powers of hotness " in the video . A writer for Rolling Stone found the video for " 1 + 1 " to be " the moistest music video ever made " , adding that it " perfectly matches the sultry , romantic tone of the song " . Maura Johnston of The Village Voice found a " ' What D 'Angelo 's ' Untitled ( How Does It Feel ) ' Feels Like For A Girl ' vibe " in the video for " 1 + 1 " and compared it to the one for " Sweet Dreams " ( 2009 ) .
Rob Markman of MTV News wrote that the choreography is very different from the Beyoncé 's standard dance routines , which feature high @-@ powered steps , swaying hips and " her patented bootylicious shake " . He commented , " Instead , Beyoncé settles for ballet @-@ style steps , moving in a leotard and long , flowing cape . " Markman added that the video will most likely remain " under the radar " in comparison to the highlights in her high @-@ budgeted reel , which includes clips like " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " ( 2008 ) and " Crazy in Love " ( 2003 ) . He concluded that " much like the song , the visuals for ' 1 + 1 ' shouldn 't be measured in terms of size , but rather in emotive presentation and subdued sexiness " . A writer for The Huffington Post wrote that the music video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " was Beyoncé 'ss most iconic visual work , but added that after the premiere of the video for " 1 + 1 " , " it may now have company " . David Malitz of The Washington Post stated that Beyoncé looks like Hurricane Irene at the beginning of the video , but added that she looks like " any number of chillwave videos " at the end . A more mixed review was given by OK ! magazine , which described the video as cheesy . L Magazine 's Mike Conklin was unsatisfied with the video , writing that since Beyoncé is rightfully considered to be among " the absolute best [ artists ] " , she can do better . "
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé first performed " 1 + 1 " live on American Idol on May 25 , 2011 . Wearing a purple gown , she sang the song surrounded by smoke and red lighting , declaring , " This is my favorite song " . Towards the end of the performance , she fell to her knees and shook the hands of audience members . The performance earned her a standing ovation from the judges and members of the crowd . A writer from The Huffington Post called it " an epic , emotionally @-@ charged performance " and praised the fact that Beyoncé " channel [ led ] every particle of the room 's energy into her lung @-@ bursting calls and cries . " Jillian Mapes of Billboard magazine noted , " The sheer force of the ballad literally brought [ Beyoncé ] to her knees during the performance . " Shortly after Beyoncé 's performance on American Idol , a video that surfaced online received considerable coverage from music critics . It became an instant viral video as soon as it hit the web . The clip was filmed using a camera phone and it shows Beyoncé rehearsing " 1 + 1 " backstage at American Idol with no microphone and simple keyboard accompaniment . The video was filmed by Beyoncé 'ss husband , Jay @-@ Z. In an introduction to the video on his Life + Times website he wrote : " Sometimes you need perspective . You 've been right in front of greatness so often that you need to step back and see it again for the first time . " In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the video at number eight on their list of Beyoncé 's ten best videos , writing that she sounds " perfect " . While reviewing 4 , Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal complimented the video , writing :
One of the year 's best music videos was directed by Jay @-@ Z and cost about zero dollars to make . The video has a similar impromptu charm to the many intimate , one @-@ shot performance clips popularized by Vincent Moon 's Take @-@ Away Shows , its appeal compounded by the shock of seeing such a notoriously manicured superstar without embellishment . It 's all quite endearing and personal – two words one might not often associate with this superhumanly talented and famous couple .
On July 1 , 2011 , Beyoncé performed a free concert as part of Good Morning America 's Summer Concert Series . She sang " 1 + 1 " while kneeling on top of a white grand piano . Beyoncé also performed the song live on the TV show , The View . She sang " 1 + 1 " live on August 14 , 2011 during 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé , held in Roseland Ballroom , New York City . Wearing a gold dress , she performed the song in front of 3 @,@ 500 people while her band and orchestra were watching on . During the performance , Beyoncé climbed on top of a piano and sang on her knees . Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine wrote that Beyoncé performed " 1 + 1 " , " wrapped up in smoke and red hued lights , reminiscent of her live performance on the American Idol finale . " Ramirez stated that Beyoncé sang the ballad with " impeccability . " Mike Wass of Idolator praised how Beyoncé " wrung every ounce of emotion from the lyrics of ' 1 + 1 ' and hit each note perfectly " , concluding that it was " an impressive display . " Entertainment Weekly 's Brad Wete wrote that Beyoncé 's voice " rang soulfully , only breaking to let the crowd fill in gaps for a sing @-@ along feel . " Joycelyn Vena of MTV News commented that on " 1 + 1 " , Beyoncé 's vocal abilities " outshined it all . " On September 14 , 2011 , Beyoncé stopped at Target perform at the managers meeting . Wearing a red dress , she sung " 1 + 1 " accompanied by three backup singers and a pianist . During the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom , Beyoncé performed " 1 + 1 " to a selected crowd of fans .
In May , 2012 , Beyoncé performed " 1 + 1 " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . She performed the song while kneeling on the piano . Jim Farber of Daily News commented that the song was sung with " precision and sweep , she tipped the balance decidedly softer , giving her power grounding " . According to Chuck Darrow of The Philadelphia Inquirer , the acoustic performance of the ballad , " proved a nice respite from the relentless thump @-@ thump @-@ thump of the many dance @-@ pop numbers " . Tris McCall of New Jersey On @-@ Line complimented the " magnificent run through the slow @-@ burning " song . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times mentioned " 1 + 1 " in the " almost continuous high point " of the concert . Brad Wete of Complex magazine wrote that " B [ eyoncé ] ' s voice was stellar " during the performance of the song on the revue .
= = Other versions and usage in media = =
The @-@ Dream 's demo of " 1 + 1 " , originally titled as " Nothing but Love " , leaked onto the Internet in late May 2011 . Michael Cragg of The Guardian found it to be " Prince @-@ esque " . In late June 2011 , American recording artist Dondria posted a video of herself , singing " 1 + 1 " while seated in front her computer . On July 12 , 2011 , Rap @-@ Up reported that the American singer , Tiffany Evans , who had previously covered " Speechless " from Beyoncé 'ss first studio album , Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) , had also covered " 1 + 1 " , with some lyrical modifications . Miss Murphy covered the song during the second series of The Voice ( Australia ) on May 20 , 2013 . Murphy 's version peaked at number 49 on the Australian Singles Chart .
Beyoncé appeared on Entertainment Tonight on June 16 , 2011 to promote the exclusive @-@ to @-@ Target deluxe edition of 4 and gave fans a sneak preview of its television commercial . The 30 @-@ second commercial , which features " 1 + 1 " and " Countdown " playing in the background , began airing in the United States on June 24 , 2011 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from 4 liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Thayer School of Engineering =
Thayer School of Engineering offers graduate and undergraduate education in engineering sciences at Dartmouth College , Hanover , New Hampshire , United States . The school was established in 1867 with funds from Brig. Gen. Sylvanus Thayer , known for his work in establishing an engineering curriculum at the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York . Located in a two @-@ building complex along the Connecticut River on the Dartmouth campus , the Thayer School today offers undergraduate , master 's , and doctoral degrees , as well as dual @-@ degree programs with other local institutions . Over 500 students are currently enrolled at Thayer , overseen by a faculty of 56 and preceded by over 4 @,@ 500 living alumni of the school . In 2016 Thayer became the first US national research university with a graduating class of engineering undergraduates that was over 50 % female .
= = History = =
Thayer School is named for Sylvanus Thayer , an alumnus of Dartmouth in the class of 1807 . Thayer was known as " the father of West Point " for his sixteen @-@ year superintendency of the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York , where he developed an extensive engineering curriculum unlike any other in the United States at the time . After thirty years of professional service in the Army Corps of Engineers , Thayer endowed Dartmouth College with $ 40 @,@ 000 in 1867 ( and increased the gift to $ 70 @,@ 000 by 1871 ) for the establishment of a school of engineering initially called the Thayer School of Civil Engineering .
The school opened four years later , in 1871 , with six students . The curriculum borrowed heavily from the model which Thayer himself had developed at West Point ; graduates of the two @-@ year program were awarded a degree in civil engineering ( C.E. ) . Though Robert Fletcher , the first director and dean of the school , was also its only instructor for several years , the enrollment , funding , and faculty of the School increased markedly throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
Under the administration of Frank Warren Garran ( dean of the School from 1933 to 1945 ) , Thayer experienced extensive expansion and modernization . Thayer 's curriculum expanded to incorporate mechanical engineering and electrical engineering , as well as a dual business / engineering administration degree from the Tuck School of Business . Garran also oversaw the establishment of Cummings Hall , the Thayer School 's first dedicated physical plant , and the institution of the school 's first major research program , which was in radiophysics . Dean William P. Kimball ( 1945 – 61 ) continued the school 's growing emphasis on research and established the first master 's degrees for students wishing to earn more than a Bachelor of Engineering .
In 1961 , Myron Tribus became dean of the School , placing a heavy emphasis on the practical , problem @-@ solving aspects of engineering as well as the traditional , theoretical base of the discipline . Tribus developed an integrated curriculum and introduced design courses to the school to provide Thayer students with real @-@ life experience in creative applications of engineering . Under Tribus , the Thayer School offered its first doctorates in engineering .
From the 1970s to the first decade of the 21st century , the Thayer School saw expansion into new fields such as nanotechnology and biochemical engineering , as well as collaboration with such nearby institutions as Dartmouth Medical School , the Dartmouth @-@ Hitchcock Medical Center , and the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory . In the early first decade of the 21st century , the core curriculum for undergraduates was revamped under Dean Lewis Duncan ( 1998 – 2004 ) , making the school 's offerings more accessible to non @-@ major Dartmouth students . The MacLean Engineering Sciences Center ( ESC ) , completed in 2006 , was a $ 21 million project to expand the school 's classrooms and research centers .
= = Campus = =
The Thayer School is located on the campus of Dartmouth College , which is situated in the rural , Upper Valley New England town of Hanover , New Hampshire . The campus of the Thayer School sits in a complex on the west side Dartmouth 's campus near the Connecticut River . When classes first began in 1871 , Sylvanus Thayer 's endowment had not provided for a physical plant . Consequently , the school was an itinerant institution for many years , occupying parts of various College buildings and , at one point , a former structure of the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts .
In 1938 , Dartmouth president Ernest Martin Hopkins successfully lobbied the Board of Trustees to construct an independent facility for the school . $ 200 @,@ 000 were spent to build Horace Cummings Memorial Hall , which with several major additions ( built in 1945 @-@ 46 and 1989 ) served as Thayer 's only facility for nearly 70 years . In 2004 , construction began on the MacLean Engineering Sciences Center ( ESC ) , which was completed in 2006 . At the cost of nearly $ 21 million , the new center adds both classroom and research space to the Thayer School .
The Thayer School shares the Murdough Center ( containing the Feldberg Business & Engineering Library ) with the adjacent Tuck School of Business .
= = Academics = =
The Thayer School serves as both Dartmouth College 's undergraduate department of engineering , as well as a graduate school offering advanced degrees . Undergraduate majors can receive their Bachelor of Arts degree in engineering at the school , and may choose to continue on to earn a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree in an additional year or less . Thayer also offers a dual @-@ degree program for undergraduates at other colleges who wish to earn their bachelor 's degree at their home institution and their B.E. at Thayer . As a College academic department , the school 's undergraduate offerings are open to any Dartmouth student , including non @-@ majors .
Thayer offers several graduate degree programs , including a Master of Engineering ( M.Eng ) in Biomedical Engineering , Master of Science ( M.S. ) , and Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D ) in engineering . The school also offers a Master of Engineering Management ( M.E.M. ) degree in conjunction with the adjacent Tuck School of Business , and a combination Ph.D / Doctor of Medicine ( M.D. ) from Dartmouth Medical School . The school also has the United States ' first engineering Ph.D. Innovation Program .
= = = Research and entrepreneurship = = =
The Thayer School emphasizes the cross @-@ disciplinary nature of its research topics . In 2007 , sponsored research at the school amounted to $ 16 @.@ 2 million . Research at Thayer is divided into three general " focus areas " : engineering in medicine , energy technologies , and complex systems . Projects within each focus area are divided by three " research categories " : biomedical , biochemical , chemical & environmental engineering ( BBCEE ) , electrical & computer engineering , & engineering physics ( ECEEP ) , and materials & mechanical systems engineering ( MMSE ) .
The Thayer School promotes its connections to engineering entrepreneurship . The Cook Engineering Design Center , founded in 1978 , acts to solicit industry @-@ sponsored projects for degree candidates to work on . The school also offers a variety of conferences , programs , and internships to foster student connections to the professional world . Companies and products that have emerged from the Thayer School include emeritus professor Robert Dean 's Creare , Inc. and Dartmouth music professor Jon Appleton 's work on the Synclavier synthesizer . The school maintains a list of startup companies established by its current faculty .
= = = Rankings and admissions = = =
In 2007 , the Thayer School was ranked 47th by U.S. News & World Report among American engineering schools . It was also included in BusinessWeek 's unranked list of 60 " Best Design Schools in the World " .
Admissions for undergraduate students are handled by Dartmouth College 's Office of Undergraduate Admissions . Admission to graduate programs , including the B.E. degree , requires an undergraduate background in engineering and mathematics or science . In the fall of 2006 , Thayer accepted 14 @.@ 5 % of applicants overall . Average Graduate Record Examination ( GRE ) test scores of applicants in verbal , quantitative , and analytical sections were 601 , 778 , and 695 , respectively .
= = People = =
= = = Student profile and student life = = =
As of the 2007 – 2008 academic year , the Thayer School has an enrollment of 354 students : 107 undergraduates , 62 doctoral candidates , 27 B.E. students , 76 M.E.M. students , 20 M.S. students , and 13 student pursuing special studies . The school offers a number of professional and community service student groups , as well as social life governance councils for the student body .
= = = Faculty = = =
The Thayer School currently claims 74 active instructors , including 29 tenured or tenure @-@ track faculty , 16 research or instructional faculty , 22 adjunct faculty members , and seven lecturers . Notable former faculty include Arthur Kantrowitz , emeritus professor of engineering , and Myron Tribus , the dean of the Thayer School for most of the 1960s .
= = = Alumni = = =
As of 2007 , Thayer has 4 @,@ 046 engineering alumni in all 50 U.S. states and over 50 countries . Nearly 3 @,@ 000 of the graduates received a B.E. or a graduate degree , with the remaining 1 @,@ 000 earning only the undergraduate A.B. degree .
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= Run @-@ Away ( Super Furry Animals song ) =
" Run @-@ Away " is a song by Super Furry Animals and the second single taken from their 2007 album , Hey Venus ! . The song is an homage to the ' Wall of Sound ' production made famous by Phil Spector , particularly in his work with 1960 's girl groups .
" Run @-@ Away " received many positive reviews from critics who variously described it as " absolutely timeless stuff " , " outstanding " and " up there with the most finely polished weapons in the SFA armoury " . The track 's Phil Spector @-@ leanings were also commented on by numerous journalists . A " spooky " , " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " video was produced for the song directed by Richard Ayoade and starring his Garth Marenghi 's Darkplace and The Mighty Boosh co @-@ star Matt Berry .
= = Origins and recording = =
In an interview with Tiny Mix Tapes in January 2008 Gruff Rhys admitted that " Run @-@ Away " owed much to Phil Spector @-@ type ' Wall of Sound ' production : " The drumbeat is definitely a nod to that . We started collecting a lot of old 7 @-@ inch singles recently . Cian got heavy into doo @-@ wop music and I was getting into late 60s girl groups . " Run @-@ Away " came out of listening to " Be My Baby " too many times " . Guto Pryce echoed this sentiment in an interview with Washington , D.C. website DCist stating that " on " Run Away " that was exactly what we were after , a fuzzy Phil Spector type thing . A dirty , grimy ' 60s pop song " . The track was recorded at Miraval Studios , France along with the rest of Hey Venus !
= = Musical structure = =
" Run @-@ Away " is 2 minutes 53 seconds long and is in the key of B major . The " hook laden " song begins with a spoken word introduction from Gruff ( " This song is based on a true story ... which would be fine if it wasn 't autobiographical " ) over a B chord playing on the " familiar " dum @-@ de @-@ dum @-@ dum " Phil Spector drum beat " provided by drummer Dafydd Ieuan .
Lead guitar embellishments accompany the first verse before the track builds up to its first " falsetto laden " chorus at 34 seconds . Another verse follows , with additional percussion backing , during which Rhys mourns " we may have fought with teeth and nails , I still recall your banking details " . A short breakdown middle 8 leads to a double chorus ( the second of which features a key change to C @-@ sharp major ) before the song breaks down again and ends with Rhys singing " There 's nothing that I could have said but cry , a little , lie , a little , die , just a little " over sparse musical backing .
= = Critical response = =
" Run @-@ Away " received much praise from reviewers with the Manchester Evening News claiming the track to be " absolutely timeless stuff " , likening it to Gruff Rhys " swaggering up to the karaoke and picking out his favourite Roy Orbison ballad " and the NME stating that , " with a chorus as big as guitarist Huw Bunford 's new serial @-@ killer beard , it 's up there with the most finely polished weapons in the SFA armoury " . Website Culture Deluxe claimed the track showed the band at " their pop @-@ best " and proved they " could do no wrong " while the Independent on Sunday called " Run @-@ Away " " outstanding " .
The Spector @-@ like nature of the track was commented on in several reviews with British television station Channel 4 describing " Run @-@ Away " as " Spector pop " , BBC Wales describing the song as " a homage to gun @-@ wielding production oddball Phil Spector " , and Yahoo ! Music in the UK and Ireland stating that the single " welds a killer falsetto chorus to a latterday incarnation of the ' Wall of Sound ' " .
Tiny Mix Tapes thought the " rousing and pleasant " song could have " found a home anywhere in or between Fuzzy Logic and 2005 's Love Kraft " while Pitchfork Media thought the track 's " ostensible real @-@ life origins " would " render " Run @-@ Away " one of the most heart @-@ on @-@ sleeve entries in a catalogue better known for left field classics like " Ice Hockey Hair " and " The Man Don 't Give a Fuck " " . B @-@ sides , the " Beach Boys @-@ influenced " " These Bones " and the " pulsating " " That 's What I 'm Talking About " , were also singled out for praise by the Manchester Evening News . The Chronicle however , criticised " Run @-@ Away " and previous single " Show Your Hand " for sounding " more like the generic pop songs one would find on the radio than those of a historically experimental band " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music video = =
The " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " , video for " Run @-@ Away " was directed by Richard Ayoade and features his Garth Marenghi 's Darkplace and The Mighty Boosh co @-@ star Matt Berry . The video begins with close @-@ ups of Berry driving a vintage car on a moonlit night intercut with shots of a woman in a white dress running through sparse woodland . After 54 seconds Berry abruptly stops his car and the shot changes to show the woman in white laid on the road in front of his vehicle . Berry leaves his car and walks over to the woman who appears dazed . The next shot features the woman resting her head on Berry 's shoulder while he drives .
Towards the middle of the video we find the pair sat together at a house party while Berry discusses the woman with his friends . Part of this conversation features subtitles , with Berry stating " She can 't remember a thing " . Immediately afterwards a man in a brown suit and bow tie enters , rubbing the back of his head and looking confused . He focuses on the woman in the white dress and says " Maria ? " to which Berry counters " Who the heck are you ? " while ' Maria ' bites her lip and looks on guiltily . When the man in the suit states " That 's my wife ! " Berry gets to his feet and the man promptly punches him in the face . We then cut to shots of Berry running through the same woodland as ' Maria ' earlier in the video . After around 20 seconds he looks to his left and is blinded by a light . The next shot shows him laid on the road in front of a car as its driver , a woman in a red coat , rushes to check on him . As the song comes to an end we see the women in red driving her car with Berry resting his head on her shoulder .
Music website Stereogum described the video as a " cheeky , soft @-@ focused bit of ' 80s fun " , while British alternative music radio station Xfm included it in their top ten videos of 2007 , calling it " spooky , very tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek and utterly hilarious " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
CD ( RTRADSCD419 )
" Run @-@ Away " – 2 : 53
" These Bones " – 3 : 23
" That 's What I 'm Talking About " – 5 : 41
7 " picture disc ( RTRADS419 )
" Run @-@ Away " – 2 : 53
" These Bones " – 3 : 23
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys : Vocals
Huw Bunford : Guitar
Guto Pryce : Bass guitar
Cian Ciaran : keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan : Drums
Kris Jenkins : Percussion
= = Singles chart positions = =
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= Lisa 's Date with Density =
" Lisa 's Date with Density " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 15 , 1996 . It was written by Mike Scully , and directed by Susie Dietter . It sees Lisa develop a crush on Nelson Muntz , which eventually leads to Lisa and Nelson dating . It also was among the first episodes to feature Milhouse 's crush on Lisa , an element of the series ( along with Lisa 's vegetarianism ) to have spun off from " Lisa 's Wedding " .
= = Plot = =
At Springfield Elementary School , Superintendent Chalmers visits Principal Skinner to show off his newly purchased 1979 Honda Accord . However , he becomes distraught when he discovers the car 's hood ornament missing . Principal Skinner orders a search of every student 's locker , and it is discovered that Nelson Muntz is the culprit . As punishment , Nelson is forced to return all stolen items to their owners and help Groundskeeper Willie with his jobs around the school .
Mr. Largo catches Lisa looking outside at Nelson during a music lesson , and as a result is given detention . After school , she continues to watch Nelson and develops a crush on the bully .
Lisa tries to let Nelson know how she feels about him by getting Milhouse to pass a love note to him in class . However , the plan backfires , with Nelson seriously injuring Milhouse ( this is not seen , but Milhouse is seen being loaded into an ambulance ) , thinking the note came from him . Lisa admits that she wrote the letter and although Nelson seems indifferent about the matter he begins by visiting her house . Lisa is resolved to turn Nelson from a trouble maker into a sweet , sensitive young man . She changes his appearance by giving him new clothes and hairstyle . Later , Lisa and Nelson share their first kiss during their date at the Springfield Observatory .
However , the influence of Nelson 's friends Jimbo , Dolph and Kearney proves to win out when they convince him to come along with them and throw rancid coleslaw at Principal Skinner 's house . Skinner immediately phones the police , and the four flee . Nelson takes refuge with Lisa , proclaiming his innocence . Lisa believes him , until Nelson unwittingly lets the truth slip . Lisa realizes that Nelson is always going to be who he is and ends their relationship , much to the relief of an overjoyed Milhouse .
Meanwhile , Chief Wiggum arrests a scam artist for telemarketing fraud . Homer witnesses the arrest and sees the discarded autodialer in a nearby trash bin . Homer takes the autodialer home to use for tele @-@ panhandling .
Homer ends up annoying all of Springfield with his " Happy Dude " scam , and soon enough Chief Wiggum catches him . Instead of confiscating the autodialer and taking Homer into custody , he shoots it then gives Homer a citation and asks him to bring the autodialer with him ( although full of lead ) to his court hearing , otherwise there would be no case and Homer would be let off the hook . In the closing credits , however , Homer has recorded a new message telling everyone he scammed he is sorry and that if they can forgive him to send more money .
= = Production = =
The idea of Lisa dating Nelson had been around for a while , with several different versions being pitched . The writers wanted a " silly " Homer story to balance the episode out , and the idea of using the telemarketing scam for this had also been around for a while . By this time , the show had begun to have episodes revolving around secondary characters . This was the first episode to revolve around Nelson , and was done to partly explain why Nelson acts the way he does . The words to Nelson 's song were contributed by Mike Scully 's daughters . The scene in which Milhouse passes Lisa 's note to Nelson was written by Bill Oakley , with the line " He can 't hear you , we had to pack his ears with gauze " being George Meyer 's line . There was a debate as to how injured Milhouse could look without it looking disturbing , and the drop of blood coming from his nose was decided to be enough . Milhouse liking Vaseline on toast was based on a child from Josh Weinstein 's school days who everyday would get on to the bus with a piece of toast , which had Vaseline on it .
= = Cultural references = =
A majority of the story is a reference to the film Rebel Without a Cause . Lisa remarks Nelson is " like a riddle wrapped in an enigma wrapped in a vest , " a reference to " a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma " ; this was Winston Churchill 's opinion of Russia at the outbreak of the World War II .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Lisa 's Date with Density " finished 63rd in ratings for the week of December 9 – 15 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 4 , equivalent to approximately 7 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the fifth @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Melrose Place , Beverly Hills , 90210 and Party of Five .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " impressive " how " even after Nelson has beaten him [ Milhouse ] up for apparently making a pass , [ Milhouse ] will still do anything for uncaring Lisa . " Josh Weinstein called it one of the most " real " episodes , commenting that every character in the episode , from Superintendent Chalmers to Lisa , acts like a real person throughout . The medic 's line " He can 't hear you , we had to pack his ears with gauze " is one of Matt Groening 's favorites . Marge 's line " When I first met your father , he was loud , crude and piggish . But I worked hard on him , and now he 's a whole new person , " is one of Susie Dietter 's favorites , as it explains why Marge is still married to Homer despite his actions .
This is also one of several episodes that has been performed live by the cast in front of an audience .
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= Lord of the Universe =
Lord of the Universe is a 1974 American documentary film about Prem Rawat ( at the time known as Guru Maharaj Ji ) at an event in November 1973 at the Houston Astrodome called " Millennium ' 73 " . Lord of the Universe was first broadcast on PBS on February 2 , 1974 , and released in VHS format on November 1 , 1991 . The documentary chronicles Maharaj Ji , his followers and anti @-@ Vietnam War activist Rennie Davis who was a spokesperson of the Divine Light Mission at the time . A counterpoint is presented by Abbie Hoffman , who appears as a commentator . It includes interviews with several individuals , including followers , ex @-@ followers , a mahatma , a born @-@ again Christian , and a follower of Hare Krishna .
The production team of Top Value Television produced the documentary , using Portapak video cameras . The TVTV team followed Maharaj Ji across the United States over a period of six weeks , and edited a large amount of tape down to the fifty @-@ eight @-@ minute piece . It was the first documentary made on 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 13 mm ) video tape broadcast nationally , and also the first independent video documentary shown on national public television .
The documentary was generally well @-@ received , and garnered its TVTV production team the 1974 Alfred I. du Pont / Columbia University Award in Broadcast Journalism . The documentary received a negative review in the New York Post , and positive reviews in The New York Times , The Boston Globe , the Los Angeles Times , and the Chicago Sun @-@ Times . The San Francisco Bay Guardian wrote that the TVTV team had improved since their previous work but wanted them to move on to more challenging subjects .
= = Content = =
The documentary chronicles Guru Maharaj Ji , the Divine Light Mission , his followers and anti @-@ Vietnam War activist Rennie Davis at " Millennium ' 73 " , an event held at the Houston Astrodome in November 1973 . Rennie Davis , a follower of Guru Maharaj Ji , was one of the spokespersons and speakers at the " Millennium ' 73 " event . His speech is featured in the documentary .
Abbie Hoffman appears as a commentator in the documentary and addresses some points raised in Davis 's speech , stating : " It 's rather arrogant of Rennie to say that he has found God and has his Telex number in his wallet . " The TVTV crew interviewed different " premies " , or followers of Prem Rawat , throughout the film , and one teenage boy is shown stating : " Before I came to the Guru I was a freak , smoking dope and dropping out – and my parents were happier then than they are with this . " In a later part of the film , a loudspeaker voice announces : " Those premies who came in private cars can leave now . Those who came in rented buses can stay and meditate until further notice . " Adherents of other belief systems also appear in the documentary , including a born @-@ again Christian who criticizes devotees for " following the devil " , and a Hare Krishna follower .
A separate storyline is seen concurrently through the coverage of the " Millennium ' 73 " event , involving a man named Michael who has come to Houston , Texas , to receive " Knowledge " from Maharaj Ji . Once Michael has received the " Knowledge " , he defends the secrecy behind the rituals . Michael 's experiences are contrasted in the documentary with interviews with " ex @-@ premies " or former followers of Maharaj Ji , recounting their initiation and later disillusionment with Maharaj Ji 's teachings . One of them says that after receiving " Knowledge " from Maharaj Ji , he was told that this free gift required lifetime devotion and donations of " worldly goods " .
Maharaj Ji is shown in a scene in the Astrodome relating a satsang to the attendants . He is seen dressed in gold @-@ colored clothing and a crown , and sits on a platform throne . The story he relates to the crowd involves a young boy who comes to Houston , while searching for a Superman comic book . While seated on the platform , Maharaj Ji is surrounded by flashing moon signs and women wearing decorative garlands , while a band called " Blue Aquarius " plays his theme song . The stage is decorated with glitter and neon lights , and Maharaj Ji 's brother performs rock music songs . Abbie Hoffman gives a final comment in the documentary , stating : " If this guy is God , this is the God the United States of America deserves . "
= = Production = =
The documentary was produced by Top Value Television ( TVTV ) in association with TV Lab , and was primarily directed by Michael Shamberg . TVTV had received initial funding for the documentary through a small grant from the Stern Foundation , and an additional promise from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting . David Loxton arranged a post @-@ production budget of USD $ 4 @,@ 000 , and the total production costs for the documentary amounted to $ 36 @,@ 000 – about forty @-@ five percent of the average costs for a PBS film production at the time . Several camera crews used 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 13 mm ) black and white portapaks and followed Maharaj Ji and his group across the United States for six weeks . The TVTV production team debated whether to include the secret techniques of Maharaj Ji in the documentary and finally decided that it was vital to disclose these practices in the piece . They chose to have an ex @-@ premie divulge these practices rather than use a narration , but they were fearful of potential repercussions , which never came . TVTV member Tom Weinberg found a man who demonstrated meditation techniques in the documentary , which he described as being the " Knowledge " . Producer Megan Williams stated that TVTV crew members empathized with the experiences of Maharaj Ji 's followers , because there was very little age difference between them and the TVTV production team . Nevertheless , many in the crew of TVTV felt superior to these " lost souls " describing the followers as " gurunoids " .
At the end of filming , eighty @-@ two hours of tape were edited to the final fifty @-@ eight @-@ minute documentary piece . TVTV 's team utilized graphics , live music , and wide angle lens shots . Stop @-@ action sequences where quotations flash on the screen were also used for effect . The production was the first Portapak video documentary made for national television , and the " first program originally made on 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 13 mm ) video tape to be broadcast nationally " . Lord of the Universe was also : " The first independent video documentary made for national broadcast on public television . " The trailer was originally broadcast on WNET Channel Thirteen television . Lord of the Universe was shown to a national audience in the United States on February 2 , 1974 , broadcast on 240 stations of the Public Broadcasting Service . It aired a second time on July 12 , 1974 . Later TVTV productions broadcast on public television included Gerald Ford 's America , and a 1975 program on Cajuns The Good Times Are Killing Me .
In 1989 , the documentary was included in an exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art on video art called " Image World : Art and Media Culture " . The documentary was re @-@ released to VHS on November 1 , 1991 , by Subtle Communications . On the packaging it is claimed that Guru Maharaj Ji " promised to levitate the Astrodome " . Sources including TVRO , the library of the University of California , Santa Cruz , and Art Journal repeat this statement in varying forms . The documentary was screened in August 2006 at The Centre for Contemporary Arts in Glasgow , Scotland , as part of the Camcorder Guerilla cinema programme .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Ron Powers of the Chicago Sun Times called the documentary " highly recommended viewing " , and described it as : " ... both as an example of skeptical , unimpressed ( but never vicious ) journalism , and as a peek into the future of television ... a clever , ironic and eventually devastating documentary " . Electronic Arts Intermix described Lord of the Universe as " a forceful expose on the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Guru Maharaj Ji and the national gathering of his followers at the Houston Astrodome " . Michael Blowen of The Boston Globe wrote that the documentary " captures the absurdity of Millennium ' 73 " , and that " The desperation of flower people alienated from politics is both touching and hilarious as they offer hope for eternal life to other converts . "
Dick Adler of the Los Angeles Times gave the documentary a positive review , writing : " ' The Lord of the Universe ' doesn 't really take sides , which doesn 't mean it 's a bland hour trying to please everybody . Its considerable bite comes first from the material TVTV so carefully gathered and there from the artfully wise frame in which it chose to present it . " Deirdre Boyle wrote in Art Journal that the piece was " the zenith of TVTV 's guerrilla @-@ TV style " . According to Boyle 's Subject to Change : Guerrilla Television Revisited , as in all TVTV tapes , everyone in the documentary comes across as foolish , describing the production 's sarcasm as the " ultimate leveler " using equal irony " both with the mighty and the lowly " .
Katy Butler wrote in the San Francisco Bay Guardian that the TVTV style had improved since their previous work : " This show has fewer interjections from TVTV personnel , fewer moments that drag , more technological razzle @-@ dazzle ( color footage , slow motion , stop motion , tight and rapid cutting ) . " However , she described Guru Maharaj Ji and his entourage as " an easy target " and wrote that " anybody can look like a fool when a smartass wide angle lens distorts their face , and teenage ex @-@ dopers who think a fat boy is God don 't stand a chance " . Butler wished that TVTV would move on to more challenging subjects for their future work . Bob Williams of the New York Post called the documentary a " deplorable film " and " flat , pointless , television " . He wrote : " The hour @-@ long program was remiss in not providing some small examination of the available box @-@ office take of the goofy kid guru , much less telling prospective contributors how it got involved in spending how much of its foundation grants and viewer subscription money in such a questionable venture without more inquisitive journalistic endeavor , or ignoring gurus . "
A review in The Oakland Tribune described the film as " a fascinating hour documentary on the guru 's three @-@ day happening at the Houston Astrodome " , and commented that the event was " deftly captured by the mobile video cameras of TVTV , a group of talented young tapemakers " . John J. O 'Connor of The New York Times described TVTV 's work as " a terrific documentary " and complimented the team on the visual results of the piece : " After TVTV superbly dissected the guru , his ' holy family ' and his followers , more objective viewers might have chosen to laugh , cry , or throw up . " In a later piece by O 'Connor in 1975 , he wrote that TVTV " gained a respectable measure of national success with ' The Lord of the Universe ' " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The documentary received the 1974 " Alfred I. du Pont / Columbia University Award in Broadcast Journalism " ( DuPont Award ) . The jurors from the 1974 DuPont @-@ Columbia awards stated that the documentary was : " hectic , hilarious and not a little disquieting . With a heavier and less sure hand , the subject would have been squashed beneath the reporters ’ irony or contempt . As it was , cult religion was handed to us , live and quivering , to make of it what we would . " The group 's work impressed WNET president John Jay Iselin , and he raised additional funds that helped TVTV to produce five more programs , including Gerald Ford 's America .
= = Credits = =
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= Local marketing agreement =
In U.S. and Canadian broadcasting , a local marketing agreement ( or local management agreement , abbreviated as an LMA ) is a contract in which one company agrees to operate a radio or television station owned by another party . In essence , it is a sort of lease or time @-@ buy .
Under Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) regulations , a local marketing agreement must give the company operating the station ( the " senior " partner ) under the agreement control over the entire facilities of the station , including the finances , personnel and programming of the station . Its original licensee ( the " junior " partner ) still remains legally responsible for the station and its operations , such as compliance with relevant regulations regarding content . Occasionally , a " local marketing agreement " may refer to the sharing or contracting of only certain functions , in particular advertising sales . This may also be referred to as a local sales agreement ( LSA ) , management services agreement ( MSA ) , or most commonly , a joint sales agreement ( JSA ) or shared services agreement ( SSA ) . JSAs are counted toward ownership caps for television and radio stations . In Canada , local marketing agreements between domestic stations require the consent of the Canadian Radio @-@ television and Telecommunications Commission ( CRTC ) , although Rogers Media has used a similar arrangement to control a U.S.-based radio station in a border market .
The increased use of sharing agreements by media companies to form consolidated , " virtual " duopolies became controversial between 2009 and 2014 , especially arrangements where a company buys a television station 's facilities and assets , but sells the license to an affiliated third @-@ party " shell " corporation , who then enters into agreements with the owner of the facilities to operate the station on their behalf . Activists have argued that broadcasters were using these agreements as a loophole for the FCC 's ownership regulations , that they reduce the number of local media outlets in a market through the aggregation or outright consolidation of news programming , and allow station owners to have increased leverage in the negotiation of retransmission consent with local subscription television providers . Station owners have contended that these sharing agreements allow streamlined , cost @-@ effective operations that may be beneficial to the continued operation of lower @-@ rated and / or financially weaker stations , especially in smaller markets .
In 2014 under chairman Tom Wheeler , the FCC began to increase its scrutiny regarding the use of such agreements — particularly joint sales — to evade its policies . On March 31 , 2014 , the commission voted to make joint sales agreements count as ownership if the senior partner sells 15 % or more of advertising time for its partner , and to ban coordinated retransmission consent negotiations between two of the top four stations in a market . Wheeler indicated that he planned to address local marketing and shared services agreements in the future . The change in stance also prompted changes to then @-@ proposed acquisitions by Gray Television and Sinclair Broadcast Group , who , rather than use sharing agreements to control them , moved their existing programming and network affiliations to digital subchannels of existing company @-@ owned stations in the market , and then relinquished control over them by selling the stations to minority @-@ owned broadcasters intending to operate them independently .
= = History and background = =
Due to the FCC 's limits on station ownership at the time ( which prevented the common ownership of multiple radio stations ) , local marketing agreements in radio , in which a smaller station would sell its entire airtime to a third @-@ party in time @-@ buy , were widespread between the 1970s and early 1990s . These alliances gave larger broadcasters a way to expand their reach , and smaller broadcasters a means of obtaining a stable stream of revenue . In 1992 , the FCC began allowing broadcasting companies to own multiple radio stations in a single market . Following these changes , local marketing agreements largely fell out of favor for radio , as it was now possible for broadcasters to simply buy another station outright rather than lease it – consequentially triggering a wave of mass consolidation in the radio industry . However , broadcasters still used local marketing agreements to help transition acquired stations to their new owners .
The first local marketing agreement in North American television was formed in 1991 , when the Sinclair Broadcast Group purchased Fox affiliate WPGH @-@ TV in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . As Sinclair had already owned independent station WPTT ( now MyNetworkTV affiliate WPNT ) in that market , which would have violated FCC rules which at the time had prohibited television station duopolies , Sinclair decided to sell the lower @-@ rated WPTT to the station 's manager Eddie Edwards , but continued to operate the station through an LMA ( Sinclair eventually repurchased the station – then assigned the call letters WCWB – outright in 2000 , after the Federal Communications Commission began permitting common ownership of two television stations in the same market , creating a legal duopoly ) .
Sinclair 's use of local marketing agreements would lead to legal issues in 1999 , when Glencairn , Ltd . ( since restructured as Cunningham Broadcasting ) announced that it would acquire Fox affiliate KOKH @-@ TV in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma from Sullivan Broadcasting ; Glencairn subsequently announced plans to sell five of its 11 existing stations that were operated by Sinclair under LMAs to that company outright . As the family of Sinclair Broadcast Group founder Julian Smith controlled 97 % of Glencairn 's stock assets ( which remains the case under its Cunningham structure ) and the company was to be paid with Sinclair stock in turn for the purchases , KOKH and Sinclair @-@ owned WB affiliate KOCB ( now a CW affiliate ) would effectively constitute a duopoly in violation of FCC rules . The Rainbow / PUSH coalition ( headed by Jesse Jackson ) filed challenges against the sale with the FCC , citing concerns over a single company holding two broadcast licenses in a single market and argued that Glencairn was masquerading as a separate minority @-@ owned company ( Edwards , who served as Glencairn 's president , is African American ) when it was really an arm of Sinclair that the company used to gain control of the stations through LMAs . After the FCC updated its media ownership rules to allow a single company to own two television stations in the same market in August 1999 , Sinclair restructured the deal to acquire KOKH outright . In 2001 , the FCC issued a $ 40 @,@ 000 fine against Sinclair for illegally controlling Glencairn .
In 1999 , the FCC modified its media ownership rules to count LMAs formed after November 5 , 1996 that cover more than 15 % of the broadcast day toward the ownership limits for the brokering station 's owner . Even still , the related joint sales and shared services agreement structures became increasingly common during the 2000s ; these outsourcing agreements proliferated between 2011 and 2013 , when station owners such as Sinclair and the Nexstar Broadcasting Group began expanding their portfolios by acquiring additional stations in an effort to drive scale as well as to gain leverage in retransmission consent negotiations with cable and satellite television providers .
= = Uses = =
= = = Consolidation = = =
The most common use of an LMA in television broadcasting is to create a " virtual duopoly " , where the stations operated under the agreement are consolidated into a single entity . The operations of the stations can be streamlined for cost @-@ effectiveness through the sharing of resources , such as facilities , advertising sales , personnel and programming . Many broadcasters that engage in the practice believe that such agreements are beneficial to the survival of television stations – especially in smaller markets , where the overall audience reach is considerably less than that of markets that are centered upon densely populated metropolitan areas , and the cost savings achieved through the consolidation of resources and staff may be necessary to fund a station 's continued operation .
Sharing agreements may also be used as a loophole to control television stations in situations where it is legally impossible to own them outright . For instance , FCC regulations only allow a single company to own more than one full @-@ powered television station in a given market if there are at least eight distinct station owners , and also prohibits the ownership of two or more of the four highest @-@ rated stations ( based on total day viewership ) in a market . An LMA or similar agreement does not affect the ownership of the station 's license , meaning that they do not require the approval of the FCC to establish , and the two stations are still legally considered separate operations from a licensing standpoint . Both Tribune Media and the Gannett Company were required to use shared services agreements as a similar loophole to take control of certain stations in their respective 2013 purchases of Local TV and Belo , as they did not have exemptions to the FCC 's newspaper cross @-@ ownership restrictions in the affected markets . Both companies have since spun out their publishing arms as independent companies ; the Tribune Publishing Company and Gannett Company . Tegna , who holds the former Gannett 's broadcasting and digital media properties , re @-@ acquired the licenses for most of the affected stations following the split .
Broadcasters could also collect carriage fees for the stations they operate under sharing agreements on behalf of their owner , often bundling its carriage agreements with those of stations they own outright . This could , especially in LMAs between two stations affiliated with the " major " networks , allow the broadcaster to charge higher fees for retransmission consent to television providers for carrying the stations , which could result in smaller cable companies not being able to afford the higher fees imposed . Cable television providers advocated barring sharing agreements between television stations for this particular reason . In the United States , the FCC no longer allows broadcasters to collude with one another in negotiating retransmission consent fees .
= = = Operation on behalf of a third @-@ party owner = = =
Although the majority of LMAs involve the outsourcing of one television station 's operations to another , occasionally , a company may operate a station under an LMA , JSA or SSA even if it does not already own a station in that market . One example occurred in December 2013 , when the Louisiana Media Company ( owned by New Orleans Saints and New Orleans Hornets owner Tom Benson ) entered into a shared services agreement with Raycom Media to run the former company 's Fox affiliate in New Orleans , Louisiana , WVUE @-@ DT ; while Louisiana Media Company retained the station 's ownership and license , other assets were assumed by Raycom , which owns stations in markets adjacent to New Orleans ( including Baton Rouge , Jackson , Biloxi , Lake Charles and Shreveport ) but not within New Orleans itself . Benson had received offers from Raycom and others to buy the station , but was not prepared to sell WVUE outright .
= = = Foreign control of broadcast outlets = = =
LMAs can also allow companies to control foreign stations from outside of their respective country ; Canadian media company Rogers Media uses a joint sales agreement to operate Cape Vincent , New York radio station WLYK as a station targeting the nearby Canadian market of Kingston , Ontario , where it owns CKXC @-@ FM and CIKR @-@ FM . Rogers owns a 47 % stake in WLYK 's licensee , Border International Broadcasting .
Similarly , Entravision Communications Corporation controls XHDTV @-@ TDT , a Tijuana , Mexico @-@ based station owned by Televisora Alco , which operates as an English @-@ language station serving the border market of San Diego .
= = Effects of LMAs = =
Public interest organizations have disapproved of the use of LMAs for virtual duopolies that circumvent the FCC 's rules due to their effects on the broadcasting industry , particularly the results of consolidation through the irregular use of LMAs . In markets where duopolies are not legally possible , a company may elect to form one by purchasing a station 's " non @-@ license " assets ( such as their physical facilities , programming rights , and other intellectual property ) , and selling the license itself to a third @-@ party " sidecar " company ( which is often affiliated with the purchaser ) , which in turn , enters into an LMA or a similar agreement with the senior partner . The FCC only recognizes ownership of television stations by the ownership of their license and facility ID , and not by the ownership of these " non @-@ license " assets ; this means that the senior partner becomes the de facto owner and operator of the station , but the sidecar is still the legal owner . Although the FCC determines a sidecar firm to be an independent entity from the company using it to outsource station operations for licensing purposes , the Securities and Exchange Commission does not make such a designation , requiring reports on sidecars to be included in a broadcaster 's financial statements .
Both Sinclair Broadcast Group and Nexstar Broadcasting Group became infamous for their frequent use of sidecars as part of their expansion and consolidation tactics , partnering with companies like Cunningham Broadcasting , Deerfield Media , Mission Broadcasting , and even each other in the case of a virtual duopoly in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania between Sinclair @-@ owned CBS affiliate WHP @-@ TV and Nexstar @-@ owned CW affiliate WLYH @-@ TV , and a former virtual duopoly in Rochester , New York between Nexstar @-@ owned CBS affiliate WROC @-@ TV and Sinclair @-@ owned Fox affiliate WUHF ( in the wake of Sinclair and Deerfield 's purchase of ABC affiliate WHAM @-@ TV , this particular arrangement ended in January 2014 ) .
While not to the same , wide extent as Sinclair and Nexstar , some broadcasters have similar business relationships with specific sidecar companies as partners for these agreements :
Raycom Media has a similar business relationship with American Spirit Media in markets such as Toledo , Ohio ( where American Spirit Media purchased Fox affiliate WUPW from LIN Media in 2012 , with that station 's operations being taken over by CBS affiliate WTOL ) , On the other hand , two Raycom @-@ owned Fox stations , WFLX in West Palm Beach and KNIN @-@ TV in Boise , are managed by E.W. Scripps Company stations WPTV and KIVI @-@ TV .
Gray Television is affiliated with the sidecar Excalibur Broadcasting – owned by former Gray executive Don Ray ,
Granite Broadcasting operated virtual duopolies in Fort Wayne , Indiana and Duluth , Minnesota with the sidecar Malara Broadcast Group . The stations have since been respectively sold to Quincy Newspapers and SagamoreHill Broadcasting , with Quincy operating SagamoreHill 's stations under an SSA – although in Fort Wayne , Quincy acquired the previous junior partner , Malara 's ABC affiliate WPTA , with SagamoreHill taking NBC affiliate WISE @-@ TV instead .
News @-@ Press and Gazette Company is affiliated with the sidecar VistaWest Media for stations such as KIDK ( which was previously taken over by NPG under Fisher Communications ownership ) and KCOY @-@ TV ( under Cowles Publishing Company ownership ) . Both companies are based in St. Joseph , Missouri .
= = = Effects on programming = = =
The stations partnered through a sharing agreement may also consolidate their programming operations : local newscasts on the junior partner in the LMA , if it operated a separate news department before the LMA 's formation , may be rescheduled or scaled back to prevent direct competition with newscasts airing on the station acting as the senior partner ( the latter aspect is less common with LMAs involving only stations affiliated with one of the three largest broadcast television networks ) . The stations may share news @-@ gathering resources , but maintain separate news telecasts that are differentiated by their on @-@ air presentation , anchors , and overall format , with varying degrees of autonomy ; in these cases , a seemingly separate newscast on the brokered station in the duopoly may ultimately consist of repackaged news content from the other station . Alternatively , the stations may consolidate their news programming under a single joint brand .
Redundant staff members are often laid off as part of the consolidation process , and the sharing of news content reduces the number of unique editorial voices in the market . This in particular is one of the caveats of pushes to ban outsourcing agreements by media consolidation critics , who also suggest that LMAs result in a decreased amount of local news coverage on the brokered station .
Depending on how the outsourcing agreement is structured , as well as how the brokered station is programmed , how the stations are consolidated and the amount of news programming featured on the brokered station may vary , for example :
In October 2008 , Tribune Broadcasting and Local TV LLC consolidated the operations of their respective CW and Fox affiliates in Denver and St. Louis , resulting from a groupwide management agreement between both companies . In Denver , CW affiliate KWGN @-@ TV moved into Fox affiliate KDVR 's facilities in the Speer neighborhood ; while in St. Louis , Fox affiliate KTVI – despite being the senior partner in the LMA with CW affiliate KPLR – moved into the latter station 's Maryland Heights studios . Both cities were ( and still are ) top @-@ 25 markets , making Denver and St. Louis the largest where any English @-@ language stations were involved in an LMA ; however , both cities had enough stations to allow a legal duopoly ( this was not possible with KPLR and KTVI as both were among the four highest @-@ rated stations in St. Louis at the time , placing ahead of ratings @-@ challenged ABC affiliate KDNL @-@ TV ) , and were large enough to support at least four television news operations ( Denver had five and St. Louis had four news @-@ producing stations prior to the formation of the LMA ) .
KWGN and KPLR moved The CW 's primetime lineup one hour later ( to 8 : 00 p.m. ) than the network @-@ recommended timeslot , and shifted their evening newscasts to 7 : 00 p.m. ( weekend editions of the evening newscasts were discontinued with the move ; KPLR has since expanded its 7 : 00 p.m. newscast to Saturday and Sunday evenings ) to avoid competing with KDVR and KTVI 's 9 : 00 p.m. newscasts ; KWGN retained its weekday morning newscast ( which competes directly with KDVR 's morning newscast ) , but canceled its 5 : 30 p.m. – and later , 11 : 00 a.m. – newscasts . In contrast , KPLR ( which had run a primetime newscast for much of its history ) eventually added hour @-@ long midday and late afternoon newscasts . The two LMA arrangements became legal duopolies in December 2013 , once Tribune finalized its acquisition of Local TV .
In 2009 , Raycom Media ( owner of Honolulu @-@ based NBC and MyNetworkTV affiliates , KHNL and KFVE ) announced it would take over the operations of local CBS affiliate KGMB ( then owned by MCG Capital Corporation ) , giving it control of three of the television stations in Hawaii . The deal was a complex arrangement which involved trading the non @-@ license assets of KFVE ( such as its call sign , programming , and network affiliation ) for those of KGMB ( effectively placing the station under Raycom ownership , but using KFVE 's license , signal , and virtual channel 5 ) , and taking over KFVE ( which moved to the channel 9 license owned by MCG Capital ) under a shared services agreement . Due to its nature , the swap was not a transaction that would require the intervention of the FCC , aside from the changing of call signs . The three stations were then folded into a shared news operation branded as Hawaii News Now . An estimated 68 positions from a total of 198 from the three stations would be eliminated as part of the agreement . On November 20 , 2013 , MCG Capital filed to sell KFVE to the aforementioned American Spirit Media .
In 2010 , the operations of Schurz Communications @-@ owned NBC affiliate WAGT in Augusta , Georgia were taken over by Media General @-@ owned ABC affiliate WJBF @-@ TV . Both stations were consolidated into new , high @-@ definition capable facilities constructed on the site of a former Barnes & Noble store , with separate studios for each station , and a third , shared studio . Despite the consolidation , the two stations aimed to maintain some autonomy from each other : both WAGT and WJBF maintain their own on @-@ air identities , newsrooms , and sales departments within the facility . While the newscasts on both stations do share some " factual " video content , they are otherwise produced independently of each other . However , upon the consolidation , most of WAGT 's managerial staff were dismissed and other employees were reassigned to different positions . The agreement was unwound after Gray Television 's purchase of the station , but briefly reinstated following legal action by Media General . After the injunction was struck down , Gray re @-@ assumed control of WAGT on March 28 , 2016 , adding 5 : 30 p.m. and 7 : 00 p.m. newscasts exclusive to the station , with the remainder simulcast from WRDW .
In 2010 , Nexstar announced a new joint news operation for its consolidated cluster in Utica / Rome , New York , which consists of Nexstar @-@ owned Fox and MyNetworkTV affiliates WFXV and WPNY @-@ LP , and Mission @-@ owned ABC affiliate WUTR . Unlike the other examples , neither station had a pre @-@ existing newscast at the time ; WUTR 's original news department was closed in 2003 by previous owner Clear Channel Communications as a cost @-@ saving measure , and WFXV had never aired local news programming at all . Its slate included early and late evening newscasts on WUTR , an encore of WUTR 's evening newscast on WPNY , and a 10 : 00 p.m. newscast on WFXV with a faster , younger @-@ skewing format . The station 's executive vice president , Steve Merren ( who had come from NBC affiliate WKTV , which had the sole television news operation in the market prior to the formation of Nexstar 's Eyewitness News operation ) believed that it " [ was ] important that the community has another source of news . We have one newspaper and one news station and the community could benefit from another voice . "
In Evansville , Indiana , Mission Broadcasting acquired then @-@ independent station WTVW ( now a CW affiliate ) in 2011 with its former owner Nexstar Broadcasting retaining operational duties under an SSA . WTVW consolidated news operations with ABC affiliate WEHT , for which Nexstar traded WTVW to Mission in exchange for acquiring WEHT from Gilmore Broadcasting Corporation , and had its newscast output reduced through the reductions of its weekday morning newscast from four hours to two and its 6 : 00 p.m. newscast – except on Sundays , where it remained one hour – from one hour to 30 minutes ( leaving only a two @-@ hour morning newscast , half @-@ hour noon and 6 : 30 p.m. newscasts and an hour @-@ long newscast at 9 : 00 p.m. ) . Both stations were then folded into a shared news operation branded as Eyewitness News .
In November 2011 , in the Tucson , Arizona , market , Belo relinquished the operations of its Fox and MyNetworkTV duopoly KMSB and KTTU to Raycom Media . Operations of the two stations , along with production of KMSB 's 9 : 00 p.m. newscast , were assumed by Raycom 's CBS station KOLD @-@ TV . Belo Media Operations president Peter L. Diaz touted that the consolidation would result in " better produced , increased news programming for the Tucson market , " citing Raycom 's addition of a locally produced morning newscast to KMSB , and the upgrade of KMSB 's news programming to high definition as part of the transition . Although ruling out the need to do so in other markets , Diaz noted that the agreements " [ allowed ] us to increase our news product that we couldn 't afford to do otherwise . " The consolidation resulted in layoffs for almost all of the two stations ' employees , aside from advertising sales staff , which remained employed by Belo but worked from KOLD 's facilities . The acquisition of Belo by Gannett in 2013 had few effects on the virtual triopoly ; although the stations ' licenses were sold to third @-@ parties to satisfy newspaper cross @-@ ownership restrictions , Raycom still operates the stations , but their sales departments remained operated by Gannett . The licenses were , in turn , sold to Tegna — the spin @-@ out of Gannett 's broadcasting division , in December 2015 .
The 2012 sale of Newport Television led to the formation of two full @-@ power virtual quadropolies . In Little Rock , Arkansas , Nexstar and Mission Broadcasting formed a virtual quadropoly consisting of two duopolies ; NBC station KARK @-@ TV and MyNetworkTV station KARZ @-@ TV ( owned by Nexstar ) , along with Fox station KLRT @-@ TV and CW station KASN ( owned by Mission , operated by Nexstar under a local marketing agreement ) . All four stations were consolidated into KARK 's facilities ; 30 employees were laid off as part of the consolidation . As a result , KLRT reduced its weeknight 5 : 00 p.m. newscast from one hour to 30 minutes ( limiting it to the 5 : 30 half @-@ hour ) and dropped its 10 : 00 p.m. newscast , while adding a two @-@ hour weekday morning newscast and retaining its existing hour @-@ long newscast at 9 : 00 p.m.
Sinclair formed a similar arrangement in Mobile , Alabama between its existing Pensacola duopoly of ABC affiliate WEAR @-@ TV and MyNetworkTV affiliate WFGX , and the newly acquired Mobile duopoly of NBC affiliate WPMI and independent station WJTC ( owned by Deerfield Media ) . However , the stations were not consolidated , and maintain their own studio facilities , news departments and staff . WEAR and WPMI also produce competing 9 : 00 p.m. newscasts for their respective duopoly partners .
= = Reaction and government action = =
In February 2001 , Clear Channel Communications subsidiary Citicasters was fined $ 25 @,@ 000 for its use of time brokerage agreements and litigation for unlawfully controlling Youngstown , Ohio area radio station WBTJ ( 101 @.@ 9 FM , now WYLR ) ; the company had also been the target of complaints for using KFJO ( FM ) to rebroadcast KSJO after it had nominally sold KFJO to minority @-@ owned interests .
In 2009 , the Media Council of Hawaii complained to the FCC about Raycom 's Hawaii News Now operation , stating that it would " directly reduce the diversity of local voices in a community by replacing independent newscasts on the brokered station with those of the brokering station . " In response , the FCC stated it would begin to investigate into the matter .
In 2011 , after temporarily losing its Fox affiliation for WFFT @-@ TV to a subchannel of WISE @-@ TV due to a reverse compensation dispute , Nexstar Broadcasting Group ( ironically , given its use of similar practices in other markets ) filed an antitrust lawsuit against the station 's managing partner , Granite Broadcasting , arguing that it had built a monopoly on local advertising sales by having effective control of the outlets for five major networks ( ABC and MyNetworkTV on WPTA , and NBC , Fox , and The CW on WISE @-@ TV ; owned by Malara Broadcast Group and operated under agreements by Granite ) . The lawsuit was settled in February 2013 via mutual agreement , after which the Fox affiliation was given back to WFFT .
= = = Gannett acquisition of Belo = = =
Gannett Company 's 2013 acquisition of Belo was opposed by organizations such as the American Cable Association and Free Press , due to Gannett 's plans to use LMAs and two shell companies owned by former Belo and Fisher Communications executives ( respectively , Sander Media and Tucker Operating Co . ) to dodge FCC newspaper cross @-@ ownership restrictions in Louisville , Phoenix , Portland , Oregon and Tucson . Although Gannett contended that the arrangements were legal , Free Press president Craig Aaron stated that " the FCC shouldn 't let Gannett break the rules . Media consolidation results in fewer journalists in the newsroom and fewer opinions on the airwaves . Concentrating media outlets in the hands of just a few companies benefits only the companies themselves . " The deal would have given Gannett a virtual triopoly in Phoenix , consisting of its NBC station KPNX , independent station KTVK and CW affiliate KASW . In Tucson , Fox affiliate KMSB and MyNetworkTV affiliate KTTU were already operated by Raycom Media 's CBS affiliate KOLD @-@ TV under a shared services agreement established under Belo ownership , but Gannett would still handle advertising sales for the stations .
In December 2013 , the U.S. Department of Justice blocked Gannett from using an agreement with Sander Media to operate CBS affiliate KMOV in St. Louis alongside its own NBC station KSDK , and ordered Gannett to sell KMOV . Even though Gannett planned to operate KMOV separately from KSDK , the Department ruled the agreement to be a violation of antitrust law , as it would reduce competition for advertising sales . Following the closure of the Belo purchase , Meredith Corporation announced a deal to purchase KMOV , along with KTVK and KASW . As Meredith would have a duopoly between KTVK and its Phoenix CBS affiliate KPHO @-@ TV , KASW was to be sold to SagamoreHill Broadcasting and operated by Meredith under an LMA . As a result of the FCC 's scrutiny on any new station sharing agreements , on October 23 , 2014 , Meredith would backtrack on this plan and instead sell KASW to the Nexstar Broadcasting Group , which would operate the station independently of KTVK and KPHO .
Following Gannett 's split into independent broadcasting and publishing companies , Tegna , Inc . — the owner of Gannett 's stations following the split , bought back the licenses to the Sander Media stations , placing them back under its full control .
= = = Sinclair acquisition of Allbritton = = =
As part of its planned acquisition of Allbritton Communications , Sinclair originally planned to sell its existing stations in three markets – Charleston , South Carolina , Birmingham , Alabama and Harrisburg , Pennsylvania – where Allbritton already owned stations , but continue to operate them under local marketing agreements . WABM and WTTO in Birmingham and WHP @-@ TV in Harrisburg were to be sold to Deerfield Media , and WMMP in Charleston was to be sold to Howard Stirk Holdings – a broadcasting company owned by conservative pundit Armstrong Williams . Howard Stirk Holdings was also used as a sidecar for two conflicting stations in Sinclair 's earlier acquisition of Barrington Broadcasting .
In December 2013 , FCC Video Division Chief Barbara Kreisman sent a letter demanding information from the Sinclair Broadcast Group on the financial aspects of its " sidecar " operations , and warned that in the three aforementioned markets , " the proposed transactions would result in the elimination of the grandfathered status of certain local marketing agreements and thus cause the transactions to violate our local TV ownership rules . " It was asserted that the deal might only be legal if the affected stations were operated under shared services agreements . Sinclair restructured the deal in March 2014 , choosing to sell WHP @-@ TV , WMMP and WABM , and terminate an SSA with the Cunningham @-@ owned Fox affiliate WTAT in Charleston to acquire the Allbritton @-@ owned stations in those markets ( WCIV , WHTM @-@ TV and WBMA @-@ LD , while also creating a new duopoly between the ABC and CW affiliates in Birmingham ) , as well as foregoing any operational or financial agreements with the buyers of the stations being sold to other parties .
In May 2014 , Sinclair disclosed in an FCC filling that it was unable to find buyers for the three affected stations , requiring changes to its transaction . In Harrisburg , Sinclair chose to retain WHP @-@ TV , and divest WHTM to Media General . However , in Charleston and Birmingham , the company proposed to shut down stations entirely ( rather than selling them to other buyers that would also handle their operational responsibilities ) so it could maintain legal duopolies ; surrendering the licenses for WCIV and the full @-@ powered repeaters of WBMA @-@ LD ( WJSU and WCFT ) , and moving their ABC programming to Sinclair 's existing stations WMMP and WABM respectively – which would shift their existing MyNetworkTV programming to digital subchannels . After nearly a year of delays , Sinclair 's deal to acquire Allbritton was approved by the FCC on July 24 , 2014 .
= = = FCC limits on joint sales agreements for television stations = = =
In response to criticism of the virtual duopolies and sharing agreements , the FCC began to consider potential changes to address these loopholes . In March 2013 , the Commission first tabled a proposal that would make joint sales agreements count the same as ownership .
In January 2014 town hall meeting , FCC chairman Tom Wheeler disclosed that he planned to place more scrutiny on the use of LMA @-@ style agreements and shell companies , stating that " there were a couple of references in a couple of recent decisions in which we 've said that we 're going to do things differently going forward on what were called these shell corporations . " Later that month , it was reported that the FCC had placed all pending acquisitions involving the use of shell companies on hold , so the Commission could discuss changes to its policies . Among the deals affected by this decision included the aforementioned Sinclair / Allbritton purchase .
On March 6 , 2014 , the FCC announced that it would hold a vote on March 31 on a proposal to ban joint sales agreements involving television stations outright , making them attributable to FCC ownership limits if the senior partner sells 15 % or more of advertising time of a competing junior partner station in the JSA ; the ban applies to both existing sharing agreements under such a structure as well as pending station transactions that include a JSA . Station owners would be given a two @-@ year grace period to unwind or modify joint sales agreements in violation of the policy ; coordinated retransmission consent negotiations between two of the four highest @-@ rated stations in a single market would also be barred under the proposal . Wheeler also proposed an expedited process to review joint sales agreements on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis , granting a waiver of the rules if a broadcaster can prove a particular joint sales agreement arrangement serves the public interest .
On March 12 , 2014 , the FCC Media Bureau released a notice that it would further analyze television station transactions that include sharing agreements , particularly those that include a purchase option that " may counter any incentive the licensee has to increase the value of the station , since the licensee may be unlikely to realize that increased value . " Under the new provisions , broadcasters must demonstrate in their transaction applications as to how such deals would serve the public interest . The National Association of Broadcasters ( NAB ) – which , along with station groups such as Sinclair Broadcast Group , have disapproved of the proposal to ban JSAs – presented a compromise proposal , in which the brokered licensee in a sharing agreement would retain control over at least 85 percent of the station 's programming , maintain at least 70 percent of ad sales revenue and " maintain at least 20 percent of station value in the license itself " . FCC commissioner Ajit Pai , and Gordon Smith , president of the NAB , were also opposed to the new rules on joint sales agreements , believing that they would discourage the ownership of television stations by minority @-@ owned companies . Tom Wheeler , however , proposed the restrictions in the hopes of encouraging more women and minorities to own stations , due to the ongoing consolidation in the television industry through company mergers and sharing agreements .
On March 31 , 2014 , the FCC voted 3 – 2 to approve the proposed ban on joint sales agreements and voted 5 – 0 to approve the proposed ban on coordinated retransmission consent negotiations between two of the four highest @-@ rated stations within a given market ; the JSA ban went into effect on June 19 , 2014 . Under the restrictions , the FCC would rule on waivers to maintain select existing JSAs within 90 days of the application 's filing . The FCC also began a request for comment on policies to address other agreements , such as shared services agreements . The prohibition on television JSAs had been proposed as early as 2004 , a year after the FCC voted to treat JSAs between radio stations as duopolies . Despite this fact , broadcasting companies criticized the ban , accusing the Commission of using it as a move to encourage participation in a spectrum incentive auction then set to occur in 2015 , and stating that the ban would place them at a disadvantage during retransmission consent negotiations with pay television providers .
On December 19 , 2015 , as a rider to the federal budget , the grace period for unwinding or modifying existing JSAs was extended to 10 years . On May 25 , 2016 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit struck down the restrictions on joint sales agreements , ruling that the FCC cannot manipulate its ownership rules without " [ in ] the previous four years , [ fufilling ] its obligation to review [ the ] rule and determine whether it is in the public interest " .
= = = Shutdown and spin @-@ offs of stations = = =
The increased scrutiny being imposed by the FCC regarding local marketing , shared services , and joint sales agreements have led to more drastic measures by broadcasting companies attempting to use them in acquisitions ; in 2014 , two broadcasting companies declared intents to shut acquired stations down entirely and consolidate their programming onto existing stations through multicasting , rather than attempting to use sidecars and sharing agreements or selling them to other parties that would assume full responsibility of their day @-@ to @-@ day operations .
In May 2014 , Sinclair informed the FCC that it was unable to find buyers for WABM or WMMP – the company 's MyNetworkTV stations in Birmingham , Alabama and Charleston , South Carolina that it planned to sell in its purchase of Allbritton Communications . In Birmingham , the company proposed surrendering the licenses of WCFT @-@ TV and WJSU @-@ TV – the two full @-@ powered satellites of ABC affiliate WBMA @-@ LD , converting WABM into a full @-@ powered satellite of WBMA @-@ LD – and moving its existing MyNetworkTV programming to a digital subchannel of WABM ( although the WBMA @-@ LD simulcast was placed on WABM 's subchannel instead while MyNetworkTV programming was retained on its main channel ) . Similarly , in Charleston , Sinclair planned to surrender WCIV 's license and move its ABC affiliation and programming to WMMP . In both cases , Sinclair believed that its own stations had superior technical facilities than those of the stations it intends to surrender . Sinclair was able to retain WBMA @-@ LD in any event as the FCC does not impose any ownership limits on low @-@ power stations .
On June 13 , 2014 , Gray Television announced that it would shutter six stations and consolidate existing programming onto subchannels of Gray @-@ owned stations in their respective market . Unlike Sinclair , however , Gray stated that it would sell the licenses of the shuttered stations to minority @-@ owned broadcasters in collaboration with the Minority Media and Telecommunications Council – under the condition that they would operate them independently from other stations in the market , and without the use of any sharing agreements . All six of the stations were owned by companies other than Gray , but their non @-@ license assets are either owned by Gray , or were operated by stations now owned by Gray under agreements . Gray would operate the affected stations under LMAs until the sales and consolidation are complete . Aside from one , most of the stations involved in these changes were related to Gray 's acquisition of stations from Hoak Media . Three of these stations were immediately shut down the same day , while the remainder remained operated by Gray until the sales were completed . Gray announced buyers for the stations on August 27 , 2014 .
The six stations affected by Gray 's move included :
KHAS @-@ TV ( Hastings / Lincoln , Nebraska ) , previously owned by Hoak . On June 13 , 2014 , KHAS @-@ TV was shut down and its NBC programming was moved to the primary channel of KSNB @-@ TV ( channel 4 ) . Gray had bought KSNB under a failing station waiver to form a duopoly with CBS station KOLN / KGIN , and operated the station as a MyNetworkTV / MeTV affiliate with local programming focused on central Nebraska ; this existing programming was moved to KSNB @-@ DT2 upon the transition . On August 27 , 2014 , the station was sold to Legacy Broadcasting .
KNDX / KXND ( Bismarck / Minot , North Dakota ) , owned by Prime Cities Broadcasting , which asked the FCC to dismiss the sale of the stations to Excalibur Broadcasting ( a sidecar owned by former Gray executive Don Ray ) , which would have made them sisters to the NBC North Dakota chain being acquired from Hoak by Gray . Gray acquired the stations ' non @-@ license assets on May 1 , 2014 ; both stations were then taken off the air on June 13 , 2014 , with Fox programming being moved to subchannels of the NBC North Dakota stations ( KMOT , KQCD @-@ TV and KFYR @-@ TV ) . On August 27 , 2014 , the stations were sold to Legacy Broadcasting .
KXJB @-@ TV and KAQY ( Fargo , North Dakota and Columbia / Monroe , Louisiana – El Dorado , Arkansas ) , both owned by Parker Broadcasting and operated by Hoak ( now Gray ) stations . Both were originally to be sold to Excalibur Broadcasting . On August 27 , 2014 , KXJB @-@ TV was sold to Major Market Broadcasting , and KAQY to Legacy Broadcasting .
KJCT ( Grand Junction , Colorado ) , acquired by Excalibur in August 2013 from News @-@ Press & Gazette Company , and taken over by Gray @-@ owned KKCO following the acquisition . On August 27 , 2014 , the station was sold to Chang Media Group , and was later re @-@ launched as Cozi TV station KGBY .
Following the approval of Sinclair 's purchase of Allbritton , commissioner Ajit Pai further criticized the FCC 's new policies and its endorsement of Sinclair 's proposal to shut down stations to comply with them . Describing the three Allbritton stations as being " victims " of the " crackdown " against joint sales agreements , he stated regarding WCIV that " apparently the Commission believes that it is better for that station to go out of business than for Howard Stirk Holdings to own the station and participate in a joint sales agreement with Sinclair . I strongly disagree . And so too , I 'll bet , would consumers in Charleston . " In September 2014 , Sinclair backtracked on its original plans , and reached deals to sell WCIV , WCFT and WJSU 's license assets to Howard Stirk Holdings for $ 50 @,@ 000 each and lease them studio space , pending FCC approval . Unlike Howard Stirk Holdings ' other stations , they are operated and programmed independently , and Sinclair did not enter into any agreements to operate the stations on HSH 's behalf .
In Quincy Newspapers ' acquisition of Granite Broadcasting 's remaining stations , the acquisition was briefly re @-@ structured to have Malara Broadcast Group — which served as a virtual duopoly partner for stations WISE @-@ TV ( NBC ) Fort Wayne and KDLH @-@ TV Duluth ( CBS ) , retain the stations and their current agreements with WPTA and KBJR @-@ TV in lieu of having them sold to SagamoreHill Broadcasting . The acquisition was restructured in July 2015 to , again , have SagamoreHill Broadcasting acquire the two stations , but have their current SSAs wound down within nine months . Following the end of the SSA , the two stations will retain The CW as independently @-@ run stations , with their remaining affiliations moved to subchannels of KBJR and WPTA .
= = = WAGT dispute = = =
In February 2016 , Gray Television acquired Schurz Communications ' stations , including Augusta , Georgia 's WAGT . As Gray could not own both WAGT and its existing CBS affiliate WRDW @-@ TV as a legal duopoly , Gray proposed the sale of WAGT 's broadcast spectrum during the incentive auction , and for WAGT to go silent upon completion of the deal so the company would not be running more than one of the top four stations in the market . Gray also requested special temporary authority for WAGT 's signal to be replaced on its existing technical facilities and UHF channel 30 by the co @-@ owned low @-@ power station , WRDW @-@ CD ( as previously mentioned , low @-@ power stations are not subject to the rules regarding duopolies ) .
The FCC , however , required that Gray continue to operate WAGT as a separate station through the end of the auction , and not enter into any joint sales agreements . Upon the closure of the sale , Gray unwound the shared services and joint sales agreements that Schurz had established with WJBF @-@ TV and Media General , and replaced its previous news programs with simulcasts from WRDW . Gray also accused WJBF of " [ refusing ] to agree to a smooth transition of personnel [ from WAGT ] " , as WAGT 's employees fall under the employment of Media General due to the SSA .
On February 26 , 2016 , Media General obtained a preliminary injunction against Gray for violating the SSA and JSA , which required that Gray return control of WAGT to Media General , and forbids Gray from selling WAGT in the spectrum incentive auction . The company accused Gray of using the spectrum auction and sale of the station to exit the agreements illegitimately , as they were to last through 2020 , and apply to any future owner of WAGT . Gray attempted to block the injunction by arguing that its actions were required in order to comply with the FCC 's prohibition of joint sales agreements , but was denied . Media General took back control of WAGT on March 7 , 2016 .
On March 10 , 2016 , FCC Deputy General Counsel David Gossett announced that the Commission would investigate Media General 's actions as possibly being in violation of Section 310 ( d ) of the Communications Act . Gossett argued that by legally blocking Gray 's participation in the spectrum auction , Media General had " [ sought ] injunctive relief that interferes with a licensee 's ultimate control of a station " . He also stated that the FCC may consider a license revocation hearing against Media General under Section 312 of the Communications Act . On March 23 , 2016 , the Supreme Court of Georgia struck down the injunction without addressing the litigation , and Gray took back control of WAGT .
= = Internationally = =
In a 2005 Canadian dispute , Rogers Media and Newcap Broadcasting maintained a joint sales agreement pertaining to CHNO @-@ FM in Sudbury , Ontario , but community interests and the lobby group Friends of Canadian Broadcasting presented substantial evidence to the Canadian Radio @-@ television and Telecommunications Commission that in practice , the agreement was a de facto LMA , going significantly beyond advertising sales into program production and news @-@ gathering . LMAs in Canada cannot be implemented without the CRTC 's approval , and in early 2005 , the CRTC ordered the agreement to cease .
In 2008 , the Filipino Associated Broadcasting Company leased its airtime to the Malaysian broadcaster Media Prima ( through the local subsidiary MPB Primedia , Inc ) similar to an LMA – with MPB Primedia providing entertainment programming , and ABC handling news programming and operations . Soon afterward , ABC and Media Prima were sued by rival media company GMA Network , Inc. for attempting to use the partnership to skirt laws requiring domestic ownership of broadcasters . In response , ABC 's media relations head Pat Marcelo @-@ Magbanua reiterated that the subsidiary was a Filipino company which was self @-@ registered and Filipino @-@ run . The concerns became moot in 2010 , when Media Prima announced it would divest its ownership in the network to the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company 's broadcasting subsidiary MediaQuest Holdings .
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= Ground Combat Vehicle =
The Ground Combat Vehicle ( GCV ) was the US Army 's replacement program for armored fighting vehicles in Armored and Stryker brigade combat teams . The GCV was organized under the Follow On Incremental Capabilities Package of the BCT Modernization program . The first variant of the vehicle was to be prototyped in 2015 and fielded by 2017 . It replaced the canceled Future Combat Systems , manned ground vehicles program . The Ground Combat Vehicle program was cancelled in February 2014 .
= = Design = =
Specific design elements of the GCV were contracted out , though the Army designed the architecture and retained overall responsibility for synchronization . This contrasted with the former FCS manned ground vehicles program where contractors had more control over the design . The GCV was to be networked and offer improved survivability , while using the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art mobility and power management functions . The military released classified details of the FCS Manned Ground Vehicles program to interested contractors to be utilized in design proposals for the GCV . The GCV family was to be built around a common chassis .
= = = Network = = =
The GCV was to be operable with the current battle command control and communications suite but would gradually use a more state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art networked integration system known as the BCT Network . It would provide exportable electrical power , and a battery charging capability for external hardware including vehicles and electronics from the BCT Soldier subsystems . The system would be capable of integration with unmanned systems and dismounted soldiers .
= = = Mobility = = =
The GCV must have been transportable by cargo aircraft , rail , and ship . The Army required it to meet the availability rates of the current Stryker . The Army did not limit the vehicle by the dimensions of the C @-@ 130 Hercules , which , in the past , constrained many designs . Air mobility would be provided by the more spacious C @-@ 17 Globemaster III . The GCV was to have good cross @-@ country mobility , with a baseline requirement of 30 mph off @-@ road speed . The GCV should have delivered higher sustainability levels and consume less fuel than the Bradley or other vehicles of similar weight and power . The military was accepting both tracked and wheeled designs . The operational maintenance cost requirement of the GCV was up to $ 200 per mile , compared to $ 168 per mile for the M2 Bradley .
= = = Offensive capabilities = = =
The type and caliber of the weapons were classified or open to interpretation by the industry . The IFV variant was notable for having a non @-@ lethal weapon requirement .
= = = Countermeasures = = =
The Army wanted the GCV to have a passive blast protection level equal to the MRAP and would utilize hit avoidance systems . The Army wanted to install an active protection system on the Ground Combat Vehicle . BAE tested the Artis LLC Iron Curtain and General Dynamics demonstrated a version of the Israeli Trophy system . By incorporating an APS , the GCV would only need 18 tons of ballistic armor protection , compared to 52 tons of armor required without it . Developers were considering modular armor technology , with the ability to add @-@ on and remove armor plates depending on threat levels and mission requirements .
= = Development = =
In June 2009 , a blue @-@ ribbon panel met in Washington , D.C. , to discuss requirements for the Ground Combat Vehicle . In October and November 2009 , more than 100 defense contractors turned up for two U.S. Army @-@ organized industry day events in Michigan to express interest in bidding on the vehicle . A review required for continuation was held and passed in February 2010 in Washington D.C. A request for proposals ( RFP ) was issued on February 25 , 2010 to which companies had 60 days to respond , but was extended an additional 25 days . A committee examined the schedule for the GCV to " shave a little time off " . For fiscal year 2011 , the U.S. Army wished to spend $ 934 million of the $ 2 @.@ 5 billion allocated for BCT Modernization to develop the GCV .
Up to three competitive contracts were to be awarded by early fall . A prototype development contract decision would have followed by 2013 . The Technology Development Phase ( or Milestone A ) would begin in the fourth quarter of Fiscal Year 2010 with the award of up to three vehicle contracts . This was to be followed by an Engineering & Manufacturing Development ( EMD ) phase and Low Rate Initial Production ( LRIP ) phase before full production could start .
Nine vehicles were evaluated in the Analysis of Alternatives ( AOA ) . The four primary vehicles included in the AOA were the M2A3 Bradley II , a modernized Stryker , an M2A3 Bradley variant used in Iraq , and a XM1230 Caiman Plus MRAP . The five secondary vehicles included two unnamed foreign @-@ made platforms , the M1126 Stryker Infantry Fighting Vehicle , the M1A2 SEP TUSK Abrams , and a modernized M1 Abrams . Vehicles included the AOA were determined to be inferior to the planned GCV .
On 25 August 2010 , the U.S. Army canceled the original RFP to revise the requirements . A new RFP was to be issued 60 days later . When Peter Chiarelli was asked if the Army was developing an alternative to the GCV , Chiarelli replied " We 're totally committed to GCV . " The National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform suggested deferring development of the GCV until after 2015 .
In August 2011 , technology development contracts were awarded to BAE Systems Land & Armaments for $ 449 @.@ 9 million and General Dynamics Land Systems for $ 439.7M.
= = = Budget concerns and proposed cuts = = =
In December 2012 , it was reported that the Army may need to cut $ 150 million from the GCV program in 2014 , with deeper cuts between $ 600 million- $ 700 million between 2014 and 2018 . This put the program , one of the Army 's highest priorities , at serious risk . With the drawdown of the War in Afghanistan and budgetary concerns , the expensive development of a new combat vehicle was not seen as feasible . BAE Systems and General Dynamics were each awarded engineering and manufacturing development ( EMD ) phase contracts in August 2011 . The EMD phase was to last 48 months for both contractors , but there were arguments for only one to proceed as a cost @-@ saving measure . This would present the problem of selecting a vehicle based on design outlines , rather than on real prototypes . Another suggestion was to lengthen the EMD period to allow for smaller contract awards over time . This might delay the operational deadline beyond the planned 2018 date . The underlying concern is the fact that the Army plans to spend 80 percent of its ground combat vehicle budget on GCV development from 2013 @-@ 2018 . With 1 @,@ 847 GCV Infantry Fighting Vehicles expected to be acquired , they would make up only 10 percent of the Army combat vehicle fleet . Redirected funds could be shifted to modernization efforts for the combat @-@ proven Stryker , M1 Abrams , and Bradley families of vehicles .
= = = Revision = = =
The GCV acquisition strategy was revised on 17 January 2013 to further reduce risk and maintain affordability of the program . The revision extended the technology development phase by six months to give industry more time to refine vehicle designs . Milestone B would occur in 2014 , with the selection of a single vendor for the engineering and manufacturing development ( EMD ) and production phases of the program . This would initiate critical design and testing activities in anticipation of vehicle production . Budgetary pressures caused the reduction of number of vendors to be selected from two to one .
= = = CBO report = = =
On 2 April 2013 , the Congressional Budget Office ( CBO ) issued a report on the progress of the GCV program . The report questioned the program , estimated to cost $ 28 billion from 2014 – 2030 , with the possibility of alternate vehicle options . While none met overall Army goals desired in the GCV , they offer advantages in being less costly and delayed . Planned GCV prototypes were heavy , weighing up to 84 tons , to be better protected and seat a 9 @-@ man squad . Officials said that a vehicle of that size would not be well suited to operations faced in Iraq or Afghanistan . Alternate vehicles would be cheaper and more maneuverable in urban settings . The CBO report analyzed four alternative options :
Purchase the Namer APC – Seats 9 soldiers with combat survival rates expected slightly higher than the GCV , and costs $ 9 billion less . The Namer has less ability to destroy other enemy vehicles and is less mobile . Production would be conducted in part domestically , but fielding would require collaboration with foreign companies and governments .
Upgrade the Bradley IFV – An upgraded Bradley would be more lethal than the GCV against enemy forces and would probably survive combat at about the same rates as would the GCV , saving $ 19 @.@ 8 billion . Upgrading the Bradley would make it " significantly more capable " than the GCV . The Bradley still only carries a 7 @-@ man squad and has less mobility .
Purchase the Puma ( IFV ) – More lethal than the GCV , combat survival and protection at better rates , and just as mobile . Purchasing the Puma would save $ 14 @.@ 8 billion and was considered the most capable of the vehicles . Puma IFVs only carry six infantrymen , which would require five vehicles to replace every four Bradleys . Development and production would require collaboration with foreign companies and governments .
Cancel the Ground Combat Vehicle – If the Army reconditioned its current Bradley instead of replacing them , the current capability of the IFV fleet could be maintained through 2030 . The Army could continue to investigate ways to improve the current Bradleys , but it would not field any new or improved vehicles . The $ 24 billion saved in funding could be used on other programs .
General Dynamics and BAE Systems , who received contracts in the Ground Combat Vehicle program , criticized the CBO report , saying they used the wrong vehicle in its analysis . Officials from both companies said they used the wrong notional model of the GCV that did not account for the change in requirements made by the Army or the advancements made in the technology development phase of the program . They also criticized the comparisons of the other vehicles . The report factored cost , survivability , mobility , and lethality , ranking the GCV 's capabilities as lower than all others . The Army 's response was that none of the vehicles meet the requirements to replace the Bradley . An Army test of currently fielded vehicles in 2012 revealed that some met critical GCV requirements , but none met enough without needing significant redesign . They also note that lethality was judged with a 25 mm cannon for analysis , before the Army planned to mount a 30 mm cannon . The CBO report did give credit to cost , assuming the Army 's goal of $ 13 million per vehicle . However , Pentagon cost assessments estimated the price at $ 16 – $ 17 million per vehicle .
= = = Funding cut and prioritization = = =
On 29 July 2013 , Army Chief of Staff General Ray Odierno warned that the Ground Combat Vehicle program might be delayed or possibly even cancelled because of the sequestration budget cuts . Although he specifically said it could be delayed , he did not rule out the possibility of cancellation . The GCV was high @-@ priority for the Army to give better protection than the M2 Bradley , but because of the sequester cuts everything was being considered . On 1 August 2013 , Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel outlined two basic results if the effects of sequestration continued : modernization programs like the GCV would be cut to maintain troop levels , or high @-@ end capability efforts like the GCV would be preserved to continue modernization and keep equipment technologically advanced with troop levels being cut . Odierno was committed to balancing soldiers , readiness , and modernization , and was intent on the need for the Ground Combat Vehicle . Suggested alternative options , such as further upgrading the Bradley and buying currently available infantry fighting vehicles like the German Puma , were recommended as cost @-@ saving measures . Army leaders said the Puma 's low troop @-@ carrying capacity would require buying five vehicles to replace every four Bradleys , and that upgrading the Bradley would essentially be engineering a new vehicle . While these options would offer no improvement over the fleet 's current capability , not pursuing the GCV would allow the money to be spent elsewhere .
Some reports suggested that the Armored Multi @-@ Purpose Vehicle program to replace the M113 family of vehicles was being favored over the GCV program . While procurement of the AMPV fleet would cost over $ 5 billion , the Government Accountability Office estimated the GCV fleet would cost $ 37 billion . In April 2013 , the Congressional Budget Office said the AMPV would be a better buy because analysts had asserted that the vehicles the GCV was slated to replace should not be first . The GCV would replace 61 M2 Bradley IFVs per armored combat brigade , making up 18 percent of the 346 armored combat vehicles in each armored brigade . A 24 September 2013 Congressional Research Service report suggested that given budgetary constraints , the GCV program may be unrealistic , and that one potential discussion could focus on a decision by the Army to replace the GCV with the AMPV as their number one ground combat vehicle acquisition priority .
Army leaders say having a large ground army is still necessary for deterrence and " regime change " operations . They also realize that their equipment will be mostly modernized versions of current equipment for the rest of the decade . Technologies from the GCV program are being explored , although development and procurement of a vehicle is not . By mid @-@ November 2013 , both BAE and General Dynamics designs had passed Preliminary Design Reviews ( PDR ) , but neither company had commenced building prototypes . The Army was increasingly willing to slow down the GCV program or push it back from EMD to research and development . While the Army had said previously that it was their highest priority acquisition program , they had since shifted their main modernization priority to an integrated electronic command network . Short @-@ term incremental upgrades will be applied to existing weapons systems to keep them from becoming obsolete , and advanced technologies available in the future will be used to build entirely new systems when funding is restored .
On 15 January 2014 , a spending bill passed by the House appropriated $ 100 million for the GCV program , even though the Army had requested $ 592 million for the program for FY 2014 . The Army planned to spend 80 percent of its ground vehicle modernization budget on the GCV over the next 5 years , with costs ranging from $ 29- $ 34 billion depending on overruns and setbacks . Several options were being considered to make the program more affordable , including reducing the squad size from their optimum goal of nine men and using new emerging , and undeveloped , technologies to reduce the weight of the vehicle to 30 tons for operations in urban environments . The two contractors were to run out of money for development of their prototype vehicles by June 2014 unless the Army funded the rest of the technology development phase . The Pentagon and Army tried to find ways to continue the program , without actually starting vehicle production , through new technologies like advanced fire control systems and hybrid engines . Prematurely ending the GCV program before the start of the EMD phase to select one vendor would result in owing money to the contractors for cancelling the contract . The Army could complete the technology development phase and conduct the milestone decision in June , then say they wouldn 't move on to the next phase of the program . Although the Army wanted 1 @,@ 894 Ground Combat Vehicles with a target price of $ 9 – 10 @.@ 5 million per unit , the Pentagon 's Office of Cost Assessment and Program Evaluation estimated a unit cost of up to $ 17 million . The 83 @-@ percent cut in funding essentially scaled back the GCV program to a research effort . The program had declined in support over the past months with the Army determining that the desired vehicle was no longer feasible in the near term due to budget reductions , suspicion from the contractors that the program would not move past technology development , and Congress 's believing it would not succeed . The Army could have tried to save the GCV by delaying it , or could reset its modernization priorities with more emphasis on the AMPV program to replace the outdated M113 .
In a speech on 23 January 2014 , General Ray Odierno confirmed that the Ground Combat Vehicle program was being put on hold due to budget difficulties . He said that the Army needed a new IFV but that they could not afford one at the time . Odierno said that he was pleased with the requirements for the vehicle and that progress and development with the contractors was good . " Leap @-@ ahead technologies " that make the vehicle light and mobile while still being protected against RPGs and roadside bombs are still desired . In the past decade , mobility was traded for protection , but Army war games have caused the service to decide it will need small , mobile formations to be deployed quickly in the future . Recent conflicts have shown the need for expeditionary forces to be transported quickly to remote areas in small packages with as little support as possible . Weight estimates of 70 tons for the GCV IFV did not make it easily deployable . The Army may direct some funds for technology development so it can start another program within " three to four years . " Science and technology investments are to be made to address the size and weight of armored ground vehicles . The Army reviewed the components of the GCV IFV to find areas to save weight . Reducing the weight of the vehicle would allow it to fit into the Army 's expeditionary view by making it easier and cheaper to transport greater numbers of them across the world .
= = Termination = =
The Pentagon FY 2015 budget proposal unveiled on 24 February 2014 cancelled the GCV program . Army acquisition executive Heidi Shyu said that criticism of the program was " unfortunate " and cancelling it had nothing to do with vehicle performance . She said the program had been doing " remarkably well " and wasn 't having technical issues , and that the contracts were being executed well . The decision to cancel development was based entirely on budget calculations , with no possible way to come up with funds no matter how many other areas were reduced . Money will be redistributed to engineering change proposals ( ECP ) on existing platforms until budget difficulties pass to allow investment in next @-@ generation capabilities in about seven years .
The decision had to be made to either exclusively fund the GCV or ECPs , so upgrades were chosen for the Bradley , Abrams , Stryker , and M109 Paladin fleets to have them more combat @-@ capable in the near @-@ term , should they be needed for an international situation . Vehicles like the Bradley and Abrams have been upgraded since the 1980s with new armor , sensors , and other gear that have maxed out the platforms for further horsepower and electrical advances , so the requirement for an entirely new ground combat vehicle built from the outset from lessons learned in combat from the previous decade remains . The Army 's own budget proposal unveiled on March 4 discontinued the program , and instead funds were shifted to the AMPV program as the main vehicle priority and to improving the Bradley IFV in the interim until more resources become available . Incremental improvements will be made to current vehicle fleets to improve protection and networking abilities . $ 131 million will be directed into science and technology to look at the feasibility of future combat vehicle technologies , and Secretary Hagel has directed the Army , as well as the Marine Corps , to deliver " realistic " visions for vehicle modernization by the end of FY 2014 .
The cancellation of the GCV is the second time in 15 years an Army program to replace the Bradley has failed . FCS ran from 1999 to 2009 , with the Manned Ground Vehicles portion for replacing several armored vehicle classes costing " hundreds of millions " of dollars out of $ 20 billion total . From 2010 to 2014 , the Army spent over $ 1 billion on the GCV . Although there was criticism that vehicle weight could not be kept at a reasonable level while meeting its size , weight , and power requirements , the Army maintains the official reason for the cancellation was budgetary pressures . BAE Systems and General Dynamics will each receive $ 50 million in FY 2015 to continue technology development . The next follow @-@ up IFV development program is currently named the Future Fighting Vehicle ( FFV ) .
= = = Continued technology development = = =
On 18 July 2014 , BAE and General Dynamics were awarded $ 7 @.@ 9 million study contracts for technical , cost , and risk assessments to salvage subsystems and other technologies created under the GCV for use in the FFV system . General Dynamics will utilize the GCV integrated propulsion and mobility subsystems Automotive Test Rig ( ATR ) , and the conventional drive integrated propulsion subsystem , while BAE will utilize the GCV TD phase integrated hybrid @-@ electric propulsion and mobility subsystems ATR and the hybrid @-@ electric integrated propulsion subsystem ( Hotbuck ) .
= = Variants = =
The Army was using an incremental approach to combat vehicle modernization , centered on the Ground Combat Vehicle . The deployment was to be synchronized with upgrades , reset , and divestiture of existing vehicles . Vehicles displaced by the IFV may then replace selected M113 family of vehicles such as command and control , medical evacuation , and mortar carrier , allowing the Army to begin divestiture of the M113 family of vehicles . Upgrades to existing Bradley and Stryker vehicles may have been considered as risk mitigation based on the rate at which the GCV was introduced . Although upgraded , the Bradley and Stryker would also be replaced in the midterm .
= = = Infantry Fighting Vehicle = = =
The Infantry Fighting Vehicle superseded the previous infantry carrier replacement effort , the XM1206 Infantry Carrier Vehicle of the FCS MGV program . It was the U.S. Army 's intention that the IFV replace the M113 APC by 2018 , the M2 Bradley later , and the Stryker ICV in the midterm . The IFV was to hold a crew of three and a squad of nine .
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= Charon 's obol =
Charon 's obol is an allusive term for the coin placed in or on the mouth of a dead person before burial . Greek and Latin literary sources specify the coin as an obol , and explain it as a payment or bribe for Charon , the ferryman who conveyed souls across the river that divided the world of the living from the world of the dead . Archaeological examples of these coins , of various denominations in practice , have been called " the most famous grave goods from antiquity . "
The custom is primarily associated with the ancient Greeks and Romans , though it is also found in the ancient Near East . In Western Europe , a similar usage of coins in burials occurs in regions inhabited by Celts of the Gallo @-@ Roman , Hispano @-@ Roman and Romano @-@ British cultures , and among the Germanic peoples of late antiquity and the early Christian era , with sporadic examples into the early 20th century .
Although archaeology shows that the myth reflects an actual custom , the placement of coins with the dead was neither pervasive nor confined to a single coin in the deceased 's mouth . In many burials , inscribed metal @-@ leaf tablets or exonumia take the place of the coin , or gold @-@ foil crosses in the early Christian era . The presence of coins or a coin @-@ hoard in Germanic ship @-@ burials suggests an analogous concept .
The phrase " Charon ’ s obol " as used by archaeologists sometimes can be understood as referring to a particular religious rite , but often serves as a kind of shorthand for coinage as grave goods presumed to further the deceased 's passage into the afterlife . In Latin , Charon 's obol sometimes is called a viaticum , or " sustenance for the journey " ; the placement of the coin on the mouth has been explained also as a seal to protect the deceased 's soul or to prevent it from returning .
= = Terminology = =
The coin for Charon is conventionally referred to in Greek literature as an obolos ( Greek ὀβολός ) , one of the basic denominations of ancient Greek coinage , worth one @-@ sixth of a drachma . Among the Greeks , coins in actual burials are sometimes also a danakē ( δανάκη ) or other relatively small @-@ denomination gold , silver , bronze or copper coin in local use . In Roman literary sources the coin is usually bronze or copper . From the 6th to the 4th centuries BC in the Black Sea region , low @-@ value coins depicting arrowheads or dolphins were in use mainly for the purpose of " local exchange and to serve as ‘ Charon ’ s obol . ‘ " The payment is sometimes specified with a term for " boat fare " ( in Greek naulon , ναῦλον , Latin naulum ) ; " fee for ferrying " ( porthmeion , πορθμήϊον or πορθμεῖον ) ; or " waterway toll " ( Latin portorium ) .
The word naulon ( ναῦλον ) is defined by the Christian @-@ era lexicographer Hesychius of Alexandria as the coin put into the mouth of the dead ; one of the meanings of danakē ( δανάκη ) is given as " the obol for the dead " . The Suda defines danakē as a coin traditionally buried with the dead for paying the ferryman to cross the river Acheron , and explicates the definition of porthmēïon ( πορθμήϊον ) as a ferryman ’ s fee with a quotation from the poet Callimachus , who notes the custom of carrying the porthmēïon in the " parched mouths of the dead . "
= = = Charon 's obol as viaticum = = =
In Latin , Charon ’ s obol is sometimes called a viaticum , which in everyday usage means " provision for a journey " ( from via , " way , road , journey " ) , encompassing food , money and other supplies . The same word can refer to the living allowance granted to those stripped of their property and condemned to exile , and by metaphorical extension to preparing for death at the end of life ’ s journey . Cicero , in his philosophical dialogue On Old Age ( 44 BC ) , has the interlocutor Cato the Elder combine two metaphors — nearing the end of a journey , and ripening fruit — in speaking of the approach to death :
Drawing on this metaphorical sense of " provision for the journey into death , " ecclesiastical Latin borrowed the term viaticum for the form of Eucharist that is placed in the mouth of a person who is dying as provision for the soul ’ s passage to eternal life . The earliest literary evidence of this Christian usage for viaticum appears in Paulinus ’ s account of the death of Saint Ambrose in 397 AD . The 7th @-@ century Synodus Hibernensis offers an etymological explanation : " This word ‘ viaticum ’ is the name of communion , that is to say , ‘ the guardianship of the way , ’ for it guards the soul until it shall stand before the judgment @-@ seat of Christ . " Thomas Aquinas explained the term as " a prefiguration of the fruit of God , which will be in the promised land . And because of this it is called the viaticum , since it provides us with the way of getting there " ; the idea of Christians as " travelers in search of salvation " finds early expression in the Confessions of St. Augustine .
An equivalent word in Greek is ephodion ( ἐφόδιον ) ; like viaticum , the word is used in antiquity to mean " provision for a journey " ( literally , " something for the road , " from the prefix ἐπ- , " on " + ὁδός , " road , way " ) and later in Greek patristic literature for the Eucharist administered on the point of death .
= = In literature = =
Greek and Roman literary sources from the 5th century BC through the 2nd century AD are consistent in attributing four characteristics to Charon ’ s obol :
it is a single , low @-@ denomination coin ;
it is placed in the mouth ;
the placement occurs at the time of death ;
it represents a boat fare .
Greek epigrams that were literary versions of epitaphs refer to " the obol that pays the passage of the departed , " with some epigrams referring to the belief by mocking or debunking it . The satirist Lucian has Charon himself , in a dialogue of the same name , declare that he collects " an obol from everyone who makes the downward journey . " In an elegy of consolation spoken in the person of the dead woman , the Augustan poet Propertius expresses the finality of death by her payment of the bronze coin to the infernal toll collector ( portitor ) . Several other authors mention the fee . Often , an author uses the low value of the coin to emphasize that death makes no distinction between rich and poor ; all must pay the same because all must die , and a rich person can take no greater amount into death :
The incongruity of paying what is , in effect , admission to Hell encouraged a comic or satiric treatment , and Charon as a ferryman who must be persuaded , threatened , or bribed to do his job appears to be a literary construct that is not reflected in early classical art . Christiane Sourvinou @-@ Inwood has shown that in 5th @-@ century BC depictions of Charon , as on the funerary vases called lekythoi , he is a non @-@ threatening , even reassuring presence who guides women , adolescents , and children to the afterlife . Humor , as in Aristophanes ’ s comic catabasis The Frogs , " makes the journey to Hades less frightening by articulating it explicitly and trivializing it . " Aristophanes makes jokes about the fee , and a character complains that Theseus must have introduced it , characterizing the Athenian hero in his role of city organizer as a bureaucrat .
Lucian satirizes the obol in his essay " On Funerals " :
In another satirical work of Lucian , the " Dialogs of the dead " , a character called Menippus has just died and Charon is asking for an obol in order to convey him across the river to the underworld , Menippus refuses to pay the obol , and consequently to enter the world of the dead claiming that :
Literally , " You can 't get [ any obols ] from one who doesn 't have any . "
= = Archaeological evidence = =
The use of coins as grave goods shows a variety of practice that casts doubt on the accuracy of the term " Charon ’ s obol " as an interpretational category . The phrase continues to be used , however , to suggest the ritual or religious significance of coinage in a funerary context .
Coins are found in Greek burials by the 5th century BC , as soon as Greece was monetized , and appear throughout the Roman Empire into the 5th century AD , with examples conforming to the Charon ’ s obol type as far west as the Iberian Peninsula , north into Britain , and east to the Vistula river in Poland . The jawbones of skulls found in certain burials in Roman Britain are stained greenish from contact with a copper coin ; Roman coins are found later in Anglo @-@ Saxon graves , but often pierced for wearing as a necklace or amulet . Among the ancient Greeks , only about 5 to 10 percent of known burials contain any coins at all ; in some Roman cremation cemeteries , however , as many as half the graves yield coins . Many if not most of these occurrences conform to the myth of Charon ’ s obol in neither the number of coins nor their positioning . Variety of placement and number , including but not limited to a single coin in the mouth , is characteristic of all periods and places .
= = = Hellenized world = = =
Some of the oldest coins from Mediterranean tombs have been found on Cyprus . In 2001 Destrooper @-@ Georgiades , a specialist in Achaemenid numismatics , said that investigations of 33 tombs had yielded 77 coins . Although denomination varies , as does the number in any given burial , small coins predominate . Coins started to be placed in tombs almost as soon as they came into circulation on the island in the 6th century , and some predate both the first issue of the obol and any literary reference to Charon ’ s fee .
Although only a small percentage of Greek burials contain coins , among these there are widespread examples of a single coin positioned in the mouth of a skull or with cremation remains . In cremation urns , the coin sometimes adheres to the jawbone of the skull . At Olynthus , 136 coins ( mostly bronze , but some silver ) , were found with burials ; in 1932 , archaeologists reported that 20 graves had each contained four bronze coins , which they believed were intended for placement in the mouth . A few tombs at Olynthus have contained two coins , but more often a single bronze coin was positioned in the mouth or within the head of the skeleton . In Hellenistic @-@ era tombs at one cemetery in Athens , coins , usually bronze , were found most often in the dead person ’ s mouth , though sometimes in the hand , loose in the grave , or in a vessel . At Chania , an originally Minoan settlement on Crete , a tomb dating from the second half of the 3rd century BC held a rich variety of grave goods , including fine gold jewelry , a gold tray with the image of a bird , a clay vessel , a bronze mirror , a bronze strigil , and a bronze " Charon coin " depicting Zeus . In excavations of 91 tombs at a cemetery in Amphipolis during the mid- to late 1990s , a majority of the dead were found to have a coin in the mouth . The burials dated from the 4th to the late 2nd century BC .
A notable use of a danake occurred in the burial of a woman in 4th @-@ century BC Thessaly , a likely initiate into the Orphic or Dionysiac mysteries . Her religious paraphernalia included gold tablets inscribed with instructions for the afterlife and a terracotta figure of a Bacchic worshipper . Upon her lips was placed a gold danake stamped with the Gorgon ’ s head . Coins begin to appear with greater frequency in graves during the 3rd century BC , along with gold wreaths and plain unguentaria ( small bottles for oil ) in place of the earlier lekythoi . Black @-@ figure lekythoi had often depicted Dionysiac scenes ; the later white @-@ ground vessels often show Charon , usually with his pole , but rarely ( or dubiously ) accepting the coin .
The Black Sea region has also produced examples of Charon ’ s obol . At Apollonia Pontica , the custom had been practiced from the mid @-@ 4th century BC ; in one cemetery , for instance , 17 percent of graves contained small bronze local coins in the mouth or hand of the deceased . During 1998 excavations of Pichvnari , on the coast of present @-@ day Georgia , a single coin was found in seven burials , and a pair of coins in two . The coins , silver triobols of the local Colchian currency , were located near the mouth , with the exception of one that was near the hand . It is unclear whether the dead were Colchians or Greeks . The investigating archaeologists did not regard the practice as typical of the region , but speculate that the local geography lent itself to adapting the Greek myth , as bodies of the dead in actuality had to be ferried across a river from the town to the cemetery .
= = = Near East = = =
Charon ’ s obol is usually regarded as Hellenic , and a single coin in burials is often taken as a mark of Hellenization , but the practice may be independent of Greek influence in some regions . The placing of a coin in the mouth of the deceased is found also during Parthian and Sasanian times in what is now Iran . Curiously , the coin was not the danake of Persian origin , as it was sometimes among the Greeks , but usually a Greek drachma . In the Yazdi region , objects consecrated in graves may include a coin or piece of silver ; the custom is thought to be perhaps as old as the Seleucid era and may be a form of Charon ’ s obol .
Discoveries of a single coin near the skull in tombs of the Levant suggest a similar practice among Phoenicians in the Persian period . Jewish ossuaries sometimes contain a single coin ; for example , in an ossuary bearing the inscriptional name " Miriam , daughter of Simeon , " a coin minted during the reign of Herod Agrippa I , dated 42 / 43 AD , was found in the skull ’ s mouth . Although the placement of a coin within the skull is uncommon in Jewish antiquity and was potentially an act of idolatry , rabbinic literature preserves an allusion to Charon in a lament for the dead " tumbling aboard the ferry and having to borrow his fare . " Boats are sometimes depicted on ossuaries or the walls of Jewish crypts , and one of the coins found within a skull may have been chosen because it depicted a ship .
= = = Western Europe = = =
Cemeteries in the Western Roman Empire vary widely : in a 1st @-@ century BC community in Cisalpine Gaul , coins were included in more than 40 percent of graves , but none was placed in the mouth of the deceased ; the figure is only 10 percent for cremations at Empúries in Spain and York in Britain . On the Iberian Peninsula , evidence interpreted as Charon 's obol has been found at Tarragona . In Belgic Gaul , varying deposits of coins are found with the dead for the 1st through 3rd centuries , but are most frequent in the late 4th and early 5th centuries . Thirty Gallo @-@ Roman burials near the Pont de Pasly , Soissons , each contained a coin for Charon . Germanic burials show a preference for gold coins , but even within a single cemetery and a narrow time period , their disposition varies .
In one Merovingian cemetery of Frénouville , Normandy , which was in use for four centuries after Christ , coins are found in a minority of the graves . At one time , the cemetery was regarded as exhibiting two distinct phases : an earlier Gallo @-@ Roman period when the dead were buried with vessels , notably of glass , and Charon ’ s obol ; and later , when they were given funerary dress and goods according to Frankish custom . This neat division , however , has been shown to be misleading . In the 3rd- to 4th @-@ century area of the cemetery , coins were placed near the skulls or hands , sometimes protected by a pouch or vessel , or were found in the grave @-@ fill as if tossed in . Bronze coins usually numbered one or two per grave , as would be expected from the custom of Charon ’ s obol , but one burial contained 23 bronze coins , and another held a gold solidus and a semissis . The latter examples indicate that coins might have represented relative social status . In the newer part of the cemetery , which remained in use through the 6th century , the deposition patterns for coinage were similar , but the coins themselves were not contemporaneous with the burials , and some were pierced for wearing . The use of older coins may reflect a shortage of new currency , or may indicate that the old coins held a traditional symbolic meaning apart from their denominational value . " The varied placement of coins of different values … demonstrates at least partial if not complete loss of understanding of the original religious function of Charon ’ s obol , " remarks Bonnie Effros , a specialist in Merovingian burial customs . " These factors make it difficult to determine the rite ’ s significance . "
Although the rite of Charon ’ s obol was practiced no more uniformly in Northern Europe than in Greece , there are examples of individual burials or small groups conforming to the pattern . At Broadstairs in Kent , a young man had been buried with a Merovingian gold tremissis ( ca . 575 ) in his mouth . A gold @-@ plated coin was found in the mouth of a young man buried on the Isle of Wight in the mid @-@ 6th century ; his other grave goods included vessels , a drinking horn , a knife , and gaming @-@ counters of ivory with one cobalt @-@ blue glass piece .
Scandinavian and Germanic gold bracteates found in burials of the 5th and 6th centuries , particularly those in Britain , have also been interpreted in light of Charon ’ s obol . These gold disks , similar to coins though generally single @-@ sided , were influenced by late Roman imperial coins and medallions but feature iconography from Norse myth and runic inscriptions . The stamping process created an extended rim that forms a frame with a loop for threading ; the bracteates often appear in burials as a woman ’ s necklace . A function comparable to that of Charon ’ s obol is suggested by examples such as a man ’ s burial at Monkton in Kent and a group of several male graves on Gotland , Sweden , for which the bracteate was deposited in a pouch beside the body . In the Gotland burials , the bracteates lack rim and loop , and show no traces of wear , suggesting that they had not been intended for everyday use .
According to one interpretation , the purse @-@ hoard in the Sutton Hoo ship burial ( Suffolk , East Anglia ) , which contained a variety of Merovingian gold coins , unites the traditional Germanic voyage to the afterlife with " an unusually splendid form of Charon ’ s obol . " The burial yielded 37 gold tremisses dating from the late 6th and early 7th century , three unstruck coin blanks , and two small gold ingots . It has been conjectured that the coins were to pay the oarsmen who would row the ship into the next world , while the ingots were meant for the steersmen . Although Charon is usually a lone figure in depictions from both antiquity and the modern era , there is some slight evidence that his ship might be furnished with oarsmen . A fragment of 6th century BC pottery has been interpreted as Charon sitting in the stern as steersman of a boat fitted with ten pairs of oars and rowed by eidola ( εἴδωλα ) , shades of the dead . A reference in Lucian seems also to imply that the shades might row the boat .
In Scandinavia , scattered examples of Charon ’ s obol have been documented from the Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period ; in the Viking age eastern Sweden produces the best evidence , Denmark rarely , and Norway and Finland inconclusively . In the 13th and 14th centuries , Charon ’ s obol appears in graves in Sweden , Scania , and Norway . Swedish folklore documents the custom from the 18th into the 20th century .
= = = Among Christians = = =
The custom of Charon ’ s obol not only continued into the Christian era , but was adopted by Christians , as a single coin was sometimes placed in the mouth for Christian burials . At Arcy @-@ Sainte @-@ Restitue in Picardy , a Merovingian grave yielded a coin of Constantine I , the first Christian emperor , used as Charon ’ s obol . In Britain , the practice was just as frequent , if not more so , among Christians and persisted even to the end of the 19th century . A folklorist writing in 1914 was able to document a witness in Britain who had seen a penny placed in the mouth of an old man as he lay in his coffin . In 1878 , Pope Pius IX was entombed with a coin . The practice was widely documented around the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in Greece , where the coin was sometimes accompanied by a key .
= = = ' Ghost ' coins and crosses = = =
See also Exonumia .
So @-@ called " ghost coins " also appear with the dead . These are impressions of an actual coin or numismatic icon struck into a small piece of gold foil . In a 5th- or 4th @-@ century BC grave at Syracuse , Sicily , a small rectangular gold leaf stamped with a dual @-@ faced figure , possibly Demeter / Kore , was found in the skeleton ’ s mouth . In a marble cremation box from the mid @-@ 2nd century BC , the " Charon 's piece " took the form of a bit of gold foil stamped with an owl ; in addition to the charred bone fragments , the box also contained gold leaves from a wreath of the type sometimes associated with the mystery religions . Within an Athenian family burial plot of the 2nd century BC , a thin gold disk similarly stamped with the owl of Athens had been placed in the mouth of each male .
These examples of the " Charon 's piece " resemble in material and size the tiny inscribed tablet or funerary amulet called a lamella ( Latin for a metal @-@ foil sheet ) or a Totenpass , a " passport for the dead " with instructions on navigating the afterlife , conventionally regarded as a form of Orphic or Dionysiac devotional . Several of these prayer sheets have been found in positions that indicate placement in or on the deceased 's mouth . A functional equivalence with the Charon 's piece is further suggested by the evidence of flattened coins used as mouth coverings ( epistomia ) from graves in Crete . A gold phylactery with a damaged inscription invoking the syncretic god Sarapis was found within the skull in a burial from the late 1st century AD in southern Rome . The gold tablet may have served both as a protective amulet during the deceased ’ s lifetime and then , with its insertion into the mouth , possibly on the model of Charon ’ s obol , as a Totenpass .
In a late Roman @-@ era burial in Douris , near Baalbek , Lebanon , the forehead , nose , and mouth of the deceased — a woman , in so far as skeletal remains can indicate — were covered with sheets of gold @-@ leaf . She wore a wreath made from gold oak leaves , and her clothing had been sewn with gold @-@ leaf ovals decorated with female faces . Several glass vessels were arranged at her feet , and her discoverers interpreted the bronze coin close to her head as an example of Charon ’ s obol .
Textual evidence also exists for covering portions of the deceased ’ s body with gold foil . One of the accusations of heresy against the Phrygian Christian movement known as the Montanists was that they sealed the mouths of their dead with plates of gold like initiates into the mysteries ; factual or not , the charge indicates an anxiety that Christian practice be distinguished from that of other religions , and again suggests that Charon ’ s obol and the " Orphic " gold tablets could fulfill a similar purpose . The early Christian poet Prudentius seems to be referring either to these inscribed gold @-@ leaf tablets or to the larger gold @-@ foil coverings in one of his condemnations of the mystery religions . Prudentius says that auri lammina ( " sheets of gold " ) were placed on the bodies of initiates as part of funeral rites . This practice may or may not be distinct from the funerary use of gold leaf inscribed with figures and placed on the eyes , mouths , and chests of warriors in Macedonian burials during the late Archaic period ( 580 – 460 BC ) ; in September 2008 , archaeologists working near Pella in northern Greece publicized the discovery of twenty warrior graves in which the deceased wore bronze helmets and were supplied with iron swords and knives along with these gold @-@ leaf coverings .
= = = = Goldblattkreuze = = = =
In Gaul and in Alemannic territory , Christian graves of the Merovingian period reveal an analogous Christianized practice in the form of gold or gold @-@ alloy leaf shaped like a cross , imprinted with designs , and deposited possibly as votives or amulets for the deceased . These paper @-@ thin , fragile gold crosses are sometimes referred to by scholars with the German term Goldblattkreuze . They appear to have been sown onto the deceased ’ s garment just before burial , not worn during life , and in this practice are comparable to the pierced Roman coins found in Anglo @-@ Saxon graves that were attached to clothing instead of or in addition to being threaded onto a necklace .
The crosses are characteristic of Lombardic Italy ( Cisalpine Gaul of the Roman imperial era ) , where they were fastened to veils and placed over the deceased 's mouth in a continuation of Byzantine practice . Throughout the Lombardic realm and north into Germanic territory , the crosses gradually replaced bracteates during the 7th century . The transition is signalled by Scandinavian bracteates found in Kent that are stamped with cross motifs resembling the Lombardic crosses . Two plain gold @-@ foil crosses of Latin form , found in the burial of a 7th @-@ century East Saxon king , are the first known examples from England , announced in 2004 . The king ’ s other grave goods included glass vessels made in England and two different Merovingian gold coins , each of which had a cross on the reverse . Coins of the period were adapted with Christian iconography in part to facilitate their use as an alternative to amulets of traditional religions .
= = = = Scandinavian gullgubber = = = =
Scandinavia also produced small and fragile gold @-@ foil pieces , called gullgubber , that were worked in repoussé with human figures . These begin to appear in the late Iron Age and continue into the Viking Age . In form they resemble the gold @-@ foil pieces such as those found at Douris , but the gullgubber were not fashioned with a fastening element and are not associated with burials . They occur in the archaeological record sometimes singly , but most often in large numbers . Some scholars have speculated that they are a form of " temple money " or votive offering , but Sharon Ratke has suggested that they might represent good wishes for travelers , perhaps as a metaphor for the dead on their journey to the otherworld , especially those depicting " wraiths . "
= = Religious significance = =
Ships often appear in Greek and Roman funerary art representing a voyage to the Isles of the Blessed , and a 2nd @-@ century sarcophagus found in Velletri , near Rome , included Charon ’ s boat among its subject matter . In modern @-@ era Greek folkloric survivals of Charon ( as Charos the death demon ) , sea voyage and river crossing are conflated , and in one later tale , the soul is held hostage by pirates , perhaps representing the oarsmen , who require a ransom for release . The mytheme of the passage to the afterlife as a voyage or crossing is not unique to Greco @-@ Roman belief nor to Indo @-@ European culture as a whole , as it occurs also in ancient Egyptian religion and other belief systems that are culturally unrelated . The boatman of the dead himself appears in diverse cultures with no special relation to Greece or to each other . A Sumerian model for Charon has been proposed , and the figure has possible antecedents among the Egyptians ; scholars are divided as to whether these influenced the tradition of Charon , but the 1st @-@ century BC historian Diodorus Siculus thought so and mentions the fee . It might go without saying that only when coinage comes into common use is the idea of payment introduced , but coins were placed in graves before the appearance of the Charon myth in literature .
Because of the diversity of religious beliefs in the Greco @-@ Roman world , and because the mystery religions that were most concerned with the afterlife and soteriology placed a high value on secrecy and arcane knowledge , no single theology has been reconstructed that would account for Charon ’ s obol . Franz Cumont regarded the numerous examples found in Roman tombs as " evidence of no more than a traditional rite which men performed without attaching a definite meaning to it . " The use of a coin for the rite seems to depend not just on the myth of Charon , but also on other religious and mythic traditions associating wealth and the underworld .
= = = Death and Wealth = = =
In cultures that practiced the rite of Charon ’ s obol , the infernal ferryman who requires payment is one of a number of underworld deities associated with wealth . For the Greeks , Pluto ( Ploutōn , Πλούτων ) , the ruler of the dead and the consort of Persephone , became conflated with Plutus ( Ploutos , Πλοῦτος ) , wealth personified ; Plato points out the meaningful ambiguity of this etymological play in his dialogue Cratylus . Hermes is a god of boundaries , travel , and liminality , and thus conveys souls across the border that separates the living from the dead , acting as a psychopomp , but he was also a god of exchange , commerce , and profit . The name of his Roman counterpart Mercury was thought in antiquity to share its derivation with the Latin word merces , " goods , merchandise . "
The numerous chthonic deities among the Romans were also frequently associated with wealth . In his treatise On the Nature of the Gods , Cicero identifies the Roman god Dis Pater with the Greek Pluton , explaining that riches are hidden in and arise from the earth . Dis Pater is sometimes regarded as a chthonic Saturn , ruler of the Golden Age , whose consort Ops was a goddess of abundance . The obscure goddess Angerona , whose iconography depicted silence and secrecy , and whose festival followed that of Ops , seems to have regulated communications between the realm of the living and the underworld ; she may have been a guardian of both arcane knowledge and stored , secret wealth . When a Roman died , the treasury at the Temple of Venus in the sacred grove of the funeral goddess Libitina collected a coin as a " death tax " .
The Republican poet Ennius locates the " treasuries of Death " across the Acheron . Romans threw an annual offering of coins into the Lacus Curtius , a pit or chasm in the middle of the Roman forum that was regarded as a mundus or " port of communication " with the underworld .
Chthonic wealth is sometimes attributed to the Celtic horned god of the Cernunnos type , one of the deities proposed as the divine progenitor of the Gauls that Julius Caesar identified with Dis Pater . On a relief from the Gallic civitas of the Remi , the god holds in his lap a sack or purse , the contents of which — identified by scholars variably as coins or food ( grain , small fruits , or nuts ) — may be intentionally ambiguous in expressing desired abundance . The antler @-@ horned god appears on coins from Gaul and Britain , in explicit association with wealth . In his best @-@ known representation , on the problematic Gundestrup Cauldron , he is surrounded by animals with mythico @-@ religious significance ; taken in the context of an accompanying scene of initiation , the horned god can be interpreted as presiding over the process of metempsychosis , the cycle of death and rebirth , regarded by ancient literary sources as one of the most important tenets of Celtic religion and characteristic also of Pythagoreanism and the Orphic or Dionysiac mysteries .
From its 7th @-@ century BC beginnings in western Anatolia , ancient coinage was viewed not as distinctly secular , but as a form of communal trust bound up in the ties expressed by religion . The earliest known coin @-@ hoard from antiquity was found buried in a pot within the foundations of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus , dating to the mid @-@ 6th century BC . The iconography of gods and various divine beings appeared regularly on coins issued by Greek cities and later by Rome . The effect of monetization on religious practice is indicated by notations in Greek calendars of sacrifices pertaining to fees for priests and prices for offerings and victims . One fragmentary text seems to refer to a single obol to be paid by each initiate of the Eleusinian Mysteries to the priestess of Demeter , the symbolic value of which is perhaps to be interpreted in light of Charon ’ s obol as the initiate ’ s gaining access to knowledge required for successful passage to the afterlife .
Erwin Rohde argued , on the basis of later folk customs , that the obol was originally a payment to the dead person himself , as a way of compensating him for the loss of property that passed to the living , or as a token substitute for the more ancient practice of consigning his property to the grave with him . In Rohde 's view , the obol was later attached to the myth of the ferryman as an ex post facto explanation .
In the view of Richard Seaford , the introduction of coinage to Greece and the theorizing about value it provoked was concomitant with and even contributed to the creation of Greek metaphysics . Plato criticizes common currency as " polluting " , but also says that the guardians of his ideal republic should have divine gold and silver money from the gods always present in their souls . This Platonic " money in the soul " holds the promise of " divinity , homogeneity , unchanging permanence , self @-@ sufficiency , invisibility . "
= = = The coin as food or seal = = =
Attempts to explain the symbolism of the rite also must negotiate the illogical placement of the coin in the mouth . The Latin term viaticum makes sense of Charon ’ s obol as " sustenance for the journey , " and it has been suggested that coins replaced offerings of food for the dead in Roman tradition .
This dichotomy of food for the living and gold for the dead is a theme in the myth of King Midas , versions of which draw on elements of the Dionysian mysteries . The Phrygian king 's famous " golden touch " was a divine gift from Dionysus , but its acceptance separated him from the human world of nourishment and reproduction : both his food and his daughter were transformed by contact with him into immutable , unreciprocal gold . In some versions of the myth , Midas 's hard @-@ won insight into the meaning of life and the limitations of earthly wealth is accompanied by conversion to the cult of Dionysus . Having learned his lessons as an initiate into the mysteries , and after ritual immersion in the river Pactolus , Midas forsakes the " bogus eternity " of gold for spiritual rebirth .
John Cuthbert Lawson , an early 20th @-@ century folklorist whose approach was influenced by the Cambridge Ritualists , argued that both the food metaphor and the coin as payment for the ferryman were later rationalizations of the original ritual . Although single coins from inhumations appear most often inside or in the vicinity of the skull , they are also found in the hand or a pouch , a more logical place to carry a payment . Lawson viewed the coin as originally a seal , used as potsherds sometimes were on the lips of the dead to block the return of the soul , believed to pass from the body with the last breath . One of the first steps in preparing a corpse was to seal the lips , sometimes with linen or gold bands , to prevent the soul ’ s return . The stopping of the mouth by Charon 's obol has been used to illuminate burial practices intended , for instance , to prevent vampires or other revenants from returning .
The placement of the coin on the mouth can be compared to practices pertaining to the disposition of the dead in the Near East . An Egyptian custom is indicated by a burial at Abydos , dating from the 22nd Dynasty ( 945 – 720 BC ) or later , for which the deceased woman 's mouth was covered with a faience uadjet , or protective eye amulet . Oval mouth coverings , perforated for fastening , are found in burials throughout the Near East from the 1st century BC through the 1st century AD , providing evidence of an analogous practice for sealing the mouths of the dead in regions not under Roman Imperial control . Bahraini excavations at the necropolis of Al @-@ Hajjar produced examples of these coverings in gold leaf , one of which retained labial imprints .
A coin may make a superior seal because of its iconography ; in the Thessalian burial of an initiate described above , for instance , the coin on the lips depicted the apotropaic device of the Gorgon ’ s head . The seal may also serve to regulate the speech of the dead , which was sometimes sought through rituals for its prophetic powers , but also highly regulated as dangerous ; mystery religions that offered arcane knowledge of the afterlife prescribed ritual silence . A golden key ( chrusea klês ) was laid on the tongue of initiates as a symbol of the revelation they were obligated to keep secret . " Charon 's obol " is often found in burials with objects or inscriptions indicative of mystery cult , and the coin figures in a Latin prose narrative that alludes to initiation ritual , the " Cupid and Psyche " story from the Metamorphoses of Apuleius .
= = = The catabasis of Psyche = = =
See Cupid and Psyche for a synopsis of Apuleius 's narrative .
In the 2nd @-@ century " Cupid and Psyche " narrative by Apuleius , Psyche , whose name is a Greek word for " soul , " is sent on an underworld quest to retrieve the box containing Proserpina ’ s secret beauty , in order to restore the love of Cupid . The tale lends itself to multiple interpretational approaches , and it has frequently been analyzed as an allegory of Platonism as well as of religious initiation , iterating on a smaller scale the plot of the Metamorphoses as a whole , which concerns the protagonist Lucius ’ s journey towards salvation through the cult of Isis . Ritual elements were associated with the story even before Apuleius ’ s version , as indicated in visual representations ; for instance , a 1st @-@ century BC sardonyx cameo depicting the wedding of Cupid and Psyche shows an attendant elevating a liknon ( basket ) used in Dionysiac initiation . C. Moreschini saw the Metamorphoses as moving away from the Platonism of Apuleius ’ s earlier Apology toward a vision of mystic salvation .
Before embarking on her descent , Psyche receives instructions for navigating the underworld :
The two coins serve the plot by providing Psyche with fare for the return ; allegorically , this return trip suggests the soul ’ s rebirth , perhaps a Platonic reincarnation or the divine form implied by the so @-@ called Orphic gold tablets . The myth of Charon has rarely been interpreted in light of mystery religions , despite the association in Apuleius and archaeological evidence of burials that incorporate both Charon ’ s obol and cultic paraphernalia . And yet " the image of the ferry , " Helen King notes , " hints that death is not final , but can be reversed , because the ferryman could carry his passengers either way . " A funeral rite is itself a kind of initiation , or the transition of the soul into another stage of " life . "
= = = Coins on the eyes ? = = =
Contrary to popular aetiology there is little evidence to connect the myth of Charon to the custom of placing a pair of coins on the eyes of the deceased , though the larger gold @-@ foil coverings discussed above might include pieces shaped for the eyes . Pairs of coins are sometimes found in burials , including cremation urns ; among the collections of the British Museum is an urn from Athens , ca . 300 BC , that contained cremated remains , two obols , and a terracotta figure of a mourning siren . Ancient Greek and Latin literary sources , however , mention a pair of coins only when a return trip is anticipated , as in the case of Psyche ’ s catabasis , and never in regard to sealing the eyes .
Only rarely does the placement of a pair of coins suggest they might have covered the eyes . In Judea , a pair of silver denarii were found in the eye sockets of a skull ; the burial dated to the 2nd century A.D. occurs within a Jewish community , but the religious affiliation of the deceased is unclear . Jewish ritual in antiquity did not require that the eye be sealed by an object , and it is debatable whether the custom of placing coins on the eyes of the dead was practiced among Jews prior to the modern era . During the 1980s , the issue became embroiled with the controversies regarding the Shroud of Turin when it was argued that the eye area revealed the outlines of coins ; since the placement of coins on the eyes for burial is not securely attested in antiquity , apart from the one example from Judea cited above , this interpretation of evidence obtained through digital image processing cannot be claimed as firm support for the shroud 's authenticity .
= = = Coins at the feet = = =
Coins are found also at the deceased ’ s feet , although the purpose of this positioning is uncertain . John Chrysostom mentions and disparages the use of coins depicting Alexander the Great as amulets attached by the living to the head or feet , and offers the Christian cross as a more powerful alternative for both salvation and healing :
= = Christian transformation = =
With instructions that recall those received by Psyche for her heroic descent , or the inscribed Totenpass for initiates , the Christian protagonist of a 14th @-@ century French pilgrimage narrative is advised :
Anglo @-@ Saxon and early – medieval Irish missionaries took the idea of a viaticum literally , carrying the Eucharistic bread and oil with them everywhere .
The need for a viaticum figures in a myth @-@ tinged account of the death of King William II of England , told by the Anglo @-@ Norman chronicler Geoffrey Gaimar : dying from a battle wound and delirious , the desperate king kept calling out for the corpus domini ( Lord ’ s body ) until a huntsman acted as priest and gave him flowering herbs as his viaticum . In the dominant tradition of William 's death , he is killed while hunting on the second day of red stag season , which began August 1 , the date of both Lughnasadh and the Feast of St. Peter 's Chains .
The hunt is also associated with the administering of a herbal viaticum in the medieval chansons de geste , in which traditional heroic culture and Christian values interpenetrate . The chansons offer multiple examples of grass or foliage substituted as a viaticum when a warrior or knight meets his violent end outside the Christian community . Sarah Kay views this substitute rite as communion with the Girardian " primitive sacred , " speculating that " pagan " beliefs lurk beneath a Christian veneer . In the Raoul de Cambrai , the dying Bernier receives three blades of grass in place of the corpus Domini . Two other chansons place this desire for communion within the mytheme of the sacrificial boar hunt . In Daurel et Beton , Bove is murdered next to the boar he just killed ; he asks his own killer to grant him communion " with a leaf , " and when he is denied , he then asks that his enemy eat his heart instead . This request is granted ; the killer partakes of the victim ’ s body as an alternative sacrament . In Garin le Loheren , Begon is similarly assassinated next to the corpse of a boar , and takes communion with three blades of grass .
Kay ’ s conjecture that a pre @-@ Christian tradition accounts for the use of leaves as the viaticum is supported by evidence from Hellenistic magico @-@ religious practice , the continuance of which is documented in Gaul and among Germanic peoples . Spells from the Greek Magical Papyri often require the insertion of a leaf — an actual leaf , a papyrus scrap , the representation of a leaf in metal foil , or an inscribed rectangular lamella ( as described above ) — into the mouth of a corpse or skull , as a means of conveying messages to and from the realms of the living and the dead . In one spell attributed to Pitys the Thessalian , the practitioner is instructed to inscribe a flax leaf with magic words and to insert it into the mouth of a dead person .
The insertion of herbs into the mouth of the dead , with a promise of resurrection , occurs also in the Irish tale " The Kern in the Narrow Stripes , " the earliest written version of which dates to the 1800s but is thought to preserve an oral tradition of early Irish myth . The kern of the title is an otherworldly trickster figure who performs a series of miracles ; after inducing twenty armed men to kill each other , he produces herbs from his bag and instructs his host 's gatekeeper to place them within the jaws of each dead man to bring him back to life . At the end of the tale , the mysterious visitor is revealed as Manannán mac Lir , the Irish god known in other stories for his herd of pigs that offer eternal feasting from their self @-@ renewing flesh .
= = = Sacrament and superstition = = =
Scholars have frequently suggested that the use of a viaticum in the Christian rite for the dying reflected preexisting religious practice , with Charon ’ s obol replaced by a more acceptably Christian sacrament . In one miraculous story , recounted by Pope Innocent III in a letter dated 1213 , the coins in a moneybox were said literally to have been transformed into communion wafers . Because of the viaticum ’ s presumed pre @-@ Christian origin , an anti @-@ Catholic historian of religion at the turn of the 18th – 19th centuries propagandized the practice , stating that " it was from the heathens [ that ] the papists borrowed it . " Contemporary scholars are more likely to explain the borrowing in light of the deep @-@ seated conservatism of burial practices or as a form of religious syncretism motivated by a psychological need for continuity .
Among Christians , the practice of burying a corpse with a coin in its mouth was never widespread enough to warrant condemnation from the Church , but the substitute rite came under official scrutiny ; the viaticum should not be , but often was , placed in the mouth after death , apparently out of a superstitious desire for its magical protection . By the time Augustine wrote his Confessions , " African bishops had forbidden the celebration of the eucharist in the presence of the corpse . This was necessary to stop the occasional practice of placing the eucharistic bread in the mouth of the dead , a viaticum which replaced the coin needed to pay Charon ’ s fare . " Pope Gregory I , in his biography of Benedict of Nursia , tells the story of a monk whose body was twice ejected from his tomb ; Benedict advised the family to restore the dead man to his resting place with the viaticum placed on his chest . The placement suggests a functional equivalence with the Goldblattkreuze and the Orphic gold tablets ; its purpose — to assure the deceased ’ s successful passage to the afterlife — is analogous to that of Charon ’ s obol and the Totenpässe of mystery initiates , and in this case it acts also as a seal to block the dead from returning to the world of the living .
Ideally , the journey into death would begin immediately after taking the sacrament . Eusebius offers an example of an elderly Christian who managed to hold off death until his grandson placed a portion of the Eucharist in his mouth . In a general audience October 24 , 2007 , Pope Benedict XVI quoted Paulinus ’ s account of the death of St. Ambrose , who received and swallowed the corpus Domini and immediately " gave up his spirit , taking the good Viaticum with him . His soul , thus refreshed by the virtue of that food , now enjoys the company of Angels . " A perhaps apocryphal story from a Cistercian chronicle circa 1200 indicates that the viaticum was regarded as an apotropaic seal against demons ( ad avertendos daemonas ) , who nevertheless induced a woman to attempt to snatch the Host ( viaticum ) from the mouth of Pope Urban III ’ s corpse . Like Charon 's obol , the viaticum can serve as both sustenance for the journey and seal .
In the 19th century , the German scholar Georg Heinrici proposed that Greek and Roman practices pertaining to the care of the dead , specifically including Charon ’ s obol , shed light on vicarious baptism , or baptism for the dead , to which St. Paul refers in a letter to the Corinthians . A century after Heinrici , James Downey examined the funerary practices of Christian Corinthians in historical context and argued that they intended vicarious baptism to protect the deceased ’ s soul against interference on the journey to the afterlife . Both vicarious baptism and the placement of a viaticum in the mouth of a person already dead reflect Christian responses to , rather than outright rejection of , ancient religious traditions pertaining to the cult of the dead .
= = Art of the modern era = =
Although Charon has been a popular subject of art , particularly in the 19th century , the act of payment is less often depicted . An exception is the Charon and Psyche of John Roddam Spencer Stanhope , exhibited ca . 1883 . The story of Cupid and Psyche found several expressions among the Pre @-@ Raphaelite artists and their literary peers , and Stanhope , while mourning the death of his only child , produced a number of works dealing with the afterlife . His Psyche paintings were most likely based on the narrative poem of William Morris that was a retelling of the version by Apuleius . In Stanhope ’ s vision , the ferryman is a calm and patriarchal figure more in keeping with the Charon of the archaic Greek lekythoi than the fearsome antagonist often found in Christian @-@ era art and literature .
The contemporary artist Bradley Platz extends the theme of Charon ’ s obol as a viatical food in his oil @-@ on @-@ canvas work Charon and the Shades ( 2007 ) . In this depiction , Charon is a hooded , faceless figure of Death ; the transported soul regurgitates a stream of gold coins while the penniless struggle and beg on the shores . The painting was created for a show in which artists were to bring together a mythological figure and a pop @-@ culture icon , chosen randomly . The " soul " in Platz ’ s reinterpretation is the " celebutante " Nicole Richie " as a general symbol for the modern celebrity and wealth , " notes the artist : " She is represented dry and emaciated , having little physical beauty left but a wealth of gold " which she purges from her mouth .
= = Modern poetry = =
Poets of the modern era have continued to make use of Charon 's obol as a living allusion . In " Don Juan aux enfers " ( " Don Juan in Hell " ) , the French Symboliste poet Charles Baudelaire marks the eponymous hero 's entry to the underworld with his payment of the obol to Charon . Irish Nobel laureate Seamus Heaney makes a less direct allusion with a simile — " words imposing on my tongue like obols " — in the " Fosterage " section of his long poem Singing School :
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= Darin Ruf =
Darin Cortland Ruf ( born July 28 , 1986 ) is an American professional baseball first baseman and outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball . He was born in Omaha , Nebraska , and played at Westside High School . Subsequently , he attended Creighton University , and excelled playing baseball there before the Phillies drafted him in 2009 . In the minor leagues , he initially hit for a high batting average , but in 2011 combined that with power numbers to become one of the Phillies ' top prospects . He made his major league debut in September 2012 , after having hit 38 home runs to lead the Eastern League . In 2013 , he split time between Triple @-@ A and the major league Phillies , and was among the league 's top rookies during the season . He was embroiled in a roster battle for a bench spot entering 2014 , but hurt his oblique , and landed on the disabled list prior to the season .
= = Early life and career = =
Ruf was born on July 28 , 1986 to parents Bill and Mary Ruf in Omaha , Nebraska ; he has four siblings ( one of which is older , the rest younger ) . He attended Westside High School , where he helped the team win a Nebraska state championship his sophomore season and finish as the runner @-@ up his senior year . He also played football and basketball , and was the captain of the baseball and football teams – during his senior season , he achieved all @-@ state honors in both football and basketball . After his senior season , he committed to play baseball at Creighton for its " combination of athletics and academics " ; there , he was a " standout " over his four seasons , serving as the squad 's first baseman .
Even in Ruf 's freshman season ( 2006 ) , he started all 52 games . His sophomore season ( 2007 ) drew him significant accolade – he was named the Missouri Valley Conference ( MVC ) Player of the Year , a member of both the first @-@ team all conference squad , and a first @-@ team all @-@ conference scholar athlete . He also was named an all @-@ star for his performance in summer collegiate baseball , for which he was a member of the Wisconsin Woodchucks of the Northwoods League . His strong performance continued during his junior season ( 2008 ) , during which he compiled a 15 @-@ game hitting streak that contributed to his .347 season batting average . His collegiate career culminated in 2009 , when he was named to the second @-@ team all @-@ MVC team and a third @-@ team academic @-@ all American by ESPN . Overall , he is " all over the Bluejay record books , finishing second in RBI with 201 , third in total bases with 423 and in hits with 275 , sixth in walks with 135 , seventh in doubles with 57 and tied for 10th in home runs with 27 ... ( he ) started all 227 games in his career . " While at Creighton , he earned a degree in finance , compiled a 3 @.@ 51 grade point average ( GPA ) , and aspired to be a successful businessman .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues ( 2009 – 11 ) = = =
Ruf was drafted by the Philadelphia Phillies in the 20th round of the 2009 Major League Baseball draft . After the Phillies drafted him , scouting director Marti Wolever asserted that Ruf " is an outstanding defensive first baseman with a chance to hit and has tremendous makeup . " After converting to play predominantly in the outfield , however , Ruf 's fielding has been characterized as either " serviceable " or " weak " , and Phillies general manager Rubén Amaro , Jr. commented that he did not have the defensive skills to play every day .
His first professional assignment was the GCL Phillies in 2009 ; after performing well there , he was promoted to the Williamsport Crosscutters of short season A. With both squads , he held a batting average of over .300 . He also participated in the Florida Instructional League . In 2010 , he began the season with the Lakewood BlueClaws , also of Class A , but spent only 32 games there . The Phillies promoted him to the Class A @-@ Advanced Clearwater Threshers , and was the Phillies ' minor league player of the week in late May . In total , he amassed nine home runs and 67 runs batted in ( RBIs ) while posting a .290 amalgamated batting average . His power emergence began in 2011 when he hit a Florida State League @-@ leading 43 doubles , as well as 17 home runs and 82 RBIs and a .308 batting average . Defensively , he played first base , third base , and left field , and even pitched two innings of relief during a 23 @-@ inning game . After the season , he played in the Arizona Fall League for the Scottsdale Scorpions .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies ( 2012 – present ) = = =
Ruf enjoyed great success playing for the Reading Phillies ( since renamed the Reading Fightin Phils ) in 2012 , earning Eastern League most valuable player ( MVP ) honors , as well as the Paul Owens Award , which is given to the best player in the Phillies ' minor league system . During the season , the Fightin Phils sold T @-@ shirts that said " Babe Ruf " , a reference to Babe Ruth . He led the Eastern League with 38 home runs and 104 RBIs , and tied for the league lead by playing in 139 games and 11 sacrifice flies , all en route to earning a September callup and making his major league debut on September 14 ( skipping the Triple @-@ A level entirely ) . He recorded his first major league hit on September 25 , a home run off the Washington Nationals ' Ross Detwiler . Ruf totaled three home runs and 10 RBIs in his 12 @-@ game " cup of coffee " at the end of the season . An article on Phillies Nation summarized his season and journey through the minor league system :
Darin Ruf slugged his way onto the scene about midway through the 2012 season with the Reading Phillies ; it wasn ’ t as though Ruf was some highly @-@ touted prospect everyone knew about . Really , he was an afterthought at 26 years old ; a guy who was just kind of there . That all changed .
Ruf started the 2013 season in Triple @-@ A with the Lehigh Valley IronPigs , but was recalled by the Phillies on July 6 when Ryan Howard was placed on the disabled list . At the major league level , he finished fifth among rookies with 14 home runs , nine of which were in August , the most among any major league player during that stretch . Of his 70 starts at the major league level , 28 were at first base , 27 in right field , and 16 in left field , while of his 78 starts in Triple @-@ A , 59 came in left field and 19 came at first base . Ruf struggled to find a spot on the Phillies roster at which he could contribute , despite strong performance : " Even after proving he can be a productive offensive contributor and showing his defensive versatility , Ruf 's spot in the Phils ’ lineup may not be locked in for next season . " one columnist wrote .
Entering the 2014 season , he was set to compete for a spot on the bench , as Amaro declared that he was not good enough , particularly defensively , to play everyday . However , the Phillies placed him on the disabled list ( DL ) due to a strained oblique ; his estimated recovery time was around the end of April or the beginning of May . When Ruf returned , he played for the IronPigs , but suffered another injury on June 3 , fracturing his left wrist when sliding into the wall while playing left field . He returned to the major league Phillies on July 22 when John Mayberry , Jr. landed on the disabled list , but struggled in his first several games ; in his first 17 at @-@ bats , he had just two hits . Nevertheless , the Phillies toyed with platooning him with Ryan Howard , who was also struggling , at first base , and Ruf also played two innings at third base . Overall , Ruf amassed only 117 major league plate appearances , and was significantly hindered by injuries .
As 2015 began , Ruf once again had to fight for playing time ; there was no clear opening for him on the Phillies ' roster , notwithstanding the fact that he was one of the few players on the roster with the ability to hit for power .
On May 13 , 2016 , Ruf was optioned to Triple @-@ A in exchange for Tommy Joseph .
= = Player profile = =
Eric Longehagen , a baseball analyst for Crashburn Alley , asserts that Ruf 's ceiling is a platoon player at first base , but that his superior intangibles have allowed him to overachieve in terms of his potential . He wrote ,
For him to be anything more than that would be positively historic . We ’ ve never seen a player of this age with a similar skill set ( a fringe average hitter with a huge hole in his swing and plus raw power who is a 20 runner with pretty much unknown arm strength ) do anything sustainable of note at the major league level . Ruf turns 28 halfway through next year and possesses both a skillset and body that typically don ’ t age well . It 's a very weird situation but it 's a triumph of the Phillies player development system and of Ruf 's effort that he ever put on a Major League uniform at all .
= = = Offense = = =
Ruf is a strong power hitter who , according to one talent evaluator quoted in Lindy 's Sports 2014 baseball preview magazine , possesses " raw country strength " at the plate . He has an uppercut swing , and struggles to hit outside pitches because of poor balance at the plate , but consequently , is able to hit fly balls and drive mistake pitches out of the park . He is a patient hitter , but is the opposite of many hitters , in that as a right @-@ handed hitter , he hits left @-@ handed pitchers better than right @-@ handed pitchers .
= = = Defense = = =
Ruf has played first base as well as both of the corner outfield spots during his career , and focused on the outfield during the latter stages of his development because of Ryan Howard 's perceived preeminence at first base . In the outfield , Ruf is a " liability " , and he is " pretty shaky " at first base , further underscoring his " man without a position " persona within the Phillies ' organization . This has led some to suggest he would be better suited as a designated hitter in the American League .
= = Personal life = =
Ruf 's wife is Libby Schuring , whom Ruf married in December 2011 . His hobbies include golfing and traveling . During the offseason , he resides in his hometown of Omaha , Nebraska . Christa Ruf , Ruf 's sister , also attended Creighton ; she played softball there for four seasons .
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= The X @-@ Files ( season 3 ) =
The third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files commenced airing on Fox in the United States on September 22 , 1995 , concluded on the same channel on May 17 , 1996 , and contained 24 episodes . The season continues to follow the cases of FBI special agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , portrayed by David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson respectively , who investigate paranormal or supernatural cases , known as X @-@ Files by the FBI .
The season features the conclusion of several plot @-@ lines introduced in season two , while also introducing several new plot elements . Major plot arcs include an elaborate conspiracy being discovered when a fake alien autopsy video is acquired by Mulder , Scully 's search for the killer of her sister , and the mystery surrounding X ( Steven Williams ) . Pivotal characters such as the First Elder ( Don S. Williams ) and the alien virus black oil were first introduced in this season . In addition , the season features a wide variety of " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " episodes , which feature stand @-@ alone stories not of influence to the wider mythology of the series .
The season attained higher ratings than season two , receiving the highest viewing audience the series had yet achieved . Season premiere " The Blessing Way " debuted with a Nielsen household rating of 19 @.@ 94 , which more than doubled the premiere of the last season . The ratings consistently stayed above 15 @.@ 0 , making it one of the most watched series of the 1995 – 96 television line @-@ up . The season received generally positive reviews from television critics , winning five Primetime Emmy Awards . Many of the episodes written by writer Darin Morgan received critical acclaim , including the episodes " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " and " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " which are often cited as some of the best of the series . Morgan left the series following this season , due to an inability to keep up with the fast paced nature of the show .
= = Plot overview = =
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is later found in the desert following the events of the second season finale and nursed back to health by Albert Hosteen ( Floyd Red Crow Westerman ) . Meanwhile , Scully investigates the possible involvement of the smallpox eradication program in human genetic experimentation , discovering that a Nazi scientist who defected during Operation Paperclip has been conducting human experimentation to create alien @-@ human hybrids . Her sister Melissa ( Melinda McGraw ) , however , is shot by assassins who mistake her for Dana , and dies in hospital that night .
Investigating evidence of an alien autopsy , Mulder infiltrates a secretive government train carriage carrying an alien @-@ human hybrid . Mulder is almost killed by a Syndicate operative guarding the hybrid , but is saved by his informant X ( Steven Williams ) . X had been tipped off about Mulder 's activities by the agent 's partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . Scully , meanwhile , meets a group of women with abduction experiences similar to her own , and meets another member of the Syndicate known as the First Elder ( Don S. Williams ) , who claims during her abduction she was placed on a similar train car and experimented upon by the Japanese scientists .
The crew of a French salvage ship trying to raise a World War II @-@ era submarine from the sea floor are stricken with massive radiation burns — except for one , who has been infected with a parasitic black oil discovered on the submarine . The oil is controlling the crewman 's body , and after passing through several hosts , has overtaken Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , whom Mulder has been pursuing . Scully finds that the submarine had been involved in discovering the oil on the sea floor during World War II , under the guise of finding a sunken fighter plane . The infected Krycek makes his way to a missile silo used to hide a UFO , and the oil escapes his body to board the craft . Meanwhile , Scully has tracked down Luis Cardinal , the man responsible for killing her sister .
= = Writing = =
Development of the first episode of the season , " The Blessing Way " , began with the second season finale " Anasazi " . Both of those episodes , along with " Paper Clip " , form a three part trilogy of episodes that began the third season . " Anasazi " was directed by R. W. Goodwin , who later directed the season finale " Talitha Cumi " , and " Paper Clip " was directed by Rob Bowman . Bowman directed a total of eight episodes for the season , followed by Kim Manners who directed seven . Series creator Chris Carter also served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote eight episodes , directing one .
Darin Morgan had a small involvement in the second season , and was asked to contribute more content for the third . He first appeared in " The Host " as the Flukeman , and was brought on by his brother Glen Morgan to help write the episode " Blood " . Morgan 's first sole credit as a writer came in the episode " Humbug " , which received a positive reception by the staff . David Duchovny expressed an enjoyment for working with Morgan , commenting " what I loved about his scripts was that he seemed to be trying to destroy the show . " Morgan wrote a total of three episodes , but later left the series because he could not keep up with the fast paced nature of network television . He also expressed a negative opinion of the way his teleplays were handled , despite a positive reception by both critics and the crew of his work . He also contributed to the script for the episode " Quagmire " . After writing one episode the previous season , Vince Gilligan returned to write another solo episode for the season , now credited as a creative consultant . Cast member David Duchovny collaborated with Howard Gordon and Chris Carter for two episodes receiving story credit .
New writers in the third season included story editor Jeffrey Vlaming who wrote two episodes , supervising producer Charles Grant Craig who wrote a single episode , Kim Newtown who wrote two episodes , and staff writer John Shiban who wrote two episodes . All new writers except Shiban did not return after this season . Series visual effects producer Mat Beck also wrote an episode . Other producers included production manager and producer Joseph Patrick Finn and co @-@ producer Paul Rabwin .
= = Themes = =
" Nisei " and " 731 " , show a darker side to the series , exploring the public 's distrust in the government . Other episodes dealing with the wider mythology of the series — " Talitha Cumi " , " Piper Maru " and " Apocrypha " — explore similar concepts , showcasing the shadow government plot line of the series . Episodes like " 2Shy " and " Pusher " feature sadistic villains , containing human beings capable of highly immoral acts despite their seemingly mundane appearances . Another episode with a serial killer antagonist , " Grotesque " , revolves around the way that evil can change and influence people . " Oubliette " offers a sentimental and emotional plot driven by the kidnapping of a young girl . The episode features parallels to the real life Polly Klaas case and provides commentary on both stockholm syndrome and trauma .
Aliens and serial killers are not the only antagonists in the season ; several episodes revolve around more traditional , B @-@ movie inspired monsters , taking influence from horror films . These episodes include " War of the Coprophages " and " Quagmire " , about killer cockroaches and a lake monster . Several episodes have satirical elements , including " D.P.O. " , " Syzygy " and " War of the Coprophages " , with the latter two showcasing how the public can create panic out of need . Both " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " and " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " play against tropes and the established formula of the series , subverting themes the series usually followed .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder ( 24 episodes )
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully ( 24 episodes )
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = = Also starring = = = =
Mitch Pileggi as Deputy Director Walter Skinner ( 10 episodes )
= = = = Guest starring = = = =
= = Episodes = =
Episodes marked with a double dagger ( ) are episodes in the series ' Alien Mythology arc .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The third season of The X @-@ Files debuted with " The Blessing Way " on September 22 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 3 , with a 22 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 22 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . The episode was viewed by 19 @.@ 94 million viewers . " The Blessing Way " was , at the time , the highest @-@ rated episode of The X @-@ Files to air ; the previous record belonged to the season two entry " Fresh Bones " , which only scored an 11 @.@ 3 rating with a 19 share . As the season continued , however , ratings dropped slightly and stabilized . After the season premiere , the highest @-@ rated episode the season was the finale , " Talitha Cumi " , which was viewed by 17 @.@ 86 million viewers . The season hit a low with the twenty @-@ third and penultimate episode of the season , " Wetwired " , which was viewed by only 14 @.@ 48 million viewers .
The series was ranked as number 55 during the 1995 – 96 television season , and was viewed by an average of 15 @.@ 40 million viewers , an increase in almost seven percent when compared to the second season , which was viewed by 14 @.@ 50 . In its third season , The X @-@ Files became Fox 's top @-@ rated program in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The third season of the show was the last to be aired on Friday nights ; for its fourth season , the show was moved to Sunday .
= = = Reviews = = =
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the third season The X @-@ Files ' " best season and maybe one of the greatest TV seasons of all time " , noting it was consistent and " [ swung ] from strength to strength " between mythology and stand @-@ alone episodes . However , he thought it " starts out kind of terribly " with " The Blessing Way " . Zack Handlen , VanDerWerff 's colleague , wrote that the third season was " one of the show 's strongest , with the conspiracy arc still keeping tension high instead of just vamping for time . By this point , the sometimes awkward effects work of the early years is gone , and the overall direction is highly polished , giving even the season 's weakest entries a cinematic feel " . He also stated that Morgan 's " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " and " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " were " The X @-@ Files 's two greatest hours " . The writing credits provided by Morgan was widely cited as a highlight of the season . " War of the Coprophages " written by him received positive reviews , and Entertainment Weekly gave " War of the Coprophages " an A – , who praised the absurdity and entertainment value of the episode . Another episode , " Quagmire " containing some writing credits by Morgan received positive reviews , with the 10 @-@ minute dialogue sequence featuring Mulder and Scully receiving highly positive reviews .
Gilligan 's episode " Pusher " was also cited as one of the best episodes of the series by both IGN and Den of Geek , and Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , named the episode the third best episode of The X @-@ Files and called it the " best MOTW [ " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " ] in the series history " Duchovny considers his performance in " Oubliette " as his favorite of the season , an episode that also received mostly positive reviews . Writing for DVD Talk , Earl Cressey rated the season overall four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , finding that the series ' increased budget meant that its production values and the quality of its guest appearances were better than previous seasons .
= = = Accolades = = =
The third season earned the series eight Primetime Emmy Award nominations . It received its second consecutive nomination for Outstanding Drama Series , Gillian Anderson received her first nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series , and the episode " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " was nominated for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Art Direction for a Series . The series won five awards , including Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing for a Drama Series , for the episode " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " written by Darin Morgan ; Peter Boyle won for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series for his performance in that same episode . The episode " Nisei " won for both Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Drama Series . John S. Bartley won for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Cinematography for a Series due to the episode " Grotesque " . Duchovny and Anderson were each nominated for a Golden Globe Award for their performances .
= = DVD release = =
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= Made in America ( Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West song ) =
" Made in America " is a song by American hip hop artists Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z , from their first collaborative album Watch the Throne . It is the 11th track on the album and features vocals from OFWGKTA singer Frank Ocean . Lyrically , the song explores themes of family life and the American Dream . It expresses the hardships of youth and coming of age . The track received positive reviews from music critics who praised Ocean 's vocal hook , and the subject matter of the verses . The song has been compared to " inspirational ballads of late @-@ period Michael Jackson . " The song charted on South Korea Gaon International Chart at position 178 . Jay @-@ Z and West performed the song at their 2011 Watch the Throne Tour .
= = Background = =
Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West are both American rappers who have collaborated on several tracks together . In 2010 , they began production and recording on a collaborative record Watch the Throne . Frank Ocean is an R & B recording artist who released his debut mixtape Nostalgia , Ultra in early 2011 to critical acclaim . The release of the mixtape interested West , who was reported to be a big fan . West invited Ocean to write and sing on two songs off of the record . Frank wrote and provided vocals on tracks " No Church in the Wild " and " Made in America " and the songs were recorded in New York .
= = Composition = =
The song has been described as an " understated soft @-@ pop " track with influence from Michael Jackson and his 1985 charity single " We Are the World " . Ocean 's hook " pays tribute to Martin Luther King , Jr . , Coretta Scott King , Malcolm X , Betty Shabazz and , of course , the sweet baby Jesus on the album 's most serene track . " Rob Harvilla of Spin stated that " PBR & B prince Frank Ocean " sings on the " subdued but triumphant " Made in America " ( wherein Jay wistfully recalls his grandma 's banana pudding and Kanye complains about South Park ) . The song " invokes heroes of the civil rights movement " and reflects on how West and Jay have " seized what might be an American Dream . "
Jay @-@ Z muses on his drug @-@ dealing past with lines like " our apple pie was supplied by Arm & Hammer " , utilizing " his skill at baking double- and triple @-@ meanings into a line " . West 's verse describes his " original hustle in terms of blogging and web traffic " and his conflict with fame , " tinged with a political or socio @-@ economic hue . " West offers a verse that " starts off humble , but by the end he 's bragging about his power and slamming his critics " over a " weirdly magnetic synthetic beat and dots of pretty piano clusters crafted by producer Sak Pace of the Jugganauts . " Popdust reported that " this is Jay at his most vulnerable , revealing things he may be thinking but not regularly willing to share with others . While the song ’ s chorus seems to honor all of those “ Made In America , ” the track is really a look at the history these two have shared and perhaps their differing futures . "
= = Reception = =
" Made in America " received mostly positive reviews from most music critics . Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan commented that the track reminded him of " the inspirational ballads of late @-@ period Michael Jackson " , and said that while the song was " silly " , it " succeeds on pure orchestral excess . " Rolling Stone stated that " both rappers deliver sentimental verses , but Ocean carries most of the emotional weight here . " Steve Jones of USA Today commented " on the equally potent Made in America , the two talk about their rises to fame , while acknowledging those who helped and inspired them . " Sputnikmusic 's Tyler Fisher noted that " Frank Ocean asks , “ What ’ s a god to a nonbeliever ? ” on “ No Church in the Wild ” , but later invokes “ sweet baby Jesus ” on “ Made in America ” , pandering to each track without a thought to the coherence of the album . "
Los Angeles Times writer Randall Roberts stated " the album 's highlight , and an instant classic , is “ Made in America , ” a solid , slow @-@ paced Frank Ocean @-@ teamed jam about the American dream that reveals the main difference between West and Jay @-@ Z : humility . " Popdust writer Emily Exton that while " Frank Ocean ’ s “ Sweet Baby Jesus ” might be stuck in your head for the rest of the day " , the highlist is " Kanye who manages to both appreciatively give thanks to his rise to fame as well as generate more than one eye roll with his bravado . " Rolling Stone 's Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson mused " Frank Ocean 's second appearance on the album is another keeper . Hip @-@ hop heads will be singing his honey @-@ voiced , religiously @-@ themed hook all fall . Jay @-@ Z and Kanye keep the thoughtful mood going with verses that revisit their respective rises to fame . " BBC Music 's Marcus J. Moore perceived that " Made in America fails to resonate because of a contrived chorus that pays homage to West 's Sweet Baby Jesus , among others . " Andy Gill of The Independent found it to be a stand @-@ out track , " featuring assured vocal refrains from Frank Ocean , while the two rappers muse over familiar themes of loyalty , sexuality and maternal solidarity . " The track briefly charted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart for one week .
= = Promotion = =
The track was performed by West and Jay @-@ Z on their Watch the Throne tour . Ocean performed his hook of the song at some of the performances during his 2011 concert series through the US and Europe . The name was adopted for Jay @-@ Z 's first annual " Budweiser Made in America " festival at Fairmount Park in Philadelphia in September 2012 . Jay @-@ Z will be the curator and the headliner for the festival .
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= Education in the Faroe Islands =
The levels of education in the Faroe Islands are primary , secondary and higher education . Most institutions are funded by the state ; there are few private schools in the country . Education is compulsory for 9 years between the ages of 7 and 16 .
In the twelfth century education in the Faroe Islands was provided by the Catholic Church . The Church of Denmark took over education after the Protestant Reformation . Modern educational institutions started operating in the last quarter of the nineteenth century and developed throughout the twentieth century . The status of the Faroese language in education was a significant issue for decades , until it was accepted as a language of instruction in 1938 . Initially education was administered and regulated by Denmark . In 1979 responsibilities on educational issues started transferring to the Faroese authorities , a procedure which was completed in 2002 .
Compulsory education consists of seven years of primary education , and two years of lower secondary education ; it is public , free of charge , provided by the respective municipalities , and is called the Fólkaskúli in Faroese . The Fólkaskúli also provides optional preschool education as well as the tenth year of education that is a prerequisite to get admitted to upper secondary education . Students that complete compulsory education are allowed to continue education in a vocational school , where they can have job @-@ specific training and education . Since fishing industry is an important part of country 's economy , maritime schools are an important part of Faroese education . Upon completion of the tenth year of Fólkaskúli , students can continue to upper secondary education which consists of several different types of schools . Higher education is offered at the University of the Faroe Islands ; a part of Faroese youth moves abroad to pursue higher education , mainly in Denmark . Other forms of education comprise adult education and music schools . The structure of the Faroese educational system bears resemblances with its Danish counterpart .
The main language of instruction up to the lower secondary school is Faroese , while Danish is the main language of instruction in upper secondary schools . Education in the Faroe Islands is administered and regulated by the Ministry of Education , Research and Culture ( Faroese : Mentamálaráðið ) , with Rigmor Dam being the minister since 15 September 2015 .
= = Background = =
The Ministry of Education , Research and Culture has the jurisdiction of educational responsibility in the Faroe Islands . Since the Faroe Islands is a constituent country of the Danish Realm , education in the Faroe Islands is influenced and has similarities with the Danish educational system ; there is an agreement on educational cooperation between the Faroe Islands and Denmark . In 2012 the public spending on education was 8 @.@ 1 % of GDP . The municipalities are responsible for the school buildings for children 's education in Fólkaskúlin from age 1st grade to 9th or 10th grade ( age 7 to 16 ) . In November 2013 1 @,@ 615 people , or 6 @.@ 8 % of the total number of employees , were employed in the education sector . Of the 31 @,@ 270 people aged 25 and above 1 @,@ 717 ( 5 @.@ 5 % ) have gained at least a Master 's degree or a Ph.D. , 8 @,@ 428 ( 27 % ) have gained a B.Sc. or a Diploma , 11 @,@ 706 ( 37 @.@ 4 % ) have finished upper secondary education while 9 @,@ 419 ( 30 @.@ 1 % ) has only finished primary school and have no other education . There is no data on literacy in the Faroe Islands , but the CIA Factbook states that it is probably as high as in Denmark proper , i.e. 99 % .
The majority of students in upper secondary schools are women , although men represent the majority in higher education institutions . In addition , most young Faroese people who relocate to other countries to study are women . Out of 8 @,@ 535 holders of bachelor degrees , 4 @,@ 796 ( 56 @.@ 2 % ) have had their education in the Faroe Islands , 2 @,@ 724 ( 31 @.@ 9 % ) in Denmark , 543 in both the Faroe Islands and Denmark , 94 ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) in Norway 80 in the United Kingdom and the rest in other countries . Out of 1 @,@ 719 holders of master 's degrees or PhDs , 1 @,@ 249 ( 72 @.@ 7 % have had their education in Denmark , 87 ( 5 @.@ 1 % ) in the United Kingdom , 86 ( 5 % ) in both the Faroe Islands and Denmark , 64 ( 3 @.@ 7 % ) in the Faroe Islands , 60 ( 3 @.@ 5 % ) in Norway and the rest in other countries ( mostly EU and Nordic ) . Since there is no medical school in the Faroe Islands , all medical students have to study abroad ; as of 2013 , out of a total of 96 medical students , 76 studied in Denmark , 19 in Poland and 1 in Hungary .
= = = Language = = =
Although the Faroese language is designated as the country 's principal language , the Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands states that the Danish language " is to be learnt well and carefully " . Up to ninth grade , most school material is in Faroese ; there are Danish classes since third grade . In upper secondary education this pattern is reversed ; courses are taught in Danish , except the Faroese language courses . The Faroese language is taught 64 hours per week , overall , throughout compulsory education , while Danish is taught 29 hours per week ; exams in both languages are equal in length . English language courses start from 4th grade and they are taught for 60 hours annually at that grade , 90 hours in 5th grade , 120 hours in 6th , 7th , 8th and 9th grade ; pupils who chose to take the 10th grade have the option to get another 120 hours of English lessons .
= = History = =
In the Middle Ages there was education in Kirkjubøur offered by the Catholic Church . According to the Sverris saga , Sverre of Norway received schooling by Roe the bishop of Faroe Islands ; later speeches of his , show that he was taught Latin , a feature revealed by his knowledge of the Decretum Gratiani . The school in Kirkjubøur continued until the Protestant Reformation . After the reformation Latin Schools were established in the Danish kingdom , extending over today 's Denmark , Iceland , Greenland , Faroe Islands , Skåneland and Gotland in Sweden , and Øsel ( now Saaremaa ) in Estonia . The Latin School in the Faroe Islands is first mentioned in 1547 , in a letter to Thomas Koppen who got the Faroe Islands as a fief .
In 1870 the Faroese Teachers School ( Faroese : Føroya Læraraskúli ) was established to offer training and qualification for teachers . The first maritime schools were founded as private institutions in Tórshavn in 1893 . The first Evening School was founded in 1904 , with joint financing by the Løgting and Denmark . In 1912 a Danish Royal decree established compulsory primary education , with the provision that teaching was in Danish . That decision led to tensions in education as Faroese teachers Louis Zachariasen and Jákup Dahl continued teaching in Faroese and were persecuted for doing so ; the issue was resolved in 1938 when Faroese was recognized as equal to Danish in Faroese schools . In 1927 the Danish government , upon the request of the Faroese parliament , established a public navigational school in Tórshavn , followed by a marine engineers school in 1929 .
The Faroese Nursing School was established in 1960 by the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs ; it traces its roots back in 1910 when nurses were trained in the hospital of Tórshavn . The University of the Faroe Islands , was established in 1965 ; Klaus H. Jacobsen , a Dane , was appointed as the first lecturer in 1970 to teach courses for the examen philosophicum , a prerequisite at the time to pursue higher education in Denmark . After Denmark abandoned the examen philosophicum in 1971 , on the initiative of Jacobsen and Kjartan Hoydal the university accepted its first full @-@ time science students in the autumn of 1972 . Education in the Faroe Islands was administered by Denmark under the Home Rule Act , until in the late 1990s its administration was transferred to the Faroese government as a matter of local interest .
In 1979 responsibility on educational matters started transferring from Denmark to the Faroese authorities , with the Faroese government getting full economic responsibility of education in 1988 . By 1996 education became the responsibility of the Faroese government ; this procedure was completed in 2002 , preceded by the establishment of the Ministry of Education , Research and Culture . The administration of the Nursing School was passed to the Ministry of Education , Research and Culture in 2000 and the degree was recognized as a bachelor 's degree in 2003 . In 2005 the marine schools of navigation and engineering merged to form the Centre of Maritime Studies and Engineering . On 1 August 2008 the Faroese School of Education and the Faroese School of Nursing where incorporated into the University becoming its departments .
= = Structure = =
= = = Primary and lower secondary education = = =
Compulsory education in the Faroe Islands is provided for nine years from the age of 7 to 16 . Primary education in the Faroe Islands commences at the beginning of the school year in the calendar year in which the child has reached the age of seven years . It is part of the compulsory education , and it lasts at least seven years , Primary education is provided by 51 Fólkaskúli and 3 Free Schools ; some of these Fólkaskúli also provide optional preschool education . In 2014 there were 5 @,@ 205 students attending primary education in the Faroe Islands .
Upon completion of the first seven years of primary education , students can continue their studies in lower secondary education in the 8th and 9th grade and if they wish to , they can also take the 10th year of Fólkaskúli . Two thirds of the pupils from the 9th grade chose to take the 10th grade of Fólkaskúlin also . Lower secondary education lasts two to three years and , as with primary education , it is provided by Fólkaskúli and is free of charge . The first two years are part of the compulsory education , while the third year is optional , though a prerequisite to continue to the upper high school . In 2014 there were 1 @,@ 932 students in lower secondary education .
The final examination from the Fólkaskúli gives access to upper secondary education like " Studentaskúlin " , " Fiskivinnuskúlin " or other similar secondary schools which takes three years or ( Higher Preparatory Examination ( HF ) ) which takes two years . It also gives access to the one year FHS Yrkisnám from Føroya Handilsskúli ( Faroese business college ) or the 3 @-@ year secondary education Búskaparbreytin ( Economy secondary school ) from Føroya Handilsskúli .
= = = Upper secondary education = = =
Upper secondary education is offered by eight schools that offer five different type of courses . The Studentaskúli is an academically oriented three @-@ year @-@ long school . Upon completion students can apply for admission in higher education institutions . This type of education is offered at three schools : Føroya Studentaskúli og HF @-@ Skeið in Tórshavn , Studentaskúlin og HF @-@ skeiðið í Eysturoy in Kambsdalur and Miðnámsskúlin í Suðuroy in Suðuroy . Another type of upper secondary education is HF , which is a 2 @-@ year academically oriented course for adults , that is offered at Føroya Studentaskúli og HF @-@ Skeið and Studentaskúlin og HF @-@ skeiðið í Eysturoy . The Business College ( Faroese : Føroya Handilsskúli ) , also called FHS , offers a three @-@ year curiculum and its completion allows its alumni to continue to higher education . It is also possible to take a one @-@ year education from the Business College . There are two Business Colleges , one in Tórshavn and one Kambsdalur . The Technical college ( Faroese : Tekniski skúlin ) offers courses on several technical fields along with apprenticeship . It is offered in two schools , one in Tórshavn and one in Klaksvík . Its alumni can pursuit higher education in technical sciences or take higher education courses of the Technical College . The Fisheries College ( Faroese : Fiskivinnuskúlin ) in Vestmanna . It focuses in the fishing industry and food science and upon its completion students can continue in higher education studies related to the fishing industry .
= = = Vocational education = = =
= = = = Maritime education = = = =
There are two vocational maritime schools in the Faroe Islands : The Centre of Maritime Studies and Engineering ( Faroese : Vinnuháskúlin ) in Tórshavn and the Sjónam Maritime School ( Faroese : Sjónám ) in Klaksvík .
Vinnuháskúlin offers three @-@ year studies to become a shipmaster or a marine engineer , in addition to shorter versions of these , while it also offers a one and a half @-@ year studies to become a captain and individual marine courses . In 2010 100 % of the graduates for skipper , shipmaster , machinist and marine engineer were men . All graduates from Vinnuháskúlin in June 2015 were men .
Sjónam in Klaksvík offers a 1 ½ year shipmaster education , which qualifies its alumni to be either First Officer or Captain on merchant ships up to 3000 gross tonnage . In order to get access to the education , the applicants must fulfill the terms according to Ship Master Law ( Kunngerð um skiparaútbúgving ) number 107 of 20 September 2005 , i.e. the applicants must have experience from working on board a ship which is at least 20 gross tonnage for at least 36 month , of which at least 18 months should be from a lager vessel of at least 200 gross tonnage . They should also have finished the nine years of compulsory primary and lower secondary school with at least " passed " results in Faroese , Danish , English , physics , chemistry and math .
Sjónám also offers a shorter maritime education of six months . It is a ship assistant education ( Faroese : skipsatstøðingur ) which provides the students to be able to perform all kinds of work on deck and in the engine room on board a ship . The applicants must be at least 17 and a half years old and must have completed the 9 years of Fólkaskúlin . The applicants must also have a health certificate for seamen . This education together with 9 months which are required for becoming an able @-@ bodied seaman , qualifies the alumni for the 1 ½ year long shipmaster education .
= = = = Public Health School = = = =
The Public Faroese Health School ( Faroese : Heilsuskúli Føroya ) in Suðuroy is a vocational school offering two types of education . The health care assistant education ( Heilsuhjálpari ) takes fifteen months . Following graduation , pupils can choose to leave the school and work in home care and retirement homes . Alternatively they can continue with another 22 months and become an assistant nurse ( heilsurøktari ) . The assistant nurse can work in various places , mostly in retirement homes or hospitals . The graduates from the Health School are mainly women . In 2012 almost 90 % of the School 's graduates were women .
= = = Other schools = = =
The Faroe Music School ( Faroese : Musikkskúlin ) runs fourteen institutions around the islands that are responsible for teaching music in the Faroe Islands . The pupils pay between 1 @,@ 200 and 1 @,@ 600 DKK each year in order to get lessons , the price depends on which municipality the pupil lives in . In Tórshavn there are classes , called Musikkspælistova , for children up to 6 years costing 600 DKK for a year ; it also offers a three @-@ year musical education program in Tórshavn , which is a middle @-@ range training for Faroese people aged 14 to 25 , costing 2 @,@ 400 DKK annually and admitting up to 8 pupils a year .
The Evening School ( Faroese : Kvøldskúli or Frítíðarundirvísing ) , offers a variety of courses for everyone and Faroese language lessons for foreigners . Courses range from handicraft , music lessons , foreign languages to swimming . The courses are offered by the municipalities , with 50 % of the teachers ' wages paid by them and the rest paid by the Ministry of Culture and Education ; the Ministry of Culture pays 100 % of the wages in cases of disabled people .
Additionally there are the School of Home Economics ( Faroese : Húsarhaldsskúli Føroya ) and the Folk High School ( Faroese : Føroya Fólkaháskúli ) offering half @-@ year courses in food and diet , hygiene , sowing , embroidering and humanities , arts and creative subjects respectively .
= = = Higher education = = =
Higher education in the Faroe Islands is mainly undertaken by the University of the Faroe Islands , a public research university granting academic degrees . Individual higher education courses are offered by The Business School . Many Faroese pursue higher education out of the islands , mainly in Denmark ; in August 2015 a report showed 1 @,@ 345 Faroese students in Denmark , 904 in the Faroe Islands and 182 in other countries . Studni , the Faroese Student Grant Fund , provides student grants and loans to Faroese students , to study either in the Faroe Islands or abroad .
= = = = University of the Faroe Islands = = = =
Higher education is offered by the , Tórshavn based , University of the Faroe Islands ( Faroese : Fróðskaparsetur Føroya ) . It was founded in 1965 , as Academia Færoensis , by members of the Faroese Academy of Sciences . The university is divided in two faculties : the Faculty of Humanities , Social Sciences and Education and the Faculty of Natural and Health Sciences , offering several B.Sc. degrees , M.Sc. degrees and Ph.D.s. It is publicly funded and in 2010 it received approximately 68 million DKK . Admission requirements include taking the upper secondary school leaving examination . Specific departments could place additional requirements , e.g. in 2015 the Software Engineering department required a grade of 6 / 13 in mathematics .
= = = = Higher education from the Business School = = = =
It is possible to take individual higher education courses in Commerce from the Business School in Kambsdalur and in Tórshavn . The alumni can work at the same time and take one course each semester . After three years they will have achieved 60 ECTS which is the same as the first part of the HD education . They can also take the second part of the HD education from the Business College , and they can also combine it with courses from the Aarhus University via distant education . If they wish to study further for at MBA they must take it from a university in Denmark , i.e. the Aarhus University .
= = = = Research = = = =
Research in the Faroe Islands is administered by the Faroese Research Council ( Faroese : Granskingarráðið ) . Each year the Parliament of the Faroe Islands allocates money to the Faroese Research Foundation , and it is the Faroese Research Council that decides its recipients . From 2002 to 2012 the Research Foundation had received over 70 million DKK . Research is conducted by several governmental institutions ( i.e. museums , laboratories , hospitals , marine institutes ) and the University of the Faroe Islands .
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= Battle of Waterloo =
The Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday , 18 June 1815 , near Waterloo in present @-@ day Belgium , then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands . A French army under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by two of the armies of the Seventh Coalition : an Anglo @-@ led Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington , and a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher , Prince of Wahlstatt . The battle resulted in the end of Bonaparte 's reign and of the First French Empire , and set a chronological milestone between serial European wars and decades of relative peace .
Upon Napoleon 's return to power in March 1815 , many states that had opposed him formed the Seventh Coalition and began to mobilize armies . Wellington and Blücher 's armies were cantoned close to the north @-@ eastern border of France . Napoleon chose to attack them in the hope of destroying them before they could join in a coordinated invasion of France with other members of the coalition . Waterloo was the decisive engagement of the Waterloo Campaign and Napoleon 's last . According to Wellington , the battle was " the nearest @-@ run thing you ever saw in your life " . The defeat at Waterloo ended Napoleon 's rule as Emperor of the French , and marked the end of his Hundred Days return from exile . Napoleon abdicated 4 days later , and on 7 July coalition forces entered Paris .
After the Battle of Quatre Bras , Wellington withdrew from Quatre Bras to Waterloo . After the simultaneous Battle of Ligny the Prussians withdrew parallel to Wellington , drawing a third part of Napoleon 's forces away from Waterloo to the separate and simultaneous Battle of Wavre . Upon learning that the Prussian army was able to support him , Wellington decided to offer battle on the Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean escarpment , across the Brussels road . Here he withstood repeated attacks by the French throughout the afternoon , aided by the progressively arriving Prussians . In the evening Napoleon committed his last reserves to a desperate final attack , which was narrowly beaten back . With the Prussians breaking through on the French right flank Wellington 's Anglo @-@ allied army counter @-@ attacked in the centre , and the French army was routed .
The battlefield is located in the municipalities of Braine @-@ l 'Alleud and Lasne , about 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Brussels , and about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the town of Waterloo . The site of the battlefield today is dominated by a large monument , the Lion 's Mound . As this mound was constructed from earth taken from the battlefield itself , the contemporary topography of the battlefield near the mound has not been preserved .
= = Prelude = =
On 13 March 1815 , six days before Napoleon reached Paris , the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw . Four days later , the United Kingdom , Russia , Austria , and Prussia mobilised armies to defeat Napoleon . Critically outnumbered , Napoleon knew that once his attempts at dissuading one or more of the Seventh Coalition allies from invading France had failed , his only chance of remaining in power was to attack before the coalition mobilised .
Had Napoleon succeeded in destroying the existing coalition forces south of Brussels before they were reinforced , he might have been able to drive the British back to the sea , knock the Prussians out of the war , and then turn his armies towards the Austrians and Russians . An additional consideration was that there were many French @-@ speaking sympathisers in Belgium and a French victory might trigger a friendly revolution there . Also , the British troops in Belgium were largely second @-@ line troops ; most of the veterans of the Peninsular War had been sent to North America to fight in the War of 1812 .
Wellington 's initial dispositions were intended to counter the threat of Napoleon enveloping the Coalition armies by moving through Mons to the south @-@ west of Brussels . This would have cut Wellington 's communications with his base at Ostend , but would have pushed his army closer to Blücher 's . Napoleon manipulated Wellington 's fear of this loss of his supply chain from the channel ports with false intelligence .
By June , Napoleon had raised a total army strength of about 300 @,@ 000 men . The force at his disposal at Waterloo was less than one third that size , but they were nearly all loyal and experienced soldiers . He divided his army into a left wing commanded by Marshal Ney , a right wing commanded by Marshal Grouchy and a reserve under his command ( although all three elements remained close enough to support one another ) . Crossing the frontier near Charleroi before dawn on 15 June , the French rapidly overran Coalition outposts , securing Napoleon 's " central position " between Wellington 's and Blücher 's armies .
Only very late on the night of 15 June was Wellington certain that the Charleroi attack was the main French thrust . In the early hours of 16 June , at the Duchess of Richmond 's ball in Brussels , he received a dispatch from the Prince of Orange and was shocked by the speed of Napoleon 's advance . He hastily ordered his army to concentrate on Quatre Bras , where the Prince of Orange , with the brigade of Prince Bernhard of Saxe @-@ Weimar , was holding a tenuous position against the soldiers of Ney 's left wing . Ney 's orders were to secure the crossroads of Quatre Bras , so that , if necessary , he could later swing east and reinforce Napoleon .
Napoleon moved against the concentrated Prussian army first . On 16 June , with a part of the reserve and the right wing of the army , he attacked and defeated Blücher 's Prussians at the Battle of Ligny . The Prussian centre gave way under more heavy French assaults but the flanks held their ground . Ney , meanwhile , found the crossroads of Quatre Bras lightly held by the Prince of Orange , who repelled Ney 's initial attacks but was gradually driven back by overwhelming numbers of French troops . First reinforcements and then Wellington arrived . He took command and drove Ney back , securing the crossroads by early evening , too late to send help to the Prussians , who were defeated at the Battle of Ligny on the same day . The Prussian defeat made Wellington 's position at Quatre Bras untenable , so the next day he withdrew northwards , to a defensive position he had reconnoitred the previous year — the low ridge of Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean , south of the village of Waterloo and the Sonian Forest .
The Prussian retreat from Ligny went uninterrupted and seemingly unnoticed by the French . The bulk of their rearguard units held their positions until about midnight and some elements did not move out until the following morning , ignored by the French . Crucially , the Prussians did not retreat to the east , along their own lines of communication . Instead , they too fell back northwards — parallel to Wellington 's line of march , still within supporting distance and in communication with him throughout . The Prussians rallied on Bülow 's IV Corps , which had not been engaged at Ligny and was in a strong position south of Wavre .
Once he had intelligence of the Prussian defeat , Wellington organised a retreat from Quatre Bras to Waterloo . Napoleon , with the reserves , made a late start on 17 June and joined Ney at Quatre Bras at 13 : 00 to attack Wellington 's army but found the position empty . The French pursued Wellington 's retreating army all the way to Waterloo , however due to weather and the head start that Napoleon 's tardy advance had allowed Wellington , apart from a cavalry action at Genappe there was no other substantial engagement .
Before leaving Ligny , Napoleon ordered Grouchy , commander of the right wing , to follow up the retreating Prussians with 33 @,@ 000 men . A late start , uncertainty about the direction the Prussians had taken and the vagueness of the orders given to him meant that Grouchy was too late to prevent the Prussian army reaching Wavre , from where it could march to support Wellington . By the end of 17 June , Wellington 's army had arrived at its position at Waterloo , with the main body of Napoleon 's army following . Blücher 's army was gathering in and around Wavre , around 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the east of the city .
= = Armies = =
Three armies were involved in the battle : Napoleon 's Armée du Nord ; a multinational army under Wellington ; and a Prussian army under Blücher .
The French army of around 69 @,@ 000 consisted of 48 @,@ 000 infantry , 14 @,@ 000 cavalry , and 7 @,@ 000 artillery with 250 guns . Napoleon had used conscription to fill the ranks of the French army throughout his rule , but he did not conscript men for the 1815 campaign . His troops were mainly veterans with considerable experience and a fierce devotion to their Emperor . The cavalry in particular was both numerous and formidable , and included fourteen regiments of armoured heavy cavalry and seven of highly versatile lancers .
Wellington claimed that he himself had " an infamous army , very weak and ill @-@ equipped , and a very inexperienced Staff " . His troops consisted of 67 @,@ 000 men : 50 @,@ 000 infantry , 11 @,@ 000 cavalry , and 6 @,@ 000 artillery with 150 guns . Of these , 25 @,@ 000 were British , with another 6 @,@ 000 from the King 's German Legion ( KGL ) . All of the British Army troops were regular soldiers but only 7 @,@ 000 of them were Peninsular War veterans . In addition , there were 17 @,@ 000 Dutch and Belgian troops , 11 @,@ 000 from Hanover , 6 @,@ 000 from Brunswick , and 3 @,@ 000 from Nassau .
Many of the troops in the Coalition armies were inexperienced . The Dutch army had been re @-@ established in 1815 , following the earlier defeat of Napoleon . With the exception of the British and some from Hanover and Brunswick who had fought with the British army in Spain , many of the professional soldiers in the Coalition armies had spent some of their time in the French army or in armies allied to the Napoleonic regime . The historian Barbero states that in this heterogeneous army the difference between British and foreign troops did not prove significant under fire .
Wellington was also acutely short of heavy cavalry , having only seven British and three Dutch regiments . The Duke of York imposed many of his staff officers on Wellington , including his second @-@ in @-@ command the Earl of Uxbridge . Uxbridge commanded the cavalry and had carte blanche from Wellington to commit these forces at his discretion . Wellington stationed a further 17 @,@ 000 troops at Halle , 8 miles ( 13 km ) away to the west . They were not recalled to participate in the battle but were to serve as a fallback position should the battle be lost . They were mostly composed of Dutch troops under Prince of Orange 's younger brother Prince Frederick of the Netherlands . They were placed as a guard against any possible wide flanking movement by the French forces , and also to act as a rearguard if Wellington was forced to retreat towards Antwerp and the coast . According to Hofschröer , the best Dutch troops were at Halle and he questions the reasons for their placement .
The Prussian army was in the throes of reorganisation . In 1815 , the former Reserve regiments , Legions , and Freikorps volunteer formations from the wars of 1813 – 1814 were in the process of being absorbed into the line , along with many Landwehr ( militia ) regiments . The Landwehr were mostly untrained and unequipped when they arrived in Belgium . The Prussian cavalry were in a similar state . Its artillery was also reorganising and did not give its best performance – guns and equipment continued to arrive during and after the battle .
Off @-@ setting these handicaps the Prussian Army had excellent and professional leadership in its General Staff organisation . These officers came from four schools developed for this purpose and thus worked to a common standard of training . This system was in marked contrast to the conflicting , vague orders issued by the French army . This staff system ensured that before Ligny , three @-@ quarters of the Prussian army concentrated for battle at 24 hours notice .
After Ligny , the Prussian army , although defeated , was able to realign its supply train , reorganise itself , and intervene decisively on the Waterloo battlefield within 48 hours . Two and a half Prussian army corps , or 48 @,@ 000 men , were engaged at Waterloo ; two brigades under Bülow , commander of IV Corps , attacked Lobau at 16 : 30 , while Zieten 's I Corps and parts of Pirch I 's II Corps engaged at about 18 : 00 .
= = Battlefield = =
The Waterloo position was a strong one . It consisted of a long ridge running east @-@ west , perpendicular to , and bisected by , the main road to Brussels . Along the crest of the ridge ran the Ohain road , a deep sunken lane . Near the crossroads with the Brussels road was a large elm tree that was roughly in the centre of Wellington 's position and served as his command post for much of the day . Wellington deployed his infantry in a line just behind the crest of the ridge following the Ohain road .
Using the reverse slope , as he had many times previously , Wellington concealed his strength from the French , with the exception of his skirmishers and artillery . The length of front of the battlefield was also relatively short at 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) . This allowed Wellington to draw up his forces in depth , which he did in the centre and on the right , all the way towards the village of Braine @-@ l 'Alleud , in the expectation that the Prussians would reinforce his left during the day .
In front of the ridge , there were three positions that could be fortified . On the extreme right were the château , garden , and orchard of Hougoumont . This was a large and well @-@ built country house , initially hidden in trees . The house faced north along a sunken , covered lane ( usually described by the British as " the hollow @-@ way " ) along which it could be supplied . On the extreme left was the hamlet of Papelotte .
Both Hougoumont and Papelotte were fortified and garrisoned , and thus anchored Wellington 's flanks securely . Papelotte also commanded the road to Wavre that the Prussians would use to send reinforcements to Wellington 's position . On the western side of the main road , and in front of the rest of Wellington 's line , was the farmhouse and orchard of La Haye Sainte , which was garrisoned with 400 light infantry of the King 's German Legion .
On the opposite side of the road was a disused sand quarry , where the 95th Rifles were posted as sharpshooters . This position presented a formidable challenge to any attacking force . Any attempt to turn Wellington 's right would entail taking the entrenched Hougoumont position . Any attack on his right centre would mean the attackers would have to march between enfilading fire from Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte . On the left , any attack would also be enfiladed by fire from La Haye Sainte and its adjoining sandpit , and any attempt at turning the left flank would entail fighting through the lanes and hedgerows surrounding Papelotte and the other garrisoned buildings on that flank , and some very wet ground in the Smohain defile .
The French army formed on the slopes of another ridge to the south . Napoleon could not see Wellington 's positions , so he drew his forces up symmetrically about the Brussels road . On the right was I Corps under d 'Erlon with 16 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 500 cavalry , plus a cavalry reserve of 4 @,@ 700 . On the left was II Corps under Reille with 13 @,@ 000 infantry , and 1 @,@ 300 cavalry , and a cavalry reserve of 4 @,@ 600 . In the centre about the road south of the inn La Belle Alliance were a reserve including Lobau 's VI Corps with 6 @,@ 000 men , the 13 @,@ 000 infantry of the Imperial Guard , and a cavalry reserve of 2 @,@ 000 .
In the right rear of the French position was the substantial village of Plancenoit , and at the extreme right , the Bois de Paris wood . Napoleon initially commanded the battle from Rossomme farm , where he could see the entire battlefield , but moved to a position near La Belle Alliance early in the afternoon . Command on the battlefield ( which was largely hidden from his view ) was delegated to Ney .
= = Battle = =
= = = Preparation = = =
Wellington rose at around 02 : 00 or 03 : 00 on 18 June , and wrote letters until dawn . He had earlier written to Blücher confirming that he would give battle at Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean if Blücher could provide him with at least one corps ; otherwise he would retreat towards Brussels . At a late @-@ night council , Blücher 's chief of staff , August Neidhardt von Gneisenau , had been distrustful of Wellington 's strategy , but Blücher persuaded him that they should march to join Wellington 's army . In the morning Wellington duly received a reply from Blücher , promising to support him with three corps .
From 06 : 00 Wellington was in the field supervising the deployment of his forces . At Wavre , the Prussian IV Corps under Bülow was designated to lead the march to Waterloo as it was in the best shape , not having been involved in the Battle of Ligny . Although they had not taken casualties , IV Corps had been marching for two days , covering the retreat of the three other corps of the Prussian army from the battlefield of Ligny . They had been posted farthest away from the battlefield , and progress was very slow . The roads were in poor condition after the night 's heavy rain , and Bülow 's men had to pass through the congested streets of Wavre and move 88 artillery pieces . Matters were not helped when a fire broke out in Wavre , blocking several streets along Bülow 's intended route . As a result , the last part of the corps left at 10 : 00 , six hours after the leading elements had moved out towards Waterloo . Bülow 's men were followed to Waterloo first by I Corps and then by II Corps .
Napoleon breakfasted off silver plate at Le Caillou , the house where he had spent the night . When Soult suggested that Grouchy should be recalled to join the main force , Napoleon said , " Just because you have all been beaten by Wellington , you think he 's a good general . I tell you Wellington is a bad general , the English are bad troops , and this affair is nothing more than eating breakfast " .
Napoleon 's surprisingly dismissive statements should not be taken at face value , given the Emperor 's maxim that " in war , morale is everything " and that praising the enemy is always wrong , as it reduces one 's morale . Indeed , he had been seen engaging in such pre @-@ battle , morale @-@ boosting harangues on a number of occasions in the past and on the morning of the battle of Waterloo he had to deal with his chief of staff 's pessimism and nervousness and had to respond to several persistent and almost defeatist objections from some of his senior generals .
Later on , being told by his brother , Jerome , of some gossip overheard by a waiter between British officers at lunch at the ' King of Spain ' inn in Genappe that the Prussians were to march over from Wavre , Napoleon declared that the Prussians would need at least two days to recover and would be dealt with by Grouchy . Surprisingly , Jerome 's overheard gossip aside , the French commanders present at the pre @-@ battle conference at Le Caillou had no information about the alarming proximity of the Prussians and did not suspect that Blücher 's men would start erupting onto the field of battle in great numbers just five hours later .
Napoleon had delayed the start of the battle owing to the sodden ground , which would have made manoeuvring cavalry and artillery difficult . In addition , many of his forces had bivouacked well to the south of La Belle Alliance . At 10 : 00 , in response to a dispatch he had received from Grouchy six hours earlier , he sent a reply telling Grouchy to " head for Wavre [ to Grouchy 's north ] in order to draw near to us [ to the west of Grouchy ] " and then " push before him " the Prussians to arrive at Waterloo " as soon as possible " .
At 11 : 00 , Napoleon drafted his general order : Reille 's Corps on the left and d 'Erlon 's Corps to the right were to attack the village of Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean and keep abreast of one another . This order assumed Wellington 's battle @-@ line was in the village , rather than at the more forward position on the ridge . To enable this , Jerome 's division would make an initial attack on Hougoumont , which Napoleon expected would draw in Wellington 's reserves , since its loss would threaten his communications with the sea . A grande batterie of the reserve artillery of I , II , and VI Corps was to then bombard the centre of Wellington 's position from about 13 : 00 . D 'Erlon 's corps would then attack Wellington 's left , break through , and roll up his line from east to west . In his memoirs , Napoleon wrote that his intention was to separate Wellington 's army from the Prussians and drive it back towards the sea .
= = = Hougoumont = = =
The historian Andrew Roberts notes that " It is a curious fact about the Battle of Waterloo that no one is absolutely certain when it actually began " . Wellington recorded in his dispatches that at " about ten o 'clock [ Napoleon ] commenced a furious attack upon our post at Hougoumont " . Other sources state that the attack began around 11 : 30 . The house and its immediate environs were defended by four light companies of Guards , and the wood and park by Hanoverian Jäger and the 1 / 2nd Nassau .
The initial attack by Bauduin 's brigade emptied the wood and park , but was driven back by heavy British artillery fire , and cost Bauduin his life . As the British guns were distracted by a duel with French artillery , a second attack by Soye 's brigade and what had been Bauduin 's succeeded in reaching the north gate of the house . Sous @-@ Lieutenant Legros , a French officer , broke the gate open with an axe . Some French troops managed to enter the courtyard . The 2nd Coldstream Guards and 2 / 3rd Foot Guards arrived to help . There was a fierce melee , and the British managed to close the gate on the French troops streaming in . The Frenchmen trapped in the courtyard were all killed . Only a young drummer boy was spared .
Fighting continued around Hougoumont all afternoon . Its surroundings were heavily invested by French light infantry , and coordinated attacks were made against the troops behind Hougoumont . Wellington 's army defended the house and the hollow way running north from it . In the afternoon , Napoleon personally ordered the house to be shelled to set it on fire , resulting in the destruction of all but the chapel . Du Plat 's brigade of the King 's German Legion was brought forward to defend the hollow way , which they had to do without senior officers . Eventually they were relieved by the 71st Foot , a British infantry regiment . Adam 's brigade was further reinforced by Hugh Halkett 's 3rd Hanoverian Brigade , and successfully repulsed further infantry and cavalry attacks sent by Reille . Hougoumont held out until the end of the battle .
I had occupied that post with a detachment from General Byng 's brigade of Guards , which was in position in its rear ; and it was some time under the command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel MacDonald , and afterwards of Colonel Home ; and I am happy to add that it was maintained , throughout the day , with the utmost gallantry by these brave troops , notwithstanding the repeated efforts of large bodies of the enemy to obtain possession of it .
When I reached Lloyd 's abandoned guns , I stood near them for about a minute to contemplate the scene : it was grand beyond description . Hougoumont and its wood sent up a broad flame through the dark masses of smoke that overhung the field ; beneath this cloud the French were indistinctly visible . Here a waving mass of long red feathers could be seen ; there , gleams as from a sheet of steel showed that the cuirassiers were moving ; 400 cannon were belching forth fire and death on every side ; the roaring and shouting were indistinguishably commixed — together they gave me an idea of a labouring volcano . Bodies of infantry and cavalry were pouring down on us , and it was time to leave contemplation , so I moved towards our columns , which were standing up in square .
The fighting at Hougoumont has often been characterised as a diversionary attack to draw in Wellington 's reserves which escalated into an all @-@ day battle and drew in French reserves instead . In fact there is a good case to believe that both Napoleon and Wellington thought that holding Hougoumont was key to winning the battle . Hougoumont was a part of the battlefield that Napoleon could see clearly , and he continued to direct resources towards it and its surroundings all afternoon ( 33 battalions in all , 14 @,@ 000 troops ) . Similarly , though the house never contained a large number of troops , Wellington devoted 21 battalions ( 12 @,@ 000 troops ) over the course of the afternoon in keeping the hollow way open to allow fresh troops and ammunition to reach the buildings . He moved several artillery batteries from his hard @-@ pressed centre to support Hougoumont , and later stated that " the success of the battle turned upon closing the gates at Hougoumont " .
= = = First French infantry attack = = =
The 80 guns of Napoleon 's grande batterie drew up in the centre . These opened fire at 11 : 50 , according to Lord Hill ( commander of the Anglo @-@ allied II Corps ) , while other sources put the time between noon and 13 : 30 . The grande batterie was too far back to aim accurately , and the only other troops they could see were skirmishers of the regiments of Kempt and Pack , and Perponcher 's 2nd Dutch division ( the others were employing Wellington 's characteristic " reverse slope defence " ) . Nevertheless , the bombardment caused a large number of casualties . Though some projectiles buried themselves in the soft soil , most found their marks on the reverse slope of the ridge . The bombardment forced the cavalry of the Union Brigade ( in third line ) to move to its left , as did the Scots Greys , to reduce their casualty rate .
At about 13 : 00 , Napoleon saw the first columns of Prussians around the village of Lasne @-@ Chapelle @-@ Saint @-@ Lambert , four or five miles ( three hours march for an army ) away from his right flank . Napoleon 's reaction was to have Marshal Soult send a message to Grouchy telling him to come towards the battlefield and attack the arriving Prussians . Grouchy , however , had been executing Napoleon 's previous orders to follow the Prussians " with your sword against his back " towards Wavre , and was by then too far away to reach Waterloo . Grouchy was advised by his subordinate , Gérard , to " march to the sound of the guns " , but stuck to his orders and engaged the Prussian III Corps rear guard under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Baron Johann von Thielmann at the Battle of Wavre . Moreover , Soult 's letter ordering Grouchy to move quickly to join Napoleon and attack Bülow would not actually reach Grouchy until after 20 : 00 .
A little after 13 : 00 , I Corps ' attack began . D 'Erlon , like Ney , had encountered Wellington in Spain , and was aware of the British commander 's favoured tactic of using massed short @-@ range musketry to drive off infantry columns . Rather than use the usual nine @-@ deep French columns deployed abreast of one another , therefore , each division advanced in closely spaced battalion lines behind one another . This allowed them to concentrate their fire , but it did not leave room for them to change formation .
The formation was initially effective . Its leftmost division , under François @-@ Xavier Donzelot , advanced on La Haye Sainte . The farmhouse was defended by the King 's German Legion . While one French battalion engaged the defenders from the front , the following battalions fanned out to either side and , with the support of several squadrons of cuirassiers , succeeded in isolating the farmhouse . The King 's German Legion resolutely defended the farmhouse . Each time the French tried to scale the walls the outnumbered Germans somehow held them off . The Prince of Orange saw that La Haye Sainte had been cut off and tried to reinforce it by sending forward the Hanoverian Lüneberg Battalion in line . Cuirassiers concealed in a fold in the ground caught and destroyed it in minutes and then rode on past La Haye Sainte , almost to the crest of the ridge , where they covered d 'Erlon 's left flank as his attack developed .
At about 13 : 30 , d 'Erlon started to advance his three other divisions , some 14 @,@ 000 men over a front of about 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yards ) , against Wellington 's left wing . At the point they aimed for they faced 6 @,@ 000 men : the first line consisted of the Dutch 1st " Brigade van Bylandt " of the 2nd Dutch division , flanked by the British brigades of Kempt and Pack on either side . The second line consisted of British and Hanoverian troops under Sir Thomas Picton , who were lying down in dead ground behind the ridge . All had suffered badly at Quatre Bras . In addition , the Bijlandt brigade had been ordered to deploy its skirmishers in the hollow road and on the forward slope . The rest of the brigade was lying down just behind the road .
At the moment these skirmishers were rejoining their parent battalions , the brigade was ordered to its feet and started to return fire . On the left of the brigade , where the 7th Dutch Militia stood , a " few files were shot down and an opening in the line thus occurred " . The battalion had no reserves and was unable to close the gap . D 'Erlon 's troops pushed through this gap in the line and the remaining battalions in the Bylandt brigade ( 8th Dutch Militia and Belgian 7th Line Battalion ) were forced to retreat to the square of the 5th Dutch Militia , which was in reserve between Picton 's troops , about 100 paces to the rear . There they regrouped under the command of Colonel Van Zuylen van Nijevelt . A moment later the Prince of Orange ordered a counterattack , which actually occurred around 10 minutes later . Bylandt was wounded and retired off the field , passing command of the brigade to Lt. Kol . De Jongh .
D 'Erlon 's men ascended the slope and advanced on the sunken road , Chemin d 'Ohain , that ran from behind La Haye Sainte and continued east . It was lined on both sides by thick hedges , with Bylandt 's brigade just across the road while the British brigades had been lying down some 100 yards back from the road , Pack 's to Bylandt 's left and Kempt 's to Bylandt 's right . Kempt 's 1 @,@ 900 men were engaged by Bourgeois ' brigade of 1 @,@ 900 men of Quiot 's division . In the centre , Donzelot 's division had pushed back Bylandt 's brigade . On the right of the French advance was Marcognet 's division led by Grenier 's brigade consisting of the 45e Régiment de Ligne and followed by the 25e Régiment de Ligne , somewhat less than 2 @,@ 000 men , and behind them , Nogue 's brigade of the 21e and 45e regiments . Opposing them on the other side of the road was Pack 's 9th Brigade consisting of three Scottish regiments : the Royal Scots , the 42nd Black Watch , the 92nd Gordons and the 44th Foot totaling something over 2 @,@ 000 men . A very even fight between British and French infantry was about to occur .
The French advance drove in the British skirmishers and reached the sunken road . As they did so , Pack 's men stood up , formed into a four deep line formation for fear of the French cavalry , advanced , and opened fire . However , a firefight had been anticipated and the French infantry had accordingly advanced in more linear formation . Now , fully deployed into line , they returned fire and successfully pressed the British troops ; although the attack faltered at the centre , the line in front of d 'Erlon 's right started to crumble . Picton was killed shortly after ordering the counter @-@ attack and the British and Hanoverian troops also began to give way under the pressure of numbers . Pack 's regiments , all four ranks deep , advanced to attack the French in the road but faltered and began to fire on the French instead of charging . The 42nd Black Watch halted at the hedge and the resulting fire @-@ fight drove back the British 92nd Foot while the leading French 45e Ligne burst through the hedge cheering . Along the sunken road , the French were forcing the Allies back , the British line was dispersing , and at two o 'clock in the afternoon Napoleon was winning the Battle of Waterloo .
= = = Charge of the British heavy cavalry = = =
Our officers of cavalry have acquired a trick of galloping at everything . They never consider the situation , never think of manoeuvring before an enemy , and never keep back or provide a reserve .
At this crucial juncture , Uxbridge ordered his two brigades of British heavy cavalry — formed unseen behind the ridge — to charge in support of the hard @-@ pressed infantry . The 1st Brigade , known as the Household Brigade , commanded by Major @-@ General Lord Edward Somerset , consisted of guards regiments : the 1st and 2nd Life Guards , the Royal Horse Guards ( the Blues ) , and the 1st ( King 's ) Dragoon Guards . The 2nd Brigade , also known as the Union Brigade , commanded by Major @-@ General Sir William Ponsonby , was so called as it consisted of an English , the 1st ( The Royals ) ; a Scottish , 2nd ( ' Scots Greys ' ) ; and an Irish , 6th ( Inniskilling ) ; regiment of heavy dragoons .
More than 20 years of warfare had eroded the numbers of suitable cavalry mounts available on the European continent ; this resulted in the British heavy cavalry entering the 1815 campaign with the finest horses of any contemporary cavalry arm . British cavalry troopers also received excellent mounted swordsmanship training . They were , however , inferior to the French in manoeuvring in large formations , cavalier in attitude , and unlike the infantry some units had scant experience of warfare . The Scots Greys , for example , had not been in action since 1795 . According to Wellington , though they were superior individual horsemen , they were inflexible and lacked tactical ability . " I considered one squadron a match for two French , I didn 't like to see four British opposed to four French : and as the numbers increased and order , of course , became more necessary I was the more unwilling to risk our men without having a superiority in numbers " .
The two brigades had a combined field strength of about 2 @,@ 000 ( 2 @,@ 651 official strength ) ; they charged with the 47 @-@ year @-@ old Uxbridge leading them and a very inadequate number of squadrons held in reserve . There is evidence that Uxbridge gave an order , the morning of the battle , to all cavalry brigade commanders to commit their commands on their own initiative , as direct orders from himself might not always be forthcoming , and to " support movements to their front " . It appears that Uxbridge expected the brigades of Sir John Ormsby Vandeleur , Hussey Vivian and the Dutch cavalry to provide support to the British heavies . Uxbridge later regretted leading the charge in person , saying " I committed a great mistake " , when he should have been organising an adequate reserve to move forward in support .
The Household Brigade crossed the crest of the Allied position and charged downhill . The cuirassiers guarding d 'Erlon 's left flank were still dispersed , and so were swept over the deeply sunken main road and then routed . The sunken lane acted as a trap , funnelling the flight of the French cavalry to their own right and away from the British cavalry . Some of the cuirassiers then found themselves hemmed in by the steep sides of the sunken lane , with a confused mass of their own infantry in front of them , the 95th Rifles firing at them from the north side of the lane , and Somerset 's heavy cavalry still pressing them from behind . The novelty of fighting armoured foes impressed the British cavalrymen , as was recorded by the commander of the Household Brigade .
The blows of the sabres on the cuirasses sounded like braziers at work .
Continuing their attack , the squadrons on the left of the Household Brigade then destroyed Aulard 's brigade . Despite attempts to recall them , they continued past La Haye Sainte and found themselves at the bottom of the hill on blown horses facing Schmitz 's brigade formed in squares .
To their left , the Union Brigade suddenly swept through the infantry lines ( giving rise to the legend that some of the 92nd Gordon Highland Regiment clung onto their stirrups and accompanied them into the charge ) . From the centre leftwards , the Royal Dragoons destroyed Bourgeois ' brigade , capturing the eagle of the 105th Ligne . The Inniskillings routed the other brigade of Quoit 's division , and the Scots Greys came upon the lead French regiment , 45th Ligne , as it was still reforming after having crossed the sunken road and broken through the hedge row in pursuit of the British infantry . The Greys captured the eagle of the 45th Ligne and overwhelmed Grenier 's brigade . These would be the only two eagles captured from the French during the battle . On Wellington 's extreme left , Durutte 's division had time to form squares and fend off groups of Greys .
As with the Household Cavalry , the officers of the Royals and Inniskillings found it very difficult to rein back their troops , who lost all cohesion . Having taken casualties , and still trying to reorder themselves , the Scots Greys and the rest of the Union Brigade found themselves before the main French lines . Their horses were blown , and they were still in disorder without any idea of what their next collective objective was . Some attacked nearby gun batteries of the Grande Battery . Though the Greys had neither the time nor means to disable the cannon or carry them off , they put very many out of action as the gun crews were killed or fled the battlefield . Sergeant Major Dickinson of the Greys stated that his regiment was rallied before going on to attack the French artillery : Hamilton , the regimental commander , rather than holding them back cried out to his men " Charge , charge the guns ! " . Napoleon promptly responded by ordering a counter @-@ attack by the cuirassier brigades of Farine and Travers and Jaquinot 's two Chevau @-@ léger ( lancer ) regiments in the I Corps light cavalry division . Disorganized and milling about the bottom of the valley between Hougoumont and La Belle Alliance , the Scots Greys and the rest of the British heavy cavalry were taken by surprise by the countercharge of Milhaud 's cuirassiers , joined by lancers from Baron Jaquinot 's 1st Cavalry Division .
As Ponsonby tried to rally his men against the French cuirassers , he was attacked by Jaquinot 's lancers and captured . A nearby party of Scots Greys saw the capture and attempted to rescue their brigade commander . However , the French lancer who had captured Ponsonby killed him and then used his lance to kill three of the Scots Greys who had attempted the rescue . By the time Ponsonby died , the momentum had entirely returned in favour of the French . Milhaud 's and Jaquinot 's cavalrymen drove the Union Brigade from the valley . The result was very heavy losses for the British cavalry . A countercharge , by British light dragoons under Major @-@ General Vandeleur and Dutch – Belgian light dragoons and hussars under Major @-@ General Ghigny on the left wing , and Dutch – Belgian carabiniers under Major @-@ General Trip in the centre , repelled the French cavalry .
All figures quoted for the losses of the cavalry brigades as a result of this charge are estimates , as casualties were only noted down after the day of the battle and were for the battle as a whole . Some historians , Barbero for example , believe the official rolls tend to overestimate the number of cavalrymen present in their squadrons on the field of battle and that the proportionate losses were , as a result , considerably higher than the numbers on paper might suggest . The Union Brigade lost heavily in both officers and men killed ( including its commander , William Ponsonby , and Colonel Hamilton of the Scots Greys ) and wounded . The 2nd Life Guards and the King 's Dragoon Guards of the Household Brigade also lost heavily ( with Colonel Fuller , commander of the King 's DG , killed ) . However , the 1st Life Guards , on the extreme right of the charge , and the Blues , who formed a reserve , had kept their cohesion and consequently suffered significantly fewer casualties . On the rolls the official , or paper strength , for both Brigades is given as 2 @,@ 651 while Barbero and others estimate the actual strength at around 2 @,@ 000 and the official recorded losses for the two heavy cavalry brigades during the battle was 1 @,@ 205 troopers and 1 @,@ 303 horses .
Some historians , such as Chandler and Weller , assert that the British heavy cavalry were destroyed as a viable force following their first , epic charge . Barbero states that the Scots Grey were practically wiped out and that the other two regiments of the Union Brigade suffered comparable losses . Other historians , such as Clark @-@ Kennedy and Wood , citing British eyewitness accounts , describe the continuing role of the heavy cavalry after their charge . The heavy brigades , far from being ineffective , continued to provide valuable services . They countercharged French cavalry numerous times ( both brigades ) , halted a combined cavalry and infantry attack ( Household Brigade only ) , were used to bolster the morale of those units in their vicinity at times of crisis , and filled gaps in the Anglo @-@ allied line caused by high casualties in infantry formations ( both brigades ) . This service was rendered at a very high cost , as close combat with French cavalry , carbine fire , infantry musketry and — more deadly than all of these — artillery fire steadily eroded the number of effectives in the two brigades . At 6 o 'clock in the afternoon the whole Union Brigade could field only 3 squadrons , though these countercharged French cavalry , losing half their number in the process . At the end of the fighting the two brigades , by this time combined , could muster one squadron .
14 @,@ 000 French troops of D 'Erlon 's I Corps had been committed to this attack . The I Corps had been driven in rout back across the valley costing Napoleon 3 @,@ 000 casualties including over 2 @,@ 000 prisoners taken . Also some valuable time was lost , the charge had dispersed numerous units and it would take until 16 : 00 hours for D 'Erlon 's shaken corps to reform . And although elements of the Prussians now began to appear on the field to his right , Napoleon had already ordered Lobau 's VI corps to move to the right flank to hold them back before D 'Erlon 's attack began .
= = = The French cavalry attack = = =
A little before 16 : 00 , Ney noted an apparent exodus from Wellington 's centre . He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat , and sought to exploit it . Following the defeat of d 'Erlon 's Corps , Ney had few infantry reserves left , as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right . Ney therefore tried to break Wellington 's centre with cavalry alone . Initially Milhaud 's reserve cavalry corps of cuirassiers and Lefebvre @-@ Desnoëttes ' light cavalry division of the Imperial Guard , some 4 @,@ 800 sabres , were committed . When these were repulsed , Kellermann 's heavy cavalry corps and Guyot 's heavy cavalry of the Guard were added to the massed assault , a total of around 9 @,@ 000 cavalry in 67 squadrons . When Napoleon saw the charge he said it was an hour too soon .
Wellington 's infantry responded by forming squares ( hollow box @-@ formations four ranks deep ) . Squares were much smaller than usually depicted in paintings of the battle – a 500 @-@ man battalion square would have been no more than 60 feet ( 18 m ) in length on a side . Vulnerable to artillery or infantry , squares that stood their ground were deadly to cavalry , because they could not be outflanked and because horses would not charge into a hedge of bayonets . Wellington ordered his artillery crews to take shelter within the squares as the cavalry approached , and to return to their guns and resume fire as they retreated .
Witnesses in the British infantry recorded as many as 12 assaults , though this probably includes successive waves of the same general attack ; the number of general assaults was undoubtedly far fewer . Kellermann , recognising the futility of the attacks , tried to reserve the elite carabinier brigade from joining in , but eventually Ney spotted them and insisted on their involvement .
A British eyewitness of the first French cavalry attack , an officer in the Foot Guards , recorded his impressions very lucidly and somewhat poetically :
About four p.m. , the enemy 's artillery in front of us ceased firing all of a sudden , and we saw large masses of cavalry advance : not a man present who survived could have forgotten in after life the awful grandeur of that charge . You discovered at a distance what appeared to be an overwhelming , long moving line , which , ever advancing , glittered like a stormy wave of the sea when it catches the sunlight . On they came until they got near enough , whilst the very earth seemed to vibrate beneath the thundering tramp of the mounted host . One might suppose that nothing could have resisted the shock of this terrible moving mass . They were the famous cuirassiers , almost all old soldiers , who had distinguished themselves on most of the battlefields of Europe . In an almost incredibly short period they were within twenty yards of us , shouting " Vive l 'Empereur ! " The word of command , " Prepare to receive cavalry " , had been given , every man in the front ranks knelt , and a wall bristling with steel , held together by steady hands , presented itself to the infuriated cuirassiers .
In essence this type of massed cavalry attack relied almost entirely on psychological shock for effect . Close artillery support could disrupt infantry squares and allow cavalry to penetrate ; at Waterloo , however , co @-@ operation between the French cavalry and artillery was not impressive . The French artillery did not get close enough to the Anglo @-@ allied infantry in sufficient numbers to be decisive . Artillery fire between charges did produce mounting casualties , but most of this fire was at relatively long range and was often indirect , at targets beyond the ridge . If infantry being attacked held firm in their square defensive formations , and were not panicked , cavalry on their own could do very little damage to them . The French cavalry attacks were repeatedly repelled by the steadfast infantry squares , the harrying fire of British artillery as the French cavalry recoiled down the slopes to regroup , and the decisive countercharges of Wellington 's light cavalry regiments , the Dutch heavy cavalry brigade , and the remaining effectives of the Household Cavalry . At least one artillery officer disobeyed Wellington 's order to seek shelter in the adjacent squares during the charges . Captain Mercer , who commanded ' G ' Troop , Royal Horse Artillery , thought the Brunswick troops on either side of him so shaky that he kept his battery of six nine @-@ pounders in action against the cavalry throughout , to great effect :
I thus allowed them to advance unmolested until the head of the column might have been about fifty or sixty yards from us , and then gave the word , " Fire ! " The effect was terrible . Nearly the whole leading rank fell at once ; and the round shot , penetrating the column carried confusion throughout its extent ... the discharge of every gun was followed by a fall of men and horses like that of grass before the mower 's scythe .
For reasons that remain unclear , no attempt was made to spike other allied guns while they were in French possession . In line with Wellington 's orders , gunners were able to return to their pieces and fire into the French cavalry as they withdrew after each attack . After numerous costly but fruitless attacks on the Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean ridge , the French cavalry was spent . Their casualties cannot easily be estimated . Senior French cavalry officers , in particular the generals , experienced heavy losses . Four divisional commanders were wounded , nine brigadiers wounded , and one killed – testament to their courage and their habit of leading from the front . Illustratively , Houssaye reports that the Grenadiers à Cheval numbered 796 of all ranks on 15 June , but just 462 on 19 June , while the Empress Dragoons lost 416 of 816 over the same period . Overall Guyot 's Guard heavy cavalry division lost 47 % of its strength .
= = = Second French infantry attack = = =
Eventually it became obvious , even to Ney , that cavalry alone were achieving little . Belatedly , he organised a combined @-@ arms attack , using Bachelu 's division and Tissot 's regiment of Foy 's division from Reille 's II Corps ( about 6 @,@ 500 infantrymen ) plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight . This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks ( between Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte ) . It was halted by a charge of the Household Brigade cavalry led by Uxbridge . The British cavalry were unable , however , to break the French infantry , and fell back with losses from musketry fire .
Uxbridge recorded that he tried to lead the Dutch Carabiniers , under Major @-@ General Trip , to renew the attack and that they refused to follow him . Other members of the British cavalry staff also commented on this occurrence . However , there is no support for this incident in Dutch or Belgian sources . Meanwhile , Bachelu 's and Tissot 's men and their cavalry supports were being hard hit by fire from artillery and from Adam 's infantry brigade , and they eventually fell back . Although the French cavalry caused few direct casualties to Wellington 's centre , artillery fire onto his infantry squares caused many . Wellington 's cavalry , except for Sir John Vandeleur 's and Sir Hussey Vivian 's brigades on the far left , had all been committed to the fight , and had taken significant losses . The situation appeared so desperate that the Cumberland Hussars , the only Hanoverian cavalry regiment present , fled the field spreading alarm all the way to Brussels .
= = = French capture of La Haye Sainte = = =
At approximately the same time as Ney 's combined @-@ arms assault on the centre @-@ right of Wellington 's line , rallied elements of D 'Erlon 's I Corps , spearheaded by the 13th Légère , renewed the attack on La Haye Sainte and this time were successful , partly because the King 's German Legion 's ammunition ran out . However , the Germans had held the centre of the battlefield for almost the entire day , and this had stalled the French advance . Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington 's centre and began to pulverise the infantry squares at short range with canister . The 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square .
The possession of La Haye Sainte by the French was a very dangerous incident . It uncovered the very centre of the Anglo @-@ Allied army , and established the enemy within 60 yards of that centre . The French lost no time in taking advantage of this , by pushing forward infantry supported by guns , which enabled them to maintain a most destructive fire upon Alten 's left and Kempt 's right ...
The success Napoleon needed to continue his offensive had occurred . Ney was on the verge of breaking the Allied centre .
Along with this artillery fire a multitude of French tirailleurs occupied the dominant positions behind La Haye Sainte and poured an effective fire into the squares . The situation was now so dire that the 33rd Regiment 's colours and all of Halkett 's brigade 's colours were sent to the rear for safety , described by historian Alessandro Barbero as , " ... a measure that was without precedent " . Wellington , noticing the slackening of fire from La Haye Sainte , with his staff rode closer to it . French skirmishers appeared around the building and fired on the British command as it struggled to get away through the hedgerow along the road . Alten ordered a single battalion , the Fifth KGL to recapture the farm . Their Colonel Ompteda obeyed and chased off some French skirmishers until French cuirassiers fell on his open flank , killed him , destroyed his battalion and took its colour . A Dutch – Belgian cavalry regiment ordered to charge , retreated from the field instead , fired on by their own infantry . Merlen 's Light Cavalry Brigade charged the French artillery taking position near La Haye Sainte but were shot to pieces and the brigade fell apart . The Netherlands Cavalry Division , Wellington 's last cavalry reserve behind the centre having lost half their strength was now useless and the French cavalry , despite its losses , were masters of the field compelling the allied infantry to remain in square . More and more French artillery was brought forward .
A French battery advanced to within 300 yards of the 1 / 1st Nassau square causing heavy casualties . When the Nassauers attempted to attack the battery they were ridden down by a squadron of cuirassiers . Yet another battery deployed on the flank of Mercer 's battery and shot up its horses and limbers and pushed Mercer back . Mercer later recalled , " The rapidity and precision of this fire was quite appaling . Every shot almost took effect , and I certainly expected we should all be annihilated . ... The saddle @-@ bags , in many instances were torn from horses ' backs ... One shell I saw explode under the two finest wheel @-@ horses in the troop down they dropped " .
French tirailleurs occupied the dominant positions , especially one on a knoll overlooking the square of the 27th . Unable to break square to drive off the French infantry because of the presence of French cavalry and artillery , they had to remain in that formation and endure the fire of the tirailleurs . That fire nearly annihilated the 27th Foot , the Inniskillings , who lost two @-@ thirds of their strength within that three or four hours .
The banks on the road side , the garden wall , the knoll and sandpit swarmed with skirmishers , who seemed determined to keep down our fire in front ; those behind the artificial bank seemed more intent upon destroying the 27th , who at this time , it may literally be said , were lying dead in square ; their loss after La Haye Sainte had fallen was awful , without the satisfaction of having scarcely fired a shot , and many of our troops in rear of the ridge were similarly situated .
During this time many of Wellington 's generals and aides were killed or wounded including Somerset , Canning , de Lancey , Alten and Cooke . The situation was now critical and Wellington , trapped in an infantry square and ignorant of events beyond it , was desperate for the arrival of help from the Prussians . He later wrote ,
The time they occupied in approaching seemed interminable . Both they and my watch seemed to have stuck fast .
= = = Arrival of the Prussian IV Corps : Plancenoit = = =
Night or the Prussians must come .
The first Prussian corps to arrive in strength was Bülow 's IV Corps . Bülow 's objective was Plancenoit , which the Prussians intended to use as a springboard into the rear of the French positions . Blücher intended to secure his right upon Frichermont using the Bois de Paris road . Blücher and Wellington had been exchanging communications since 10 : 00 and had agreed to this advance on Frichermont if Wellington 's centre was under attack . General Bülow noted that the way to Plancenoit lay open and that the time was 16 : 30 .
At about this time , as the French cavalry attack was in full spate , the 15th Brigade IV Corps was sent to link up with the Nassauers of Wellington 's left flank in the Frichermont @-@ La Haie area with the brigade 's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support . Napoleon sent Lobau 's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow 's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit . The 15th Brigade threw Lobau 's troops out of Frichermont with a determined bayonet charge , then proceeded up the Frichermont heights , battering French Chasseurs with 12 @-@ pounder artillery fire , and pushed on to Plancenoit . This sent Lobau 's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area , driving Lobau past the rear of the Armee Du Nord 's right flank and directly threatening its only line of retreat . Hiller 's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit .
Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau , who was now seriously pressed . The Young Guard counter @-@ attacked and , after very hard fighting , secured Plancenoit , but were themselves counter @-@ attacked and driven out . Napoleon sent two battalions of the Middle / Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious bayonet fighting — they did not deign to fire their muskets — this force recaptured the village .
= = = Zieten 's flank march = = =
Throughout the late afternoon , Zieten 's I Corps had been arriving in greater strength in the area just north of La Haie . General Müffling , Prussian liaison to Wellington , rode to meet I Corps . Zieten had by this time brought up his 1st Brigade , but had become concerned at the sight of stragglers and casualties from the Nassau units on Wellington 's left and from the Prussian 15th Brigade . These troops appeared to be withdrawing and Zieten , fearing that his own troops would be caught up in a general retreat , was starting to move away from Wellington 's flank and towards the Prussian main body near Plancenoit . Zieten had also received a direct order from Blücher to support Bülow , Zieten obeyed and marched to Bülow 's aid . Müffling saw this movement away and persuaded Zieten to support Wellington 's left flank . Müffling warned Zieten that " The battle is lost if the corps does not keep on the move and immediately support the English army " . Zieten resumed his march to support Wellington directly , and the arrival of his troops allowed Wellington to reinforce his crumbling centre by moving cavalry from his left .
The French were expecting Grouchy to march to their support from Wavre , and when Zieten 's I Corps appeared at Waterloo instead of Grouchy , " the shock of disillusionment shattered French morale " and " the sight of Zieten 's arrival caused turmoil to rage in Napoleon 's army " . I Corps proceeded to attack the French troops before Papelotte and by 19 : 30 the French position was bent into a rough horseshoe shape . The ends of the line were now based on Hougoumont on the left , Plancenoit on the right , and the centre on La Haie . Durutte had taken the positions of La Haie and Papelotte in a series of attacks , but now retreated behind Smohain without opposing the Prussian 24th Regiment as it retook both . The 24th advanced against the new French position , was repulsed , and returned to the attack supported by Silesian Schützen ( riflemen ) and the F / 1st Landwehr . The French initially fell back before the renewed assault , but now began seriously to contest ground , attempting to regain Smohain and hold on to the ridgeline and the last few houses of Papelotte .
The 24th Regiment linked up with a Highlander battalion on its far right and along with the 13th Landwehr regiment and cavalry support threw the French out of these positions . Further attacks by the 13th Landwehr and the 15th Brigade drove the French from Frichermont . Durutte 's division , finding itself about to be charged by massed squadrons of Zieten 's I Corps cavalry reserve , retreated from the battlefield . The soldiers of D ’ Erlon ’ s Corps alongside this attack on Durutte 's division also broke and fled in panic , while to the west the French Middle Guard were assaulting Wellington ’ s centre . The Prussian I Corps then advanced towards the Brussels road and the only line of retreat available to the French .
= = = Attack of the Imperial Guard = = =
Meanwhile , with Wellington 's centre exposed by the fall of La Haye Sainte and the Plancenoit front temporarily stabilised , Napoleon committed his last reserve , the hitherto @-@ undefeated Imperial Guard infantry . This attack , mounted at around 19 : 30 , was intended to break through Wellington 's centre and roll up his line away from the Prussians . Although it is one of the most celebrated passages of arms in military history , it had been unclear which units actually participated . It appears that it was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard , and not by the grenadiers or chasseurs of the Old Guard . Three Old Guard battalions did move forward and formed the attack 's second line , though they remained in reserve and did not directly assault the allied line .
... I saw four regiments of the middle guard , conducted by the Emperor , arriving . With these troops , he wished to renew the attack , and penetrate the centre of the enemy . He ordered me to lead them on ; generals , officers and soldiers all displayed the greatest intrepidity ; but this body of troops was too weak to resist , for a long time , the forces opposed to it by the enemy , and it was soon necessary to renounce the hope which this attack had , for a few moments , inspired .
Napoleon himself oversaw the initial deployment of the Middle and Old Guard . The Middle Guard formed in battalion squares , each about 550 men strong , with the 1st / 3rd Grenadiers , led by Generals Friant and Poret de Morvan , on the right along the road , to their left and rear was General Harlet leading the square of the 4th Grenadiers , then the 1st / 3rd Chasseurs under General Michel , next the 2nd / 3rd Chasseurs and finally the large single square of two battalions of 800 soldiers of the 4th Chasseurs led by General Henrion . Two batteries of Imperial Guard Horse Artillery accompanied them with sections of two guns between the squares . Each square was led by a general and Marshal Ney , mounted on his 5th horse of the day , led the advance .
Behind them , in reserve , were the three battalions of the Old Guard , right to left 1st / 2nd Grenadiers , 2nd / 2nd Chasseurs and 1st / 2nd Chasseurs . Napoleon left Ney to conduct the assault , however Ney led the Middle Guard on an oblique towards the Allied centre right instead of attacking straight up the centre , Napoleon would send Ney 's senior ADC Colonel Crabbé to order Ney to adjust . But Crabbé was unable to get there in time . Other troops rallied to support the advance of the Guard . On the left infantry from Reille 's corps that was not engaged with Hougoumont and cavalry advanced . On the right all the now rallied elements of D 'Érlon 's corps once again ascended the ridge and engaged the allied line . Of these , Pégot 's brigade broke into skirmish order and moved north and west of La Haye Sainte and provided fire support to Ney , once again unhorsed , and Friant 's 1st / 3rd Grenadiers . The Guards first received fire from some Brunswick battalions , but the return fire of the grenadiers forced them to retire . Next , Colin Halket 's brigade front line consisting of the 30th Foot and 73rd traded fire but they were driven back in confusion into the 33rd and 69th regiments , Halket was shot in the face and seriously wounded and the whole brigade retreated in a mob . Other allied troops began to give way as well . A counter attack by the Nassauers and the remains of Kielmansegge 's brigade from the allied second line , led by the Prince of Orange , was also thrown back and the Prince of Orange was seriously wounded . General Harlet brought up the 4th Grenadiers and the allied centre was now in serious danger of breaking . It was at this moment that the timely arrival of the Dutch General Chassé turned the tide in favour of the allies .
Chassé 's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them , led by a battery of Dutch horse @-@ artillery commanded by Captain Krahmer de Bichin . The battery opened a destructive fire into the victorious 1st / 3rd Grenadiers ' flank . This still did not stop the Guard 's advance , so Chassé ordered his first brigade ( Colonel Hendrik Detmers ) to charge the outnumbered French with the bayonet , who faltered and broke .
The 4th Grenadiers , seeing their comrades retreat and having suffered heavy casualties themselves , now wheeled right about and retired .
To the left of the 4th Grenadiers were the two squares of the 1st / and 2nd / 3rd Chasseurs who angled further to the west and had suffered more from artillery fire than the grenadiers . But as their advance mounted the ridge they found it apparently abandoned and covered with dead . Suddenly 1 @,@ 500 British Foot Guards under Maitland who had been lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery rose and devastated them with point @-@ blank volleys . The chasseurs deployed to answer the fire , but began to waver , some 300 falling from the first volley , killing General Michel . A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them , the British losing order in their pursuit .
The 4th Chasseurs battalion , 800 strong , now came up on the flank of the British guardsmen and the two battalions of British Foot Guards lost all cohesion and dashed back up the slope as a disorganized crowd with the chasseurs in pursuit . At the crest the chasseurs came upon the battery that had caused severe casualties on the 1st and 2nd / 3rd Chasseurs , they opened fire and swept away the gunners . The left flank of the square now came under fire from a heavy formation of British skirmishers , the chasseurs drove them back , but the skirmishers were replaced as the 52nd Light Infantry , led by John Colborne , wheeled in line onto the chasseurs ' flank and poured a devastating fire into them , the chasseurs returned a very sharp fire killing or wounding some 150 men of the 52nd . The 52nd then charged . Under this onslaught , the chasseurs broke .
The last of the Guard retreated headlong . A ripple of panic passed through the French lines as the astounding news spread : " La Garde recule . Sauve qui peut ! " ( " The Guard is retreating . Every man for himself ! " ) Wellington now stood up in Copenhagen 's stirrups and waved his hat in the air to signal a general advance . His army rushed forward from the lines and threw themselves upon the retreating French .
The surviving Imperial Guard rallied on their three reserve battalions ( some sources say four ) just south of La Haye Sainte for a last stand . A charge from Adam 's Brigade and the Hanoverian Landwehr Osnabrück Battalion , plus Vivian 's and Vandeleur 's relatively fresh cavalry brigades to their right , threw them into confusion . Those left in semi @-@ cohesive units retreated towards La Belle Alliance . It was during this retreat that some of the Guards were invited to surrender , eliciting the famous , if apocryphal , retort " La Garde meurt , elle ne se rend pas ! " ( " The Guard dies , it does not surrender ! " )
= = = Prussian capture of Plancenoit = = =
At about the same time , the Prussian 5th , 14th , and 16th Brigades were starting to push through Plancenoit , in the third assault of the day . The church was by now on fire , while its graveyard — the French centre of resistance — had corpses strewn about " as if by a whirlwind " . Five Guard battalions were deployed in support of the Young Guard , virtually all of which was now committed to the defence , along with remnants of Lobau 's corps . The key to the Plancenoit position proved to be the Chantelet woods to the south . Pirch 's II Corps had arrived with two brigades and reinforced the attack of IV Corps , advancing through the woods .
The 25th Regiment 's musketeer battalions threw the 1 / 2e Grenadiers ( Old Guard ) out of the Chantelet woods , outflanking Plancenoit and forcing a retreat . The Old Guard retreated in good order until they met the mass of troops retreating in panic , and became part of that rout . The Prussian IV Corps advanced beyond Plancenoit to find masses of French retreating in disorder from British pursuit . The Prussians were unable to fire for fear of hitting Wellington 's units . This was the fifth and final time that Plancenoit changed hands .
French forces not retreating with the Guard were surrounded in their positions and eliminated , neither side asking for nor offering quarter . The French Young Guard Division reported 96 per cent casualties , and two @-@ thirds of Lobau 's Corps ceased to exist .
Despite their great courage and stamina , the French Guards fighting in the village began to show signs of wavering . The church was already on fire with columns of red flame coming out of the windows , aisles and doors . In the village itself — still the scene of bitter house @-@ to @-@ house fighting — everything was burning , adding to the confusion . However , once Major von Witzleben 's manoeuvre was accomplished and the French Guards saw their flank and rear threatened , they began to withdraw . The Guard Chasseurs under General Pelet formed the rearguard . The remnants of the Guard left in a great rush , leaving large masses of artillery , equipment and ammunition wagons in the wake of their retreat . The evacuation of Plancenoit led to the loss of the position that was to be used to cover the withdrawal of the French Army to Charleroi . The Guard fell back from Plancenoit in the direction of Maison du Roi and Caillou . Unlike other parts of the battlefield , there were no cries of " Sauve qui peut ! " here . Instead , the cry " Sauvons nos aigles ! " ( " Let 's save our eagles ! " ) could be heard .
= = = French disintegration = = =
The French right , left , and centre had all now failed . The last cohesive French force consisted of two battalions of the Old Guard stationed around La Belle Alliance ; they had been so placed to act as a final reserve and to protect Napoleon in the event of a French retreat . He hoped to rally the French army behind them , but as retreat turned into rout , they too were forced to withdraw , one on either side of La Belle Alliance , in square as protection against Coalition cavalry . Until persuaded that the battle was lost and he should leave , Napoleon commanded the square to the left of the inn . Adam 's Brigade charged and forced back this square , while the Prussians engaged the other .
As dusk fell , both squares withdrew in relatively good order , but the French artillery and everything else fell into the hands of the allies . The retreating Guards were surrounded by thousands of fleeing , broken French troops . Coalition cavalry harried the fugitives until about 23 : 00 , with Gneisenau pursuing them as far as Genappe before ordering a halt . There , Napoleon 's abandoned carriage was captured , still containing diamonds left behind in the rush to escape . These became part of King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia 's crown jewels ; one Major Keller of the F / 15th received the Pour le Mérite with oak leaves for the feat . By this time 78 guns and 2 @,@ 000 prisoners had also been taken , including more generals .
There remained to us still four squares of the Old Guard to protect the retreat . These brave grenadiers , the choice of the army , forced successively to retire , yielded ground foot by foot , till , overwhelmed by numbers , they were almost entirely annihilated . From that moment , a retrograde movement was declared , and the army formed nothing but a confused mass . There was not , however , a total rout , nor the cry of sauve qui peut , as has been calumniously stated in the bulletin .
In the middle of the position occupied by the French army , and exactly upon the height , is a farm ( sic ) , called La Belle Alliance . The march of all the Prussian columns was directed towards this farm , which was visible from every side . It was there that Napoleon was during the battle ; it was thence that he gave his orders , that he flattered himself with the hopes of victory ; and it was there that his ruin was decided . There , too , it was that , by happy chance , Field Marshal Blücher and Lord Wellington met in the dark , and mutually saluted each other as victors .
Other sources agree that that the meeting of the commanders took place near La Belle Alliance , with this occurring at around 21 : 00 . However , historian Peter Hofschröer has written that Wellington and Blücher met at Genappe around 22 : 00 , signifying the end of the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
Waterloo cost Wellington around 15 @,@ 000 dead or wounded and Blücher some 7 @,@ 000 ( 810 of which were suffered by just one unit : the 18th Regiment , which served in Bülow 's 15th Brigade , had fought at both Frichermont and Plancenoit , and won 33 Iron Crosses ) . Napoleon 's losses were 24 @,@ 000 to 26 @,@ 000 killed or wounded and included 6 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 captured with an additional 15 @,@ 000 deserting subsequent to the battle and over the following days .
22 June . This morning I went to visit the field of battle , which is a little beyond the village of Waterloo , on the plateau of Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean ; but on arrival there the sight was too horrible to behold . I felt sick in the stomach and was obliged to return . The multitude of carcasses , the heaps of wounded men with mangled limbs unable to move , and perishing from not having their wounds dressed or from hunger , as the Allies were , of course , obliged to take their surgeons and waggons with them , formed a spectacle I shall never forget . The wounded , both of the Allies and the French , remain in an equally deplorable state .
At 10 : 30 on 19 June General Grouchy , still following his orders , defeated General Thielemann at Wavre and withdrew in good order — though at the cost of 33 @,@ 000 French troops that never reached the Waterloo battlefield . Wellington sent his official dispatch describing the battle to England on 19 June 1815 ; it arrived in London on 21 June 1815 and was published as a London Gazette Extraordinary on 22 June . Wellington , Blücher and other Coalition forces advanced upon Paris .
Napoleon announced his second abdication on 24 June 1815 . In the final skirmish of the Napoleonic Wars , Marshal Davout , Napoleon 's minister of war , was defeated by Blücher at Issy on 3 July 1815 . Allegedly , Napoleon tried to escape to North America , but the Royal Navy was blockading French ports to forestall such a move . He finally surrendered to Captain Frederick Maitland of HMS Bellerophon on 15 July . There was a campaign against French fortresses that still held out ; Longwy capitulated on 13 September 1815 , the last to do so . The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815 . Louis XVIII was restored to the throne of France and Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena , where he died in 1821 .
Royal Highness , – Exposed to the factions which divide my country , and to the enmity of the great Powers of Europe , I have terminated my political career ; and I come , like Themistocles , to throw myself upon the hospitality ( m 'asseoir sur le foyer ) of the British people . I claim from your Royal Highness the protections of the laws , and throw myself upon the most powerful , the most constant , and the most generous of my enemies .
Maitland 's 1st Foot Guards , who had defeated the Chasseurs of the Guard , were thought to have defeated the Grenadiers , although they had only faced Chasseurs of the newly raised Middle Guard . They were nevertheless awarded the title of Grenadier Guards in recognition of their feat and adopted bearskins in the style of the Grenadiers . Britain 's Household Cavalry likewise adopted the cuirass in 1821 in recognition of their success against their armoured French counterparts . The effectiveness of the lance was noted by all participants and this weapon subsequently became more widespread throughout Europe ; the British converted their first light cavalry regiment to lancers in 1816 , their uniforms , of Polish origin , were based on those of the Imperial Guard lancers .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Historical importance = = =
Waterloo was a decisive battle in more than one sense . Every generation in Europe up to the outbreak of the First World War looked back at Waterloo as the turning point that dictated the course of subsequent world history . In retrospect , it was seen as the event that ushered in the Concert of Europe , an era characterised by relative peace , material prosperity and technological progress . The battle definitively ended the series of wars that had convulsed Europe , and involved many other regions of the world , since the French Revolution of the early 1790s . It also ended the First French Empire and the political and military career of Napoleon Bonaparte , one of the greatest commanders and statesmen in history .
It was followed by almost four decades of international peace in Europe . No further major conflict occurred until the Crimean War . Changes to the configuration of European states , as refashioned after Waterloo , included the formation of the Holy Alliance of reactionary governments intent on repressing revolutionary and democratic ideas , and the reshaping of the former Holy Roman Empire into a German Confederation increasingly marked by the political dominance of Prussia . The bicentenary of Waterloo has prompted renewed attention to the geopolitical and economic legacy of the battle and the century of relative transatlantic peace which followed .
= = = Views on the reasons for Napoleon 's defeat = = =
General Antoine @-@ Henri , Baron Jomini , one of the leading military writers on the Napoleonic art of war , had a number of very cogent explanations of the reasons behind Napoleon 's defeat at Waterloo .
In my opinion , four principal causes led to this disaster :
The first , and most influential , was the arrival , skilfully combined , of Blücher , and the false movement that favoured this arrival ; the second , was the admirable firmness of the British infantry , joined to the sang @-@ froid and aplomb of its chiefs ; the third , was the horrible weather , that had softened the ground , and rendered the offensive movements so toilsome , and retarded till one o 'clock the attack that should have been made in the morning ; the fourth , was the inconceivable formation of the first corps , in masses very much too deep for the first grand attack .
Wellington himself wrote in his official dispatch back to London : " I should not do justice to my own feelings , or to Marshal Blücher and the Prussian army , if I did not attribute the successful result of this arduous day to the cordial and timely assistance I received from them . The operation of General Bülow upon the enemy 's flank was a most decisive one ; and , even if I had not found myself in a situation to make the attack which produced the final result , it would have forced the enemy to retire if his attacks should have failed , and would have prevented him from taking advantage of them if they should unfortunately have succeeded " .
Despite their differences on other matters , discussed at length in Carl von Clausewitz 's study of the Campaign of 1815 and Wellington 's famous 1842 essay in reply to it , the Prussian theorist and historian Clausewitz agreed with Wellington on this assessment . Indeed , Clausewitz viewed the battle prior to the Prussian intervention more as a mutually exhausting stalemate than as an impending French victory , with the advantage , if any , leaning towards Wellington .
Many modern authors , however , share the view that Wellington faced imminent defeat without Prussian help . For example , Parkinson ( 2000 ) writes : " Neither army beat Napoleon alone . But whatever the part played by Prussian troops in the actual moment when the Imperial Guard was repulsed , it is difficult to see how Wellington could have staved off defeat , when his centre had been almost shattered , his reserves were almost all committed , the French right remained unmolested and the Imperial Guard intact . … . Blücher may not have been totally responsible for victory over Napoleon , but he deserved full credit for preventing a British defeat " . Steele ( 2014 ) writes : " Blücher ’ s arrival not only diverted vital reinforcements , but also forced Napoleon to accelerate his effort against Wellington . The tide of battle had been turned by the hard @-@ driving Blücher . As his Prussians pushed in Napoleon 's flank . Wellington was able to shift to the offensive " .
= = Battlefield today = =
Some portions of the terrain on the battlefield have been altered from their 1815 appearance . Tourism began the day after the battle , with Captain Mercer noting that on 19 June " a carriage drove on the ground from Brussels , the inmates of which , alighting , proceeded to examine the field " . In 1820 , the Netherlands ' King William I ordered the construction of a monument . The Lion 's Hillock , a giant mound , was constructed here using 300 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 390 @,@ 000 cu yd ) of earth taken from the ridge at the centre of the British line , effectively removing the southern bank of Wellington 's sunken road .
Every one is aware that the variously inclined undulations of the plains , where the engagement between Napoleon and Wellington took place , are no longer what they were on 18 June 1815 . By taking from this mournful field the wherewithal to make a monument to it , its real relief has been taken away , and history , disconcerted , no longer finds her bearings there . It has been disfigured for the sake of glorifying it . Wellington , when he beheld Waterloo once more , two years later , exclaimed , " They have altered my field of battle ! " Where the great pyramid of earth , surmounted by the lion , rises to @-@ day , there was a hillock which descended in an easy slope towards the Nivelles road , but which was almost an escarpment on the side of the highway to Genappe . The elevation of this escarpment can still be measured by the height of the two knolls of the two great sepulchres which enclose the road from Genappe to Brussels : one , the English tomb , is on the left ; the other , the German tomb , is on the right . There is no French tomb . The whole of that plain is a sepulchre for France .
The alleged remark by Wellington about the alteration of the battlefield as described by Hugo was never documented , however .
Other terrain features and notable landmarks on the field have remained virtually unchanged since the battle . These include the rolling farmland to the east of the Brussels – Charleroi Road as well as the buildings at Hougoumont , La Haye Sainte , and La Belle Alliance .
Apart from the Lion Mound , there are several more conventional but noteworthy monuments throughout the battlefield . A cluster of monuments at the Brussels – Charleroi and Braine L 'Alleud – Ohain crossroads marks the mass graves of British , Dutch , Hanoverian and King 's German Legion troops . A monument to the French dead , entitled L 'Aigle blessé ( " The Wounded Eagle " ) , marks the location where it is believed one of the Imperial Guard units formed a square during the closing moments of the battle .
A monument to the Prussian dead is located in the village of Plancenoit on the site where one of their artillery batteries took position . The Duhesme mausoleum is one among the few graves of the fallen . It is located at the side of Saint Martin 's Church in Ways , a hamlet in the municipality of Genappe . Seventeen fallen officers are buried in the crypt of the British Monument in the Brussels Cemetery in Evere . The remains of a 23 @-@ year @-@ old soldier named Friederich Brandt were discovered in 2012 . He was a slightly hunchbacked infantryman , 1 @.@ 60 metres ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) tall , and was hit in the chest by a French bullet . His rifle , coins , and position on the battlefield identified him as an Hanoverian fighting in the King 's German Legion .
= = Coin controversy = =
As part of the bicentennial celebration of the battle , in 2015 Belgium minted a 2 Euro coin depicting the Lion monument over a map of the field of battle . France officially protested this issue , while the Belgian government noted that the French mint sells souvenir medals at Waterloo . After 180 @,@ 000 coins were minted but not released , the issue was melted . Instead , Belgium issued an identical commemorative coin in the non @-@ standard value of 2 ½ Euros . Legally only valid within the issuing country ( but unlikely to circulate ) it was minted in brass , packaged , and sold by the Belgian mint for 6 Euros . A 10 Euro coin , showing Wellington , Blücher , their troops and the silhouette of Napoleon , was also available in silver for 42 Euros .
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= Snake scales =
Snakes , like other reptiles , have a skin covered in scales . Snakes are entirely covered with scales or scutes of various shapes and sizes , known as snakeskin as a whole . Scales protect the body of the snake , aid it in locomotion , allow moisture to be retained within , alter the surface characteristics such as roughness to aid in camouflage , and in some cases even aid in prey capture ( such as Acrochordus ) . The simple or complex colouration patterns ( which help in camouflage and anti @-@ predator display ) are a property of the underlying skin , but the folded nature of scaled skin allows bright skin to be concealed between scales then revealed in order to startle predators .
Scales have been modified over time to serve other functions such as ' eyelash ' fringes , and protective covers for the eyes with the most distinctive modification being the rattle of the North American rattlesnakes .
Snakes periodically moult their scaly skins and acquire new ones . This permits replacement of old worn out skin , disposal of parasites and is thought to allow the snake to grow . The arrangement of scales is used to identify snake species .
Snakes have been part and parcel of culture and religion . Vivid scale patterns have been thought to have influenced early art . The use of snake @-@ skin in manufacture of purses , apparel and other articles led to large @-@ scale killing of snakes , giving rise to advocacy for use of artificial snake @-@ skin . Snake scales are also to be found as motifs in fiction , art and films .
= = Functions of scales = =
The scales of a snake primarily serve to reduce friction as it moves , since friction is the major source of energy loss in snake locomotion .
The ventral ( or belly ) scales , which are large and oblong , are especially low @-@ friction , and some arboreal species can use the edges to grip branches . Snake skin and scales help retain moisture in the animal 's body . Snakes pick up vibrations from both the air and the ground , and can differentiate the two , using a complex system of internal resonances ( perhaps involving the scales ) .
= = Evolution = =
Reptiles evolved from amphibious ancestors which left the aquatic lifestyle and became terrestrial . To prevent loss of moisture reptilian skin lost the softness and moisture of amphibian skin and developing a thick stratum corneum with multiple layers of lipids which served as an impermeable barrier as well as provided protection from the ultraviolet . Over time , reptilian skin cells became highly keratinised , horny , sturdy and desiccated . The surfaces of the dermis and epidermis of all reptilian scales form a single contiguous sheet , as can be seen when the snake sheds its skin as a whole .
= = Morphology of scales = =
Snake scales are formed by the differentiation of the snake 's underlying skin or epidermis . Each scale has an outer surface and an inner surface . The skin from the inner surface hinges back and forms a free area which overlaps the base of the next scale which emerges below this scale . A snake hatches with a fixed number of scales . The scales do not increase in number as the snake matures nor do they reduce in number over time . The scales however grow larger in size and may change shape with each moult .
Snakes have smaller scales around the mouth and sides of the body which allow expansion so that a snake can consume prey of much larger width than itself . Snake scales are made of keratin , the same material that hair and fingernails are made of . They are cool and dry to touch .
= = = Surface and shape = = =
Snake scales are of different shapes and sizes . Snake scales may be granular , have a smooth surface or have a longitudinal ridge or keel on it . Often , snake scales have pits , tubercles and other fine structures which may be visible to the naked eye or under a microscope . Snake scales may be modified to form fringes , as in the case of the Eyelash Bush Viper , Atheris ceratophora , or rattles as in the case of the rattlesnakes of North America .
Certain primitive snakes such as boas , pythons and certain advanced snakes such as vipers have small scales arranged irregularly on the head . Other more advanced snakes have special large symmetrical scales on the head called shields or plates .
Snake scales occur in variety of shapes . They may be cycloid as in family Typhlopidae , long and pointed with pointed tips , as in the case of the Green Vine Snake Ahaetulla nasuta , broad and leaf @-@ like , as in the case of green pit vipers Trimeresurus spp or as broad as they are long , for example , as in Rat snake Ptyas mucosus . In some cases , scales may be keeled weakly or strongly as in the case of the Buff @-@ striped keelback Amphiesma stolatum . They may have bidentate tips as in some spp of Natrix . Some snakes , such as the Short Seasnake Lapemis curtus , may have spinelike and juxtaposed scales while others may have large and non @-@ overlapping knobs as in the case of the Javan Mudsnake Xenodermis javanicus .
Another example of differentiation of snake scales is a transparent scale called the brille or spectacle which covers the eye of the snake . The brille is often referred to as a fused eyelid . It is shed as part of the old skin during moulting .
= = = Rattles = = =
The most distinctive modification of the snake scale is the rattle of rattlesnakes , such as those of the genera Crotalus and Sistrurus . The rattle is made up of a series of loosely linked , interlocking chambers that when shaken , vibrate against one another to create the warning signal of a rattlesnake . Only the bottom button is firmly attached to the tip of the tail .
At birth , a rattlesnake hatchling has only a small button or ' primordial rattle ' which is firmly attached to the tip of the tail . The first segment is added when the hatchling sheds its skin for the first time . A new section is added each time the skin is shed until a rattle is formed . The rattle grows as the snake ages but segments are also prone to breaking off and hence the length of a rattle is not a reliable indicator of the age of a snake .
= = = Colour = = =
Scales , more specifically , mostly consist of hard beta keratins which are basically transparent . The colours of the scale are due to pigments in the inner layers of the skin and not due to the scale material itself . Scales are hued for all colours in this manner except for blue and green . Blue is caused by the ultrastructure of the scales . By itself , such a scale surface diffracts light and gives a blue hue , while , in combination with yellow from the inner skin it gives a beautiful iridescent green .
Some snakes have the ability to change the hue of their scales slowly . This is typically seen in cases where the snake becomes lighter or darker with change in season . In some cases , this change may take place between day and night .
= = = Ecdysis = = =
The shedding of scales is called ecdysis , or , in normal usage moulting or sloughing . In the case of snakes , the complete outer layer of skin is shed in one layer . Snake scales are not discrete but extensions of the epidermis hence they are not shed separately , but are ejected as a complete contiguous outer layer of skin during each moult , akin to a sock being turned inside out .
Moulting serves a number of functions – firstly , the old and worn skin is replaced , secondly , it helps get rid of parasites such as mites and ticks . Renewal of the skin by moulting is supposed to allow growth in some animals such as insects , however this view has been disputed in the case of snakes .
Moulting is repeated periodically throughout a snake 's life . Before a moult , the snake stops eating and often hides or moves to a safe place . Just before shedding , the skin becomes dull and dry looking and the eyes become cloudy or blue @-@ colored . The inner surface of the old outer skin liquefies . This causes the old outer skin to separate from the new inner skin . After a few days , the eyes clear and the snake " crawls " out of its old skin . The old skin breaks near the mouth and the snake wriggles out aided by rubbing against rough surfaces . In many cases the cast skin peels backward over the body from head to tail , in one piece like an old sock . A new , larger , and brighter layer of skin has formed underneath .
An older snake may shed its skin only once or twice a year , but a younger , still @-@ growing snake , may shed up to four times a year . The discarded skin gives a perfect imprint of the scale pattern and it is usually possible to identify the snake if this discard is reasonably complete and intact .
= = Arrangement of scales = =
Scale arrangements are important , not only for taxonomic utility , but also for forensic reasons and conservation of snake species . Excepting for the head , snakes have imbricate scales , overlapping like the tiles on a roof . Snakes have rows of scales along the whole or part of their length and also many other specialised scales , either singly or in pairs , occurring on the head and other regions of the body .
The dorsal ( or body ) scales on the snake 's body are arranged in rows along the length of their bodies . Adjacent rows are diagonally offset from each other . Most snakes have an odd number of rows across the body though certain species have an even number of rows e.g. Zaocys spp . In the case of some aquatic and marine snakes , the scales are granular and the rows cannot be counted .
The number of rows range from ten in Tiger Ratsnake Spilotes pullatus ; thirteen in Dryocalamus , Liopeltis , Calamaria and Asian coral snakes of genus Calliophis ; 65 to 75 in pythons ; 74 to 93 in Kolpophis and 130 to 150 in Acrochordus . The majority of the largest family of snakes , the Colubridae have 15 , 17 or 19 rows of scales . The maximum number of rows are in mid @-@ body and they reduce in count towards the head and on the tail .
= = Nomenclature of scales = =
The various scales on a snake 's head and body are indicated in the following paragraphs with annotated photographs of Buff @-@ striped Keelback Amphiesma stolata , a common grass @-@ snake of South Asia and a member of Colubridae , the largest snake family .
= = = Head scales = = =
Identification of cephalic scales is most conveniently begun with reference to the nostril , which is easily identified on a snake . There are two scales enclosing the nostril which are called the nasals . In colubrids , the nostril lies between the nasals , while in vipers it lies in the centre of a single nasal scale . The outer nasal ( near the snout ) is called the prenasal while the inner nasal ( near the eye ) is called the postnasal . Along the top of the snout connecting the nasals on both sides of the head are scales called internasals . Between the two prenasals is a scale at the tip of the snout called the rostral scale .
The scales around the eye are called circumorbital scales and are named as ocular scales but with appropriate prefixes . The ocular scale proper is a transparent scale covering the eye which is called the spectacle , brille or eyecap . The circumorbital scales towards the snout or the front are called preocular scales , those towards the rear are called postocular scales , and those towards the upper or dorsal side are called supraocular scales . Circumorbital scales towards the ventral or lower side , if any , are called subocular scales . Between the preocular and the postnasal scales are one or two scales called loreal scales . Loreal scales are absent in elapids .
The scales along the lips of the snake are called labials . Those on the upper lip are called supralabials or upper labials , while those on the lower lip are called infralabials or lower labials . On top of the head , between the eyes , adjacent to the supraoculars is the frontal scale . The prefrontal scales are the scales connected to the frontal towards the tip of the snout which are in contact with the internasals . They may have a scale in between them . The back of the top of the head has scales connected to the frontal scale called the parietal scales . At the sides of the back of the head between the parietals above and the supralabials below are scales called temporal scales .
On the underside of the head , a snake has an anterior scale called the mental scale . Connected to the mental scale and all along the lower lips are the infralabials or lower labials . Along the chin connected to the infralabials is a pair of shields called the anterior chin shields . Next to the anterior chin shields , further back along the chin is another pair of shields called the posterior chin shields . In some texts the chinshields are referred to as submaxillary scales .
Scales in the central or throat region , which are in contact with the first ventral scales of a snake 's body and are flanked by the chin shields , are called gular scales . The mental groove is a longitudinal groove on the underside of the head between the large , paired chin shields and continuing between the smaller gular scales .
= = = Body scales = = =
The scales on the body of the snake are called the dorsal or costal scales . Sometimes there is a special row of large scales along the top of the back of the snake , i.e. , the uppermost row , called the vertebral scales . The enlarged scales on the belly of the snake are called ventral scales or gastrosteges . The number of ventral scales can be a guide to the species . In " advanced " ( Caenophidian ) snakes , the broad belly scales and rows of dorsal scales correspond to the vertebrae , allowing scientists to count the vertebrae without dissection .
= = = Tail scales = = =
At the end of the ventral scales of the snake is an anal plate which protects the opening to the cloaca ( a shared opening for waste and reproductive material to pass ) on the underside near the tail . This anal scale may be single or divided into a pair . The part of the body beyond the anal scale is considered to be the tail .
Sometimes snakes have enlarged scales , either single or paired , under the tail ; these are called subcaudals or urosteges . These subcaudals may be smooth or keeled as in Bitis arietans somalica . The end of the tail may simply taper into a tip ( as in the case of most snakes ) , it may form a spine ( as in Acanthophis ) , end in a bony spur ( as in Lachesis ) , a rattle ( as in Crotalus ) , or a rudder as seen in many sea snakes .
Sources . Details for this section have been sourced from scale diagrams in Malcolm Smith . Details of scales of Buff @-@ striped Keelback have been taken from Daniels .
= = Glossary of scales = =
Scales on the head .
Rostral .
Nasorostral .
Nasal .
Prenasal .
Postnasal .
Supranasal .
Fronto @-@ nasal .
Internasal .
Brille , spectacle , ocular scale , eyecap .
Circumorbital .
Preocular .
Postocular .
Supraocular .
Subocular .
Loreal .
Interorbital , Intersupraocular .
Frontal .
Prefrontal .
Parietal .
Occipital .
Interoccipital .
Temporal .
Labial .
Supralabial , Upper labial .
Sublabial , Infralabial , Lower labial .
Mental or Symphysial .
Chin shield .
Anterior chin shield , Anterior genials .
Posterior chin shield , Posterior genials .
Intergeneial .
Gular .
Scales on the body .
Dorsal .
Vertebral .
Ventral , Gastrostege .
Scales on the tail .
Anal .
Subcaudal , Urostege .
= = = Other pertinent terms = = =
Canthus , or Canthus rostralis , the angle between the supraocular scale and the rostral scale .
Mental groove .
= = Taxonomic importance = =
Scales do not play an important role in distinguishing between the families but are important at generic and specific level . There is an elaborate scheme of nomenclature of scales . Scales patterns , by way of scale surface or texture , pattern and colouration and the division of the anal plate , in combination with other morphological characteristics , are the principal means of classifying snakes down to species level .
In certain areas in North America , where the diversity of snakes is not too large , easy keys based on simple identification of scales have been devised for the lay public to distinguish venomous snakes from non @-@ venomous snakes . In other places with large biodiversity , such as Myanmar , publications caution that venomous and non @-@ venomous snakes cannot be easily distinguished apart without careful examination .
The scales patterning may also be used for individual identification in field studies . Clipping of specific scales , such as the subcaudals , to mark individual snakes is a popular approach to population estimation by mark and recapture techniques .
= = = Distinguishing between venomous and non @-@ venomous snakes = = =
There is no simple way of differentiating a venomous snake from a non @-@ venomous one merely by using a scale character . Finding out whether a snake is venomous or not is correctly done by identification of the species of a snake with the help of experts , or in their absence , close examination of the snake and using authoritative references on the snakes of the particular geographical region to identify it . Scale patterns help to indicate the species and from the references , it can be verified if the snake species is known to be venomous or not .
Species identification using scales requires a fair degree of knowledge about snakes , their taxonomy , snake @-@ scale nomenclature as well as familiarity with and access to scientific literature . Distinguishing by using scale diagrams whether a snake is venomous or not in the field cannot be done in the case of uncaught specimens . It is not advisable to catch a snake to check whether it is venomous or not using scale diagrams . Most books or websites provide an array of traits of the local herpetofauna , other than scale diagrams , which help to distinguish whether a snake in the field is venomous or not .
In certain regions , presence or absence of certain scales may be a quick way to distinguish non @-@ venomous and venomous snakes , but used with care and knowledge of exceptions . For example , in Myanmar , the presence or absence of loreal scales can be used to distinguish between relatively harmless Colubrids and lethally venomous Elapids . The rule of hand for this region is that the absence of a loreal scale between the nasal scale and pre @-@ ocular scale indicates that the snake is an Elapid and hence lethal . This rule @-@ of @-@ thumb cannot be used without care as it cannot be applied to vipers , which have a large number of small scales on the head . A careful check would also be needed to exclude known poisonous members of the Colubrid family such as Rhabdophis .
In South Asia , it is advisable to take the snake which has bitten a person , if it has been killed , and carry it along to the hospital for possible identification by medical staff using scale diagrams so that an informed decision can be taken them as to whether and which anti @-@ venom is to be administered . However , attempts to catch it or kill the venomous snake are not advised as the snake may bite more people .
= = Cultural significance = =
Snakes have been a motif in human culture and religion and an object of dread and fascination all over the world . The vivid patterns of snake scales , such as the Gaboon Viper , both repel and fascinate the human mind . Such patterns have inspired dread and awe in humans from pre @-@ historic times and these can be seen in the art prevalent to those times . Studies of fear imagery and psychological arousal indicate that snake scales are a vital component of snake imagery . Snake scales also appear to have affected Islamic art in the form of tessallated mosaic patterns which show great similarity to snake @-@ scale patterns .
Snakeskin , with its highly periodic cross @-@ hatch or grid patterns , appeals to people 's aesthetics and have been used to manufacture many leather articles including fashionable accessories . The use of snakeskin has however endangered snake populations and resulted in international restrictions in trade of certain snake species and populations in the form of CITES provisions . Animal lovers in many countries now propagate the use of artificial snakeskin instead , which are easily produced from embossed leather , patterned fabric , plastics and other materials .
Snake scales occur as a motif regularly in computer action games . A snake scale was portrayed as a clue in the 1982 film Blade Runner . Snake scales also figure in popular fiction , such as the Harry Potter series ( desiccated Boomslang skin is used as a raw material for concocting the Polyjuice potion ) , and also in teen fiction .
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= Issy Smith =
Issy Smith VC ( c . 18 September 1890 – 11 September 1940 ) was a British @-@ Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to eligible forces of the Commonwealth and United Kingdom . In recognition of his VC , he was also awarded the French Croix de Guerre and Russian Cross of St. George ( 4th class ) by the respective governments .
Born Ishroulch Shmeilowitz ( and other renderings ) , to parents residing in Egypt , Smith travelled to Britain as a child stowaway and first volunteered to serve in the British Army in 1904 . He emigrated to Australia after discharge , where he remained until mobilised as a reservist in 1914 . As a corporal in the 1st Battalion , The Manchester Regiment , Smith was engaged in the Second Battle of Ypres . On 26 April 1915 , Smith , on his own initiative , recovered wounded soldiers while exposed to sustained fire and attended to them " with the greatest devotion to duty regardless of personal risk " . His conduct secured a recommendation for the Victoria Cross , which was awarded to Smith in August 1915 .
After his demobilisation , Smith returned to Australia with his wife and daughter . He became a prominent figure in Melbourne 's Jewish community , was appointed a Justice of the Peace , and unsuccessfully stood as a candidate for the United Australia Party in the 1931 general election .
= = Early life = =
Smith was born in Alexandria , the son of French citizens Moses and Eva Shmeilowitz , who were of Russian origin . His father was employed by the French Consulate @-@ General as a clerk . Aged 11 , Smith embarked as a stowaway aboard a vessel proceeding to London . Undaunted by this unfamiliar environment , Smith attended Berner Street School , Commercial Street , and worked as a deliverer in the East End , then an impoverished ghetto where Yiddish was the predominant spoken language . Persecution and extreme deprivation had compelled millions of Eastern European Jews to migrate to Western Europe , the Americas , and elsewhere . By the time of Issy Smith 's arrival , Jewish immigration to Britain had peaked and was further curtailed by the enactment of the Aliens Act in 1905 .
He joined the British Army in 1904 , becoming a private in the Manchester Regiment . The pseudonym Issy Smith was adopted in the process of enlisting at the behest of a recruiting sergeant . Smith completed his training , serving in South Africa and India with the 1st Battalion . He boxed competitively , winning the British Army 's middleweight championship , and played football . While in India , Smith was present at the Delhi Durbar parade , in which the 1st Manchesters participated , and was thus awarded the Delhi Durbar Medal .
Accepting his discharge in 1912 , Smith emigrated to Australia after brief employment in London . He lived in the Melbourne suburb of Ascot Vale while working for the city 's gas company . Retained as a reservist , Smith was mobilised by the British Army after the commencement of hostilities in August 1914 . Some sources state that Smith was present at the capture of German New Guinea by the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force .
= = World War I = =
The 1st Manchester Regiment , stationed in India , sailed from Karachi for France on 29 August 1914 as the constituent British battalion of the Jullundur Brigade , 3rd ( Lahore ) Division . The battalion disembarked at Marseilles in late September , but was not deployed to the front until 26 October 1914 , when it occupied trenches east of Festubert .
Actively engaged in the battles of Givenchy and Neuve Chapelle , the 1st Manchesters had incurred hundreds of casualties by the beginning of " Second Ypres " on 22 April 1915 . Chemical warfare first emerged on the Western Front during the German offensive , and Smith himself would be temporarily incapacitated by gas . The 1st Manchesters were involved in an initially successful counter @-@ attack conducted by the Jullundur and Ferozepore brigades on 26 April 1915 , near Wieltje , in conjunction with other Allied units . Rudimentary forms of protection against the chlorine gas proved ineffectual , limiting the advance and causing many soldiers to succumb to its effects .
During the Allied counter @-@ attack , Smith , of his own volition , ventured towards a German position to attend to a severely wounded soldier . He carried him some 250 yards ( 230 m ) to relative safety while exposed to intense German fire . According to the Victoria Cross citation , he brought in " many more wounded men " throughout the day under similarly perilous conditions " regardless of personal risk " . Recounting his own rescue by Smith to a Daily Mail correspondent , Sergeant Rooke said of the corporal : " He behaved with wonderful coolness and presence of mind the whole time , and no man deserved a Victoria Cross more thoroughly than he did " .
Smith was hospitalised in Dublin , where he recuperated from his gassing . His Victoria Cross was later presented to him at Buckingham Palace by King George V. He was feted by publications such as The Jewish Chronicle , and his status as a recipient of the VC was utilised by the British government for the purposes of stimulating further recruitment . His visits to Jewish communities in the United Kingdom generated much interest , attracting dignitaries and large crowds in the process . On one such occasion , in September 1915 , he was invited back to his old school in the East End to receive a gold watch and chain in honour of his Victoria Cross from his former schoolmates . Also that month , Smith was received at Mansion House , Dublin , by the Under @-@ Secretary for Ireland , Matthew Nathan , who took advantage of the occasion to reaffirm loyalty to both Britain and Ireland . Contemporaries , however , continued to report instances of discrimination against Jewish servicemen , including an incident involving Issy Smith in Leeds . While documenting his recruitment drive , The Jewish Chronicle reported that the proprietor of the Grand Restaurant had refused to serve Smith during his tour of Yorkshire because he was Jewish , while indicating the staff were prepared to accept his non @-@ Jewish acquaintance . Smith 's tour continued without disruption , taking him to Edinburgh , Scotland .
Meanwhile , on the Western Front , the demoralised and depleted Indian Corps fought its final European battle at Loos . With the exception of two cavalry divisions , the Indian Corps in Europe redeployed to the Middle East theatre , sailing from Marseilles on 10 December 1915 and arriving in Basra on 8 January 1916 to be integrated into the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force . Smith returned to active duty as a sergeant , serving in Mesopotamia and Palestine until the cessation of hostilities with the Ottoman Empire and Germany on 30 October and 11 November respectively . He had been wounded five times .
Demobilised after the war , Smith returned to London . As a war hero , he was intermittently invited to social functions . In June 1920 , he attended a garden party at Buckingham Palace , given by the king for all surviving Victoria Cross recipients . They included veterans of the Indian Mutiny , Rorke 's Drift , Relief of General Gordon , the First and Second Boer Wars , countless campaigns on the borders of the empire , and dozens from the Great War . In October 1921 , with Harry Kenny VC , he unveiled the Hackney War Memorial . In 1922 , he attended " The Pilgrimage to Ypres " , in Belgium , laying a wreath at the Cloth Hall there .
= = Legacy = =
Despite his fame and popularity , like many former servicemen contending with post @-@ war economic hardship , Smith struggled financially – a predicament compounded by illness . As a consequence he pawned his medals for £ 20 , only for them to be recovered by the Jewish Historical Society on the urging of the wife of Chief Rabbi Joseph H. Hertz and ultimately reunited with Smith . Smith 's varied occupations in post @-@ war Britain included work as an actor with a theatre troupe . He emigrated to Australia in 1925 with his wife Elsie ( née McKechnie ) , whom he had married at Camberwell Register Office . Marriage to Elsie produced two children ( Olive and Maurice ) and reputedly angered his parents despite the couple 's later observance of Jewish religious tradition in a formal ceremony held at Central Synagogue , Hallam Street .
The family settled in Moonee Ponds , Melbourne , where Smith 's standing in the Jewish community became high . He was appointed manager of British International Pictures in Melbourne , in 1928 , worked for Dunlop Rubber Company , and was finally employed by the Civil Aviation Board at Essendon Airport . Appointed a Justice of the Peace in 1930 , Smith tried politics as a candidate in the 1931 federal election for the United Australia Party contesting the seat of Melbourne in the House of Representatives , and " seriously challenged the hitherto unassailable Dr Maloney " .
Smith died of coronary thrombosis in September 1940 . He was buried in the Jewish section of Fawkner Cemetery with full military honours . His Victoria Cross was sold by his family in 1990 and later auctioned as part of a collection of Smith 's medals , selling for approximately £ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 60 @,@ 000 ) .
Following representations from the Association of Jewish Ex @-@ Servicemen and Women , in September 2013 Communities Secretary Eric Pickles announced that the plan to memorialise British @-@ born First World War Victoria Cross medal holders by laying commemorative paving stones in their home towns would be extended to include Smith , who was born in Egypt .
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= Mike Kafka =
Michael John " Mike " Kafka ( born July 25 , 1987 ) is a former American football quarterback and current offensive graduate assistant for the Northwestern Wildcats football team . He was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the fourth round of the 2010 National Football League ( NFL ) draft . He played college football at Northwestern .
Kafka attended St. Rita of Cascia High School in Chicago , Illinois , where he played both football and baseball . Kafka led St. Rita Cascia to three conference championships . He ended his high school football career with 1 @,@ 816 total yards and 16 touchdowns . After his senior season , he moved on to Northwestern University .
In 2007 , Kafka was the backup to C. J. Bachér and played in only two games . Despite being the backup quarterback again in 2008 , Kafka threw for 330 yards and finished second on the team in rushing yards with 321 . Following Bachér 's graduation after the 2008 season , Kafka became the starter for 2009 . Against Syracuse he set the school record for most consecutive pass completions with 16 . In the same game , he became the first Big Ten Conference player to score a passing , receiving , and rushing touchdown since Zack Mills from Penn State in 2004 . He was named Big Ten Co @-@ Offensive Player of the Week for his performance . Kafka received second @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten honors in 2009 . In the 2010 Outback Bowl against Auburn , Kafka set the all @-@ time bowl record with 47 completions and 78 passing attempts . He set Northwestern and Outback Bowl records with 532 passing yards and an Outback Bowl record with five interceptions . During his career at Northwestern , Kafka threw for 4 @,@ 265 yards with a completion percentage of 64 @.@ 1 % , 19 touchdowns and 20 interceptions . He rushed for 891 yards and 11 touchdowns on 268 carries , and caught a pass for 24 yards and a touchdown .
Kafka spent two seasons as a member of the Eagles . In 2010 he was the third @-@ string quarterback behind Michael Vick and Kevin Kolb but did not see playing time . He was mainly the third @-@ string quarterback again in 2011 behind Vick and Vince Young , but saw some playing time in two games early in the season , both of which resulted in losses . He was expected to be the backup quarterback behind Vick in 2012 but a broken hand caused him to miss time in the preseason and was ultimately released in favor of rookie Nick Foles and veteran Trent Edwards . Kafka spent time on offseason rosters with the New England Patriots and Jacksonville Jaguars in 2013 , before he was signed by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2014 . He spent the majority of the 2014 season on the Buccaneers ' practice squad , but was not re @-@ signed following the conclusion of the season . He participated in the first NFL veteran combine in 2015 and was subsequently signed by the Vikings . After playing in the preseason , the team released him . He spent one week with the Tennessee Titans ' practice squad in December 2015 , before signing with the Cincinnati Bengals ' practice squad one week later . He was not re @-@ signed following the season .
= = Early years = =
Kafka was born on July 25 , 1987 , in Chicago , Illinois , to Michael and Sandra Kafka . He attended St. Rita of Cascia High School in Chicago where he played football ( coached by Todd Kuska ) and baseball . He was the team captain for both teams . In football , he led the Mustangs to three conference championships and had a career record of 35 – 8 . As a senior in 2004 , Kafka completed 75 of 129 passes . In the season @-@ opener against Homewood @-@ Flossmoor High School , Kafka went up against H @-@ F 's quarterback Freddie Barnes and won the game , 52 – 28 . Against Mt . Carmel High School , he ran for 164 yards and passed for 126 yards . Kafka passed for 1 @,@ 004 yards and 10 touchdowns in 2004 . He ran for 806 yards with a 5 @.@ 6 yards per carry average , and five touchdowns on 144 carries . His career stats at St. Rita were 1 @,@ 816 total offensive yards and 16 touchdowns .
Kafka made the school 's Silver Honor Roll all four years of high school and was an Academic All @-@ State . He was an All @-@ area selection by Tom Lemming 's Prep Football Report and was an honorable mention all @-@ state selection . SuperPrep named him All @-@ Midwest Region and Rivals.com placed him on the Top 25 dual @-@ threat quarterbacks list . SuperPrep ranked him 25th among players from Illinois at all positions and 50th nationally among quarterbacks . He was ranked 20th in Illinois by Rivals.com and 25th nationally among dual @-@ threat quarterbacks . Kafka was named Team Offensive MVP and Catholic Metro Blue Offensive MVP . He was an honorable mention all @-@ area honoree by Chicago Sun @-@ Times and Daily Southtown .
Kafka committed to Northwestern University on December 10 , 2004 . He also received offers from Florida Atlantic University , the University of Pittsburgh and Stanford University .
= = College career = =
= = = 2005 season = = =
During the 2005 season , his first year , Kafka redshirted in order for him to learn the Northwestern Wildcats ' offensive system .
= = = 2006 season = = =
In his Northwestern career debut on September 1 versus Miami University , Kafka threw for 106 yards and one touchdown on 13 completions out of 17 attempts . His first touchdown was a 19 @-@ yard pass to running back Tyrell Sutton . He led all players with 89 yards rushing on 17 rushing attempts . His passer rating for that game was 148 @.@ 26 as Northwestern went on to win 21 – 3 . The following week against New Hampshire on September 9 , Kafka went 19 – 32 and threw for 173 yards along with one interception and a fumble . He rushed for 42 yards . The Wildcats ended up losing the game , 34 – 17 . Kafka played the first half of the game against Eastern Michigan in the third week of the season and rushed for 33 yards with a 6 @.@ 6 yards per run average , along with his first career rushing touchdown , a 6 @-@ yard run . He passed for 76 yards and completed 10 out of 18 passes with an interception .
Days before Northwestern faced Nevada in the fourth game of the season , head coach Pat Fitzgerald confirmed that Kafka would remain the starter despite his poor prior performances . In the game , Kafka ran for a career @-@ high 111 yards , which included a 13 @-@ yard touchdown rush , and averaged 9 @.@ 2 yards per run . He passed for 122 yards , completing 9 out of 21 passes and three interceptions . His 111 yards rushing were the most by a Northwestern quarterback since Zak Kustok ran for 111 yards in a November 21 , 2001 , game versus Bowling Green . Kafka suffered a hamstring injury during the game , which kept him out of the next three games of the season . One of the games he missed was the biggest comeback in NCAA Division 1 @-@ A history , an eventual 41 – 38 loss to Michigan State on October 21 . Kafka made his first appearance since the injury against Ohio State on November 11 , in which he passed for 17 yards and completed four out of eight passes .
= = = 2007 season = = =
In 2007 , Kafka was a backup and only played in two games , where he passed for 11 yards on two completions and rushed for eight yards .
= = = 2008 season = = =
Kafka entered the 2008 season as a backup quarterback behind C. J. Bachér . Against Syracuse , Kafka entered the game in the fourth quarter and rushed twice for 18 yards . Against Southern Illinois , he threw two passes , completing one for one yard , in addition to rushing for three yards . He played in the final series at Indiana and completed a pass , which went for nine yards .
Starting in place of the injured Bachér for the game against Minnesota , Kafka ran for 217 yards on 27 attempts , which included a 53 @-@ yard run , and passed for 143 yards and two touchdowns on 12 completions out of 16 throws . His 217 rushing yards set a school and Big Ten Conference record for quarterback rushing yards in a game . The Big Ten record was later beaten in 2010 by Michigan quarterback Denard Robinson on September 11 , 2010 . Kafka began the game by completing his first eight throws , which included a 36 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jeremy Ebert . He was named the team 's offensive player of the week after that game , along with being named the Big Ten Co @-@ Offensive Player of the Week . Kafka earned an ESPN College Gameday Helmet Sticker and was named an AT & T All @-@ America Player of the Week candidate .
The next week , Kafka started in his second straight game against Ohio State , and passed for 177 yards while completing 18 out of 27 throws . He ran for 83 yards and a touchdown on 29 attempts . He ran for 300 yards in his two starts against Ohio State , which is the most by a Northwestern quarterback in successive contests . He was named the team 's offensive big playmaker for the game .
Against Michigan , he entered the game in Northwestern 's second series on offense and rushed for 20 yards on three carries before he was forced to leave the game after suffering a concussion . He ran for one yard on three carries against Illinois .
Kafka passed for 330 yards during the season along with two touchdowns on 32 completions and 46 total attempts . He finished second on the team in rushing with 321 yards .
= = = 2009 season = = =
Kafka entered his senior season as Northwestern 's starting quarterback after C. J. Bachér graduated . He was named to the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award watch list , along with 19 other players nationally , with two others in the Big Ten Conference . Texas quarterback Colt McCoy eventually won the award . In the offseason , Kafka was tutored by offensive coordinator Mick McCall and former Northwestern quarterback Brett Basanez . Kafka was named co @-@ captain for the 2009 season .
At home against Towson on September 5 to start the 2009 season , Kafka threw 15 completions of 20 attempts for 192 yards , setting a career @-@ high for passing yards in a game . He ran for six yards on six carries in a blowout 47 – 14 win . Against Eastern Michigan at home on September 12 , he threw for 158 yards and one interception on 14 completions out of 24 attempts . He ran for 21 yards on five runs in the close 27 – 24 win over the Eagles .
During the Syracuse game , Kafka set a school record for consecutive completions in a game with 16 , breaking the 47 @-@ year @-@ old record set by Tom Myers in 1962 . He set a new career @-@ high in passing yards in a game by passing for 390 yards , breaking his previous career @-@ high in the season opener . Kafka also ran for a three @-@ yard touchdown and threw three touchdown passes along with an interception . He caught a receiving touchdown when he tossed a lateral to Andrew Brewer who threw it back to Kafka for a 24 @-@ yard touchdown . Kafka became the first Big Ten Conference player to score at least one passing , receiving and rushing touchdown in a game since Zack Mills from Penn State accomplished it on September 4 , 2004 against Akron . Kafka finished the game with 35 completions on 42 attempts . However , despite his record @-@ breaking performance , the Wildcats lost 37 – 34 . He was named Big Ten Co @-@ Offensive Player of the Week on September 20 for his performance .
Kafka passed for 309 yards , two touchdowns and an interception against Minnesota . He took four sacks and during a desperation drive to win the game , fumbled the football , which helped end the game and give the Golden Gophers the win . In the Purdue game , Kafka went 28 @-@ of @-@ 44 and threw for 224 yards . He rushed for a season @-@ high 39 yards on 18 carries and ran for the game @-@ winning two @-@ yard touchdown . After leading after the touchdown 25 – 21 , Kafka threw a successful two @-@ point conversion pass to Drake Dunsmore to increase the lead by six to win the game after Purdue failed to score on the final drive of the game .
Kafka went 15 completions of 31 attempts for 191 yards and one interception to lead Northwestern to a 16 – 6 win over Miami ( OH ) in the sixth game of the season . He was the leading rusher for Northwestern , rushing for 53 yards on 15 carries and two touchdowns . In the 24 – 14 loss at Michigan State on October 17 , Kafka went 34 @-@ for @-@ 47 and threw for 291 yards and two touchdowns . He was the leading rusher for the second straight week for Northwestern , rushing for 42 yards on 18 carries .
In a come @-@ from @-@ behind win against Indiana , the Wildcats trailed 28 – 3 during the second quarter before Kafka ran for a one @-@ yard touchdown and later passed for two touchdowns to lead Northwestern to a 29 – 28 win . The Wildcats overcame a 25 @-@ point deficit , which was the biggest comeback in school history . He went 26 @-@ of @-@ 46 and passed for 312 yards , along with two touchdowns and a career @-@ tying three interceptions . He rushed for 65 yards on 17 carries and one touchdown . Kafka totaled 377 yards of total offense , which was second @-@ best in his career . Against 12th ranked Penn State , Kafka went 14 @-@ for @-@ 18 and passed for 128 yards , along with rushing for 42 yards on eight carries and a touchdown before leaving the game with a leg injury during the second quarter . He was replaced by backup Dan Persa .
Kafka shared time at quarterback with Persa due to his strained hamstring on November 7 against the 4th @-@ ranked , and previously undefeated , Iowa Hawkeyes . Northwestern coming into the game was a 16 @-@ point underdog , but still beat Iowa 17 – 10 in Northwestern 's first win over a nationally ranked top @-@ ten team since they won against Ohio State in 2004 . Persa had to leave the game early to receive X @-@ rays for a hand injury , which forced Kafka to play more than original planned . He finished as Northwestern ’ s leading passer with 72 yards on ten completions .
Against Illinois on November 14 , Kafka threw for 305 yards and went 23 @-@ of @-@ 37 , along with a 28 @-@ yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Zeke Markshausen . He rushed seven times for 12 yards and a one @-@ yard touchdown to beat the Fighting Illini 21 – 16 . Kafka threw for 300 or more yards for the fourth time that season . Against 16th @-@ ranked Wisconsin on November 21 , Kafka went 26 @-@ of @-@ 40 for 326 yards and two touchdowns , both to converted wide receiver Andrew Brewer . He rushed for 17 yards on seven carries to upset the Badgers with a 33 – 31 win . Kafka threw for 300 or more yards for the fifth time in the season and for the second straight game . He was named Big Ten Co @-@ Offensive Player of the Week for his performance against Wisconsin .
Kafka ranked third in the Big Ten Conference in passing yards with 241 @.@ 5 passing yards per game and he ranked second in total offense . He finished the season tied for first in the Big Ten in rushing touchdowns by a quarterback with seven . His 65 @.@ 7 completion percentage for 2009 ranked first in the Big Ten . His 414 pass attempts ranked third in the Big Ten and eighth among all quarterbacks nationally .
Kafka was named second @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten following the 2009 season . He was named first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten by Rivals.com. He finished fourth in the Chicago Tribune 's Silver Football voting , given out to the Big Ten 's Most Valuable Player , behind Brandon Graham , Daryll Clark and John Clay . Hall of Fame quarterback Bob Griese said Kafka " has the three qualities I look for . One , he 's a good decision @-@ maker , he knows when to throw the ball away . Two , he 's accurate . Three , he makes plays . This is where Kafka really jumps out . If he has a playmaker downfield , he gets the ball to him . " Kafka graduated from Northwestern in December .
In the 2010 Outback Bowl against Auburn on January 1 , Kafka set the all @-@ time bowl record with 47 completions and 78 passing attempts . He set Northwestern and Outback Bowl records with 532 passing yards , a career @-@ high . He set an Outback Bowl record with five interceptions . He tied the Outback Bowl record with four touchdown passes . His 98 plays and 566 total yards were also Outback Bowl records . He threw four touchdown passes in the 38 – 35 loss that went to overtime , with two going to Andrew Brewer ( 39 and 35 yards ) , one to Drake Dunsmore for 66 yards , and one to Sidney Stewart for 18 yards . He finished second in rushing for Northwestern with 20 carries for 34 yards and a two @-@ yard touchdown . He was named to ESPN.com 's All @-@ Big Ten Bowl team as an honorable mention .
Kafka was named Northwestern 's Most Valuable Player on offense following the season . Kafka led the Big Ten in passing yards with 3 @,@ 430 yards , total offense with 286 @.@ 8 yards per game , completions with 24 @.@ 5 per game , and fewest interceptions with 2 @.@ 44 of all passes being intercepted . He was seventh nationally in completions , 16th in passing yards and 12th in total offensive yards . His 3 @,@ 430 passing yards are third @-@ most in school history . His 3 @,@ 729 total offensive yards are second @-@ most in school history .
In the 2010 East – West Shrine Game on January 23 , Kafka started at quarterback for the East squad and , despite a slow start , led the East squad to a comeback victory . On the final drive of the game , Kafka threw a two @-@ yard touchdown pass to Penn State tight end Andrew Quarless to win the game for the East squad , 13 – 10 . After the game , Kafka was named Offensive MVP after he went 18 @-@ of @-@ 27 , passed for 150 yards and threw the winning touchdown pass .
= = = Statistics = = =
His win / loss ratio for his career as the starting quarterback for Northwestern was 11 – 8 . He finished his career as the third all @-@ time leading quarterback rusher at Northwestern with 887 yards rushing , and as the eighth all @-@ time leading passer with 4 @,@ 265 yards passing .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
Prior to the 2010 NFL Draft , Kafka was projected to be drafted in the sixth round by NFLDraftScout.com and as high as the fourth round . He was rated as the eleventh @-@ best quarterback in the draft . Northwestern head coach Pat Fitzgerald said at the time that 85 NFL scouts , general managers and personnel directors who watched film or came to see a game or a practice said about Kafka was that he " throws a lot better than our No. 3 [ quarterback ] does right now . " Fitzgerald also said that he would be " shocked " if Kafka was not drafted in the 2010 NFL Draft . After the Outback Bowl loss to Auburn on January 1 , in which Kafka threw 78 passes for 532 yards , Fitzgerald said , " I hope the NFL sees the same thing that I see , a man with a big @-@ time arm . " An NFL general manager said at the 2010 Senior Bowl that Kafka could be drafted as high as the third round .
Kafka was invited to the 2010 NFL Scouting Combine in Indianapolis , which started on February 24 , along with teammates Corey Wootton and Sherrick McManis . Kafka chose Mike McCartney of Priority Sports of Chicago as his agent , who also represents Wootton . Priority hired former Chicago Bears quarterback Erik Kramer and a trainer in Phoenix , Arizona to help Kafka prepare for the NFL Scouting Combine . To prepare for the Combine , Kafka worked out twice a day in Arizona , and held practice sessions with Notre Dame wide receiver Golden Tate . At the Combine , Kafka said , " I want to be an NFL starter . I 'm not going to the league to be a No. 2 . I think my whole game can go to another level . I 'm ready to take it up another notch . "
Kafka chose not to bench press at the NFL Combine . On February 28 , Kafka answered 35 out of the 50 questions on the Wonderlic test , and was " 99 percent sure " that he answered all 35 correctly . Draft analyst Mike Mayock said that Kafka was " a developmental guy " who should stay on a team 's practice squad for a year . Kafka had some of the best measurements in the vertical jump , broad jump , 60 @-@ yard shuttle , and three @-@ cone drill among all quarterbacks .
At Northwestern 's Pro Day on March 11 , Kafka passed to his former teammates Andrew Brewer and Zeke Markshausen , and , according to Gil Brandt , only missed one pass during the entire workout . 25 NFL teams attended the workout , including the Cincinnati Bengals quarterbacks coach Ken Zampese and the Arizona Cardinals quarterback coach Chris Miller .
Northwestern held its second Pro Day workout on March 29 . He passed to his former teammates Brewer , Markshausen , and Brendan Mitchell during the workout . He was reportedly not as accurate on the second Pro Day as he was on the first , but still " very accurate . " 24 NFL team representatives attended the Pro Day .
Kafka worked out for the Cincinnati Bengals , Cleveland Browns , New England Patriots and Oakland Raiders prior to the draft . Mike Mayock called Kafka the " sleeper " of the quarterback class , projecting him to be drafted in the sixth round . Mayock also said , " He 's a really smart kid . Has a better arm than people think . I don 't even think he 's sleeping anymore . He was a month @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half ago , but he 's on the rise . He 's a kid who could surprise people at the end of the day . " Former NFL quarterback Ron Jaworski concurred , saying that Kafka " knows how to play the quarterback position . There 's a real feel for hitting the open receiver , good anticipation . I can see him being one of those sleeper type guys . " A scout before the draft said that Kafka " throws a lot of picks , but at least he 's willing to pull the trigger . You don 't see that from a lot of young kids . "
= = = Philadelphia Eagles = = =
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Kafka was selected by the Philadelphia Eagles in the fourth round ( 122nd overall ) in the 2010 NFL Draft . He was the fifth quarterback taken in the draft , behind Sam Bradford ( 1st overall ) , Tim Tebow ( 25th overall ) , Jimmy Clausen ( 48th overall ) and Colt McCoy ( 85th overall ) . Kafka was expected to be the team 's third @-@ string quarterback behind Kevin Kolb and Michael Vick . Eagles head coach Andy Reid said of Kafka , " I think once you meet him , I think you 'll see he 's a smart guy . He has some of the intangible things – the leadership , he 's a tough kid . Inner city , Chicago kid . He 's got a little grit to him . I think that 's important . You have to be wired right to handle you guys and play in the city of Philadelphia . I think he 's wired right . He likes to compete . " Kafka was signed to a four @-@ year contract worth $ 2 @.@ 256 million with $ 467 @,@ 000 guaranteed on June 15 , 2010 .
In the final practice of rookie and selected veterans training camp on July 29 , Kafka took all the snaps at quarterback after Kolb and Vick got practice off . After practice , offensive coordinator Marty Mornhinweg said Kafka was " the best rookie that I 've ever had in 15 , 16 , 17 years or something like that . So , he 's really sharp . Now , he 's sharp book @-@ wise , but he 's also very intelligent in a football sense . He 's really picked [ the playbook ] up very quickly . "
In the first preseason game on August 14 against the Jacksonville Jaguars , Kafka went 3 @-@ for @-@ 7 for 76 yards and threw a 57 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Chad Hall after taking over for Vick late in the third quarter . Kafka began the second preseason game on August 20 against the Cincinnati Bengals in the fourth quarter . He went 4 @-@ for @-@ 12 for 29 yards and two interceptions ( both to cornerback Morgan Trent ) with a passer rating of 2 @.@ 4 . He also had one carry for 24 yards . On August 27 against the Kansas City Chiefs , Kafka came into the game in the fourth quarter and went 9 @-@ for @-@ 13 for 93 yards and one touchdown . He led the Eagles on the winning drive with an 18 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Riley Cooper with 23 seconds left in the game to win , 20 – 17 . In the final preseason game on September 2 , Kafka replaced Vick during the second quarter and played for almost three quarters . He went 9 @-@ for @-@ 27 for 76 yards and an interception against the New York Jets .
During the 2010 regular season and playoffs , Kafka was inactive as the team 's third quarterback for all but five games . In week two Kafka was the backup to Vick against the Detroit Lions after Kolb suffered a concussion in week one against the Green Bay Packers . In week five against the San Francisco 49ers , week six against the Atlanta Falcons and week seven against the Tennessee Titans , Kafka was the backup to Kolb after Vick , who took over as the starting quarterback for the remainder of the season , suffered a rib injury in week four against the Washington Redskins . In the week seventeen game against the Dallas Cowboys , Kafka was the backup quarterback to Kolb in a decision to rest Vick and the team 's starters before the playoffs .
Kafka said of his rookie year that he " learned a lot about football . I learned a lot about being a professional , especially being around [ Vick ] and [ Kolb ] . Those guys have been great mentors , and obviously the coaching staff that I have has been really great as far as developing me to learn the west coast system . "
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Following the 2010 season , Kafka said that his goal for the 2011 offseason was to " continue to learn the offense . I haven 't mastered it by any means , the more study and preparation I can get the better . Physically , I can work on my feet , my arm strength , and my timing and rhythm . There 's a bunch of things I can work on , and I 'm really excited to get to it . " Eagles general manager Howie Roseman said Kafka is the hardest working player in the NFL , but needs to get bigger and stronger . The Eagles reportedly received trade offers from other teams for Kafka prior to the 2011 NFL Draft but declined due to his potential . Kafka , in response , laughed and did not believe the rumors .
Because of the NFL lockout , Kafka and his teammates organized informal workouts in Marlton , New Jersey . After one of the workout sessions , Vick said Kafka was " ready for " the backup role and would embrace it should Kolb leave after the lifting of the lockout . Kolb was traded to the Arizona Cardinals on July 28 following the lifting of the NFL lockout , and Kafka was temporarily elevated to the backup behind Vick before the Eagles signed former Tennessee Titan Vince Young on July 29 . Kafka took second @-@ team reps at the start of training camp , but on the first official depth chart that was released on August 9 , Kafka was listed as the third @-@ stringer behind Young .
Against the Baltimore Ravens in the preseason opener on August 11 , Kafka replaced Young at quarterback during the second quarter and played into the fourth quarter . He went 13 @-@ of @-@ 19 for 132 yards with one interception thrown to Ravens safety Bernard Pollard in the game . In the second week of the preseason on August 18 against the Pittsburgh Steelers , Kafka entered the game in the fourth quarter and led the Eagles to two scoring drives in a 24 – 14 loss . With less than four minutes remaining in the game , he threw a 14 @-@ yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Gerald Jones , and with only 19 seconds left on the following drive , threw a second touchdown pass to Jones for seven yards . He finished the game going 14 @-@ for @-@ 19 for 160 yards along with the two scores . Kafka played in garbage time in the next preseason game against the Cleveland Browns , handing the ball off twice and kneeling down twice . Against the New York Jets in the preseason finale , he filled in for the injured Young , who started the game , to start the third quarter . Kafka had the wind knocked out of him on a sack , but was able to play the rest of the game despite a rib contusion . He finished the game 7 @-@ for @-@ 11 for 76 yards and one interception . He went 34 @-@ for @-@ 49 for 369 yards , two touchdowns , and two interceptions in the preseason overall .
Young suffered a hamstring injury in the final preseason game , and was subsequently inactive for the team 's first two games . Kafka was active as the backup to Vick in both games , but was forced to play in the second game when Vick suffered a concussion in the second half . Kafka went 7 @-@ of @-@ 9 passing for 72 yards in relief during the 35 – 31 loss to the Atlanta Falcons . Vick broke his hand during a week 3 game against the New York Giants on September 25 , so Kafka again replaced him . Kafka threw for 35 yards and two interceptions as he went 4 @-@ for @-@ 7 passing . Both Kafka and Young were active as Vick 's backups in week 4 , with neither seeing playing time . Kafka was declared inactive for week 5 , but returned as active for weeks 6 and 8 . He was inactive again for weeks 9 and 10 , before he was activated for the rest of the season 's games . Young started at quarterback in weeks 11 , 12 , and 13 in place of an injured Vick , elevating Kafka to backup . Kafka saw playing action in two of the final games of the season with no pass attempts .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
With Young not returning to the Eagles with his contract expiring after the 2011 season , Kafka was expected to be the backup quarterback behind Vick for the 2012 season . Trent Edwards was signed to a one @-@ year contract on February 23 , 2012 , and the team drafted Nick Foles in the third round of the 2012 NFL draft to compete with Kafka for spots on the roster . Kafka was considered the favorite to win the backup job during training camp . According to Adam Caplan from thesidelineview.com , Kafka showed during OTAs that " his arm strength has noticeably improved " since his previous two seasons . In the first preseason game on August 9 against the Pittsburgh Steelers , Kafka suffered a fracture in his non @-@ throwing hand after passing for 31 yards and an interception . Foles was named the backup quarterback over Kafka and Edwards on August 29 , and Kafka was released in favor of Edwards during final roster cuts on August 31 , having sat out the remaining three preseason games for the Eagles .
= = = New England Patriots = = =
The Kansas City Chiefs and Green Bay Packers reportedly had interest in signing Kafka immediately after his release from the Eagles . The New England Patriots worked Kafka out on September 4 , and the Pittsburgh Steelers worked him out on November 20 . The Patriots signed him to a reserve / future contract on January 4 , 2013 , after he sat out the entire 2012 regular season . Kafka was expected to compete with Ryan Mallett for the backup job behind Tom Brady , but he was released on June 10 in favor of newly signed Tim Tebow .
= = = Jacksonville Jaguars = = =
The Jacksonville Jaguars claimed Kafka off waivers on June 11 , 2013 , one day after his release by the Patriots . The Dallas Cowboys had also put in a claim for him . The general manager for the Jaguars , Dave Caldwell , said on June 13 that Kafka had as good of a chance at being named the starting quarterback as Blaine Gabbert , Chad Henne , or Matt Scott had . Kafka was the third quarterback to play in the first preseason game for the Jaguars on August 9 against the Miami Dolphins after Henne and Gabbert . He went 4 @-@ of @-@ 8 for 19 yards and an interception in the game . In the second week of the preseason , he went 1 @-@ for @-@ 3 for − 4 yards . He did not play in the team 's third preseason game , but passed for 46 yards and a touchdown in the fourth game . The Jaguars signed Ricky Stanzi on August 27 for additional competition for the team 's third quarterback job . Kafka and Scott were both released in favor of Stanzi during final roster cuts on August 30 , 2013 .
= = = Tampa Bay Buccaneers = = =
After his release from the Jaguars , the Chicago Bears worked out Kafka on October 25 , 2013 , the Tampa Bay Buccaneers worked him out on November 5 , the Atlanta Falcons worked him out on November 19 , and the Dallas Cowboys worked him out on February 6 , 2014 . He signed with the Buccaneers on February 10 . During training camp , Kafka competed against Alex Tanney for the third @-@ string quarterback spot behind Josh McCown and Mike Glennon . Kafka went 2 @-@ of @-@ 7 for 14 yards in the first preseason game , 4 @-@ of @-@ 11 for 55 yards and a touchdown in the second preseason game , and 7 @-@ of @-@ 14 for 86 yards and a touchdown in the fourth preseason game . He was released during final roster cuts with Tanney on August 30 , 2014 , but was subsequently re @-@ signed to the team 's practice squad on August 31 . After spending the first three weeks of the season on the practice squad , Kafka was promoted to the active roster on September 25 due to an injury suffered by starter McCown . He was active but did not play in the first three weeks he was on the active roster . He was declared inactive in week 8 with McCown healthy again , and he was waived on October 28 . He was re @-@ signed to the practice squad on October 30 . At the conclusion of the 2014 NFL season , Kafka 's practice squad contract expired and he was not re @-@ signed by the team .
= = = Minnesota Vikings = = =
Kafka was invited to work out at the first NFL veteran combine on March 22 , 2015 . The veteran combine was created as a way for unemployed players to potentially work their way back into the league by going through drills in front of NFL scouts and coaches . Daniel Jeremiah of NFL Network said that he has " never seen [ Kafka ] throw it as well as he did on the field " and that he expected Kafka to sign with a team following his workout . The Minnesota Vikings signed Kafka to a one @-@ year contract worth $ 660 @,@ 000 on April 1 , 2015 . He was expected to compete with rookie undrafted signee Taylor Heinicke for the third quarterback job behind starter Teddy Bridgewater and backup Shaun Hill .
In the 2015 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game , in which the Vikings played the Pittsburgh Steelers , Kafka replaced Bridgewater as a member of the team 's backup offense in the middle of the second quarter . Kafka threw a 34 @-@ yard touchdown pass to rookie tight end MyCole Pruitt , before he was substituted for Heinicke in the third quarter . Kafka did not play in the team 's second preseason game , against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , and he was the fourth quarterback to play in the third game against the Oakland Raiders . He played one drive in the fourth preseason game , throwing an incomplete pass against the Dallas Cowboys , before suffering a hamstring strain . The Vikings waived / injured him on September 1 , and he was placed on season @-@ ending injured reserve on September 2 after he cleared waivers . He was waived off of the injured reserve list on September 15 .
= = = Tennessee Titans = = =
The Tennessee Titans gave Kafka a workout after week 14 , and he signed with their practice squad on December 16 , as the third quarterback on the roster behind Marcus Mariota and Zach Mettenberger . After Mariota suffered a knee injury in a week 15 game against the Patriots , the team re @-@ signed Alex Tanney to the active roster to serve as the backup quarterback to Mettenberger in week 16 . The Titans released Kafka from the practice squad and signed Bryn Renner in his place on December 22 , 2015 .
= = = Cincinnati Bengals = = =
The Cincinnati Bengals ' starting quarterback , Andy Dalton , suffered a thumb injury in week 14 , and the team 's backup , A. J. McCarron injured his wrist in week 16 , leaving the team with one fully healthy quarterback on the roster , third @-@ stringer Keith Wenning . The team signed Kafka to their practice squad on December 29 , 2015 , one week after his release from the Titans . After the Bengals were defeated in the first round of the 2015 – 16 NFL playoffs , his practice squad contract with the team expired and he was not re @-@ signed . His acceptance of a college coaching position after the season effectively ended his playing career .
= = Coaching career = =
The Northwestern Wildcats football team hired Kafka as an offensive graduate assistant , with a focus on wide receivers , on March 29 , 2016 .
= = Personal = =
Kafka majored in communication studies at Northwestern University . Mike 's brother , Jason , is a pitcher for the independent Windy City ThunderBolts and attended St. Rita of Cascia High School . Both Kafkas were recruited by Ken Margerum , who is now an assistant at San Jose State . Mike Kafka is married to his wife , Allison .
Kafka worked as an instructor at former Northwestern teammate Brett Basanez 's prep quarterback development camps in Woodbury , Minnesota and Minnetonka , Minnesota , in mid @-@ 2011 . Kafka worked at a Pop Warner Football passing camp , Three5Seven , with former Northwestern teammate Chris Malleo in July 2011 . On November 13 , 2014 , Kafka started a Kickstarter campaign for his product , the Roo Inferno , a type of hand warmer for both athletes and outdoor enthusiasts . The campaign successfully gained $ 15 @,@ 974 from 124 backers on December 18 , 2014 . With help from the NFL and the University of Miami , Kafka began an executive Master of Business Administration program catered towards NFL players in 2015 .
Kakfa trained at EVO Ultrafit in Phoenix , AZ throughout his career .
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= Hurricane Beth =
Hurricane Beth was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone which traveled from Florida to Nova Scotia in the middle of August 1971 . The second named storm of the 1971 Atlantic hurricane season , Beth 's genesis was impeded by a cold environment surrounding the storm . However , as it continued on its northeastward course , it achieved fully tropical characteristics and peaked as a modest Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The cyclone struck Nova Scotia on August 16 before dissipating shortly after . Beth produced substantial precipitation , and the resultant flooding inflicted severe damage to infrastructure and crops .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 9 , a low pressure system in the upper levels of the atmosphere formed off the east coast of Florida . It became a surface low by the next day and acquired the characteristics of a tropical cyclone ; it is officially stated to have become a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on August 10 . The depression slowly advanced northeastward within a relatively cold environment , and as such , it did not intensify for several days . The system turned more toward the east as it approached the coast of North Carolina , at which time its structure became conducive to further development . On August 14 , the depression was declared a tropical storm and assigned the name Beth following recent data from a reconnaissance aircraft .
Several hundred miles off the U.S. East Coast , Beth accelerated somewhat – reaching forward speeds of up to 19 mph ( 31 km / h ) as it resumed a northeastward course . Its minimum central pressure deepened to 990 millibars ( 29 inHg ) , and correspondingly , maximum sustained winds increased . In response , the cyclone was recognized as a Category 1 hurricane . It continued to mature as it passed east of Cape Cod , achieving peak winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) and a pressure of 977 mb ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Subsequently , the hurricane weakened slightly while nearing Nova Scotia . On August 16 , it made landfall near Copper Lake before crossing Cape Breton Island . Shortly thereafter , Beth was swept up by a nearby cold front and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In advance of Hurricane Beth , hurricane warnings were issued for coastal and marine areas of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland . In Halifax , bus service was disrupted by the storm , and in Antigonish , business owners closed their stores and filled sandbags to prepare .
The hurricane left extensive damage in its wake , especially to crops and infrastructure . Halifax International Airport reported 10 @.@ 49 in ( 266 mm ) of rainfall over 30 hours . The heavy precipitation throughout the country triggered severe flooding , stranding hundreds of travelers . The mayor of Dartmouth reported that the area was a " disaster " , as 500 homes were reportedly inundated . Antigonish also experienced significant flooding ; waters there approached the top of parking meters . Impacted crops in the region included cereal grain , corn , and tobacco , whose inundated fields resembled vast lakes .
Transport suffered severely : several main roads , including part of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway and Nova Scotia Highway 102 , in northeastern Nova Scotia received flood damage and were temporarily blocked off . Additionally , the rising waters washed out several bridges in the region and swept away automobiles . Railways were covered by water , forcing trains to suspend their operation . Drinking water in Dartmouth was contaminated due to excessive runoff into Lake Antigonish , and a trailer park in Antigonish flooded , prompting 600 residents to evacuate . Overall monetary damage from Beth is estimated at between $ 3 @.@ 5 million and $ 5 @.@ 1 million USD . One person was indirectly killed by the hurricane in a traffic accident induced by heavy rain .
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= Margaret Murray =
Margaret Alice Murray ( 13 July 1863 – 13 November 1963 ) was an Anglo @-@ Indian Egyptologist , archaeologist , anthropologist , historian , and folklorist . The first woman to be appointed as a lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom , she worked at University College London ( UCL ) from 1898 to 1935 . She served as President of the Folklore Society from 1953 to 1955 , and published widely over the course of her career .
Born to a wealthy middle @-@ class English family in Calcutta , British India , Murray divided her youth between India , Britain , and Germany , training as both a nurse and a social worker . Moving to London , in 1894 she began studying Egyptology at UCL , developing a friendship with department head Flinders Petrie , who encouraged her early academic publications and appointed her Junior Professor in 1898 . In 1902 – 03 she took part in Petrie 's excavations at Abydos , Egypt , there discovering the Osireion temple and the following season investigated the Saqqara cemetery , both of which established her reputation in Egyptology . Supplementing her UCL wage by giving public classes and lectures at the British Museum and Manchester Museum , it was at the latter in 1908 that she led the unwrapping of Khnum @-@ nakht , one of the mummies recovered from the Tomb of the Two Brothers – the first time that a woman had publicly unwrapped a mummy . Recognising that British Egyptomania reflected the existence of a widespread public interest in Ancient Egypt , Murray wrote several books on Egyptology targeted at a general audience .
Murray also became closely involved in the first @-@ wave feminist movement , joining the Women 's Social and Political Union and devoting much time to improving women 's status at UCL . Unable to return to Egypt due to the First World War , she focused her research on the witch @-@ cult hypothesis , the theory that the witch trials of Early Modern Christendom were an attempt to extinguish a surviving pre @-@ Christian , pagan religion devoted to a Horned God . Although later academically discredited , the theory gained widespread attention and proved a significant influence on the emerging new religious movement of Wicca . From 1921 to 1931 Murray undertook excavations of prehistoric sites on Malta and Minorca and developed her interest in folkloristics . Awarded an honorary doctorate in 1927 , she was appointed assistant professor in 1928 and retired from UCL in 1935 . That year she visited Palestine to aid Petrie 's excavation of Tall al @-@ Ajjul and in 1937 she led a small excavation at Petra in Jordan . Taking on the presidency of the Folklore Society in later life , she lectured at such institutions as the University of Cambridge and City Literary Institute , and continued to publish in an independent capacity until her death .
Murray 's work in Egyptology and archaeology was widely acclaimed and earned her the moniker of " The Grand Old Woman of Egyptology " , although after her death many of her contributions to the field were overshadowed by those of Petrie . Conversely , Murray 's work in folkloristics and the history of witchcraft has been academically discredited and her methods in these areas heavily criticised . The influence of her witch @-@ cult theory in both religion and literature has been examined by various scholars , and she herself has been dubbed the " Grandmother of Wicca " .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1863 – 93 = = =
Margaret Murray was born on 13 July 1863 in Calcutta , Bengal Presidency , then a major military city in British India . A member of the wealthy British imperial elite , she lived in the city with her family : parents James and Margaret Murray , an older sister named Mary , and her paternal grandmother and great @-@ grandmother . James Murray , born in India of English descent , was a businessman and manager of the Serampore paper mills who was thrice elected President of the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce . His wife , Margaret ( née Carr ) , had moved to India from Britain in 1857 to work as a missionary , preaching Christianity and educating Indian women . She continued with this work after marrying James and giving birth to her two daughters . Although most of their lives were spent in the European area of Calcutta , which was walled off from the indigenous sectors of the city , Murray encountered members of indigenous society through her family 's employment of 10 Indian servants and through childhood holidays to Mussoorie . The historian Amara Thornton has suggested that Murray 's Indian childhood continued to exert an influence over her throughout her life , expressing the view that Murray could be seen as having a hybrid transnational identity that was both British and Indian . During her childhood , Murray never received a formal education , and in later life expressed pride in the fact that she had never had to sit an exam before entering university .
In 1870 , Margaret and her sister Mary were sent to Britain , there moving in with their uncle John , a vicar , and his wife Harriet at their home in Lambourn , Berkshire . Although John provided them with a strongly Christian education and a belief in the inferiority of women , both of which she would reject , he awakened Murray 's interest in archaeology through taking her to see local monuments . In 1873 , the girls ' mother arrived in Europe and took them with her to Bonn in Germany , where they both became fluent in German . In 1875 they returned to Calcutta , staying there till 1877 . They then moved with their parents back to England , where they settled in Sydenham , South London . There , they spent much time visiting The Crystal Palace , while their father worked at his firm 's London office . In 1880 , they returned to Calcutta , where Margaret remained for the next seven years . She became a nurse at the Calcutta General Hospital , which was run by the Sisters of the Anglican Sisterhood of Clower , and there was involved with the hospital 's attempts to deal with a cholera outbreak . In 1887 , she returned to England , moving to Rugby , Warwickshire , where her uncle John had moved , now widowed . Here she took up employment as a social worker dealing with local underprivileged people . When her father retired and moved to England , she moved into his house in Bushey Heath , Hertfordshire , living with him until his death in 1891 . In 1893 she then travelled to Madras , Tamil Nadu , where her sister had moved to with her new husband .
= = = Early years at University College London : 1894 – 1905 = = =
Encouraged by her mother and sister , Murray decided to enroll at the newly opened department of Egyptology at University College London ( UCL ) in Bloomsbury , Central London . Having been founded by an endowment from Amelia Blanford Edwards , one of the co @-@ founders of the Egypt Exploration Fund ( EEF ) , the department was run by the pioneering early archaeologist Sir William Flinders Petrie , and based in the Edwards Library of UCL 's South Cloisters . Murray began her studies at UCL at age 30 in January 1894 , as part of a class composed largely of other women and older men . There , she took courses in the Ancient Egyptian and Coptic languages which were taught by Francis Llewellyn Griffith and Walter Ewing Crum respectively .
Murray soon got to know Petrie , becoming his copyist and illustrator and producing the drawings for the published report on his excavations at Qift , Koptos . In turn , he aided and encouraged her to write her first research paper , " The Descent of Property in the Early Periods of Egyptian History " , which was published in the Proceedings of the Society for Biblical Archaeology in 1895 . Becoming Petrie 's de facto though unofficial assistant , Murray began to give some of the linguistic lessons in Griffith 's absence . In 1898 she was appointed to the position of Junior Lecturer , responsible for teaching the linguistic courses at the Egyptology department ; this made her the first female lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom . In this capacity , she spent two days a week at UCL , devoting the other days to caring for her ailing mother . As time went on , she came to teach courses on Ancient Egyptian history , religion , and language . Among Murray 's students — to whom she referred as " the Gang " — were several who went on to produce noted contributions to Egyptology , including Reginald Engelbach , Georgina Aitken , Guy Brunton , and Myrtle Broome . She supplemented her UCL salary by teaching evening classes in Egyptology at the British Museum .
At this point , Murray had no experience in field archaeology , and so during the 1902 – 03 field season , she travelled to Egypt to join Petrie 's excavations at Abydos . Petrie and his wife , Hilda Petrie , had been excavating at the site since 1899 , having taken over the archaeological investigation from French Coptic scholar Émile Amélineau . Murray at first joined as site nurse , but was subsequently taught how to excavate by Petrie and given a senior position . This led to some issues with some of the male excavators , who disliked the idea of taking orders from a woman . This experience , coupled with discussions with other female excavators ( some of whom were active in the feminist movement ) led Murray to adopt openly feminist viewpoints . While excavating at Abydos , Murray uncovered the Osireion , a temple devoted to the god Osiris which had been constructed by order of Pharaoh Seti I during the period of the New Kingdom . She published her site report as The Osireion at Abydos in 1904 ; in the report , she examined the inscriptions that had been discovered at the site to discern the purpose and use of the building .
During the 1903 – 04 field season , Murray returned to Egypt , and at Petrie 's instruction began her investigations at the Saqqara cemetery near to Cairo , which dated from the period of the Old Kingdom . Murray did not have legal permission to excavate the site , and instead spent her time transcribing the inscriptions from ten of the tombs that had been excavated during the 1860s by Auguste Mariette . She published her findings in 1905 as Saqqara Mastabas I , although would not publish translations of the inscriptions until 1937 as Saqqara Mastabas II . Both The Osireion at Abydos and Saqqara Mastabas I proved to be very influential in the Egyptological community , with Petrie recognising Murray 's contribution to his own career .
= = = Feminism , the First World War , and folklore : 1905 – 20 = = =
On returning to London , Murray took an active role in the feminist movement , volunteering and financially donating to the cause and taking part in feminist demonstrations , protests , and marches . Joining the Women 's Social and Political Union , she was present at large marches like the Mud March of 1907 and the Women 's Coronation Procession of June 1911 . She concealed the militancy of her actions in order to retain the image of respectability within academia . Murray also pushed the professional boundaries for women throughout her own career , and mentored other women in archaeology and throughout academia . As women could not use the men 's common room , she successfully campaigned for UCL to open a common room for women , and later ensured that a larger , better @-@ equipped room was converted for the purpose ; it was later renamed the Margaret Murray Room . At UCL , she became a friend of fellow female lecturer Winifred Smith , and together they campaigned to improve the status and recognition of women in the university , with Murray becoming particularly annoyed at female staff who were afraid of upsetting or offending the male university establishment with their demands . Feeling that students should get nutritious yet affordable lunches , for many years she sat on the UCL Refectory Committee .
Various museums around the United Kingdom invited Murray to advise them on their Egyptological collections , resulting in her cataloguing the Egyptian artefacts owned by the Dublin National Museum , the National Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh , and the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland , being elected a Fellow of the latter in thanks . Petrie had established connections with the Egyptological wing of Manchester Museum in Manchester , and it was there that many of his finds had been housed . Murray thus often travelled to the museum to catalogue these artefacts , and during the 1906 – 07 school year regularly lectured there . In 1907 , Petrie excavated the Tomb of the Two Brothers , a Middle Kingdom burial of two Egyptian priests , Nakht @-@ ankh and Khnum @-@ nakht , and it was decided that Murray would carry out the public unwrapping of the latter 's mummified body . Taking place at the museum in May 1908 , it represented the first time that a woman had led a public mummy unwrapping and was attended by over 500 onlookers , attracting press attention . Murray was particularly keen to emphasise the importance that the unwrapping would have for the scholarly understanding of the Middle Kingdom and its burial practices , and lashed out against members of the public who saw it as immoral ; she declared that " every vestige of ancient remains must be carefully studied and recorded without sentimentality and without fear of the outcry of the ignorant " . She subsequently published a book about her analysis of the two bodies , The Tomb of the Two Brothers , which remained a key publication on Middle Kingdom mummification practices into the 21st century .
Murray was dedicated to public education , hoping to infuse Egyptomania with solid scholarship about Ancient Egypt , and to this end authored a series of books aimed at a general audience . In 1905 she published Elementary Egyptian Grammar which was followed in 1911 by Elementary Coptic ( Sahidic ) Grammar . In 1913 , she published Ancient Egyptian Legends for John Murray 's " The Wisdom of the East " series . She was particularly pleased with the increased public interest in Egyptology that followed Howard Carter 's discovery of the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun in 1922 . From at least 1911 until his death in 1940 , Murray was a close friend of the anthropologist Charles Gabriel Seligman of the London School of Economics , and together they co @-@ authored a variety of papers on Egyptology that were aimed at an anthropological audience . Many of these dealt with subjects that Egyptological journals would not publish , such as the " Sa " sign for the uterus , and thus were published in Man , the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute . It was at Seligman 's recommendation that she was invited to become a member of the Institute in 1916 .
In 1914 , Petrie launched the academic journal Ancient Egypt , published through his own British School of Archaeology in Egypt ( BSAE ) , which was based at UCL . Given that he was often away from London excavating in Egypt , Murray was left to operate as de facto editor much of the time . She also published many research articles in the journal and authored many of its book reviews , particularly of the German @-@ language publications which Petrie could not read .
The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , in which the United Kingdom went to war against Germany and the Ottoman Empire , meant that Petrie and other staff members were unable to return to Egypt for excavation . Instead , Petrie and Murray spent much of the time reorganising the artefact collections that they had attained over the past decades . To aid Britain 's war effort , Murray enrolled as a volunteer nurse in the Volunteer Air Detachment of the College Women 's Union Society , and for several weeks was posted to Saint @-@ Malo in France . After being taken ill herself , she was sent to recuperate in Glastonbury , Somerset , where she became interested in Glastonbury Abbey and the folklore surrounding it which connected it to the legendary figure of King Arthur and to the idea that the Holy Grail had been brought there by Joseph of Aramathea . Pursuing this interest , she published the paper " Egyptian Elements in the Grail Romance " in the journal Ancient Egypt , although few agreed with her conclusions and it was criticised for making unsubstantiated leaps with the evidence by the likes of Jessie Weston .
= = Later life = =
= = = The witch @-@ cult , Malta , and Minorca : 1921 – 35 = = =
Murray 's interest in folklore led her to develop an interest in the witch trials of Early Modern Europe . In 1917 , she published a paper in Folklore , the journal of the Folklore Society , in which she first articulated her version of the witch @-@ cult theory , arguing that the witches persecuted in European history were actually followers of " a definite religion with beliefs , ritual , and organization as highly developed as that of any cult in the end " . She followed this up with papers on the subject in the journals Man and the Scottish Historical Review . She articulated these views more fully in her 1921 book The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe , published by Oxford University Press after receiving a positive peer review by Henry Balfour , and which received both criticism and support on publication . Many reviews in academic journals were critical , with historians claiming that she had distorted and misinterpreted the contemporary records that she was using , but the book was nevertheless influential .
As a result of her work in this area , she was invited to provide the entry on " witchcraft " for the fourteenth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1929 . She used the opportunity to propagate her own witch @-@ cult theory , failing to mention the alternate theories proposed by other academics . Her entry would be included in the encyclopedia until 1969 , becoming readily accessible to the public , and it was for this reason that her ideas on the subject had such a significant impact . It received a particularly enthusiastic reception by occultists such as Dion Fortune , Lewis Spence , Ralph Shirley , and J. W. Brodie Innes , perhaps because its claims regarding an ancient secret society chimed with similar claims common among various occult groups . Murray joined the Folklore Society in February 1927 , and was elected to the society 's council a month later , although stood down in 1929 . Murray reiterated her witch @-@ cult theory in her 1933 book , The God of the Witches , which was aimed at a wider , non @-@ academic audience . In this book , she cut out or toned down what she saw as the more unpleasant aspects of the witch @-@ cult , such as animal and child sacrifice , and began describing the religion in more positive terms as " the Old Religion " .
From 1921 to 1927 , Murray led archaeological excavations on Malta , assisted by Edith Guest and Gertrude Caton Thompson . She excavated the Bronze Age megalithic monuments of Santa Sofia , Santa Maria tal @-@ Bakkari , Għar Dalam , and Borġ in @-@ Nadur , all of which were threatened by the construction of a new aerodrome . In this she was funded by the Percy Sladen Memorial Fund . Her resulting three @-@ volume excavation report came to be seen as an important publication within the field of Maltese archaeology . During the excavations , she had taken an interest in the island 's folklore , resulting in the 1932 publication of her book Maltese Folktales , much of which was a translation of earlier stories collected by Father Magri and her friend Liza Galea . In 1932 Murray returned to Malta to aid in the cataloguing of the Bronze Age pottery collection held in Malta Museum , resulting in another publication , Corpus of the Bronze Age Pottery of Malta .
On the basis of her work in Malta , Louis C. G. Clarke , the curator of the Cambridge Museum of Ethnology and Anthropology , invited her to lead excavations on the island of Minorca from 1930 to 1931 . With the aid of Guest , she excavated the megalithic sites of Trapucó and Sa Torrera , resulting in the publication of Cambridge Excavations in Minorca . Murray also continued to publish works on Egyptology for a general audience , such as Egyptian Sculpture ( 1930 ) and Egyptian Temples ( 1931 ) , which received largely positive reviews . In the summer of 1925 she led a team of volunteers to excavate Homestead Moat in Whomerle Wood near to Stevenage , Hertfordshire ; she did not publish an excavation report and did not mention the event in her autobiography , with her motives for carrying out the excavation remaining unclear .
In 1924 , UCL promoted Murray – then aged sixty @-@ two – to the position of assistant professor , and in 1927 she was awarded an honorary doctorate for her career in Egyptology . That year , Murray was tasked with guiding Mary of Teck , the Queen consort , around the Egyptology department during the latter 's visit to UCL . The pressures of teaching had eased by this point , allowing Murray to spend more time travelling internationally ; in 1920 she returned to Egypt and in 1929 visited South Africa , where she attended the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , whose theme was the prehistory of southern Africa . In the early 1930s she travelled to the Soviet Union , where she visited museums in Leningrad , Moscow , Kharkov , and Kiev , and then in late 1935 she undertook a lecture tour of Norway , Sweden , Finland , and Estonia . Although having reached legal retirement age in 1927 , and thus unable to be offered another five @-@ year contract , Murray was reappointed on an annual basis each year until 1935 . At this point , she retired , expressing the opinion that she was glad to leave UCL , for reasons that she did not make clear . In 1933 , Petrie had retired from UCL and moved to Jerusalem in Mandatory Palestine with his wife ; Murray therefore took over as editor of the Ancient Egypt journal , renaming it Ancient Egypt and the East to reflect its increasing research interest in the ancient societies that surrounded and interacted with Egypt . The journal folded in 1935 , perhaps due to Murray 's retirement . Murray then spent some time in Jerusalem , where she aided the Petries in their excavation at Tall al @-@ Ajjul , a Bronze Age mound south of Gaza .
= = = Petra , Cambridge , and London : 1935 – 53 = = =
During Murray 's 1935 trip to Palestine , she had taken the opportunity to visit Petra in neighbouring Jordan . Intrigued by the site , in March and April 1937 she returned in order to carry out a small excavation in several cave dwellings at the site , subsequently writing both an excavation report and a guidebook on Petra . Back in England , from 1934 to 1940 , Murray aided the cataloguing of Egyptian antiquities at Girton College , Cambridge , and also gave lectures in Egyptology at the university until 1942 . During the Second World War , Murray evaded the Blitz of London by moving to Cambridge , where she volunteered for a group ( probably the Army Bureau of Current Affairs or The British Way and Purpose ) who educated military personnel to prepare them for post @-@ war life . Based in the city , she embarked on research into the town 's Early Modern history , examining documents stored in local parish churches , Downing College , and Ely Cathedral ; she never published her findings .
After the war ended she returned to London , settling into a bedsit room in Endsleigh Street , which was close to University College London ( UCL ) and the Institute of Archaeology ( then an independent institution , now part of UCL ) ; she continued her involvement with the former and made use of the latter 's library . On most days she visited the British Museum in order to consult their library , and twice a week she taught adult education classes on Ancient Egyptian history and religion at the City Literary Institute ; upon her retirement from this position she nominated her former pupil , Veronica Seton @-@ Williams , to replace her .
Murray 's interest in popularising Egyptology among the wider public continued ; in 1949 she published Ancient Egyptian Religious Poetry , her second work for John Murray 's " The Wisdom of the East " series . That same year she also published The Splendour That Was Egypt , in which she collated many of her UCL lectures . The book adopted a diffusionist perspective that argued that Egypt influenced Greco @-@ Roman society and thus modern Western society . This was seen as a compromise between Petrie 's belief that other societies influenced the emergence of Egyptian civilisation and Grafton Elliot Smith 's highly unorthodox and heavily criticised hyperdiffusionist view that Egypt was the source of all global civilisation . The book received a mixed reception from the archaeological community .
= = = Final years : 1953 – 63 = = =
In 1953 , Murray was appointed to the presidency of the Folklore Society following the resignation of former president Allan Gomme . The Society had initially approached John Mavrogordato for the post , but he had declined , with Murray accepting the nomination several months later . Murray remained President for two terms , until 1955 . In her 1954 presidential address , " England as a Field for Folklore Research " , she lamented what she saw as the English people 's disinterest in their own folklore in favour of that from other nations . For the autumn 1961 issue of Folklore , the society published a festschrift to Murray to commemorate her 98th birthday . The issue contained contributions from various scholars paying tribute to her – with papers dealing with archaeology , fairies , Near Eastern religious symbols , Greek folk songs – but notably not about witchcraft , potentially because no other folklorists were willing to defend her witch @-@ cult theory .
In May 1957 , Murray had championed the archaeologist Thomas Charles Lethbridge 's controversial claims that he had discovered three pre @-@ Christian chalk hill figures on Wandlebury Hill in the Gog Magog Downs , Cambridgeshire . Privately she expressed concern about the reality of the figures . Lethbridge subsequently authored a book championing her witch @-@ cult theory in which he sought the cult 's origins in pre @-@ Christian culture . In 1960 , she donated her collection of papers – including correspondences with a wide range of individuals across the country – to the Folklore Society Archive , where it is now known as " the Murray Collection " .
Crippled with arthritis , Murray had moved into a home in North Finchley , north London , where she was cared for by a retired couple who were trained nurses ; from here she occasionally took taxis into central London to visit the UCL library . Amid failing health , in 1962 Murray moved into the Queen Victoria Memorial Hospital in Welwyn , Hertfordshire , where she could receive 24 @-@ hour care ; she lived here for the final 18 months of her life . To mark her hundredth birthday , on 13 July 1963 a group of her friends , former students , and doctors gathered for a party at nearby Ayot St. Lawrence . Two days later , her doctor drove her to UCL for a second birthday party , again attended by many of her friends , colleagues , and former students ; it was the last time that she visited the university . In Man , the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute , it was noted that Murray was " the only Fellow of the Institute to [ reach their centenary ] within living memory , if not in its whole history " . That year she published two books ; one was The Genesis of Religion , in which she argued that humanity 's first deities had been goddesses rather than male gods . The second was her autobiography , My First Hundred Years , which received predominantly positive reviews . She died on 13 November 1963 , and her body was cremated .
= = Murray 's witch @-@ cult hypotheses = =
The later folklorists Caroline Oates and Juliette Wood have suggested that Murray was best known for her witch @-@ cult theory , with biographer Margaret S. Drower expressing the view that it was her work on this subject which " perhaps more than any other , made her known to the general public " . It has been claimed that Murray 's was the " first feminist study of the witch trials " , as well as being the first to have actually " empowered the witches " by giving the ( largely female ) accused both free will and a voice distinct from that of their interrogators . The theory was faulty , in part because all of her academic training was in Egyptology , with no background knowledge in European history , but also because she exhibited a " tendency to generalize wildly on the basis of very slender evidence " . Oates and Wood , however , noted that Murray 's interpretations of the evidence fitted within wider perspectives on the past that existed at the time , stating that " Murray was far from isolated in her method of reading ancient ritual origins into later myths " . In particular , her approach was influenced by the work of the anthropologist James Frazer , who had argued for the existence of a pervasive dying @-@ and @-@ resurrecting god myth , and she was also influenced by the interpretative approaches of E. O. James , Karl Pearson , Herbert Fleure , and Harold Peake .
= = = Argument = = =
In The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe , Murray stated that she had restricted her research to Great Britain , although made some recourse to sources from France , Flanders , and New England . She drew a division between what she termed " Operative Witchcraft " , which referred to the performance of charms and spells with any purpose , and " Ritual Witchcraft " , by which she meant " the ancient religion of Western Europe " , a fertility @-@ based faith that she also termed " the Dianic cult " . She claimed that the cult had " very probably " once been devoted to the worship of both a male deity and a " Mother Goddess " but that " at the time when the cult is recorded the worship of the male deity appears to have superseded that of the female " . In her argument , Murray claimed that the figure referred to as the Devil in the trial accounts was the witches ' god , " manifest and incarnate " , to whom the witches ' offered their prayers . She claimed that at the witches ' meetings , the god would be personified , usually by a man or at times by a woman or an animal ; when a human personified this entity , Murray claimed that they were usually dressed plainly , though they appeared in full costume for the witches ' Sabbaths .
Members joined the cult either as children or adults through what Murray called " admission ceremonies " ; Murray asserted that applicants had to agree to join of their own free will , and agree to devote themselves to the service of their deity . She also claimed that in some cases , these individuals had to sign a covenant or were baptised into the faith . At the same time , she claimed that the religion was largely passed down hereditary lines . Murray described the religion as being divided into covens containing thirteen members , led by a coven officer who was often termed the " Devil " in the trial accounts , but who was accountable to a " Grand Master " . According to Murray , the records of the coven were kept in a secret book , with the coven also disciplining its members , to the extent of executing those deemed traitors .
Describing this witch @-@ cult as " a joyous religion " , she claimed that the two primary festivals that it celebrated were on May Eve and November Eve , although that other dates of religious observation were 1 February and 1 August , the winter and summer solstices , and Easter . She asserted that the " General Meeting of all members of the religion " were known as Sabbaths , while the more private ritual meetings were known as Esbats . The Esbats , Murray claimed , were nocturnal rites that began at midnight , and were " primarily for business , whereas the Sabbath was purely religious " . At the former , magical rites were performed both for malevolent and benevolent ends . She also asserted that the Sabbath ceremonies involved the witches paying homage to the deity , renewing their " vows of fidelity and obedience " to him , and providing him with accounts of all the magical actions that they have conducted since the previous Sabbath . Once this business had been concluded , admissions to the cult or marriages were conducted , ceremonies and fertility rites took place , and then the Sabbath ended with feasting and dancing .
Deeming Ritual Witchcraft to be " a fertility cult " , she asserted that many of its rites were designed to ensure fertility and rain @-@ making . She claimed that there were four types of sacrifice performed by the witches : blood @-@ sacrifice , in which the neophyte writes their name in blood , the sacrifice of animals , the sacrifice of a non @-@ Christian child to procure magical powers , and the sacrifice of the witches ' god by fire to ensure fertility . She interpreted accounts of witches ' shapeshifting into various animals as being representative of a rite in which the witches dressed as specific animals which they took to be sacred . She asserted that accounts of familiars were based on the witches ' use of animals , which she divided into " divining familiars " used in divination and " domestic familiars " used in other magic rites .
Murray asserted that a pre @-@ Christian fertility @-@ based religion had survived the Christianization process in Britain , although that it came to be " practised only in certain places and among certain classes of the community " . She believed that folkloric stories of fairies in Britain were based on a surviving race of dwarfs , who continued to live on the island up until the Early Modern period . She asserted that this race followed the same pagan religion as the witches , thus explaining the folkloric connection between the two . In the appendices to the book , she also alleged that Joan of Arc and Gilles de Rais were members of the witch @-@ cult and were executed for it , a claim which has been refuted by historians , especially in the case of Joan of Arc .
The later historian Ronald Hutton commented that The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe " rested upon a small amount of archival research , with extensive use of printed trial records in 19th @-@ century editions , plus early modern pamphlets and works of demonology " . He also noted that the book 's tone was generally " dry and clinical , and every assertion was meticulously footnoted to a source , with lavish quotation " . It was not a bestseller ; in its first thirty years , only 2 @,@ 020 copies were sold . However , it led many people to treat Murray as an authority on the subject ; in 1929 , she was invited to provide the entry on " Witchcraft " for the Encyclopædia Britannica , and used it to present her interpretation of the subject as if it were universally accepted in scholarship . It remained in the encyclopedia until being replaced in 1968 .
Murray followed The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe with The God of the Witches , published by the popular press Sampson Low in 1931 ; although similar in content , unlike her previous volume it was aimed at a mass market audience . The tone of the book also differed strongly from its predecessor , containing " emotionally inflated [ language ] and coloured with religious phraseology " and repeatedly referring to the witch @-@ cult as " the Old Religion " . In this book she also " cut out or toned down " many of the claims made in her previous volume which would have painted the cult in a bad light , such as those which discussed sex and the sacrifice of animals and children .
In this book she began to refer to the witches ' deity as the Horned God , and asserted that it was an entity who had been worshipped in Europe since the Palaeolithic . She further asserted that in the Bronze Age , the worship of the deity could be found throughout Europe , Asia , and parts of Africa , claiming that the depiction of various horned figures from these societies proved that . Among the evidence cited were the horned figures found at Mohenjo @-@ Daro , which are often interpreted as depictions of Pashupati , as well as the deities Osiris and Amon in Egypt and the Minotaur of Minoan Crete . Within continental Europe , she claimed that the Horned God was represented by Pan in Greece , Cernunnos in Gaul , and in various Scandinavian rock carvings . Claiming that this divinity had been declared the Devil by the Christian authorities , she nevertheless asserted that his worship was testified in officially Christian societies right through to the Modern period , citing folkloric practices such as the Dorset Ooser and the Puck Fair as evidence of his veneration .
In 1954 , she published The Divine King in England , in which she greatly extended on the theory , taking in an influence from Frazer 's The Golden Bough , an anthropological book that made the claim that societies all over the world sacrificed their kings to the deities of nature . In her book , she claimed that this practice had continued into medieval England , and that , for instance , the death of William II was really a ritual sacrifice . No academic took the book seriously , and it was ignored by many of her supporters .
= = = Academic reception = = =
= = = = Early support = = = =
Upon initial publication , Murray 's thesis gained a favourable reception from many readers , including some significant scholars , albeit none who were experts in the witch trials . Historians of Early Modern Britain like George Norman Clark and Christopher Hill incorporated her theories into their work , although the latter subsequently distanced himself from the theory . For the 1961 reprint of The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe , the Medieval historian Steven Runciman provided a foreword in which he accepted that some of Murray 's " minor details may be open to criticism " , but in which he was otherwise supportive of her thesis . Her theories were recapitulated by Arno Runeberg in his 1947 book Witches , Demons and Fertility Magic as well as Pennethorne Hughes in his 1952 book Witches . As a result , a commentator writing in 1962 could claim that the Murrayite interpretations of the witch trials " seem to hold , at the time of writing , an almost undisputed sway at the higher intellectual levels " , being widely accepted among " educated people " .
The Canadian historian Elliot Rose suggested that the reason that Murray 's theory gained such support was partly because of her " imposing credentials " as a member of staff at UCL , a position that lent her theory greater legitimacy in the eyes of many readers . He further suggested that the Murrayite view was attractive to many as it confirmed " the general picture of pre @-@ Christian Europe a reader of Frazer or [ Robert ] Graves would be familiar with " . Similarly , Hutton suggested that the cause of the Murrayite theory 's popularity was because it " appealed to so many of the emotional impulses of the age " , including " the notion of the English countryside as a timeless place full of ancient secrets " , the literary popularity of Pan , the widespread belief that the majority of British had remained pagan long after the process of Christianisation , and the idea that folk customs represented pagan survivals . At the same time , Hutton suggested , it seemed more plausible to many than the previously dominant rationalist idea that the witch trials were the result of mass delusion . Related to this , the folklorist Jacqueline Simpson suggested that part of the Murrayite theory 's appeal was that it appeared to give a " sensible , demystifying , liberating approach to a longstanding but sterile argument " between the rationalists who denied that there had been any witches and those , like Montague Summers , who insisted that there had been a real Satanic conspiracy against Christendom in the Early Modern period replete with witches with supernatural powers . " How refreshing " , noted the historian Hilda Ellis Davidson , " and exciting her first book was at that period . A new approach , and such a surprising one . "
= = = = Early criticism = = = =
Murray 's theories never received support from experts in the Early Modern witch trials , and from her early publications onward many of her ideas were challenged by those who highlighted her " factual errors and methodological failings " . Indeed , the majority of scholarly reviews of her work produced during the 1920s and 1930s were largely critical . George L. Burr reviewed both of her initial books on the witch @-@ cult for the American Historical Review . He stated that she was not acquainted with the " careful general histories by modern scholars " and criticised her for assuming that the trial accounts accurately reflected the accused witches ' genuine experiences of witchcraft , regardless of whether those confessions had been obtained through torture and coercion . He also charged her with selectively using the evidence to serve her interpretation , for instance by omitting any supernatural or miraculous events that appear in the trial accounts . W. R. Halliday was highly critical in his review for Folklore , as was E. M. Loeb in his review for American Anthropologist .
Soon after , one of the foremost specialists of the trial records , L 'Estrange Ewen , brought out a series of books which rejected Murray 's interpretation . Rose suggested that Murray 's books on the witch @-@ cult " contain an incredible number of minor errors of fact or of calculation and several inconsistencies of reasoning " . He accepted that her case " could , perhaps , still be proved by somebody else , though I very much doubt it " . Highlighting that there is a gap of about a thousand years between the Christianisation of Britain and the start of the witch trials there , he argues that there is no evidence for the existence of the witch @-@ cult anywhere in the intervening period . He further criticises Murray for treating pre @-@ Christian Britain as a socially and culturally monolithic entity , whereas in reality , it contained a diverse array of societies and religious beliefs . He also challenges Murray 's claim that the majority of Britons in the Middle Ages remained pagan as " a view grounded on ignorance alone " .
Murray did not respond directly to the criticisms of her work , but reacted to her critics in a hostile manner ; in later life she asserted that she eventually ceased reading reviews of her work , and believed that her critics were simply acting out of their own Christian prejudices to non @-@ Christian religion . Simpson noted that despite these critical reviews , within the field of British folkloristics Murray 's theories were permitted " to pass unapproved but unchallenged , either out of politeness or because nobody was really interested enough to research the topic " . As evidence , she noted that no substantial research articles on the subject of witchcraft were published in Folklore between Murray 's in 1917 and Rossell Hope Robbins ' in 1963 . She also highlighted that when regional studies of British folklore were published in this period by folklorists like Theo Brown , Ruth Tongue , or Enid Porter , none adopted the Murrayite framework for interpreting witchcraft beliefs , thus evidencing her claim that Murray 's theories were widely ignored by scholars of folkloristics .
= = = = Academic rejection = = = =
Murray 's work was increasingly criticised following her death in 1963 , with the definitive academic rejection of the Murrayite witch @-@ cult theory occurring during the 1970s . During these decades , a variety of scholars across Europe and North America – such as Alan Macfarlane , Erik Midelfort , William Monter , Robert Muchembled , Gerhard Schormann , Bente Alver and Bengt Ankarloo – published in @-@ depth studies of the archival records from the witch trials , leaving no doubt that those tried for witchcraft were not practitioners of a surviving pre @-@ Christian religion . In 1971 , the English historian Keith Thomas stated that on the basis of this research , there was " very little evidence to suggest that the accused witches were either devil @-@ worshippers or members of a pagan fertility cult " . He stated that Murray 's conclusions were " almost totally groundless " because she ignored the systematic study of the trial accounts provided by Ewen and instead used sources very selectively to argue her point .
In 1975 , the historian Norman Cohn commented that Murray 's " knowledge of European history , even of English history , was superficial and her grasp of historical method was non @-@ existent " , adding that her ideas were " firmly set in an exaggerated and distorted version of the Frazerian mould " . That same year , the historian of religion Mircea Eliade described Murray 's work as " hopelessly inadequate " , containing " numberless and appalling errors " . In 1996 , the feminist historian Diane Purkiss stated that although Murray 's thesis was " intrinsically improbable " and commanded " little or no allegiance within the modern academy " , she felt that male scholars like Thomas , Cohn , and Macfarlane had unfairly adopted an androcentric approach by which they contrasted their own , male and methodologically sound interpretation against Murray 's " feminised belief " about the witch @-@ cult .
Hutton stated that Murray had treated her source material with " reckless abandon " , in that she had taken " vivid details of alleged witch practices " from " sources scattered across a great extent of space and time " and then declared them to be normative of the cult as a whole . Simpson outlined how Murray had selected her use of evidence very specifically , particularly by ignoring and / or rationalising any accounts of supernatural or miraculous events in the trial records , thereby distorting the events that she was describing . Thus , Simpson pointed out , Murray rationalised claims that the cloven @-@ hoofed Devil appeared at the witches ' Sabbath by stating that he was a man with a special kind of shoe , and similarly asserted that witches ' claims to have flown through the air on broomsticks were actually based on their practice of either hopping along on broomsticks or smearing hallucinogenic salves onto themselves . Concurring with this assessment , the historian Jeffrey Burton Russell , writing with the independent author Brooks Alexander , stated that " Murray 's use of sources , in general , is appalling " . The pair went on to claim that " today , scholars are agreed that Murray was more than just wrong – she was completely and embarrassingly wrong on nearly all of her basic premises " .
The Italian historian Carlo Ginzburg has been cited as being willing to give " some slight support " to Murray 's theory . Ginzburg stated that although her thesis had been " formulated in a wholly uncritical way " and contained " serious defects " , it did contain " a kernel of truth " . He stated his opinion that she was right in claiming that European witchcraft had " roots in an ancient fertility cult " , something that he argued was vindicated by his work researching the benandanti , an agrarian visionary tradition recorded in the Friuli district of Northeastern Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries . Several historians and folklorists have pointed out that Ginzburg 's arguments are very different to Murray 's : whereas Murray argued for the existence of a pre @-@ Christian witches ' cult whose members physically met during the witches ' Sabbaths , Ginzburg argued that some of the European visionary traditions that were conflated with witchcraft in the Early Modern period had their origins in pre @-@ Christian fertility religions . Moreover , other historians have expressed criticism of Ginzburg 's interpretation of the benandanti ; Cohn stated that that there was " nothing whatsoever " in the source material to justify the idea that the benandanti were the " survival of an age @-@ old fertility cult " . Echoing these views , Hutton commented that Ginzburg 's claim that the benandanti 's visionary traditions were a survival from pre @-@ Christian practices was an idea resting on " imperfect material and conceptual foundations " . He added that Ginzburg 's " assumption " that " what was being dreamed about in the sixteenth century had in fact been acted out in religious ceremonies " dating to " pagan times " , was entire " an inference of his own " and not one supported by the documentary evidence .
= = Personal life = =
On researching the history of UCL 's Egyptology department , the historian Rosalind M. Janssen stated that Murray was " remembered with gratitude and immense affection by all her former students . A wise and witty teacher , two generations of Egyptologists have forever been in her debt . " Alongside teaching them , Murray was known to socialise with her UCL students outside of class hours . The archaeologist Ralph Merrifield , who knew Murray through the Folklore Society , described her as a " diminutive and kindly scholar , who radiated intelligence and strength of character into extreme old age " . Davidson , who also knew Murray through the Society , noted that at their meetings " she would sit near the front , a bent and seemingly guileless old lady dozing peacefully , and then in the middle of a discussion would suddenly intervene with a relevant and penetrating comment which showed that she had missed not one word of the argument " . The later folklorist Juliette Wood noted that many members of the Folklore Society " remember her fondly " , adding that Murray had been " especially keen to encourage younger researchers , even those who disagreed with her ideas " .
One of Murray 's friends in the Society , E. O. James , described her as a " mine of information and a perpetual inspiration ever ready to impart her vast and varied stores of specialised knowledge without reserve , or , be it said , much if any regard for the generally accepted opinions and conclusions of the experts ! " Davidson described her as being " not at all assertive ... [ she ] never thrust her ideas on anyone . [ In relation to her witch @-@ cult theory , ] she behaved in fact rather like someone who was a fully convinced member of some unusual religious sect , or perhaps , of the Freemasons , but never on any account got into arguments about it in public . " The archaeologist Glyn Daniel observed that Murray remained mentally alert into her old age , commenting that " her vigour and forthrightness and ruthless energy never deserted her " .
Murray never married , instead devoting her life to her work , and for this reason , Hutton drew comparisons between her and two other prominent female British scholars of the period , Jane Harrison and Jessie Weston . Murray 's biographer Kathleen L. Sheppard stated that she was deeply committed to public outreach , particularly when it came to Egyptology , and that as such she " wanted to change the means by which the public obtained knowledge about Egypt 's history : she wished to throw open the doors to the scientific laboratory and invite the public in " . She considered travel to be one of her favourite activities , although due to restraints on her time and finances she was unable to do this regularly ; her salary remained small and the revenue from her books was meagre .
Raised a devout Christian by her mother , Murray had initially become a Sunday School teacher to preach the faith , but after entering the academic profession she rejected religion , gaining a reputation among other members of the Folklore Society as a noted sceptic and a rationalist . She was openly critical of organised religion , although continued to maintain a personal belief in a God of some sort , relating in her autobiography that she believed in " an unseen over @-@ ruling Power " , " which science calls Nature and religion calls God " . She was also a believer and a practitioner of magic , performing curses against those whom she felt deserved it : in one case she cursed a fellow academic , Jaroslav Černý , when she felt that his promotion to the position of Professor of Egyptology over her friend Walter Bryan Emery was unworthy . Her curse entailed mixing up ingredients in a frying pan , and was undertaken in the presence of two colleagues . In another instance , she was claimed to have created a wax image of Kaiser Wilhelm II and then melted it during the First World War .
= = Legacy = =
= = = In academia = = =
Hutton noted that Murray was one of the earliest women to " make a serious impact upon the world of professional scholarship " , and the archaeologist Niall Finneran described her as " one of the greatest characters of post @-@ war British archaeology " . Upon her death , Daniel referred to her as " the Grand Old Woman of Egyptology " , with Hutton noting that Egyptology represented " the core of her academic career " . In 2014 , Thornton referred to her as " one of Britain 's most famous Egyptologists " . However , according to the archaeologist Ruth Whitehouse , Murray 's contributions to archaeology and Egyptology were often overlooked as her work was overshadowed by that of Petrie , to the extent that she was often thought of primarily as one of Petrie 's assistants rather than as a scholar in her own right . By her retirement she had come to be highly regarded within the discipline , although , according to Whitehouse , Murray 's reputation declined following her death , something that Whitehouse attributed to the rejection of her witch @-@ cult theory and the general erasure of women archaeologists from the discipline 's male @-@ dominated history .
In his obituary for Murray in Folklore , James noted that her death was " an event of unusual interest and importance in the annals of the Folk @-@ Lore Society in particular as well as in the wider sphere in which her influence was felt in so many directions and disciplines " . However , later academic folklorists , such as Simpson and Wood , have cited Murray and her witch @-@ cult theory as an embarrassment to their field , and to the Folklore Society specifically . Simpson suggested that Murray 's position as President of the Society was a causal factor in the mistrustful attitude that many historians held toward folkloristics as an academic discipline , as they erroneously came to believe that all folklorists endorsed Murray 's ideas . Similarly , Catherine Noble stated that " Murray caused considerable damage to the study of witchcraft " .
In 1935 , UCL introduced the Margaret Murray Prize , awarded to the student who is deemed to have produced the best dissertation in Egyptology ; it continued to be presented annually into the 21st century . In 1969 , UCL named one of their common rooms in her honour , but it was converted into an office in 1989 . In June 1983 , Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother visited the room and there was gifted a copy of Murray 's My First Hundred Years . UCL also hold two busts of Murray , one kept in the Petrie Museum and the other in the library of the UCL Institute of Archaeology . This sculpture was commissioned by one of her students , Violet MacDermot , and produced by the artist Stephen Rickard . UCL also possess a watercolour painting of Murray by Winifred Brunton ; formerly exhibited in the Petrie Gallery , it was later placed into the Art Collection stores . In 2013 , on the 150th anniversary of Murray 's birth and the 50th of her death , the UCL Institute of Archaeology 's Ruth Whitehouse described Murray as " a remarkable woman " whose life was " well worth celebrating , both in the archaeological world at large and especially in UCL " .
The historian of archaeology Rosalind M. Janssen titled her study of Egyptology at UCL The First Hundred Years " as a tribute " to Murray . Murray 's friend Margaret Stefana Drower authored a short biography of her , which was included as a chapter in the 2004 edited volume on Breaking Ground : Pioneering Women Archaeologists . In 2013 , Lexington Books published The Life of Margaret Alice Murray : A Woman 's Work in Archaeology , a biography of Murray authored by Kathleen L. Sheppard , then an assistant professor at Missouri University of Science and Technology ; the book was based upon Sheppard 's doctoral dissertation produced at the University of Oklahoma . Although characterising it as being " written in a clear and engaging manner " , one reviewer noted that Sheppard 's book focuses on Murray the " scientist " and as such neglects to discuss Murray 's involvement in magical practices and her relationship with Wicca .
= = = In Wicca = = =
Murray 's witch @-@ cult theories provided the blueprint for the contemporary Pagan religion of Wicca , with Murray being referred to as the " Grandmother of Wicca " . The Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White stated that it was the theory which " formed the historical narrative around which Wicca built itself " , for on its emergence in England during the 1940s and 1950s , Wicca claimed to be the survival of this witch @-@ cult . Wicca 's theological structure , revolving around a Horned God and Mother Goddess , was adopted from Murray 's ideas about the ancient witch @-@ cult , and Wiccan groups were named covens and their meetings termed esbats , both words that Murray had popularised . As with Murray 's witch @-@ cult , Wicca 's practitioners entered via an initiation ceremony ; Murray 's claims that witches wrote down their spells in a book may have been an influence on Wicca 's Book of Shadows . Wicca 's early system of seasonal festivities were also based on Murray 's framework .
Noting that there is no evidence of Wicca existing before the publication of Murray 's books , Merrifield commented that for those in 20th century Britain who wished to form their own witches ' covens , " Murray may have seemed the ideal fairy godmother , and her theory became the pumpkin coach that could transport them into the realm of fantasy for which they longed " . The historian Philip Heselton suggested that the New Forest coven – the oldest alleged Wiccan group – was founded circa 1935 by esotericists aware of Murray 's theory and who may have believed themselves to be reincarnated witch @-@ cult members . It was Gerald Gardner , who claimed to be an initiate of the New Forest coven , who established the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca and popularised the religion ; according to Simpson , Gardner was the only member of the Folklore Society to " wholeheartedly " accept Murray 's witch @-@ cult hypothesis . The duo knew each other , with Murray writing the foreword to Gardner 's 1954 book Witchcraft Today , although in that foreword she did not explicitly specify whether she believed Gardner 's claim that he had discovered a survival of her witch @-@ cult . In 2005 , Noble suggested that " Murray 's name might be all but forgotten today if it were not for Gerald Gardner " .
Murray 's witch @-@ cult theories were likely also a core influence on the non @-@ Gardnerian Wiccan traditions that were established in Britain and Australia between 1930 and 1970 by the likes of Bob Clay @-@ Egerton , Robert Cochrane , Charles Cardell , and Rosaleen Norton . The prominent Wiccan Doreen Valiente eagerly searched for what she believed were other surviving remnants of the Murrayite witch @-@ cult around Britain . Valiente remained committed to a belief in Murray 's witch @-@ cult after its academic rejection , and she described Murray as " a remarkable woman " . In San Francisco during the late 1960s , Murray 's writings were among the sources used by Aidan A. Kelly in the creation of his Wiccan tradition , the New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn . In Los Angeles during the early 1970s , they were used by Zsuzsanna Budapest when she was establishing her feminist @-@ oriented tradition of Dianic Wicca . The Murrayite witch @-@ cult theory also provided the basis for the ideas espoused in Witchcraft and the Gay Counterculture , a 1978 book written by the American gay liberation activist Arthur Evans .
Members of the Wiccan community gradually became aware of academia 's rejection of the witch @-@ cult theory . Accordingly , belief in its literal truth declined during the 1980s and 1990s , with many Wiccans instead coming to view it as a myth that conveyed metaphorical or symbolic truths . Others insisted that the historical origins of the religion did not matter and that instead Wicca was legitimated by the spiritual experiences it gave to its participants . In response , Hutton authored The Triumph of the Moon , a historical study exploring Wicca 's early development ; on publication in 1999 the book exerted a strong impact on the British Pagan community , further eroding belief in the Murrayite theory among Wiccans . Conversely , other practitioners clung on to the theory , treating it as an important article of faith and rejecting post @-@ Murrayite scholarship on European witchcraft . Several prominent practitioners continued to insist that Wicca was a religion with origins stretching back to the Palaeolithic , but others rejected the validity of historical scholarship and emphasised intuition and emotion as the arbiter of truth . A few " counter @-@ revisionist " Wiccans – among them Donald H. Frew , Jani Farrell @-@ Roberts , and Ben Whitmore – published critiques in which they attacked post @-@ Murrayite scholarship on matters of detail , but none defended Murray 's original hypothesis completely .
= = = In literature = = =
Simpson noted that the publication of the Murray thesis in the Encyclopaedia Britannica made it accessible to " journalists , film @-@ makers popular novelists and thriller writers " , who adopted it " enthusiastically " . It influenced the work of Aldous Huxley and Robert Graves . It was also an influence on the American horror author H. P. Lovecraft , who cited The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe in his writings about the fictional cult of Cthulhu .
The author Sylvia Townsend Warner cited Murray 's work on the witch @-@ cult as an influence on her 1926 novel Lolly Willowes , and sent a copy of her book to Murray in appreciation , with the two meeting for lunch shortly after . There was nevertheless some difference in their depictions of the witch @-@ cult ; whereas Murray had depicted an organised pre @-@ Christian cult , Warner depicted a vague family tradition that was explicitly Satanic . In 1927 , Warner lectured on the subject of witchcraft , exhibiting a strong influence from Murray 's work . Analysing the relationship between Murray and Warner , the English literature scholar Mimi Winick characterised both as being " engaged in imagining new possibilities for women in modernity " .
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= Harley J. Earl Trophy =
The Harley J. Earl Trophy is the trophy presented to the winner of the premier – and season @-@ opening – event of the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing ( NASCAR ) , the Daytona 500 . It is named after influential automobile designer Harley Earl , who served as the second commissioner of NASCAR . Earl has been known as the so @-@ called " father of the Corvette " and designer of the Firebird I prototype that adorns the trophy . The trophy is kept on display at the Daytona International Speedway , while a small replica is given to each Daytona 500 winner .
= = Description and history = =
The Harley J. Earl Trophy is named after General Motors car designer Harley Earl . Earl , the second commissioner of NASCAR , was the designer of the Chevrolet Corvette ; his Firebird I concept car provides the basis of the automobile that sits atop the trophy ; the car is often misidentified as Sir Malcolm Campbell 's " Blue Bird " land speed record car . Earl was a friend of NASCAR founder Bill France , Sr. , who named the trophy after him as a sign of respect .
The trophy is awarded to the winner of the annual Daytona 500 , known as " The Great American Race " , which acts as the season @-@ opening event for the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series ( formerly known as the Nextel Cup Series , Winston Cup Series , and Grand National Series ) , and is also considered the most prestigious and important event on the NASCAR schedule . The trophy is considered to be the most coveted award with which a NASCAR driver can be presented .
The Harley J. Earl Perpetual Trophy , the " official " version of the award , is housed at the Daytona International Speedway . It stands about four feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) tall , five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) wide and is in the same triangular " tri @-@ oval " shape of Daytona International Speedway . It 's removed from its display once a year to appear in victory lane with the winner of the Daytona 500 . In 2010 , the trophy was removed from the Daytona International Speedway , transported to the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and put on display alongside the Borg @-@ Warner Trophy – awarded to the winner of the Indianapolis 500 – in the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum during the Indianapolis 500 race week .
= = The Trophy and the Award = =
Winners of the Daytona 500 through 1997 received the Harley Earl Award , a wooden trophy approximately three feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) tall , adorned with silver figurines . Starting in 1998 , to celebrate the 40th running , individual winners of the Daytona 500 have been presented with a miniature replica of the Harley J. Earl Trophy , which was recreated by John Lajba , a sculptor from Omaha , Nebraska . Previously commissioned to craft a sculpture of Bill France and his wife , Ann France , for display in front of NASCAR corporate headquarters in Daytona Beach , Florida , Lajba 's work on each replica trophy requires six weeks of 12 @-@ hour days to create the Firebird I automobile , with all the work done by hand , before it gets plated in silver by A & J Plating , also located in Omaha . The first replica trophy , won in 1998 by Dale Earnhardt was originally on a marble base , but has since been switched to an acrylic stand , making it lighter . For the 2008 Daytona 500 , the 50th anniversary of the first race , the replica of the trophy , presented to winner Ryan Newman , was plated in gold rather than silver .
The replica trophies weigh 54 pounds ( 24 kg ) , measures 18 inches ( 46 cm ) tall , 22 inches ( 56 cm ) wide and 12 inches ( 30 cm ) deep .
= = = Additional Daytona 500 trophies = = =
The Harley J. Earl Trophy is not the only trophy awarded at the conclusion of the annual Daytona 500 . The crew chief of the winning team receives the Cannonball Baker Trophy , named after the first commissioner of NASCAR ; the winning team owner is awarded the Governor 's Cup .
= = = Winners of the Harley J. Earl Trophy = = =
The most Harley Earl Awards and Harley J. Earl Trophy Replicas have been won by Richard Petty , often referred to as " The King " of NASCAR . Petty 's seven victories lead the four Daytona 500 wins of Cale Yarborough , and three each by Bobby Allison , Dale Jarrett and Jeff Gordon . Bill Elliott , Sterling Marlin , Michael Waltrip , Matt Kenseth , Jimmie Johnson and Dale Earnhardt , Jr. have won the Daytona 500 and Harley J. Earl Trophy twice ; twenty @-@ five other drivers have been awarded the trophy once . As of 2015 , Trevor Bayne was the youngest winner of the trophy when he won it at age 20 years , 1 day in 2011 ; Allison was the oldest winner ( 50 years , 2 months , 11 days ) in 1988 .
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= European polecat =
The European polecat ( Mustela putorius ) — also known as the black or forest polecat , or fitch ( as well as some other names ) — is a species of mustelid native to western Eurasia and North Africa . It is of a generally dark brown colour , with a pale underbelly and a dark mask across the face . Occasionally , colour mutations , including albinos and erythrists , occur . Compared to minks and other weasels — also fellow members of the genus Mustela — the polecat has a shorter , more compact body ; a more powerfully built skull and dentition ; is less agile ; and it is well known for having the characteristic ability to secrete a particularly foul @-@ smelling liquid to mark its territory .
It is much less territorial than other mustelids , with animals of the same sex frequently sharing home ranges . Like other mustelids , the European polecat is polygamous , though pregnancy occurs directly after mating , with no induced ovulation . It usually gives birth in early summer to litters consisting of five to 10 kits , which become independent at the age of two to three months . The European polecat feeds on small rodents , birds , amphibians and reptiles . It occasionally cripples its prey by piercing its brain with its teeth and stores it , still living , in its burrow for future consumption .
The European polecat originated in Western Europe during the Middle Pleistocene , with its closest living relatives being the steppe polecat , the black @-@ footed ferret and the European mink . With the two former species , it can produce fertile offspring , though hybrids between it and the latter species tend to be sterile , and are distinguished from their parent species by their larger size and more valuable pelts .
The European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret , which was domesticated more than 2000 years ago for the purpose of hunting vermin . The species has otherwise been historically viewed negatively by humans . In the British Isles especially , the polecat was persecuted by gamekeepers , and became synonymous with promiscuity in early English literature . During modern times , the polecat is still scantly represented in popular culture when compared to other rare British mammals , and misunderstandings of its behaviour still persist in some rural areas . As of 2008 , it is classed by the IUCN as Least Concern due to its wide range and large numbers .
= = Etymology and naming = =
The word " polecat " first appeared after the Norman Conquest of England , written as polcat . While the second syllable is largely self @-@ explanatory , the origin of the first is unclear . It is possibly derived from the French poule , meaning " chicken " , likely in reference to the species ' fondness for poultry , or it may be a variant of the Old English ful , meaning " foul " . In Middle English , the species was referred to as foumart , meaning " foul marten " , in reference to its strong odour . In Old French , the polecat was called fissau , which was derived from the Low German and Scandinavian verb for " to make a disagreeable smell " . This was later corrupted in English as fitchew or fitchet , which itself became the word " fitch " , which is used for the polecat 's pelt . The word fitchet is the root word for the North American fisher , which was named by Dutch colonists in America who noted similarities between the two species . In some countries such as New Zealand , the term " fitch " has taken on a wider use to refer to related creatures such as ferrets , especially when farmed for their fur .
A 2002 article in The Mammal Society 's Mammal Review contested the European polecat 's status as an animal indigenous to the British Isles on account of a scarce fossil record and linguistic evidence . Unlike most native British mammals , the polecat 's Welsh name ( ffwlbart , derived from the Middle English foulmart ) is not of Celtic origin , much as the Welsh names of invasive species such as the European rabbit and fallow deer ( cwningen , derived from the Middle English konyng and danas , derived from the Old French dain , respectively ) are of Middle English or Old French origin . Polecats are not mentioned in Anglo @-@ Saxon or Welsh literature prior to the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , with the first recorded mention of the species in the Welsh language occurring in the 14th century 's Llyfr Coch Hergest and in English in Chaucer ’ s The Pardoner ’ s Tale ( 1383 ) . In contrast , attestations of the Welsh word for pine marten ( bele ) , date back at least to the 10th century Welsh Laws and possibly much earlier in northern England .
= = = Local and indigenous names = = =
= = = = Dialectal English names = = = =
Probably no other animal on the British list has had as many colloquial names as the polecat . In southern England it was generally referred to as ' fitchou ' whereas in the north it was ' foumat or foumard ... However there were a host of others including endless spelling variations : philbert , fulmer , fishock , filibart , poulcat , poll cat , etc . Charles Oldham identified at least 20 different versions of the name in the Hertfordshire / Bedfordshire area alone .
= = = Latin name = = =
As well as the several indigenous names referring to smell ( see above ) , the scientific name Mustela putorius is also derived from this species ' foul smell . The Latin putorius translates to stench or stink , from which the English word putrid is derived .
= = Evolution = =
The earliest true polecat was Mustela stromeri , which appeared during the late Villafranchian period . It was considerably smaller than the present form , thus indicating polecats evolved at a relatively late period . The oldest modern polecat fossils occur in Germany , Britain and France , and date back to the Middle Pleistocene . The European polecat 's closest relatives are the steppe polecat and black @-@ footed ferret , with which it is thought to have shared Mustela stromeri as a common ancestor . The European polecat is , however , not as maximally adapted in the direction of carnivory as the steppe polecat , being less specialised in skull structure and dentition . The European polecat likely diverged from the steppe polecat 1 @.@ 5 million years ago based on IRBP , though cytochrome b transversions indicate a younger date of 430 @,@ 000 years . It is also closely related to the European mink , with which it can hybridise .
= = = Domestication = = =
Morphological , cytological and molecular studies confirm the European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret , thus disproving any connection with the steppe polecat , which was once thought to have contributed to the ferret 's creation . Ferrets were first mentioned by Aristophanes in 450 BC and by Aristotle in 350 BC . Greek and Roman writers in the first century AD were the first to attest on the ferret 's use in bolting rabbits from their burrows . The first accurate descriptions of ferrets come from Strabo during 200 AD , when ferrets were released onto the Balearic Islands to control rabbit populations . As the European rabbit is native to the Iberian Peninsula and northwest Africa , the European polecat likely was first domesticated in these regions .
The ferret and European polecat are similar in both size and portions , to the point that dark @-@ coloured ferrets are almost indistinguishable from their wild cousins , though the ferret 's skull has a smaller cranial volume , and has a narrower postorbital constriction . Compared to the European polecat , the ferret has a much smaller brain , though this comparison has not been made with Mediterranean polecats , from which ferrets likely derive . The theory of a Mediterranean origin is further strengthened because the ferret is less tolerant of cold than northern polecat subspecies . The ferret is also more fertile than the polecat , producing two or more litters annually , as opposed to just one . Unlike other subspecies , which are largely solitary , the ferret will readily live in social groups . The ferret is also slower in all its movements than the polecat , and hardly ever makes any use of its anal scent glands . Overall , the ferret represents a neotenous form of polecat .
= = = Subspecies = = =
As of 2005 , seven subspecies are recognised .
= = Physical description = =
= = = Build = = =
The appearance of the European polecat is typical of members of the genus Mustela , though it is generally more compact in conformation and , although short @-@ legged , has a less elongated body than the European mink or steppe polecat . The tail is short , about ⅓ its body length . The eyes are small , with dark brown irises . The hind toes are long and partially webbed , with weakly curved 4 mm @-@ long , nonretractable claws . The front claws are strongly curved , partially retractable , and measure 6 mm in length . The feet are moderately long and more robust than in other members of the genus . The polecat 's skull is relatively coarse and massive , more so than the mink 's , with a strong , but short and broad facial region and strongly developed projections . In comparison to other similarly sized mustelids , the polecat 's teeth are very strong , large and massive in relation to skull size . Sexual dimorphism in the skull is apparent in the lighter , narrower skull of the female , which also has weaker projections . The polecat 's running gait is not as complex and twisting as that of the mink or stoat , and it is not as fast as the mountain weasel ( solongoi ) , stoat or least weasel , as it can be outrun by a conditioned man . Its sensory organs are well developed , though it is unable to distinguish between colours .
The dimensions of the European polecat vary greatly . The species does not conform to Bergmann 's rule , with the pattern of size variation seeming to follow a trend of size increase along an east @-@ west axis . Males measure 350 – 460 mm in body length and females are 290 – 394 mm . The tail measures 115 – 167 mm in males and 84 – 150 mm in females . Adult males in middle Europe weigh 1 @,@ 000 @-@ 1 @,@ 500 grams and females 650 @-@ 815 grams . Gigantism is known among polecats , but specimens exhibiting this are likely the products of polecat @-@ mink hybridisation .
= = = Fur = = =
The winter fur of the European polecat is brownish @-@ black or blackish @-@ brown , the intensity of which is determined by the colour of the long guard hairs . On the back and flanks , the dark tone is brightened by bright whitish @-@ yellowish , sometimes yellowish @-@ greyish underfur which shows through . The lightly coloured underfur is not equally visible on different parts of the body . On the back and hindquarters , the underfur is almost completely covered by the dark guard hairs . On the flanks , though , the lightening is well defined , and contrasts sharply with the general tone of the back . The throat , lower neck , chest and abdomen are black or blackish @-@ brown . The limbs are pure black or black with brown tints , while the tail is black or blackish @-@ brown , completely lacking light underfur . The area around and between the eyes is black @-@ brown , with a longitudinal stripe of similar colour along the top of the nose . The ears are dark brown and edged with white . The summer fur is short , sparse and coarse . It is greyer , duller and lacking in the lustre of the winter fur . The underfur is more weakly developed in the summer fur , and has a brownish @-@ grey or rusty @-@ grey colour . The polecat is a good swimmer , but its fur is not as well insulated against cold water as the American mink 's ; while a mink will take 118 minutes to cool in a water temperature of 8 ° C , the polecat cools down much faster at 26 – 28 minutes .
Polecats were found in two major phenotypes a typic one and a dark fur one with no black mask . Colour mutations include albinos and erythrists . In typical erythristic individuals , the underfur is usually bright reddish . The guard hairs on the trunk are bright reddish or reddish @-@ brown . Black guard hairs are absent on the lower body and head . In some rare cases , the guard hairs are so light , they are almost indistinguishable from the pale @-@ yellow underfur . In these cases , the whole animal is a very light golden @-@ yellow colour .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Social and territorial behaviours = = =
Unlike the steppe polecat , the European polecat has a much more settled way of life , with definite home ranges . The characteristics of polecat home ranges vary according to season , habitat , sex and social status . Breeding females settle in discrete areas , whereas breeding males and dispersing juveniles have more fluid ranges , being more mobile . Males typically have larger territories than females . Each polecat uses several den sites distributed throughout its territory . Occasionally , abandoned European badger or red fox burrows are used . Rabbit warrens are often areas of intense polecat activity . In winter , the polecat may use farm buildings or haystacks as daytime resting sites . The polecat is not as territorial as other small mustelids , having been known to share territories with other members of the same sex . Evidence of polecats marking their territories is sparse . Like other mustelids , the polecat is usually a silent animal , though it will growl fiercely when angered , and squeak when distressed . It also emits a low , mewling cry to its mate or offspring .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
The European polecat is a seasonal breeder , with no courtship rituals . During the mating season , the male grabs the female by the neck and drags her about to stimulate ovulation , then copulates for up to an hour . The species is polygamous , with each male polecat mating with several females . Unlike with other small mustelids , ovulation is not induced , and pregnancy occurs immediately after mating . The gestation period lasts 40 – 43 days , with litters usually being born in May @-@ early June . Each litter typically consists of five to 10 kits . At birth , the kits weigh 9 @-@ 10 g and measure 55 – 70 mm in body length ; they are blind and deaf . At the age of one week , the kits are covered in silky , white fur , which is replaced with a cinnamon brown @-@ greyish woolly coat at the age of 3 – 4 wk . Weaning begins at three weeks of age , while the permanent dentition erupts after 7 – 8 wk . The kits become independent after two to three months . Females are very protective of their young , and have even been known to confront humans approaching too closely to their litters .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Diet = = =
The European polecat 's diet consists of mouse @-@ like rodents , followed by amphibians and birds . Its most frequent prey item in the former Soviet Union is the common vole and rarely the red @-@ backed vole . In large river floodlands , water vole are common prey . In spring and winter , amphibians ( especially grass frogs and green toads ) become important food items . Selective predation on male frogs by the polecat decreases the occurrence of polyandry in frog populations . However , because amphibians have little calorific value , the polecat never grows fat on them , no matter how many it consumes . In Central Europe , the diet in winter months is dominated by birds including quail , grey partridges , grouse , chickens , pigeons and passerines . Seasonal changes in the activity rhythm is synchronised with the activity of the main prey . Some species only rarely preyed upon by the polecat include European hedgehogs , asp vipers , grass snakes and insects . In the British Isles , it commonly kills brown rats and European rabbits , and is capable of killing larger prey , such as geese and hares . One polecat was reported to frequently wait at a riverbank and catch eels , which it took back to its burrow . The polecat feeds on eels mostly during lengthy frosts when eels , unable to breathe air at regular intervals because of the ice , congregate at breathing holes . Unlike the stoat and weasel , the polecat readily eats carrion , including that of large ungulates . The European polecat hunts its prey by stalking it and seizing it with its canine teeth , killing the animal with a bite to the neck . This killing method is instinctive , but perfected with practice . The polecat sometimes caches its food , particularly during seasonal gluts of frogs and toads . Sometimes , the polecat does not kill these , but bites them at the base of the skull , thus paralyzing them and keeping them fresh for later consumption . Though they are normally shy around humans , naturalist Alfred Brehm in his Brehms Tierleben mentions an exceptional case in which three polecats attacked a baby in Hesse . During the winter period , when live prey is scarce , the European polecat may raid beehives and feed on the honey .
= = = Enemies and competitors = = =
The polecat may be preyed upon by red foxes , and both wild and domestic cats . Although the polecat can coexist with the European mink ( though there is one record of a polecat attacking a European mink and dragging it to its burrow ) , it suffers in areas where the invasive American mink also occurs , as the latter species feeds on the same mammalian species as the polecat much more frequently than the European mink , and has been known to drive the polecat out of wetland habitats . In areas where the European polecat is sympatric with the steppe polecat , the two species overlap greatly in choice of food , though the former tends to consume more household foods and birds , while the latter preys on mammals more frequently . There is at least one record of a beech marten killing a polecat . The European polecat may prey on the much smaller least weasel .
= = Hybridisation = =
In some parts of the British Isles , the abandoning of domestic ferrets has led to ferret @-@ polecat crossbreeds living in the wild . Ferrets were likely first brought to Britain after the Norman Conquest of England , or as late as the fourteenth century . It is currently impossible to distinguish pure polecats from hybrids through DNA analysis , as the two forms are too closely related and intermixed to be separated through modern genetic methods . Crossbreeds between the two animals typically have a distinct white throat patch , white feet and white hairs interspersed among the fur . Typically , first generation crossbreeds between polecats and ferrets develop their wild parents ' fear of humans if left with their mothers during the critical socialisation period between 7 ½ and 8 ½ weeks of age . Occasionally , supposed ferret @-@ polecat crossbreeds are advertised as superior to pure ferrets for the purposes of rabbiting , though actual crossbreeds are very likely to be less handleable , less willing to familiarise themselves with dogs , and are more likely to kill their quarry outright rather than simply flush it from its burrow .
Polecats are able to hybridise with the rare European mink , producing offspring termed khor ' -tumak by furriers and khonorik ( from Russian words for ferret and mink ) by fanciers . Such hybridisation is very rare in the wild , and typically only occurs where European minks are declining . A polecat @-@ mink hybrid has a poorly defined facial mask , yellow fur on the ears , grey @-@ yellow underfur and long , dark brown guard hairs . It is fairly large , with a male attaining the peak sizes known for European polecats ( weighing 1 @,@ 120 @-@ 1 @,@ 746 g and measuring 41 – 47 cm in length ) , and a female is much larger than female European minks ( weighing 742 g and measuring 37 cm in length ) . The majority of polecat @-@ mink hybrids have skulls bearing greater similarities to those of polecats than to minks . Hybrids can swim well like minks and burrow for food like polecats . They are very difficult to tame and breed , as males are sterile , though females are fertile . The first captive polecat @-@ mink hybrid was created in 1978 by Soviet zoologist Dr. Dmitry Ternovsky of Novosibirsk . Originally bred for their fur ( which was more valuable than that of either parent species ) , the breeding of these hybrids declined as European mink populations decreased . Studies on the behavioural ecology of free @-@ ranging polecat @-@ mink hybrids in the upper reaches of the Lovat River indicate hybrids will stray from aquatic habitats more readily than pure minks , and will tolerate both parent species entering their territories , though the hybrid 's larger size ( especially the male 's ) may deter intrusion . During the summer period , the diets of wild polecat @-@ mink hybrids are more similar to those of minks than to the polecats , as they feed predominantly on frogs . During the winter , their diets overlap more with those of polecats , and will eat a larger proportion of rodents than in the summer , though they still rely heavily on frogs and rarely scavenge ungulate carcasses as polecats do .
The European polecat can also hybridise with the Asian steppe polecat or the North American black @-@ footed ferret to produce fertile offspring . European @-@ steppe polecat hybrids are very rare , despite their sympatry in several areas . Nevertheless , hybrids have been recorded in southern Ukraine , the Kursk and Voronezh Oblasts , the Trans @-@ Carpathians and several other localities .
= = Range , history and conservation = =
The European polecat is widespread in the western Palaearctic to the Urals in the Russian Federation , though it is absent from Ireland , northern Scandinavia , and much of the Balkans and eastern Adriatic coast . It occurs only marginally in northern Greece . It is found in Morocco in the Rif Mountains , from sea level to 2400 m . Its domesticated form , the ferret , was introduced in Britain , and some Mediterranean islands and New Zealand .
= = = The British Isles = = =
There are ... some extreme examples , but the fact remains that throughout England and Wales polecats were consistently persecuted at a greater intensity than any other species of mustelid . Did this level of persecution have an effect on overall numbers or did it purely satisfy local vengeance ? ... The polecat may be the best example of a species for which the level of killing really did make a difference to the population . The developing sporting estates then administered the coup de grâce .
In Britain , the European polecat was regarded as a serious poultry predator prior to the introduction of wire netting , therefore eliminating it was considered the only option to protect stock . In Kent , for example , at least 42 parishes paid bounties for polecats , of which three extended into the 19th century , though by this time only single individuals were recorded , and usually after gaps of many years . In the Kingdom of Scotland , during the reign of David II , an export duty of 4d. was imposed on each polecat fur trimmer , which was raised to 8d. in 1424 . The species held an important place in Scotland 's fur markets ; the annual Dumfries Fur Fair ( 1816 – 1874 ) sold 400 polecat pelts in 1829 and 600 in 1831 . The following year , a contemporary account described polecat skins as " a drug on the market " . In 1856 , the number of sold pelts decreased to 240 , 168 in 1860 , 12 in 1866 and none in 1869 . The decline was halted with the decrease in the intensity of gamekeeping during the 20 year interval between the First and Second World Wars .
In modern times , the European polecat is found throughout most of rural Wales and in England from Cheshire south to Somerset , and east to Leicestershire and Northamptonshire . The species was reintroduced into the Cumberland and Westmorland , Argyll and on Speyside during the 1970s and 1980s , though the current status of these populations is unknown . Its modern distribution is unclear to a certain extent because of the presence of polecat @-@ ferret hybrids . Aside from the reintroductions , factors aiding the recovery of British polecat populations include an increase in rabbit populations and a lessening of persecution by gamekeepers . Its population has been considered viable since the mid @-@ 1990s . The European polecat is afforded both national and European protection ; it is listed on Schedule 6 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and Regulation 41 of the Conservation ( Natural Habitats , & c . ) Regulations 1994 and is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive . A survey carried out by the Vincent Wildlife Trust in 2015 found that the polecat had spread into areas ( such as East Anglia and South Yorkshire ) where they had not been seen for 100 years . Naturalist Chris Packham termed the spread " ... one of the great natural recoveries . "
= = = France = = =
The European polecat is present in all of France 's territories , excepting Corsica , and has been in a state of decline for several decades . Nevertheless , it is listed as Least Concern on France 's Red Data Book . The European polecat is rare in numerous regions or départements . In the Rhone @-@ Alps region , its population has undergone a sizeable decline since the 1990s , largely as a consequence of poisoning campaigns against muskrats . A 1999 study on the decline of polecats in this region indicated the species has little chance of surviving there . Elsewhere , it is considered either rare or sporadic in 22 districts and absent or extirpated in 22 others . In Drôme , for example , polecat populations have been decreasing since 1975 , and have disappeared in 27 communes in Isère . Its numbers are declining in Morvan and Ariège , and is thinly distributed in Brittany . Though present in Aquitaine , its numbers have been dropping since the 1950s , and is very rare in the mountain regions . In Normandy , the speed of the polecat 's decline has somewhat decreased . In the alpine départements , its range is limited by altitude , as the species relies on more Mediterranean climates to thrive . It is , however , especially abundant in the irrigated Crau , but is absent on the eastern part of the area , apparently being restricted by the valleys of the Durance and Rhone Rivers . The largest populations occur in Northern France : Pas de Calais , Central France ; Alsace , Lorraine and the areas of the Loire with the Vendée , which holds the largest record of polecat observations . It is common in all the départements of Champagne @-@ Ardenne .
= = = Former Soviet Union = = =
The western border of the European polecat 's range in the former Soviet Union begins from the mouth of the Danube in the south approximately to northwest of Suoyarvi , on the Finnish border in the north . In Karelia , its northern border extends from the former point towards the southeast to the Spassk Bay of Lake Onega , thereby passing around the West Karelian uplands from the south and then , passing around these uplands from the east , it suddenly ascends directly to the north passing in particular , near the western shore of Segozer and reaches Rugozer . From there , the border line turns northeast , crossing the Lakhta and reaching Kem on the White Sea . From Archangelsk , the border reaches Mezen , thus attaining the species ' most northerly range . From the Mezen River 's mouth , the border abruptly returns south , approaching closer to the upper Mezen near 64 ° lat . From there , the polecat 's northern border goes on to the upper Vychegda River , and descends further on southwards and in the Urals . Its eastern range apparently extends along the Urals , embracing Sverdlovsk from the west . It is probably absent in the southern Urals , where the steppe polecat occurs . The southern border of the polecat 's range starts in the west of the Danube 's mouth and extends eastward along the coast of the Black Sea reaching the mouth of the Dnepr , from which it moves back from the shore of the Azov Sea and , along it , goes to the mouth of the Don . From the mouth and lower course of the Don , its range passes into the steppe region of western and middle Ciscaucasia . The European polecat is absent from the Saratov steppes of Transvolga , instead being encountered only in the extreme lower Bolshoy and Maly Irgiz Rivers . Further on , the border goes to the north along the Volga River . It steeply returns east somewhat south at the Samara bend , passing around Obshchy Syrt , reaching the Urals at the latitude of Magnitogorsk . The range of the polecat within the former Soviet Union has expanded northwards . From 1930 @-@ 1952 for example , the polecat colonised northwestern Karelia and southern Finland .
Prior to the First World War , the Russian Empire produced more than 50 % of global polecat skins . The harvesting of polecats in Russia increased substantially after the October Revolution , which coincided with Western Europe 's decline in polecat numbers . The Russian population of polecats decreased somewhat after the Second World War , and their hunting was subsequently discouraged , as polecats were acknowledged to limit harmful rodent populations .
= = Diseases and parasites = =
The European polecat may suffer from distemper , influenza , the common cold and pneumonia . Occasionally , it is affected by malignant tumours and hydrocephaly . It commonly has broken teeth and , on rarer occasions , fatal abscesses on the jaw , head and neck . In mainland Europe , it is a carrier of trichinosis , leptospirosis , toxoplasmosis and adiaspiromycosis . Incidences of polecats carrying rabies are high in some localized areas .
Ectoparasites known to infest polecats include flea species such as Ctenocephalides felis , Archaeospylla erinacei , Nosopsyllus fasciatus and Paraceras melis . The tick Ixodes hexagonus is the polecat 's most common ectoparasite , which is sometimes found in large numbers on the neck and behind the ears . Another , less common species to infest polecats is I. canisuga . The biting louse Trichodectes jacobi is also known to infest polecats .
Endoparasites carried by polecats include the cestodes Taenia tenuicollis and T. martis and the nematodes Molineus patens , Strongyloides papillosus , Capilliaria putorii , Filaroides martis and Skjrabingylus nasicola .
= = Relationships with humans = =
= = = Hunting and fur use = = =
European polecat hunting was once a favourite sport of the Westmorland dalesmen and the Scots , who hunted them at night in midwinter . However , the majority of polecat deaths caused by humans have been accidental , having mostly been caused by steel traps set for rabbits . Hunting polecats by moonlight was also a popular diversion among midland schoolboys . Until the mid @-@ 19th century , polecats in Britain were hunted from early February to late April with mixed packs of hunting dogs on the Welsh hills and Lakeland fells , though otterhounds were used on the fells , the Border country and the Scottish Lowlands . John Tucker Edwardes , the creator of the Sealyham terrier , used captured wild male polecats to test the gameness of yearling terriers . In the former Soviet Union , polecats are hunted chiefly in late autumn and early winter with guns and hunting dogs , as well as foothold traps and wooden snares . However , even in season , hunters rarely catch more than 10 @-@ 15 polecats . The species does not constitute an important element in former Soviet commercial hunting , and is usually only caught incidentally .
The European polecat is a valuable fur bearer , whose pelt ( fitch ) is more valuable than the steppe polecat 's . Its skin is used primarily in the production of jackets , capes and coats . It is particularly well suited for trimmings for women 's clothing . The tail is sometimes used for the making of paintbrushes . One disadvantage of polecat skin , however , is its unpleasant odour , which is difficult to remove . The European polecat was first commercially farmed for its fur in Great Britain during the 1920s , but was only elevated to economic importance in Finland in 1979 . It never became popular in the United States and Canada , due to import laws regarding non @-@ native species . It did gain economic importance in the USSR , though .
= = = Tameability = = =
Unlike the stoat and least weasel , the European polecat is easy to breed in captivity . According to Aubyn Trevor @-@ Battye , the European polecat is difficult to tame , but is superior to its domesticated form , the ferret , in bolting rats from their holes due to its greater agility . It is prone to attempting escape once finished bolting rats , but can be easily outrun . Polecat kits can be successfully raised and suckled by mother cats . According to Owen 's Welsh Dictionary , the Gwythelians ( early Irish settlers in northern Wales ) kept polecats as pets . Attempts to tame the European polecat are generally hampered by the adult 's nervous and unsociable disposition . First generation hybrids between polecats and ferrets , conceived to improve the latter 's bloodlines , produce animals with personalities similar to their wild parents .
= = = In culture = = =
In the British Isles , the polecat historically has had a negative reputation . References to the polecat in early English literature are often vilifying , usually being synonymous with prostitutes and generally immoral people , as is the case in Shakespeare 's The Merry Wives of Windsor : " Out of my door , you witch , you hag , you baggage , you polecat , you runyon ! " In some rural areas , the belief persists that the polecat chews off the ears of sleeping sheep and can paralyse or kill men by jumping on them from behind and biting their necks . However , in some regions , it was widely believed among farmers that allowing a polecat to nest in a chicken coop would ensure the animal would not kill the poultry out of gratitude , and instead kill vermin . Cases in which polecats did kill poultry were attributed to animals which were guests at other farms . In Wales , polecats were widely believed to migrate in large numbers every spring to the great peat bog of Tregaron to feed on the breeding frogs there . This was later proven to be incorrect , as the climate in Tregaron is too wet for the European polecat , and it does not hold large frog populations . Compared to other British carnivores , such as otters and badgers , the polecat has received little exposure in popular media . A study conducted on rural school children showed only 3 @.@ 8 % of the surveyed children could identify polecats on photographs , whereas 83 @.@ 7 % correctly identified otters .
A caged polecat appears as a key character of Saki 's short story " Sredni Vashtar " .
= = Gallery = =
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= HMS King George V ( 41 ) =
HMS King George V ( pennant number 41 ) was the lead ship of the five British King George V @-@ class battleships of the Royal Navy . Laid down in 1937 and commissioned in 1940 , King George V operated during the Second World War as part of the British Home and Pacific Fleets . In May 1941 , along with HMS Rodney , King George V was involved in the hunt for and pursuit of the German battleship Bismarck , eventually inflicting severe damage which led to the German vessel sinking . On 1 May 1942 destroyer HMS Punjabi sank after a collision with King George V in foggy conditions . King George V took part in Operation Husky ( the allied landings in Sicily ) and bombarded the island of Levanzo and the port of Trapani . She also escorted part of the surrendered Italian Fleet , which included the battleships Andrea Doria and Caio Duilio , to Malta . In 1945 King George V took part in operations against the Japanese in the Pacific .
Following the war , King George V spent three years as the flagship of the British Home Fleet , was placed in reserve in 1949 , and scrapped eight years later .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
King George V was built by Vickers @-@ Armstrong at Walker Naval Yard , Newcastle upon Tyne ; she was laid down on 1 January 1937 , launched on 21 February 1939 and commissioned on 11 December 1940 . The ship had an overall length of 745 ft ( 227 @.@ 08 m ) , a beam of 112 ft ( 34 @.@ 24 m ) and a draught of 34 ft ( 10 @.@ 41 m ) . She displaced 38 @,@ 031 tons at normal load and 42 @,@ 237 tons at full load . After her refit in 1944 , she displaced 44 @,@ 460 tons at full load . She could carry 3 @,@ 918 tons of fuel oil , 192 tons of diesel oil , 256 tons of reserve feed water and 444 tons of freshwater . Based on the designed fuel consumption , range was : 4000 nautical miles at 25 knots , 10 @,@ 250 nautical miles at 15 knots and 14 @,@ 400 nautical miles at 10 knots . However , in practice fuel consumption was much higher , and at 10 knots the actual range was about 7000 nautical miles . Designed within the tight 35 @,@ 000 ton limitations of the Washington Naval Treaty , wartime service necessitated increases over the design displacement , seriously reducing freeboard and affecting seaworthiness . This was most acute at the already low bow . With too little buoyancy forward the bows were easily buried even in moderate seas , with spray washing up over both forward turrets . Heavy seas could flood ‘ A ’ turret , drenching both men and machinery within .
= = = Propulsion = = =
King George V was equipped with eight Admiralty boilers . This configuration was a little more conventional than the Nelson class , with boiler rooms placed side by side and with each pair associated with a turbine room astern of them . The total heating surface of the boiler plants in King George V was 78 @,@ 144 sq. ft . The 416 ton boiler installation produced more than 100 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower , giving a top speed of 28 knots . The eight boilers were more economic in space and fuel than the twenty @-@ four boilers in the battlecruiser HMS Hood . Fewer , but larger , boilers lowered the weight per unit of heat delivered , as did increased boiler efficiency and consumption of fuel per unit area of heating surface . This made King George V the fastest battleship in the British fleet but slower than the German , French or the new Italian capital ships , or the battlecruisers HMS Hood , Repulse and HMS Renown .
King George V had four sets of Parsons geared turbines . Two main turbines were arranged in series and drove a shaft through double helical gears . An astern turbine was incorporated in the exhaust casing of the low @-@ pressure turbine , and a cruising turbine was coupled directly to the high @-@ pressure turbine . A speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots was expected at standard displacement and 27 @.@ 5 knots at full @-@ load displacement on normal output ; corresponding speeds at overload condition were 29 @.@ 25 and 28 @.@ 25 knots respectively . The turbine unit was a low @-@ speed type ( 2 @,@ 257 rpm ) coupled to a single reduction gear which produced 236 rpm at the propeller shaft .
= = = Armament = = =
= = = = Main battery = = = =
The tight limitations of the Washington Naval Treaty raised many challenges and required difficult compromises if they were to be met . To avoid the class being outgunned by the new ships of foreign navies , especially as by the mid @-@ 1930s the Treaty had been renounced by Japan and Italy , Churchill wrote to the First Lord of the Admiralty in 1936 , voicing strong objections to the proposed armament of 10 14 @-@ inch guns . His proposal was for 9 16 @-@ inch guns . However , when completed King George V mounted ten 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) guns . They were mounted in one Mark II twin turret forward and two Mark III quadruple turrets , one forward and one aft . They could be elevated 40 degrees and depressed 3 degrees . Training arcs were : " A " turret , 286 degrees ; " B " turret , 270 degrees and " Y " turret , 270 degrees . Training and elevating was achieved through a hydraulic drive , with rates of two and eight degrees per second , respectively . A full gun broadside weighed 15 @,@ 950 pounds ; a salvo could be fired every 40 seconds . The quadruple turrets weighed 1 @,@ 582 tons , the twin turret 915 tons . The turrets were designed by the Vickers Armstrong 's Elswick Works , but sets of each type of equipment were manufactured by Vickers Armstrongs in Barrow . A considerable amount of design effort was expended to make the turrets as flashtight as possible . This complicated the mechanical design of the turrets , particularly the quadruple mountings . Due to insufficient clearances and slightly distorted link mechanisms , failures in the intricate safety interlocks in the loading sequence for antiflash precautions caused jams during drills and practice firing . King George V used an Admiralty Fire Control Table Mark IX to control her main armament .
= = = = Secondary battery = = = =
The secondary armament consisted of 16 × 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 133 mm ) guns in eight twin mounts , weighing 81 tons each . They were grouped at the four corners of the citadel , with a twin mount on the main deck and another superimposed above it nearer amidships . This disposition gave better arcs of fire , freedom from blast , more separation of the magazines and a better arrangement of the ammunition supply . The cupolas for these mounts revolved on either the upper or superstructure deck ; between deck mountings travelled on roller paths on the armoured deck . This permitted a flat @-@ trajectory or high @-@ angle fire . Loading was semi @-@ automatic , normal rate of fire was ten to twelve rounds per minute . The maximum range of the Mk I guns was 24 @,@ 070 yards ( 22 @,@ 009 @.@ 6 m ) at a 45 @-@ degree elevation , the anti @-@ aircraft ceiling was 49 @,@ 000 feet ( 14 @,@ 935 @.@ 2 m ) . The guns could be elevated to 70 degrees and depressed to 5 degrees . However , the guns could only practically fire seven to eight rounds per minute , due to the heavy weight of the shell and the fact that the 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch round was semi @-@ fixed , requiring the crew to separately load the cartridge and shell into the breech . King George V introduced the High Angle Control System Mark IVGB anti @-@ aircraft fire control system to the Royal Navy , which , along with the Mk IV Pom @-@ Pom Director , pioneered the use of the Gyro Rate Unit .
= = = = Anti @-@ aircraft battery = = = =
The King George V design had four 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch quadruple machine gun mounts , but in 1939 these were replaced by two Mark VI pom @-@ pom mounts . In 1940 , to combat air attack , four Unrotated Projectile mountings were fitted , on " B " turret , two on " Y " turret , one replaced a pom @-@ pom mount added in 1939 at the stern . The pom @-@ poms mounted in the King George V were designed and produced by Vickers Armstrongs as a result of a post @-@ First World War requirement for a multiple mounting which was effective against close @-@ range bombers or torpedo planes . The first model , tested in 1927 , was superior to anything developed in other countries at the time and in 1938 the Mark VI * had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 400 feet per second , a 1 @.@ 594 @-@ inch bore and a barrel length of 40 calibres . They fired a 1 @.@ 8 @-@ pound shell at a rate of 96 – 98 rounds per minute for controlled fire and 115 rounds per minute for automatic fire . The range of the Mark VI * was 6 @,@ 800 yards , at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 feet per second . The Mark VI octuple mount weighed 16 tons . The Mark VII quadruple mount weighed 10 @.@ 8 tons if power operated ; it could be elevated to 80 degrees and depressed to 10 degrees at a rate of 25 degrees per second which was also the rate of train . The normal ammunition supply on board for the Mark VI was 1 @,@ 800 rounds per barrel . King George V introduced the Mk IV Pom @-@ pom director to the Royal Navy in 1940 , becoming the first ship in the world to feature gyroscopic target tracking in tachymetric anti @-@ aircraft directors .
= = Operational history = =
The first of her class to be completed , King George V was commissioned at her shipyard and sailed for Rosyth in Scotland on 16 October 1940 ; there she took on board her ammunition and began her sea trials . By the end of the year she had joined the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow . She crossed the Atlantic early in 1941 to take Lord Halifax , the Ambassador to the United States , to Annapolis and covered an east @-@ bound convoy on her return , arriving back at Scapa Flow on 6 February . Her next task was to provide distant cover for Operation Claymore , the Royal Marines raid on the Lofoten islands off the north @-@ west coast of Norway . She escorted further Atlantic convoys , HX 104 and HX 115 during March .
= = = Action with Bismarck = = =
When Bismarck along with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen broke out into the Atlantic Ocean , King George V sailed on 22 May with HMS Victorious and eleven cruisers and destroyers in support of the cruiser patrols off Iceland . King George V was the flagship of Admiral Sir John Tovey , who commanded the force . King George V was still 300 to 400 miles away on the morning of 24 May , when HMS Prince of Wales and Hood engaged both Bismarck and Prinz Eugen . Hood was sunk and Prince of Wales was damaged when taking fire from both Bismarck and Prinz Eugen and forced to retire . The German Battleship Bismarck , although damaged , and Prinz Eugen continued south .
The British re @-@ located Bismarck at 10 : 30 on 26 May , when a Catalina flying boat of RAF Coastal Command sighted her , heading for the French port of Brest . Rodney and King George V were still about 125 miles away . The aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal was ordered to launch an air attack , and at 22 : 25 her torpedo bombers , a flight of Fairey Swordfishes damaged Bismarck , slowing her down and jamming her rudder , forcing her to turn back out into the Atlantic , away from the safety of port . At 15 : 00 Rodney joined King George V and they maintained 22 knots – which was nearly maximum speed for Rodney . King George V had only 32 percent of her fuel left while Rodney had only enough fuel to continue the chase at high speed until 8 : 00 the following day .
Admiral Tovey signalled his battle plan to Rodney just before sunrise on 27 May ; she was free to manœuvre independently as long as she conformed generally to the movements of King George V. Both ships were to close the range to 15 @,@ 000 yards as quickly as possible , then turn for broadside fire .
At 08 : 15 HMS Norfolk spotted Bismarck and turned away out of range . She soon sighted the other British ships off her starboard quarter , and informed them that Bismarck was roughly 50 @,@ 000 yards to the southwest . By 08 : 43 King George V had Bismarck in sight , at 20 @,@ 500 yards . Four minutes later Rodney opened fire . King George V followed suit in less than a minute . Bismarck answered almost immediately , straddling Rodney on her second salvo . By 08 : 59 King George V had closed to 16 @,@ 000 yards and all her 14 @-@ inch guns were firing ; Rodney was firing full 16 @-@ inch salvoes . Bismarck concentrated all her remaining guns on King George V , but only an occasional shell came close . At 09 : 14 King George V , at 12 @,@ 000 yards , had opened fire with her 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch guns , and Rodney had moved to 8 @,@ 500 – 9 @,@ 000 yards .
At 09 : 27 a shell hitting Bismarck penetrated the hydraulic machinery in turret ' Anton ' and disabled it , causing the guns to run down to maximum depression . Her topsides were wrecked , and a large fire burned amidships . After firing steadily for over 30 minutes , without any problems , King George V , by 09 : 27 , began having trouble with her main battery , and from that point onward every salvo missed at least one gun due to failures in the safety interlocks for antiflash protection and from ammunition feed jams . At 10 : 21 , with Bismarck silenced and obviously sinking , Admiral Tovey detailed the cruiser Dorsetshire to finish her off with torpedoes . King George V fired 339 14in ( 354mm ) and over 700 5.25in ( 133mm ) shells during the action . As both Rodney and King George V were low on fuel they returned to port at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ) , escorted by eleven destroyers to guard against German air or submarine attack . The next day , after the escort was reduced to three destroyers , four German aircraft did attack but scored no hits . Both King George V and Rodney returned to port safely , but the destroyer HMS Mashona , sent ahead to refuel , was bombed and sunk .
= = = Collision damage = = =
After repairs and adjustments to her guns , King George V attacked German shipping in the Glom Fjord , Norway , in October 1941 . She then covered convoys to Russia . On 1 May 1942 she was operating with USS Washington as an escort to Convoy PQ 15 , and collided with the destroyer HMS Punjabi , which had manoeuvred to avoid a mine and crossed her bow in dense fog . Punjabi was cut in two and King George V had 40 feet of her bow badly damaged . King George V entered the Gladstone Dock in Liverpool on 9 May for repairs by Cammell Laird , and returned to Scapa Flow on 1 July 1942 to resume convoy escort duty .
= = = Mediterranean operations = = =
In May 1943 , King George V was moved to Gibraltar in preparation for Operation Husky . King George V and her sister ship HMS Howe were allocated to the reserve covering group when the operation got under way on 1 July . The two ships bombarded Trapani in Sicily on 12 July and also helped defend against an air raid whilst in Algiers prior to departing for Operation Avalanche , ( the Allied invasion of Italy ) . The two ships also bombarded the islands of Levanzo and Favignana , after which they were in the reserve group for the Salerno landings ( Operation Avalanche ) which began on 9 September . King George V escorted part of the Italian Fleet , including the battleships Andrea Doria and Caio Duilio , to Malta after the armistice and with Howe provided cover for the 1st Airborne Division who were transported to Taranto in support of Operation Slapstick from 9 to 11 September by the cruiser USS Boise and the fast minelayer HMS Abdiel . The battleship then escorted a naval force which occupied the Italian naval base at Taranto . She later escorted surrendered Italian ships from Malta to Alexandria . After bombarding German positions during the Salerno landings , King George V returned to the United Kingdom .
= = = Pacific operations = = =
King George V was in Liverpool for an overhaul from March to June , 1944 ; it included the installation of additional radar gear , more anti @-@ aircraft guns , improved accommodation and ventilation . On 28 October 1944 King George V sailed from Scapa Flow under the command of Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser to join other Royal Navy units assembling at Trincomalee in Ceylon . A stop at Alexandria en route enabled her to divert to Milos in the Aegean Sea to bombard German positions . On 1 December she resumed her eastward journey , arriving in Trincomalee on 15 December . King George V got under way again on 16 January 1945 . The flotilla , known as Task Force 63 , comprised King George V , the aircraft carriers HMS Illustrious , Indomitable , Indefatigable and Victorious , four cruisers and ten destroyers . The first stage of the voyage was covering the 11 @,@ 000 nautical miles to Sydney ; en route the force attacked oil refineries on Sumatra in Operation Meridian . They also practised replenishment @-@ at @-@ sea and beat off a Japanese air attack , with King George V 's anti @-@ aircraft crews shooting down one Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 21 .
Joined by Howe and re @-@ designated Task Force 57 , the British Pacific Fleet was again involved in operations in late March 1945 , when it launched attacks on the Sakishimo @-@ Gunto airfields , a task it repeated in early May . On 4 May 1945 King George V led battleships and cruisers in a forty @-@ five @-@ minute bombardment of Japanese air facilities in the Ryukyu Islands . As the Allies approached the Japanese homeland , King George V was dispatched in mid @-@ July to join the US battleships in a bombardment of industrial installations at Hitachi . King George V fired 267 rounds from her 14 @-@ inch guns during this operation . The task force then moved on to Hamamatsu in southern Honshu , where it carried out a further bombardment of aviation factories . During the Okinawa campaign , the battleship supported four fast carriers of the British Pacific Fleet . Her last offensive action was a night bombardment of Hamamatsu on 29 and 30 July 1945 .
With the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the surrender that followed , King George V moved with other units of the British Pacific Fleet into Tokyo Bay to be present at the surrender ceremonies .
= = = Post war = = =
In January 1946 she conveyed the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester on an official visit to Australia , returning to Portsmouth in March . She was flagship of the Home Fleet until December 1946 , after becoming a training vessel .
King George V 's active naval career was terminated by the Royal Navy in June 1950 , when she and her sister @-@ ships went into reserve and were mothballed . King George V was the first large warship to be preserved in this fashion . This involved sealing the armament , machinery and boilers against damp and installing dehumidifiers throughout . In December 1955 , she was downgraded to extended reserve and in 1957 the decision was taken to scrap the four ships . The following year King George V was moved from her berth in Gareloch to the ship breaking firm of Arnott Young and Co. in Dalmuir to undergo dismantling .
= = Refits = =
During her career , King George V was refitted on several occasions in order to update her equipment . The following are the dates and details of the refits undertaken :
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= HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b =
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b is a planet in the orbit of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 , which lies 1 @,@ 367 light years away from Earth . Its discovery was reported in June 2011 , although it was suspected to be a planet as early as 2004 . The planet is about three @-@ fourths the mass of Jupiter , but is almost eighty percent larger than Jupiter is ; this inflation has , as with the discovery of similar planets WASP @-@ 17b and HAT @-@ P @-@ 32b , raised the question of what ( other than temperature ) causes these planets to become so large .
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b was difficult to confirm because its star experiences high jitter , which disrupted the ability to obtain accurate measurements . As such , a greater number of radial velocity observations were collected to make the confirmation , although it was later determined that HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b could not be determined using the radial velocity method . The planet 's confirmation came about after the planet 's light curve was collected , and the Blendanal process ruled out most false positive scenarios .
= = Discovery = =
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b 's existence was first suggested after observations by the six @-@ telescope HATnet collaboration , a project that searches the sky for planets in transit of , or crossing in front of , their host stars . The presence of a planet in HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 's orbit had been suspected as early as 2004 , although high levels of jitter were detected . This jitter , or a random and shaky appearance that clouds the accuracy of measurements , made it difficult to easily verify the radial velocity of the planetary candidate 's host star , which usually leads summarily to the planet 's confirmation .
As a start , the spectrum of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 was composed using the digital speedometer at the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ meter Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory in Arizona . The collected data found that the star was a single dwarf star exhibiting a slight rotation . Several of its parameters , including its effective temperature and surface gravity , were found . Additionally , the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph at a 1 @.@ 93 @-@ meter telescope at France 's Haute @-@ Provence Observatory was used to observe the star . The resulting data invited the possibility that radial velocity measurements , which can exhibit anomalies that often indicate the presence of a planet , may have been because of background distortion ( and not a planet ) . This possibility significantly complicated the ability of scientists to verify this planet . After the observations , follow @-@ ups were postponed for several years .
Between September 2008 and December 2010 , twenty @-@ two spectra were collected using the High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer ( HIRES ) instrument at Hawaii 's W.M. Keck Observatory . This data was used to derive HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 's radial velocity . A far greater number of spectra were gathered for HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 than the number usually gathered for planetary candidates to compensate for the data 's jitter effect . It was concluded that the jitter in the data was caused by stellar activity and not the presence of other planets .
It became apparent to the investigating science team that radial velocity data alone could not prove the existence of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b . As such , photometric observations of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 were conducted using the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory 's 1 @.@ 2 @-@ meter telescope , which hosted the KeplerCam CCD instrument . This data was used to create the light curve of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 . In doing so , a slight dimming was observed where HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b was believed to have transited its star .
Using a program called Blendanal , similar to the Blender technique used to verify the planets discovered by Kepler , the astronomers observing HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 hoped to rule out false positive alternatives that could explain the planet @-@ like signal seen in HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 's light curve and radial velocity . The use of Blendanal ruled out the possibilities that the signal was caused by that of a hierarchical triple star or a mixture between a bright star and a binary star in the background . The possibility that HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 is actually a binary star whose secondary companion is too dim to be distinguishable from the brighter star could not be ruled out . However , the data indicated that the planet HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b did indeed exist .
The discoveries of the high @-@ radii planets HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b and HAT @-@ P @-@ 32b , along with that of WASP @-@ 17b , contributed to the question of what factors , besides temperature , contribute to the large radii of these inflated planets . The discrepancy lies in planet WASP @-@ 18b , which is far hotter than the newly discovered HAT planets and WASP @-@ 17b , but has a far smaller radius .
The discoveries of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b and HAT @-@ P @-@ 32b were reported together in the Astrophysical Journal . The paper was submitted on June 6 , 2011 . The authors of the discovery paper of the planets suggested the usage of the Spitzer Space Telescope to observe the occultation of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b behind its star to better define its characteristics .
= = Host star = =
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 , or GSC 2461 @-@ 00988 , is an F @-@ type star that lies 419 parsecs ( 1 @,@ 367 light years ) away from Earth . The star has 1 @.@ 403 solar masses and 1 @.@ 777 solar radii ; the star is , in other words , 40 % more massive than and 77 % larger than the Sun . With an effective temperature of 6401 K , HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 is hotter than the Sun . It is also more metal @-@ rich , with a metallicity that is measured at [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 05 . This means that HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 has 12 % more iron than the amount measured in the Sun . HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 is younger than the Sun , at an estimated age of 2 @.@ 4 billion years . The surface gravity of the star is determined to be 4 @.@ 09 . All the values above are determined with the assumption that planet HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b has an irregular , or eccentric , orbit .
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 has an apparent magnitude of 11 @.@ 89 . It cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye because it is so dim .
Because high levels of jitter have been detected in the spectrum of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 , the ability to collect the most sensitive radial velocity measurements possible has been dulled . The loss of accuracy has prevented astronomers from disregarding the possibility that HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 is actually a binary star , where the secondary , dimmer companion is visually indistinguishable from the brighter primary companion . If this is the case , then the dimmer star in the HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 system would have to have a mass that is less than 0 @.@ 55 times that of the Sun . A search for a binary companion star using adaptive optics at the MMT Observatory was negative .
It is possible that other planets with shorter orbital periods than HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b exist in the system . However , at the time of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b 's discovery , not enough radial velocity measurements had been collected to determine if this is so .
= = Characteristics = =
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b is a planet that has 0 @.@ 764 Jupiter masses and 1 @.@ 827 Jupiter radii . In other words , it is about three @-@ fourths as massive as Jupiter , but is slightly less than twice Jupiter 's size . HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b orbits its star at an average distance of 0 @.@ 0503 AU , which is about 5 % of the average distance between the Sun and Earth . This orbit is completed every 3 @.@ 474474 days ( 83 @.@ 39 hours ) . HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b has an equilibrium temperature of 1838 K , which is almost fifteen times hotter than the measured equilibrium temperature of Jupiter ( 124 K ) .
The best fit for the shape of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b 's orbit suggests that the orbit is slightly elliptical , as the planet 's orbital eccentricity is fit to 0 @.@ 148 . However , because the star HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 has such a high level of jitter , it is difficult to constrain the planet 's eccentricity with accuracy . Most of the planet 's defined characteristics are based on the assumption that HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b has an elliptical orbit , although the planet 's discoverers have also derived HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b 's characteristics on the assumption that the planet has a circular orbit . The elliptical model has been chosen because it is considered to be the most likely scenario .
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b has an orbital inclination of 86.7º as seen from Earth . The planet is , thus , almost edge @-@ on when seen from Earth . The planet has been observed to transit its host star .
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= Dallas Buyers Club =
Dallas Buyers Club is a 2013 American biographical drama film , co @-@ written by Craig Borten and Melisa Wallack , and directed by Jean @-@ Marc Vallée . The film tells the story of Ron Woodroof , an AIDS patient diagnosed in the mid 1980s when HIV / AIDS treatments were under @-@ researched , while the disease was not understood and highly stigmatized . As part of the experimental AIDS treatment movement , he smuggled unapproved pharmaceutical drugs into Texas for treating his symptoms , and distributed them to fellow people with AIDS by establishing the " Dallas Buyers Club " while facing opposition from the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) . Two fictional supporting characters , Dr. Eve Saks ( Jennifer Garner ) , and Rayon ( Jared Leto ) , were composite roles created from the writer 's interviews with transgender AIDS patients , activists , and doctors .
Screenwriter Borten interviewed Woodroof in 1992 and wrote the script , which he polished with writer Wallack in 2000 , and then sold to producer Robbie Brenner . Several other actors , directors , and producers who were attached at various times to the development of the film left the project . Universal Pictures also tried to make the film , but did not . A couple of screenwriters wrote drafts that were rejected . In 2009 , producer Brenner involved McConaughey , because of his Texas origins , the same as Woodroof 's . Brenner selected the first draft , written by Borten and Wallack , for the film , and then Vallée was set to direct the film . Principal photography began on November 11 , 2012 , in New Orleans , Louisiana , continuing for 25 days of filming , which also included shooting in Baton Rouge . Brenner and Rachel Winter co @-@ produced the film . The official soundtrack album was featured by various artists , and was released digitally on October 29 , 2013 , by the Relativity Music Group .
Dallas Buyers Club premiered at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival and was released theatrically in the United States on November 1 , 2013 , by Focus Features , strategically entering wide release on November 22 for award season . The film grossed over $ 27 million domestically and $ 27 @.@ 9 million internationally , the box office revenue returned over $ 55 million against a budget of $ 5 million in 182 @-@ days of a theatrical run . It grossed over $ 4 @.@ 5 million from DVD , and over $ 3 million from Blu @-@ ray sales . The film received universal critical acclaim , resulting in numerous accolades . Most praised the performances of McConaughey and Leto , who received the Academy Award for Best Actor and for Best Supporting Actor , respectively , at the 86th Academy Awards , making this the first film since Mystic River ( 2003 ) , and only the fifth movie ever , to win both awards . The film also won the award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling , and garnered nominations for Best Picture , Best Original Screenplay , and Best Editing .
= = Plot = =
In 1985 , Dallas electrician and rodeo cowboy Ron Woodroof is diagnosed with AIDS and given 30 days to live . He initially refuses to accept the diagnosis , but remembers having unprotected sex with an intravenous drug @-@ using prostitute . He is soon ostracized by family and friends , gets fired from his job , and is eventually evicted from his home . At the hospital , he is tended to by Dr. Eve Saks , who tells him that they are testing a drug called zidovudine ( AZT ) , an antiretroviral drug which is thought to prolong the life of AIDS patients — and is the only drug approved by the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) for testing on humans . Saks informs him that in the clinical trials , half the patients receive the drug and the other half are given a placebo , as this is the only way they can determine if the drug is working .
Woodroof bribes a hospital worker to get him the AZT . As soon as he begins taking it , he finds his health deteriorating ( exacerbated by his cocaine use ) . When he returns to the hospital , he meets Rayon , a drug addicted , HIV @-@ positive trans woman , toward whom he is hostile . As his health worsens , he drives to a Mexican hospital to get more AZT . Dr. Vass , who has had his American medical license revoked , tells him that the AZT is " poisonous " and " kills every cell it comes into contact with " . He instead prescribes ddC and the protein peptide T , which are not approved in the US . Three months later , Woodroof finds his health much improved . It occurs to him that he could make money by importing the drugs and selling them to other HIV @-@ positive patients . Since the drugs are not illegal , he is able to get them over the border by masquerading as a priest and swearing that they are for personal use . Meanwhile , Dr. Saks also begins to notice the negative effects of AZT , but is told by her supervisor Dr. Sevard that it cannot be discontinued .
Woodroof begins selling the drugs on the street . He comes back into contact with Rayon , with whom he reluctantly sets up business since she can bring many more clients . The pair establish the " Dallas Buyers Club " , charging $ 400 per month for membership , and it becomes extremely popular . He gradually begins to respect Rayon and think of her as a friend . When Woodroof has a heart attack caused by a recently acquired dose of interferon , Sevard learns of the club and the alternative medication . He is angry that it is interrupting his trial , while Richard Barkley of the FDA confiscates the interferon and threatens to have Woodroof arrested . Saks agrees that there are benefits to AIDS medicine buyers clubs ( of which there are several around the country ) but feels powerless to change anything . The processes that the FDA uses to research , test and approve drugs is seen as flawed and a part of the problem for AIDS patients . Saks and Woodroof strike up a friendship .
Barkley gets a police permit to raid the Buyers Club , but can do nothing but give Woodroof a fine . In 1987 , the FDA changes its regulations such that any unapproved drug is also illegal . As the Club runs out of funds , Rayon , who is addicted to cocaine , begs her father for money and tells Woodroof that she has sold her life insurance policy to raise money . Woodroof travels to Mexico and gets more of the peptide T. Upon return , Ron finds out that Rayon died after being taken to the hospital . Saks is also upset by her death , and is asked to resign when the hospital discovers she is linking patients with the Buyers Club . She refuses to comply and insists that she would have to be fired .
As time passes , Woodroof shows compassion towards gay , lesbian , and transgender members of the club and making money becomes less of a concern ; his priority is provision of the drugs . Peptide T gets increasingly difficult to acquire , and in 1987 he files a lawsuit against the FDA . He seeks the legal right to take the protein , which has been confirmed as non @-@ toxic but is still not approved . The judge is compassionate toward him and admonishes the FDA , but lacks the legal tools to do anything . As the film ends , on @-@ screen text reveals that the FDA later allowed Woodroof to take peptide T for personal use and that he died of AIDS in 1992 , seven years later than his doctors initially predicted .
= = Cast = =
Matthew McConaughey as Ron Woodroof , a real @-@ life AIDS patient who smuggled unapproved pharmaceutical drugs into Texas when he found them effective at improving his symptoms . In an interview with CBS News ' Lee Cowan in February 2014 , McConaughey said that he selected the role because he thought it was not just a normal story , but it was a story of a " wild man . " McConaughey was born and raised near Dallas , so he was very familiar with the culture . Additionally , he thought that the script was " incredibly human , with no sentimentality . " McConaughey lost nearly 50 pounds ( 22 kilograms ) to play Woodroof in the film .
Jennifer Garner as Dr. Eve Saks , who treats AIDS patients like Woodroof and Rayon . Upon Garner 's casting , after reading the script she expressed : " I had heard about it , and I had seen pictures of Matthew losing weight . And really couldn 't imagine how I was going to do it , and was so happy at home . "
Jared Leto as Rayon , a fictional trans woman with HIV who helps Woodroof . To accurately portray his role , Leto lost 30 pounds ( 13 kilograms ) , shaved his eyebrows and waxed his entire body . He stated the portrayal was grounded in his meeting transgender people while researching the role . He stated that , when he moved to Los Angeles in 1991 , he had a roommate who died of AIDS . He " [ worked ] on Rayon 's voice for weeks " and refused to break character during filming ; director Vallée stated : " I don 't know Leto . Jared never showed me Jared . "
Denis O 'Hare as Dr. Sevard
Steve Zahn as Tucker
Michael O 'Neill as Richard Barkley
Dallas Roberts as David Wayne
Griffin Dunne as Dr. Vass
Kevin Rankin as T. J.
Bradford Cox as " Sunflower " , Rayon 's lover , a cross @-@ dresser dying of AIDS
Scott Takeda as Mr. Yamata
Adam Dunn ( cameo ) as a bartender
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film is based on the real life of Ron Woodroof , a patient of HIV and AIDS , who was the subject of a lengthy 1992 article in The Dallas Morning News written by journalist and author Bill Minutaglio . A month before Woodroof died in September 1992 , screenwriter Craig Borten was told about the story by his friend , so he went and interviewed him to create the screenplay ; Borten recorded many hours of interviews with Woodroof and had access to his personal journals . Borten wrote a script for what he believed would make a great movie and attempted to attract interest in making the film in mid 1996 , with Dennis Hopper attached to direct . Columbia Pictures was set to buy the script but the film was unable to secure financial backing .
In an interview , Borten revealed that he met Melisa Wallack in 2000 and asked her to help with the script , to which she said yes . In 2001 , after one year of working on the script , they sold it to producer Robbie Brenner , who then set Marc Forster to direct the film for Universal Pictures , but left due to some personal delays . In June 2008 , Craig Gillespie and Ryan Gosling were in talks to join the film , which was to be produced by David Bushell and Marc Abraham for Universal Pictures and Strike Entertainment . Chase Palmer was writing the script that time around , and screenwriters Guillermo Arriaga and Stephen Belber had reportedly also written the subsequent drafts for the film . In 2009 , producer Robbie Brenner got involved again and rejected all the rewrites of the script , and the original version by Borten and Wallack was sent to actor Matthew McConaughey to see if the Dallas native would be interested in playing the role . On March 9 , 2011 , Jean @-@ Marc Vallée was confirmed to direct the film based on the script by Borten and Wallack . Rachel Winter also attached to produce the film .
On November 14 , 2012 , it was announced that Remstar Films had acquired the Canadian rights while Entertainment One would handle the United Kingdom rights for the film . On April 23 , 2013 , Focus Features acquired the United States and Latin American distribution rights for the theatrical release of the film . In May 2013 , Voltage Pictures and Truth Entertainment closed a deal to produce the film .
= = = Casting = = =
In 1996 , Woody Harrelson was attached to the film to play Ron Woodroof , but left the film because of financing issues . In 2002 , Brad Pitt was attached to play the lead role . In June 2008 , Ryan Gosling was in talks to join the film for the lead role to play Woodroof , but couldn 't take the role . In 2009 , producer Brenner sent the script to actor Matthew McConaughey and got him involved to star in the film . Wondering whether the Texas native was interested in playing another Texas native ( he 's originally from Uvalde ) , Brenner says that he asked himself : " ' Who is Ron Woodroof ? ' And in my mind , it was Matthew . Like Ron , he 's from Dallas , he 's handsome , and he has a twinkle in the eye . Matthew also has intensity and intelligence like Ron did , mixed with that cowboy charisma and fighter 's spirit . He was beyond perfect for the role . " Writer Borten said : " Ron was a very charismatic , funny and persuasive , a real salesman . Even if he was making fun of you , you wanted him to continue because he was so charming . Matthew possesses a lot of those same qualities . " On March 9 , 2011 , Los Angeles Times confirmed that McConaughey would star in the film as Woodroof and quoted McConaughey as saying : " It 's a great script and a great story . And I think it can be a great movie . " Woodroof 's sister Sharon Woodroof Braden was reportedly pleased with the casting of McConaughey as Woodroof because he had a similar swagger and personality . She had shown concern earlier in the development process when Pitt and Gosling were attached , due to their personalities not matching Woodroof 's .
On May 11 , 2011 , Hilary Swank was reportedly in talks to join the film with McConaughey 's role confirmed . On October 3 , 2012 , it was announced that Swank had dropped out of the film and that Gael Garcia Bernal was in talks to play an HIV patient who meets Woodroof in the hospital and helps him in the club . On November 6 , The Hollywood Reporter confirmed that Jared Leto would be returning to acting to play the role which Bernal was previously in talks to play . In January 2014 , Jared Leto has admitted that he was sent a script 15 years ago but never read it . When Leto was asked about his role , he said : " This was a really special movie . I think it was the role of a lifetime . It 's one of the best things I 've ever done . " He also said that he tried to stay focused on the role because he knew it was an incredible opportunity . On November 14 , Dallas Roberts and Steve Zahn joined the film ; Roberts would play David Wayne , Ron 's defense attorney , while Zahn would play a Dallas police officer who is sympathetic to Ron . On November 26 , Griffin Dunne , Denis O 'Hare , and Bradford Cox joined the cast when the shooting was underway in New Orleans .
McConaughey lost 47 pounds ( 21 kg ) for the role , going from 183 pounds ( 83 kg ) to 136 pounds ( 62 kg ) . He reportedly stayed indoors in his Texas mansion for six months to become paler and ceased socializing and had to find new ways to entertain himself , which made him " smarter " . When he reached as low as 143 lbs , his eyesight began to fail . He began to feel extremely weak to the point that he would be sore from doing five push @-@ ups and his legs would lock up after running 30 feet . Leto lost over 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) for the role and said that he had stopped eating to lose weight quicker ; his lowest record weight was 114 pounds ( 52 kg ) .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on November 11 , 2012 in New Orleans , Louisiana . Filming also took place in Baton Rouge . Jennifer Garner has stated that the film was shot very quickly over just 25 days and has remarked that McConaughey " gave an even wilder performance in takes that didn 't appear onscreen " . McConaughey stated that " I was riding a new way of making a film . There were no lights , one camera , 15 @-@ minute takes . " Half of the shots were lit with artificial light and the other half were not . Vallée said : " I now had a perfect opportunity to try to shoot an entire movie without artificial lights , using the Alexa digital camera . Like the RED , the Alexa offers a broad spectrum of colors and shadows in even the darkest natural lighting conditions . I felt that the approach was right for this project . The look and feel became that we were capturing reality ; even though Dallas Buyers Club is not a documentary in content or structure , it could have that subtle quality . We shot the movie 100 % handheld with two lenses , a 35 @-@ millimeter and a 50 @-@ millimeter . These get close to the actors and don 't skew the images . ( Director of Photography ) Yves Belanger adjusted for every shot at 400 or 1600 ASA ( light sensitivity ) , displaying different color balance . "
Jared Leto , who played Rayon , an AIDS patient and trans woman with a drug problem in the film , refused to break character for the whole 25 @-@ days shooting . During the interviews of people with the New York Times at TIFF premiere , who were involved in the film said about Leto that , in a sense , they never really met Mr. Leto until months after the shoot was over . Leto said about his character , " That phrase staying in character to me really means commitment , focus , and for a role like this that 's so intense and challenging and extreme in a lot of ways , it demanded my full attention . "
= = Music = =
The official soundtrack album was announced on October 16 , 2013 , and it was released digitally on October 29 , 2013 , by the Relativity Music Group . The soundtrack album featured various artists , include Leto 's band Thirty Seconds to Mars , Tegan and Sara , Awolnation , The Naked and Famous , T. Rex , My Morning Jacket , Fitz and The Tantrums , Blondfire , Neon Trees , Cold War Kids , Capital Cities , The Airborne Toxic Event , and more . It was announced that 40 cents of every sale of album at iTunes would go to the AIDS relief charity Project Red 's Global Fund .
New Noise Magazines Joseph Tucker said , " The score on this record is incredibly diverse and of equally incredible quality , unlike so many others . Pick this up before or after you go and see Dallas Buyers Club . " Matt of Homo Razzi said about the album , " Overall this soundtrack has a little bit of everything and it works perfectly , mirroring some of the themes , emotions and moments of the film . " Stephanie Ochona reviewed for Renowned for Sound and gave the soundtrack 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 ratings , she said , " Set in the 80s where drugs and other experimentation was all the rage , music plays a big factor in the entire atmosphere of the movie . The soundtrack includes a diverse group of artists , from country stars , indie icons and modern rockers . All the songs featured help bring out the kind of mood a movie like Dallas Buyers Club is . " Ochona also said that , " Without such an accurate soundtrack , the film wouldn 't have made such a big impact , and both the visual and aural aspects work together to create a beautiful story of a man fighting for the right to live his life . "
Music critic Green Baron reviewed the music for Sputnikmusic , and said : " Dallas Buyers Club itself was a breathtaking motion picture driven by the extraordinary performances from Matthew McConaughey and Jared Leto . Its accompanying soundtrack , however , is less than satisfying . Filled to the brim with lifeless , stale indie @-@ rock tracks , the supporting album to one of the year 's most gripping films is a complete waste of talent and potential . " Baron thought that Dallas Buyers Club was saved by a few excellent songs , which were " Ready to Be Called On " , " After the Scripture " , and " City of Angels " . He said that , " Overall , the Dallas Buyers Club soundtrack is one that really isn 't worth your time or money . Aside from three superb songs , the whole album is a collection of drab indie pop / rock that ultimately falls flat due to its lack of memorability . "
= = Release = =
The first trailer was launched on August 27 , 2013 . The film premiered at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival on September 7 , on which Deadline 's Pete Hammond said , " It would seem an absolute no @-@ brainer that both ( McConaughey and Leto ) will be sitting front and center come March 2nd at the Dolby Theatre when Oscar winners are announced . If there are two better performances by anyone this year I have not seen them . " Focus Features released the film on November 1 , 2013 .
= = = Box office = = =
The film 's release was previously set for December 5 , but hoping to gain a competitive edge amid a crowded playing field , Focus Features shifted the release date to November 1 , believing the new date was ideal to launch a platform release in the awards season , and expecting to do a wide release for 5 @-@ day Thanksgiving weekend ( November 27 – December 1 ) . Because the film was an awards contender , Focus set the date in November for an Oscars strategy like that for 2013 Oscar winner Argo , which was released in October 2012 .
Over its opening weekend from November 1 – 3 of limited release in Los Angeles , New York , Toronto and Montreal , the film grossed $ 260 @,@ 865 from 9 theaters with an average of $ 28 @,@ 985 per theater , In second weekend from November 8 – 10 , film grossed $ 638 @,@ 704 , making total of $ 993 @,@ 088 with an average amount of $ 18 @,@ 249 from 35 theaters . And it was expanded to 184 locations in its third week of release and it grossed $ 1 @,@ 751 @,@ 359 from Nov 15 – 17 , with an average of $ 9 @,@ 518 , making total of $ 3 @,@ 012 @,@ 295 . It opened wide on November 22 ( the weekend before Thanksgiving ) in 666 theaters and grossed $ 2 @,@ 687 @,@ 157 from November 22 – 24 , with a total of $ 6 @,@ 374 @,@ 058 and average of $ 4 @,@ 035 per location . The wide release coincided with the Screen Actors Guild Awards ballots deadline , and was before the Golden Globe Awards ballots . The Screen Actors Guild mailed Screen Actors Guild Award nomination ballots to its voters on November 20 , and the nomination ballots for the Golden Globe Awards were mailed to the Hollywood Foreign Press Association members on or before November 27 .
71st Golden Globe Awards were announced on January 12 , 2014 with Dallas Buyers Club winning both of its nominations , and the film earned six 86th Academy Awards nominations that were announced on January 16 . The twelfth weekend after limited release , the film 's theater run jumped from 125 screens to a total of 419 and the film grossed $ 17 @,@ 813 @,@ 220 with an average of $ 2 @,@ 246 per theater from January 17 – 19 . After the 20th Screen Actors Guild Awards were announced on January 18 with Dallas Buyers Club winning two of its three nominations , during the thirteenth weekend from January 24 – 26 , 2014 , the film expanded to 1 @,@ 110 locations ( highest playing of the film ) and grossed $ 2 @,@ 028 @,@ 570 more in that weekend with an average of $ 1 @,@ 828 . Until that weekend the top grossing markets were Los Angeles , New York , San Francisco , Chicago and Dallas .
After a total of 182 days , the film ended its American theatrical run on May 1 , 2014 with a gross of $ 27 @,@ 298 @,@ 285 in North America . It grossed $ 27 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 in foreign countries including $ 8 @,@ 755 @,@ 794 of the United Kingdom , $ 2 @,@ 761 @,@ 258 of Australia , making a worldwide total gross of $ 55 @,@ 198 @,@ 285 .
= = = Home media = = =
Dallas Buyers Club was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on February 4 , 2014 . In the United States , the film has grossed $ 4 @,@ 532 @,@ 240 from DVD sales and $ 3 @,@ 097 @,@ 179 from Blu @-@ ray sales , making a total of $ 7 @,@ 629 @,@ 419 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon its premiere at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival , Dallas Buyers Club received universal acclaim by critics and audiences , who greatly praised the film for its acting ( particularly for McConaughey and Leto ) , screenplay and direction . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 94 % , based on 233 reviews , with an average score of 7 @.@ 8 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Dallas Buyers Club rests squarely on Matthew McConaughey 's scrawny shoulders , and he carries the burden gracefully with what might be a career @-@ best performance . " Metacritic gives the film a score of 84 out of 100 , based on 47 critics , indicating " universal acclaim " .
Richard Corliss of Time magazine considered McConaughey 's portrayal to be a " bold , drastic and utterly persuasive inhabiting of a doomed fighter " , remarking that " if the camera occasionally suffers a fashionable case of the jitters , the movie transcends its agitated verismo to impart dramatic and behavioral truth " . Chris Bumbray reviewed the film for JoBlo.com and gave it 9 out of 10 , and said , " Like Woodroof , the film never wants your pity , and while tears will no doubt be shed while watching it , they 're well @-@ earned . " The Philadelphia Inquirer 's Steven Rea talked about McConaughey 's role , " Just about everything is right with Dallas Buyers Club , beginning with Matthew McConaughey 's literally transformative portrayal . McConaughey 's performance isn 't just about the weight loss . It 's about gaining compassion , even wisdom , and it 's awesome . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle said , " Dallas Buyers Club " takes audiences back to the worst of the AIDS crisis , where the disease was a death sentence , and the public 's terror and hostility were at its height . " Film critic Richard Roeper reviewed the film for his own website , and talked about McConaughey : " Once we get past McConaughey 's stunning transformation , we 're transfixed by a performance that reminds us of why this guy became a movie star in the first place . " Ann Hornaday gave the film 4 out of 4 ratings , and then gave her remarks on McConaughey 's remarkable performance for The Washington Post , " McConaughey delivers the performance of his career , characterized not just by an astonishing physical transformation but by a wellspring of deep compassion and fearlessness . "
The Orange County Register 's film critic Michael Sragow gave the film grade " A " and commented on three lead characters , " A trio of terrific performers imbues a riveting AIDS drama with heart and mind as well as pertinence . " Film critic Ty Burr reviewed the film for The Boston Globe and criticized , " The movie 's often touching and very watchable , but what gets you past the script 's sincere calculation is the growing sense of rage toward a medical @-@ industrial complex that saw AIDS sufferers as guinea pigs and sources of profit . " The Chicago Tribune 's film critic Michael Phillips talked about " How Woodroof became his own brand of AIDS activist is the stuff of Dallas Buyers Club , which does a few things wrong but a lot right , starting right at the top with McConaughey . " Bob Mondello criticized the film 's character for the NPR in these words : " Dallas Buyers Club is just about a selfish boor who arguably gets a pass in terms of posterity , because while looking out for No. 1 , he paved the way for change for everyone else . " Dana Stevens of Slate magazinepraised McConaughey 's performance , highlighting that the movie " traffics in deep hindbrain emotions : fear and rage and lust and , above all , the pure animal drive to go on living . "
Lou Lumenick of the New York Post expressed his compliments about the film 's crew , " It 's a remarkable story , vividly and urgently told by French @-@ Canadian director Vallée from a pointed , schmaltz @-@ free script by Craig Borten and Melissa Wallack . " A. O. Scott reviewed the film for The New York Times and said , " Matthew McConaughey brings a jolt of unpredictable energy to Dallas Buyers Club , an affecting if conventional real @-@ life story of medical activism . " The Wall Street Journal 's film critic thinks " Matthew McConaughey continues to amaze . " David Denby of The New Yorker talked about McConaughey 's physical transformation in his words , " It 's McConaughey 's spiritual transformation that is most remarkable . His gaze is at once desperate and challenging . " Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers said , " [ Matthew McConaughey 's ] explosive , unerring portrayal defines what makes an actor great , blazing commitment to a character and the range to make every nuance felt . " Film critic Rex Reed reviewed the film for The New York Observer and said , " Dallas Buyers Club represents the best of what independent film on a limited budget can achieve @-@ powerful , enlightening and not to be missed . " The Wrap 's Alonso Duralde said why he watched the film , " McConaughey is the only reason to see Dallas Buyers Club , but he 's enough of a reason to see Dallas Buyers Club . "
Film critic Betsy Sharkey reviewed for the Los Angeles Times , " [ McConaughey and Leto ] elevate the movie beyond ordinary biography or overplayed tragedy , and give Oscar @-@ worthy performances in the process . " Sharkey expressed her compliments about Leto 's performance , " Leto 's performance , though , is the revelation . ... It 's a hauntingly authentic performance ; the tailored suit he puts on to meet with his disapproving father is one of the film 's most moving scenes . " Peter Debruge of Variety said , " Matthew McConaughey and Jared Leto give terrific performances in this riveting and surprisingly relatable true story . "
Leto 's portrayal of Rayon , a drug @-@ addicted trans woman with AIDS who befriends McConaughey 's character Ron Woodroof , received critical acclaim . The writers created Rayon , to show " Woodroof 's gradual acceptance of a subculture he had dismissed . " Time 's Richard Corliss noted , " Leto captures the sweet intensity and almost saintly good humor of a glamorous , poignant and downright divoon creature — a blithe Camille who may surrender her health but never her panache . " Leto was awarded an Academy Award , Golden Globe , a Screen Actors Guild Award and a variety of film critics ' circle awards . After the 86th Academy Awards ceremony , the casting of a non @-@ transgender actor was critiqued as a missed opportunity , with some LGBT activists criticizing the choice as misogynistic . A guest blogger published on the L.A. Times website compared the issue to white actors appropriating , and exploiting , the roles of East Asians and Africans in the past ; and guest contributors noted in The Guardian and The Independent that transgender actors are often relegated to roles such as prostitutes , corpses and " freaks . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Dallas Buyers Club received six nominations at the 86th Academy Awards : Best Picture , Best Actor for McConaughey , Best Supporting Actor for Leto , Best Original Screenplay , Best Film Editing for Martin Pensa and Vallée ( Vallée being credited under the pseudonym " John Mac McMurphy " ) , and Best Makeup and Hairstyling for Adruitha Lee and Robin Mathews . McConaughey and Leto won Academy Awards for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor , respectively – the first film since Mystic River 10 years earlier to receive both awards and only the fifth overall to do so . Lee and Mathews won the Academy Award for Best Makeup , although Mathews had a budget of only $ 250 .
The film received two Screen Actors Guild Awards , for Best Actor ( McConaughey ) and Best Supporting Actor ( Leto ) ; it was also nominated for Best Cast . At the 71st Golden Globe Awards McConaughey and Leto again won Best Actor – Motion Picture – Drama and Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture respectively . The film was also nominated for Best Original Screenplay at the Writers Guild of America Awards , while Leto 's performance won a range of awards from critics groups , including the New York Film Critics Circle and the Los Angeles Film Critics Association . The National Board of Review named Dallas Buyers Club one of the top ten independent films of 2013 .
= = Historical accuracy = =
The characters of Rayon and Dr. Eve Saks were fictional ; the writers had interviewed transgender AIDS patients , activists , and doctors for the film and combined these stories to create the two composite supporting roles . However , Woodroof did lose all his friends after they found out he was HIV @-@ positive . In his interviews with Borten , Woodroof implied that this , along with interactions with gay people living with AIDS through the buyers club , led to a rethinking of his apparent anti @-@ gay sentiments and changed his views on gay people . Other people who knew him said that he did not harbor anti @-@ gay sentiments and was himself bisexual . Also , while a rodeo enthusiast , he never rode any bulls himself . Although the film shows Woodroof diagnosed in 1985 , he told Borten that a doctor had informed him he might have had the disease well before that ; Woodroof believed that he may have been infected in 1981 , something that was briefly alluded to in a flashback in the film .
While Woodroof was known for outlandish behavior , according to those who knew him , both the film and McConaughey made him rougher than he actually was ; The Dallas Morning News has reported that Woodroof was " outrageous , but not confrontational " and that people who knew him felt that his portrayal as " rampantly homophobic " early in the film was inaccurate . The real Woodroof also had a sister and a daughter who were not approached by the writers and were left out of the script to make the film more of a character study .
= = = Drug treatments = = =
The film implies that the drug and vitamin regime promoted by Woodroof was safer and more effective than the drugs being issued in hospitals and tested by the FDA at the time , but this has been criticized by numerous observers . Daniel D 'Addario , in an article in Salon , suggests that " the film 's take is perilously close to endorsing pseudoscience . "
Woodroof frequently declares that the drug AZT ( azidothymidine ) is ineffective and counter @-@ productive , yet years later it is still prescribed to patients with AIDS , albeit at a much lower dose ( hinted at in the film ) . Medical historian Jonathan Engel , who wrote " The Epidemic : A History of AIDS , " states that AZT was in fact a relatively effective for the period , consistently prolonging lives for a year at a time when AIDS had a 100 % mortality rate . Journalist David France , who directed the documentary “ How to Survive a Plague , ” suggested that AZT was actually " the first element of a cocktail of drugs that ended the era of AIDS @-@ as @-@ death sentence . " Initial attempts to use high doses of AZT proved to be no more effective than smaller doses , but HIV / AIDS activist Peter Staley ( who was consulted by the filmmakers ) believes this was not the result of any conspiracy - initially medical researchers had to guess what dose would be effective and they feared a low dose would be ineffective . Eventually , researchers realized that AZT was ineffective in the long term because the HIV virus mutated and became resistant to the treatment . By the mid @-@ 1990s , David Ho and other researchers found AZT was quite effective when used in conjunction with two other anti @-@ virals , which decreased the chances of virus developing resistance to any one drug .
The treatments that Woodroof did promote were less @-@ effective at best , or at worst , dangerous . According to Staley , Woodroof became a proponent of Peptide T , a treatment which " never panned out . It 's a useless therapy , and it never got approved , and nobody uses it today , but the film implies that it helped him . " DDC , also promoted by Woodroof , did prove to be an effective antiviral treatment , but it also proved to have worse side effects than AZT , with the potential to cause irreversible nerve damage in some cases . As a result , it was only used by doctors for a relatively short time . A third treatment promoted by Woodroof , called Compound Q ( Trichosanthin ) , was specifically linked to two deaths during trials , and therefore , was not used by doctors thereafter . Most " buyers clubs " stopped providing it as well , but Woodroof continued to dispense it , part of the reason for Woodroof 's conflict with the FDA .
= = Copyright enforcement by the film 's makers = =
= = = Australia = = =
Makers of Dallas Buyers Club have attempted to aggressively enforce their copyrights by serving discovery orders on Australian internet service providers ( ISPs ) . iiNet , one of the ISPs served with a discovery application , stated it has " serious concerns " that the film 's makers will look to intimidate subscribers . Steve Dalby , iiNet 's chief regulatory officer , said : " We are concerned that our customers will be unfairly targeted to settle claims out of court using a practice called ' speculative invoicing ' " . Information of up to 4 @,@ 700 subscribers were being sought for allegedly downloading the film before its box office release .
In April 2015 , an Australian federal judge , Justice Nye Perram ruled that ISPs must hand over contact information related to the IP addresses associated with sharing the movie .
In August 2015 the Australian Federal Court refused the application for film makers of Dallas Buyers Club to force ISPs to hand over the details of their customers . The courts found that the contents of the letter , proposed by the film makers to contact downloaders with , were more demanding than deemed appropriate . The letter was found to ask for such details as salary and other films that were downloaded .
In December 2015 , Justice Perram dismissed the Dallas Buyers Club LLC case against iiNet entirely unless an appeal were filed by February 11 , 2016 . The judge remarked upon DBC 's attempts to claim costs for a worldwide non @-@ exclusive distribution agreement , concluding that " DBC ’ s contention was wholly unrealistic ; indeed , I went so far as to describe it as ‘ surreal ’ . Perram also required posting a $ 600 @,@ 000 bond to the court should the suit proceed . "
= = = Singapore = = =
Dallas Buyer Club LLC successfully obtained a court order against two major ISPs Starhub and M1 to reveal customers who have allegedly downloaded illegal copies of the movie . In April 2015 , Samuel Seow Law Corporation represented the owners in sending demand letters to more than 500 subscribers asking for a written offer of damages and costs . A few days later , Singtel was also issued a court order to reveal 150 of its subscribers for alleged illegal downloading . President Harish Pillay and Vice @-@ President Professor Ang Peng Hwa of the Singapore Internet Society ( ISOC ) Chapter stated , that " threatening subscribers won 't stop piracy " . This is the second reported instance of a major legal action taken by a media company against individuals in Singapore for alleged illegal downloading since Odex 's actions against file @-@ sharing in 2007 .
= = = United States = = =
Beginning in 2014 , Voltage Pictures filed nearly 150 multi @-@ defendant " John Doe " lawsuits against internet users identified only by their IP addresses , alleging illegal downloading of the film . Despite statutory damages claims of $ 150 @,@ 000 , users reported settling claims with the film maker for $ 5 @,@ 000 to $ 8 @,@ 000 .
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= Perovskia atriplicifolia =
Perovskia atriplicifolia ( / pəˈrɒvskiə ætrɪplɪsɪˈfoʊliə / ) , commonly called Russian sage , is a flowering herbaceous perennial plant and subshrub . Although not a member of Salvia , the genus of other plants commonly called sage , it is closely related to them . It has an upright habit , typically reaching 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 2 m tall ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 ft ) , with square stems and grey @-@ green leaves that yield a distinctive odor when crushed . It is best known for its flowers . Its flowering season extends from mid @-@ summer to late October , with blue to violet blossoms arranged into showy , branched panicles .
Native to the steppes and hills of southwestern and central Asia . Successful over a wide range of climate and soil conditions , it has since become popular and widely planted . Several cultivars have been developed , differing primarily in leaf shape and overall height ; ' Blue Spire ' is the most common . This variation has been widely used in gardens and landscaping . P. atriplicifolia was the Perennial Plant Association 's 1995 Plant of the Year , and the ' Blue Spire ' cultivar received the Award of Garden Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society .
The species has a long history of use in traditional medicine in its native range , where it is employed as a treatment for a variety of ailments . This has led to the investigation of its phytochemistry . Its flowers can be eaten in salads or crushed for dyemaking , and the plant has been considered for potential use in the phytoremediation of contaminated soil .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Perovskia atriplicifolia was described by George Bentham in 1848 , based on a specimen collected by William Griffith in Afghanistan , now preserved at the Kew Gardens herbarium as the species 's holotype . The specific epithet atriplicifolia means " with leaves like Atriplex " , referring to its similarity to saltbush . Commonly known as Russian sage , P. atriplicifolia is neither native to Russia nor a member of Salvia , the genus generally referred to as sage .
A Chinese population was described as a separate species in 1987 and given the name Perovskia pamirica , but has since been considered synonymous with P. atriplicifolia .
= = = Phylogenetics = = =
Within the family Lamiaceae , the large genus Salvia had long been believed monophyletic , based on the structure of its stamina . Several smaller genera , including Dorystaechas , Perovskia , and Meriandra were also included in tribe Mentheae , but were thought more distantly related . In 2004 , a molecular phylogenetics study based on two cpDNA genes ( rbcL and trnL @-@ F ) demonstrated that Salvia is not monophyletic , but comprises three identifiable clades . Clade I is more closely related to Perovskia than to other members of Salvia .
P. atriplicifolia has been the subject of subsequent studies seeking to clarify the relationships within Mentheae . Further research combined palynological analysis of pollen grains with rbcL sequencing to provide additional support for the relationship between Perovskia and Salvia clade I. It also distinguished between P. atriplicifolia and P. abrotanoides , while confirming their close relationship . A subsequent multigene study ( four cpDNA markers and two nrDNA markers ) redrew parts of the Mentheae cladogram , making Rosmarinus a sister group to Perovskia .
= = = Cultivars = = =
Several cultivars of P. atriplicifolia have been developed . They are primarily distinguished by the height of mature plants and the depth of the leaf @-@ margin incisions . Many of these cultivars , especially those with deeply incised leaves , may actually be hybrids of P. atriplicifolia and P. abrotanoides . In that context , some may be referred to by the hybrid name P. × hybrida .
The most common cultivar , ' Blue Spire ' , is among those suspected of being a hybrid . It was selected from German plantings by the British Notcutts Nurseries , and first exhibited in 1961 . ' Blue Spire ' grows to approximately 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) , and has large , darker blue flowers . In 1993 , it received the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit .
'Filigran ' reaches a height of 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 ft 11 in to 4 ft 3 in ) ; this tall , sturdy cultivar 's name is German for filigree , in reference to its lacy , fern @-@ like foliage . ' Little Spire ' is shorter , with a mature height of only 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 ft 0 in ) . ' Longin ' is similar in height to ' Blue Spire ' but more upright . Allan Armitage established the late @-@ flowering cultivar ' Mystery of Knightshayes ' from a plant at Knightshayes Court . Other cultivars include ' Blue Haze ' , ' Blue Mist ' , ' Hybrida ' ( also called ' Superba ' ) , ' Lace ' , ' Lisslit ' , ' Rocketman ' , and ' WALPPB ' .
= = Description = =
Perovskia atriplicifolia is a deciduous perennial subshrub with an erect to spreading habit . Superficially , it resembles a much larger version of lavender . Multiple branches arise from a shared rootstalk , growing to a height of 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 2 m ( 1 ft 8 in – 3 ft 11 in ) , with occasional specimens reaching 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) . The mature plant may be 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 m across ( 2 ft 0 in – 3 ft 11 in ) . The rigid stems are square in cross @-@ section , and are covered by an indumentum formed by stellate , or star @-@ shaped , trichomes and oil droplets . Especially during autumn , these hairs give the stems a silvery appearance .
The grayish @-@ green leaves are arranged in opposite pairs , and attached to the stems by a short petiole . They are generally 3 – 5 cm long ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 @-@ inch ) and 0 @.@ 8 – 2 cm wide ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ) , although narrower in some populations . The overall leaf shape is oblate , a rounded shape longer than it is wide , to lanceolate , shaped like the head of a lance . They are pinnatipartite , with a deeply incised leaf margin that may be either wavy or sharp @-@ toothed ; even within a single community of P. atriplicifolia , there can be considerable variation in the details of leaf shape . Leaves near the top of branches may merge into bracts . The foliage is aromatic , especially when crushed , with a fragrance described as sage @-@ like , a blend of sage and lavender , or like turpentine .
The flowering season of P. atriplicifolia can be as long as June through October , although populations in some parts of its range , such as China , may bloom in a much more restricted period . The inflorescence is a showy panicle , 30 – 38 cm long ( 12 – 15 in ) , with many branches . Each of these branches is a raceme , with the individual flowers arranged in pairs called verticillasters . Each flower 's calyx is purple , densely covered in white or purple hairs , and about 4 mm long ( 0 @.@ 16 @-@ inch ) . The corolla is tube @-@ shaped , formed from a four @-@ lobed upper lip and a slightly shorter lower lip ; the blue or violet blue petals are about 1 cm long . The style has been reported in both an exserted — extending beyond the flower 's tube — form and one contained within the flower ; all known examples of P. atriplicifolia in cultivation have exserted styles . Gardening author Neil Soderstrom describes the appearance of the flowers from a distance as " like a fine haze or fog " .
Fruits develop about a month after flowering , and consist of dark brown oval nutlets , about 2 mm × 1 mm ( 2 ⁄ 25 by 1 ⁄ 25 inch ) .
= = = Similar species = = =
Nine species of Perovskia are recognized . P. abrotanoides shares much of the range of P. atriplicifolia , but is distinguished by its bipinnate leaves . Hybrids between these two species may occur naturally . Restricted to Turkestan in its native range , P. scrophularifolia is less upright ; some forms have white flowers . The flowers of P. scabiosifolia are yellow .
= = Distribution , habitat , and ecology = =
Widely distributed across Asia in its native range , Perovskia atriplicifolia grows in western China , Pakistan , Afghanistan , Iran , Turkey , and parts of eastern Europe . It is found in steppes and on hillsides , and grows at higher elevations in mountainous regions , including the Himalayas . It has been recorded at 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) of altitude in the Karakoram . In Pakistan 's Quetta district , it is often found in association with the grass Chrysopogon aucheri , and may serve as an indicator species for soils with low calcium carbonate and chloride availability . The harsh habitats preferred by P. atriplicifolia are comparable to the sagebrush steppe of North America .
In parts of its range , such as the Harboi , these steppe ecosystems are employed as rangeland for grazing animals such as sheep and goats , although this forage is generally of poor nutritional quality . P. atriplicifolia can serve as an important source of phosphorus and zinc , despite being high in poorly @-@ digested material such as neutral detergent fiber and lignin .
= = Cultivation = =
Following its introduction to the United Kingdom in 1904 , the Irish gardener and author William Robinson was immediately taken with the plant , which he described as being " worth a place in the choicest garden for its graceful habit and long season of beauty . " The Royal Horticultural Society records the establishment of cultivars beginning with P. ' Hybrida ' , selected at a Hampshire nursery in the 1930s . By the late 1980s and early 1990s , P. atriplicifolia had gained widespread popularity , and in 1995 , it was selected as the Perennial Plant Association 's Plant of the Year .
= = = Planting and care = = =
P. atriplicifolia is a perennial plant suitable for a wide range of conditions . The species prefers full sun . Specimens planted in partially shaded locations tend to spread or flop , although this behavior can be controlled somewhat by pinching young shoots or by providing a strong @-@ standing accompaniment that the plant can drape itself around for support . Flowers bloom only on new growth . Plants trimmed to 15 – 61 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 24 @.@ 0 in ) in early spring provide the best subsequent growth and flowering .
Tolerant of both heat and cold , it is grown in North America in United States Department of Agriculture hardiness zones three through nine , although some cultivars may be better suited than others to extremes of temperature . It is successfully grown from the southwestern United States , north and east across much of the country , and across the Canadian border into Ontario and Quebec . In the coldest of these areas , it may require considerable protection to survive the winter . In the United Kingdom , the Royal Horticultural Society has assigned it hardiness rating H4 , indicating that it tolerates temperatures as low as − 10 to − 5 ° C ( 14 to 23 ° F ) , hardy in most of the country through typical winters .
It also tolerates a variety of soil conditions . Although young specimens perform best when planted in a mixture of peat and either sand or perlite , P. atriplicifolia can thrive in sandy , chalky , or loamy soil , or heavy clay soil with sufficient drainage . It can endure a wide range of soil pH , as well as exposure to salty conditions near oceans . Its deep @-@ feeding taproot makes it especially drought tolerant ; for this reason it has seen wide use for xeriscaping in the Intermountain West . Overwatering and over @-@ fertilization can damage its roots and lead to a rapid decline in health . P. atriplicifolia is otherwise generally free from plant pathogens . In cultivation , it is also rarely selected as forage by grazing animals , and so is considered both a deer @-@ resistant and rabbit @-@ resistant plant .
= = = Landscaping = = =
Popular landscaping authors , including Gertrude Jekyll and Russell Page , have praised P. atriplicifolia for its usefulness in gardens and landscaping features . It is most commonly planted as an accent feature , such as an " island " in an expanse of lawn , but it can also be used as filler within a larger landscaping feature , or to enhance areas where the existing natural appearance is retained . Gardening author Troy Marden describes P. atriplicifolia as having a " see @-@ through " quality that is ideal for borders . Some experts suggest groups of three plants provide the best landscape appearance . It is also suitable for container gardening .
It attracts bees , birds , and butterflies , and contributes color to gardens — both the blue of its late @-@ season flowers , and the silvery colors of its winter stalks .
= = = Propagation = = =
P. atriplicifolia is frequently propagated by cuttings . Because its woody crown is resistant to division , softwood cuttings are taken from shoots near the base , generally in late spring . Hardwood cuttings selected in mid @-@ to @-@ late summer also provide a viable propagation technique . The plant is also grown from seed in cultivation . Such seeds require exposure to cold for 30 – 160 days to germinate , and seed @-@ raised specimens may not preserve the characteristics of named cultivars . In the commercial greenhouse or nursery setting , P. atriplicifolia 's relatively large size and rapid growth can adversely affect quality or make plants more difficult and expensive to transport ; the use of plant growth regulators such as chlormequat chloride and daminozide may be more cost @-@ effective than large @-@ scale pruning .
Some members of the Lamiaceae can spread unchecked and become invasive plants . Planting of P. atriplicifolia near wild lands has been discouraged by some gardening guides out of concern for its potential to spread , but it is not considered invasive , and has been suggested as a substitute for purple loosestrife for this reason .
= = Uses = =
Perovskia atriplicifolia has a long history of use in traditional medicine , especially as an antipyretic . It has also been employed as an antiparasitic and analgesic in Tibet , and smoked elsewhere as a euphoriant . In Balochistan , Pakistan , a decoction of the plant 's leaves and flowers has been considered an anti @-@ diabetic medication and a treatment for dysentery .
In addition to its use in folk medicine , P. atriplicifolia is sometimes used in Russia to flavor a vodka @-@ based cocktail . Its flowers are eaten in parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan , including Kashmir , adding a sweet flavor to salads ; they can also be crushed to yield a blue colorant that can be employed in cosmetics or as a textile dye . This species is considered a candidate for use in phytoremediation because of its rapid growth , tolerance for harsh conditions , and ability to accumulate toxic heavy metals from polluted soil .
= = = Phytochemistry = = =
Because of its extensive ethnomedical tradition , the phytochemistry of P. atriplicifolia has been the topic of several studies . Analysis of the plant 's essential oil has identified over two dozen compounds , although the compounds detected and their relative prevalence have not been consistent . Most analyses have identified various monoterpenes and monoterpenoids as the dominant components , such as carene , eucalyptol , limonene , γ @-@ terpinene , and ( + ) -β @-@ thujone , although the essential oil of a sample from the Orto Botanico dell 'Università di Torino had camphor as its most prevalent component . Other monoterpenes , camphene , α @-@ pinene , and β @-@ pinene are also present , as are sesquiterpenes such as γ @-@ cadinene , δ @-@ cadinene , trans @-@ caryophyllene , and α @-@ humulene . Several terpenoid alcohols — borneol , cedrol , and menthol — have been extracted from P. atriplicifolia , as have caffeic acid and ferulic acid . More complex compounds have been isolated , some of which were first identified in this manner , including perovskatone ; the glycosides atriplisides A and B ; and atricins A and B , a pair of triterpenes that are similar to oleanane .
The essential oil has displayed antimicrobial properties in vitro , and can function as a biopesticide , especially regarding Tropidion castaneum beetles and Camponotus maculatus carpenter ants . Several terpenoids isolated from P. atriplicifolia have been investigated for potential inhibitory effects on the hepatitis B virus . Its traditional use as an anti @-@ inflammatory has been attributed to the ability of the lignan ( + ) -taxiresinol and five other compounds to act as leukotriene antagonists . The isorinic acid derivative perovskoate may also contribute to an anti @-@ inflammatory effect as an arachidonate 5 @-@ lipoxygenase inhibitor . Interaction with opioid and cannabinoid receptors has been proposed as the mechanism of traditionally reported analgesic effects .
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= Lisa 's Pony =
" Lisa 's Pony " is the eighth episode of the third season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 7 , 1991 . In this episode , Homer goes drinking at Moe 's Tavern instead of buying a new reed for Lisa 's saxophone , resulting in her flopping at the school talent show . Desperate to win back his daughter 's love , Homer gives Lisa the one thing she has always wanted : a pony . Homer struggles with two jobs to cover the cost of sheltering and feeding the pony . Lisa , upon seeing what Homer must go through to pay for the pony , decides to give it away .
The episode was written by Al Jean and Mike Reiss , and directed by Carlos Baeza . Lunchlady Doris , a recurring character on The Simpsons , made her first appearance on the show in this episode . " Lisa 's Pony " features cultural references to films such as The Godfather and 2001 : A Space Odyssey and the comic strip Little Nemo in Slumberland . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 8 and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Lisa is participating in a school talent show and is in need of a new saxophone reed as the one she owns is broken . She calls Homer , who agrees to buy one before heading to the show . However , he decides to visit Moe 's Tavern first , and when he arrives at the music shop , it has closed down for the night . Dejected , Homer goes back to Moe 's where the music shop owner is enjoying a drink . Moe helps him convince the man to re @-@ open his store . Homer is happy that he remembered exactly which reed he needs to get ; however , he then forgets which instrument Lisa plays . After going through many of the instruments in the store , Homer finally remembers that Lisa plays the saxophone and rushes to the school . However , he is too late , arriving in time to hear Lisa humiliate herself by butchering the song she chose to play . After that , she wants nothing to do with Homer , refusing to forgive him . Going through family videos , Homer realizes the extent of how much she hates him for every time he has ignored her in the past because he was either too busy watching TV or dealing with Bart 's shenanigans .
Marge encourages Homer to mend his relationship with Lisa by spending time with her . This is unsuccessful , and Homer worries he 'll go fruity doing activities suited to little girls ( evident when Bart and Milhouse made him a laughingstock ) . He gets the idea to buy her the pony she 's always wanted . Marge is aghast and warns Homer against using the easy way out in purchasing a pony because they cannot afford it . He decides to purchase a pony regardless of Marge 's feelings . To afford the pony , he applies for a loan through the Power Plant Credit Union . Mr. Burns personally reviews the loan , and approves it only after determining that Homer does not intend to eat the pony and has no knowledge of the " state 's stringent usury laws . " Homer buys the pony ( named Princess ) for Lisa , who , after waking up to find it lying next to her ( in a parody of The Godfather ) , gallops into her parents ' bedroom happily telling Homer she loves him . While he is happy that Lisa is no longer angry with him , Homer faces an enraged Marge and she berates him for making such an extravagant purchase even after she warned him against it . Bart is also disappointed with Homer and demands a moped . He is quickly silenced by Homer for it .
In order to pay the rent for Princess 's shelter , Homer takes a second job working for Apu at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart . Homer becomes extremely exhausted after trying to work both jobs . Finally , Marge admits to the children that their father has been working two jobs to pay for the pony . Lisa is expecting Marge to say she must give up the pony , especially when Bart aggressively says he can make her do so . But Marge firmly rebukes Bart , explaining that it 's something Lisa needs to decide for herself . After watching a meek , sleep @-@ deprived Homer being bullied by his own son at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , Lisa agrees to give up the pony , and she shares a heart @-@ breaking goodbye with Princess . Lisa tells Homer that there is a " big dumb animal " she loves even more than her horse : that being Homer himself . Homer happily quits his job , much to Apu 's dismay and yet admits he was one of his better workers despite his crude nature .
= = Production = =
" Lisa 's Pony " was written by Al Jean and Mike Reiss , who were show runners of The Simpsons when the episode was produced . According to Reiss , being a show runner is a stressful job as he has to supervise all the processes the episodes go through . Jean and Reiss were working approximately 80 – 100 hours a week when they were assigned to write an episode on top of their regular job . " Lisa 's Pony " was written between 10 @.@ 00 p.m. and 1 @.@ 00 a.m. every night after they had finished their 12- to 14 @-@ hour workday . They came up with idea for it while going through a list of Lisa 's interests , and Jean told Reiss , " Lisa likes ponies ; we [ should ] give her a pony . " While writing down ideas for the story , they decided to explore the consequences of having a pony in a suburban house .
Carlos Baeza served as animation director for the episode . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening said animating horses is " the most difficult thing to do . " The animators used Eadweard Muybridge 's famous animation of a horse galloping and other photo references as models for Princess . In the talent show scene , Lisa is lit up by a spotlight when she performs with her saxophone . After the episode came back from the animation studio in Korea , the staff noticed that the light was colored blue , making Lisa look like " a Smurf . " The scene had to be re @-@ animated in the United States , and the spotlight effect was reduced .
The woman who sells the pony to Homer is based on actress Katharine Hepburn . Cast member Tress MacNeille provided the voice for the character . Lunchlady Doris , a recurring character on The Simpsons , made her first appearance on the show in this episode as one of the judges in the talent show . She was voiced by the show 's script supervisor Doris Grau , who had a " beautiful , tobacco @-@ cured voice " the staff thought was perfect for the role . Following Grau 's death in 1995 , the characters she voiced were retired out of respect , with the exception of Lunchlady Doris who stayed on the show without speaking roles .
= = Cultural references = =
The beginning of the episode , in which Homer has a dream of himself as an ape , is a reference to the Dawn of Man sequence from the 1968 science @-@ fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey . The Simpsons director David Silverman had difficulties with making the ape resemble Homer and struggled with the design for several hours . After hurting Lisa 's feelings at talent show , Homer watches old home movies of him and Lisa , including one in which a young Homer is seen watching Fantasy Island on television instead of paying attention to Lisa 's taking her first steps . The scene in which Lisa wakes up in her bed and discovers the pony lying next to her is a reference to a scene in the 1972 film The Godfather , in which a character awakens to discover the severed head of his favorite horse placed in his bed . The musical chords used in the episode are the same as in the film but shortened . While driving home from the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , Homer falls asleep behind the wheel and dreams that he is in Slumberland , drawn in the style of Winsor McCay 's Little Nemo in Slumberland . The song " Golden Slumbers " by The Beatles plays during the sequence .
One of the children at the talent show performs the song " My Ding @-@ a @-@ Ling " by Chuck Berry . According to Jean , it was a " huge difficulty " to clear the rights for the song so that it could be used on the show . John Boylan , who produced the album The Simpsons Sing the Blues , personally appealed to Berry to clear the song for them . The lyrics to " My Ding @-@ a @-@ Ling " , with their sly tone and innuendo , caused many radio stations to ban the song . This is parodied in the episode when Principal Skinner rushes the child off the stage before he is able to finish the first line of the refrain . The man who owns the music shop Homer visits is based on actor Wally Cox .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Lisa 's Pony " finished 35th in the ratings for the week of November 4 – 10 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 12 @.@ 7 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . " Lisa 's Pony " was released with the episode " Treehouse of Horror II " on a Video Home System ( VHS ) collection in 1999 , called Best of the Simpsons . Homer 's voice actor , Dan Castellaneta , received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 for his performance in the episode .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called the episode " good stuff " and praised the " nice flashbacks to Lisa as a baby . " Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict said " Lisa 's Pony " is a " priceless part " of the show because of its " meshing of old storylines with new experiences , combined with some of the best jokes in the series . " Gibron gave the episode a perfect score of 100 . Cinema Blend 's Bryce Wilson called " Lisa 's Pony " one of the best Lisa episodes , and added that the only words to describe it are " funny as hell . " Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a 5 / 5 rating , praising it for its references to The Godfather and 2001 : A Space Odyssey that " film buffs will find uproarious . " Meyers added that Homer and Lisa 's relationship is " the heart of the episode , showing Homer to be more than just a brute . " The episode 's reference to The Godfather was named the seventh greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum . The Star @-@ Ledger named this episode 's reference to 2001 : A Space Odyssey one of their favorite references to Stanley Kubrick on The Simpsons .
Niel Harvey of The Roanoke Times called the episode a " classic bit of Simpsonia , " and The Baltimore Sun 's Kevin Valkenburg named it one of the " truly classic " The Simpsons episodes . The Guardian 's David Eklid said episodes such as " Lisa 's Pony " and " Stark Raving Dad " make season three " pretty much [ the ] best season of any television show , ever . " In addition , Molly Griffin of The Observer commented that " Lisa 's Pony " is one of the season three episodes that " make the show into the cultural force it is today . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson , however , gave the episode a less positive review , commenting that episodes " in which Homer has to redeem himself to others aren 't a rarity , and ' Lisa 's Pony ' falls in the middle of that genre 's pack . Homer 's escapades at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart definitely add life to the proceedings , and some of his other antics make the show good . I like ' Lisa 's Pony ' but don 't consider it to offer a great program . "
According to Greg Suarez of The Digital Bits , " Lisa 's Pony " is considered a fan favorite . In a list of the show 's top 10 episodes , compiled by the webmaster of the fan site The Simpsons Archive and published by USA Today , this episode was listed in seventh place . Paul Cantor , a professor of English at the University of Virginia , utilized " Lisa 's Pony " as an example that The Simpsons does not promote negative morals and values , which some critics have criticized the show for .
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= Battle of Austerlitz =
The Battle of Austerlitz ( 2 December 1805 / 11 Frimaire An XIV FRC ) , also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors , was one of the most important and decisive engagements of the Napoleonic Wars . In what is widely regarded as the greatest victory achieved by Napoleon , the Grande Armée of France defeated a larger Russian and Austrian army led by Tsar Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II . The battle occurred near the village of Austerlitz in the Austrian Empire ( modern @-@ day Slavkov u Brna in the Czech Republic ) . Because of the near @-@ perfect execution of a calibrated but dangerous plan , the battle is seen as a tactical masterpiece of the same stature as Cannae , the celebrated triumph by Hannibal some 2 @,@ 000 years before . Austerlitz brought the War of the Third Coalition to a rapid end , with the Treaty of Pressburg signed by the Austrians later in the month .
After eliminating an Austrian army during the Ulm Campaign , French forces managed to capture Vienna in November 1805 . The Austrians avoided further conflict until the arrival of the Russians bolstered Allied numbers . Napoleon sent his army north in pursuit of the Allies , but then ordered his forces to retreat so he could feign a grave weakness . Desperate to lure the Allies into battle , Napoleon gave every indication in the days preceding the engagement that the French army was in a pitiful state , even abandoning the dominant Pratzen Heights near Austerlitz . He deployed the French army below the Pratzen Heights and deliberately weakened his right flank , enticing the Allies to launch a major assault there in the hopes of rolling up the whole French line . A forced march from Vienna by Marshal Davout and his III Corps plugged the gap left by Napoleon just in time . Meanwhile , the heavy Allied deployment against the French right weakened their center on the Pratzen Heights , which was viciously attacked by the IV Corps of Marshal Soult . With the Allied center demolished , the French swept through both enemy flanks and sent the Allies fleeing chaotically , capturing thousands of prisoners in the process .
The Allied disaster significantly shook the faith of Emperor Francis in the British @-@ led war effort . France and Austria agreed to an armistice immediately and the Treaty of Pressburg followed shortly after , on 26 December . Pressburg took Austria out of both the war and the Coalition while reinforcing the earlier treaties of Campo Formio and of Lunéville between the two powers . The treaty confirmed the Austrian loss of lands in Italy and Bavaria to France , and in Germany to Napoleon 's German allies . It also imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs on the defeated Habsburgs and allowed the fleeing Russian troops free passage through hostile territories and back to their home soil . Critically , victory at Austerlitz permitted the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine , a collection of German states intended as a buffer zone between France and Central Europe . The Confederation rendered the Holy Roman Empire virtually useless , so the latter collapsed in 1806 after Francis abdicated the imperial throne , keeping Francis I of Austria as his only official title . These achievements , however , did not establish a lasting peace on the continent . Prussian worries about growing French influence in Central Europe sparked the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806 .
= = Prologue = =
Europe had been in turmoil since the start of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792 . In 1797 , after five years of war , the French Republic subdued the First Coalition , an alliance of Austria , Prussia , Great Britain , Spain , and various Italian states . A Second Coalition , led by Britain , Austria and Russia , and including the Ottoman Empire , Portugal and Naples , was formed in 1798 , but by 1801 , this too had been defeated , leaving Britain the only opponent of the new French Consulate . In March 1802 , France and Britain agreed to end hostilities under the Treaty of Amiens . For the first time in ten years , all of Europe was at peace .
But many problems persisted between the two sides , making implementation of the treaty increasingly difficult . The British government resented having to return the Cape Colony and most of the Dutch West Indian islands to the Batavian Republic . Napoleon was angry that British troops had not evacuated the island of Malta . The tense situation only worsened when Napoleon sent an expeditionary force to crush the Haitian Revolution . In May 1803 , Britain declared war on France .
= = = Third Coalition = = =
In December 1804 , an Anglo @-@ Swedish agreement led to the creation of the Third Coalition . British Prime Minister William Pitt spent 1804 and 1805 in a flurry of diplomatic activity geared towards forming a new coalition against France , and by April 1805 , Britain and Russia had signed an alliance . Having been defeated twice in recent memory by France , and being keen on revenge , Austria joined the coalition a few months later .
= = Forces = =
= = = French Imperial army = = =
Before the formation of the Third Coalition , Napoleon had assembled an invasion force , called the Armée d 'Angleterre ( Army of England ) around six camps at Boulogne in Northern France . He intended to use this invasion force to strike at England , and was so confident of success that he had commemorative medals struck to celebrate the conquest of the English . Although they never invaded , Napoleon 's troops received careful and invaluable training for any possible military operation . Boredom among the troops occasionally set in , but Napoleon paid many visits and conducted lavish parades in order to boost morale .
The men at Boulogne formed the core for what Napoleon would later call La Grande Armée . At the start , this French army had about 200 @,@ 000 men organized into seven corps , which were large field units that contained 36 to 40 cannon each and were capable of independent action until other corps could come to the rescue . A single corps ( properly situated in a strong defensive position ) could survive at least a day without support , giving the Grande Armée countless strategic and tactical options on every campaign .
In addition to these forces , Napoleon created a cavalry reserve of 22 @,@ 000 organized into two cuirassier divisions , four mounted dragoon divisions , one division of dismounted dragoons and one of light cavalry , all supported by 24 artillery pieces . By 1805 , the Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350 @,@ 000 men , who were well equipped , well trained , and led by competent officers .
= = = Russian Imperial army = = =
The Russian army in 1805 had many characteristics of Ancien Régime organization . There was no permanent formation above the regimental level , and senior officers were mostly recruited from aristocratic circles ; commissions were generally given to the highest bidder , regardless of competence . The Russian infantry was considered one of the most efficient in Europe , however , and there was fine Russian artillery manned by soldiers who regularly fought hard to prevent their pieces from falling into enemy hands .
= = = Austrian Imperial army = = =
Archduke Charles , brother of the Austrian Emperor , had started to reform the Austrian army in 1801 by taking away power from the Hofkriegsrat , the military @-@ political council responsible for the armed forces . Charles was Austria 's best field commander , but he was unpopular at court and lost much influence when , against his advice , Austria decided to go to war with France . Karl Mack became the new main commander in Austria 's army , instituting reforms on the eve of the war that called for a regiment to be composed of four battalions of four companies , rather than three battalions of six companies . Austrian cavalry was considered the best in Europe , and one of the best of the time anywhere .
= = Preliminary moves = =
In August 1805 , Napoleon , Emperor of the French since December of the previous year , turned his sights from the English Channel to the Rhine in order to deal with the new Austrian and Russian threats . On 25 September after a feverish march in great secrecy , 200 @,@ 000 French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 260 km ( 160 mi ) . Mack had gathered the greater part of the Austrian army at the fortress of Ulm in Swabia ( modern day southern Germany ) .
Napoleon swung his forces southward in a wheeling movement that put the French at the Austrian rear . The Ulm Maneuver was well @-@ executed and on 20 October Mack and 23 @,@ 000 Austrian troops surrendered at Ulm , bringing the number of Austrian prisoners of the campaign to 60 @,@ 000 . Although this spectacular victory was soured by the defeat of the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar the following day , French success on land continued as Vienna fell in November . The French gained 100 @,@ 000 muskets , 500 cannon , and intact bridges across the Danube .
Meanwhile , Russian delays prevented them from saving the Austrian armies ; the Russians then withdrew to the northeast , to await reinforcements and link up with surviving Austrian units . Tsar Alexander I appointed general Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the combined Russo @-@ Austrian force . On 9 September 1805 , Kutuzov arrived at the battlefield , quickly contacting Francis I of Austria and his courtiers to discuss strategy and logistics . Under pressure from Kutuzov , the Austrians agreed to supply munitions and weapons in a timely manner . Kutuzov also spotted shortcomings in the Austrian defense plan , which he called " very dogmatic . " He objected to Austrian annexation of the land recently under Napoleon 's control , because this would make the local people distrust the allied force .
The French followed after Kutuzov , but soon found themselves in a difficult position . Prussian intentions were unknown and could be hostile , the Russian and Austrian armies had converged , and French lines of communication were extremely long , requiring strong garrisons to keep them open . Napoleon realized that to capitalize on the success at Ulm , he had to force the Allies to battle and defeat them .
On the Russian side , Kutuzov also realized Napoleon needed to do battle ; so instead of clinging to the " suicidal " Austrian defense plan , Kutuzov decided to retreat . He ordered Pyotr Bagration to contain the French at Vienna with 600 soldiers , and instructed Bagration to accept Murat 's ceasefire proposal so that the Allied Army could have more time to retreat . It was later discovered that the proposal was false and had been used in order to launch a surprise attack on Vienna . Nonetheless , Bagration was able to hold off the French assault for a time by negotiating an armistice with Murat , thereby providing Kutuzov time to position himself with the Russian rearguard near Hollabrunn .
Murat initially refrained from an attack , believing the entire Russian army stood before him . Napoleon soon realized Murat 's mistakes and ordered him to pursue quickly ; but the allied army had already retreated to Olmutz . According to Kutuzov 's plan , the Allies would retreat further to the Carpathian region and " at Galicia , I will bury the French . "
Napoleon did not stay still . The French Emperor decided to set a psychological trap in order to lure the Allies out . Days before any fighting , Napoleon had been giving the impression that his army was weak and that he desired a negotiated peace . About 53 @,@ 000 French troops — including Soult , Lannes and Murat 's forces — were assigned to take Austerlitz and the Olmutz road , occupying the enemy 's attention . The Allied forces , numbering about 89 @,@ 000 , seemed far superior and would be tempted to attack the outnumbered French army . However , the Allies did not know that Bernadotte , Mortier and Davout were already within the supported distance , and could be called in by forced marches from Iglau and Vienna respectively , raising the French number to 75 @,@ 000 troops .
Napoleon 's lure did not stop at that . On 25 November , General Savary was sent to the Allied headquarters at Olmutz to deliver Napoleon 's message expressing his desire to avoid a battle , while secretly examining the Allied forces ' situation . As expected , the overture was seen as a sign of weakness . When Francis I offered an armistice on the 27th , Napoleon accepted enthusiastically . On the same day , Napoleon ordered Soult to abandon both Austerlitz and the Pratzen Heights and , while doing so , to create an impression of chaos during the retreat that would induce the enemy to occupy the Heights .
The next day ( 28 November ) , the French Emperor requested a personal interview with Alexander I and received a visit from the Tsar 's most impetuous aide , Count Dolgorouki . The meeting was another part of the trap , as Napoleon intentionally expressed anxiety and hesitation to his opponents . Dolgorouki reported to the Tsar an additional indication of French weakness .
The plan was successful . Many of the Allied officers , including the Tsar 's aides and the Austrian Chief of Staff Franz von Weyrother , strongly supported an immediate attack and appeared to sway Tsar Alexander . Kutuzov 's plan to retreat further to the Carpathian region was rejected , and the Allied forces soon fell into Napoleon 's trap .
= = Battle = =
The battle began with the French army outnumbered . Napoleon had some 72 @,@ 000 men and 157 guns for the impending battle , with about 7 @,@ 000 troops under Davout still far to the south in the direction of Vienna . The Allies had about 85 @,@ 000 soldiers , seventy percent of them Russian , and 318 guns .
At first , Napoleon was not totally confident of victory . In a letter written to Minister of Foreign Affairs Talleyrand , Napoleon requested Talleyrand not tell anyone about the upcoming battle because he did not want to disturb Empress Joséphine . According to Frederick C. Schneid , the French Emperor 's chief worry was how he could explain to Joséphine a French defeat .
= = = Battlefield = = =
The battle took place about six miles ( ten kilometers ) southeast of the town of Brno , between that town and Austerlitz ( Czech : Slavkov u Brna ) in what is now the Czech Republic . The northern part of the battlefield was dominated by the 700 @-@ foot ( 210 @-@ meter ) Santon Hill and the 880 @-@ foot ( 270 @-@ meter ) Zuran ( Žuráň ) Hill , both overlooking the vital Olomouc / Brno road , which was on an east / west axis . To the west of these two hills was the village of Bellowitz ( Bedřichovice ) , and between them the Bosenitz ( Roketnice ) stream went south to link up with the Goldbach ( Říčka ) stream , the latter flowing by the villages of Kobelnitz ( Kobylnice ) , Sokolnitz ( Sokolnice ) , and Telnitz ( Telnice ) .
The centerpiece of the entire area was the Pratzen ( Prace ) Heights , a gently sloping hill about 35 to 40 feet ( 10 to 12 meters ) in height . An aide noted that Napoleon repeatedly told his marshals , " Gentlemen , examine this ground carefully , it is going to be a battlefield ; you will have a part to play upon it . "
= = = Allied plans and dispositions = = =
An Allied council met on 1 December to discuss proposals for the battle . Most of the Allied strategists had two fundamental ideas in mind : making contact with the enemy and securing the southern flank that held the communication line to Vienna . Although the Tsar and his immediate entourage pushed hard for a battle , Emperor Francis of Austria was more cautious and , as mentioned , he was seconded by Kutuzov , the Commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Russians and the Allied troops . The pressure to fight from the Russian nobles and the Austrian commanders , however , was too strong , and the Allies adopted the plan of the Austrian Chief @-@ of @-@ Staff , Franz von Weyrother . This called for a main drive against the French right flank , which the Allies noticed was lightly guarded , and diversionary attacks against the French left . The Allies deployed most of their troops into four columns that would attack the French right . The Russian Imperial Guard was held in reserve while Russian troops under Bagration guarded the Allied right . The Russian Tsar rudely stripped the authority of Commander @-@ in @-@ chief M. I. Kutuzov and gave it to Franz von Weyrother . In the battle , Kutuzov could only command the IV Corps of the Allied army , although he was still the de jure commander because the Tsar was afraid to take over in case his favoured plan failed .
= = = French plans and dispositions = = =
Napoleon was hoping that the Allied forces would attack , and to encourage them , he deliberately weakened his right flank . On 28 November Napoleon met with his marshals at Imperial Headquarters , who informed him of their qualms about the forthcoming battle . He shrugged off their suggestion of retreat .
Napoleon 's plan envisioned that the Allies would throw many troops to envelop his right flank in order to cut the French communication line from Vienna . As a result , the Allies ' center and left flank would be exposed and become vulnerable . To encourage them to do so , Napoleon abandoned the strategic position on the Pratzen Heights , faking the weakness of his forces and his own caution . Meanwhile , Napoleon 's main force was to be concealed in a dead ground opposite the Heights . According to the plan , the French troops would attack and recapture the Pratzen Heights , then from the Heights they would launch a decisive assault to the center of the Allied army , cripple them , and encircle them from the rear .
If the Russian force leaves the Pratzen Heights in order to go to the right side , they will certainly be defeated .
The massive thrust through the Allied center was conducted by 16 @,@ 000 troops of Soult 's IV Corps . IV Corps ' position was cloaked by dense mist during the early stage of the battle ; in fact how long the mist lasted was vital to Napoleon 's plan : Soult 's troops would become uncovered if the mist dissipated too soon , but if it lingered too long , Napoleon would be unable to determine when the Allied troops had evacuated Pratzen Heights , preventing him from timing his attack properly .
Meanwhile , to support his weak right flank , Napoleon ordered Davout 's III Corps to force march all the way from Vienna and join General Legrand 's men , who held the extreme southern flank that would bear the heaviest part of the Allied attack . Davout 's soldiers had 48 hours to march 110 km ( 68 mi ) . Their arrival was crucial in determining the success of the French plan . Indeed , the arrangement of Napoleon on the right flank was very risky as the French had only minimal troops garrisoning there . However , Napoleon was able to use such a risky plan because Davout — the commander of III Corps — was one of Napoleon 's best marshals , because the right flank 's position was protected by a complicated system of streams and lakes , and because the French had already settled upon a secondary line of retreat through Brunn . The Imperial Guard and Bernadotte 's I Corps were held in reserve while the V Corps under Lannes guarded the northern sector of the battlefield , where the new communication line was located .
By 1 December 1805 , the French troops had been shifted in accordance with the Allied movement southward , as Napoleon expected .
= = = Battle is joined = = =
The battle began at about 8 a.m. with the first allied column attacking the village of Telnitz , which was defended by the 3rd Line Regiment . This sector of the battlefield witnessed heavy fighting in this early action as several ferocious Allied charges evicted the French from the town and forced them onto the other side of the Goldbach . The first men of Davout 's corps arrived at this time and threw the Allies out of Telnitz before they too were attacked by hussars and reabandoned the town . Additional Allied attacks out of Telnitz were checked by French artillery .
Allied columns started pouring against the French right , but not at the desired speed , so the French were mostly successful in curbing the attacks . Actually , the Allied deployments were mistaken and poorly timed : cavalry detachments under Liechtenstein on the Allied left flank had to be placed in the right flank and in the process they ran into and slowed down part of the second column of infantry that was advancing towards the French right . At the time , the planners thought this slowing was disastrous , but later on it helped the Allies . Meanwhile , the leading elements of the second column were attacking the village of Sokolnitz , which was defended by the 26th Light Regiment and the Tirailleurs , French skirmishers . Initial Allied assaults proved unsuccessful and General Langeron ordered the bombardment of the village . This deadly barrage forced the French out , and at about the same time , the third column attacked the castle of Sokolnitz . The French , however , counterattacked and regained the village , only to be thrown out again . Conflict in this area ended temporarily when Friant 's division ( part of III Corps ) retook the village . Sokolnitz was perhaps the most fought over area in the battlefield and would change hands several times as the day progressed .
While the allied troops attacked the French right flank , Kutuzov 's IV Corp stopped at the Pratzen Heights and stayed still . Just like Napoleon , Kutuzov realized the importance of Pratzen and decided to protect the position . But the young Tsar did not , so he expelled the IV Corp from the Heights . This act quickly pushed the Allied army into her grave .
= = = " One sharp blow and the war is over " = = =
At about 8 : 45 a.m. , satisfied at the weakness in the enemy center , Napoleon asked Soult how long it would take for his men to reach the Pratzen Heights , to which the Marshal replied , " Less than twenty minutes , sire . " About 15 minutes later , Napoleon ordered the attack , adding , " One sharp blow and the war is over . "
A dense fog helped to cloud the advance of St. Hilaire 's French division , but as they went up the slope the legendary ' Sun of Austerlitz ' ripped the mist apart and encouraged them forward . Russian soldiers and commanders on top of the heights were stunned to see so many French troops coming towards them . Allied commanders moved some of the delayed detachments of the fourth column into this bitter struggle . Over an hour of fighting destroyed much of this unit . The other men from the second column , mostly inexperienced Austrians , also participated in the struggle and swung the numbers against one of the best fighting forces in the French army , eventually forcing them to withdraw down the slopes . However , gripped by desperation , St. Hilaire 's men struck hard once more and bayoneted the Allies out of the heights . To the north , General Vandamme 's division attacked an area called Staré Vinohrady ( " Old Vineyards " ) and , through talented skirmishing and deadly volleys , broke several Allied battalions .
The battle had firmly turned in France 's favour , but it was far from over . Napoleon ordered Bernadotte 's I Corps to support Vandamme 's left and moved his own command center from Žuráň Hill to St. Anthony 's Chapel on the Pratzen Heights . The difficult position of the Allies was confirmed by the decision to send in the Russian Imperial Guard ; Grand Duke Constantine , Tsar Alexander 's brother , commanded the Guard and counterattacked in Vandamme 's section of the field , forcing a bloody effort and the only loss of a French standard in the battle ( a battalion of the 4th Line Regiment was defeated ) . Sensing trouble , Napoleon ordered his own heavy Guard cavalry forward . These men pulverized their Russian counterparts , but with both sides pouring in large masses of cavalry , no victory was clear .
The Russians had a numerical advantage but soon the tide swung as Drouet 's Division , the 2nd of Bernadotte 's I Corps , deployed on the flank of the action and allowed French cavalry to seek refuge behind their lines . The horse artillery of the Guard also inflicted heavy casualties on the Russian cavalry and fusiliers . The Russians broke and many died as they were pursued by the reinvigorated French cavalry for about a quarter of a mile . The casualties of the Russians in Pratzen included Kutuzov ( severely wounded ) and his son @-@ in @-@ law Ferdinand von Tiesenhausen ( KIA ) .
= = = Endgame = = =
I was ... under fierce and continuous canister fire ... Many soldiers , now incessantly engaged in battle from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m. , had no cartridges left . I could do nothing but retreat ...
Meanwhile , the northernmost part of the battlefield was also witnessing heavy fighting . Prince Liechtenstein 's heavy cavalry began to assault Kellerman 's lighter cavalry forces after eventually arriving at the correct position in the field . The fighting initially went well for the French , but Kellerman 's forces took cover behind General Caffarelli 's infantry division once it became clear Russian numbers were too great . Caffarelli 's men halted the Russian assaults and permitted Murat to send two cuirassier divisions ( one commanded by d 'Hautpoul and the other one by Nansouty ) into the fray to finish off the Russian cavalry for good . The ensuing mêlée was bitter and long , but the French ultimately prevailed . Lannes then led his V Corps against Bagration 's men and after hard fighting managed to drive the skilled Russian commander off the field . He wanted to pursue , but Murat , who was in control of this sector in the battlefield , was against the idea .
Napoleon 's focus now shifted towards the southern end of the battlefield where the French and the Allies were still fighting over Sokolnitz and Telnitz . In an effective double @-@ pronged assault , St. Hilaire 's division and part of Davout 's III Corps smashed through the enemy at Sokolnitz and persuaded the commanders of the first two columns , Generals Kienmayer and Langeron , to flee as fast as they could . Buxhowden , the commander of the Allied left and the man responsible for leading the attack , was completely drunk and fled as well . Kienmayer covered his withdrawal with the O 'Reilly light cavalry , who gallantly managed to defeat five of six French cavalry regiments before they too had to retreat .
General panic now seized the Allied army and it abandoned the field in all possible directions . A famous episode occurred during this retreat : Russian forces that had been defeated by the French right withdrew south towards Vienna via the Satschan frozen ponds . French artillery pounded towards the men , and the ice was broken due to the bombardment . The men drowned in the cold ponds , dozens of Russian artillery pieces going down with them . Estimates of how many guns were captured differ : there may have been as few as 38 or more than 100 . Sources also differ about casualties , with figures ranging between 200 and 2 @,@ 000 dead . Many drowning Russians were saved by their victorious foes . However , local evidence , only later made public , suggests that Napoleon 's account of the catastrophe may have been totally invented ; on his instructions the lakes were drained a few days after the battle and the corpses of only two or three men , with some 150 horses , were found .
= = Military and political results = =
Allied casualties stood at about 36 @,@ 000 out of an army of 85 @,@ 000 , which represented about 40 % of their effective forces . The French lost around 9 @,@ 000 out of an army of 73 @,@ 000 , or about 12 % of their forces . The Allies also lost some 180 guns and about 50 standards . The great victory was met by sheer amazement and delirium in Paris , where just days earlier the nation had been teetering on the brink of financial collapse . Napoleon wrote to Josephine , " I have beaten the Austro @-@ Russian army commanded by the two emperors . I am a little weary .... I embrace you . " Tsar Alexander perhaps best summed up the harsh times for the Allies by stating , " We are babies in the hands of a giant . " The Holy Roman Emperor Francis II is remembered to have said after the allied defeat in the Battle of Austerlitz : " The British are dealers of human flesh . They pay others to fight in their place . "
After hearing the news of Austerlitz William Pitt referred to a map of Europe , " Roll up that map ; it will not be wanted these ten years . "
France and Austria signed a truce on 4 December and the Treaty of Pressburg 22 days later took the latter out of the war . Austria agreed to recognize French territory captured by the treaties of Campo Formio ( 1797 ) and Lunéville ( 1801 ) , cede land to Bavaria , Wurttemberg , and Baden , which were Napoleon 's German allies , and pay 40 million francs in war indemnities , and Venice was given to the Kingdom of Italy . It was a harsh end for Austria , but certainly not a catastrophic peace . The Russian army was allowed to withdraw to home territory and the French ensconced themselves in Southern Germany . The Holy Roman Empire was effectively wiped out , 1806 being seen as its final year . Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine , a string of German states meant to serve as a buffer between France and Prussia . Prussia saw these and other moves as an affront to its status as the main power of Central Europe and it went to war with France in 1806 .
= = Rewards = =
Napoleon 's words to his troops after the battle were full of praise : Soldats ! Je suis content de vous ( English : Soldiers ! I am pleased with you ) . The Emperor provided two million golden francs to the higher officers and 200 francs to each soldier , with large pensions for the widows of the fallen . Orphaned children were adopted by Napoleon personally and were allowed to add " Napoleon " to their baptismal and family names . This battle is one of four that Napoleon never awarded a victory title , the others being Marengo , Jena , and Friedland .
= = Popular conceptions = =
Artists and musicians on the side of France and her conquests expressed their sentiment in populist and elite art of the time . Prussian music critic E.T.A. Hoffmann , in his famous review of Beethoven 's 5th Symphony , " singles out for special abuse a certain Bataille des trois Empereurs , a French battle symphony by Louis Jadin celebrating Napoleon 's victory at Austerlitz . "
= = Historical views = =
Napoleon did not succeed in defeating the Allied army as thoroughly as he wanted , but historians and enthusiasts alike recognize that the original plan provided a significant victory , comparable to other great tactical battles such as Cannae . Some historians suggest that Napoleon was so successful at Austerlitz that he lost touch with reality , and what used to be French foreign policy became a " personal Napoleonic one " after the battle . In French history , Austerlitz is acknowledged as an impressive military victory , and in the 19th century , when fascination with the First Empire was at its height , the battle was revered by the likes of Victor Hugo , who " in the depth of [ his ] thoughts " was hearing the " noise of the heavy cannon rolling towards Austerlitz . " In the 2005 bicentennial , however , controversy erupted when neither French President Jacques Chirac nor Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin attended any functions commemorating the battle . On the other hand , some residents of France 's overseas departments protested against what they viewed as the " official commemoration of Napoleon , " arguing that Austerlitz should not be celebrated since they believed that Napoleon committed genocide against colonial people .
After the battle , Tsar Alexander I laid all the blame on M. I. Kutuzov , Commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Allied Army . However , it is clear that Kutuzov 's plan was to retreat farther to the rear where the Allied Army had a sharp advantage in logistics . Had the Allied Army retreated further , they might have been reinforced by Archduke Charles 's troops from Italy , and the Prussians might have joined the coalition against Napoleon . A French army at the end of her supply lines , in a place which had no food supplies , might have faced a very different ending from the one they achieved at the real battle of Austerlitz . This essentially was Kutuzov 's successful strategy in 1812 , after the Battle of Borodino .
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= Baseball and Bloomers =
Baseball and Bloomers , also known as Baseball in Bloomers , is a 1911 American silent short sports film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film stars William Garwood and is the debut of Marguerite Snow . The film focuses on a female seminary which organizes a baseball club and challenges another school to a game . The boys accept to the game with amusement and find that the women are not good at baseball . Two Harvard University baseball stars join the ranks of the girls in disguise and defeat the boys team . The script may have been written by Lloyd Lonergan and the film may have been directed by Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . The film was released on January 6 , 1911 and it received positive reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from January 7 , 1911 . It states , " Miss Street 's Seminary for Girls has a very ambitious class of pupils . The young athletes , not content with basketball and tennis , aspire to shine in the great American game , and organize a baseball club . They are so satisfied with themselves that they finally send a challenge to Adair College , which has a crowd of husky young athletes in a club that thinks it amounts to something . When the challenge is received , the boys are first angry , then amused . They decide to accept it , to have fun with the girls . The young women , after some practice , realize that their team , while it may be pretty to look at , is of little real use on the diamond . And the prospect makes them weep . Fortunately for the girls , Jack , the brother of the president , arrives from Harvard . His chum , Jim , is with him . These two young men are baseball stars themselves , and when they are told of the predicament of the girls , they goodnaturedly offer to help them out . The university men disguise themselves as girls , act as battery for the young women , and the college boys , who had looked for a laughable victory , are mowed down , inning after inning , because of the work of pitcher Jack and catcher Jim . The other members of the ' girl ' team have nothing to do except look pretty . When the boy athletes have retired from the field vanquished , the girls reward their battery with one kiss - only one - from each of the other seven players . "
= = Cast = =
William Garwood
Marguerite Snow
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions though cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Alfred H. Moses , Jr. and Carl Louis Gregory . The other cast credits are unknown , but many Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , and Mrs. George Walters .
This film is important for being the debut of Marguerite Snow , who would become one of the most important actresses for the company . In an interview by Johnson Briscoe , Snow said that her career as an actress was an accidental one . A girl friend of hers suggested she come to the studio to see how motion pictures are made . There at the studio , Edwin Thanhouser asked her if she wanted to be in the film . Snow accepted and she took part in the production until the director asked them to go outside to shoot another scene . Snow then protested about going outside in such a costume and in winter and proceeded home . A week later she received a phone call and ended up working for six more months before temporarily returning to the stage . Another baseball related film would be released later that year by the Thanhouser Company , The Baseball Bug .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel comedy , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on January 6 , 1911 . The film had a wide national release ; advertising theaters are known in Indiana , North Carolina , South Dakota , Iowa , Pennsylvania , and Texas . In Arizona , the film would be advertised by one theatre as Baseball Bloomers and it appears to also have been the case in another Kansas theater . The film would also be shown in Hawaii in August 1912 .
The New York Dramatic Mirror gave a brief summary and review of the film and gave minor praise for the production . The reviewer wrote , " The details of this comedy are well worked out , and it is good for a portion of genuine laughs . The girls of Miss Street 's Seminary become so elated over their success in the gymnasium that they feel impelled to branch out , and accordingly they challenge the boys of Adair College to a game of ball . At the last moment the girls feel like backing out , when two of Cornell 's star baseball players arrive in town . They agree to pitch and catch for the girls , who give them bloomers and rats from their hair for disguise . At the eighth inning the score was 0 to 0 . By the ninth it was 0 to 2 , in favor of Miss Street 's Seminary for Girls . The nine girls then showed their gratitude by giving the pitcher and catcher a round of kisses , while the Adair College boys stood off at a respectful distance . The actors were equal to the occasion . " The Billboard affirmed by stating , " Thanhouser producers have again placed a picture of originality on the market in Baseball and Bloomers . It is a farce pure and simple , but it offers many laughable situations . The acting is generally good , but in a few instances scenes were overacted . "
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= Drexel 4257 =
Drexel 4257 , also known by an inscription on its first page , " John Gamble , his booke , amen 1659 " is a music manuscript commonplace book . It is the largest collection of English songs from the first half to the middle of the 17th century , and is an important source for studying vocal music in its transition from Renaissance music to Baroque music in England . Many songs also provide commentary on contemporary political events leading up to the Restoration .
Belonging to the New York Public Library , it forms part of the Music Division 's Drexel Collection , located at the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts . Following traditional library practice , its name is derived from its call number .
= = Historical context = =
Before researchers took active interest in it , the field of 17th @-@ century British song had not been investigated . Music historian Charles Burney had a negative opinion towards British vocal music in this period . That attitude was carried through the beginning of the 20th century , where in the first edition of the Oxford History of Music , Hubert Parry stated that English composers ' sense of musical line was deficient .
Vincent Duckles thought one reason for the negative attitude might have been the lack of published sources : Between 1627 ( the publication date of John Hilton 's Ayres or Fa @-@ las ) and 1651 ( John Playford 's Musical Banquet ) , there appeared only a single publication of British vocal music : Walter Porter 's Madrigales and Ayres of 1632 .
Scholarly work on Drexel 4257 was one of the major reasons for a change in attitude . With over 320 songs , 250 of which contain music , it is " the largest single body of early 17th @-@ century English songs that we know . " " The composers ... all belonged to the small world of court musicians that suffered disruption during the English Civil War and the Commonwealth of England . Some began their careers late in the reign of James I , most saw service in court of Charles I , and a few survived to return to their posts at the invitation of Charles II . " For the most part , their active careers were over by 1660 or shortly thereafter .
The compiler ( or compilers ) was not an antiquarian : this collection of songs was intended for practical use , and represents the generation of English composers active between 1630 and1660 . As such , Drexel 4257 " stands as the record of English musical and literary taste as it developed over a period of some thirty years , " moving from the late Jacobean era to Restoration periods . Though its musical contents may sometimes be variable , its main interest is that , as a document of its time , it reflects contemporary taste , offering comments on contemporary events and references to the past .
By virtue of its repertoire and of the period covered , Drexel 4257 is closely related to other 17th @-@ century English music manuscripts : 2240 ( British Library Deposit ) , Drexel 4041 ( New York Public Library ) , Don.c.57 ( Bodleian Library ) , Add . 29 @,@ 396 ( British Library ) , Add . 11 @,@ 608 ( British Library ) , MS B.1 ( Bodleian Library ) , Add . 31432 ( British Library ) , Add . 10337 ( British Library ) , F.5.13 ( Trinity College , Dublin ) , Egerton 2013 ( British Library ) , Drexel 4175 ( New York Public Library ) , Add 29381 ( British Library ) , MS 1041 ( Lambeth Palace Library ) , and MS 87 ( Christ Church Library ) .
= = General and physical description = =
The binding of Drexel 4257 measures 30 @.@ 3 × 20 × 4 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 11 @.@ 9 × 7 @.@ 9 × 1 @.@ 9 in ) . It contains 227 leaves which measure 29 @.@ 5 × 19 centimetres ( 11 @.@ 6 × 7 @.@ 5 in ) ( the leaves ' varying length can add or subtract several millimeters to their respective measurement ) . As the image at left indicates , the volume was rebound on December 6 , 1944 by Neumann Leathers of Hoboken , New Jersey . The folios are not numbered , but each song is numbered . Using different methods of enumeration , scholars have disagreed on how many songs are contained in the manuscript . Hughes wrote that the collection contained 246 songs , 146 of which are by unidentified composers , but he was only counting songs with " a musical setting sufficiently complete to make identification possible . " Duckles claimed there were 325 different songs numbered 1 through 329 : two songs occur twice ( " Keepe on yor vayle and hide yor Eye " nos . 134 and 237 , and " If thou wilt loue me I 'le loue thee " nos . 174 and 215 ) . Additionally , nos . 275 ( " Stay , stay , prate noe more " ) and 324 ( " I haue reason to Fly thee " ) are satirical replies to anti @-@ Royalist lyrics not included in the manuscript . No. 206 is blank and not identified in the index , and the song " Why sligh 'stt thou her whome I aproue " is both nos . 222 and 223 . There are also two songs listed in the index for which no space was allotted . For Duckles , eighty @-@ five of the 325 songs are lacking music and have either just titles , or titles and lyrics only . Elise Bickford Jorgens counted 327 songs , including songs listed in at least one of the two tables of contents but for which there is no music . ( This article and the table below uses Jorgens ' enumeration . )
The breakdown of the 97 songs by known composers is as follows : John Gamble ( 28 ) , Henry Lawes ( 28 ) , William Lawes ( 10 ) , John Wilson ( 11 ) , William Webb ( 8 ) , Thomas Brewer ( 3 ) , Robert Smith ( 2 ) , Nicholas Lanier ( 2 ) , Walter Youckney ( 2 ) , Robert Johnson ( 1 ) , John Withy ( 1 ) , and Charles Coleman ( 1 ) .
Folio 1 verso contains a bawdy lyric followed by the inscription written twice , " John Gamble his booke amen 1 @-@ 6 @-@ 5 @-@ 9 an [ n ] o Domini . " The material on Folio 2 recto is from a later date . The upper half of the page contains an engraved portrait of Gamble , printed by W. Richardson in 1795 , pasted in . The lower portion contains a brief biographical inscription concerning Gamble in the hand of the former owner , Edward F. Rimbault . A note giving a brief description of the contents has been tipped in near the center of the binding .
There are two tables of contents . The first , with the heading " The Cattalogue " on folios 3r @-@ 5r , is a numbered list of songs from 1 through 266 . Starting with song no . 201 , the style of enumeration varies inconsistently : no . 201 is listed as 2001 , 220 is listed as 20020 . Additionally , there is a group of songs incorrectly altered to 300s . The second table , on folios 5v @-@ 8r , has no heading but is an alphabetical grouping of songs where in each letter the songs are listed sequentially . This list was apparently compiled after the manuscript was completed and includes all songs except nos . 314 @-@ 317 . It is written by the same hand as the enumerator of songs 177 @-@ 266 in " The Cattalogue . "
The manuscript as currently bound ( the date accompanying the binding information on the inside rear cover is stamped Dec. 6 , 1944 ) has some songs out of sequence ( nos . 331 @-@ 340 ) , surrounded by no . 311 and 312 .
= = Dating = =
The date of 1659 ( from Gamble 's inscription on 1v ) has been a source of puzzlement to those who have studied the manuscript . Willa McClung Evans , consulting Edward Heawood 's study of watermarks ( used to date paper ) , noted the watermark , a fleur @-@ de @-@ lis , was of undetermined origin , but was also used in Fuller 's " Holy State " of 1652 , and Denis Petau " History of the World " of 1659 . Charles W. Hughes believed the book was begun around the turn of the 17th century - a hypothesis rejected by Jorgens who notes that it contains works by Henry Lawes , born in 1596 . Hughes believed the terminal date was at least 1660 , as some of the songs refer to Charles II who assumed the throne in 1660 . Duckles noted that the earliest lyrics were from England 's Helicon ( 1600 ) and Davison 's Poetical Rhapsody ( 1602 ) . Duckles felt that 1659 is close to the terminal date , noting that no songs had been added after the Commonwealth period , and no younger composers were included in the collection .
= = Provenance = =
Though writers disagree on details of the handwriting ( see the section on handwriting below ) , they all agree that the handwriting of the latter portion of Drexel 4257 is probably that of John Gamble , given that there is a concentration of his work in that part of the manuscript . This suggests that the book was begun by someone else ( whom Lynn Hulse recognized as Thomas Jordan ; see below ) . Duckles surmised that Gamble came into possession of the book in 1642 – 43 when the musicians of the Royal Chapel were dispersed as a result of the English Civil War . Although Gamble lost most of his possessions in a fire in 1666 , this book appears to have survived . He made out his will on June 30 , 1680 in which he bequeathed his grandson ( also named John Gamble ) all his books of music .
After Gamble 's death in 1687 , nothing is known of the manuscript for over 150 years . The first published reference to it comes in 1846 , where it is mentioned in volume 19 of the Percy Society 's Early English Poetry , Ballads , and Popular Literature of the Middle Ages as being in the possession of one of the editors of the series , Edward Francis Rimbault . An organist and musicologist , Rimbault took a keen interest in English music and voraciously collected rare books , scores , and valuable manuscripts . Upon his death , his extensive and valuable library was auctioned by Sotheby 's over the course of five days . The Rimbault auction catalog entry for the Gamble manuscript reads :
A collection of upwards of 300 songs by Wilson , Lawes , Johnson , Gamble , and other English composers , containing also the autograph inscription , " John Gamble his book , Amen . 1659 Anno Domini "
Hughes quotes a contemporaneous report of the hammer price and comment : " Thirteen guineas , for America . " The reference was to the Philadelphia @-@ born financier Joseph W. Drexel who had already amassed a large music library and purchased about 300 lots from the Rimbault auction . Upon Drexel 's death , he bequeathed his music library to The Lenox Library . When the Lenox Library merged with the Astor Library to become the New York Public Library , the Drexel Collection became the basis for one of its founding units , the Music Division . Today , Drexel 4257 is part of the Drexel Collection in the Music Division , now located at the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center .
= = Organization = =
Duckles noted that there are subsidiary groups organized by composer : Henry Lawes ( nos . 26 @-@ 36 ) , William Webb ( nos . 160 @-@ 166 ) , Robert Smith ( nos . 237 @-@ 238 ) , Thomas Brewer ( nos . 244 @-@ 245 ) , Robert Johnson ( nos . 108 @-@ 109 ) , and John Gamble ( nos . 292 @-@ 319 ) . Similarly is the group of three songs set by John Wilson for Richard Brome 's play " The Northern Lass " ( nos . 45 , 46 , and 47 ) .
The first 47 songs are love lyrics by poets of the Jacobean Court including Ben Jonson , William Shakespeare , Robert Herrick , Thomas Carew , John Suckling , Beaumont and Fletcher . After no . 47 a new spirit is suggested by song no . 48 " You madcapps of England that merry will make , " a lusty drinking song that indicates a political shift after 1640 . Deliberate segregation is in evidence between songs nos . 48 and 80 , where there are a series of 32 ballads and popular songs , in contrast to the art lyrics of the first few songs . There is a brief return to the elevated nature in songs nos . 154 @-@ 76 . Thereafter , popular and sophisticated songs are mixed .
= = Handwriting = =
Hughes and Duckles both believed that the manuscript was written by at least two individuals . Hughes characterized the first hand as a " neater , older hand " dating from either at the end of the 16th century or beginning of the 17th century ( a date disputed by subsequent writers - see above ) . The second hand copied the newer songs ( including some by Gamble ) and were written in a more careless hand . Hughes believed that this evidence suggested that the manuscript was begun by an unidentified person and was continued by John Gamble himself commencing with song no . 177 .
Following Hughes 's view , Duckles also believed the manuscript was written in two hands . In his view , the first hand wrote the titles for songs nos . 1 @-@ 176 of the Cattalogue , and the second hand , probably that of Gamble himself , wrote of nos . 177 @-@ 266 ( leaving space left to accommodate future additions ) as well as the alphabetical index . Duckles described the writing style of Hand 1 as favoring " round , compact letter forms , vertical alignment , calligraphic flourishes on capitals and heavy down strokes , " when writing with a broad pen . Duckles admits that Hand 1 has " two forms " : " When the hand writes with a finer quill , the letter forms are more loosely connected , the flourishes a little more pronounced , and there is a slight inclination to the right . " Hand no . 2 has a " pronounced slant to the right , letter forms are thin and elongated and the pen is a fine one . " Duckles observed that hand no . 2 participated slightly in the preparation of part 1 ( nos . 1 @-@ 176 ) with only six songs , but all of the text incipits . Likes Hughes , Duckles also felt that Hand 2 is probably that of Gamble .
Duckles hypothesized that the first hand might have been that of Ambrose Beeland , with whom Gamble apprenticed and is believed to have been his teacher . Lynn Hulse refutes this , saying that the handwriting does not match existing Beeland manuscripts .
Jorgens disagreed with both Hughes and Duckles and saw three different hands . Based on the two tables of contents , Jorgens surmised that all three copyists had access to the book at one time . She characterized the first hand as " firm , bold but well @-@ controlled secretary hand , " the second hand as " looser and somewhat lighter secretary hand " beginning with song no . 38 , and a third hand , " rougher , slanted , inclined towards the Italian style " that begins with song no . 46 . All three roughly equal ; by no . 177 the first two have dropped out . Hand Three has entered all of Gamble 's songs and is probably his . It also has entered text incipits . Since these incipits do not correspond with other known songs , they are probably the work of Gamble .
Hulse identified the first hand of the Gamble manuscript is probably that of poet Thomas Jordan ( ca . 1612 – 1685 ) , the same hand as manuscript PwV18 in the University of Nottingham , as well as other Jordan manuscripts in Harvard University and Bodleian Library . Hulse showed that Jordan and Gamble were involved in the same London circle of theatre musicians and composers for many years , culminating in Jordan 's preface for Gamble 's A Defence for Musick published in 1659 . She identifies songs nos . 4 , 16 , 32 , 45 , 47 , 99 , 154 , 155 , 169 , 170 , 175 , 176 and the text incipit of 96 as being copied by Jordan .
= = Politics = =
The lyrics to a number of songs have references to contemporary politics and events . " Since Itt hath bin lately inacted high Treason " ( no . 313 ) carries a strong suggestion of reaction to contemporary British history . One song , " Beat on , proud billows , " was known to have been written by Roger L 'Estrange while he was imprisoned in Newgate Prison during Oliver Cromwell 's rule ( 1645 – 1648 ) .
Some songs express regret for a better past . " Listen iolly gentlemen Listen & be merry " ( no . 63 ) praises the reign of Charles I ( indirectly criticizing the then @-@ current regime ) . The lyric of " Reioyce all England " contrasts the 13th @-@ century hero Guy of Warwick with current rulers . One song alludes to the marital difficulties between Charles II and his Portuguese wife , Catherine of Braganza . Another example of distrust of foreigners can be seen in the lyric " Harke harke Ile tell you news from the Cort ... all ye french ... now are all sent back to France . " Charles II also figures in " God bless our noble king , " which comically describes the king 's progress from Whitehall to St Paul 's Cathedral .
" You madcaps of England " describes frivolous English soldiers at the Siege of La Rochelle , including characters named " Wentworth " ( referring to Thomas Wentworth , 1st Earl of Strafford ) and " Murrey " ( referring to Robert Moray ) . Other names mentioned include : Wilmot , Weston , George Symon , Steadlinge , Hugh Pollerd , and " Game " possibly John Gamble .
Some songs reveal prejudice against Puritans . No. 92 , " " Cock Lorrell inuited ye diuell his gestt , " concerns Cock Lavorel , known as a rogue and highway robber , as friends with the devil . " The purelings of the Citty " ( no . 70 ) is an exception , praising a Protestant service .
Duckles took note of the bold lyrics to song no . 73 :
Ye giddy poets that purloin
from sea and land the greatest store
to deck her ffading wenches fine ,
what would you do with such a whore ?
Duckles clarified the meaning : " The outspoken vulgarity was not necessarily result of personal taste but a reflection of Royalist protest against Puritan morality , intended to shock the taste of Parliamentarians . "
= = Topical or literary content = =
Hughes argued that , unlike a textbook compilation of exemplars , Drexel 4257 shows a variety of good and mediocre poetry . Most songs deal with love , and range from flowery rhetoric to frank accounts of love @-@ making . A few , however , deal with topical matters . There are two songs related to Christmas : " Beate upp a dromm " depicts feasters in a mock battle with the cold in which the feasters win , and " Christmas is my name ffar have I gone " was a popular ballad which appeared in a number of 17th @-@ century sources . In this song , the personification of Christmas comes from far away to discover that his friends and other residents have deserted the country in favor of the city . The song concludes with a lament that universal welcome is gone because the Protestants and Puritans disassociate themselves from Christmas . Similarly ( with fewer political overtones ) , the song " Ladies you loose yor time " expresses preference for city life over that of the country .
The song " Oh yt mine eyes " , a graphic meditation on the Crucifixion of Jesus , is the only song in the collection to deal with a religious subject .
The song " Nor loue nor fate dare I " by John Wilson bears the inscription " composed for the comedy The Northern Lass " . Although this is the only song that the manuscript indicates is from a drama , at least 26 songs have texts from dramas or masques , attesting to Gamble 's association with the theatre .
The songs composed by Gamble are best characterized as drolls . Drolls were collections of " cavalier wit , much of it trivial , repetitious and derivative , but at the same time containing some work of genuine literary value . Their tone was seldom dignified , often frankly sexual , and characterized by a persistent undertone of anti @-@ Puritan feeling . " Similar examples can be found in the work of Ben Jonson , Thomas Carew and John Suckling .
= = Musical content and style = =
Hughes cursorily observed that Drexel 4257 contains no naturals — sharps are used to cancel flats , and flats are used to cancel sharps . He noted that technical blunders such as parallel fifths and octaves are to be found as well as other kinds of mistakes .
Duckles 's dissertation explores the transition from the lute song , representing an older style of composition appropriate to the waning of Renaissance music , to the continuo song , reflecting newer Baroque music practice . It 's not always an easy form of composition to assess : lutes were not always used for songs , and sometimes were used even after ascendancy of the continuo song . General characteristics of the lute song are smooth , flowing , and restrained lines , while the continuo song is more vigorous , abrupt and discontinuous . The harmonies in lute songs are an outgrowth of their melodic lines , while in continuo songs they define the structure . Lute songs tend to be loose and melismatic with frequent repetitions of verse fragments , while continuo songs are more closely tied to the rhythm of the text . Dissonance and chromaticism are used sparingly in lute songs while continuo songs show increasing use of chromaticism for more dramatic rather than pictorial underscoring . Generally , English composers were more concerned with capturing verbal rhythms than producing dramatic effects . ( Hughes noted that Restoration lyrics typified Baroque figures of speech in their use of florid lyrics . ) Use of these techniques in England indicate their adoption from Italy , where they were first used . Previously , it had been thought that English composers either didn 't know about them , or weren 't interested . But a comparison of Drexel 4257 with another of Gamble 's books in the British Library , Additional 11608 , where some of the songs appear in an embellished form , indicate that British composers and singers did occasionally adopt a more florid style .
Duckles examined the song " If Loue loues truth then woemen doe not loue " by Thomas Campion which appears as no . 10 of Drexel 4257 and was also published in Campion 's Third Book of Ayres from about 1617 . Campion was generally a conservative composer . In the version present in Drexel 4257 , the melody is slightly altered to provide greater sensitivity to the declamatory text , so that the speed of the verse accelerates naturally , an alteration which Duckles finds an improvement over the original . Many songs are recitative @-@ like . In some of these songs , the bar is enlarged as it approaches the cadence , suggesting a ballad singer who briefly pauses to catch his breath . The hemiola a consistent practice in English music of this time .
Many songs are 6 / 4 meter , while some suggest that they are adaptations from violin tunes . Yet , the barline does not always reflect the verbal rhythm . In comparing the song " Ballowe my babe lye still and sleepe " , no . 46 of Drexel 4257 , with the version that appears in Elizabeth Roger 's Virginal Book , Duckles notes that the ( earlier ) virginal version is in duple meter with no trace of hemiolas , while the version in the Gamble manuscript has them , suggesting a modernization of an older song . Another example of continuo style is " Like Hermitt poore in pensiue place obscure " ( no . 15 ) , a lyric attributed to Sir Walter Raleigh and dating from 1591 . In comparing Alfonso Ferrabosco 's setting from his Ayres of 1609 to one by Nicolas Lanier in Drexel 4257 , Duckles admits the possibility that Lanier 's may have been inspired by that of Ferrabosco . But the musical characteristics of the Lanier setting , including simplicity of texture , distinct phrases , use of an échappée , and the suggestion of a rhythmic motif through use of a recurring pattern of eighth notes , point to contemporary text setting techniques . The song " Drowsie sun , why dostt thou stay " by Thomas Brewer ( no . 253 ) shows expressive false relations and harmonic word painting , foreshadowing later developments in British sacred music . Brewer 's songs are among the earliest examples of the Italian pathetic style in English music and represent the mature style of continuo song . Devices such as an octave leap look away from lute song to continuo song .
Not all songs with recitative @-@ like musical lines indicate modernism.There are dance songs that contain elements of an ostinato bass , passamezzo antico and the romanesca — all characteristics of Renaissance rather than Baroque periods . Several tunes and texts are of 16th @-@ century origin had long been in the repertoire , among them : " Greensleeves , " " O mistress mine , " and " Back and sides go bare . " With these exceptions , the earliest songs date from Jacobean period . A comparison with anthologies published by John Playford in 1652 , 1653 and 1659 indicates particular songs were popular . That selections were copied into the book attests to their popularity even after tastes had changed due to the Restoration . Similarly , the song " I went from England into ffrance , " a satirical narrative , refers to the song " John Dory , " indicating that song 's continued popularity . ( It had appeared in Thomas Ravenscroft 's " Deuteromelia " of 1609 , though probably dates earlier ) . " When ye Chill Charockoe blowes " is a song containing both declamatory and tuneful styles . It is a drinking song , whose erratic harmony suggests frequent cadences , and whose angular melody which " moves with great vigor , " This is in contradistinction to the lute song that emphasized continuous flow and smooth melodic motion .
Duckles identifies two styles of songs of the collection : " The declamatory air " ( reflecting modern style ) , and " the tuneful air " ( reflecting the older style , a vestige of Renaissance musical practice ) . The tuneful air could be composed based on a preexisting tune or a tune intended to be a dance form . In examining lyric forms , Duckles identified the ballad as one type of lute song . The ballads found in Drexel 4257 are all of a sophisticated type in which satire and parody are important elements . The ballad as simple narrative or topical ballad are not represented .
Warning that one must be wary of the fluid nature of musical genres , Duckles categorized the following songs from Drexel 4257 as ballads : 46 , 48 , 49 , 51 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 70 , 74 , 76 , 79 , 92 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 116 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 123 , 131 , 142 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 186 , 214 , 271 , 272 .
Duckles identified these songs as being in the declamatory style : 4 , 12 , 15 , 20 , 22 , 26 , 30 , 31 , 33 , 83 , 89 , 108 , 132 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 164 , 168 , 172 , 182 , 188 , 198 , 206 , 238 , 239 , 240 , 243 , 247 , 249 , 253 , 256 , 260 , 261 , 262 , 269 , 274 , 277 , 280 , 284 , 285 , 292 , 299 , 306 , 311 , 315 , 316 , 317 , 323 , 326 .
Duckles observes that by 1651 , the transition from the lute song to the continuo song was complete . Printed versions of songs can not be entirely trusted to represent what was sung , since , in order to keep engraving costs manageable , they would economize on written vocal embellishments . That 's why manuscript sources are crucial to our understanding of transition to Baroque vocal styles . Duckles concludes by warning that those who study early 17th century lyric poetry must do so in conjunction with their intended musical settings , since words and music are inseparable .
= = Significance = =
In his dissertation , Duckles summed up Gamble and his manuscript :
There seems to be little doubt but that Gamble 's fame will rest upon his work as a compiler of an important song collection , not on his work as a composer . As a musician he was distinctly second @-@ rate , but one can appreciate him as a man with a keen sense of the musical currents ( page 138 ) of his time , an opportunist , who knew what the public wanted and how to turn public taste to his own professional uses ... By shrewdness and wit he managed to establish a place for himself in the rough @-@ and @-@ tumble world of mid @-@ 17th century music . His songs were soon forgotten , but in his " Commonplace book , " compiled without any thought for posterity , he succeeded in presenting one of the most valuable sources we have of the musical taste and musical thought of his time . It is for this reason that an obscure court musician of some 300 years ago remains very much alive in the minds of students of English music history .
= = List of songs = =
This table is based on the table of contents listed in Jorgens , supplemented with composer , lyricist attributions and other remarks from Duckles 1953 .
= = Facsimile = =
A facsimile of the manuscript was published as Drexel Ms. 4257 : John Gamble , " His booke , amen 1659 " , in English Song , 1600 – 1675 : Facsimiles of Twenty @-@ Six Manuscripts and an Edition of the Texts , vol . 10 ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8240 @-@ 8240 @-@ 6 ) , by Garland Publishing of New York in 1987 , with an introduction by Elise Bickford Jorgens .
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= Somerhill House =
Somerhill House is a Grade I listed Jacobean mansion situated near Tonbridge , Kent , United Kingdom . It was built for Richard de Burgh in 1611 – 13 . The estate was sequestrated by Parliament in 1645 , and restored to its rightful owner in 1660 . The building had become derelict by the mid @-@ eighteenth century but was later restored . Somerhill was painted by Turner in 1811 . It was bought by a member of the Goldsmid family in 1849 and greatly extended between 1879 and 1897 , making it the second largest house in Kent , after Knole House , Sevenoaks .
Somerhill housed a Prisoner of War camp , Prisoner of War Camp No. 40 , during the Second World War , following which it became the home of the d 'Avigdor @-@ Goldsmids and was visited by many celebrities of the time . Somerhill was sold by the d 'Avigdor @-@ Goldsmids in 1980 , and again went into decline , being damaged by vandalism and storms . In 1993 , The Schools at Somerhill moved in , as of July 2016 the building is used as a school .
= = Location = =
Somerhill House lies 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) south of Tonbridge at grid reference TQ 6086 4510 , in the civil parish of Tudeley @-@ cum @-@ Capel , which falls under Tunbridge Wells Borough Council .
= = Description = =
Somerhill is built of sandstone . The stone also contains iron , which gives it a red colour . This stone is known as Calverley Stone . The house is in the shape of a letter " H " , with the main hall forming the bar of the " H " . The main elevation of the house faces west . The building is three storeys high , with a half @-@ basement . It has five gables on the main elevation . The roof is of an A @-@ frame construction , clad in Kentish peg tiles . The south wing houses the library , the second longest room in Kent at 93 feet ( 28 m ) long , exceeded only by the Gallery at Knole House , Sevenoaks . The main staircase is in the south wing . The north wing housed service rooms and the kitchen , with a parlour at the rear .
As built , the house measured almost 100 feet ( 30 m ) in depth internally . The hall measures 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) by 47 feet ( 14 @.@ 3 m ) . To its north was a 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) drawing room . The dining room , located to the right of the hall measured 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) by 33 feet ( 10 m ) . As extended , Somerhill provides around 49 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m2 ) of floorspace .
The house shows the transition from medieval architecture , in which the hall was the main living and entertaining room , to the more modern plan , where the hall became a reception room . Somerhill is one of the earliest examples of this . When built , this was an innovative design .
= = History = =
= = = 17th century = = =
The land that Somerhill was built on originally formed part of the estate of South Frith , one of two deer parks in the Lowey of Tonbridge . At one time the estate covered 6 @,@ 500 acres ( 2 @,@ 600 ha ) . Built on the site of an earlier mansion , and designed by John Thorpe , the house was built between 1611 and 1613 , dates which are to be found on the surviving leaden rainwater heads . Somerhill was built for Richard de Burgh . The design was based on that of the Villa Valmarana , Lisiera , Italy , which was designed by Palladio .
De Burgh died in 1636 , and Somerhill passed to his son Ulick . Following the Battle of Naseby in 1645 , Somerhill was sequestrated by Parliament , which gave it to Robert , Earl of Essex . On his death in September 1646 , Parliament gave Somerhill to John Bradshaw . John Evelyn , who visited Somerhill on 29 May 1652 , described Somerhill as " situated on an eminent hill , with a park , but has nothing else extraordinary " .
Following the Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 , Somerhill was given to Margaret , Viscountess Muskerry , the daughter of Ulick de Burgh . Lady Muskerry had extravagant tastes , and gradually sold off much of the lands of South Frith to various people . She died in 1698 , and Somerhill passed to her son , John Villiers , who styled himself the Earl of Buckingham . Villers sold the Manor of South Frith to one Dekins . Some 1 @,@ 200 acres ( 490 ha ) of grounds was sold separately to Abraham Hill of Sutton at Hone , Kent . Somerhill itself had been let to a warrener .
= = = 18th century = = =
Dekins sold Somerhill to one Cave , who sold it in 1712 to John Woodgate of Penshurst . Woodgate lived in the house , and on his death it passed to his son Henry , who lived at Somerhill until 1769 , and then within the town of Tonbridge until his death in 1787 . On 5 August 1752 , the house was visited by Horace Walpole , who described its setting as commanding " a vast landscape , beautifully wooded and has quantities of large old trees to shelter itself " . By 1766 , Somerhill was in a " ruinous " state . It was to remain derelict throughout the century . In 1787 , Somerhill passed to William Woodgate , who was Henry Woodgate 's nephew and had been living at Somerhill . In 1792 , Woodgate was one of three partners who set up The Tonbridge Bank .
= = = 19th century = = =
In the spring of 1810 , J. M. W. Turner made a drawing of Somerhill , and then in 1811 he painted it for the Woodgates , choosing a view across the lake in the grounds , with the house in the distance . The painting , which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1811 , is now in the National Galleries of Scotland , and the sketchbook containing his earlier drawing is at the Tate .
Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the subsequent agricultural depression , coupled with the collapse of the Tonbridge Bank in 1812 , Woodgate was declared bankrupt in 1816 . In that year , Woodgate offered Somerhill for sale to the Duke of Wellington , who declined to buy it as the foxhunting was not good enough for his liking . Somerhill was bought from the descendants of William Woodgate in November 1819 by James Alexander , MP . By 1830 , Somerhill had been substantially repaired , and new landscaping was undertaken . In 1832 , Anthony Salvin was engaged to make improvements to the house , but retaining its original style . During the severe winter of 1835 @-@ 36 , skating was possible on the lake at Somerhill for four weeks .
In 1842 , Tonbridge Priory was demolished to make way for the building of the first railway station . A stone coffin from the priory was bought by Alexander and taken to Somerhill , where it can still be seen . In 1849 , Somerhill was bought by Sir Isaac Goldsmid , who passed it on to his son Frederick in 1859 .
The lake at Somerhill , which Turner had painted in 1811 , was used to supply ice for the house , as a watering place for the estate 's cattle , and for recreational boating . The lake was fed by the Calverley Stream , which flowed through the grounds of Somerhill . In 1860 , the stream became polluted by sewage discharged upstream from a sewage works owned by the Tunbridge Wells Improvement Commissioners , rendering the water in the lake unfit for use . Frederick Goldsmid tried to get the Commissioners to stop fouling the stream , but they refused to act and the situation worsened . Finally , in 1865 , Goldsmid sued the Commissioners . They denied responsibility , claiming that the pollution was not caused by their sewage works but by a farm downstream . The court rejected their claim and ruled in Goldsmid 's favor .
In 1866 , Somerhill passed to Frederick 's son Sir Julian Goldsmid ( later known as d 'Avigdor @-@ Goldsmid ) . Sir Julian returned the house to something nearer its original condition . In 1879 , Somerhill was extended as more room was needed to accommodate Goldsmid 's large family – he had eight daughters . The stable courtyard was rebuilt at this time , with the date 1879 being cast in the rainwater heads . The building work took until 1897 to complete . The expansion made Somerhill the second largest house in Kent , after Knole House , Sevenoaks . Somerhill House itself covers an area of 2 ½ acres ( 1 ha ) .
A ghost in the form of a lady in white is said to haunt the Julian staircase , located in the Victorian part of the house . D 'Avigdor @-@ Goldsmid allowed people to drive their carriages through the grounds of Somerhill , although the house was not open to the public . Sir Julian died in 1896 , and Somerhill passed to Sir Osmond d 'Avigdor @-@ Goldsmid .
= = = 20th century = = =
In 1912 , there was an army camp held in the grounds of Somerhill . The soldiers were housed in bell tents . On Sir Osmond 's death in 1940 , it then passed to his eldest son Sir Henry . During the Second World War , Somerhill was the site of a Prisoner of War camp , known as POW Camp No. 40 . Italian POWs were amongst those housed at Somerhill . The Army were in possession of Somerhill from 1940 – 49 . Squatters occupied some of the 40 @-@ plus huts in 1948 , they were locked in by the Colonel in charge of the camp at the time .
Post @-@ war , the house was the scene of much lavish entertaining . Lady Rosemary d 'Avigdor @-@ Goldsmid likened it to a hotel , " except that the guests didn 't pay ! " Amongst the distinguished visitors were John Betjeman , Hugh Casson , David Niven and Enoch Powell . The house was listed on 20 October 1954 . It is assessed as Grade I. On 19 September 1963 , the d 'Avigdor @-@ Goldsmid 's daughter Sarah was drowned in an accident , which occurred off Rye , East Sussex . Artist Marc Chagall was commissioned to design a set of stained glass windows in All Saints ' Church , Tudeley , in her memory .
In 1976 , Somerhill passed to Sir Henry 's surviving daughter Chloe , who lived at Hadlow Place Farm , Hadlow . She sold Somerhill in 1980 , and it was sold thrice more in the next eight years . The house was damaged in a storm and also by neglect and vandalism . Somerhill was bought by Mr & Mrs Weir in 1979 . The Weirs removed the carved wooden hall screen and also large areas of panelling in the entrance hall and the salon upstairs . A sale of the contents of Somerhill was held by Sotheby 's on 23 and 24 June 1981 . Somerhill was advertised for sale in May 1984 at a price in excess of £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . Beginning in 1988 , the house was extensively restored with assistance from English Heritage . The works were undertaken by R. Durtnell & Sons of Brasted , who celebrated their 400th anniversary in 1991 with a party held at Somerhill as the restoration was completed . Fielden and Mawson were the architects for the work .
In 1993 , The Schools at Somerhill moved to Somerhill House , having previously been at Tunbridge Wells . The Schools at Somerhill comprise three schools in one location . Somerhill Pre @-@ Prep is for boys and girls aged 3 – 6 . Derwent Lodge is for girls aged 6 – 11 and Yardley Court is for boys aged 6 – 13 . In 1998 , the attic rooms were converted to provide classrooms and art room . A former granary has also been converted to classrooms , whilst some stables have been converted to workshops . Also in that year , a bridge over the lake in the grounds of Somerhill was added to the Buildings at Risk Register by Tunbridge Wells Borough Council , in whose area Somerhill falls . In 2000 , the central span between the old stable courtyard and the stable courtyard was reinstated at a cost of £ 720 @,@ 000 to provide accommodation for Somerhill Pre @-@ Prep School and administrative offices . Also in that year , planning permission was granted for the building of a sports hall on the top sports terrace .
= = = 21st century = = =
The reinstated central span opened in January 2001 . The new sports hall was completed in 2002 at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 . An artificial turf pitch was added in 2003 . In 2004 , the bridge over the lake was repaired at a cost of £ 170 @,@ 000 , aided by a grant of £ 32 @,@ 000 from Tunbridge Wells Borough Council . In 2006 , planning permission was granted for the conversion of the walled garden into a dining hall and indoor swimming pool . Work began the next year and was completed in January 2009 . The dining room and swimming pool were given a Design Award by Tonbridge Civic Society in 2009 . As a working school , Somerhill House is not normally open to the public . It has been open as part of Heritage Open Days . Somerhill House was open in 2006 , and also in 2010 . The grounds of Somerhill contain 152 acres ( 62 ha ) of land .
= = Listed buildings = =
The table below shows the status of the various listed buildings in the grounds of Somerhill House .
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= John McCauley =
Air Marshal Sir John Patrick Joseph McCauley , KBE , CB ( 18 March 1899 – 3 February 1989 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He served as Chief of the Air Staff from 1954 to 1957 . A Duntroon graduate , McCauley spent four years in the Australian Military Forces before transferring to the RAAF in 1924 . He was Director of Training from 1936 to 1938 , and commanded engineering and flying training schools for the first eighteen months of World War II . Having been promoted to group captain in 1940 , he was posted to Singapore in June 1941 to take charge of all RAAF units defending the area . He earned praise for his efforts in attacking invading Japanese forces before the fall of Singapore , and for his dedication in evacuating his men . After serving as Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1942 – 44 , he was appointed to a senior operational role with the Royal Air Force 's 2nd Tactical Air Force in Europe , where he saw out the rest of the war .
Following the end of hostilities , McCauley again became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff . In 1947 he was promoted to air vice marshal and appointed Chief of Staff at British Commonwealth Occupation Force Headquarters in Japan . Returning to Australia in June 1949 , he served as the last Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Eastern Area and the inaugural AOC Home Command ( now Air Command ) . Raised to air marshal , he took up the position of Chief of the Air Staff in January 1954 , and was knighted a year later . During his tenure in the RAAF 's senior role , McCauley focused on potential deployments to Southeast Asia — particularly Vietnam — and threats from the north , commencing redevelopment of RAAF Base Darwin and recommending purchase of a light supersonic bomber to replace the Air Force 's English Electric Canberra . After retiring from military life in March 1957 , he chaired various community and welfare organisations , serving as Federal President of the Air Force Association for ten years . He died in Sydney in 1989 , aged 89 .
= = Early career = =
Born in Sydney on 18 March 1899 , McCauley went to school at St Joseph 's College , Hunters Hill , before entering the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1916 . He graduated as a lieutenant in 1919 , and spent the next four years in staff positions with the Permanent Military Forces , including a posting to Britain . In January 1924 , he transferred to the Royal Australian Air Force as a flying officer , undertaking the pilots ' course at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria . He was nicknamed " Black Jack " in tribute to his dark looks , but a " shaky reputation " as an aviator also earned him the epithet " Crasher " . On 10 November 1925 , he married Murielle Burke ; the couple had a son and two daughters . By 1926 , McCauley was back in Britain , studying at the Royal Navy College , Greenwich , and the RAF Armament and Gunnery School . He returned to Australia in 1928 , and was assigned to the staff of RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne .
Promoted to squadron leader , McCauley was posted a third time to Britain in 1933 , graduating from RAF Staff College , Andover , and qualifying as a flight instructor at Central Flying School , Wittering . The following year he was attached to the Air Ministry in London . Returning to Australia in 1935 , McCauley joined the RAAF 's Directorate of Training . That September , he initiated a requirement for all air bases to draw up plans for local defence . He also inaugurated operational @-@ level policy for the Air Force , ordering units to draft doctrine relevant to their combat roles , such as " Striking " for No. 1 Squadron and " Army Co @-@ operation " for No. 3 Squadron . Described as " a great leader , with a great deal of force " , McCauley took over as Director of Training in 1936 . He gained his Bachelor of Commerce degree at Melbourne University the same year , having studied part @-@ time since 1929 . His tertiary qualification was unusual for a general duties officer in the pre @-@ war Air Force , whose pilots generally " valued little beyond flying ability " . By 1939 he had been raised to wing commander and was commanding officer and chief flying instructor of the cadet wing at Point Cook .
= = World War II = =
McCauley 's seniority and instructional experience kept him in Australia on training assignments for the first eighteen months of World War II . From March to October 1940 , he served as the inaugural commander of No. 1 Engineering School at Ascot Vale , Victoria . Promoted to group captain , he then took over No. 1 Service Flying Training School at Point Cook until July 1941 , when he handed over to Wing Commander Elwyn King . During McCauley 's tenure , the number of aircraft operated by the school doubled from its initial complement of 52 , and monthly flying hours increased from fewer than 1 @,@ 000 to more than 1 @,@ 800 .
During the Malayan Campaign in 1941 – 42 , McCauley was in charge of RAAF units under Britain 's Far East Air Force ( FEAF ) . As station commander at RAF Sembawang in north @-@ east Singapore from August 1941 , he personally supervised the training and operations of Nos. 1 and 8 Squadrons , flying Lockheed Hudson light bombers . He also warned Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert Brooke @-@ Popham , the FEAF 's Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , of the weaknesses of the Allied air defences . Deployed to forward bases on the Malay Peninsula , McCauley 's Hudsons were the first Allied aircraft to spot Japanese troop transports converging off Indochina on 6 December , and they attacked the fleet in the face of heavy defensive fire . By Christmas , as the Allies retreated from Malaya , Sembawang was " the busiest airfield on Singapore island " , with two Dutch Glenn Martin bomber squadrons in addition to the remnants of the Hudson units , along with Nos. 21 and 453 Squadrons ( merged due to losses as No. 21 / 453 Squadron ) , operating obsolescent Brewster Buffalos . On 29 January 1942 , McCauley took over airfield P.2 near Palembang in Sumatra , commanding all Commonwealth air operations emanating from the base . With his available aircraft augmented by Hawker Hurricanes and Bristol Blenheims , he conducted attacks on enemy convoys before evacuating the area on 15 February 1942 , the day that Singapore surrendered . After communications between himself and local RAF group headquarters were cut , McCauley was left to his own devices to make final arrangements for the demolition of equipment and departure of staff . He had earlier intervened to prevent RAF headquarters from dissolving No. 21 Squadron and using its personnel as a labour force on Sumatra , instead arranging their transport as a unit to Batavia , where they subsequently embarked for Australia . McCauley led the last party to depart Palembang , and was praised for organising the safe passage back to Australia of many Commonwealth air force personnel .
After his return to Australia late in February 1942 , McCauley briefly served as Senior Air Staff Officer at North @-@ Western Area Headquarters in Darwin , Northern Territory . He took up the position of Deputy Chief of the Air Staff ( DCAS ) in May , and was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1943 King 's Birthday Honours , promulgated on 2 June . The honour recognised the " courage , ability , and qualities of leadership " he displayed under " trying and difficult conditions during a period of service in the Far East " . The following month , he was promoted to temporary air commodore . During an inspection of No. 10 Group at Nadzab in March 1944 , McCauley learned that unless the Australian formation was able to increase its operational rate of effort , its units would be withdrawn from their forward airfields . As a result , RAAF Headquarters increased the supply of pilots and equipment to the group , which was then able to meet , and later exceed , the rate of effort achieved by comparable US Fifth Air Force units . At around this time , he also instigated a research program to determine a suitable formula for rotating and relieving ground staff , as well as aircrew , in the tropics .
Completing his term as DCAS , McCauley was posted to the European theatre in November 1944 , serving for the remainder of the war as Air Commodore ( Operations ) , 2nd Tactical Air Force RAF ( 2nd TAF ) . The British had actively sought him for this particular appointment , which he commenced in December at the formation 's Brussels headquarters . The role involved him in the direction of over 70 Commonwealth and European squadrons in operations against Germany , and was " unique " for an RAAF officer during the war . He left 2nd TAF in July 1945 and returned to Australia later that year .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Among a small coterie of wartime RAAF commanders earmarked for further senior roles , McCauley retained his rank of air commodore following the cessation of hostilities . He served again as Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1946 – 47 . Promoted to air vice marshal , he was Chief of Staff to Lieutenant General Horace Robertson at British Commonwealth Occupation Force Headquarters in Japan from June 1947 to June 1949 . In this post he was preceded and succeeded by two other Duntroon graduates , Air Vice Marshals Frank Bladin and Alan Charlesworth respectively . Upon his return to Australia , McCauley was made Air Officer Commanding Eastern Area . During the Malayan Emergency , he formed RAAF aircraft assigned for deployment into No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing , as directed by Chief of the Air Staff Air Marshal George Jones , to ensure that they would operate with a degree of autonomy rather than be dispersed throughout other Allied groups . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in the 1951 Birthday Honours .
In January 1952 , Air Marshal Jones was succeeded by Air Marshal Sir Donald Hardman of the Royal Air Force . The decision by Prime Minister Robert Menzies to appoint a British officer as CAS caused controversy in Australia , compounded by his stated reason that there was " no RAAF officer of sufficient age , or operational experience , to take the post of Chief of the Air Staff " , which ignored the wartime records of figures like McCauley . Hardman changed the structure of the Air Force from one based on geographical area to one based on function , hence McCauley 's Eastern Area Command evolved into Home Command ( now Air Command ) in 1953 . Promoted to air marshal , McCauley took over from Hardman as Chief of the Air Staff when the latter 's two @-@ year appointment ended in January 1954 . According to official RAAF historian Alan Stephens , McCauley was " just as ready to become CAS in 1952 as he was in 1954 " , while a contemporary observer declared that " seldom has a better @-@ equipped officer led a branch of the Australian services " . He was the first of four former Duntroon cadets to successively head up the Air Force between 1954 and 1969 , followed by Air Marshals Frederick Scherger , Valston Hancock , and Alister Murdoch .
McCauley was raised to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) in the 1955 New Year Honours . In October 1956 , he gave a presentation on air power concepts that was attended by Prime Minister Menzies , as well as the other Australian service chiefs . McCauley identified Malaya and Indochina , particularly Vietnam , as likely areas for future RAAF deployments , advocating a continued presence in Singapore in view of its strategic importance to the defence of Australia , as he had witnessed first @-@ hand during World War II . He also recommended that a supersonic light bomber replace the straight @-@ winged and obsolescent English Electric Canberra , primarily for interdiction in Southeast Asia . McCauley 's tenure as CAS saw the beginning of a trend for the RAAF to equip with US aircraft types in preference to British types , with recommendations being put forward for the F @-@ 104 Starfighter ( though in the event the French Dassault Mirage III was purchased ) and C @-@ 130 Hercules . This stemmed partly from his inspection of Allied air force units during the Korean War , when he observed that those employing American hardware were far better served with spare parts and replacement aircraft than those with British equipment . Some of his senior commanders had urged replacing the Canberra with Avro Vulcan heavy bombers , but McCauley did not pursue this option , preferring to concentrate in the short term on new fighter technology . He also made a point of supporting the Australian aircraft industry wherever feasible .
McCauley instigated the redevelopment of RAAF Base Darwin in the Northern Territory as the first stage of a forward defence strategy . He aimed to make Darwin the " main Australian base for war " and a launching point for deployments to Southeast Asia , rather than simply a transit station . Over the next ten years , No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron transformed the base 's runways , buildings and other infrastructure into a modern facility capable of handling major operations . This concept was taken another step by McCauley 's successor as CAS , Air Marshal Scherger , who conceived a series of front @-@ line " bare bases " across Northern Australia , beginning with plans for RAAF Base Tindal in 1959 . Alan Stephens later described McCauley and Scherger as " among the RAAF 's better chiefs " .
= = Later life = =
After his retirement from the RAAF on 18 March 1957 , McCauley became active in community welfare organisations , chairing campaigns for the National Heart Foundation , Freedom From Hunger , the Royal Humane Society , and the Cancer Council in the late 1950s and early 1960s . From 1964 until 1974 , he served as Federal President of the Air Force Association . In this role he endorsed the initial proposal , featuring monumental statues of airmen and ground crew , for the Royal Australian Air Force Memorial to be located on ANZAC Parade , Canberra . The design ultimately approved by the final selection panel , however , was an abstract sculpture that was subsequently described as reflecting a " comprehensive failure to understand the nature of air force service " . McCauley visited RAAF units in Vietnam in October 1966 . In 1970 , he played a leading role in organising the Australian Services Council ( later the Australian Veterans and Defence Services Council ) to co @-@ ordinate lobbying efforts for various veterans ' groups , and became its first chairman . He was also President of the Good Neighbour Council of New South Wales from 1966 to 1975 . Aged 89 , McCauley died in Sydney 's St Vincent 's Hospital on 3 February 1989 , following a stroke . He was survived by his three children ; his wife had died two years earlier .
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= George Formby =
George Formby , OBE ( born George Hoy Booth ; 26 May 1904 – 6 March 1961 ) , was an English actor , singer @-@ songwriter and comedian who became known to a worldwide audience through his films of the 1930s and 1940s . On stage , screen and record he sang light , comical songs , usually playing the ukulele or banjolele , and became the UK 's highest @-@ paid entertainer .
Born in Wigan , Lancashire , he was the son of George Formby Sr , from whom he later took his stage name . After an early career as a stable boy and jockey , Formby took to the music hall stage after the early death of his father in 1921 . His early performances were taken exclusively from his father 's act , including the same songs , jokes and characters . In 1923 he made two career @-@ changing decisions – he purchased a ukulele , and married Beryl Ingham , a fellow performer who became his manager and transformed his act . She insisted that he appear on stage formally dressed , and introduced the ukulele to his performance . He started his recording career in 1926 and , from 1934 , he increasingly worked in film to develop into a major star by the late 1930s and 1940s , and became the UK 's most popular entertainer during those decades . The media historian Brian McFarlane writes that on film , Formby portrayed gormless Lancastrian innocents who would win through against some form of villainy , gaining the affection of an attractive middle @-@ class girl in the process .
During the Second World War Formby worked extensively for the Entertainments National Service Association ( ENSA ) , and entertained civilians and troops , and by 1946 it was estimated that he had performed in front of three million service personnel . After the war his career declined , although he toured the Commonwealth , and continued to appear in variety and pantomime . His last television appearance was in December 1960 , two weeks before the death of Beryl . He surprised people by announcing his engagement to a school teacher seven weeks after Beryl 's funeral , but died in Preston three weeks later , at the age of 56 ; he was buried in Warrington , alongside his father .
Formby 's biographer , Jeffrey Richards , considers that the actor " had been able to embody simultaneously Lancashire , the working classes , the people , and the nation " . Formby was considered Britain 's first properly home @-@ grown screen comedian . He was an influence on future comedians — particularly Charlie Drake and Norman Wisdom — and , culturally , on entertainers such as the Beatles , who referred to him in their music . Since his death Formby has been the subject of five biographies , two television specials and two works of public sculpture .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1904 – 21 = = =
George Formby was born George Hoy Booth at 3 Westminster Street , Wigan , Lancashire , on 26 May 1904 . He was the eldest of seven surviving children born to James Lawler Booth and his wife Eliza , née Hoy , although this marriage was bigamous because Formby Sr was still married to his first wife , Martha Maria Salter , a twenty @-@ year @-@ old music hall performer . Booth was a successful music hall comedian and singer who performed under the name George Formby ( he is now known as George Formby Sr ) . Formby Sr suffered from a chest ailment , identified variously as bronchitis , asthma or tuberculosis , and would use the cough as part of the humour in his act , saying to the audience , " Bronchitis , I 'm a bit tight tonight " , or " coughing better tonight " . One of his main characters was that of John Willie , an " archetypal Lancashire lad " . In 1906 Formby Sr was earning £ 35 a week at the music halls , which rose to £ 325 a week by 1920 , and Formby grew up in an affluent home . Formby Sr was so popular that Marie Lloyd , the influential music hall singer and actress , would only watch two acts : his and that of Dan Leno .
Formby was born blind owing to an obstructive caul , although his sight was restored during a violent coughing fit or sneeze when he was a few months old . After briefly attending school — at which he did not prosper , and did not learn to read or write — Formby was removed from formal education at the age of seven and sent to become a stable boy , briefly in Wiltshire and then in Middleham , Yorkshire . Formby Sr sent his son away to work as he was worried Formby would watch him on stage ; he was against Formby following in his footsteps , saying " one fool in the family is enough " . After a year working at Middleham , he was apprenticed to Thomas Scourfield at Epsom , where he ran his first professional races at the age of 10 , when he weighed less than 4 stone ( 56 lb ; 25 kg ) .
In 1915 Formby Sr allowed his son to appear on screen , taking the lead in By the Shortest of Heads , a thriller directed by Bert Haldane in which Formby played a stable boy who outwits a gang of villains and wins a £ 10 @,@ 000 prize when he comes first in a horse race . The film is now considered lost , with the last @-@ known copy having been destroyed in 1940 . Later in 1915 , and with the closure of the English racing season because of the First World War , Formby moved to Ireland where he continued as a jockey until November 1918 . Later that month he returned to England and raced for Lord Derby at his Newmarket stables . Formby continued as a jockey until 1921 , although he never won a race .
= = = Beginning a stage career : 1921 – 34 = = =
On 8 February 1921 Formby Sr succumbed to his bronchial condition and died , at the age of 45 ; he was buried in the Catholic section of Warrington Cemetery . After his father 's funeral Eliza took the young Formby to London to help him cope with his grief . While there , they visited the Victoria Palace Theatre — where Formby Sr had previously been so successful — and saw a performance by the Tyneside comedian Tommy Dixon . Dixon was performing a copy of Formby Sr 's act , using the same songs , jokes , costumes and mannerisms , and billed himself as " The New George Formby " , a name which angered Eliza and Formby even more . The performance prompted Formby to follow in his father 's profession , a decision which was supported by Eliza . As he had never seen his father perform live , Formby found the imitation difficult and had to learn his father 's songs from records , and the rest of his act and jokes from his mother .
On 21 March 1921 Formby gave his first professional appearance in a two @-@ week run at the Hippodrome in Earlestown , Lancashire , where he received a fee of £ 5 a week . In the show he was billed as George Hoy , using his mother 's maiden name — he explained later that he did not want the Formby name to appear in small print . His father 's name was used in the posters and advertising , George Hoy being described as " Comedian . ( son of George Formby ) " . While still appearing in Earlestown Formby was hired to appear at the Moss Empire chain of theatres for £ 17 10s a week . His first night was unsuccessful and he later said of it , " I was the first turn , three minutes , died the death of a dog " . He toured around venues in Northern England , although he was not well received , and was booed and hissed while performing in Blyth , Northumberland . As a result he experienced frequent periods of unemployment — up to three months at one point . Formby spent two years as a support act touring round the northern halls , and although he was poorly paid , his mother supported him financially .
In 1923 Formby started to play the ukulele , although the exact circumstances of how he came to play the instrument are unknown , and he introduced it into his act during a run at the Alhambra Theatre in Barnsley . When the songs — still his father 's material — were well received , he changed his stage name to George Formby , and stopped using the John Willie character . Another significant event was his appearance in Castleford , West Yorkshire , where appearing on the same bill was Beryl Ingham , an Accrington @-@ born champion clogdancer and actress who had won the All England Step Dancing title at the age of 11 . Beryl , who had formed a dancing act with her sister , May , called " The Two Violets " , had a low opinion of Formby 's act , and later said that " if I 'd had a bag of rotten tomatoes with me I 'd have thrown them at him " . Formby and Beryl entered into a relationship and married two years later , on 13 September 1924 , at a register office in Wigan , with Formby 's aunt and uncle as witnesses . Upon hearing the news , Eliza insisted on the couple having a church wedding , which followed two months later .
Beryl took over as George 's manager , and changed aspects of his act , including the songs and jokes . She instructed him on how to use his hands , and how to work his audience . She also persuaded him to change his stage dress to black tie — although he appeared in a range of other costumes too — and to take lessons in how to play the ukulele properly . By June 1926 he was proficient enough to earn a one @-@ off record deal — negotiated by Beryl — to sing six of his father 's songs for the Edison Bell / Winner label . Formby spent the next few years touring , largely in the north , but also appearing at the Shepherd 's Bush Empire , his official London debut . Although he had a further recording session in October 1929 , performing two songs for Dominion Records , " Beryl 's avaricious demands would prevent any serious contract from coming George 's way " , according to David Bret , Formby 's biographer . That changed in 1932 , when Formby signed a three @-@ year deal with Decca Records . One of the songs he recorded in July was " Chinese Laundry Blues " , telling the story of Mr Wu , which became one of his standard songs , and part of a long @-@ running series of songs about the character . Over the course of his career Formby went on to record over 200 songs , around 90 of which were written by Fred Cliffe and Harry Gifford . In the 1932 winter season Formby appeared in his first pantomime , Babes in the Wood , in Bolton , after which he toured with the George Formby Road Show around the north of England , with Beryl acting as the commère ; the show also toured in 1934 .
= = = Burgeoning film career : 1934 – 40 = = =
With Formby 's growing success on stage , Beryl decided it was time for him to move into films . In 1934 she approached the producer Basil Dean , the head of Associated Talking Pictures ( ATP ) . Although he expressed an interest in Formby , he did not like the associated demands from Beryl . She also met the representative of Warner Bros. in the UK , Irving Asher , who was dismissive , saying that Formby was " too stupid to play the bad guy and too ugly to play the hero " . Three weeks later Formby was approached by John E. Blakeley of Blakeley 's Productions , who offered him a one @-@ film deal .
The film , Boots ! Boots ! , was shot on a budget of £ 3 @,@ 000 in a one @-@ room studio in Albany Street , London . Formby played the John Willie character , while Beryl also appeared , and the couple were paid £ 100 for the two weeks ' work , plus 10 per cent of the profits . The film followed a revue format , and Jo Botting , writing for the British Film Institute , describes it as having a " wafer @-@ thin plot " that is " almost incidental " . Botting also considers the film has " poor sound quality , static scene set @-@ ups and [ a ] lack of sets " , and while it did not impress the critics , audience figures were high . Formby followed this up with Off the Dole in 1935 , again for Blakeley , who had re @-@ named his company Mancunian Films . The film cost £ 3 @,@ 000 to make , and earned £ 80 @,@ 000 at the box office . As with Boots ! Boots ! , the film was in a revue format , and Formby again played John Willie , with Beryl as his co @-@ star . According to Formby 's biographer , Jeffrey Richards , the two films for Blakeley " are an invaluable record of the pre @-@ cinematic Formby at work " .
The success of the pictures led Dean to offer Formby a seven @-@ year contract with ATP , which resulted in the production of 11 films , although Dean 's fellow producer , Michael Balcon , considered Formby to be " an odd and not particularly loveable character " . The first film from the deal was released in 1935 . No Limit features Formby as an entrant in the Isle of Man annual Tourist Trophy ( TT ) motorcycle race . Monty Banks directed , and Florence Desmond took the female lead . According to Richards , Dean did not try " to play down Formby 's Lancashire character " for the film , and employed Walter Greenwood , the Salford @-@ born author of the 1933 novel Love on the Dole , as the scriptwriter . Filming was troubled , with Beryl being difficult to everyone present . The writer Matthew Sweet describes the set as " a battleground " because of her actions , and Banks unsuccessfully requested that Dean bar Beryl from the studio . The Observer thought that parts of No Limit were " pretty dull stuff " , but the race footage was " shot and cut to a maximum of excitement " . Regarding the star of the film , the reviewer thought that " our Lancashire George is a grand lad ; he can gag and clown , play the banjo and sing with authority ... Still and all , he doesn 't do too bad . " The film was so popular it was reissued in 1938 , 1946 and 1957 .
The formula used for No Limit was repeated in his following works : Formby played " the urban ' little man ' defeated — but refusing to admit it " . He portrayed a good @-@ natured , but accident @-@ prone and incompetent Lancastrian , who was often in a skilled trade , or the services . The plots were geared to Formby trying to achieve success in a field unfamiliar to him ( in horse racing , the TT Races , as a spy or a policeman ) , and by winning the affections of a middle @-@ class girl in the process . Interspersed throughout each film is a series of songs by Formby , in which he plays the banjo , banjolele or ukulele . The songs are , in the words of the academic Brian McFarlane , " unpretentiously skilful in their balance between broad comedy and action , laced with ... [ Formby 's ] shy ordinariness " .
No Limit was followed by Keep Your Seats , Please in 1936 , which was again directed by Banks with Desmond returning as the co @-@ star . Tensions arose in pre @-@ production with Banks and some of the cast requesting to Dean that Beryl be banned from the set . Tempers had also become strained between Formby and Desmond , who were not on speaking terms except to film scenes . The situation became so bad that Dean avoided visiting his studios for the month of filming . The film contained the song " The Window Cleaner " ( popularly known as " When I 'm Cleaning Windows " ) , which was soon banned by the BBC . The corporation 's director John Reith stated that " if the public wants to listen to Formby singing his disgusting little ditty , they 'll have to be content to hear it in the cinemas , not over the nation 's airwaves " ; Formby and Beryl were furious with the block on the song . In May 1941 Beryl informed the BBC that the song was a favourite of the royal family , particularly Queen Mary , while a statement by Formby pointed out that " I sang it before the King and Queen at the Royal Variety Performance " . The BBC relented and started to broadcast the song .
When production finished on Keep Your Seats , Please , Beryl insisted that for the next film there should be " no Eye @-@ Ties [ sic ] and stuck @-@ up little trollops involved " , referring to Banks and Desmond , respectively . Dean had tired of the on @-@ set squabbles , and for the third ATP film , Feather Your Nest , he appointed William Beaudine as the director , and Polly Ward , the niece of the music hall star Marie Lloyd , as the female lead . Bret describes the songs in the film as " comparatively bland " , but " with the exception of the one which would become immortal " : " Leaning on a Lamp @-@ post " .
By the time of the next production , Keep Fit in 1937 , Dean had begun to assemble a special team at Ealing Studios to help develop and produce the Formby films ; key among the members were the director Anthony Kimmins , who went on to direct five of Formby 's films . Kay Walsh was cast as the leading lady and , in the absences of Beryl from the set , Formby and Walsh had an affair , after she fell for his " flirtatious behaviour off @-@ camera " . Although Beryl was furious with Walsh , and tried to have her removed from the film , a showdown with Dean proved fruitless . Dean informed her that Walsh was to remain the lead in both Keep Fit , and in Formby 's next film ( I See Ice , 1938 ) ; to mollify her Dean raised Formby 's fee for the latter film to £ 25 @,@ 000 .
When filming concluded on I See Ice , Formby spent the 1937 summer season performing in the revue King Cheer at the Opera House Theatre , Blackpool , before appearing in a 12 @-@ minute slot in the Royal Variety Performance at the London Palladium that November . The popularity of his performances meant that in 1937 he was the top British male star in box office takings , a position he held every subsequent year until 1943 . Additionally , between 1938 and 1942 he was also the highest @-@ paid entertainer in Britain , and by the end of the 1930s was earning £ 100 @,@ 000 a year . In early 1938 Dean informed the Formbys that in the next film , It 's in the Air , Banks would return to direct and Walsh would again be the leading lady . Beryl objected strongly , and Kimmins continued his directorial duties , while Ward was brought in for the female lead . Beryl , as she did with all Formby 's female co @-@ stars , " read the ' keep @-@ your @-@ hands @-@ off @-@ my @-@ husband ' riot act " to the actress . In May , while filming It 's in the Air , Formby purchased a Rolls @-@ Royce , with the personalised number plate GF 1 . Every year afterwards he would purchase either a new Rolls Royce or Bentley , buying 26 over the course of his life .
In the autumn of 1938 Formby began work on Trouble Brewing , released the following year with 19 @-@ year @-@ old Googie Withers as the female lead ; Kimmins again directed . Withers later recounted that Formby did not speak to her until , during a break in filming when Beryl was not present , he whispered out of the corner of his mouth " I 'm sorry , love , but you know , I 'm not allowed to speak to you " , something she thought was " very sweet " . His second release of 1939 — shortly after the outbreak of the Second World War — was Come On George ! , which cast Pat Kirkwood in the female lead ; the pair disliked each other intensely , and neither of the Formbys liked several of the other senior cast members . Come On George ! was screened for troops serving in France before being released in Britain .
= = = Second World War : service with ENSA = = =
At the outbreak of the Second World War Dean left ATP and became the head of the Entertainments National Service Association ( ENSA ) , the organisation that provided entertainment to the British Armed Forces . Over the course of five months Formby requested to sign up for ENSA , but was denied ; Dean relented in February 1940 , and Formby was signed on a fixed salary of £ 10 per week , although he still remained under contact to ATP . He undertook his first tour in France in March , where he performed for members of the British Expeditionary Force .
The social research organisation Mass @-@ Observation recorded that Formby 's first film of 1940 , Let George Do It ! , gave a particularly strong boost to early @-@ war British civilian morale . In a dream sequence after being drugged , Formby 's character parachutes into a Nuremberg Rally and punches Hitler . According to Richards , the scene provided " the visual encapsulation of the people 's war with the English Everyman flooring the Nazi Superman " . The scene was so striking that the film became Formby 's first international release , in the US , under the title To Hell With Hitler , and in Moscow — where it was released in 1943 under the title Dinky Doo — it was shown to packed houses and received record box @-@ office takings for over ten months . The critics also praised the film , and the Kinematograph Weekly called it Formby 's " best performance to date " , and the film , " a box office certainty " .
Formby 's ENSA commitments were heavy , touring factories , theatres and concert halls around Britain . He also gave free concerts for charities and worthy causes , and raised £ 10 @,@ 000 for the Fleetwood Fund on behalf of the families of missing trawlermen . He and Beryl also set up their own charities , such as the OK Club for Kids , whose aim was to provide cigarettes for Yorkshire soldiers , and the Jump Fund , to provide home @-@ knitted balaclavas , scarves and socks to servicemen . Formby also joined the Home Guard as a dispatch rider , where he took his duties seriously , and fitted them around his other work whenever he could .
Formby continued filming with ATP , and his second film of 1940 , Spare a Copper , was again focused on an aspect of the war , this time combating fifth columnists and saboteurs in a Merseyside dockyard . Cinema @-@ goers had begun to tire of war films , and his next venture , Turned Out Nice Again returned to less contentious issues , with Formby 's character caught in a domestic battle between his new wife and mother . Early in the filming schedule , he took time to perform in an ENSA show that was broadcast on the BBC from Aldwych tube station as Let the People Sing ; he sang four songs , and told the audience , " Don 't forget , it 's wonderful to be British ! " Towards the end of 1940 Formby tried to enlist for active military service , despite Beryl informing him that by being a member of ENSA he was already signed up . The examining board rejected him as being unfit , because he had sinusitis and arthritic toes . He spent the winter season in pantomime at the Opera House Theatre , Blackpool , portraying Idle Jack in Dick Whittington . When the season came to an end the Formbys moved to London and , in May 1941 , performed for the royal family at Windsor Castle . He had commissioned a new set of inoffensive lyrics for " When I 'm Cleaning Windows " , but was informed that he should sing the original , uncensored version , which was enjoyed by the royal party , particularly Queen Mary , who asked for a repeat of the song . King George VI presented Formby with a set of gold cuff links , and advised him to " wear them , not put them away " .
With the ATP contract at an end , Formby decided not to renew or push for an extension . Robert Murphy , in his study of wartime British cinema , points out that Balcon , Formby 's producer at the time , " seems to have made little effort to persuade him not to transfer his allegiance " , despite the box office success enjoyed by Let George Do It and Spare a Copper . Numerous offers came in , and Formby selected the American company Columbia Pictures , in a deal worth in excess of £ 500 @,@ 000 to make a minimum of six films — seven were eventually made . Formby set up his own company , Hillcrest Productions , to distribute the films , and had the final decision on the choice of director , scriptwriter and theme , while Columbia would have the choice of leading lady . Part of Formby 's reasoning behind the decision was a desire for parts with more character , something that would not have happened at ATP .
At the end of August 1941 production began on Formby 's first film for Columbia , South American George , which took six weeks to complete . Formby 's move to an American company was controversial , and although his popular appeal seemed unaffected , his " films were treated with increasing critical hostility " , according to John Mundy in his 2007 examination of British musical film . The reviewer for The Times wrote that the story was " confused " and considered that " there is not sufficient comic invention in the telling " of it . Murphy writes that the criticism " had more to do with the inadequate vehicles which he subsequently appeared in than in any diminution of his personal popularity . "
In early 1942 Formby undertook a three @-@ week , 72 @-@ show tour of Northern Ireland , largely playing to troops but also undertaking fund @-@ raising shows for charity — one at the Belfast Hippodrome raised £ 500 . He described his time in Ulster as " the pleasantest tour I 've ever undertaken " . He returned to the mainland by way of the Isle of Man , where he entertained the troops guarding the internment camps . After further charity shows — raising £ 8 @,@ 000 for a tank fund — Formby was the associate producer for the Vera Lynn film We 'll Meet Again ( 1943 ) . In March he also filmed Much Too Shy which was released in October that year . Although the film was poorly received by the critics , the public still attended in large numbers , and the film was profitable .
In the summer of 1942 Formby was involved in a controversy with the Lord 's Day Observance Society , who had filed law suits against the BBC for playing secular music on Sunday . The society began a campaign against the entertainment industry , claiming all theatrical activity on a Sunday were unethical , and cited a 1667 law which made it illegal . With 60 leading entertainers already avoiding Sunday working , Dean informed Formby that his stance would be crucial in avoiding a spread of the problem . Formby issued a statement , " I 'll hang up my uke on Sundays only when our lads stop fighting and getting killed on Sundays ... as far as the Lord 's Day Observance Society are concerned , they can mind their own bloody business . And in any case , what have they done for the war effort except get on everyone 's nerves ? " The following day it was announced that the pressure from the society was to be lifted .
At the end of the year Formby started filming Get Cracking , a story about the Home Guard , which was completed in under a month , the tight schedule brought about by an impending ENSA tour of the Mediterranean . Between the end of filming Get Cracking and the release of the film in May 1943 , Formby undertook a tour of Northern Scotland and the Orkney Islands , and had nearly completed shooting on his next film , Bell @-@ Bottom George . The reviewer for The Times opined that " Get Cracking , although a distinct improvement on other films in which Mr Formby has appeared , is cut too closely to fit the demands of an individual technique to achieve any real life of its own " .
Bell @-@ Bottom George was described 60 years later by the academic Baz Kershaw as being " unashamedly gay and ... peppered with homoerotic scenes " ; Bret concurs , and notes that " the majority of the cast and almost every one of the male extras was unashamedly gay " , The film was a hit with what Bret describes as Formby 's " surprisingly large , closeted gay following " . The reviewer for The Manchester Guardian was impressed with the film , and wrote that " there is a new neatness of execution and lightness of touch about this production ... while George himself can no longer be accused of trailing clouds of vaudevillian glory " . The reviewer also considered Formby " our first authentic and strictly indigenous film comedian " . After completing filming , the Formbys undertook a further ENSA tour . Although Dean personally disliked the Formbys , he greatly admired the tireless work they did for the organisation . In August Formby undertook a 53 @-@ day tour in a significant portion of the Mediterranean , including Italy , Sicily , Malta , Gibraltar , Libya , Tunisia , Egypt , Lebanon and Palestine ; visiting 750 @,@ 000 troops in thirteen countries , touring 25 @,@ 000 miles ( 40 @,@ 000 km ) in the process and returning to England in October . The couple travelled around the countryside in a Ford Mercury that Formby had purchased from the racing driver Sir Malcolm Campbell , which had been converted to sleep two in the back .
In January 1944 Formby described his experiences touring for ENSA in Europe and the Middle East in a BBC radio broadcast . He said that the troops " were worrying quite a lot about you folks at home , but we soon put them right about that . We told them that after four and a half years , Britain was still the best country to live in " . Shortly after he began filming He Snoops to Conquer — his fifth picture for Columbia — he was visited on set by the Dance Music Policy Committee ( DMPC ) , an organisation responsible for vetting music for broadcast , which had also been given responsibility for checking if music was sympathetic towards the enemy during the war . The DMPC interviewed Formby about three songs that had been included in Bell @-@ Bottom George : " Swim Little Fish " , " If I Had a Girl Like You " and " Bell @-@ Bottom George " . Formby was summoned to the BBC 's offices to perform his three songs in front of the committee , with his song checked against the available sheet music . A week later , on 1 February , the committee met and decided the songs were innocuous , although Formby was told that he would have to get further clearance if the lyrics were changed . Bret opines that he had been the victim of a plot by a member of the Variety Artists ' Federation , following Formby 's scathing comments on entertainers who were too scared to leave London to entertain the troops . The comments , which appeared in the forces magazine Union Jack , were then widely reported in the press in Britain . The Variety Artists ' Federation demanded that Formby release names , and threatened him with action if he did not do so , but he refused to give in to their pressure .
Formby went to Normandy in July 1944 in the vanguard of a wave of ENSA performers . He and Beryl travelled over on a rough crossing to Arromanches giving a series of impromptu concerts to troops in improvised conditions , including on the backs of farm carts and army lorries , or in bomb @-@ cratered fields . In one location the German front line was too close for him to perform , so he crawled into the trenches and told jokes with the troops there . He then boarded HMS Ambitious for his first scheduled concert before returning to France to continue his tour . During dinner with General Bernard Montgomery , whom he had met in North Africa , Formby was invited to visit the glider crews of 6th Airborne Division , who had been holding a series of bridges without relief for 56 days . He did so on 17 August in a one @-@ day visit to the front line bridges , where he gave nine shows , all standing beside a sandbag wall , ready to jump into a slit trench in case of problems ; much of the time his audience were in foxholes . After the four @-@ week tour of France , Formby returned home to start work on I Didn 't Do It ( released in 1945 ) , although he continued to work on ENSA concerts and tours in Britain . Between January and March 1945 , shortly after the release of He Snoops to Conquer , he left on an ENSA tour that took in Burma , India and Ceylon ( the latter is now Sri Lanka ) . The concerts in the Far East were his last for ENSA , and by the end of the war it was estimated that he had performed in front of three million service personnel .
= = = Post @-@ war career : 1946 – 52 = = =
In 1946 " With My Little Stick of Blackpool Rock " , which Formby had recorded in 1937 , began to cause problems at the BBC for broadcasts of Formby or his music . The producer of one of Formby 's live television programmes received a letter from a BBC manager that stated " We have no record that " With My Little Stick of Blackpool Rock " is banned . We do however know and so does Formby , that certain lines in the lyric must not be broadcast " . Other sources , including the BBC , state that the song was banned from being broadcast . Between July and October 1946 Formby filmed George in Civvy Street , which would be his final film . The story concerns the rivalry between two pubs : the Unicorn , bequeathed to Formby 's character , and the Lion , which was owned by his childhood sweetheart — played by Rosalyn Boulter — but run by an unscrupulous manager . Richards considers the film to have " symbolic significance " ; at the end , with the marriage between the two pub owners , Formby " bowed out of films unifying the nation mythically , communally and matrimonially " .
The film was less successful at the box office than his previous works , as audience tastes had changed in the post @-@ war world . Fisher opines that because of his tireless war work , Formby had become too synonymous with the war , causing the public to turn away from him , much as they had from the wartime British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill . Bret believes that post @-@ war audiences wanted intrigue , suspense and romance , through the films of James Mason , Stewart Granger , David Niven and Laurence Olivier . Bret also indicates that Formby 's cinematic decline was shared by similar performers , including Gracie Fields , Tommy Trinder and Will Hay . Formby 's biographers , Alan Randall and Ray Seaton , opine that in his late 40s , Formby " was greying and thickening out " , and was too old to play the innocent young Lancashire lad . The slump in his screen popularity hit Formby hard , and he became depressed . In early 1946 Beryl checked him into a psychiatric hospital under her maiden name , Ingham . He came out after five weeks , in time for a tour of Scandinavia in May .
On his return from Scandinavia Formby went into pantomime in Blackpool ; while there , he learned of his appointment as Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1946 King 's Birthday Honours . Although delighted , he was upset that Beryl went without official recognition , and said " if somethin ' was comin ' our way , ah 'd like it to be somethin ' Beryl could have shared " . Later that year the Formbys toured South Africa shortly before formal racial apartheid was introduced . While there they refused to play racially @-@ segregated venues . When Formby was cheered by a black audience after embracing a small black girl who had presented his wife with a box of chocolates , National Party leader Daniel François Malan ( who later introduced apartheid ) phoned to complain . Beryl replied " Why don 't you piss off , you horrible little man ? "
Formby returned to Britain at Christmas and appeared in Dick Whittington at the Grand Theatre , Leeds for nine weeks , and then , in February 1947 , he appeared in variety for two weeks at the London Palladium . Reviewing the show , The Times thought Formby was " more than ever the mechanized perfection of naive jollity . His smile , though fixed , is winning , and his songs ... are catchy " . In September that year he went on a 12 @-@ week tour of Australia and New Zealand . On his return he was offered more film roles , but turned them down , saying " when I look back on some of the films I 've done in the past it makes me want to cringe . I 'm afraid the days of being a clown are gone . From now on I 'm only going to do variety " . He began suffering increasing health problems including a gastric ulcer , and was treated for breathing problems from his heavy smoking . He finished the year in pantomime , appearing as Buttons in Cinderella at the Liverpool Empire Theatre , with Beryl playing Dandini .
In September 1949 Formby went on a 19 city coast @-@ to @-@ coast Canadian tour , from which he returned unwell . While subsequently appearing in Cinderella in Leeds , he collapsed in his dressing room . The attending doctor administered morphine , to which Formby briefly became addicted . Further poor health plagued him into 1950 , with a bout of dysentery , followed by appendicitis , after which he recuperated in Norfolk , before giving another royal command performance that April . He undertook two further international tours that year : one to Scandinavia , and a second to Canada . His earnings of Ca $ 200 @,@ 000 were heavily taxed : Canadian taxes took up $ 68 @,@ 000 , and UK taxes took 90 % of the balance . Formby complained to reporters about the level of taxation , saying " That 's it . So long as the government keeps bleeding me dry , I shan 't be in much of a hurry to work again ! " ; he and Beryl spent the rest of the year resting in Norfolk , in temporary retirement .
Formby was tempted back to work by the theatrical impresario Emile Littler , who offered him the lead role of Percy Piggott in Zip Goes a Million , a play based on the 1902 novel Brewster 's Millions by G. B. McCutcheon ; Formby was offered £ 1 @,@ 500 , plus a share of the box @-@ office takings . The show premiered at the Coventry Hippodrome in September 1951 before opening at the Palace Theatre , London on 20 October . The Times commented unfavourably , saying that although the audience were appreciative of the play , they " could not conceivably have detected a spark of wit in either the lyrics or the dialogue " ; the paper was equally dismissive of Formby , writing that " he has a deft way with a song or a banjo , but little or no finesse in his handling of a comic situation " .
A month after the play opened in London , Formby was the guest star on Desert Island Discs , where one of his choices was his father 's " Standing on the Corner of the Street " . In early 1952 Formby 's health began to decline and , on 28 April , he decided to withdraw from Zip Goes a Million . On the way to the theatre to inform Littler , Formby suffered a heart attack , although it took the doctors five days to diagnose the coronary and admit him to hospital . He was treated for both the attack , and his morphine addiction . He stayed in hospital for nine weeks before returning home to Lytham St Annes , Lancashire , where he announced his retirement .
= = = Health problems and intermittent work : 1952 – 60 = = =
During his recuperation Formby contracted gastroenteritis and had a suspected blood clot on his lung , after which he underwent an operation to clear a fishbone that was stuck in his throat . He had recovered sufficiently by April 1953 to undertake a 17 @-@ show tour of Southern Rhodesia ( now Zimbabwe ) , before a special appearance at the Southport Garrick Theatre . That September he turned on the Blackpool Illuminations .
From October to December 1953 Formby appeared at the London Palladium in 138 performances of the revue Fun and the Fair , with Terry @-@ Thomas and the Billy Cotton band ; Formby appeared in the penultimate act of the evening , with Terry @-@ Thomas closing the show . Although Formby 's act was well @-@ received , the show was not as successful as had been hoped , and Terry @-@ Thomas later wrote that " Formby put the audience in a certain mood which made them non @-@ receptive to whoever followed ... Even though my act was the star spot , I felt on this occasion that my being there was an anti @-@ climax " . He requested that the order be changed to have Formby close the show , but this was turned down . Formby suffered from stage fright during the show 's run — the first time he had suffered from the condition since his earliest days on stage — and his bouts of depression returned , along with stomach problems .
Formby took a break from work until mid @-@ 1954 , when he starred in the revue Turned Out Nice Again , in Blackpool . Although the show was initially scheduled to run for 13 weeks , it was cut short after six when Formby suffered again from dysentery and depression . He again announced his retirement , but continued to work . After some television appearances on Ask Pickles and Top of the Town , in late 1954 and early 1955 respectively , Formby travelled to South Africa for a tour , where Beryl negotiated an agreement with the South African premier Johannes Strijdom to play in venues of Formby 's choice , and then sailed to Canada for a ten @-@ day series of performances . On the return voyage he contracted bronchial pneumonia , but still joined the cast of the non @-@ musical play Too Young to Marry on his arrival in Britain .
In August 1955 Beryl felt unwell and went for tests : she was diagnosed with cancer of the uterus and was given two years to live . The couple reacted to the news in different ways , and while Beryl began to drink heavily — up to a bottle of whisky a day to dull the pain — George began to work harder , and began a close friendship with a school teacher , Pat Howson .
Too Young to Marry toured between September 1955 and November 1956 , but still allowed Formby time to appear in the Christmas pantomime Babes in the Wood at the Liverpool Empire Theatre . The touring production was well received everywhere except in Scotland , where Formby 's attempted Scottish accent is thought to have put people off . For Christmas 1956 he appeared in his first London pantomime , playing Idle Jack in Dick Whittington and His Cat at the Palace Theatre , although he withdrew from the run in early February after suffering from laryngitis . According to Bret , Formby spent the remainder of 1957 " doing virtually nothing " , although he appeared in two television programmes , Val Parnell 's Saturday Spectacular in July and Top of the Bill in October .
From March 1958 Formby appeared in the musical comedy Beside the Seaside , a Holiday Romp in Hull , Blackpool , Birmingham and Brighton . By the time it reached Brighton the play was playing to increasingly small audiences , and the run was cut short as a result . The play may not have been to southern audiences ' tastes — the plot centres on a northern family 's holiday in Blackpool — and the Brighton audiences may have been too small , but those in the north , particularly Blackpool , thought highly of it and the show was a nightly sell @-@ out . When the show closed Formby was disappointed , and vowed never to appear in another stage musical . The year 1958 was professionally quiet for him ; in addition to Beside the Seaside , he also worked in one @-@ off appearances in three television shows . He began 1959 by appearing in Val Parnell 's Spectacular : The Atlantic Showboat in January , and in April hosted his own show , Steppin ' Out With Formby . During the summer season he appeared at the Windmill Theatre , Great Yarmouth , although he missed two weeks of performances when he was involved in a car crash on the August Bank Holiday . When doctors examined him , they were concerned with his overall health , partly as a result of his forty cigarettes @-@ a @-@ day smoking habit . He also had high blood pressure , was overweight and had heart problems .
Formby 's final year of work was 1960 . That May he recorded his last session of songs , " Happy Go Lucky Me " and " Banjo Boy " , the latter of which peaked at number 40 in the UK Singles Chart . He then spent the summer season at the Queen 's Theatre in Blackpool in The Time of Your Life — a performance which was also broadcast by the BBC . One of the acts in the show was the singer Yana , with whom Formby had an affair , made easier because of Beryl 's absence from the theatre through illness . His final televised performance , a 35 @-@ minute BBC programme , The Friday Show : George Formby , was aired on 16 December . Bret considers the programme to be Formby 's " greatest performance — it was certainly his most sincere " , although reviewing for The Guardian , Mary Crozier thought it " too slow " . She went on to say " George Formby is really a music @-@ hall star , and it needs the warmth and sociability of the theatre to bring out his full appeal " . Beryl 's illness was worsening . Worn down by the strain , and feeling the need to escape , Formby took the part of Mr Wu in Aladdin in Bristol , having turned down a more lucrative part in Blackpool .
= = = Final months : a new romance , death and family dispute = = =
Two hours before the premiere of Aladdin — on Christmas Eve — Formby received a phone call from Beryl 's doctor , saying that she was in a coma and was not expected to survive the night ; Formby went through with the performance , and was told early the next morning that Beryl had died . Her cremation took place on 27 December , and an hour after the service Formby returned to Bristol to appear in that day 's matinee performance of Aladdin . He continued in the show until 14 January when a cold forced him to rest , on doctors ' advice . He returned to Lytham St Annes and communicated with Pat Howson ; she contacted his doctor and Formby was instructed to go to hospital , where he remained for the next two weeks .
On Valentine 's Day 1961 , seven weeks after Beryl 's death , Formby and Howson announced their engagement . Eight days later he suffered a further heart attack which was so severe that he was given the last rites of the Catholic Church on his arrival at hospital . He was revived and , from his hospital bed , he and Howson planned their wedding , which was due to take place in May . He was still there when , on 6 March , he had a further heart attack and died at the age of 56 . The obituarist for The Times wrote that " he was the amateur of the old smoking concert platform turned into a music @-@ hall professional of genius " , while Donald Zec , writing in The Daily Mirror , called him " as great an entertainer as any of the giants of the music @-@ hall " . The Guardian considered that " with his ukulele , his songs , and his grinning patter , the sum was greater than any of those parts : a Lancashire character " , while in the eyes of the public , Formby 's " passing was genuinely and widely mourned " .
Formby was buried alongside his father in Warrington Cemetery with over 150 @,@ 000 mourners lining the route . The undertaker was Bruce Williams who , as Eddie Latta , had written songs for Formby . An hour after the ceremony the family read the will , which had been drawn up two weeks previously . Harry Scott — Formby 's valet and factotum — was to receive £ 5 @,@ 000 , while the rest was to go to Howson ; at probate Formby 's estate was valued at £ 135 @,@ 000 . Formby 's mother and siblings were angered by the will , and contested it . In the words of Bret " mourning ... [ Formby ] was marred by a greedy family squabbling over his not inconsiderable fortune " .
Because the will was contested , Formby 's solicitor insisted that a public auction was held for the contents of Formby 's house , which took place over three days in June . Howson offered to honour an earlier will by providing £ 5 @,@ 000 for Eliza and £ 2 @,@ 000 each for Formby 's sisters , but the offer was rejected , and the matter went to the High Court in London . The case was heard in May 1963 before Mr Justice Ormrod . At the end , Eliza was granted £ 5 @,@ 000 , and the sisters received £ 2 @,@ 000 each . Formby 's solicitor , John Crowther , acted for Howson , and explained that the bequest to Formby 's sisters from the older will was made " with reluctance " by Formby , who had described his family as " a set of scroungers " . The family appealed the decision and the matter lasted until September 1965 , when it was finally dismissed in Howson 's favour .
= = Screen persona and technique = =
Richards considers that Formby " had been able to embody simultaneously Lancashire , the working classes , the people , and the nation " ; Geoff King , in his examination of film comedy , also sees Formby as an icon , and writes that " [ Gracie ] Fields and Formby gained the status of national as well as regional figures , without sacrificing their distinctive regional personality traits " . While the national aspect was important for success outside the north , " the Lancashire accent remained to enhance his homely comic appeal " . The media historian Brian McFarlane writes that , on film , Formby portrayed " essentially gormless incompetents , aspiring to various kinds of professional success ... and even more improbably to a middle @-@ class girlfriend , usually in the clutches of some caddish type with a moustache . Invariably he scored on both counts " .
On an edition of ITV 's The South Bank Show in November 1992 , Richards commented that Formby " embodied qualities that people admired and found reassuring in the depression ... and you thought that here 's a man whom whatever is thrown at him , will come through and come out smiling — and people wanted that " . H.J. Igoe , writing in The Catholic Herald , thinks that " Formby has a common English touch . We warm to the kindly turnip face , the revolving eyes , the mouth like a slashed coconut , the silly little songs ... the melodiously tinny voice and twanging banjo . The comedian is the universal works — platoon and bar @-@ room simpleton — mother 's boy — the beloved henpeck — the father who cannot hang a picture and underlying his everyday folly there is the sublime wisdom of the ordinary fool who loves and trusts the world . His comedy is earthy , but never lascivious " .
Richards identifies in Formby " an innocence that was essentially childlike ... which explains why George was as popular with children as he was with adults " ; Igoe agrees , and writes that " we know he loves children , because himself he is a child " . Formby 's screen and stage persona of innocence and simplicity was not seen as ignorance or stupidity , although Basil Dean disagreed and thought that Formby " didn 't act gormless as many successful Lancashire comedians have done , he was gormless " . Much of the innocence in Formby 's performance is connected to sex , and the use of double entendres within his songs . John Caughie and Kevin Rockett , in their examination of British film , and Richards , see a connection between Formby 's approach to sex and the saucy seaside postcards of Donald McGill . Richards sees the function of Formby 's humour as being the same as McGill 's : " the harmless diffusion of a major source of tension in a deeply repressed and conventional society " . Formby 's delivery of the sexual content — what McFarlane identifies as being " sung with such a toothy grin and air of innocence " — negated any possible indignation , and this contrasts with the more overtly sexual delivery of other performers of the time , such as Max Miller and Frank Randle .
The ukulele expert Steven Sproat considers that Formby " was incredible ... There hasn 't really been a uke player since Formby — or even before Formby — who played quite like him " . Much of Formby 's virtuosity came from his right @-@ hand technique , the split stroke , and he developed his own fast and complicated syncopated musical style with a very fast right @-@ hand strum . Joe Cooper , writing in New Society , considered that " Nobody has ever reproduced the casual devastating right hand syncopation , which so delicately synchronised with deft left hand chord fingering " .
= = Legacy = =
Formby 's screen persona influenced Norman Wisdom in the 1950s and Charlie Drake in the following decade , although both these performers used pathos , which Formby avoided .
Shortly after Formby 's death a small group of fans formed the George Formby Society , which had its inaugural meeting at the Imperial Hotel Blackpool . George Harrison was a fan of Formby , a member of the Society and an advocate of the ukulele . The rest of the Beatles were also fans — they improvised with ukuleles during the recording breaks on Let It Be — and Formby 's influence can be heard in the song " Her Majesty " . The Beatles ' penultimate song , " Free as a Bird " , ends with a slight coda including a strummed ukulele by Harrison and the voice of John Lennon played backwards , saying " Turned out nice again " .
As of 2014 there are two public statues of Formby . The first , by the Manx artist Amanda Barton , is in Douglas , Isle of Man , and shows him leaning on a lamp @-@ post and dressed in the motorcycle leathers of a TT racer . Barton was also commissioned to provide a second statue for the Lancashire town of Wigan , which was unveiled in September 2007 in the town 's Grand Arcade shopping centre .
Formby has been the subject of five biographies as of 2014 . In the late 1960s Harry Scott published his reminiscences of Formby , The Fabulous Formby , in 14 issues of The Vellum , the magazine of the George Formby Society ; John Fisher published George Formby in 1975 before Alan Randall and Ray Seaton published their book in 1974 and David Bret produced George Formby : A Troubled Genius in 1999 . The last of the five to be published was by Sue Smart and Richard Bothway Howard in 2011 , It 's Turned Out Nice Again ! . There have also been two documentaries on British television , an edition of The South Bank Show in 1992 , and Frank Skinner on George Formby in 2011 .
In 2004 Formby was inducted into the Ukulele Hall of Fame , a non @-@ profit organisation for the preservation of ukulele history . His citation reads , in part : " He won such love and respect for his charismatic stage presence , technical skill and playful lyrics that he remains popular forty years after his death . " In June 2012 a Blackpool Boat Car tram , number 604 , was repainted and returned to service with sponsorship from the George Formby Society . The tram was named " George Formby OBE " and images of him are affixed within the trolley .
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= Douglas MacArthur =
" General MacArthur " and " Douglas McArthur " redirect here . For the Canadian politician , see Douglas Francis McArthur . For the diplomat , see Douglas MacArthur II . For other uses , see General MacArthur ( disambiguation ) .
Douglas MacArthur ( 26 January 1880 – 5 April 1964 ) was an American five @-@ star general and field marshal of the Philippine Army . He was Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and played a prominent role in the Pacific theater during World War II . He received the Medal of Honor for his service in the Philippines Campaign , which made him and his father Arthur MacArthur , Jr . , the first father and son to be awarded the medal . He was one of only five men ever to rise to the rank of General of the Army in the US Army , and the only man ever to become a field marshal in the Philippine Army .
Raised in a military family in the American Old West , MacArthur was valedictorian at the West Texas Military Academy , and First Captain at the United States Military Academy at West Point , where he graduated top of the class of 1903 . During the 1914 United States occupation of Veracruz , he conducted a reconnaissance mission , for which he was nominated for the Medal of Honor . In 1917 , he was promoted from major to colonel and became chief of staff of the 42nd ( Rainbow ) Division . In the fighting on the Western Front during World War I , he rose to the rank of brigadier general , was again nominated for a Medal of Honor , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross twice and the Silver Star seven times .
From 1919 to 1922 , MacArthur served as Superintendent of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point , where he attempted a series of reforms . His next assignment was in the Philippines , where in 1924 he was instrumental in quelling the Philippine Scout Mutiny . In 1925 , he became the Army 's youngest major general . He served on the court martial of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell and was president of the American Olympic Committee during the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam . In 1930 , he became Chief of Staff of the United States Army . As such , he was involved in the expulsion of the Bonus Army protesters from Washington , D.C. in 1932 , and the establishment and organization of the Civilian Conservation Corps . He retired from the US Army in 1937 to become Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines .
MacArthur was recalled to active duty in 1941 as commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East . A series of disasters followed , starting with the destruction of his air forces on 8 December 1941 , and the invasion of the Philippines by the Japanese . MacArthur 's forces were soon compelled to withdraw to Bataan , where they held out until May 1942 . In March 1942 , MacArthur , his family and his staff left nearby Corregidor Island in PT boats and escaped to Australia , where MacArthur became Supreme Commander , Southwest Pacific Area . For his defense of the Philippines , MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor . After more than two years of fighting in the Pacific , he fulfilled a promise to return to the Philippines . He officially accepted Japan 's surrender on 2 September 1945 , aboard the USS Missouri anchored in Tokyo Bay , and oversaw the occupation of Japan from 1945 to 1951 . As the effective ruler of Japan , he oversaw sweeping economic , political and social changes . He led the United Nations Command in the Korean War until he was removed from command by President Harry S. Truman on 11 April 1951 . He later became Chairman of the Board of Remington Rand .
= = Early life and education = =
A military brat , Douglas MacArthur was born 26 January 1880 , at the Arsenal Barracks in Little Rock , Arkansas , to Arthur MacArthur , Jr . , a U.S. Army captain , and his wife , Mary Pinkney Hardy MacArthur ( nicknamed " Pinky " ) . Arthur , Jr. was the son of jurist and politician Arthur MacArthur , Sr. , Arthur would later receive the Medal of Honor for his actions with the Union Army in the Battle of Missionary Ridge during the American Civil War , and be promoted to the rank of lieutenant general . Pinkney came from a prominent Norfolk , Virginia , family . Two of her brothers had fought for the South in the Civil War , and refused to attend her wedding . Arthur and Pinky had three sons , of whom Douglas was the youngest , following Arthur III , born on 1 August 1876 , and Malcolm , born on 17 October 1878 . The family lived on a succession of Army posts in the American Old West . Conditions were primitive , and Malcolm died of measles in 1883 . In his memoir , Reminiscences , MacArthur wrote " I learned to ride and shoot even before I could read or write — indeed , almost before I could walk and talk . "
This time on the frontier ended in July 1889 when the family moved to Washington , D.C. , where Douglas attended the Force Public School . His father was posted to San Antonio , Texas , in September 1893 . While there MacArthur attended the West Texas Military Academy , where he was awarded the gold medal for " scholarship and deportment " . He also participated on the school tennis team , and played quarterback on the school football team and shortstop on its baseball team . He was named valedictorian , with a final year average of 97 @.@ 33 out of 100 . MacArthur 's father and grandfather unsuccessfully sought to secure Douglas a presidential appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point , first from President Grover Cleveland and then from President William McKinley . After these two rejections , he passed an examination for an appointment from Congressman Theobald Otjen , scoring 93 @.@ 3 on the test . He later wrote : " It was a lesson I never forgot . Preparedness is the key to success and victory . "
MacArthur entered West Point on 13 June 1899 , and his mother also moved there to a suite at Craney 's Hotel , overlooking the grounds of the Academy . Hazing was widespread at West Point at this time , and MacArthur and his classmate Ulysses S. Grant III were singled out for special attention by southern cadets as sons of generals with mothers living at Craney 's . When Cadet Oscar Booz left West Point after being hazed and subsequently died of tuberculosis , there was a congressional inquiry . MacArthur was called to appear before a special Congressional committee in 1901 , where he testified against cadets implicated in hazing , but downplayed his own hazing even though the other cadets gave the full story to the committee . Congress subsequently outlawed acts " of a harassing , tyrannical , abusive , shameful , insulting or humiliating nature " , although hazing continued . MacArthur was a corporal in Company B in his second year , a first sergeant in Company A in his third year and First Captain in his final year . He played left field for the baseball team , and academically earned 2424 @.@ 12 merits out of a possible 2470 @.@ 00 or 98 @.@ 14 , the third highest score ever recorded , graduating first in his 93 @-@ man class on 11 June 1903 . At the time it was customary for the top @-@ ranking cadets to be commissioned into the United States Army Corps of Engineers , so MacArthur was commissioned as a second lieutenant in that corps .
= = Junior officer = =
MacArthur spent his graduation furlough with his parents at Fort Mason , California , where his father , now a major general , was serving as commander of the Department of the Pacific . Afterward , he joined the 3rd Engineer Battalion , which departed for the Philippines in October 1903 . MacArthur was sent to Iloilo , where he supervised the construction of a wharf at Camp Jossman . He went on to conduct surveys at Tacloban City , Calbayog City and Cebu City . In November 1903 , while working on Guimaras , he was ambushed by a pair of Filipino brigands or guerrillas ; he shot and killed both with his pistol . He was promoted to first lieutenant in Manila in April 1904 . In October 1904 , his tour of duty was cut short when he contracted malaria and dhobi itch during a survey on Bataan . He returned to San Francisco , where he was assigned to the California Debris Commission . In July 1905 , he became chief engineer of the Division of the Pacific .
In October 1905 , MacArthur received orders to proceed to Tokyo for appointment as aide @-@ de @-@ camp to his father . A man who knew the MacArthurs at this time wrote that : " Arthur MacArthur was the most flamboyantly egotistical man I had ever seen , until I met his son . " They inspected Japanese military bases at Nagasaki , Kobe and Kyoto , then headed to India via Shanghai , Hong Kong , Java and Singapore , reaching Calcutta in January 1906 . In India , they visited Madras , Tuticorin , Quetta , Karachi , the Northwest Frontier and the Khyber Pass . They then sailed to China via Bangkok and Saigon , and toured Canton , Tsingtao , Peking , Tientsin , Hankow and Shanghai before returning to Japan in June . The next month they returned to the United States , where Arthur MacArthur resumed his duties at Fort Mason , still with Douglas as his aide . In September , Douglas received orders to report to the 2nd Engineer Battalion at the Washington Barracks and enroll in the Engineer School . While there he also served as " an aide to assist at White House functions " at the request of President Theodore Roosevelt .
In August 1907 , MacArthur was sent to the engineer district office in Milwaukee , where his parents were living . In April 1908 , he was posted to Fort Leavenworth , where he was given his first command , Company K , 3rd Engineer Battalion . He became battalion adjutant in 1909 and then engineer officer at Fort Leavenworth in 1910 . MacArthur was promoted to captain in February 1911 and was appointed as head of the Military Engineering Department and the Field Engineer School . He participated in exercises at San Antonio , Texas , with the Maneuver Division in 1911 and served in Panama on detached duty in January and February 1912 . The sudden death of their father on 5 September 1912 brought Douglas and his brother Arthur back to Milwaukee to care for their mother , whose health had deteriorated . MacArthur requested a transfer to Washington , D.C. so his mother could be near Johns Hopkins Hospital . Army Chief of Staff , Major General Leonard Wood , took up the matter with Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , who arranged for MacArthur to be posted to the Office of the Chief of Staff in 1912 .
= = Veracruz expedition = =
On 21 April 1914 , President Woodrow Wilson ordered the occupation of Veracruz . MacArthur joined the headquarters staff that was sent to the area , arriving on 1 May 1914 . He realized that the logistic support of an advance from Veracruz would require the use of the railroad . Finding plenty of railroad cars in Veracruz but no locomotives , MacArthur set out to verify a report that there were a number of locomotives in Alvarado , Veracruz . For $ 150 in gold , he acquired a handcar and the services of three Mexicans , whom he disarmed . MacArthur and his party located five engines in Alvarado , two of which were only switchers , but the other three locomotives were exactly what was required . On the way back to Veracruz , his party was set upon by five armed men . The party made a run for it and outdistanced all but two of the armed men , whom MacArthur shot . Soon after , they were attacked by a group of about fifteen horsemen . MacArthur took three bullet holes in his clothes but was unharmed . One of his companions was lightly wounded before the horsemen finally decided to retire after MacArthur shot four of them . Further on , the party was attacked a third time by three mounted men . MacArthur received another bullet hole in his shirt , but his men , using their handcar , managed to outrun all but one of their attackers . MacArthur shot both that man and his horse , and the party had to remove the horse 's carcass from the track before proceeding .
A fellow officer wrote to Wood recommending that MacArthur 's name be put forward for the Medal of Honor . Wood did so , and Chief of Staff Hugh L. Scott convened a board to consider the award . The board questioned " the advisability of this enterprise having been undertaken without the knowledge of the commanding general on the ground " . This was Brigadier General Frederick Funston , a Medal of Honor recipient himself , who considered awarding the medal to MacArthur " entirely appropriate and justifiable . " However the board feared that " to bestow the award recommended might encourage any other staff officer , under similar conditions , to ignore the local commander , possibly interfering with the latter 's plans " ; consequently , MacArthur received no award at all .
= = World War I = =
= = = Rainbow Division = = =
MacArthur returned to the War Department , where he was promoted to major on 11 December 1915 . In June 1916 , he was assigned as head of the Bureau of Information at the office of the Secretary of War , Newton D. Baker . MacArthur has since been regarded as the Army 's first press officer . Following the declaration of war on Germany on 6 April 1917 , Baker and MacArthur secured an agreement from President Wilson for the use of the National Guard on the Western Front . MacArthur suggested sending first a division organized from units of different states , so as to avoid the appearance of favoritism toward any particular state . Baker approved the creation of this formation , which became the 42nd ( " Rainbow " ) Division , and appointed Major General William A. Mann , the head of the National Guard Bureau , as its commander ; MacArthur was its chief of staff , with the rank of colonel . At MacArthur 's request , this commission was in the infantry rather than the engineers .
The 42nd Division was assembled in August and September 1917 at Camp Mills , New York , where its training emphasized open @-@ field combat rather than trench warfare . It sailed in a convoy from Hoboken , New Jersey , for France on 18 October 1917 . On 19 December , Mann was replaced as division commander by Major General Charles T. Menoher .
= = = Champagne @-@ Marne Offensive = = =
The 42nd Division entered the line in the quiet Lunéville sector in February 1918 . On 26 February , MacArthur and Captain Thomas T. Handy accompanied a French trench raid in which MacArthur assisted in the capture of a number of German prisoners . The commander of the French VII Corps , Major General Georges de Bazelaire , decorated MacArthur with the Croix de guerre . Menoher recommended MacArthur for a Silver Star , which he later received . The Silver Star Medal was not instituted until 8 August 1932 , but small Silver Citation Stars were authorized to be worn on the campaign ribbons of those cited in orders for gallantry , similar to the British mention in despatches . When the Silver Star Medal was instituted , it was retroactively awarded to those who had been awarded Silver Citation Stars . On 9 March , the 42nd Division launched three raids of its own on German trenches in the Salient du Feys . MacArthur accompanied a company of the 168th Infantry . This time , his leadership was rewarded with the Distinguished Service Cross . A few days later , MacArthur , who was strict about his men carrying their gas masks but often neglected to bring his own , was gassed . He recovered in time to show Secretary Baker around the area on 19 March .
MacArthur was promoted to brigadier general on 26 June . In late June , the 42nd Division was shifted to Châlons @-@ en @-@ Champagne to oppose the impending German Champagne @-@ Marne Offensive . Général d 'Armée Henri Gouraud of the French Fourth Army elected to meet the attack with a defense in depth , holding the front line area as thinly as possible and meeting the German attack on his second line of defense . His plan succeeded , and MacArthur was awarded a second Silver Star . The 42nd Division participated in the subsequent Allied counter @-@ offensive , and MacArthur was awarded a third Silver Star on 29 July . Two days later , Menoher relieved Brigadier General Robert A. Brown of the 84th Infantry Brigade of his command , and replaced him with MacArthur . Hearing reports that the enemy had withdrawn , MacArthur went forward on 2 August to see for himself . He later wrote :
It was 3 : 30 that morning when I started from our right at Sergy . Taking runners from each outpost liaison group to the next , moving by way of what had been No Man 's Land , I will never forget that trip . The dead were so thick in spots we tumbled over them . There must have been at least 2 @,@ 000 of those sprawled bodies . I identified the insignia of six of the best German divisions . The stench was suffocating . Not a tree was standing . The moans and cries of wounded men sounded everywhere . Sniper bullets sung like the buzzing of a hive of angry bees . An occasional shellburst always drew an angry oath from my guide . I counted almost a hundred disabled guns various size and several times that number of abandoned machine guns .
MacArthur reported back to Menoher and Lieutenant General Hunter Liggett that the Germans had indeed withdrawn , and was awarded a fourth Silver Star . He was also awarded a second Croix de guerre and made a commandeur of the Légion d 'honneur .
= = = Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel and Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive = = =
The 42nd Division earned a few weeks rest , returning to the line for the Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel on 12 September 1918 . The Allied advance proceeded rapidly and MacArthur was awarded a fifth Silver Star for his leadership of the 84th Infantry Brigade . He received a sixth Silver Star for his participation in a raid on the night of 25 – 26 September . The 42nd Division was relieved on the night of 30 September and moved to the Argonne sector where it relieved the 1st Division on the night of 11 October . On a reconnaissance the next day , MacArthur was gassed again , earning a second Wound Chevron .
The 42nd Division 's participation in the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive began on 14 October when it attacked with both brigades . That evening , a conference was called to discuss the attack , during which Charles Pelot Summerall , commander of the First Infantry Division and V Corps , telephoned and demanded that Châtillon be taken by 18 : 00 the next evening . An aerial photograph had been obtained that showed a gap in the German barbed wire to the northeast of Châtillon . Lieutenant Colonel Walter E. Bare — the commander of the 167th Infantry — proposed an attack from that direction , where the defenses seemed least imposing , covered by a machine @-@ gun barrage . MacArthur adopted this plan . He was wounded , but not severely , while verifying the existence of the gap in the barbed wire .
Summerall nominated MacArthur for the Medal of Honor and promotion to major general , but he received neither . Instead he was awarded a second Distinguished Service Cross . The 42nd Division returned to the line for the last time on the night of 4 – 5 November 1918 . In the final advance on Sedan . MacArthur later wrote that this operation " narrowly missed being one of the great tragedies of American history . " An order to disregard unit boundaries led to units crossing into each other 's zones . In the resulting chaos , MacArthur was taken prisoner by men of the 1st Division , who mistook him for a German general . His performance in the attack on the Meuse heights led to his being awarded a seventh Silver Star . On 10 November , a day before the armistice that ended the fighting , MacArthur was appointed commander of the 42nd Division . For his service as chief of staff and commander of the 84th Infantry Brigade , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal .
His period in command was brief , for on 22 November he , like other brigadier generals , was replaced , and returned to the 84th Infantry Brigade . The 42nd Division was chosen to participate in the occupation of the Rhineland , occupying the Ahrweiler district . In April 1919 , they entrained for Brest and Saint @-@ Nazaire , where they boarded ships to return to the United States . MacArthur traveled on the ocean liner SS Leviathan , which reached New York on 25 April 1919 .
= = Between the wars = =
= = = Superintendent of the United States Military Academy = = =
In 1919 , MacArthur became Superintendent of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point , which Chief of Staff Peyton March felt had become out of date in many respects and was much in need of reform . Accepting the post allowed MacArthur to retain his rank of brigadier general , instead of being reduced to his substantive rank of major like many of his contemporaries . When MacArthur moved into the superintendent 's house with his mother in June 1919 , he became the youngest superintendent since Sylvanus Thayer in 1817 . However , whereas Thayer had faced opposition from outside the Army , MacArthur had to overcome resistance from graduates and the academic board . MacArthur 's vision of what was required of an officer came not just from his recent experience of combat in France but also from that of the occupation of the Rhineland in Germany . The military government of the Rhineland had required the Army to deal with political , economic and social problems but he had found that many West Point graduates had little or no knowledge of fields outside of the military sciences . During the war , West Point had been reduced to an officer candidate school , with five classes graduated in two years . Cadet and staff morale was low and hazing " at an all @-@ time peak of viciousness " . MacArthur 's first change turned out to be the easiest . Congress had set the length of the course at three years . MacArthur was able to get the four @-@ year course restored .
During the debate over the length of the course , The New York Times brought up the issue of the cloistered and undemocratic nature of student life at West Point . Also , starting with Harvard University in 1869 , civilian universities had begun grading students on academic performance alone , but West Point had retained the old " whole man " concept of education . MacArthur sought to modernize the system , expanding the concept of military character to include bearing , leadership , efficiency and athletic performance . He formalized the hitherto unwritten Cadet Honor Code in 1922 when he formed the Cadet Honor Committee to review alleged code violations . Elected by the cadets themselves , it had no authority to punish , but acted as a kind of grand jury , reporting offenses to the commandant . MacArthur attempted to end hazing by using officers rather than upperclassmen to train the plebes .
Instead of the traditional summer camp at Fort Clinton , MacArthur had the cadets trained to use modern weapons by regular army sergeants at Fort Dix ; they then marched back to West Point with full packs . He attempted to modernize the curriculum by adding liberal arts , government and economics courses , but encountered strong resistance from the Academic Board . In Military Art classes , the study of the campaigns of the American Civil War was replaced with the study of those of World War I. In History class , more emphasis was placed on the Far East . MacArthur expanded the sports program , increasing the number of intramural sports and requiring all cadets to participate . He allowed upper class cadets to leave the reservation , and sanctioned a cadet newspaper , The Brag , forerunner of today 's West Pointer . He also permitted cadets to travel to watch their football team play , and gave them an allowance of $ 5 @.@ 00 a month . Professors and alumni alike protested these radical moves . Most of MacArthur 's West Point reforms were soon discarded but , in the ensuing years , his ideas became accepted and his innovations were gradually restored .
= = = Army 's youngest major general = = =
MacArthur became romantically involved with socialite and multi @-@ millionaire heiress Louise Cromwell Brooks . They were married at her family 's villa in Palm Beach , Florida on 14 February 1922 . Rumors circulated that General Pershing , who had also courted Louise , had threatened to exile them to the Philippines if they were married . This was denied by Pershing as " all damn poppycock . " In October 1922 , MacArthur left West Point and sailed to the Philippines with Louise and her two children , Walter and Louise , to assume command of the Military District of Manila . MacArthur was fond of the children , and spent much of his free time with them . MacArthur 's marriage was not a happy one , and his wife was often made remarks at parties such as MacArthur was a general , but he was a " buck private in the boudoir " and that " Douglas doesn 't know what his penis is for except to pee with " . MacArthur was deeply humiliated by his wife 's behavior and her very public claims that he was unable to satisfy her sexually .
The revolts in the Philippines had been suppressed , the islands were peaceful now , and in the wake of the Washington Naval Treaty , the garrison was being reduced . MacArthur 's friendships with Filipinos like Manuel Quezon offended some people . " The old idea of colonial exploitation " , he later conceded , " still had its vigorous supporters . " In February and March 1923 MacArthur returned to Washington to see his mother , who was ill from a heart ailment . She recovered , but it was the last time he saw his brother Arthur , who died suddenly from appendicitis in December 1923 . In June 1923 , MacArthur assumed command of the 23rd Infantry Brigade of the Philippine Division . On 7 July 1924 , he was informed that a mutiny had broken out amongst the Philippine Scouts over grievances concerning pay and allowances . Over 200 were arrested and there were fears of an insurrection . MacArthur was able to calm the situation , but his subsequent efforts to improve the salaries of Filipino troops were frustrated by financial stringency and racial prejudice . On 17 January 1925 , at the age of 44 , he was promoted , becoming the Army 's youngest major general .
Returning to the U.S. , MacArthur took command of the IV Corps Area , based at Fort McPherson in Atlanta , Georgia , on 2 May 1925 . However , he encountered southern prejudice because he was the son of a Union Army officer , and requested to be relieved . A few months later , he assumed command of the III Corps area , based at Fort McHenry in Baltimore , Maryland , which allowed MacArthur and Louise to move to her Rainbow Hill estate near Garrison , Maryland . However , this relocation also led to what he later described as " one of the most distasteful orders I ever received " : a direction to serve on the court martial of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell . MacArthur was the youngest of the thirteen judges , none of whom had aviation experience . Three of them , including Summerall , the president of the court , were removed when defense challenges revealed bias against Mitchell . Despite MacArthur 's claim that he had voted to acquit , Mitchell was found guilty as charged and convicted . MacArthur felt " that a senior officer should not be silenced for being at variance with his superiors in rank and with accepted doctrine . "
In 1927 , MacArthur and Louise separated , and she moved to New York City . In August that year , William C. Prout — the president of the American Olympic Committee — died suddenly and the committee elected MacArthur as their new president . His main task was to prepare the U.S. team for the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam . MacArthur saw the team as representatives of the United States , and its task was to win medals . " We have not come 3 @,@ 000 miles , " he told them , " just to lose gracefully . " The Americans had a successful meet , earning 24 gold medals , and setting 17 Olympic records and seven world records . Upon returning to the U.S. , MacArthur received orders to assume command of the Philippine Department . In 1929 , while he was in Manila , Louise obtained a divorce , ostensibly on the grounds of " failure to provide " . In view of Louise 's great wealth , William Manchester described this legal fiction as " preposterous " .
= = = Chief of Staff = = =
By 1930 , MacArthur was still , at age 50 , the youngest of the U.S. Army 's major generals , and the best known . He left the Philippines on 19 September 1930 and for a brief time was in command of the IX Corps Area in San Francisco . On 21 November , he was sworn in as Chief of Staff of the United States Army , with the rank of general . While in Washington , he would ride home each day to have lunch with his mother . At his desk , he would wear a Japanese ceremonial kimono , cool himself with an oriental fan , and smoke cigarettes in a jeweled cigarette holder . In the evenings , he liked to read military history books . About this time , he began referring to himself as " MacArthur " . MacArthur had already hired a public relations staff to promote his image with the American public , and together with a set of ideas he was known to favor , namely ; a belief that America needed a strongman leader to deal with the possibility that Communists might lead all of the great masses of unemployed into a revolution , that America 's destiny was in the Asia @-@ Pacific region , and a strong hostility to the British Empire . One contemporary described MacArthur as the greatest actor to ever serve as a U.S Army general while another wrote that MacArthur had a court rather than a staff .
The onset of the Great Depression forced Congress to make cuts in the Army 's personnel and budget . Some 53 bases were closed , but MacArthur managed to prevent attempts to reduce the number of regular officers from 12 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 . MacArthur 's main programs included the development of new mobilization plans . He grouped the nine corps areas together under four armies , which were charged with responsibility for training and frontier defense . He also negotiated the MacArthur @-@ Pratt agreement with the Chief of Naval Operations , Admiral William V. Pratt . This was the first of a series of inter @-@ service agreements over the following decades that defined the responsibilities of the different services with respect to aviation . This agreement placed coastal air defense under the Army . In March 1935 , MacArthur activated a centralized air command , General Headquarters Air Force , under Major General Frank M. Andrews .
One of MacArthur 's most controversial acts came in 1932 , when the " Bonus Army " of veterans converged on Washington . He sent tents and camp equipment to the demonstrators , along with mobile kitchens , until an outburst in Congress caused the kitchens to be withdrawn . MacArthur was concerned that the demonstration had been taken over by communists and pacifists but the General Staff 's intelligence division reported that only three of the march 's 26 key leaders were communists . MacArthur went over contingency plans for civil disorder in the capital . Mechanized equipment was brought to Fort Myer , where anti @-@ riot training was conducted .
On 28 July 1932 , a clash between the District police and demonstrators resulted in two men being shot . President Hoover ordered MacArthur to " surround the affected area and clear it without delay . " MacArthur brought up troops and tanks and , against the advice of Major Dwight D. Eisenhower , decided to accompany the troops , although he was not in charge of the operation . The troops advanced with bayonets and sabers drawn under a shower of bricks and rocks , but no shots were fired . In less than four hours , they cleared the Bonus Army 's campground using tear gas . The gas canisters started a number of fires , causing the only death during the riots . While not as violent as other anti @-@ riot operations , it was nevertheless a public relations disaster . However , the defeat of the " Bonus Army " while unpopular with the American people at large , did make MacArthur into the hero of the more right @-@ wing elements in the Republican Party who believed that the general had saved America from a communist revolution in 1932 .
In 1934 , MacArthur sued journalists Drew Pearson and Robert S. Allen for defamation after they described his treatment of the Bonus marchers as " unwarranted , unnecessary , insubordinate , harsh and brutal " . In turn , they threatened to call Isabel Rosario Cooper as a witness . MacArthur had met Isabel , a Eurasian woman , while in the Philippines , and she had become his mistress . MacArthur was forced to settle out of court , secretly paying Pearson $ 15 @,@ 000 .
President Hoover was defeated in the 1932 election by Franklin D. Roosevelt . MacArthur and Roosevelt had worked together before World War I and , despite political differences , remained friends . MacArthur supported the New Deal through the Army 's operation of the Civilian Conservation Corps . He ensured that detailed plans were drawn up for its employment and decentralized its administration to the corps areas , which became an important factor in the program 's success . MacArthur 's support for a strong military , and his public criticism of pacifism and isolationism , made him unpopular with the Roosevelt administration .
Perhaps the most incendiary exchange between Roosevelt and MacArthur occurred over an administration proposal to cut 51 % of the Army 's budget . In response , MacArthur lectured Roosevelt that " when we lost the next war , and an American boy , lying in the mud with an enemy bayonet through his belly and an enemy foot on his dying throat , spat out his last curse , I wanted the name not to be MacArthur , but Roosevelt . " In response , Roosevelt yelled " you must not talk that way to the President ! " MacArthur offered to resign , but Roosevelt refused his request , and MacArthur then staggered out of the White House and vomited on the front steps .
In spite of such exchanges , MacArthur was extended an extra year as Chief of Staff , and ended his tour in October 1935 . For his service as chief of staff , he was awarded a second Distinguished Service Medal . He was retroactively awarded two Purple Hearts for his World War I service , a decoration that he authorized in 1932 based loosely on the defunct Military Badge of Merit . MacArthur also insisted on being the first recipient of the Purple Heart , which he had engraved with " # 1 . "
= = = Field Marshal of the Philippine Army = = =
When the Commonwealth of the Philippines achieved semi @-@ independent status in 1935 , President of the Philippines Manuel Quezon asked MacArthur to supervise the creation of a Philippine Army . Quezon and MacArthur had been personal friends since the latter 's father had been Governor @-@ General of the Philippines , 35 years earlier . With President Roosevelt 's approval , MacArthur accepted the assignment . It was agreed that MacArthur would receive the rank of field marshal , with its salary and allowances , in addition to his major general 's salary as Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines . It would be his fifth tour in the Far East . MacArthur sailed from San Francisco on the SS President Hoover in October 1935 , accompanied by his mother and sister @-@ in @-@ law . He brought Eisenhower and Major James B. Ord along as his assistants . Another passenger on the President Hoover was Jean Marie Faircloth , an unmarried 37 @-@ year @-@ old socialite . Over the next two years , MacArthur and Faircloth were frequently seen together . His mother became gravely ill during the voyage and died in Manila on 3 December 1935 .
President Quezon officially conferred the title of field marshal on MacArthur in a ceremony at Malacañan Palace on 24 August 1936 , and presented him with a gold baton and a unique uniform . The Philippine Army was formed from conscription . Training was conducted by a regular cadre , and the Philippine Military Academy was created along the lines of West Point to train officers . MacArthur and Eisenhower found that few of the training camps had been constructed and the first group of 20 @,@ 000 trainees did not report until early 1937 . Equipment and weapons were " more or less obsolete " American cast offs , and the budget of six million was completely inadequate . MacArthur 's requests for equipment fell on deaf ears , although MacArthur and his naval advisor , Lieutenant Colonel Sidney L. Huff , persuaded the Navy to initiate the development of the PT boat . Much hope was placed in the Philippine Army Air Corps , but the first squadron was not organized until 1939 .
MacArthur married Jean Faircloth in a civil ceremony on 30 April 1937 . Their marriage produced a son , Arthur MacArthur IV , who was born in Manila on 21 February 1938 . On 31 December 1937 , MacArthur officially retired from the Army . He ceased to represent the U.S. as military adviser to the government , but remained as Quezon 's adviser in a civilian capacity . Eisenhower returned to the U.S. , and was replaced as MacArthur 's chief of staff by Lieutenant Colonel Richard K. Sutherland , while Richard J. Marshall became deputy chief of staff . The fact that MacArthur lived much of his life in the Philippines together with his belief that America 's destiny lay in the Asia @-@ Pacific region allowed him to present himself as an expert on Asia and Asians . The American Japanologist Michael Schaller stated in an interview :
" Most people have enough humility to realize that it 's hard to be an expert on the world 's largest continent , where people speak hundreds of languages , and there are many different cultures , religions , ethnicities ... MacArthur would , with little humility , describe himself throughout his life as America 's greatest Oriental expert , an expert in Oriental psychology . And by some measure you could argue he was familiar with the Orient as or more than many Americans . He had travelled there , he lived there . But yet his experience in Asia was really circumscribed by the Philippine islands , which were perhaps the least representative part of Asia . During his long tours of duty there , from the early twentieth century through the 1930s , he 'd lived in a Manila hotel , he socialized with Westernized Filipino leaders who spoke English , he really knew little about mainland Asia , the peasantry which was 90 percent of Asia , China , Japan , and continental Asia " .
= = World War II = =
= = = Philippines Campaign ( 1941 – 42 ) = = =
On 26 July 1941 , Roosevelt federalized the Philippine Army , recalled MacArthur to active duty in the U.S. Army as a major general , and named him commander of U.S. Army Forces in the Far East ( USAFFE ) . MacArthur was promoted to lieutenant general the following day , and then to general on 20 December . On 31 July 1941 , the Philippine Department had 22 @,@ 000 troops assigned , 12 @,@ 000 of whom were Philippine Scouts . The main component was the Philippine Division , under the command of Major General Jonathan M. Wainwright . The initial American plan for the defense of the Philippines called for the main body of the troops to retreat to the Bataan peninsula in Manila Bay to hold out against the Japanese until a relief force could arrive . MacArthur changed this plan to one of attempting to hold all of Luzon and using B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses to sink Japanese ships that approached the islands . MacArthur persuaded the decision @-@ makers in Washington that his plans represented the best deterrent to prevent Japan from choosing war and of winning a war if worse did come to worse .
Between July and December 1941 , the garrison received 8 @,@ 500 reinforcements . After years of parsimony , much equipment was shipped . By November , a backlog of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 shipping tons of equipment intended for the Philippines had accumulated in U.S. ports and depots awaiting vessels . In addition , the Navy intercept station in the islands , known as Station CAST , had an ultra secret Purple cipher machine , which decrypted Japanese diplomatic messages , and partial codebooks for the latest JN @-@ 25 naval code . Station CAST sent MacArthur its entire output , via Sutherland , the only officer on his staff authorized to see it .
At 03 : 30 local time on 8 December 1941 ( about 09 : 00 on 7 December in Hawaii ) , Sutherland learned of the attack on Pearl Harbor and informed MacArthur . At 05 : 30 , the Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army , General George Marshall , ordered MacArthur to execute the existing war plan , Rainbow Five . MacArthur did nothing . On three occasions , the commander of the Far East Air Force , Major General Lewis H. Brereton , requested permission to attack Japanese bases in Formosa , in accordance with prewar intentions , but was denied by Sutherland . Not until 11 : 00 did Brereton speak with MacArthur about it , and obtained permission . MacArthur later denied having the conversation . At 12 : 30 , nine hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor , aircraft of Japan 's 11th Air Fleet achieved complete tactical surprise when they attacked Clark Field and the nearby fighter base at Iba Field , and destroyed or disabled 18 of Far East Air Force 's 35 B @-@ 17s , 53 of its 107 P @-@ 40s , three P @-@ 35s , and more than 25 other aircraft . Most were destroyed on the ground . Substantial damage was done to the bases , and casualties totaled 80 killed and 150 wounded . What was left of the Far East Air Force was all but destroyed over the next few days .
MacArthur attempted to slow the Japanese advance with an initial defense against the Japanese landings . MacArthur 's plan for holding all of Luzon against the Japanese collapsed as it spread out the American @-@ Filipino forces too thin . However , he reconsidered his confidence in the ability of his Filipino troops after the Japanese landing force made a rapid advance after landing at Lingayen Gulf on 21 December , and ordered a retreat to Bataan . Within two days of the Japanese landing at Lingayen Gulf , MacArthur had reverted to pre @-@ July 1941 plan of attempting to hold only Bataan while waiting for a relief force to come . Most of the American and some of the Filipino troops were able to retreat back to Baatan , but without most of their supplies , which were abandoned in the confusion . Manila was declared an open city at midnight on 24 December , without any consultation with Admiral Thomas C. Hart , commanding the Asiatic Fleet , forcing the Navy to destroy considerable amounts of valuable material .
On the evening of 24 December , MacArthur moved his headquarters to the island fortress of Corregidor in Manila Bay arriving at 21 : 30 , with his headquarters reporting to Washington as being open on the 25th . A series of air raids by the Japanese destroyed all the exposed structures on the island and USAFFE headquarters was moved into the Malinta Tunnel . Later , most of the headquarters moved to Bataan , leaving only the nucleus with MacArthur . The troops on Bataan knew that they had been written off but continued to fight . Some blamed Roosevelt and MacArthur for their predicament . A ballad sung to the tune of " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " called him " Dugout Doug " . However , most clung to the belief that somehow MacArthur " would reach down and pull something out of his hat . "
On 1 January 1942 , MacArthur accepted $ 500 @,@ 000 from President Quezon of the Philippines as payment for his pre @-@ war service . MacArthur 's staff members also received payments : $ 75 @,@ 000 for Sutherland , $ 45 @,@ 000 for Richard Marshall , and $ 20 @,@ 000 for Huff . Eisenhower — after being appointed Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force ( AEF ) — was also offered money by Quezon , but declined . These payments were known only to a few in Manila and Washington , including President Roosevelt and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , until they were made public by historian Carol Petillo in 1979 . The revelation tarnished MacArthur 's reputation .
= = = = Escape to Australia and Medal of Honor = = = =
In February 1942 , as Japanese forces tightened their grip on the Philippines , MacArthur was ordered by President Roosevelt to relocate to Australia . On the night of 12 March 1942 , MacArthur and a select group that included his wife Jean , son Arthur , and Arthur 's Cantonese amah , Ah Cheu , fled Corregidor . MacArthur and his party reached Del Monte Airfield on Mindanao , where B @-@ 17s picked them up , and flew them to Australia . His famous speech , in which he said , " I came through and I shall return " , was first made on Terowie railway station in South Australia , on 20 March . Washington asked MacArthur to amend his promise to " We shall return " . He ignored the request .
Bataan surrendered on 9 April , and Corregidor on 6 May . George Marshall decided that MacArthur would be awarded the Medal of Honor , a decoration for which he had twice previously been nominated , " to offset any propaganda by the enemy directed at his leaving his command " . Eisenhower pointed out that MacArthur had not actually performed any acts of valor as required by law , but Marshall cited the 1927 award of the medal to Charles Lindbergh as a precedent . Special legislation had been passed to authorize Lindbergh 's medal , but while similar legislation was introduced authorizing the medal for MacArthur by Congressmen J. Parnell Thomas and James E. Van Zandt , Marshall felt strongly that a serving general should receive the medal from the President and the War Department . MacArthur chose to accept it on the basis that " this award was intended not so much for me personally as it is a recognition of the indomitable courage of the gallant army which it was my honor to command . " Arthur and Douglas MacArthur thus became the first father and son to be awarded the Medal of Honor . They remained the only pair until 2001 , when Theodore Roosevelt was awarded posthumously for his service during the Spanish – American War , Theodore Roosevelt , Jr. having received one posthumously for his service during World War II . MacArthur 's citation , written by George Marshall , read :
For conspicuous leadership in preparing the Philippine Islands to resist conquest , for gallantry and intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty in action against invading Japanese forces , and for the heroic conduct of defensive and offensive operations on the Bataan Peninsula . He mobilized , trained , and led an army which has received world acclaim for its gallant defense against a tremendous superiority of enemy forces in men and arms . His utter disregard of personal danger under heavy fire and aerial bombardment , his calm judgment in each crisis , inspired his troops , galvanized the spirit of resistance of the Filipino people , and confirmed the faith of the American people in their Armed Forces .
As the symbol of the forces resisting the Japanese , MacArthur received many other accolades . The Native American tribes of the Southwest chose him as a " Chief of Chiefs " , which he acknowledged as from " my oldest friends , the companions of my boyhood days on the Western frontier " . He was touched when he was named Father of the Year for 1942 , and wrote to the National Father 's Day Committee that :
By profession I am a soldier and take pride in that fact , but I am prouder , infinitely prouder to be a father . A soldier destroys in order to build ; the father only builds , never destroys . The one has the potentialities of death ; the other embodies creation and life . And while the hordes of death are mighty , the battalions of life are mightier still . It is my hope that my son when I am gone will remember me , not from battle , but in the home , repeating with him our simple daily prayer , " Our father , Who art in Heaven . "
= = = New Guinea Campaign = = =
= = = = General Headquarters = = = =
On 18 April 1942 , MacArthur was appointed Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in the Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) . Lieutenant General George Brett became Commander , Allied Air Forces , and Vice Admiral Herbert F. Leary became Commander , Allied Naval Forces . Since the bulk of land forces in the theater were Australian , George Marshall insisted an Australian be appointed as Commander , Allied Land Forces , and the job went to General Sir Thomas Blamey . Although predominantly Australian and American , MacArthur 's command also included small numbers of personnel from the Netherlands East Indies , the United Kingdom , and other countries . MacArthur established a close relationship with the Prime Minister of Australia , John Curtin , although many Australians resented MacArthur as a foreign general who had been imposed upon them . MacArthur had little confidence in Brett 's abilities as commander of Allied Air Forces , and in August 1942 selected Major General George C. Kenney to replace him . Kenney 's application of air power in support of Blamey 's troops would prove crucial .
The staff of MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) was built around the nucleus that had escaped from the Philippines with him , who became known as the " Bataan Gang " . Though Roosevelt and George Marshall pressed for Dutch and Australian officers to be assigned to GHQ , the heads of all the staff divisions were American and such officers of other nationalities as were assigned served under them . Initially located in Melbourne , GHQ moved to Brisbane — the northernmost city in Australia with the necessary communications facilities — in July 1942 , occupying the AMP Insurance Society building .
MacArthur formed his own signals intelligence organization , known as the Central Bureau , from Australian intelligence units and American cryptanalysts who had escaped from the Philippines . This unit forwarded Ultra information to Willoughby for analysis . After a press release revealed details of the Japanese naval dispositions during the Battle of the Coral Sea , at which a Japanese attempt to capture Port Moresby was turned back , Roosevelt ordered that censorship be imposed in Australia , and the Advisory War Council granted GHQ censorship authority over the Australian press . Australian newspapers were restricted to what was reported in the daily GHQ communiqué . Veteran correspondents considered the communiqués , which MacArthur drafted personally , " a total farce " and " Alice @-@ in @-@ Wonderland information handed out at high level . "
= = = = Papuan Campaign = = = =
Anticipating that the Japanese would strike at Port Moresby again , the garrison was strengthened and MacArthur ordered the establishment of new bases at Merauke and Milne Bay to cover its flanks . The Battle of Midway in June 1942 led to consideration of a limited offensive in the Pacific . MacArthur 's proposal for an attack on the Japanese base at Rabaul met with objections from the Navy , which favored a less ambitious approach , and objected to an Army general being in command of what would be an amphibious operation . The resulting compromise called for a three @-@ stage advance . The first stage , the seizure of the Tulagi area , would be conducted by the Pacific Ocean Areas , under Admiral Chester W. Nimitz . The later stages would be under MacArthur 's command .
The Japanese struck first , landing at Buna in July , and at Milne Bay in August . The Australians repulsed the Japanese at Milne Bay , but a series of defeats in the Kokoda Track campaign had a depressing effect back in Australia . On 30 August , MacArthur radioed Washington that unless action was taken , New Guinea Force would be overwhelmed . He sent Blamey to Port Moresby to take personal command . Having committed all available Australian troops , MacArthur decided to send American forces . The 32nd Infantry Division , a poorly trained National Guard division , was selected . A series of embarrassing reverses in the Battle of Buna – Gona led to outspoken criticism of the American troops by the Australians . MacArthur then ordered Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger to assume command of the Americans , and " take Buna , or not come back alive . "
MacArthur moved the advanced echelon of GHQ to Port Moresby on 6 November 1942 . After Buna finally fell on 3 January 1943 , MacArthur awarded the Distinguished Service Cross to twelve officers for " precise execution of operations " . This use of the country 's second highest award aroused resentment , because while some , like Eichelberger and George Alan Vasey , had fought in the field , others , like Sutherland and Willoughby , had not . For his part , MacArthur was awarded his third Distinguished Service Medal , and the Australian government had him appointed an honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath .
= = = = New Guinea Campaign = = = =
At the Pacific Military Conference in March 1943 , the Joint Chiefs of Staff approved MacArthur 's plan for Operation Cartwheel , the advance on Rabaul . MacArthur explained his strategy :
My strategic conception for the Pacific Theater , which I outlined after the Papuan Campaign and have since consistently advocated , contemplates massive strokes against only main strategic objectives , utilizing surprise and air @-@ ground striking power supported and assisted by the fleet . This is the very opposite of what is termed " island hopping " which is the gradual pushing back of the enemy by direct frontal pressure with the consequent heavy casualties which will certainly be involved . Key points must of course be taken but a wise choice of such will obviate the need for storming the mass of islands now in enemy possession . " Island hopping " with extravagant losses and slow progress ... is not my idea of how to end the war as soon and as cheaply as possible . New conditions require for solution and new weapons require for maximum application new and imaginative methods . Wars are never won in the past .
In New Guinea , a country without roads , large @-@ scale transportation of men and materiel would have to be accomplished by aircraft or ships . A multi @-@ pronged approach was employed to solve this problem . Disassembled landing craft were shipped to Australia , where they were assembled in Cairns . The range of these small landing craft was to be greatly extended by the landing ships of the VII Amphibious Force , which began arriving in late 1942 , and formed part of the newly formed Seventh Fleet . Since the Seventh Fleet had no aircraft carriers , the range of naval operations was limited by that of the fighter aircraft of the Fifth Air Force .
Lieutenant General Walter Krueger 's Sixth Army headquarters arrived in SWPA in early 1943 but MacArthur had only three American divisions , and they were tired and depleted from the fighting at Battle of Buna – Gona and Battle of Guadalcanal . As a result , " it became obvious that any military offensive in the South @-@ West Pacific in 1943 would have to be carried out mainly by the Australian Army . " The offensive began with the landing at Lae by the Australian 9th Division on 4 September 1943 . The next day , MacArthur watched the landing at Nadzab by paratroops of the 503rd Parachute Infantry . His B @-@ 17 made the trip on three engines because one failed soon after leaving Port Moresby , but he insisted that it fly on to Nadzab . For this , he was awarded the Air Medal .
The Australian 7th and 9th Divisions converged on Lae , which fell on 16 September . MacArthur advanced his timetable , and ordered the 7th to capture Kaiapit and Dumpu , while the 9th mounted an amphibious assault on Finschhafen . Here , the offensive bogged down , partly because MacArthur had based his decision to assault Finschhafen on Willoughby 's assessment that there were only 350 Japanese defenders at Finschhafen , when in fact there were nearly 5 @,@ 000 . A furious battle ensued .
In early November , MacArthur 's plan for a westward advance along the coast of New Guinea to the Philippines was incorporated into plans for the war against Japan . Three months later , airmen reported no signs of enemy activity in the Admiralty Islands . Although Willoughby did not agree that the islands had been evacuated , MacArthur ordered an amphibious landing there , commencing the Admiralty Islands campaign . He accompanied the assault force aboard the light cruiser Phoenix , the flagship of Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid , the new commander of the Seventh Fleet , and came ashore seven hours after the first wave of landing craft , for which he was awarded the Bronze Star . It took six weeks of fierce fighting before the 1st Cavalry Division captured the islands .
MacArthur had one of the most powerful PR machines of any Allied general during the war , which made him into an extremely popular war hero with the American people . In late 1943 @-@ early 1944 , there was a serious effort by the conservative faction in the Republican Party centered in the Midwest who regarded the two men most likely to win the Republican nomination to be the candidate for the presidency in the 1944 election , namely Wendell Willkie and Governor Thomas Dewy of New York as too liberal , to have MacArthur seek the Republican nomination . For a time , MacArthur , who long seen himself as a potential president was in the words of the U.S historian Gerhard Weinberg " very interested " in running as the Republican candidate in 1944 . However , MacArthur 's vow to " return " to the Philippines had not been fulfilled in early 1944 and he decided not to run for president until he had liberated the Philippines .
Furthermore , Weinberg had argued that it is probable that Roosevelt who knew of the " enormous gratuity " MacArthur had accepted from Quezon in 1942 had used his knowledge of this transaction to blackmail MacArthur into not running for president . Finally , despite the best efforts of the conservative Republicans to put MacArthur 's name on the ballot , on April 4 , 1944 , Governor Dewy won such a convincing victory in the Wisconsin primary ( regarded as a significant victory given that the Midwest was a stronghold of the conservative Republicans opposed to Dewy ) as to ensure that he would win the Republican nomination to be the GOP 's candidate for president in 1944 .
MacArthur now bypassed the Japanese forces at Hansa Bay and Wewak , and assaulted Hollandia and Aitape , which Willoughby reported to be lightly defended based on intelligence gathered in the Battle of Sio . MacArthur 's bold thrust by going 600 miles up the coast had surprised and confused the Japanese high command , who had not anticipated that MacArthur would take such risks . Although they were out of range of the Fifth Air Force 's fighters based in the Ramu Valley , the timing of the operation allowed the aircraft carriers of Nimitz 's Pacific Fleet to provide air support . Though risky , the operation turned out to be another success . MacArthur caught the Japanese off balance and cut off Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi 's Japanese XVIII Army in the Wewak area . Because the Japanese were not expecting an attack , the garrison was weak , and Allied casualties were correspondingly light . However , the terrain turned out to be less suitable for airbase development than first thought , forcing MacArthur to seek better locations further west . While bypassing Japanese forces had great tactical merit , it had the strategic drawback of tying up Allied troops to contain them . Moreover , Adachi was far from beaten , which he demonstrated in the Battle of Driniumor River .
= = = Philippines Campaign ( 1944 – 45 ) = = =
= = = = Leyte = = = =
In July 1944 , President Roosevelt summoned MacArthur to meet with him in Hawaii " to determine the phase of action against Japan . " Nimitz made the case for attacking Formosa . MacArthur stressed America 's moral obligation to liberate the Philippines . In September , Admiral William Halsey , Jr . ' s carriers made a series of air strikes on the Philippines . Opposition was feeble and Halsey concluded , incorrectly , that Leyte was " wide open " and possibly undefended , and recommended that projected operations be skipped in favor of an assault on Leyte .
On 20 October 1944 , troops of Krueger 's Sixth Army landed on Leyte , while MacArthur watched from the light cruiser USS Nashville . That afternoon he arrived off the beach . The advance had not progressed far ; snipers were still active and the area was under sporadic mortar fire . When his whaleboat grounded in knee @-@ deep water , MacArthur requested a landing craft , but the beachmaster was too busy to grant his request . MacArthur was compelled to wade ashore . In his prepared speech , he said :
People of the Philippines : I have returned . By the grace of Almighty God our forces stand again on Philippine soil — soil consecrated in the blood of our two peoples . We have come dedicated and committed to the task of destroying every vestige of enemy control over your daily lives , and of restoring upon a foundation of indestructible strength , the liberties of your people .
Since Leyte was out of range of Kenney 's land @-@ based aircraft , MacArthur was dependent on carrier aircraft . Japanese air activity soon increased , with raids on Tacloban , where MacArthur decided to establish his headquarters , and on the fleet offshore . MacArthur enjoyed staying on Nashville 's bridge during air raids , although several bombs landed close by , and two nearby cruisers were hit . Over the next few days , the Japanese counterattacked in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , resulting in a near @-@ disaster that MacArthur attributed to the command being divided between himself and Nimitz . Nor did the campaign ashore proceed smoothly . Heavy monsoonal rains disrupted the airbase construction program . Carrier aircraft proved to be no substitute for land @-@ based aircraft , and the lack of air cover permitted the Japanese to pour troops into Leyte . Adverse weather and tough Japanese resistance slowed the American advance , resulting in a protracted campaign .
By the end of December , Krueger 's headquarters estimated that 5 @,@ 000 Japanese remained on Leyte , and on 26 December MacArthur issued a communiqué announcing that " the campaign can now be regarded as closed except for minor mopping up . " Yet Eichelberger 's Eighth Army killed another 27 @,@ 000 Japanese on Leyte before the campaign ended in May 1945 . On 18 December 1944 , MacArthur was promoted to the new five @-@ star rank of General of the Army , placing him in the company of Marshall , Eisenhower , Henry " Hap " Arnold , and the only four men to achieve the rank in World War II , and along with Omar Bradley , one of only five men to achieve the rank since the 5 August 1888 death of Philip Sheridan , as well as the only five American officers to hold the rank as a Five @-@ star general . MacArthur was senior to all but Marshall . The rank was created by an Act of Congress when Public Law 78 – 482 was passed on 14 December 1944 , as a temporary rank , subject to reversion to permanent rank six months after the end of the war . The temporary rank was then declared permanent 23 March 1946 by Public Law 333 of the 79th Congress , which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list .
= = = = Luzon = = = =
MacArthur 's next move was the invasion of Mindoro , where there were good potential airfield sites . Willoughby estimated , correctly as it turned out , that the island had only about 1 @,@ 000 Japanese defenders . The problem this time was getting there . Kinkaid balked at sending escort carriers into the restricted waters of the Sulu Sea , and Kenney could not guarantee land based air cover . The operation was clearly hazardous , and MacArthur 's staff talked him out of accompanying the invasion on Nashville . As the invasion force entered the Sulu Sea , a kamikaze struck Nashville , killing 133 people and wounding 190 more . Australian and American engineers had three airstrips in operation within two weeks , but the resupply convoys were repeatedly attacked by kamikazes . During this time , MacArthur quarreled with Sutherland , notorious for his abrasiveness , over the latter 's mistress , Captain Elaine Clark . MacArthur had instructed Sutherland not to be bring Clark to Leyte , due to a personal undertaking to Curtin that Australian women on the GHQ staff would not be taken to the Philippines , but Sutherland had brought her along anyway .
The way was now clear for the invasion of Luzon . This time , based on different interpretations of the same intelligence data , Willoughby estimated the strength of General Tomoyuki Yamashita 's forces on Luzon at 137 @,@ 000 , while Sixth Army estimated it at 234 @,@ 000 . MacArthur 's response was " Bunk ! " . He felt that even Willoughby 's estimate was too high . " Audacity , calculated risk , and a clear strategic aim were MacArthur 's attributes " , and he disregarded the estimates . In fact , they were too low ; Yamashita had more than 287 @,@ 000 troops on Luzon . This time , MacArthur traveled aboard the light cruiser USS Boise , watching as the ship was nearly hit by a bomb and torpedoes fired by midget submarines . His communiqué read : " The decisive battle for the liberation of the Philippines and the control of the Southwest Pacific is at hand . General MacArthur is in personal command at the front and landed with his assault troops . "
MacArthur 's primary concern was the capture of the port of Manila and the airbase at Clark Field , which were required to support future operations . He urged his commanders on . On 25 January 1945 , he moved his advanced headquarters forward to Hacienda Luisita , closer to the front than Krueger 's . He ordered the 1st Cavalry Division to conduct a rapid advance on Manila . It reached the northern outskirts of Manila on 3 February , but , unknown to the Americans , Rear Admiral Sanji Iwabuchi had decided to defend Manila to the death . The Battle of Manila raged for the next three weeks . To spare the civilian population , MacArthur prohibited the use of air strikes , but thousands of civilians died in the crossfire or Japanese massacres . He also refused to restrict the traffic of civilians who clogged the roads in and out of Manila , placing humanitarian concerns above military ones except in emergencies . For his part in the capture of Manila , MacArthur was awarded his third Distinguished Service Cross .
After taking Manila , MacArthur installed one of his Filipino friends , Manuel Roxas @-@ who also happened to be one of the few people who knew about the huge sum of money Quezon had given MacArthur in 1942 @-@ into a position of power that ensured Roxas was to become the next Filipino president . Roxas had been a leading Japanese collaborator serving in the puppet government of Jose Laurel , but MacArthur claimed that Roxas had secretly been an American agent all the long . About MacArthur 's claim that Roxas was really part of the resistance , the American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote that " ... evidence to this effect has yet to surface " , and that by favoring the Japanese collaborator Roxas , MacArthur ensured there was no serious effort to address the issue of Filipino collaboration with the Japanese after the war .
After the Battle of Manila , MacArthur turned his attention to Yamashita , who had retreated into the mountains of central and northern Luzon . Yamashita chose to fight a defensive campaign , being pushed back slowly by Krueger , and was still holding out at the time the war ended , much to MacArthur 's intense annoyance as he had wished to liberate the entire Philippines before the war ended . On 2 September 1945 , Yamashita ( who had a hard time believing that the Emperor had ordered Japan to sign an armistice ) came down from the mountains to surrender with some 100 @,@ 000 of his men .
= = = = Southern Philippines = = = =
Although MacArthur had no specific directive to do so , and the fighting on Luzon was far from over , he committed his forces to liberate the remainder of the Philippines . In the GHQ communiqué on 5 July , he announced that the Philippines had been liberated and all operations ended , although Yamashita still held out in northern Luzon . Starting in May 1945 , MacArthur used his Australian troops in the invasion of Borneo . He accompanied the assault on Labuan , and visited the troops ashore . While returning to GHQ in Manila , he visited Davao , where he told Eichelberger that no more than 4 @,@ 000 Japanese remained alive on Mindanao . A few months later , six times that number surrendered . In July 1945 , he was awarded his fourth Distinguished Service Medal .
As part of preparations for Operation Downfall , the invasion of Japan , MacArthur became commander in chief U.S. Army Forces Pacific ( AFPAC ) , in charge of all Army and Army Air Force units in the Pacific , except the Twentieth Air Force , in April 1945 . At the same time , Nimitz became commander of all naval forces . Command in the Pacific therefore remained divided . During his planning of the invasion of Japan , MacArthur stressed to the decision @-@ makers in Washington that it was essential to have the Soviet Union enter the war as he argued it was crucial to have the Red Army tie down the Kwantung army in Manchuria . The invasion was pre @-@ empted by the surrender of Japan in August 1945 . On 2 September MacArthur accepted the formal Japanese surrender aboard the battleship USS Missouri , thus ending hostilities in World War II . In recognition of his role as a maritime strategist , the U.S. Navy awarded him the Navy Distinguished Service Medal .
= = Occupation of Japan = =
= = = Protecting the Emperor = = =
On 29 August 1945 , MacArthur was ordered to exercise authority through the Japanese government machinery , including the Emperor Hirohito . MacArthur 's headquarters was located in the Dai Ichi Life Insurance Building in Tokyo . Unlike in Germany , where the Allies had in May 1945 abolished the German state , the Americans chose to allow the Japanese state to continue to exist , albeit under their ultimate control . Unlike Germany , there was a certain partnership between the occupiers and occupied as MacArthur decided to rule Japan via the Emperor and the most of the rest of the Japanese elite . The Emperor was a living god to the Japanese people , and MacArthur found that ruling via the Emperor made his job in running Japan much easier than it would otherwise would have been .
As such , MacArthur took the view that a few " militarist " extremists had " hijacked " Japan starting in 1931 with the Mukden Incident , the Emperor was a pro @-@ Western " moderate " who had been powerless to stop the militarists , and thus he borne no responsibility for any of the war crimes committed by the Japanese between 1931 @-@ 45 . The American historian Herbert P. Bix described the relationship between the general and the Emperor as : " Henceforth the Allied commander would use the Emperor , and the Emperor would cooperate in being used . Their relationship become one of expediency and mutual protection , of more political benefit to Hirohito than to MacArthur because Hirohito had more to lose @-@ the entire panoply of symbolic , legitimizing properties of the imperial throne " . At the same time , MacArthur had attacked the imperial mystique when his staff released the famous picture of his first meeting with the Emperor , whose impact on the Japanese public was electric as the Japanese people for the first time saw the Emperor as a mere man overshadowed by the much taller MacArthur instead of the living god he always been portrayed as . Up to 1945 , the Emperor had been a remote , mysterious figure to his people , rarely seen in public and always silent , whose photographs were always taken from a certain angle to make him look more taller and more impressive than what he was really was . No Japanese photographer would had taken such a photo of the Emperor being overshadowed by MacArthur . The Japanese government immediately banned the photo of the Emperor with MacArthur under the grounds that it damaged the imperial mystique , but MacArthur rescinded the ban and ordered all of the Japanese newspapers to print it . The photo was intended as a message to the Emperor about who was going to be the senior partner in their relationship .
As he needed the Emperor , MacArthur protected him from any effort to hold accountable for his actions in the period 1931 @-@ 45 , and allowed him to issue statements that incorrectly portrayed the emerging democratic post @-@ war era as a continuation of the Meiji era reforms . MacArthur did not allow any investigations of the Emperor , and instead in October 1945 ordered his staff " in the interests of peaceful occupation and rehabilitation of Japan , prevention of revolution and communism , all facts surrounding the execution of the declaration of war and subsequent position of the Emperor which tend to show fraud , menace or duress be marshalled " . In January 1946 , MacArthur reported to Washington that the Emperor could not be indicted for war crimes under the grounds :
" His indictment will unquestionably cause a tremendous convulsion among the Japanese people , the repercussions of which cannot be overestimated . He is a symbol which unites all Japanese . Destroy him and the nation will disintegrate ... It is quite possible that a million troops would be required which would have to be maintained for an indefinite number of years " .
To protect the Emperor from being indicted , MacArthur had one of his staff , General Bonner Fellers on 6 March 1946 during a meeting at the Dai Ichi tell the genrō Admiral Mitsumasa Yonai :
" To counter this situation , it would be most convenient if the Japanese side could prove to us that the Emperor is completely blameless . I think the forthcoming trials offer the best opportunity to do that . Tōjo , in particular should be made to bear all responsibility at his trial . I want you to have Tōjo say as follows : " At the imperial conference prior to the start of the war , I already decided to push for war even if his majesty the emperor was against going to war with the United States . " "
From the viewpoint of both sides , having one especially evil figure in the form of General Hideki Tojo whom everything that went wrong could be blamed was most politically convenient . At a second meeting on 22 March 1946 , Fellers told Admiral Yonai as recorded by his interpreter Mizota Shuichi :
" The most influential advocate of un @-@ American thought in the United States is Cohen ( a Jew and a Communist ) , the top adviser to Secretary of State Byrnes . As I told Yonai ... it is extremely disadvantageous to MacArthur 's standing in the United States to put on trial the very Emperor who is cooperating with him and facilitating the smooth administration of the occupation . This is the reason for my request ... " I wonder whether I said to Admiral Yonai the other day has already been conveyed to Tōjo ? " " .
MacArthur 's attempts to shield the Emperor from indictment and to have all the blame taken by General Tōjo were successful , which as Bix commented " ... had a lasting and profoundly distorting impact on the Japanese understanding of the lost war " .
= = = Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers = = =
As Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers ( SCAP ) in Japan , MacArthur and his staff helped Japan rebuild itself , eradicate militarism and ultra @-@ nationalism , promote political civil liberties , institute democratic government , and chart a new course that ultimately made Japan one of the world 's leading industrial powers . The U.S. was firmly in control of Japan to oversee its reconstruction , and MacArthur was effectively the interim leader of Japan from 1945 until 1948 . In 1946 , MacArthur 's staff drafted a new constitution that renounced war and stripped the Emperor of his military authority . The constitution — which became effective on 3 May 1947 — instituted a parliamentary system of government , under which the Emperor acted only on the advice of his ministers . It included the famous Article 9 , which outlawed belligerency as an instrument of state policy and the maintenance of a standing army . The constitution also enfranchised women , guaranteed fundamental human rights , outlawed racial discrimination , strengthened the powers of Parliament and the Cabinet , and decentralized the police and local government .
A major land reform was also conducted , led by Wolf Ladejinsky of General Douglas MacArthur 's SCAP staff . Between 1947 and 1949 , approximately 4 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 ha ) , or 38 % of Japan 's cultivated land , was purchased from the landlords under the government 's reform program , and 4 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 860 @,@ 000 ha ) was resold to the farmers who worked them . By 1950 , 89 % of all agricultural land was owner @-@ operated and only 11 % was tenant @-@ operated . MacArthur 's efforts to encourage trade union membership met with phenomenal success , and by 1947 , 48 % of the non @-@ agricultural workforce was unionized . Some of MacArthur 's reforms were rescinded in 1948 when his unilateral control of Japan was ended by the increased involvement of the State Department . During the Occupation , SCAP successfully , if not entirely , abolished many of the financial coalitions known as the Zaibatsu , which had previously monopolized industry . Eventually , looser industrial groupings known as Keiretsu evolved . The reforms alarmed many in the U.S. Departments of Defense and State , who believed they conflicted with the prospect of Japan and its industrial capacity as a bulwark against the spread of communism in Asia .
During this period , MacArthur , never a modest man , grew more self @-@ important and egoistical . Faubion Bowers , one of MacArthur 's aides during this period recalled :
When I clapped eyes on MacArthur I fell madly in love . Here was a magnificence I 'd never known and I 'd never been close to . Here was a man who moved in the highest circles , who held in personal contempt presidents , who had met kings and queens , and who knew the world in a way that I had not known up to that time . He was so overwhelmingly impressive , he had a kind of magnetism , a kind of charm that could charm the birds off the wallpaper in the room . And it was so interesting ... One of the interesting things , one of the tragic things in a way , was that all of us who were in the inner sanctum were corrupted by him . All of us , me included , felt that the more we glorified him , the more we ourselves were deified in some way . And it was remarkable how he was surrounded by , well , what Eisenhower called bootlickers , but we were like disciples to a Christ . And I remember one time before I put his mail on his desk , there was a card , an open card written in pencil and I read it . It was from Anthony Storey , Major Storey , who was his pilot , who 'd gone to the Philippines on some sort of business . And he wrote this card and it said : ' To one who walks and talks with God ' . And I thought , my God in heaven . That 's his what own pilot wrote " .
MacArthur 's tendency to surround himself with hero @-@ worshipping officers who held him in the highest awe meant he was never contradicted by his staff or given advice that was contrary to his own inclinations .
Much has been made of the apparent paradox between MacArthur , a man whose political inclinations were to the right of the Republican Party who acted as a liberal reformer when he ruled Japan . On one hand , MacArthur forced through a land reform , gave women the right to vote , removed the emphasis on militarism in the educational system , imposed a constitution that renounced the right to wage war , and sought to club the power of the zaibatsu . On the other hand , MacArthur 's intelligence chief General Charles A. Willoughby , whom MacArthur called " my lovable fascist " cultivated connections with former members of the Japanese military and secret police . Like Willoughby , MacArthur believed that Communism was part of a Jewish conspiracy to take over the world and he often complained that too many officials sent out by Washington to help govern Japan were Jewish and thus Communists . MacArthur told the British diplomat Sir Alvary Gascoigne in 1948 that Eisenhower could not be considered a potential president or even a " good Republican " because he had " Jewish blood in his veins " . Remarks like that led the American Japanologist Michael Schaller to comment : " Attacking a rival as a Jew was a frequent MacArthur tactic " .
Willoughby had developed an elaborate conspiracy theory that the spy network created by the Soviet spy Richard Sorge was still in existence and that members of the Sorge spy network were now occupying positions of power in Washington , who in turn were responsible for the fall of the Kuomintang government in China in 1949 . With MacArthur 's approval , Willloughby leaked this theory about the Sorge spy network 's supposed power in Washington to House Un @-@ American Activities Committee in the late 1940s , leading to long investigations of the State Department officials whom Willoughby had accused of being part of the Sorge spy network . Schaller argued this paradox between MacArthur the liberal reformer vs. MacArthur the ultra @-@ conservative anti @-@ Semite can be easily explained by the fact that MacArthur 's primary aim was always to win the Republican nomination for presidency and he needed to be seen as a success in ruling Japan to win the nomination . Almost all Americans during the war believed that Japan needed drastic reforms after the war , and as such an American occupation of Japan that did not carry out reforms would be seen as a failure by the American people . MacArthur , despite all of his talk about leading a " revolution " in Japan shared many of the same assumptions promoted by former ambassador Joseph C. Grew who believed that pre @-@ war Japan had been an essentially normal society that had unfortunately been " hijacked " in the 1930s by a few " fanatics " , and as such , Japan really did not need radical reforms . Grew argued against those who claimed that Japan had carried out a flawed modernization with the Meiji Restoration and needed deep structural reforms that on the contrary , all that was needed was to remove the handful of " fanatics " and Japan would revert to the " normal " country it had been before 1931 . It was MacArthur 's political ambitions that drove him to carry out reforms in Japan , not a genuine belief in their desirability . Schnaller wrote that MacArthur would oscillate between the conservative stance favored by Grew vs. the liberal stance favored by the " New Dealers " as the officials who favored deep reforms were known , and such shifts in emphasis had everything to do with his desire to be the Republican candidate for president , and nothing to do with the Cold War , what Washington wanted or the question of how much of a " normal " nation had Japan had been prior to World War II .
In 1948 , MacArthur made a bid to win the Republican nomination to be the GOP candidate for president , which was the most serious of several efforts he made over the years . MacArthur 's status as one of America 's most popular war heroes together with his reputation as the statesman who had " transformed " Japan gave him a strong basis for running for president , but MacArthur 's lack of connections within the GOP were a major handicap . MacArthur 's strongest supporters came from the quasi @-@ isolationist , Midwestern wing of the Republicans and embraced men such as Brigadier General Hanford MacNider , Philip La Follette , and Brigadier General Robert E. Wood , a diverse collection of " Old Right " and Progressive Republicans only united by a belief that the U.S. was too much involved in Europe for its own good . MacArthur declined to campaign for the presidency himself , but he privately encouraged his supporters to put his name on the ballot . MacArthur had always stated he would retire when a peace treaty was signed with Japan , and his push in the fall of 1947 to have the U.S sign a peace treaty with Japan was intended to allow him to retire on a high note , and thus campaign for the presidency . For the same reasons , Truman subverted MacArthur 's efforts to have peace treaty signed in 1947 , saying that more time was needed before the U.S could formally make peace with Japan .
Without a peace treaty , MacArthur decided not to resign while at the same time writing letters to his friend General Wood saying he would be more than happy to accept the Republican nomination if it were offered to him . In late 1947 @-@ early 1948 , MacArthur received several Republican grandees in Tokyo while General Robert Eichelberger wrote in his diary that MacArthur was obsessed with becoming president . On 9 March 1948 MacArthur issued a press statement declaring his interest in being the Republican candidate for president , saying he would be honored if the GOP were to nominate him , but would not resign from the Army to campaign for the presidency . The press statement had been forced by Wood , who told MacArthur that it was impossible to campaign for a man who was not officially running for president , and that MacArthur could either declare his candidacy or see Wood cease campaigning for him . MacArthur 's supporters made a major effort to win the Wisconsin Republican primary held on 6 April 1948 . MacArthur 's refusal to campaign badly hurt his chances and the 1948 Wisconsin primary was won to everybody 's surprise by Harold Stassen . The defeat in Wisconsin followed by defeat in Nebraska effectively ended MacArthur 's chances of winning the Republican nomination , but MacArthur refused to withdraw his name until the 1948 Republican convention which was won by Governor Thomas Dewy of New York .
In an address to Congress on 19 April 1951 , MacArthur declared :
The Japanese people since the war have undergone the greatest reformation recorded in modern history . With a commendable will , eagerness to learn , and marked capacity to understand , they have from the ashes left in war 's wake erected in Japan an edifice dedicated to the supremacy of individual liberty and personal dignity , and in the ensuing process there has been created a truly representative government committed to the advance of political morality , freedom of economic enterprise , and social justice .
MacArthur handed over power to the Japanese government in 1949 , but remained in Japan until relieved by President Harry S. Truman on 11 April 1951 . The San Francisco Peace Treaty , signed on 8 September 1951 , marked the end of the Allied occupation , and when it went into effect on 28 April 1952 , Japan was once again an independent state . The Japanese subsequently gave him the nickname Gaijin Shogun ( " foreign military ruler " ) but not until around the time of his death in 1964 .
= = = War crimes trials = = =
MacArthur was responsible for confirming and enforcing the sentences for war crimes handed down by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East . In late 1945 , Allied military commissions in various cities of the Orient tried 5 @,@ 700 Japanese , Taiwanese and Koreans for war crimes . About 4 @,@ 300 were convicted , almost 1 @,@ 000 sentenced to death , and hundreds given life imprisonment . The charges arose from incidents that included the Rape of Nanking , the Bataan Death March and Manila massacre . The trial in Manila of Yamashita was criticized because he was hanged for Iwabuchi 's Manila massacre , which he had not ordered and of which he was probably unaware . Iwabuchi had killed himself as the battle for Manila was ending .
MacArthur gave immunity to Shiro Ishii and other members of the bacteriological research units in exchange for germ warfare data based on human experimentation . He also exempted the Emperor and all members of the imperial family implicated in war crimes , including Princes Chichibu , Asaka , Takeda , Higashikuni and Fushimi , from criminal prosecutions . MacArthur confirmed that the emperor 's abdication would not be necessary . In doing so , he ignored the advice of many members of the imperial family and Japanese intellectuals who publicly called for the abdication of the Emperor and the implementation of a regency .
= = Korean War = =
= = = South to the Naktong , North to the Yalu = = =
On 25 June 1950 , North Korea invaded South Korea , starting the Korean War . The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 82 , which authorized a United Nations ( UN ) force to assist South Korea . The UN empowered the American government to select a commander , and the Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously recommended MacArthur . He therefore became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the United Nations Command ( UNCOM ) , while remaining SCAP in Japan and Commander of the USAFFE . All South Korean forces were also placed under his command . As they retreated before the North Korean onslaught , MacArthur received permission to commit U.S. ground forces . All the first units to arrive could do was trade men and ground for time , falling back to the Pusan Perimeter . During the summer of 1950 , MacArthur exhibited wild mood swings , at one moment saying he could defeat the North Koreans with " one hand tied behind his back " , and at other moments being in the words of his staff " a dejected , completely despondent man " who talked about abandoning South Korea . By the end of August , the crisis subsided . North Korean attacks on the perimeter had tapered off . While the North Korean force numbered 88 @,@ 000 troops , Lieutenant General Walton Walker 's Eighth Army now numbered 180 @,@ 000 , and he had more tanks and artillery pieces .
In 1949 , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , General of the Army Omar Bradley , had predicted that " large scale combined amphibious operations ... will never occur again , " but by July 1950 , MacArthur was planning just such an operation . MacArthur compared his plan with that of General James Wolfe at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham , and brushed aside the problems of tides , hydrography and terrain . In September , despite lingering concerns from superiors , MacArthur 's soldiers and marines made a successful landing at Inchon , deep behind North Korean lines . Launched with naval and close air support , the landing outflanked the North Koreans , recaptured Seoul and forced them to retreat northward in disarray . Visiting the battlefield on 17 September , MacArthur surveyed six T @-@ 34 tanks that had been knocked out by Marines , ignoring sniper fire around him , except to note that the North Korean marksmen were poorly trained .
On 11 September , Truman issued orders for an advance beyond the 38th parallel into North Korea . MacArthur now planned another amphibious assault , on Wonsan on the east coast , but it fell to South Korean troops before the 1st Marine Division could reach it by sea . In October , MacArthur met with Truman at the Wake Island Conference , with Truman emulating Roosevelt 's wartime meeting with MacArthur in Hawaii . On the day before the meeting , Truman who disliked MacArthur on the account of his ego said : " Tomorrow , I have to talk with God 's right @-@ hand man " . The president awarded MacArthur his fifth Distinguished Service Medal . Briefly questioned about the Chinese threat , MacArthur dismissed it , saying that he hoped to be able to withdraw the Eighth Army to Japan by Christmas , and to release a division for service in Europe in January . MacArthur called the possibility of Chinese intervention " pure bluff " . He regarded the possibility of Soviet intervention as a more serious threat . MacArthur reported to Washington that he " had plenty of troops to deal adequately with the Chinese and even with the Russians if they should prove so foolish as to enter the area at this stage " .
A month later , things had changed . The enemy were engaged by the UN forces at the Battle of Unsan in late October , which demonstrated the presence of Chinese soldiers in Korea and rendered significant losses to the American and other UN troops . Nevertheless , Willoughby downplayed the evidence about Chinese intervention in the war . He estimated that up to 71 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers were in the country , while the true number was closer to 300 @,@ 000 . He was not alone in this miscalculation . On 24 November , the Central Intelligence Agency reported to Truman that while there could be as many as 200 @,@ 000 Chinese troops in Korea , " there is no evidence that the Chinese Communists plan major offensive operations . "
That day , MacArthur flew to Walker 's headquarters and he later wrote :
For five hours I toured the front lines . In talking to a group of officers I told them of General Bradley 's desire and hope to have two divisions home by Christmas ... What I had seen at the front line worried me greatly . The R.O.K. troops were not yet in good shape , and the entire line was deplorably weak in numbers . If the Chinese were actually in heavy force , I decided I would withdraw our troops and abandon any attempt to move north . I decided to reconnoiter and try to see with my own eyes , and interpret with my own long experience what was going on ...
MacArthur flew over the front line himself in his Douglas C @-@ 54 Skymaster but saw no signs of a Chinese build up and therefore decided to wait before ordering an advance or withdrawal . Evidence of the Chinese activity was hidden to MacArthur : the Chinese Army traveled at night and dug in during the day . For his reconnaissance efforts , MacArthur was nonetheless awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and honorary combat pilot 's wings .
The next day , 25 November 1950 , Walker 's Eighth Army was attacked by the Chinese Army and soon the UN forces were in retreat . MacArthur provided the Chief of Staff , General J. Lawton Collins with a series of nine successive withdrawal lines . On 23 December , Walker was killed when his jeep collided with a truck , and was replaced by Lieutenant General Matthew B. Ridgway , whom MacArthur had selected in case of such an eventuality . Ridgway noted that MacArthur 's " prestige , which had gained an extraordinary luster after Incheon , was badly tarnished . His credibility suffered in the unforeseen outcome of the November offensive ... "
Collins discussed the possible use of nuclear weapons in Korea with MacArthur in December , and later asked him for a list of targets in the Soviet Union in case it entered the war . MacArthur testified before the Congress in 1951 that he had never recommended the use of nuclear weapons . He did at one point consider a plan to cut off North Korea with radioactive poisons ; he did not recommend it at the time , although he later broached the matter with Eisenhower , then president @-@ elect , in 1952 . In 1954 , in an interview published after his death , he stated he had wanted to drop atomic bombs on enemy bases , but in 1960 , he challenged a statement by Truman that he had advocated using atomic bombs . Truman issued a retraction , stating that he had no evidence of the claim ; it was merely his personal opinion .
In April 1951 , the Joint Chiefs of Staff drafted orders for MacArthur authorizing nuclear attacks on Manchuria and the Shantung Peninsula if the Chinese launched airstrikes originating from there against his forces . The next day Truman met with the chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission , Gordon Dean , and arranged for the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs to military control . Dean was apprehensive about delegating the decision on how they should be used to MacArthur , who lacked expert technical knowledge of the weapons and their effects . The Joint Chiefs were not entirely comfortable about giving them to MacArthur either , for fear that he might prematurely carry out his orders . Instead , they decided that the nuclear strike force would report to the Strategic Air Command .
= = = Removal from command = = =
Within weeks of the Chinese attack , MacArthur was forced to retreat from North Korea . Seoul fell in January 1951 , and both Truman and MacArthur were forced to contemplate the prospect of abandoning Korea entirely . European countries did not share MacArthur 's world view , distrusted his judgment , and were afraid that he might use his stature and influence with the American public to re @-@ focus American policy away from Europe and towards Asia . They were concerned that this might lead to a major war with China , possibly involving nuclear weapons . Since in February 1950 the Soviet Union and China had signed a defensive alliance committing each to go to war if the other party was attacked , the possibility that an American attack on China would cause World War Three was considered to be very real at the time . In a visit to the United States in December 1950 , the British prime minister , Clement Attlee , had raised the fears of the British and other European governments that " General MacArthur was running the show . "
Under Ridgway 's command , the Eighth Army pressed north again in January . He inflicted heavy casualties on the Chinese , recaptured Seoul in March 1951 , and pushed on to the 38th Parallel . With the improved military situation , Truman now saw the opportunity to offer a negotiated peace but , on 24 March , MacArthur called upon China to admit that it had been defeated , simultaneously challenging both the Chinese and his own superiors . Truman 's proposed announcement was shelved .
On 5 April , Representative Joseph William Martin , Jr . , the Republican leader in the House of Representatives , read aloud on the floor of the House a letter from MacArthur critical of Truman 's Europe @-@ first policy and limited @-@ war strategy . The letter concluded with :
It seems strangely difficult for some to realize that here in Asia is where the communist conspirators have elected to make their play for global conquest , and that we have joined the issue thus raised on the battlefield ; that here we fight Europe 's war with arms while the diplomats there still fight it with words ; that if we lose the war to communism in Asia the fall of Europe is inevitable , win it and Europe most probably would avoid war and yet preserve freedom . As you pointed out , we must win . There is no substitute for victory .
In March 1951 secret United States intercepts of diplomatic dispatches disclosed clandestine conversations in which General MacArthur expressed confidence to the Tokyo embassies of Spain and Portugal that he would succeed in expanding the Korean War into a full @-@ scale conflict with the Chinese Communists . When the intercepts came to the attention of President Truman , he was enraged to learn that MacArthur was not only trying to increase public support for his position on conducting the war , but had secretly informed foreign governments that he planned to initiate actions that were counter to United States policy . The President was unable to act immediately since he could not afford to reveal the existence of the intercepts and because of MacArthur 's popularity with the public and political support in Congress . However , following the release on April 5 by Representative Martin of MacArthur 's letter , Truman concluded he could relieve MacArthur of his commands without incurring unacceptable political damage .
Truman summoned Secretary of Defense George Marshall , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs Omar Bradley , Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Averell Harriman to discuss what to do about MacArthur . They concurred MacArthur should be relieved of his command , but made no recommendation to do so . Although they felt that it was correct " from a purely military point of view , " they were aware that there were important political considerations as well . Truman and Acheson agreed that MacArthur was insubordinate , but the Joint Chiefs avoided any suggestion of this . Insubordination was a military offense , and MacArthur could have requested a public court martial similar to that of Billy Mitchell . The outcome of such a trial was uncertain , and it might well have found him not guilty and ordered his reinstatement . The Joint Chiefs agreed that there was " little evidence that General MacArthur had ever failed to carry out a direct order of the Joint Chiefs , or acted in opposition to an order . " " In point of fact , " Bradley insisted , " MacArthur had stretched but not legally violated any JCS directives . He had violated the President 's 6 December directive [ not to make public statements on policy matters ] , relayed to him by the JCS , but this did not constitute violation of a JCS order . " Truman ordered MacArthur 's relief by Ridgway , and the order went out on 10 April with Bradley 's signature .
In a 3 December 1973 article in Time magazine , Truman was quoted as saying in the early 1960s :
I fired him because he wouldn 't respect the authority of the President . I didn 't fire him because he was a dumb son of a bitch , although he was , but that 's not against the law for generals . If it was , half to three @-@ quarters of them would be in jail .
The relief of the famous general by the unpopular politician for communicating with Congress led to a constitutional crisis , and a storm of public controversy . Polls showed that the majority of the public disapproved of the decision to relieve MacArthur . By February 1952 , almost nine months later , Truman 's approval rating had fallen to 22 percent . As of 2014 , that remains the lowest Gallup Poll approval rating recorded by any serving president . As the increasingly unpopular war in Korea dragged on , Truman 's administration was beset with a series of corruption scandals , and he eventually decided not to run for re @-@ election . Beginning on May 3 , 1951 , a Joint Senate Committee — chaired by Democrat Richard Russell , Jr . — investigated MacArthur 's removal . It concluded that " the removal of General MacArthur was within the constitutional powers of the President but the circumstances were a shock to national pride . "
= = Later life = =
A day after his arrival in San Francisco from Korea on April 18 , 1951 , MacArthur had flown with his family to Washington , D.C. where he was scheduled to address a joint session of Congress . It was his and Jean 's first visit to the continental United States since 1937 , when they had been married ; Arthur IV , now aged 13 , had never been to the U.S. And , on April 19 , 1951 , MacArthur made his last official appearance in a farewell address to the U.S. Congress presenting and defending his side of his disagreement with Truman over the conduct of the Korean War . During his speech , he was interrupted by fifty ovations . MacArthur ended the address saying :
I am closing my 52 years of military service . When I joined the Army , even before the turn of the century , it was the fulfillment of all of my boyish hopes and dreams . The world has turned over many times since I took the oath on the plain at West Point , and the hopes and dreams have long since vanished , but I still remember the refrain of one of the most popular barrack ballads of that day which proclaimed most proudly that " old soldiers never die ; they just fade away . "
And like the old soldier of that ballad , I now close my military career and just fade away , an old soldier who tried to do his duty as God gave him the light to see that duty .
Good Bye .
MacArthur received public adulation , which aroused expectations that he would run for president , but he was not a candidate . MacArthur carried out a speaking tour in 1951 – 52 attacking the Truman administration for " appeasement in Asia " and for mismanaging the economy . Initially attracting large crowds , by early 1952 MacArthur 's speeches were attracting smaller and smaller numbers of people as many complained that MacArthur seemed more interested in settling scores with Truman and praising himself than in offering up a constructive vision for the nation . MacArthur felt uncomfortable campaigning for the Republican nomination , and hoped that at the Republican convention , a deadlock would ensue between Senator Robert Taft and General Eisenhower , which would end with the GOP nominating him as the best compromise . MacArthur 's unwillingness to campaign for the presidency seriously hurt his ability to win the nomination . In the end , MacArthur endorsed Senator Robert A. Taft , and was keynote speaker at the 1952 Republican National Convention . Taft lost the nomination to Eisenhower , who went on to win the 1952 election by a landslide . Once elected , Eisenhower consulted with MacArthur about ending the war in Korea .
Douglas and Jean MacArthur spent their last years together in the penthouse of the Waldorf Towers , a part of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . He was elected Chairman of the Board of Remington Rand . In that year , he earned a salary of $ 68 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 612 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , in addition to $ 20 @,@ 000 pay and allowances as a General of the Army . The Waldorf became the setting for an annual birthday party on 26 January thrown by the general 's former deputy chief engineer , Major General Leif J. Sverdrup . At the 1960 celebration for MacArthur 's 80th birthday , many of his friends were startled by the general 's obviously deteriorating health . The next day , he collapsed and was rushed into surgery at St. Luke 's Hospital to control a severely swollen prostate .
After his recovery , MacArthur methodically began to carry out the closing acts of his life . He visited the White House for a final reunion with Eisenhower . In 1961 , he made a " sentimental journey " to the Philippines , where he was decorated by President Carlos P. Garcia with the Philippine Legion of Honor . MacArthur also accepted a $ 900 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 7 @.@ 25 million in 2016 ) advance from Henry Luce for the rights to his memoirs , and wrote the volume that would eventually be published as Reminiscences . Sections began to appear in serialized form in Life magazine in the months before his death .
President John F. Kennedy solicited MacArthur 's counsel in 1961 . The first of two meetings was held shortly after the Bay of Pigs Invasion . MacArthur was extremely critical of the military advice given to Kennedy , and cautioned the young President to avoid a U.S. military build @-@ up in Vietnam , pointing out that domestic problems should be given a much greater priority . Shortly before his death , MacArthur gave similar advice to President Lyndon B. Johnson .
In 1962 , West Point honored the increasingly frail MacArthur with the Sylvanus Thayer Award for outstanding service to the nation , which had gone to Eisenhower the year before . MacArthur 's speech to the cadets in accepting the award had as its theme Duty , Honor , Country :
" The shadows are lengthening for me . The twilight is here . My days of old have vanished , tone and tint . They have gone glimmering through the dreams of things that were . Their memory is one of wondrous beauty , watered by tears , and coaxed and caressed by the smiles of yesterday . I listen vainly , but with thirsty ears , for the witching melody of faint bugles blowing reveille , of far drums beating the long roll . In my dreams I hear again the crash of guns , the rattle of musketry , the strange , mournful mutter of the battlefield . But in the evening of my memory , always I come back to West Point . Always there echoes and re @-@ echoes : Duty , Honor , Country . Today marks my final roll call with you , but I want you to know that when I cross the river my last conscious thoughts will be of The Corps , and The Corps , and The Corps . I bid you farewell . "
In 1963 , President Kennedy asked MacArthur to help mediate a dispute between the National Collegiate Athletic Association and the Amateur Athletic Union over control of amateur sports in the country . The dispute threatened to derail the participation of the United States in the 1964 Summer Olympics . His presence helped to broker a deal , and participation in the games went on as planned .
= = Death and legacy = =
Douglas MacArthur died at Walter Reed Army Medical Center on 5 April 1964 , of biliary cirrhosis . Kennedy had authorized a state funeral before his own death in 1963 , and Johnson confirmed the directive , ordering that MacArthur be buried " with all the honor a grateful nation can bestow on a departed hero . " On 7 April , his body was taken on a funeral train to Union Station and transported by a funeral procession to the Capitol , where it lay in state . An estimated 150 @,@ 000 people filed by the bier . The body was finally laid to rest in the rotunda of the Douglas MacArthur Memorial in Norfolk , Virginia .
In 1960 , the mayor of Norfolk , Virginia , had proposed using funds raised by public contribution to remodel the old Norfolk City Hall as a memorial to General MacArthur and as a repository for his papers , decorations , and mementos he had accepted . Restored and remodeled , the MacArthur Memorial contains nine museum galleries whose contents reflect the general 's 50 years of military service . At the heart of the memorial is a rotunda . In its center lies a sunken circular crypt with two marble sarcophagi , one for MacArthur , the other for Jean , who continued to live in the Waldorf Towers until her own death in 2000 .
MacArthur has a contested legacy . In the Philippines in 1942 , he suffered a defeat that Gavin Long described as " the greatest in the history of American foreign wars . " Despite this , " in a fragile period of the American psyche when the general American public , still stunned by the shock of Pearl Harbor and uncertain what lay ahead in Europe , desperately needed a hero , they wholeheartedly embraced Douglas MacArthur — good press copy that he was . There simply were no other choices that came close to matching his mystique , not to mention his evocative lone @-@ wolf stand — something that has always resonated with Americans . "
MacArthur 's concept of the role of the soldier as encompassing a broad spectrum of roles that included civil affairs , quelling riots and low @-@ level conflict , was dismissed by the majority of officers who had fought in Europe during World War II , and afterwards saw the Army 's role as fighting the Soviet Union . Unlike them , in his victories in New Guinea in 1944 , the Philippines in 1945 and Korea in 1950 , he fought outnumbered , and relied on maneuver and surprise for success . The American Sinologist John Fairbank called MacArthur " our greatest soldier " .
On the other hand , Truman once remarked that he did not understand how the US Army could " produce men such as Robert E. Lee , John J. Pershing , Eisenhower and Bradley and at the same time produce Custers , Pattons and MacArthur . " His relief of MacArthur cast a long shadow over American civil @-@ military relations for decades . When Lyndon Johnson met with William Westmoreland in Honolulu in 1966 , he told him : " General , I have a lot riding on you . I hope you don 't pull a MacArthur on me . " MacArthur 's relief " left a lasting current of popular sentiment that in matters of war and peace , the military really knows best , " a philosophy which became known as " MacArthurism . "
MacArthur remains a controversial and enigmatic figure . He has been portrayed as a reactionary , although he was in many respects ahead of his time . He championed a progressive approach to the reconstruction of Japanese society , arguing that all occupations ultimately ended badly for the occupier and the occupied . He was often out of step with his contemporaries , such as in 1941 when he contended that Nazi Germany could not defeat the Soviet Union , when he argued that North Korea and China were no mere Soviet puppets , and throughout his career in his insistence that the future lay in the Far East . This implicitly rejected White American contemporary notions of their own racial superiority . He always treated Filipino and Japanese leaders with respect as equals . At the same time , his Victorian sensibilities recoiled at leveling Manila with aerial bombing , an attitude the hardened World War II generation regarded as old fashioned . When asked about MacArthur , Blamey once said that " The best and the worst things you hear about him are both true . "
= = = Honors and awards = = =
During his lifetime , MacArthur earned over 100 military decorations from the U.S. and other countries including the Medal of Honor , the French Légion d 'honneur and Croix de guerre , the Order of the Crown of Italy , the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau from the Netherlands , the Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath from Australia , and the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers , Grand Cordon from Japan .
MacArthur was enormously popular with the American public . Streets , public works , and children were named after him . Even a dance step was named after him . In 1955 , his promotion to General of the Armies was proposed in Congress , but the proposal was shelved .
Since 1987 the General Douglas MacArthur Leadership Awards are presented annually by the United States Army on behalf of the General Douglas MacArthur Foundation to recognize company grade officers ( lieutenants and captains ) and junior warrant officers ( warrant officer one and chief warrant officer two ) who have demonstrated the attributes of " duty , honor , country " in their professional lives and in service to their communities .
The MacArthur Leadership Award at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston , Ontario is awarded to the graduating officer cadet who demonstrates outstanding leadership performance based on the credo of Duty @-@ Honor @-@ Country and potential for future military service .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Several actors have portrayed MacArthur on screen . Dayton Lummis played him in the 1955 picture The Court @-@ Martial of Billy Mitchell , Henry Fonda in the television movie Collision Course : Truman vs. MacArthur in 1976 , Gregory Peck in the 1977 film MacArthur , Laurence Olivier in Inchon in 1981 , and Daniel von Bargen in the 1995 HBO film Truman . In the 2013 film Emperor he is played by Tommy Lee Jones .
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= No Mercy ( 2005 ) =
No Mercy ( 2005 ) was the eighth annual No Mercy professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . The event , presented by Sony 's PlayStation 2 , took place on October 9 , 2005 , at the Toyota Center in Houston , Texas and featured wrestlers and other talent from WWE 's SmackDown ! brand . Nine professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card .
Three of the four championships exclusive to the SmackDown ! brand were contested for ; one was lost while the other two were retained . The main event was a standard wrestling match , in which World Heavyweight Champion Batista defeated challenger Eddie Guerrero to retain his title . One of the featured preliminary matches was a Casket match between The Ortons ( Randy and " Cowboy " Bob ) and The Undertaker . The Ortons won the match after placing Undertaker inside the casket and closing it . Another primary preliminary match was a standard match between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) and Rey Mysterio , which JBL won .
The event received 219 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , which was greater than the 193 @,@ 000 buys the previous year 's event received . The event was claimed to be " unmerciful " by Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section , as they rated none of the matches higher than a five out of ten . When the event was released on DVD , it reached a peak position of fourth on Billboard 's DVD sales chart for recreational sports . It remained on the chart for four consecutive weeks .
= = Background = =
Nine professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's card , which were planned with predetermined outcomes by WWE 's script writers . The buildup to these matches and scenarios that took place before , during and after the event were also planned by the script writers . The event featured wrestlers and other talent from WWE 's SmackDown ! brand , a storyline expansion in which WWE assigned its employees . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick , an on @-@ screen character , for the entertainment of the audience .
The main rivalry heading into No Mercy was between Batista and Eddie Guerrero over the World Heavyweight Championship . On the September 16 episode of SmackDown ! , Palmer Cannon , a miscellaneous on @-@ screen authority figure of SmackDown ! , a portrayed match maker and rules enforcer , announced that Guerrero was the next challenger to Batista 's World Heavyweight Championship . Guerrero , who had recently portrayed a manipulative character , came out and claimed he was now more about compassion than manipulation . Two weeks later , on the September 30 episode of SmackDown ! , Guerrero , as part of the scripted events , accidentally hit Batista with a folding chair while attempting to hit MNM tag team member Joey Mercury . The following week , Batista showed Guerrero the footage of him hitting Batista last week . Batista , as part of their storyline , then proclaimed that he would hurt Guerrero if he were to revert to his villainous character .
The feud between The Undertaker and Randy Orton and " Cowboy " Bob Orton began at SummerSlam . At the event , Randy faced off against Undertaker . During the match , " Cowboy " Bob ( disguised as a fan ) came into the ring and interrupted the match . Following this , Randy pinned Undertaker after he jumped and pulled Undertaker 's head down over his shoulders , a move dubbed the RKO , to win . After the match , Randy peeled off the latex mask of the fan and revealed him to be his father , " Cowboy " Bob . On the September 16 episode of SmackDown ! , Undertaker defeated Randy . During the match , " Cowboy " Bob drove a U @-@ Haul truck down to the ring and unloaded a casket . As Undertaker went to put Randy inside the casket , he opened it and found a mannequin of himself inside . Despite this distraction , Undertaker pinned Randy after he drove Randy 's head into the mat in an upside down position , a move called the Tombstone Piledriver . The following week , druids wheeled out a casket . Undertaker appeared on the TitonTron and urged The Ortons to look inside . The Ortons opened the casket and found mannequins of themselves inside . Undertaker then proclaimed that this would be their fate at No Mercy .
At the previous SmackDown ! brand pay @-@ per @-@ view event , The Great American Bash , The Legion of Doom ( Road Warrior Animal and Heidenreich ) defeated MNM ( Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro ) to win the WWE Tag Team Championship . After both teams got involved in a storyline between Melina ( Melina Perez ) , who was also a member of MNM , and Christy Hemme , The Legion of Doom and Hemme versus MNM was announced for No Mercy .
The storyline over the WWE United States Championship began when Booker T , Orlando Jordan , and Christian each explained why they thought they deserved a title match against the champion , Chris Benoit . Theodore Long , SmackDown ! ' s on @-@ screen general manager / authority figure , then announced that Benoit could choose who he wanted to face for the title . After Jordan won a standard wrestling match between three wrestlers , also involving Booker and Christian , Benoit decided that he would face all three men in a match between the four at No Mercy .
= = Event = =
Before the live broadcast of the event began , William Regal and Paul Burchill defeated Paul London and Brian Kendrick in a tag team match that aired on the Sunday Night Heat pre @-@ show .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match of the event was The Legion of Doom ( Road Warrior Animal and Heidenreich ) and Christy Hemme versus MNM ( Joey Mercury , Johnny Nitro , and Melina ) in a six @-@ person tag team match . After a match predominately controlled by MNM , Hemme pinned Melina after executing a Doomsday Device , performed by one wrestler hoisting the opponent on their shoulders as another wrestler climbs the ring post to the top turnbuckle and delivers a flying attack onto the opponent , to win the match for her team . The next match on the card was Bobby Lashley , who was making his WWE pay @-@ per @-@ view debut , versus Simon Dean . Lashley won the match in under two minutes after pinning Dean following an inverted powerbomb , which is performed by lifting an opponent over one 's shoulders and slamming them down in a forward position . After the match , Lashley forced Dean to eat twenty double cheeseburgers as the show progressed , with Dean eventually running into the bathroom after finding a long hair in of the burgers .
The third contest was a match between four wrestlers for the WWE United States Championship . Chris Benoit defended his title against Booker T , Christian , and Orlando Jordan . After a match evenly controlled by all four men , Benoit forced Christian to submit with the sharpshooter submission hold to win the match and retain the title . The match that followed saw Mr. Kennedy face off against Hardcore Holly . Kennedy controlled most of the match , as he attacked and applied various submission holds on Holly 's arm . Kennedy pinned Holly after he performed a Green Bay Plunge off the top rope . The following match was between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) and Rey Mysterio . The match went back and forth , as each man was able to gain the advantage numerous times . JBL pinned Mysterio following a Clothesline from Hell to win .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The sixth bout on the card was a Casket match between The Ortons ( Randy and " Cowboy " Bob ) and The Undertaker . In order for The Undertaker to win the match , he had to put both Randy and " Cowboy " Bob in the casket , which was at ringside , and close it ; for The Ortons , they had to place Undertaker in the casket and close it . Near the end of the match , Undertaker had placed " Cowboy " Bob in the casket and was attempting to place Randy in it as well . After performing a Last Ride on Randy , Undertaker went to open the casket . As he did , however , " Cowboy " Bob sprayed a fire extinguisher in his eyes . Randy then hit Undertaker with a folding chair and placed him in the casket . The Ortons closed the casket to win the bout . After the match , The Ortons , as part of the scripted events , locked Undertaker in the casket and hit it numerous times with an axe . They then poured gasoline on the casket and lit it on fire . The next match saw WWE Cruiserweight Champion Nunzio defend his title against Juventud . After a back and forth match between the two , Juventud pinned Nunzio after a sit @-@ out body slam to win the match and the Cruiserweight Championship .
Next was the main event , which saw Batista defend the World Heavyweight Championship against Eddie Guerrero . Towards the end of the match , Guerrero executed three vertical suplexes , a move that is performed by vertically rotating the opponent 270 ° and slamming them onto the mat , and attempted to perform a Frog Splash . Batista , however , rolled out of the way and performed a Spinebuster . Batista pinned Guerrero afterwards to win the match and retain the World Heavyweight Championship . After the match , Batista and the crowd at the arena sang " Happy Birthday " to Guerrero .
= = Aftermath = =
The rivalry between Batista and Eddie Guerrero ended after Guerrero unexpectedly died due to heart failure on November 13 , 2005 . Their feud was planned to continue , as Guerrero would have gone back to his villainous character .
The Undertaker would not be seen on @-@ screen until Survivor Series after being burned inside a casket at the event . After being the sole survivor in his elimination match , Randy Orton celebrated his victory with his father , " Cowboy " Bob Orton , and wrestlers from the SmackDown ! brand . During the celebration , druids brought out a casket and set it up in an upright position . Lightning then struck the casket and set it on fire . Undertaker emerged from the flaming casket and attacked the SmackDown wrestlers . The Ortons , however , escaped the attack . This set up a Hell in a Cell match , a match that is contested in a roofed cage inside the ring , between Randy and Undertaker at Armageddon . Undertaker defeated Randy and ended their storyline that had lasted nearly one year .
After successfully retaining the WWE United States Championship at the event , Chris Benoit started a rivalry with Booker T. Booker defeated Benoit for the title on the edition of October 21 of SmackDown ! to begin their feud . The following month , on the edition of November 24 of SmackDown ! , a match between Benoit and Booker for the title ended in a no @-@ contest after both men 's shoulders were on the mat while pinning one another . Theodore Long then vacated the title and announced that the two would face off against one another in a " Best of Seven series " for the title , in which the winner would be the man who won four matches over the other first . Booker defeated Benoit in the first match at Survivor Series , and eventually won the vacant title after Randy Orton , Booker 's replacement due to a legitimate injury to his ankle at a house show , defeated Benoit in the seventh and final match in January . Booker began his fourth reign as United States Champion .
= = = Reception = = =
The event received 219 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , which was greater than the 193 @,@ 000 buys the previous year 's event received . The promotion 's revenue was $ 18 @.@ 8 million , which was greater than the previous year 's revenue of $ 18 @.@ 5 million . Despite the general positive fan reception of the show , Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section claimed the event was " unmerciful " and that it left fans " begging for mercy " . They rated the overall event , as well as the main event , a five out of ten . None of the matches received a rating higher than a five out of 10 . The match between Bobby Lashley and Simon Dean was rated a three out of 10 , the lowest overall .
The event was released on DVD on November 8 , 2005 . The DVD reached a peak position of fourth on Billboard 's DVD sales chart for recreational sports on December 3 , 2005 . It remained on the chart for four consecutive weeks , until December 24 , when it ranked ninth .
= = Results = =
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= Kirk McLean =
Kirk Alan McLean ( born June 26 , 1966 ) is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender who played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the New Jersey Devils , Vancouver Canucks , Carolina Hurricanes , Florida Panthers and New York Rangers . He played in the style of a stand @-@ up goaltender .
McLean played major junior hockey with the Oshawa Generals of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) and was drafted in the sixth round , 107th overall by the Devils in 1984 . He played with the Devils ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Maine Mariners , before being traded to the Canucks in 1987 . He is best known for his 10 and a half seasons with the Canucks , during which time he was a finalist for two Vezina Trophies in 1989 and 1992 , named to two NHL All @-@ Star Games and received Second All @-@ Star Team honours . In 1994 , he backstopped the Canucks to the seventh game of the Stanley Cup Finals against the Rangers . In 1998 , he was traded away and spent the final three seasons of his career with the Hurricanes , Panthers and Rangers , before retiring in 2001 .
Since retiring , McLean has been a goaltending coach for the Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , worked in broadcasting with the Canucks ' pay @-@ per @-@ view telecasts and became a part @-@ owner of the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) ' s Burnaby Express ( now Coquitlam Express ) . He has also become involved in the restaurant business in Vancouver .
= = Early life = =
McLean was born in Willowdale , Ontario , on June 26 , 1966 and is of Scottish and smaller Irish descent , in which his mask had his family 's Scottish tartan on it . He grew up dreaming of playing for the Toronto Maple Leafs and looked up to NHL star Bernie Parent as a role model . Playing minor hockey in the Metro Toronto Hockey League ( MTHL ) with the Don Mills Flyers , he recorded a 2 @.@ 01 goals against average ( GAA ) over 26 games in the 1982 – 83 season .
= = Playing career = =
= = = New Jersey Devils ( 1985 – 87 ) = = =
McLean played major junior in the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) for three seasons with the Oshawa Generals . Following his rookie season with the Generals , he was drafted by the New Jersey Devils in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft with their sixth pick , 107th overall . He debuted with the Devils in 1985 – 86 , appearing in two games after being called up from Oshawa on April 2 , 1986 . McLean had to compete with numerous other goaltenders in the Devils ' system for ice time . Following the club 's 1987 training camp , he and Craig Billington were sent to their AHL affiliate , the Maine Mariners , while Karl Friesen and Chris Terreri were chosen to backup Alain Chevrier . Sean Burke was also in the Devils ' system , although he was playing for the Canadian National Team at the beginning of the season .
McLean was called up from Maine on December 19 , 1986 , after Friesen was released and Terreri was sidelined with the flu . He arrived in New Jersey three hours before game @-@ time against the Washington Capitals that day . He appeared in relief of Chevrier after the starter allowed three goals in the first 81 seconds . McLean allowed one goal on 24 shots for the rest of the game while earning the win in a 6 – 4 comeback victory . He appeared in four games during his call @-@ up before being reassigned on January 6 , 1987 . After his return to the AHL , McLean suffered an injury , damaging cartilage in his right knee during a game on February 15 . The injury required arthroscopic surgery . He finished the campaign in Maine with a 15 @-@ 23 @-@ 4 record and 3 @.@ 22 GAA in 45 games . While training in the off @-@ season , McLean injured his left knee and underwent his second arthroscopic surgery on July 29 , 1987 .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 1987 – 98 ) = = =
= = = = Arrival to Stanley Cup run ( 1987 – 94 ) = = = =
Leading up to the 1987 – 88 season , McLean was traded , along with Greg Adams and a second round choice ( Leif Rohlin ) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft , to the Vancouver Canucks for centre Patrik Sundström and the Canucks ' second- ( Jeff Christian ) and fourth @-@ round draft picks ( Matt Ruchty ) in 1988 , on September 15 , 1987 . The deal constituted the first major transactions by newly appointed Vancouver Canucks and New Jersey Devils general managers Pat Quinn and Lou Lamoriello , respectively . McLean 's acquisition was an integral part of Vancouver 's rebuilding process , led by Quinn . Within the next two years , McLean was joined in the Canucks organization by additional franchise cornerstones Trevor Linden and Pavel Bure . He became known to fans as " Captain Kirk " , in reference to the Star Trek protagonist .
McLean made 14 saves in his Canucks debut , recording an 8 – 2 win over the St. Louis Blues in the season opener on October 8 , 1987 . He notched his first NHL career shutout later that season on February 17 , 1988 , making 27 saves in a 5 – 0 win against the Pittsburgh Penguins . McLean split playing time with long @-@ time Canucks starter Richard Brodeur in his first season in Vancouver , playing in 41 games with an 11 @-@ 27 @-@ 4 record , 3 @.@ 71 GAA and .875 save percentage . He won his first of three Molson Cups with the Canucks at the end of the season , having earned the most three stars selections on the team .
McLean emerged the following season in 1988 – 89 with a winning 20 @-@ 17 @-@ 3 record , 3 @.@ 08 GAA and .891 save percentage . Early in the season , he returned to New Jersey in a game against the Devils and recorded a shutout against his former team in a 4 – 0 Canucks win on October 20 , 1988 . He went on to receive his first Vezina Trophy nomination as the league 's best goaltender and finished third in voting , losing to Patrick Roy of the Montreal Canadiens . In 1989 – 90 , McLean appeared in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game in Pittsburgh and was the top goaltender at the Skills Competition by allowing the fewest goals against for the Breakaway Relay and Rapid Fire events . He led the league in games and minutes played with 63 and 3 @,@ 738 , respectively . McLean also set Canucks records with 1 @,@ 797 shots against and 1 @,@ 581 saves ( both marks have since been surpassed ) . Backstopping the Canucks to 21 wins , 33 losses and 10 ties , he won his first Cyclone Taylor Trophy as Canucks MVP and second Molson Cup .
Early in the 1990 – 91 season , McLean re @-@ signed with the Canucks to a one @-@ year contract with a second year option on October 16 , 1990 . He was set to make $ 145 @,@ 000 prior to re @-@ organizing his contract for the season . McLean struggled in his fourth year with the Canucks , however , recording a career @-@ worst 3 @.@ 99 GAA with a 10 @-@ 22 @-@ 3 record in 41 games .
McLean bounced back the following season in 1991 – 92 , starting the season with five consecutive wins to be named league player of the week for October 3 to 13 , 1991 . He set an NHL record for wins in October with nine ( McLean 's mark was matched by the Toronto Maple Leafs ' Felix Potvin and Philadelphia Flyers ' Dominic Roussel in October 1993 and surpassed by the Detroit Red Wings ' Manny Legace 's 10 wins in October 2005 ) ; he was named player of the month . Another season highlight for McLean occurred on December 4 , when he stopped all 50 shots in a game against the Montreal Canadiens to earn his third shutout of the season in a 3 – 0 win ; the performance garnered a standing ovation from Canadiens fans at the Montreal Forum . McLean went on to lead the league with five shutouts ( tied with the Chicago Blackhawks ' Ed Belfour , the Canadiens ' Patrick Roy and the Winnipeg Jets ' Bob Essensa ) and 38 wins in 65 games ( tied with the Red Wings ' Tim Cheveldae ) , as Vancouver won their first Smythe Division title since 1975 . He appeared in his second All @-@ Star Game , won his second Cyclone Taylor Trophy and was named to the Second All @-@ Star Team . He earned his second Vezina Trophy nomination , finishing second in voting as Roy won the award once more . He recorded personal bests with a 2 @.@ 74 GAA and 38 wins , the latter of which set a Canucks single @-@ season goaltending record . ( The mark stood for 15 years before Roberto Luongo recorded 47 wins in 2006 – 07 . ) In the subsequent 1992 playoffs , McLean recorded his first post @-@ season shutout by stopping 33 shots in a 5 – 0 win against the Winnipeg Jets in game seven of the opening round . The win eliminated the Jets after the Canucks overcame a 3 – 1 series deficit .
McLean appeared in 54 games in 1992 – 93 , posting a 28 @-@ 21 @-@ 3 record . He recorded three shutouts , which included back @-@ to @-@ back blankings in January 1993 . Playing against the Los Angeles Kings in the second round of the 1993 playoffs , McLean recorded his 15th playoff win in a 7 – 2 Game 4 victory , establishing himself as the winningest playoff goaltender in Canucks history . The Canucks were , however , eliminated in six games by Los Angeles , the eventual Western Conference champions .
Towards the end of the 1993 – 94 season , McLean became a part of hockey history in a game against the Los Angeles Kings on March 23 , 1994 , by allowing Wayne Gretzky 's 802nd career NHL goal . The goal broke Gordie Howe 's record of 801 , making Gretzky the all @-@ time leading goal @-@ scorer in NHL history . Despite allowing the historic goal , the Canucks won the game 6 – 3 . McLean finished the season with a losing 23 – 26 – 3 record , as the Canucks finished with the seventh seed in the Western Conference .
McLean 's peak with the Canucks came during the subsequent 1994 Stanley Cup playoffs , when he backstopped them to the seventh game of the Stanley Cup Finals . Facing the Calgary Flames in the opening round , he made one of the most memorable plays in Canucks and NHL playoff history – a series saving stop on Flames forward Robert Reichel during the first overtime of the seventh game . Reichel had one @-@ timed a pass from Theoren Fleury on a 3 @-@ on @-@ 1 when McLean threw out both his pads to make the stop and preserve the series . With McLean out of position and Reichel having had an open net to shoot at , the red light even came on at the Olympic Saddledome to signal a goal . The following overtime , Bure scored to eliminate the Flames and advance the Canucks to the second round .
Vancouver defeated the Dallas Stars the following round to advance to the semi @-@ finals against the Toronto Maple Leafs . McLean posted back @-@ to @-@ back shutouts against the Leafs in the third and fourth games to tie the NHL playoff record of four shutouts in a single year ( the New York Rangers ' Mike Richter also recorded four that year ; they became the seventh and eighth goaltenders to tie the record . Five more goaltenders went on to record four shutouts until the Red Wings ' Dominik Hasek broke the record with six in 2002 ) . He also became the first goaltender to record back @-@ to @-@ back shutouts in the semifinals since the Red Wings ' Terry Sawchuk did so against the Maple Leafs in 1952 . McLean 's shutout streak lasted a total of 143 minutes and 17 seconds .
The Canucks went on to capture the Clarence S. Campbell Bowl as Western Conference champions to meet the New York Rangers in the Finals . McLean opened the series with a 52 @-@ save performance , including 17 in overtime , to win the first game 3 – 2 . It was the second @-@ most saves by a goaltender in a Stanley Cup Finals game , coming within four stops of Canadiens goaltender Ken Dryden 's 56 saves in 1971 against the Chicago Blackhawks . It also remained the most saves by a Canucks goaltender in a playoff game until Luongo made 72 stops in 2007 . Canucks head coach Pat Quinn commented after the game that McLean 's performance should be sent " in an instructional package ... to young goaltender [ s ] . " Although the Canucks managed to force a game seven after falling 3 – 1 in the series , they eventually lost the Stanley Cup to the Rangers by a 3 – 2 score in the final game . McLean finished the 1994 playoffs with a 15 @-@ 9 record , a 2 @.@ 29 GAA and .928 save percentage . His 1 @,@ 544 minutes played , 820 shots against and 761 saves all set playoff records ( they have since been surpassed ) .
= = = = Post @-@ lockout to trade ( 1994 – 97 ) = = = =
The following lockout @-@ shortened 1994 – 95 season , McLean appeared in 40 of the Canucks 48 games , and recorded all the team 's 18 wins . Winning his third and final Molson Cup , he posted a career @-@ high .904 save percentage along with a 2 @.@ 75 GAA . Before the season ended , McLean signed a five @-@ year contract extension that included the 1994 – 95 season , worth an approximate $ 2 @.@ 4 million per season , on April 5 , 1995 . Vancouver failed to defend their Western Conference title of the previous year 's playoffs , however , as the Chicago Blackhawks swept them in the second round .
McLean 's play began to slip in 1995 – 96 as his GAA inflated to 3 @.@ 54 and he recorded a losing 15 @-@ 21 @-@ 9 record . He was sidelined for six weeks during the season , beginning in January 1996 , due to a cartilage tear in his left knee that required arthroscopic surgery . Rookie Corey Hirsch , who began the season as McLean 's backup , in comparison recorded a 2 @.@ 93 GAA and a 17 @-@ 14 @-@ 6 record . McLean was chosen to start in the opening series against the top @-@ seeded Colorado Avalanche , but was pulled in favour of Hirsch during Game 1 after allowing three goals on 12 shots . The game marked McLean 's final playoff appearance of his career as Hirsch played the remaining five games . The Avalanche eliminated Vancouver in six games and went on to win the Stanley Cup .
McLean reinjured his knee during the 1996 – 97 season during a game against the Dallas Stars on November 11 , 1996 . He missed approximately a month after undergoing his second arthroscopic surgery of the year in mid @-@ November 1996 . McLean and Hirsch continued to share starts in 1996 – 97 , as McLean appeared in 44 games with a 21 @-@ 18 @-@ 3 record and 3 @.@ 21 GAA .
= = = Post @-@ Vancouver ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = =
McLean 's tenure with the Canucks ended the following season in 1997 – 98 . Pat Quinn was dismissed as general manager early in the campaign and was replaced by a four @-@ man committee of team executives . On the recommendation of newly hired head coach Mike Keenan , the management team dealt McLean to the Carolina Hurricanes on January 3 , 1998 . He was sent in a trade , along with winger Martin Gélinas , in exchange for goaltender Sean Burke and wingers Geoff Sanderson and Enrico Ciccone .
After ten @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons in Vancouver , McLean left as the franchise 's all @-@ time leader in regular season games played ( 516 ) , wins ( 211 ) and shutouts ( 20 ) , as well as playoff games played ( 68 ) , wins ( 34 ) and shutouts ( 6 ) . ( Luongo surpassed McLean 's regular season shutouts total with his 21st on October 26 , 2009 . ) McLean 's departure marked the beginning of an unstable period of time for Canucks goaltending . In the seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons between the time McLean was traded away and Luongo was acquired by the Canucks , a total of 18 goaltenders played for the club . General manager Brian Burke , who succeeded the four @-@ man committee , coined the term " goalie graveyard " during his time in Vancouver to describe the club 's goaltending fortunes .
McLean entered his first game with the Hurricanes with the NHL 's worst GAA at 3 @.@ 68 , but helped his new club to a 4 – 1 win to record his first victory with Carolina . His tenure in Carolina was brief , as the Hurricanes traded him after eight appearances to the Florida Panthers for forward Ray Sheppard on March 24 , 1998 . He made his debut with the Panthers two days later on March 26 and recorded a 5 – 4 win against the Canadiens . The following season , McLean recorded his first shutout with the Panthers in a 1 – 0 win against the Nashville Predators . He went on to match his personal best 2 @.@ 74 GAA in his first and only full season with the Panthers in 1998 – 99 , playing in 30 games as Sean Burke 's backup .
The following off @-@ season , he signed a two @-@ year deal , worth an approximate $ 1 @.@ 64 million with bonus incentives for games played , as an unrestricted free agent with the New York Rangers on July 13 , 1999 . McLean was brought in to replace Dan Cloutier , who had been traded away , as Mike Richter 's backup . With Richter experiencing back problems early in the 1999 – 2000 season , McLean filled in as the Rangers ' starter during the first month . He made his Rangers debut in the season opener , making 25 saves in a 2 – 1 loss on October 5 , 1999 . He completed the season with a 2 @.@ 89 GAA in 22 games . The following campaign in 2000 – 01 , McLean 's GAA rose to 3 @.@ 49 GAA in 23 games . After two seasons in New York and 17 seasons in the NHL overall , McLean retired in 2001 .
= = International play = =
Over the course of his career , McLean represented Canada in international competition once . On March 28 , 1990 , McLean was among the players named to Canada 's roster for the 1990 World Championships in Bern and Fribourg , Switzerland . McLean was given the role of starting goaltender , with Ken Wregget serving as his backup . Canada won its first four round robin games with McLean in net , including an 8 – 0 shutout victory versus Norway in which McLean split goaltending duties with Wregget , thus clinching a spot in the medal round . As the round robin continued , Canada added to their perfect record with a 5 – 3 victory over Czechoslovakia in which McLean stopped 25 of 28 shots for the victory . McLean started Canada 's next game , a 3 – 1 victory versus Sweden , but was replaced in the second period by third string goaltender Bob Essensa who had yet to play in the tournament . Following a 3 – 3 tie with the Soviet Union , Canada clinched first place in the round robin . The game was one of McLean 's best of the tournament , as he managed to keep the Soviet Union at bay during the third period in which they had a 14 – 2 margin in shots on goal .
After suffering a 3 – 2 loss versus Czechoslovakia in the opening game of the medal round , Canada opted to start Essensa versus the Soviet Union . Essensa let in four early goals before being replaced by McLean , who let in another three in a 7 – 1 loss to move Canada out of contention for the gold medal . In the final game of the tournament versus Sweden , Canada suffered a 6 – 4 loss and finished fourth overall for the tournament , missing out on their opportunity for a bronze medal that would have come with a win versus Sweden .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Following McLean 's retirement , he was hired as a goaltending coach for the Kamloops Blazers of the WHL . He served in that capacity for one season , in 2002 – 03 . McLean also returned to the Canucks organization as a broadcaster for the team 's pay @-@ per @-@ view telecasts .
McLean has also pursued the restaurant business in Vancouver . He co @-@ owns McLean 's restaurant ( opened June 24 , 2010 ) , the result of buying out other owners of So.cial at Le Magasin , a restaurant in the Gastown neighbourhood that opened in April 2007 , with his former Canucks head coach , Bob McCammon . McLean is also a part @-@ owner in the Coquitlam Express , a Junior A team in the BCHL . The ownership group includes several other former NHLers , including Darcy Rota , Bill Ranford and Dave Lowry .
From Sept 3 , 2010 to May 14 , 2013 , McLean served as Colorado Avalanche 's goaltending consultant ; . During the 2010 – 11 season , McLean was honoured by the Canucks in a ceremony prior to a game against the Avalanche on November 25 , 2010 . The organization made him the second inductee of the Canucks ' Ring of Honour , commemorating the team 's best players of all @-@ time with plaques circling the Rogers Arena stands .
McLean was named to BC 's Hockey Hall of Fame on Jan 22 , 2014 .
= = Personal life = =
Following his retirement , McLean moved back to Vancouver , where he joined the Canucks ' alumni squad . The group is active in the local community , participating in fundraisers and working alongside Hockey Canada and BC Hockey for minor hockey associations . In September 2011 , his off @-@ ice efforts as a member of the Canucks ' alumni were recognized and he was presented the Jake Milford Award .
McLean has pursued various interests besides hockey during and after his playing career . An avid golfer , he is part of the Marine Drive Golf Club in Vancouver and the Nicklaus North Golf Club in Whistler . He was also accepted into the Royal Portrush Golf Club in Northern Ireland in 2008 . McLean began playing regularly at the age of 10 .
Involved in thoroughbred horse racing , he co @-@ owned Regal Discovery , a colt who won the 136th Queen 's Plate in 1995 , with his wife Lesley and her parents Anne and Ron . McLean and Lesley have since divorced . He was also briefly married to Canadian journalist Jane MacDougall , a columnist for the National Post newspaper .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
Bold denotes league @-@ leading statistic .
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
In the 1990 All @-@ Star Competition , Kirk led all goalies with the fewest goals ( 4 GA , 27 shots ) against throughout all of the events .
= = Awards = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
= = Vancouver Canucks records = =
= = = All @-@ time = = =
Regular season games played , goaltender - 516
Regular season wins , goaltender - 211
Regular season losses , goaltender – 228
Playoff games played , goaltender - 68
Playoff wins , goaltender - 34
Playoff losses , goaltender – 34
Playoff shutouts - 6
= = = Single @-@ season = = =
Playoff wins – 15 ( 1994 )
Playoff shutouts – 4 ( 1994 ) ( tied with Roberto Luongo , 2011 )
Playoff shots against – 820 ( 1994 )
Playoff saves – 761 ( 1994 )
Playoff minutes played – 1 @,@ 543 ( 1994 )
= = Transactions = =
June 9 , 1984 – Drafted in the sixth round , 107th overall by the New Jersey Devils in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft .
September 15 , 1987 – Traded by the New Jersey Devils with Greg Adams and the Devils ' second round selection ( Leif Rohlin ) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft to the Vancouver Canucks for Patrik Sundstrom , the Canucks ' second round selection ( Jeff Christian ) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft , and the Canucks ' fourth round selection ( Matt Ruchty ) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft .
January 3 , 1998 – Traded by the Vancouver Canucks with Martin Gélinas to the Carolina Hurricanes for Sean Burke , Enrico Ciccone , and Geoff Sanderson .
March 24 , 1998 – Traded by the Carolina Hurricanes to the Florida Panthers for Ray Sheppard .
July 13 , 1999 – Signed as an unrestricted free agent by the New York Rangers .
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= BootX ( Apple ) =
BootX is a software @-@ based bootloader designed and developed by Apple Inc. for use on the company 's Macintosh computer range . BootX is used to prepare the computer for use by loading all required device drivers and then starting @-@ up Mac OS X by booting the kernel on all PowerPC Macintoshes running the Mac OS X 10 @.@ 2 operating system or later versions . Using BootROM , a read @-@ only memory ( ROM ) computer chip containing OpenFirmware , a graphical bootsplash is shown briefly on all compatible Macintosh computers as a grey Apple logo with a spinning cursor that appears during the startup sequence . The program is freely available as part of the Darwin operating system under the open source Apple Public Source License . BootX was superseded by another nearly identical bootloader named boot.efi and an Extensible Firmware Interface ROM on the release of the Intel @-@ based Mac .
= = History = =
Older Macintoshes dating from 1983 until 1998 utilized a basic bootloader ; the bootloader was solely a ROM chip varying in sizes up to 4 megabytes ( MB ) , which contained both the computer code to boot the computer and to run the Mac OS operating system . This was known as the Macintosh Toolbox , or the Old World ROM , and differs greatly from design the modern Macintosh which generally use a hard drive of large capacity to store the operating system . This bootloader was used in all Macintosh computers until mid @-@ 1998 .
With the advent of the iMac series of Macintoshes , the firmware was updated . The ROM was reduced in size to 1 MB , called BootROM , and the remainder of the ROM was moved to the file Mac OS ROM in the Mac OS System Folder ; stored on the hard drive . This ROM used a full implementation of the OpenFirmware standard ( contained in BootROM ) and was named the New World ROM .
In 2001 , with the release of Mac OS X , the Mac OS ROM file was replaced with the BootX bootloader file , . In 2002 , with the release of Mac OS X 10 @.@ 2 , the historical " Happy Mac " start @-@ up picture was replaced with a grey apple logo . By introducing the Intel Mac in 2006 , BootROM was replaced by the near identical Extensible Firmware Interface ROM ( although Apple still calls it BootROM ) and the boot.efi file .
= = Features = =
To make the boot loader appealing to other operating system developers , Apple added features to allow flexibility in the booting process such as network boot using TFTP and load Mach @-@ O and ELF formatted kernels . BootX can also boot from HFS , HFS + , UFS and ext2 formatted volumes . The boot loader can be manipulated at startup by holding down various key combinations to alter the booting process . Such functions include Verbose Mode , achieved by holding down the Command and V key at startup , which replaces the default Apple logo with text @-@ based information on the boot process and Single User Mode , achieved by holding down the Command and S , which , depending on the operating system , may boot into a more basic command @-@ line or text @-@ based version of the operating system , to facilitate maintenance and recovery action . The ROM can also be set to require a password to access these technical functions using the OpenFirmware interface .
= = Boot process = =
In PowerPC @-@ based Macintoshes , the boot process starts with the activation of BootROM , the basic Macintosh ROM , which performs a Power On Self Test to test hardware essential to startup . On the passing of this test , the startup chime is played and control of the computer is passed to OpenFirmware . OpenFirmware initializes the Random Access Memory , Memory Management Unit and hardware necessary for the ROM 's operation . The OpenFirmware then checks settings , stored in NVRAM , and builds a list of all devices on a device tree by gathering their stored FCode information .
On the completion of this task , BootX takes over the startup process configuring the keyboard and display , claiming and reserving memory for various purposes and checking to see if various key combinations are being pressed . After this process has been completed BootX displays the grey Apple logo , spins the spinning wait cursor , and proceeds to load the kernel and some kernel extensions and start the kernel .
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= Family Gay =
" Family Gay " is the eighth episode of the seventh season of the animated television comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on March 8 , 2009 .
The episode was written by Richard Appel and directed by series regular Brian Iles . Seth Rogen provided a guest @-@ voice as Peter under the effects of the " Seth Rogen gene " and Meredith Baxter provided a guest voice as herself . It received divided reviews from television sources and critics , in addition to receiving criticism from the Parents Television Council . " Family Gay " , along with two other episodes , was nominated in the " Outstanding Comedy Series " category for the 2009 61st Primetime Emmy Awards .
= = Plot = =
Peter purchases a brain damaged horse who ends up causing a great deal of collateral damage at the horse racing track . The horse died after a heart attack , and Peter disposes it at Mort 's pharmacy . In order to pay for the damage , Peter decides to participate in a series of medical drug testing including one that makes him gay . He enters a relationship with another gay man called Scott , leaving his wife Lois and rest of the family heartbroken . After Stewie and Brian enroll Peter in straight camp , Lois breaks Peter out , deciding that Peter 's happiness is more important than his sexuality . Almost immediately afterwards , the gay gene wears off and Peter moves back in with his family . The episode ends when Mort threw the horse out the window yelling , " Take back your fucking horse ! "
= = Production = =
" Family Gay " was written by at the time Executive Producer and future co @-@ creator of the Family Guy spin @-@ off The Cleveland Show , Richard Appel . This episode being his first and to date his only writing credit on the show . John Viener worked as the executive story editor for the episode . MacFarlane found a list of plot ideas from the third season that says " Peter goes gay " and he decided to make an episode with that premise . The writers originally wanted to take " the high road " with the episode . In the first draft , Peter 's homosexuality was so subtle , that he just appeared a little more refined . When the writers could not come up with any high road jokes , they " went with what they know " . The writers had fun " gaying up the episode " by including Peter in a different outfit during every scene after he turned gay . The writers wanted to further the idea that sexuality is inborn , not chosen .
The episode was directed by Brian Iles . He was assisted by James Purdum and Peter Shin worked as the supervising directors for the episode . Other crew members that collaborated in the animation of the episode included Deborah Cone who directed the retake of the episode and Kenji Ono who was the assistant director of the episode . Iles sketched out several clothing ideas for Peter to wear . He got ideas by flipping through catalogs . The name of all the horses at the race track are named after canceled Fox shows from May 2005 until this episode aired . It is a tribute to a similar mentioning of canceled shows when Family Guy came back on the air in May 2005 in the episode " North by North Quahog " . When the episode got close to airing , MacFarlane kept thinking they should remove the cutaway gag with Matt Damon , due to MacFarlane liking Damon 's criticism of Sarah Palin .
" Family Gay " , along with the first eight episodes of the seventh season were released on DVD by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on June 16 , 2009 , one month after it had completed broadcast on television . The " Volume 7 " DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes , animatics , and commentaries for every episode . The DVD also includes four special features those being , Take me out to place tonight ; Family Guy Cribz ; Comic @-@ Con 2008 Family Guy panel and the Family Guy Art Show .
All the main Family Guy cast members lent their voices to the episode , along with writers Kirker Butler , John Viener , Alec Sulkin , Mark Hentemann , and Danny Smith , who all had minor speaking roles . Peter 's boyfriend Scott was voiced by recurring voice actor John G. Brennan , who voices him in the same way he voices gay The Jerky Boys character Jack Tors . Other guest stars included writer Wellesley Wild , actress Meredith Baxter @-@ Birney , and actor Seth Rogen .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode begins with Peter playing the 1983 video game Dragon 's Lair . Later in the episode , Peter names his horse " Till ' Death " , in reference to the show of the same name , highlighting shows that were all cancelled by Fox , including Arrested Development and The War at Home , amongst others . Peter also learns about a pomegranate martini from In Style magazine . " Family Gay " references , in a cutaway , James Bond 's iconic ability to persuade women to have sex with him despite their initial resistance . Peter and Brian watch the movie Wild Hogs , which Peter predicts will suck . The western spoof film Blazing Saddles is referenced when Peter and the other men are dancing and singing , " The French Mistake " . " Family Gay " makes two references to musicals . While in the doctor 's office , Peter 's doctor makes a reference to the song " Seasons of Love " from the musical Rent and while reading Flowers in the Attic by V. C. Andrews Peter listens to the song " Sixteen Going on Seventeen " from the musical The Sound of Music , sung by Charmian Carr .
= = Reception = =
The episode received a 4 @.@ 2 / 6 Nielsen rating , indicating that 4 @.@ 2 % of American households watched the episode , and that 6 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . " Family Gay " , along with " I Dream of Jesus " and " Road to Germany " , were nominated in the " Outstanding Comedy Series " category for the 2009 61st Primetime Emmy Awards . Series creator Seth MacFarlane commented " We picked three of our edgier shows as a choice . Ya know , we figured if we are going to be damned , let 's be damned for what we really are . " Much to the surprise of the writing staff , the series was ultimately nominated for the award , the first time in 48 years an animated series was nominated for the same category since The Flintstones in 1961 , but lost to The Jack Benny Show. though The Simpsons were almost nominated in the year 1993 , but that changed since Emmy voters were hesitant to pit cartoons against live action programs .
The episode received divided reviews from critics . Ahsan Haque of IGN rated the episode a 7 @.@ 9 / 10 , saying , " Overall , while it 's far from being the funniest episode of the season , there were more than enough laughs and uncomfortable moments to make this episode entertaining . " He went on to say that the episode could have been more though , due to the fact that the show has used many clever gay jokes in the past . Likewise , Alex Rocha of TV Guide commented , " ' Family Gay ' fell way short of my expectations . Even with its traditional pop culture references and flashbacks , this week 's episode could not simply keep me tuned in . I 'll admit , I did manage to laugh at times , but as in previous times , Family Guy simply fell short again . " Steve Heisler from The A.V. Club gave the episode a negative review , calling it " yet another pointless exercise in Family Guy insider smugness " , and rating it C- .
In March 2009 , the Parents Television Council ( PTC ) , a conservative decency campaigning group , filed an indecency complaint to the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) . PTC President Tim Winter stated , " Fox treated viewers to everything from an ' eleven @-@ way ' gay orgy to baby Stewie possibly eating a bowl of cereal with horse semen instead of milk . " Dan Isett , PTC director of public policy , said that this was the first time since last fall that the PTC had asked its members to send complaints to the FCC , although the PTC regularly discusses issues it has with shows . The PTC named " Family Gay " the " Worst TV Show of the Week " for the week of March 13 . MacFarlane responded to the PTC 's decrees against the show in an interview with The Advocate , " For an organization that prides itself on Christian values — I mean , I ’ m an atheist , so what do I know ? — they spend their entire day hating people . "
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= Persoonia linearis =
Persoonia linearis , commonly known as the narrow @-@ leaved geebung , is a shrub native to New South Wales and Victoria in eastern Australia . It reaches 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , or occasionally 5 m ( 16 ft ) , in height and has thick , dark grey papery bark . The leaves are , as the species name suggests , more or less linear in shape , and are up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long , and 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 039 to 0 @.@ 276 in ) wide . The small yellow flowers appear in summer and autumn ( December to May ) , followed by small green fleshy fruit known as drupes . Within the genus Persoonia , it is a member of the Lanceolata group of 58 closely related species . P. linearis interbreeds with several other species where they grow together .
Found in dry sclerophyll forest on sandstone @-@ based nutrient @-@ deficient soils , P. linearis is adapted to a fire @-@ prone environment ; the plants resprout epicormic buds from beneath their thick bark after bushfires . The fruit are consumed by vertebrates such as kangaroo , possums and currawongs . As with other members of the genus , P. linearis is rare in cultivation as it is very hard to propagate , either by seed or cuttings . It adapts readily to cultivation , preferring acidic soils with good drainage and at least a partly sunny aspect .
= = Taxonomy = =
English botanist and artist Henry Charles Andrews described Persoonia linearis in 1799 , in the second volume of his Botanists Repository , Comprising Colour 'd Engravings of New and Rare Plants . He had been given a plant in flower by J. Robertson of Stockwell , who had grown it from seed in 1794 . The species name is the Latin linearis " linear " , referring to the shape of the leaves .
Meanwhile , German botanist Karl Friedrich von Gaertner had coined the name Pentadactylon angustifolium in 1807 from a specimen in the collection of Joseph Banks to describe what turned out to be the same species . The genus name derived from the Greek penta- " five " and dactyl " fingers " , and refers to the five @-@ lobed cotyledons . The horticulturist Joseph Knight described this species as the narrow @-@ leaved persoonia ( Persoonia angustifolia ) in his controversial 1809 work On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae , but the binomial name is illegitimate as it postdated Andrews ' description and name . Carl Meissner described a population from the Tambo River in Victoria as a separate variety , Persoonia linearis var. latior in 1856 , but no varieties or subspecies are recognised . German botanist Otto Kuntze proposed the binomial name Linkia linearis in 1891 , from Cavanilles ' original description of the genus Linkia but the name was eventually rejected in favour of Persoonia . In 1919 , French botanist Michel Gandoger described three species all since reallocated to P. linearis ; P. phyllostachys from material collected at Mount Wilson sent to him by the herbarium at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney , and P. walteri and P. breviuscula from Melbourne @-@ based plant collector Charles Walter , whose records have been questioned . The short @-@ leaved material of P. breviuscula was noted to have been collected in Queensland but this is now thought to have been incorrectly recorded . Gandoger described 212 taxa of Australian plants , almost all of which turned out to be species already described .
In 1870 , George Bentham published the first infrageneric arrangement of Persoonia in Volume 5 of his landmark Flora Australiensis . He divided the genus into three sections , placing P. linearis in P. sect . Amblyanthera , and recognising Pentadactylon angustifolium as the same species , after examining the specimen in the Banksian Herbarium . He described a variety sericea from the Shoalhaven River region and also noted the discrepancy in Robert Brown 's description of the species . Brown had noted the bark to be smooth , in contrast to Ferdinand von Mueller and others who recorded the bark as layered .
The genus was reviewed by Peter Weston for the Flora of Australia treatment in 1995 , and P. linearis was placed in the Lanceolata group , a group of 54 closely related species with similar flowers but very different foliage . These species will often interbreed with each other where two members of the group occur , and hybrids with P. chamaepeuce , P. conjuncta , P. curvifolia , P. lanceolata , P. media , five subspecies of P. mollis , P. myrtilloides subsp. cunninghamii , P. oleoides , P. pinifolia and P. sericea have been recorded . Robert Brown initially described the hybrid with P. levis as a species " Persoonia lucida " , which is now known as Persoonia × lucida , and has been recorded from the southeast forests of the New South Wales south coast .
Bentham wrote in 1870 that the name geebung , derived from the Dharug language word geebung or jibbong , which had been used by the indigenous people for the fruits of this species . It goes by the common names of narrow @-@ leaved geebung or narrow @-@ leaf geebung . Naam @-@ burra is an aboriginal name from the Illawarra region .
= = Description = =
Persoonia linearis grows as a tall shrub to small tree , occasionally reaching 5 m ( 16 ft ) in height but more commonly around 2 – 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) tall . The flaky soft bark is dark grey on the surface , while deeper layers are reddish . Within the bark are epicormic buds , which sprout new growth after bushfire . The new growth is hairy . The leaves are more or less linear in shape , measuring 2 to 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 3 @.@ 54 in ) in length and 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 039 to 0 @.@ 276 in ) wide , with slightly down @-@ rolled margins .
The yellow flowers appear in summer and autumn ( December to May ) , peaking over January and February . They are arranged in leafy racemes , and each stem may bear up to 50 flowers . P. linearis is described as auxotelic , which means each stalk bears an individual flower that is subtended by a leaf at its junction with the stem . Known as pedicels , these are covered in fine hair and measure 2 – 8 mm in length . Each individual flower consists of a cylindrical perianth , consisting of tepals fused for most of their length , within which are both male and female parts . The tepals are 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 35 – 0 @.@ 55 in ) long and covered in fine hair on the outside . The central style is surrounded by the anther , which splits into four segments ; these curl back and resemble a cross when viewed from above . They provide a landing area for insects visiting the stigma , which is located at the tip of the style . The flowers are followed by the development of smooth fleshy drupes , which are green and more or less round , measuring 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter . Mature drupes may have purple blotches . Each bears one or two seeds within a woody " stone " and is shed once ripe , generally from September to November .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
One of the most common geebungs , Persoonia linearis is found from the Macleay River catchment on the New South Wales Mid North Coast to the Tambo River in eastern Victoria . It is found from sea level to altitudes of 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) with an average yearly rainfall of 700 to 1 @,@ 400 mm ( 28 to 55 in ) . It is a component of dry sclerophyll forest on both sandstone and clay soils . It grows in sunny to lightly shaded areas in open forest or woodland with a shrubby understory . In the Sydney Basin , it is associated with such trees as Sydney peppermint ( Eucalyptus piperita ) , silvertop ash ( E. sieberi ) , blue @-@ leaved stringybark ( E. agglomerata ) , blackbutt ( E. pilularis ) , grey ironbark ( E. paniculata ) , snappy gum ( E. rossii ) , Sydney blue gum ( E. saligna ) , narrow @-@ leaved stringybark ( E. sparsifolia ) and smooth @-@ barked apple ( Angophora costata ) and shrubs such as Grevillea obtusiflora , G. phylicoides , Kowmung hakea ( Hakea dohertyi ) , long leaf smoke bush ( Conospermum longifolium ) and stiff geebung ( Persoonia rigida ) . In the vicinity of Nowra and Jervis Bay , it is an understory component of the widespread Currambene Lowlands Forest community , alongside such plants as gorse bitter pea ( Daviesia ulicifolia ) , bearded heath ( Leucopogon juniperinus ) and native daphne ( Pittosporum undulatum ) with spotted gum ( Corymbia maculata ) , white stringybark ( Eucalyptus globoidea ) and woollybutt ( E. longifolia ) as the dominant trees . The tall dry sclerophyll forest is on hilly terrain with good drainage . The underlying soil is a yellow loam originating from mudstone , siltstone and sandstone .
= = Ecology = =
Persoonia linearis is one of several species of Persoonia that regenerate by resprouting from trunks or stems greater than 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick after bushfire , an adaptation to the fire @-@ prone habitat where it grows . However , only larger trunks of 12 – 16 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) diameter might survive to reshoot after very hot fires . The thick papery bark shields and insulates the underlying epicormic buds from the flames . The plant can reshoot from the base , but generally only if the stem or trunk is killed .
Colletid bees of the genus Leioproctus , subgenus Cladocerapis exclusively forage on and pollinate flowers of many species of Persoonia . Bees of subgenus Filiglossa in the same genus , which also specialise in feeding on Persoonia flowers , do not appear to be effective pollinators . Weighing 1900 mg ( 0 @.@ 07 oz ) , the fruit are adapted to be eaten by vertebrates , such as kangaroos , possums and currawongs and other large birds . Seeds have been recorded in the faeces of the brush @-@ tailed rock @-@ wallaby ( Petrogale penicillata ) .
= = Cultivation = =
Persoonia linearis is useful as a hedging plant and responds well to pruning . Its foliage has been used in floral arrangements , and its colourful bark is a horticultural feature . It is a fairly easy plant to grow in gardens , but is rarely seen due to difficulties in propagation . Germination from seed is low , and can take many months . Once established it can tolerate extended dry periods and is hardy to frosts . Optimum growing conditions are part shade and a well @-@ drained acid soil , though P. linearis grows readily in full sun . Persoonias in general are sensitive to excessive phosphorus , and grow without fertiliser or with low @-@ phosphorus slow @-@ release formulations . They can also become deficient in iron and manganese . First cultivated in England in 1794 from seed , it was also reportedly propagated from cuttings ; Andrews described it as a " handsome greenhouse plant , continuing to flower through the autumnal months and producing good seeds . " Joseph Knight reported that cuttings would be successful as long as material was " judiciously chosen " , and that plants had set seed on occasion .
A compound with antimicrobial activity was isolated from the ripening drupes of a hybrid of Persoonia linearis and P. pinifolia growing in the Australian National Botanic Gardens in 1994 , and identified as 4 @-@ hydroxyphenyl 6 @-@ O- [ ( 3R ) -3,4 @-@ dihydroxy @-@ 2 @-@ methylenebutanoyl ] -β @-@ D @-@ glucopyranoside .
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= Leicester Abbey =
The Abbey of Saint Mary de Pratis , more commonly known as Leicester Abbey , was an Augustinian religious house in the city of Leicester , in the English Midlands . The abbey was founded in the 12th century by the Robert de Beaumont , 2nd Earl of Leicester , and grew to become the wealthiest religious establishment within Leicestershire . Through patronage and donations the abbey gained the advowsons of countless churches throughout England , and acquired a considerable amount of land , and several manorial lordships . Leicester Abbey also maintained a cell ( a small dependent daughter house ) at Cockerham Priory , in Lancashire . The Abbey 's prosperity was boosted though the passage of special privileges by both the English Kings and the Pope . These included an exemption from sending representatives to parliament and from paying tithe on certain land and livestock . Despite its privileges and sizeable landed estates , from the late 14th century the abbey began to suffer financially and was forced to lease out its estates . The worsening financial situation was exacerbated throughout the 15th century and early 16th century by a series of incompetent , corrupt and extravagant abbots . By 1535 the abbey 's considerable income was exceeded by even more considerable debts .
The abbey provided a home to an average of 30 to 40 canons , sometimes known as Black Canons , because of their dress ( a white habit and black cloak ) . One of these canons , Henry Knighton , is notable for his Chronicle , which was written during his time at the abbey in the 14th century . In 1530 Cardinal Thomas Wolsey died at the abbey , whilst travelling south to face trial for treason . A few years later , in 1538 , the abbey was dissolved , and was quickly demolished , with the building materials reused in various structures across Leicester , including a mansion which was built on the site . The house passed through several aristocratic families , and became known as Cavendish House after it was acquired by the 1st Earl of Devonshire , in 1613 . The house was eventually looted and destroyed by fire in 1645 , following the capture of Leicester during the English Civil War .
Part of the former abbey precinct was donated to Leicester Town Council ( the predecessor of the modern City Council ) by the 8th Earl of Dysart . In 1882 it was opened by The Prince of Wales and became known as Abbey Park . The remaining 32 acres ( 13 ha ) , which included the abbey 's site and the ruins of Cavendish House , were donated to the council by the 9th Earl of Dysart in 1925 and , following archaeological excavations , opened to the public in the 1930s . Following its demolition , the exact location of the abbey was lost ; It was only rediscovered during excavations in the 1920s / 30s , when the layout was plotted using low stone walls . The abbey has been extensively excavated and was previously used for training archaeology students at the University of Leicester . Leicester Abbey is now protected as a scheduled monument and is Grade I Listed .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
Leicester Abbey was founded during a wave of monastic enthusiasm that swept through western Christendom in the 11th and 12th centuries . This wave was responsible for the foundation of the majority of England 's monasteries , and very few were founded after the 13th century . These monasteries were often founded by a wealthy aristocratic benefactor who endowed and patronised the establishments in return for prayers for their soul , and often , the right to be buried within the monastic church . Leicester Abbey was founded in the Augustinian tradition . The monks at the abbey were known as canons , and followed the monastic rules set down by Saint Augustine of Hippo . Sometimes known as Black Canons , because of their dress ( a white habit and black cloak ) , Augustinian Canons lived a clerical life engaged in public ministry ; this is distinct to other forms of monasticism in which monks were cloistered from the outside world , and lived an isolated , contemplative life .
Leicester Abbey was founded in 1143 by Robert le Bossu , 2nd Earl of Leicester , and was dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary . It was not the first abbey Robert had established , having founded Garendon Abbey , also in Leicestershire , in 1133 . Robert 's father , Robert de Beaumont , 1st Earl of Leicester , had previously founded a college of secular canons in Leicester , known as The College of St Mary de Castro . The new abbey assumed control of the college and its possessions , which included all of the churches in Leicester . Robert added to this with the gift of numerous churches in Leicestershire , Berkshire and Northamptonshire . The abbey also gained the manor of Asfordby from its merger with the college , and the manor of Knighton from its founder .
The earls of Leicester continued to patronise the abbey : Petronilla de Grandmesnil , wife of the founder 's son , Robert de Beaumont , 3rd Earl of Leicester , financed the construction of the abbey 's Great Choir ; whilst her husband donated 24 virgates ( 720 acres ) of land at Anstey .
In 1148 , Pope Eugene III granted the abbey an exemption on paying tithe for their newly acquired land and livestock . This was granted on the condition that there was to be no impropriety or violence when electing an abbot , and that those who donated money to the abbey could be buried within it , regardless of whether they had been excommunicated .
= = = 14th century = = =
Though the abbey was a religious house , it was attacked in 1326 by the Earl of Lancaster 's soldiers , who seized property belonging to Hugh le Despenser , 1st Earl of Winchester , which was being kept there .
Under the Abbotship of William Clowne ( tenure : 1345 – 1378 ) the abbey prospered , increasing their lands and endowments with acquisitions such as the manors of Ingarsby and Kirkby Mallory . Clowne is described as having " friendly relations " with King Edward III , and used this to gain further privileges for the abbey , including being exempted from having to send representatives to Parliament . However , by the late 14th century , the abbey had entered a difficult period , and its income began to fall .
It was during this period that the abbey was home to canon Henry of Knighton , who wrote Knighton 's Chronicon . The chronicle includes both Knighton 's contemporary experiences , between 1377 and 1395 , and a historical section recording events between 1066 and 1366 . Knighton chronicles the impact of John Wycliffe , the rise of the Lollards , and gives an unusually favourable account of John of Gaunt . Knighton 's chronicle is valued by historians for his contemporary account of the Black Death in Leicester , which has been compared with Giovanni Boccaccio 's Decameron , which chronicles the plague in Florence . His in depth account records the effects of the Black Death on Leicester . This includes the impact on the prices of food , grain , wine and cattle , and on changes in wages and the labour market . The chronicle also includes detailed death tolls for all of Leicester 's parishes , revealing that one @-@ third of the population of Leicester were killed by the disease . Following the deaths of canons within the abbey , Knighton theorises that it was punishment because of " the ordination of candidates ill @-@ prepared and but little suited for the sacred ministry " . The chronicle was not published until 1652 .
= = = 15th century = = =
In the 15th century the abbey began to lease out its land ( most probably as a solution to their falling income ) . By 1477 only the demesne lands in Leicester , Stoughton and Ingarsby remained un @-@ leased , and were directly farmed by the abbey .
Philip Repyngdon served as Abbot of Leicester Abbey from 1393 to 1405 , when he resigned to become " Chaplain and Confessor " to King Henry IV , and subsequently served as Bishop of Lincoln and as a Cardinal . Repyngdon 's successor , Richard of Rothely , was granted a Royal Licence permitting him to ask the Pope for to remove the abbey from the Bishop of Lincoln 's jurisdiction , as the abbot feared Repyngdon would interfere with his former abbey , which lay within that Diocese . It is unclear if the Pope ever agreed to this petition , as Repyngdon also petitioned the Pope ; receiving a declaration confirming that Leicester Abbey was " fully subject to him and his successors " .
Under the tenure of Abbot William Sadyngton ( 1420 — 42 ) the abbey 's fortunes fell further . A visit by William Alnwick , Bishop of Lincoln , in 1440 , revealed the number of canons had fallen from 30 to 40 to just 14 and that the number of boys in the almonry had fallen from 25 to 6 . Sadyngton was accused of various unsavory practices : of accepting unsuitable boys into the almonry in return for money , of " pocketing various minor revenues " , of " keeping the offices of treasurer and cellarer in his own hands " and of not disclosing the abbey 's accounts to his canons . Sadyngton was also known to keep servants and was even accused of practising magic , including divination .
Despite Abbot Sadyngton 's apparent financial corruption , the abbey appeared to be financially stable : the abbey 's monastic buildings had recently been extensively rebuilt and the abbey had a substantial annual income of £ 1180 . Perhaps because of the large income the Abbot was sustaining , Bishop Alnwick appears to have not taken strong measures against the Abbot 's indiscretions . He ordered that the number of canons should be increased to 30 and the number of boys in the almonry increased to 16 . The Bishop also ordered proper accounts to be kept and forbade the abbot from granting favours without the permission of both the Bishop and the Canons .
= = = 16th century = = =
In 1518 William Atwater , Bishop of Lincoln , visited to inspect the abbey . The Abbot , Richard Pescall , was , like Sadyngton , accused of financial impropriety , but also was thought to be too old to perform his duties . Pescall 's extravagances included an " excessive number of hounds " , which were known to roam freely " fouling church , chapter house and cloister " ; whilst the Bishop complained the boys in the almonry were being improperly educated .
A followup visit , in 1521 , by Bishop Atwater 's successor , John Longland , showed that things had not improved . Abbot Pescall rarely attended church services and , when he did , he would often bring his jester who " disturbed the services with his buffoonery " . The Abbot 's bad example had affected the canon 's behaviour , who ate and drank at improper times , failed to attend services ( an average of 11 of the 25 canons attended ) and roamed freely outside the abbey : visiting the town 's alehouses and frequently going hunting . Two canons were also accused of " incontinence " . This visit revealed the abbey was severely in debt , leading the Bishop to appoint two administrators to oversee the abbey 's finances .
The Chancellor of Lincoln Diocese visited the abbey in 1528 and found things had not improved . The abbot was still not attending services and was eating at unusual times and in unusual places , away from the other canons . The Chancellor also complained about the Abbot 's " excessive number " of servants . The 24 canons were also still in the habit of leaving the abbey without proper reason .
Bishop Longland saw no alternative but to remove Abbot Pescall , but the task was not simple as Pescall tried to secure his position by sending gifts and bribes to Thomas Cromwell , leading Bishop Longland to resort to " harassing " the Abbot by constantly interfering with affairs at the abbey . Abbot Pescall finally resigned 5 years later ( 10 years after his " failures " were first noticed ) and was granted a pension of £ 100 a year . Pescall 's retirement was far from quiet , however . Pescall frequently wrote to Thomas Cromwell complaining about affairs at the abbey , even bemoaning the fact that £ 13 of his undeservedly generous pension of £ 100 a year was being taken in tax , and asking that the tax be paid by the abbey .
It was during Abbot Pescall 's tenure , in 1530 , that Cardinal Thomas Wolsey visited the abbey . Wolsey was an influential minister in the government of King Henry VIII . He fell from favour after failing to secure papal permission for Henry to divorce his wife Katherine of Aragon , and on 4 November 1530 was arrested for treason . While en route from Yorkshire to London , where Wolsey would be held prisoner , he fell ill . The journey took Wolsey through Leicester , and he arrived at the abbey on 26 November , declaring : " Father abbott , I ame come hether to leave my bones among you " . Wolsey died on 30 November and the public were allowed to view his remains before he was interred within the abbey 's church .
By the time Pescall was removed , the abbey 's financial position was poor : Despite being the richest monastery in Leicestershire ( with an income of £ 951 in 1534 ) , it owed a total of £ 1 @,@ 000 to debtors . John Bourchier , who would be the last abbot of the house , took control in 1534 and by 1538 had reduced the debt to £ 411 . Abbots were usually elected from among the canons of the abbey : Bourchier represented a departure from tradition . Bourchier most probably gained the position of abbot on the instigation of the influential Robert Fuller , Abbot of Waltham Abbey , and on the promise of a bribe for Henry VIII 's chief adviser , Thomas Cromwell . Exact details are unknown , but letters seem to suggest Cromwell was promised his nephew Richard Williams ( Cromwell ) would be given £ 100 and the lease of the abbey 's grange at Ingarsby ; the promise was only honoured in April 1536 , as Bourchier faced opposition from the canons of the abbey . Historians have suggested that in choices such as Bourchier , Cromwell may have been selecting abbots he felt would be more " pliable " his future changes to the church ( i.e. the future Dissolution of the Monasteries , of which Cromwell was the architect ) .
In 1527 King Henry VIII asked Pope Clement VII to annul his marriage to Katherine of Aragon , but the pope refused . This started a series of events known as English Reformation in which Henry broke away from the authority of the pope . In lieu of the pope , Henry assumed authority over the church : all priests and religious figures , including monks , were required to swear support to the royal supremacy over the church . Abbot Bourchier and the 25 canons at Leicester Abbey acknowledged the king 's royal supremacy on 11 August 1534 , thereby saving the abbey from immediate dissolution .
Thomas Cromwell , Henry 's Chief Minister , had long since had his eyes on the wealth of English monasteries ; at the time they owned approximately a quarter of all the realm 's landed wealth . Starting in 1534 , Cromwell had each of the monasteries inspected , with the establishment 's wealth and endowments recorded , along with frequent reports of impropriety , vice and excess . These reports were compiled into volumes known as the Valor Ecclesiasticus . Leicester abbey was inspected by Richard Layton , in 1535 , who complimented Abbot Bourchier as an honest man , but who tried to bring charges of " adultery and unnatural vice " against the abbey 's canons . Abbot Bourchier sought to gain Thomas Cromwell 's favour to protect his canons and abbey ; in 1536 sending him £ 100 and gifts of sheep and oxen . This was ultimately fruitless : Cromwell had convinced King Henry of the immoral behaviour within England 's monasteries and thus between 1536 and 1541 they were all suppressed and dissolved : their land , property and wealth transferred to the king . The abbot 's attempts at bribery could not save Leicester Abbey , and it was finally surrendered to the crown for dissolution in 1538 .
= = = After dissolution = = =
After dissolution in 1538 , the abbey buildings were demolished within a few years ; although the main gatehouse , boundary walls and farm buildings were left standing . The last abbot , John Bourchier , was granted the substantial pension of £ 200 a year , when the abbey was dissolved : the largest in the Diocese of Lincoln . Payments did not continue for very long , however , as in 1552 , in the reign of Henry VIII 's son King Edward VI , the national finance 's were so poor that all pensions over £ 10 were suspended , with Bourchier recorded as having not received payments for over six months .
Following the Dissolution , during a period in which religion was rapidly changing in England , Bourchier managed to adapt his beliefs to stay within the hierarchy in the church : twice becoming a candidate for a bishopric , before servings as rector of Church Langton , from 1554 . This benefice may have represented his true religious sympathies as the rectory was under the patronage of " zealous Catholic " Edward Griffin of Dingley Hall ; although it also had financial incentive with a " wage " ( income ) of £ 60 a year : the highest in Leicestershire . Henry VIII had personally considered Bourchier for the position of Bishop of the King 's proposed new bishopric of Shrewsbury but the king then decided against the bishopric 's creation . In 1554 Bourchier was in touching distance of becoming a Bishop when he was suggested by Edward Griffin as a candidate for the Bishopric of Gloucester . Bourchier was even granted the income of the Bishopric in preparation for being formally appointed by Queen Mary . Mary , however , died , and Bourchier was never appointed . Mary was Catholic , where as her sister and successor , Queen Elizabeth was Protestant ; Elizabeth therefore refused to appoint Mary 's favoured candidates for the 5 vacant bishoprics Mary had left . Bourchier may have gotten off lightly as two other candidates were arrested .
Bourchier felt unable to accept Queen Elizabeth 's Acts of Settlement and Uniformity , so whilst still serving as rector of Church Langton , he decided to lay low : A list , drawn up around 1569 , of pensioners of the Diocese of Lincoln lists him as " not known whether he lives or not " . This continued until 1570 , when his disobedience was noticed and he was deprived of the rectory . In June 1571 Bourchier sold the rights to his £ 200 a year pension to Sir Thomas Smyth for the sum of £ 900 , and quietly fled abroad , probably to France or Flanders . A wealthy , but very old man , wanted by the state as a " fugitive over the sea , contrary to statute " , Bourchier lived quietly abroad for his remaining years . His date and place of death is unknown , but he is thought to have lived until at least 1577 , when he would have been around 84 years old .
= = = Cavendish House = = =
Following the Dissolution of the Monasteries , Henry VIII began to lease out his newly acquired land and property to extract an income from them . Leicester Abbey was granted in 1539 , on a 21 @-@ year lease , to Dr. Francis Cave , one of the commissioners who had negotiated the surrender of the abbey . During this period the abbey was rapidly demolished with the stone sold to meet the high demand within the town of Leicester .
War with France and Scotland led Henry VIII to sell of some of the religious establishments and land to raise finances quickly . Later , they were granted or bestowed to leading families who were friends or supporters of the King . These former religious establishments were frequently developed into country homes by their new aristocratic owners . Notable examples of this include Calke Abbey , Longleat House , Syon House , Welbeck Abbey. and Woburn Abbey .
Leicester Abbey followed a similar format : Dr. Cave 's tenancy was cut short in 1551 , when King Edward VI granted the abbey to William Parr , 1st Marquess of Northampton , brother of the former Queen Catherine Parr . Much of the abbey stone was then used to create a new mansion on the site , for the Marquess . The Marquess only held the abbey for two years : after supporting Lady Jane Grey 's claim to the throne , in 1553 , on the accession of Bloody Mary , he was arrested and his lands were confiscated . Mary granted the abbey and mansion to her catholic supporter Edward Hastings , 1st Baron Hastings of Loughborough , however he too fell from favour when Mary 's sister Elizabeth I came to the throne .
The abbey was sold to Henry Hastings , 3rd Earl of Huntingdon , in 1572 , and then to his brother , Sir Edward Hastings , in 1590 . It was Sir Edward who is through to have been the first of these owners to have actually lived at the abbey permanently : living in the gatehouse whilst the site was developed . Sir Edward 's son Henry ( who inherited the abbey in 1603 ) sold it to in 1613 to William Cavendish , 1st Earl of Devonshire ; the mansion that had been built on the site thus became known as Cavendish House . The 1st Earl intended the abbey to be his main residence and so started to massively extend the mansion , with a new range added to the south and a large wing to the north . The family was massively wealthy with several other estates and stately homes ; following the death of the 1st Earl , the family decided to use Chatsworth House as their principle residence : Cavendish House thus was only used as a stopping point on the way to London . The house gained full @-@ time residency again in 1638 , however , when it was used as a Dower house by Christiana Cavendish ( née Bruce ) , widow of the 2nd Earl of Devonshire .
In 1645 , during the English Civil War , the house was used by King Charles I and the Royalist forces after they had besieging and captured Leicester . The house was looted and burned when the Royalist left and marched south towards Oxford ; meeting parliamentary forces at the Battle of Naseby . Cavendish House was never repaired .
The Cavendish family sold the abbey in 1733 , at which point , with Cavendish House in ruins , the precinct was being used as agricultural land . By the 19th century the abbey had come into the possession of the Earls of Dysart . Lionel Tollemache , 8th Earl of Dysart , sold the land east of the River Soar ( known as Abbey Meadows ) in 1876 ; this was to allow Leicester Town Council to undertake flood prevention work . The part of this land between the river and the Grand Union Canal was developed by the Town Council into a public space known as Abbey Park , which was opened by King Edward VII ( then Prince of Wales ) in 1882 .
The remaining 32 acres ( 13 ha ) of the abbey precinct , which included the abbey 's site and Cavendish House , were donated by William Tollemache , 9th Earl of Dysart , to Leicester Council in 1925 . Part of Cavendish House had to be demolished as it was found to be unsafe , however , nearly six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years later the area was opened to the public as part of Abbey Park .
= = Archaeological excavations = =
The first excavations of the abbey took place in the 17th century , when the Dowager Countess , Christiana Cavendish , instructed her gardener to search for the body of Cardinal Wolsey and relics from the abbey ; although little was found .
With no above ground remains , the exact location of the abbey had been lost , and so in the 1840s , the editor of the Leicester Chronicle , James Thompson , tried , and failed , to attempt to locate the abbey church . In the 1850s the Leicester Architectural and Archaeological Society would also carry out excavations , but also failed to locate the abbey . Prior to the 9th Earl of Dysart 's donation of the abbey precinct , another attempt was undertaken , but again , no trace of the abbey was found .
In the interim period between the donation of the land in 1925 and opening of the abbey park , the abbey was the subject of numerous archaeological excavations , which continued into the following decade . By 1930 the abbey church , and many of its associated buildings had been finally located , and it was decided ( by the architect in charge of designing the new public park , William Bedingfield ) that the site of the abbey should be laid out with low stone walls . As the abbey 's stone was " robbed " , all that remained of many of the buildings were trenches : the remains of the former foundations . These trenches were " not always recognised " by the first excavators , which meant the layout of areas such as the chapter house , dormitory and kitchens was not clear .
In 2002 the University of Leicester Archaeological Services decided to excavate the presumed location of the abbey 's kitchens , to clarify the layout of that area of the abbey . These first excavations located both the north and south walls and a 15th – 16th @-@ century brick oven , confirming that it was indeed the kitchens . The area excavated was enlarged in 2003 , with the south @-@ west corner of the building and a second oven uncovered : this corner had not been entirely robbed of stone , with two courses of sandstone remaining . The second oven was found to contain charcoal , fragments of wheat and barley , fish @-@ bones and hazelnuts . A drain identified in the 1930s excavation was also located , and found to contain small bones , fish @-@ scales , and the bones of rats who had formerly lived in the drain .
This excavation confirmed the kitchen was a square building measuring 11 @.@ 88 metres ( 39 @.@ 0 ft ) square , with walls of between 1 @.@ 32 metres ( 4 ft 4 in ) and 1 @.@ 74 metres ( 5 ft 9 in ) thick . The ovens found in the corners of the room suggest the room was an octagonal shape internally : similar to the kitchens found at Glastonbury Abbey .
From 2000 until 2008 , the abbey ruins were used for training excavations for archaeology students at the School of Ancient History and Archaeology at the University of Leicester .
= = Layout = =
The archaeological excavations undertaken have allowed historians to calculate the layout and plan of the abbey : which were then plotted out with low stone walls , during the 1920s and 1930s . The abbey church was built on an artificially raised piece of land and is thought to have been richly decorated . It featured a tower at the west end , under which was the main entrance to the church ; two large transepts , which extended beyond the church 's aisles ; and large secondary side chapels , situated either beside the chancel , at the east @-@ end of the church .
The cloister lay to the south of the abbey church and was flanked by three ranges of building . The west range contained the " lavatorium " , a room used for washing ; a vaulted undercroft , used for storage ; and , on the first floor , the abbey 's best residential accommodation , probably including that used by the Abbot . The East range contained the abbey 's chapterhouse ; a small room which is presumed to be either a library or a sacristry ; a second larger undercroft , again used for storage ; a corridor , known as the Slype , leading to the graveyard ; and on the first floor were the canon 's dormitory and reredorter ( communal latrine ) . The south range contained a further undercroft ; a warming house , containing a large fire for the residents to warm themselves by ; and to the first floor the refectory , where the brethren ate .
To the south of the cloisters lay another three ranges of buildings which were formed around cobbled courtyard . The western range of this courtyard contained the abbey 's kitchens . South @-@ east of this courtyard was a large , separate , rectangular building with a small projection facing north : this building is believed to have been the " guest hall " , with the projection explained as an oriel window .
The abbey sat within a large walled precinct . The original precinct walls were constructed of sandstone in the 13th century , and featured both projecting corner towers , and smaller interval towers along its length . Much of this original wall was demolished when the enclosure was enlarged to the south around the turn of the 16th century . This work was thought to have been done under Abbot John Penny and what remains of the wall is now known as " Abbot Penny 's Wall " . This new wall was built using red brick , rather than stone , and is decorated by forty @-@ four different patterns or symbols , which include heraldic devices , simple patterns , and religious symbols , all of which were built into the wall using black bricks .
The abbey precinct was entered through an outer gateway on the north wall of the precinct . This led to a " halt @-@ way " which was around 60 metres ( 200 ft ) long , and was flanked either side by stone walls ; it was enclosed at the south end by the abbey 's formal Gatehouse . The original gatehouse was a single storey construction of two lodges flanking the gate ; but this was subsequently enlarged . The new gatehouse measured 21 metres ( 69 ft ) by 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) : it had round turrets at each corner , thought to contain stairs , and had " a couple of storeys " built above the gate itself . The gatehouse was then flanked to the west by what is thought to be a small , second kitchen .
On the eastern side of the precinct lay the abbey 's infirmary : a hospital used to care for ill or elderly canons . The infirmary was made up of two large buildings : one a chapel ; the other a hall ( with latrines to one end ) serving as a ward . The abbey precinct also contained an almonry , where poor boys received a free education in a type of boarding school ; a water mill ; a dovecote ; and a fishpond .
= = Possessions = =
= = = Controlled churches = = =
= = = = Churches in Leicestershire = = = =
= = = = Churches outside Leicestershire = = = =
= = = = Monastic cells = = = =
Cockerham Priory , Lancashire
= = = Manors and land = = =
= = List of abbots = =
A list of abbots of the abbey :
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= Ferreira family =
The Ferreira family are a fictional family from the BBC soap opera EastEnders , that appeared on screen between 2003 and 2005 . Created by Tony Jordan and introduced by Louise Berridge as a new Asian family , producers hoped they would become central to the show . However , after Indian actor Dalip Tahil was forced to leave due to a controversy over his work permit , a major plot involving the family had to be scrapped and was replaced with a kidney transplant storyline that was branded " boring " . It was later revealed that the dropped storyline involved Dan being murderered by his children and buried in a shallow grave . The characters were also called " unrealistic " , " annoying " , and " unlikeable " by many of the show 's fans and critics . They were blamed for a decline in the show 's viewing figures and were eventually axed by Kathleen Hutchison after bosses struggled to find storylines for the family . Jordan later admitted the family 's members were " the least successful characters [ he ] created " .
= = Creation = =
The Ferreiras were introduced in 2003 as the first Asian family in EastEnders since Sanjay ( Deepak Verma ) and Gita Kapoor ( Shobu Kapoor ) , who both departed from the show in 1998 . They were also the first large family to arrive since the Slater family 's arrival in 2000 . The family were the creation of writer Tony Jordan , and Bollywood star Dalip Tahil was cast by the show 's executive producer , Louise Berridge , to play Daniel " Dan " Ferreira , the patriarch of the family . The family , from Goa in India , also consisted of Dan 's three sons , Rohan " Ronnie " ( played by Ray Panthaki ) , Ashwani " Ash " ( Raji James ) and Aditya " Adi " ( Ameet Chana ) , and daughter Kareena ( Pooja Shah ) . Ronnie 's friend Tariq Larousi , played by Nabil Elouahabi , also joined the show at the same time .
BBC drama bosses worked on introducing an Asian family , who would be central to the show , for a couple of years . Berridge commented on the casting : " After a search which has taken more than two years , and in which we have met literally hundreds of people , we have finally found the perfect cast for our dynamic new family . We 're delighted to welcome the Ferreiras to Albert Square and I 'm sure the viewers will be too . " Berridge also claimed the show didn 't set out to look for an Asian family , saying : " We wanted a new family as there were various elements missing from the show . I thought we were short on males and needed a surge of testosterone , " and said that the characters were formed around the actors : " We didn 't set out knowing exactly what we wanted . We workshopped constantly , trying out different improvisations with the actors and the characters evolved . "
It was hoped that the family would have a big impact on the other characters . The show 's producers apparently vowed not to include too many racial issues in the family 's storylines , although upon their arrival , the character of Jim Branning ( John Bardon ) was heard saying " they 're Indian , they do like to pack ' em in , don 't they ? " in reference to the family 's size .
On being cast in the show , Tahil admitted that he wasn 't aware of how big a part of British culture the soap was until he arrived in the United Kingdom , saying " It 's going to be a big adventure . " The other actors in the family all said they were looking forward to joining the show , with James saying " [ I 'm ] really looking forward to the challenges of working on such a huge programme , " and Shah commenting " Joining EastEnders is a dream come true . I have been a fan of the programme for many years and I 'm looking forward to joining the cast . "
The family first appeared on screen on 3 June 2003 . Later on in the year Indian chef Madhur Jaffrey was cast in EastEnders as Dan 's estranged wife , Pushpa . Jaffrey commented , " I really wanted to do the role because Indian women are usually portrayed as so proper and withdrawn – the kind of women who just stay at home cooking and cleaning . I thought , ' How wonderful of EastEnders to write a character that is realistic . ' What my character has done happens all the time in India ; there are all kinds of stories of people running away and marrying their lovers . This is what commonly happens in those places , but somehow the image of Indian womanhood is different . " Pushpa was a guest character only appearing for the duration of a storyline that revealed Dan had been lying about her death and had actually left him for another man , Pradeep ( Kaleem Janjua ) Dan 's best friend .
= = Development = =
In November 2003 , it emerged that actor Dalip Tahil faced being axed from the show due to not having the correct work permit . It was reported that after Tahil joined EastEnders from appearing in stage musical Bombay Dreams , neither he nor the BBC had obtained proper authorisation from the Home Office to make the switch of employment legal . The BBC issued a one @-@ line statement , which read : " We are considering any potential problems with a view to resolving them as soon as possible . " Tahil was forced to leave the show , and made his last appearance on 30 December 2003 , although the actor was eventually allowed to remain in the UK .
Following Tahil 's departure , plots were abandoned and many scripts had to be rewritten . EastEnders scriptwriter Tony Jordan revealed that it was intended that Dan would be murdered by his children after prolonged bullying and abuse , saying " The family arrived in Albert Square in what was expected to be a huge storyline . The father [ ... ] was an oppressive and violent bully – eventually his children were going to kill him . It was all scripted – how they buried him in a shallow grave , how they dealt with it , and how it all exploded . And then Dalip got bloody deported . He was actually on the studio floor and they marched him off . Broken legs , nervous breakdowns – we can deal with that . But when actors are physically taken away by the government and deported , there 's not much you can do . Fifty scripts had to be reworked . And because all the episodes had been written around this big storyline , we had to keep the same amount of Ferreira material . " The murder storyline was replaced with one concerning a kidney transplant between Ronny and his newly discovered half brother Tariq . Jordan admitted they could have recast the character of Dan , but it may have looked " tacky " : " We couldn 't go , ' Tonight , the part of Mr Ferreira will be played by Michael French with a suntan ' . We were trying to do it with integrity . Then somebody said , ' What if Ronnie Ferreira 's mate Tariq turns out to be his half @-@ brother and we do the whole kidney transplant thing ? ' And , of course , it was like watching paint dry . ' Can I have your kidney ? ' ' No . Oh , go on then ... ' " Jordan told the Daily Mirror the Ferreiras were " the least successful characters I created – through no fault of their own . "
Berridge defended the family , saying that Tahil 's departure caused a lot of problems , however , she added , " [ T ] he Ferreiras have not been as successful as we had hoped . I think in retrospect we made a mistake in giving their entrance such a fanfare as a New Asian Family . Viewers traditionally take a long time to adapt to anyone new [ ... ] so it was wrong to emphasise what was different about this family from the start . Even so , we had a terrific first story for them , which was to have culminated in a huge , action storyline to mark the exit of their father . However , the sudden removal of actor Dalip Tahil , for reasons beyond our control , meant that the story had to be abandoned quickly – and 40 scripts rewritten on the spot . The result was the transplant story , which I have to admit did go on for far too long , especially when our biggest story in this period had also to be abandoned because of the pregnancy of Kacey Ainsworth . The writers and production team did their very best under these circumstances but I would be the first to admit the end result was not our finest hour . I hope that viewers will not hold this against the Ferreira family and will be prepared to watch the next stage of their stories with an open mind . This is a very talented bunch of actors , who 've had to put up with a lot of stick for problems which have not been of their making . Viewer response to their lighter material was very favourable and I am confident the Ferreiras will regain their popularity . " Lorraine Heggessey , controller of BBC One , said the show became overdependent on the kidney transplant storyline as there were several cast problems , such as illness , pregnancy , rehab and a car crash . Berridge quit as executive producer of EastEnders and was replaced by Kathleen Hutchison .
In April 2004 , producers were concerned that the family were losing popularity with viewers , and a decision was made to write Pooja Shah out of the show for a while , but to bring her back with a sexier image to rival Michelle Ryan , who played Zoe Slater . Shah expressed a dislike of her character , saying " I 'm fed up with it now . Kareena 's too dowdy . I wanted Kareena to be different , to stand out . If I 'm completely honest , I can 't stand her – she just grates on my nerves . She hasn 't got many friends , but then I wouldn ’ t be her friend if I met her . " The family had failed and rumours began that the entire family would be killed off in a house fire . A further attempt to " spice up " the family was made in July 2004 by bringing back character Sasha Perkins , played by Jemma Walker , and having her move in with the Ferreiras .
The show struggled to find storylines for Dan 's children , and the remainder of the family , including Sasha Perkins , were dropped from the show by Hutchison in October 2004 . This was claimed to be a mutual decision between the programme makers and the actors , as the characters had " run their course . " They made their final on @-@ screen appearance on 22 March 2005 .
= = Family tree = =
= = Storylines = =
= = = Background = = =
Dan Ferreira is a fan of Elvis Presley , portrayed as a womaniser and a bully . He claims to be a widower , talking about his wife as being dead , both to the neighbours and his children , but they have merely separated after she had an affair with his best friend , with whom she moved in . Ash is portrayed as the intelligent member of the family , the standard of his education being much higher than his siblings , so much so that he is a lecturer . He has an on / off problem with gambling , something that presumably led to the breakup of his first marriage , before he is seen on screen . Kareena is in a relationship with Tariq , though it is not a sexual one . Ronny works as a DJ under the name DJ Ronny Flawless , and Tariq is his best friend and promoter .
= = = 2003 – 05 = = =
The Ferreiras move to Albert Square in 2003 . Kareena and Adi run a clothes stall on the market , Ash starts working at the local community centre , and Ronny earns money as a disc jockey , managed by his friend , Tariq , whom Dan dislikes . It transpires that Tariq is in a secret relationship with Kareena , but the Ferreiras discover this after they split up , causing further animosity between Tariq and Dan .
Dan starts a relationship with Shirley Benson ( Robyn Moore ) , telling her that his wife , Pushpa , is dead . He takes her to a wedding as his guest , but Pushpa arrives , introducing herself and exposing Dan 's lie . Shirley then breaks up with him . The Ferreiras help Shirley to deal with her neighbour from hell , Gavin Sharp ( Steve Nicolson ) , which leads to Shirley and Ash becoming close and starting a secret relationship . Shirley is unhappy that Ash refuses to tell anyone about their relationship , as he knows his father will be furious if he discovers them together . Ash reveals to Shirley that he is a compulsive gambler and he lost his house and ruined his marriage in the process ; Dan had bailed him out . He says he owes his father everything and he is not willing to hurt him . Dan attempts to woo Shirley again , forcing her to confess her relationship with Ash . This causes friction between the Ferreiras , and Ash breaks up with Shirley to keep the peace .
Ronny 's love life is equally unsettled . He begins dating Kelly Taylor ( Brooke Kinsella ) , but ends the relationship when he discovers her past as a prostitute and begins dating Kelly 's best friend , Zoe Slater ( Michelle Ryan ) . This abruptly ends when Kelly witnesses Ronny kissing another woman . Meanwhile , Adi has a romance with Sasha Perkins ( Jemma Walker ) , a pole dancer and escort , who he initially pays to pretend to be his girlfriend . He spends a lot of time trying to impress his father but fails . Dan disappears suddenly and clears out the family 's bank account , leaving his children £ 12 @,@ 000 in mortgage arrears . The truth behind his disappearance is never revealed .
Ronny is stabbed by a gang while trying to protect Tariq and has to have his kidney removed . However , it is discovered he was born with just one and will need a kidney transplant . None of his siblings are a tissue match , so Ash , Adi and Kareena visit their mother , but her kidney is not a match either . Tariq is forced to reveal that he is Dan 's son , and he donates his kidney to Ronny . He explains that he thought having a mildly romantic relationship with his half sister would bring him closer to the family . Adi dislikes the fact he and Tariq are half brothers , but mellows towards him eventually . When bailiffs arrive to evict the family from their home , they board themselves into their living room , but eventually admit defeat and move into a flat with Sasha , starting a minicab firm called Toucan Cars .
Kareena begins dating Mickey Miller ( Joe Swash ) , but problems arise between them when Juley Smith ( Joseph Kpobie ) gives Kareena cocaine and she is seduced by him , though she manages to sort out her differences with Mickey eventually . Adi also has relationship problems after Sasha cheats on him with Danny Moon ( Jake Maskall ) , leading to the couple 's split . Gangster Johnny Allen ( Billy Murray ) agrees to loan several cars to the Ferreiras ' business , but three of them are stolen and Johnny orders the family out of Walford immediately or face repercussions . Kareena initially opts to remain in Walford with Mickey , but at the last minute she changes her mind and departs with the rest of her family in March 2005 .
= = Reception = =
Tahil 's casting was considered to be controversial , and was slammed by British Asian actors who said the part should have been given to a UK actor , referring to it as " disgraceful " . Actors Albert Moses and Renu Setna complained that home @-@ grown talent was being overlooked , with Moses saying , " British Asian actors have been fighting for the last five years to persuade the BBC to bring an Asian family into EastEnders and when at last it happens it goes to Bollywood . It is a disgrace and an insult to British Asian actors . This is a terrible thing for the BBC to do . It should be ashamed . " Setna said : " I have heard that for this storyline the BBC has brought over a Bollywood star to play the father . Why , when we have excellent Asian actors of our own ? " British immigration laws state that nationals from outside the European Union should not replace resident actors capable of doing the same work . A spokesperson for the BBC responded : " After due consideration , Dalip was deemed to be the most appropriate actor for the job . "
The family were criticised for being unrealistic , as their first names were a mixture of Muslim and Hindu and their surname was Portuguese . Additionally , it was suggested that Madhur Jaffrey was miscast in the role of Dan 's wife Pushpa . Several of the family 's storylines were criticised and branded as unbelievable and poorly researched , and they were cited as one of the main reasons viewing figures for the show dropped to a low of 6 @.@ 2 million . One columnist for the Daily Mirror wrote , " Never has a family bored me so much . During their transplant saga I nearly donated a kidney myself to end the turgid tale . Get rid of ' em . " Fans called for the family to be axed , and an editorial on the Daily Mirror stated : " The Ferreiras ' father , Dan , was probably not just the worst character in soap , but the most annoying , unlikeable person on all television . Inveterate gambler , Ash and daughter Kareena are mere ciphers while Adi is just weird – like a gay version of a character from Rainbow . Ronny Ferreira , meanwhile , [ ... ] presided over the most boring storyline in EastEnders ' history when viewers spent several weeks watching him lying in bed growing a beard ( i.e. waiting for a kidney transplant ) . The fact that the Ferreiras still haven 't been axed shows how indecisive and complacent the show 's executives have become . " However , a poll on radio station BBC Asian Network found that 75 % of respondents wanted the family to stay .
One thousand young Asian professionals were surveyed on their opinions of the family , with most respondents saying the family were extremely unrealistic . One girl said " I think the Ferreiras are shit ! The story lines are stupid , unrealistic and dull . Most Asians would not get evicted and then remain homeless , they would go to an aunty . " A female PR manager told the survey : " Just how many shades of brown can there be in one family ? You can 't put them in any context . They have no background , " and another participant said , " The Ferreiras should just be killed off . They are pointless , boring and the storylines are rubbish . "
Following the axing of the family , actor Ameet Chana accused the BBC of discriminating against the family , saying , " I 'm not afraid to admit that the Ferreira family have been treated like [ shit ] . We 've been made scapegoats , discriminated against . They wouldn 't do this to the Watts or Slater family . [ ... ] The Ferreira family have had bad storylines and we 've taken the blame for it . "
The family 's Goan origin was also criticised by Samir Shah , a member of the BBC 's board of directors , citing it as an example of " inauthentic representation " of ethnic minority communities . He said , " If you were to cast an Asian family in the East End , it should have been Bangladeshi . Instead we had a family of Goan descent . " A report by the Equality and Human Rights Commission claimed that the Ferreiras were an example of stereotyping in the media .
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= Baby , Please Don 't Go =
" Baby , Please Don 't Go " is a blues song which has been called " one of the most played , arranged , and rearranged pieces in blues history " by music historian Gerard Herzhaft . It was likely an adaptation of " Long John " , an old folk theme dating back to slavery in the United States . Delta blues musician Big Joe Williams popularized it with several versions beginning in 1935 . The song 's roots have been traced back to nineteenth @-@ century American songs which deal with themes of bondage and imprisonment . " Baby , Please Don 't Go " became an early blues standard with recordings by several blues musicians , such as Papa Charlie McCoy , Leonard " Baby Doo " Caston , Lightnin ' Hopkins , John Lee Hooker and Big Bill Broonzy .
After World War II , Chicago blues and rhythm and blues artists adapted the song to newer music styles . In 1952 , a doo @-@ wop version by the Orioles reached the top ten on the race records chart . In 1953 , Muddy Waters recorded the song as an electric Chicago @-@ ensemble blues piece , which influenced many subsequent renditions .
In the 1960s , " Baby , Please Don 't Go " became a popular rock song after the Northern Irish group Them recorded it in 1964 . Several music writers have identified Jimmy Page , a studio guitarist at the time , as participating in the recording , although his exact contributions are unclear . Subsequently , Them 's uptempo rock arrangement has become a rock standard . " Baby , Please Don 't Go " has been inducted into both the Blues and Rock and Roll Halls of Fame .
= = Background = =
" Baby , Please Don 't Go " is likely an adaptation of " Long John " , an old folk theme which dates back to the time of slavery in the United States . It is also related to a group of early twentieth @-@ century blues songs that include " I 'm Alabama Bound " , " Elder Green Blues " , " Another Man Done Gone " , " Don 't Leave Me Here " and " Turn Your Lamp Down Low " . These songs have been traced back to late nineteenth @-@ century work songs . Author Linda Dahl suggests a connection to a song with the same title by Mary Williams Johnson in the late 1920s and early 1930s . However , Johnson , who was married to jazz @-@ influenced blues guitarist Lonnie Johnson , never recorded it and her song is not discussed as influencing later performers . Blues researcher Jim O 'Neal notes that Williams " sometimes said that the song was written by his wife , singer Bessie Mae Smith ( aka Blue Belle and St. Louis Bessie ) [ not the same as the popular Bessie Smith of the 1920s and 1930s ] " .
= = Original song = =
Big Joe Williams used the theme for his October 31 , 1935 , recording of " Baby , Please Don 't Go " during his first session for Lester Melrose and Bluebird Records in Chicago . It is an ensemble piece with Williams on vocal and guitar accompanied by Dad Tracy on one @-@ string fiddle and Chasey " Kokomo " Collins on washboard , who are listed as " Joe Williams ' Washboard Blues Singers " on the single . Musical notation for the song indicates a moderate @-@ tempo fifteen @-@ bar blues in 44 or common time in the key of B ♭ . As with many Delta blues songs of the era , it remains on the tonic chord ( I ) throughout without the progression to the subdominant ( IV ) or dominant ( V ) chords . The lyrics express a prisoner 's anxiety about his lover leaving before he returns home :
The song became a hit and established Williams ' recording career . On December 12 , 1941 , he recorded a second version titled " Please Don 't Go " in Chicago for Bluebird , with a more modern arrangement and lyrics . Blues historian Gerard Herzhaft calls it " the most exciting version " , which Williams recorded using his trademark nine @-@ string guitar . Accompanying him are Sonny Boy Williamson I on harmonica and Alfred Elkins on imitation bass ( possibly a washtub bass ) . Since both songs appeared before recording industry publications began tracking such releases , it is unknown which version was more popular . In 1947 , he recorded it for Columbia Records with Williamson and Ransom Knowling on bass and Judge Riley on drums . This version did not reach the Billboard Race Records chart , but represents a move toward a more urban blues treatment of the song .
= = Later blues and R & B recordings = =
Due to the popularity of the 1935 release of Big Joe Williams " Baby , Please Don 't Go " , other blues musicians began recording their interpretations of the song and it soon became a blues standard . Early examples include Papa Charlie McCoy as " Tampa Kid " ( 1936 ) , Leonard " Baby Doo " Caston ( 1939 ) , Lightnin ' Hopkins ( 1947 ) , John Lee Hooker ( 1949 ) and Big Bill Broonzy ( 1952 ) . By the early 1950s , the song was reworked in contemporary musical styles , with an early rhythm and blues / jump blues version by Billy Wright ( 1951 ) , a harmonized doo @-@ wop version by the Orioles ( a number eight R & B hit in 1952 ) , and a Afro @-@ Cuban @-@ influenced rendition by Rose Mitchell ( 1954 ) .
In 1953 , Muddy Waters recast the song as a Chicago @-@ blues ensemble piece with Little Walter and Jimmy Rogers . Waters regularly performed " Baby , Please Don 't Go " and made several live recordings . Live versions appear on Muddy Waters at Newport 1960 and on Live at the Checkerboard Lounge , Chicago 1981 with members of the Rolling Stones . AllMusic critic Bill Janovitz cites the influence of Waters ' adaptation :
The most likely link between the Williams recordings and all the rock covers that came in the 1960s and 1970s would be the Muddy Waters 1953 Chess side , which retains the same swinging phrasing as the Williams takes , but the session musicians beef it up with a steady driving rhythm section , electrified instruments and Little Walter Jacobs wailing on blues harp .
= = Van Morrison and Them rendition = =
= = = Background = = =
" Baby Please Don 't Go " was one of the earliest songs recorded by the Northern Irish band Them , fronted by a 19 @-@ year @-@ old Van Morrison . Their rendition of the song was derived from a John Lee Hooker version he recorded in 1949 as " Don 't Go Baby " using the pseudonym " Texas Slim " ( King 4334 ) . Hooker 's song appeared on a 1959 album titled Highway of Blues ( using the correct names ) , which Van Morrison had acquired . Morrison later explained
'Baby Please Don 't Go ' was on it and several other songs like ' Devil 's Stomp ' and all this slow stuff . ' Baby Please Don 't Go ' was the only fast number on it . It struck me as being something really unique and different , with a lot of soul . More soul than I 'd heard from any previous records .
= = = Recording and composition = = =
Them recorded " Baby , Please Don 't Go " for Decca Records in October 1964 . Besides Morrison , there is conflicting information about who participated in the session . In addition to the group 's original members ( guitarist Billy Harrison , bassist Alan Henderson , drummer Ronnie Millings , and keyboard player Eric Wrixon ) , others have been suggested : Pat McAuley on keyboards , Bobby Graham on a second drum kit , Jimmy Page on second guitar , and Peter Bardens on keyboards . As Page biographer George Case notes , " There is a dispute over whether it is Page 's piercing blues line that defines the song , if he only played a run Harrison had already devised , or if Page only backed up Harrison himself " .
Morrison has acknowledged Page 's participation in the early sessions : " He played rhythm guitar on one thing and doubled a bass riff on the other " and Morrison biographer Johnny Rogan notes that Page " doubled the distinctive riff already worked out by Billy Harrison " . Music critic Greil Marcus comments that during the song 's quieter middle passage " the guitarist , session player Jimmy Page or not , seems to be feeling his way into another song , flipping half @-@ riffs , high , random , distracted metal shavings " . Them 's blues @-@ rock arrangement is " now regarded justly as definitive " , with " much of its appeal emanat [ ing ] from the tingling lead guitar section " , according to music writer Adam Clayson .
= = = Releases and charts = = =
" Baby , Please Don 't Go " was released as Them 's second single on November 6 , 1964 . With the B @-@ side , " Gloria " , it became their first hit , reaching number ten on the UK Singles Chart . The single was released in the U.S. in 1965 , but only " Gloria " became a hit the following year . The song was not included on Them 's original British or American albums ( The Angry Young Them and Them Again ) , however , it has appeared on several compilation albums , such as The Story of Them Featuring Van Morrison and The Best of Van Morrison . When it was reissued in 1991 as a single in the UK ( London LON 292 ) , it reached number 65 in the chart . Van Morrison also accompanied John Lee Hooker during a 1992 performance , where Hooker sings and plays " Baby , Please Don 't Go " on guitar while sitting on a dock , with harmonica backing by Morrison ; it was released on the 2004 Come See About Me Hooker DVD .
= = AC / DC version = =
" Baby , Please Don 't Go " was a feature of AC / DC 's live shows since their beginning . Although they have expressed their interest and inspiration in early blues songs , music writer Mick Wall identifies Them 's adaptation of the song as the likely source . In November 1974 , Angus Young , Malcolm Young , and Bon Scott recorded it for their 1975 Australian debut album , High Voltage . Tony Currenti is sometimes identified as the drummer for the song , although he suggests that it had been already recorded by Peter Clack . Wall notes that producer George Young played bass for most of the album , although Rob Bailey claims that many of the album 's tracks were recorded with him .
High Voltage and a single with " Baby , Please Don 't Go " were released simultaneously in Australia in February 1975 . AllMusic critic Eduardo Rivadavia called the song " positively explosive " . Albert Productions issued it the single 's B @-@ side , however , the A @-@ side was largely ignored and " Baby , Please Don 't Go " began receiving airplay . The single entered the chart at the end of March 1975 and peaked at number 10 in April . Also in April 1975 , one month after drummer Phil Rudd and bassist Mark Evans joined AC / DC , the group performed the song for the Australian music program Countdown . For their appearance , " Angus wore his trade mark schoolboy uniform while Scott took the stage wearing a wig of blonde braids , a dress , make @-@ up , and earrings " , according to author Heather Miller . Joe Bonomo describes Scott as " a demented Pippi Longstocking " and Perkins notes his " tattoos and a disturbingly short skirt . " Evans describes the reaction :
As soon as his vocals are about to begin he comes out from behind the drums dressed as a schoolgirl . And it was like a bomb went off in the joint ; it was pandemonium , everybody broke out in laughter . [ Scott ] had a wonderful sense of humor .
Scott mugs for the camera and , during the guitar solo / vocal improvization section , he lights a cigarette as he duels with Angus with a green mallet . Rudd laughs throughout the performance . Although " Baby , Please Don 't Go " was a popular part of AC / DC 's performances ( often as the closing number ) , the song was not released internationally until their 1984 compilation EP ' 74 Jailbreak . The video from the Countdown show is included on the Family Jewels DVD compilation in 2005 .
= = Recordings by other artists = =
Aerosmith recorded " Baby , Please Don 't Go " for their blues cover album , Honkin ' on Bobo , which was released on March 30 , 2004 . The album was produced by Jack Douglas , who had worked on the group 's earlier albums , and reflects a return to their hard rock roots . Billboard magazine describes the song as " the kind of straight @-@ ahead , hard @-@ driving track that always typified the band 's [ 1970s ] records " . Edna Gundersen of USA Today called their version a " terrific revival . " It was the first single to be released from the album and reached number seven on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . A music video , directed by Mark Haefeli , was produced to promote the single . Subsequently , the song has become a staple of the band 's concert repertoire .
Other recorded renditions include those by Mose Allison ( Transfiguration of Hiram Brown , 1960 ) , Paul Revere & the Raiders ( Just Like Us ! , 1966 ) , the Amboy Dukes ( reached number 106 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles record chart in 1968 ) , and Budgie ( Never Turn Your Back on a Friend , 1973 ) .
= = Recognition and legacy = =
Big Joe Williams ' " Baby , Please Don 't Go " is included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame list of " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll " . In 1992 , it was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame in the " Classics of Blues Recordings " category . The Foundation noted that , in addition to various blues recordings , " the song was revived in revved @-@ up fashion by rock bands in the ' 60s such as Them , the Amboy Dukes , and Ten Years After " .
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= Symphony in White , No. 2 : The Little White Girl =
Symphony in White , No. 2 , also known as The Little White Girl is a painting by James Abbott McNeill Whistler . The work shows a woman in three @-@ quarter figure standing by a fireplace with a mirror over it . She is holding a fan in her hand , and wearing a white dress . The model is Joanna Hiffernan , the artist 's mistress . Though the painting was originally called The Little White Girl , Whistler later started calling it Symphony in White , No. 2 . By referring to his work in such abstract terms , he intended to emphasize his " art for art 's sake " philosophy . In this painting , Heffernan wears a ring on her ring finger , even though the two were not married . By this religious imagery , Whistler emphasizes the aesthetic philosophy behind his work .
Whistler created the painting in the winter of 1864 , and it was displayed at the Royal Academy the next year . The original frame carried a poem written by Whistler 's friend Algernon Charles Swinburne – titled Before the Mirror – written on sheets of golden paper . The poem was inspired by the painting , and to Whistler this demonstrated that the visual arts need not be subservient to literature . Though there are few clues to the meaning and symbolism of the painting , critics have found allusions to the work of Ingres , as well as oriental elements typical of the popular Japonisme .
= = Artist and model = =
James Abbott McNeill Whistler was born in the United States in 1834 , the son of George Washington Whistler , a railway engineer . In 1843 , his father relocated the family to Saint Petersburg , Russia , where James received training in painting . After a stay in England , he returned to America to attend the US Military Academy at West Point in 1851 . In 1855 , he made his way back to Europe , determined to dedicate himself to painting . He settled in Paris at first , but in 1859 moved to London , where he would spend most of the remainder of his life . There he met Dante Gabriel Rossetti and other members of the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood , who would have a profound influence on Whistler .
It was also in London that Whistler met Joanna Hiffernan , the model who would become his lover . Their relationship has been referred to as a " marriage without benefit of clergy . " By 1861 , Whistler had already used her as a model for other paintings . In Wapping , painted between 1860 and 1864 , Hiffernan ( according to Whistler ) portrayed a prostitute . The direct precursor of The Little White Girl was a painting created in the winter of 1861 – 62 , initially called The White Girl and later renamed Symphony in White , No. 1 . Hiffernan supposedly had a strong influence over Whistler ; his brother @-@ in @-@ law Francis Seymour Haden refused a dinner invitation in the winter of 1863 – 64 due to her dominant presence in the household .
= = History of the painting and Swinburne 's poem = =
Whistler painted The Little White Girl in 1864 , with Hiffernan as his model . In 1865 it was exhibited at the summer exhibition of the Royal Academy ; Whistler had offered The White Girl for the 1862 exhibition , but it had been rejected . English critics were not too impressed by the painting ; one in particular called it " bizarre " , while another called it " generally grimy grey " . In 1900 , however , it was one of the pictures Whistler submitted to the Universal Exhibition in Paris , where he won a grand prix for paintings . The first owner of the painting was the wallpaper manufacturer John Gerald Potter , a friend and patron of Whistler . In 1893 it came into the possession of Arthur Studd , who gave it to the National Gallery in 1919 . In 1951 it was transferred to the Tate Gallery .
In 1862 Whistler had met the English poet Algernon Charles Swinburne , with whom he developed a close friendship . The relationship between the two was mutually beneficial . Inspired by Whistler 's Little White Girl , Swinburne wrote a poem with the title Before the Mirror . Before the painting went on exhibition at the Royal Academy , Whistler pasted the poem written on gold leaf onto the frame . The idea of decorating a painting 's frame with a poem was one Whistler had gotten from Rossetti , who had similarly pasted a golden paper with one of his poems on the frame of his 1849 painting The Girlhood of Mary . To Whistler , this poem underlined his idea of the autonomous nature of the painted medium . It showed that painters were more than mere illustrators , and that visual art could be an inspiration for poetry , not just the other way around .
A misconception circulated at the time that the painting had been inspired by Swinburne 's poem . In a letter to a newspaper , Whistler refuted this , while still showing his respect for Swinburne 's work ; " those lines " he wrote " were only written , in my studio , after the picture was painted . And the writing of them was a rare and graceful tribute from the poet to the painter – a noble recognition of work by the production of a nobler one . " Swinburne repaid the compliment : " ... whatever merit my song may have , it is not so complete in beauty , in tenderness and significance , in exquisite execution and delicate strength , as Whistler 's picture ... "
= = Composition and interpretation = =
Whistler , especially in his later career , resented the idea that his paintings should have any meaning beyond what could be seen on the canvas . He is known as a central proponent of the " art for art 's sake " philosophy . The development of this philosophy he owed largely to Swinburne , who pioneered it in his 1868 book William Blake : a Critical Essay . Later , Whistler began referring to The Little White Girl as Symphony in White , No. 2 . By the musical analogy , he further emphasized his philosophy that the composition was the central thing , not the subject matter .
One of the most conspicuous elements of the painting is the ring on the model 's ring finger . Resting on the mantle piece , it becomes a focal point of the composition . The ring was a device of which Whistler was conscious ; it had not been present in The White Girl . Though he and Hiffernan were not married , the ring showed a development in how he represented her in his art ; from prostitute in Wapping , to mistress in The White Girl , and finally a wife in The Little White Girl . At the same time , this development reflected Whistler 's notion of his own position in the English art world : towards greater legitimacy . The ring is also an allusion to the Christian sacrament of marriage , which lends a religious aspect to the aestheticism that he and Swinburne were trying to develop .
In The Little White Girl , Whistler can be seen to clearly move away from the realism of the French painter Gustave Courbet , who had previously been a great influence on him . The painting contrasts soft , round figures with harder geometrical shapes , using " brushy , transparent touches and dense , vigorous strokes . " Various artists and styles have been suggested as inspirations for The Little White Girl . The painting has been compared to the work of Ingres . Though Whistler 's painting was different from Ingres ' art in many ways , he was nevertheless an admirer of the French artist , and was inspired by his work . The fan in the model 's hand and the vase on the mantelpiece are oriental elements , and expressions of the Japonisme prevalent in European art at the time . Apart from this , there are few clues for the viewer , and the picture invites a wide variety of individual interpretations . A contemporary review in the newspaper The Times commented that " Thought and passion are under the surface of the plain features , giving them an undefinable attraction . " Art critic Hilton Kramer sees in Whistler 's portraits a charm and a combination of craft and observational skills that his more radical landscapes lacked .
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= Fremantle Prison =
Fremantle Prison , sometimes referred to as Fremantle Gaol or Fremantle Jail , is a former Australian prison in Fremantle , Western Australia . The six @-@ hectare ( 15 @-@ acre ) site includes the prison cellblocks , gatehouse , perimeter walls , cottages , and tunnels . Initially known as the Convict Establishment or The Establishment , it was constructed as a prison for convicts , using convict labour , between 1851 and 1859 . The prison was transferred to the colonial government in 1886 for use for locally @-@ sentenced prisoners . Royal Commissions were held in 1898 and 1911 , and instigated some reform to the prison system , but significant changes did not begin until the 1960s . The government department in charge of the prison underwent several reorganisations in the 1970s and 1980s , but the culture of Fremantle Prison was resistant to change . Growing prisoner discontent culminated in a 1988 riot with guards taken hostage , and a fire that caused $ 1 @.@ 8 million worth of damage . The prison closed in 1991 , replaced by the new maximum @-@ security Casuarina Prison .
The prison was administered by a comptroller general , sheriff , or director , responsible for the entire convict or prison system in Western Australia , and a superintendent in charge of the prison itself . Prison officers , known as warders in the 19th century , worked under stringent conditions until they achieved representation through the Western Australian Prison Officers ' Union . Convicts were initially of good character as potential future colonists , but less desirable convicts were eventually sent . As a locally @-@ run prison , Fremantle 's population was generally short @-@ sentenced white prisoners in the 1890s , with very few Aboriginal prisoners . By the late 20th century , most prisoners were serving longer sentences , a higher proportion of them were violent , and Aboriginal people were over @-@ represented .
Prison life at Fremantle was highly regulated . Meals were an important part of the day , eaten in the cells throughout the operational life of the prison . Convict or prisoner labour was used on public infrastructure works until around 1911 ; subsequently , only work inside the prison was allowed , though there was never enough to fully occupy the inmates . Punishments varied over the years , with flogging and time in irons eventually replaced by lengthening of sentences and deprivation of visitors or entertainment . More than 40 hangings were carried out at Fremantle Prison , which was Western Australia 's only lawful place of execution , between 1888 and 1984 . Prominent escapees included Moondyne Joe , as well as John Boyle O 'Reilly and six other Fenians in the 19th century , and Brenden Abbott in 1989 . There have been various riots and other disturbances , with major riots causing damage in 1968 and 1988 .
Since 1991 , Fremantle Prison has been conserved as a recognised heritage site , and various restoration works have been undertaken . New uses have been found for some buildings within the prison , which has also become a significant tourist attraction . The process of obtaining World Heritage listing as part of the Australian Convict Sites submission focused historical interpretation and conservation efforts on the prison 's convict era ( 1850 – 1886 ) , at the expense of its more recent history , including Aboriginal prisoners held there .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Layout = = =
Fremantle Prison was built on a land grant of about 36 acres ( 15 ha ) from limestone quarried on @-@ site . A 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) tall boundary wall encloses the prison grounds , with a gatehouse in the centre of the western wall , facing The Terrace . Other roads bounding the site are Knutsford Street to the north , Hampton Road to the east , and Fothergill Street to the south . Cottages , which housed prison workers and officials , are located outside the wall either side of the gatehouse . Inside the walls , the parade ground is located east of the gatehouse . Beyond it is the Main Cell Block at the centre of the site , which contains two chapels . North of the main block is New Division , and west of that , in the north @-@ western corner , is the former Women 's Prison , previously the cookhouse , bakehouse and laundry . The hospital building stands in the north @-@ eastern corner , while the former workshops are located in the south @-@ eastern corner , as well as to the north of the gatehouse . A system of underground tunnels , constructed to provide fresh water from an aquifer , runs under the eastern edge of the site .
= = = Buildings = = =
= = = = Houses on The Terrace = = = =
North of the gatehouse , located at 2 , 4 , and 6 The Terrace , are cottages built in Victorian style , in contrast to the Georgian style of the other houses . Number 10 is a double @-@ storey house , initially built in 1853 for the chaplain , but taken over by the superintendent in 1878 and later used by the prison administration . An adjoining single @-@ storey at number 12 , finished in 1854 , was the home of the gatekeeper , located on the north side of the gatehouse . Number 16 The Terrace , south of the gatehouse , is a double @-@ storey house that accommodated first the superintendent , and later the resident magistrate . It remained in use as housing for prison officers until the 1970s . Number 18 , the southernmost house on The Terrace , and number 8 , the northernmost of the initial buildings , both featured two sitting rooms , three bedrooms , and two dressing rooms , as well as a kitchen , water closet and shed , but with mirrored layouts . Number 18 was expanded with additions built in the 1890s .
= = = = Gatehouse = = = =
The gatehouse and associated entry complex was constructed between 1854 and 1855 using convict labour . It was designed by Royal Engineer and Comptroller General Edmund Henderson , and constructed out of limestone . The gatehouse has two towers either side of a narrow gate , reminiscent of those found in 13th century English castles or walled cities . Iron that had been scavenged from shipwrecks was used to make the gate , while the clock at the top of the structure was imported from England . As the main entrance , the gatehouse has remained a significant feature and landmark ; since the closure of the prison , it has housed a café and office areas . Restoration was carried out in 2005 , preserving the original stone facade and removing non @-@ original rendering .
= = = = Main Cell Block = = = =
Little @-@ changed since its construction in the 1850s by convicts , the Main Cell Block was designed to hold up to 1000 prisoners . The central , four @-@ storey high cell block is flanked on either end by large dormitory wards , called the Association Rooms . Here , as many as 80 men slept in hammocks , either as a reward for good behaviour or because they would soon receive their ticket of leave . In contrast , the cramped cells measured just seven by four feet ( 2 @.@ 1 by 1 @.@ 2 m ) . Although each cell initially had a basin connected to running water , the installation was before the advent of S @-@ bends ; the smells coming up the pipes led to their removal by the 1860s . Following a Royal Commission , the cells were enlarged by removing a dividing wall from between two cells . Electric lighting was installed in the 1920s , but there were never any toilets – buckets were used for the duration of the prison 's operation . Since the prison 's closure , six cells have been restored to represent the varying living conditions at different times in the prison 's history . The main block also houses the gallows , solitary confinement cells , and two chapels – Anglican and Catholic .
= = = = New Division = = = =
Fremantle Prison 's New Division building was constructed between 1904 and 1907 , as a response to overcrowding . It also allowed prison administrators to implement the " separate system " , whereby prisoners were completely isolated for the first three months of their sentence . A panopticon in the exercise yard was initially used to facilitate this concept during the prisoners ' hour of exercise each day . The system was not successful , and considered a dated prisoner management strategy , leading to its removal within five years . New Division was the first building to have electricity , with underground wiring . During World War II , the Australian Army appropriated the division , to keep their prisoners separate from the main population . In 1994 the building was retrofitted to cater for offices , small business premises , and meeting rooms .
= = = = Women 's Prison = = = =
The north @-@ western complex was originally a service area with a cookhouse , bakehouse and laundry , built in the 1850s . A place for women prisoners was needed following the closure of Perth Gaol and the transfer of prisoners to Fremantle . The buildings were converted to a prison , and a wall built around them , creating Western Australia 's first separate prison for women . Population and crime growth led to them being extended in the 1890s and 1910s . The construction of Bandyup Women 's Prison saw Fremantle 's Women 's Prison close in 1970 , with the space used for education and assessment until the main prison 's closure in 1991 .
= = = = Hospital = = = =
Built between 1857 and 1859 , the hospital was a crucial component of Fremantle Prison . Public works during the convict era relied on convict labour , which could only be provided if the convicts were healthy . From 1886 to 1903 , medical services were relocated to the main cell block , with the former building used to keep invalids and female prisoners . The hospital was refurbished and reopened in 1904 . It subsequently remained in continuous operation until the prison 's closure in 1991 .
= = = = Workshops = = = =
The original workshop was a blacksmith 's shop , one of the first buildings to be constructed on the prison site . Later known as the East Workshops , other workshops included carpenter 's , plumber 's and painter 's , a printing office , and from the 1850s , a metal shop . The West Workshops were built at the start of the twentieth century , providing more work for prisoners through a paint shop , mat maker , shoe maker , book binder and tailor shop . In 1993 the four northern workshops were adapted for use as TAFE art workshops .
= = = Tunnels = = =
In the 1850s , shafts were sunk into the limestone bedrock to provide the prison with fresh water from an aquifer , and a tank was installed in 1874 to offer the town of Fremantle an alternative water supply . Prisoners worked a pump to fill the tank , which was connected to the jetties through gravity @-@ fed pipes . In 1896 , a town reservoir was constructed on Swanbourne Street , fed from the prison by a triple @-@ expansion steam @-@ driven pump that could take more than 4 @.@ 5 megalitres ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ) per day from the prison tunnels . Prisoners , relieved of manual pumping , were employed to supply wood and stoke boilers . The tunnels were closed in 1910 , though the groundwater continued to be used for the prison 's gardens . In 1989 , oil leaking from nearby tanks contaminated the water ; however , the pollution was cleared by 1996 through bioremediation . The tunnels were re @-@ opened in mid @-@ 2005 , and had been refurbished within a year to improve the experience for visitors .
= = History = =
= = = 19th century = = =
While the Swan River Colony was established as a " free settlement " ( unlike the penal colonies on the east coast ) , by the 1840s demand for cheap labour overcame an early reluctance , and the colony agreed to accept some convicts from Britain . The arrival of the first convict ship Scindian on 2 June 1850 was unexpected , as a sailing ship that had been sent ahead had been blown off @-@ course . The colony 's Round House jail was full , so the 75 convicts had to be left on the ship until a temporary prison was built . Comptroller General of Convicts Edward Henderson looked for a place to build a permanent convict establishment , and ultimately settled on the current site , on a hill overlooking Fremantle .
The design for Fremantle Prison was based on the Pentonville Prison in Britain , but with diagonal cell blocks replaced with a four @-@ storey linear structure , which would be the longest , tallest prison cell block in the southern hemisphere . Construction began in 1851 , and work rapidly progressed following the arrival of the Royal Engineers later that year . They trained convicts to work with limestone , which was quarried on @-@ site . The first priority was the construction of accommodation for Henderson and the prison warders , to relieve the expense of paying for private lodging .
The prison walls were constructed between 1853 and 1855 , while the gatehouse and associated entry complex was built in 1854 and 1855 . Construction of the southern half of the Main Cell Block began in 1853 and was finished in 1855 , with prisoners transferred from the temporary prison on 1 June 1855 . Construction of the northern wing followed . The Crimean War saw the Royal Engineers recalled , leaving only one of their number , Henry Wray , to oversee the building 's construction , which was completed by the end of 1859 .
During Western Australia 's convict era , the prison was known as the Convict Establishment , and was used for prisoners transported from Britain . Longer term locally @-@ sentenced prisoners were also held there from 1858 , at a cost to the colonial government . In 1868 , penal transportation to Western Australia ceased , and the number of convicts in the colony gradually declined , down to 83 in the mid @-@ 1880s . Due to the great expense of sending these convicts back to Britain , the authorities there negotiated with the colonial government to relinquish jurisdiction over them , as well as the prison complex – demolition was considered too expensive . Early negotiations had broken down , but were restarted in August 1883 . After one and a half years , a compromise was reached , and the transfer was finalised on 31 March 1886 .
Once the prison came under the control of the colonial government , it was renamed Fremantle Prison . All prisoners in Perth Gaol were transferred to Fremantle , and from 1887 female prisoners were also imprisoned there , in their own separate section . The Western Australian gold rushes of the 1890s resulted in strong economic growth , and a massive increase in population : doubling from almost 50 @,@ 000 in 1891 to more than 100 @,@ 000 by 1895 , and to 184 @,@ 000 by 1901 . This influx included desperate , dishonest people , from elsewhere in Australia and overseas , and Fremantle Prison was soon overcrowded .
The 1890s also saw a growing public unease with the treatment of prisoners . In September 1898 a Royal Commission was established by the Governor of Western Australia to investigate the colony 's penal system . The commission heard evidence from almost 240 witnesses , including a range of prisoners . Three reports were made between December 1898 and June 1899 , dealing with the most recognisable and prominent issues including classification , sentencing , punishments , and diet . In particular , they considered the philosophy of the prison system – the causes of crime , as well as the types of punishments and their justifications – and in light of this , the practicality of various reform proposals .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Within a year of the enquiry , almost 100 cells had been enlarged by knocking down the inner wall between two cells , and a classification system was introduced . Internal walls were constructed in the main block , creating four separate divisions . Following the urgings of the prison Superintendent George and various official enquiries , new workshops were built to provide increased useful employment for prisoners . Five spaces were designed for tailors , bookbinders , shoemakers , mat makers and painters .
New regulations for prison officers were published in the Government Gazette in 1902 , and a new Prisons Act was passed in 1903 . While in theory the passing of the Act should have resulted in significant prison reform , this did not eventuate . The legislation left much of the changes to executive regulation , at the discretion of the governor , and was described by the media as a feeble document .
New Division , completed in 1907 and occupied in 1908 , resulted from the 1899 Commissioners ' report recommending a modified version of the separate system . The new division was similar in design to Henderson 's 1850s structure , but was constructed in an L @-@ shape , was only three stories tall , and had electric lighting . It also differed in its use from the main cell block . Unlike occupants of the earlier building , prisoners remained continuously in their cells except when exercising in separate yards , watched panopticon @-@ style by a warder in a central tower .
In 1911 another Royal Commission investigation into Fremantle Prison recommended closing the facility . Its report was ignored by the state government , which was more concerned with building infrastructure such as roads and schools than the plight of its prisoners . However , there was a rapid change in prison policy , with the appointment of a superintendent , Hugh Hann , who had recent English and colonial experience , and the election of a Labor government with members interested in penal reform . One immediate result was the dismantling of the separate system at Fremantle Prison and the demolition of the separate exercise yards in 1912 .
Fremantle Prison was partially used as a military prison during both world wars – for the detention of military personnel , as well as an internment centre . From 1940 until 1946 , it was one of more than 50 military prisons across Australia holding a combined total of more than 12 @,@ 000 enemy aliens and prisoners of war . Fremantle accommodated up to 400 military prisoners and up to 160 civilian prisoners by October 1945 . The World War II takeover necessitated the commissioning of Barton 's Mill Prison in 1942 .
= = = 20th century reform = = =
Prison outstations were established as part of the reforms in the 20th century , and to reduce the overcrowding at Fremantle . Pardelup Prison Farm opened in 1927 , near Mount Barker , while Barton 's Mill , though planned to be a temporary measure , remained open as a prison after World War II . Significant reform to Western Australia 's prison system did not begin until the 1960s , lagging behind those which occurred elsewhere in Australia and the world after World War II . Seven new prisons were opened between 1960 and 1971 , and in 1970 , female prisoners and staff were moved from Fremantle to the new Bandyup Women 's Prison . New legislation regarding probation , parole , and convicted drunkards was also introduced , which provided alternatives to imprisonment . With these new arrangements , and more variety in prisons and prison types , a classification board was set up in 1963 to assess prisoners .
The appointment of Colin Campbell as comptroller general in 1966 fostered substantial changes within Fremantle Prison itself . One of his first changes was to clear the classification committee 's backlog of prisoners awaiting assessment . Campbell also established an officer training school , as well as an assessment centre to evaluate new prisoners . Work release and community service programs were also introduced , along with training programs , social workers and welfare officers . Within the midst of Campbell 's reforms , the Prisons Department was renamed the Department of Corrections in 1971 , restructured , and the position of comptroller general was replaced with director of the department .
In 1972 a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate mistreatment of and discrimination against Aboriginal prisoners . Its 1973 report found that there was not " any appreciable discrimination " , however , racial stereotypes are present throughout the report , and the testimony of Aboriginal prisoners was considered unreliable . The report also made recommendations regarding various aspects of prison life , including additional , independent , trained welfare officers .
William Kidston succeeded Campbell in 1977 , and oversaw a shift in policy from " paternalistic rehabilitation " of prisoners to merely providing opportunities for rehabilitation . A new Prisons Act was passed in 1981 , which updated the 1903 Act with modern philosophies and practices . This act was , however , slanted towards prisoner management and safety , and the department was at the same time renamed the Prisons Department once more , to emphasise imprisonment as its primary responsibility . Ian Hill became Director of the Prisons Department in 1983 , and reorganised the department several times , striving for increased efficiency . Whilst the changes of the 1980s were effective throughout most of Western Australia 's prison system , the culture of Fremantle Prison was resistant to change . Growing prisoner discontent eventually culminated in the 1988 prison riot , investigated by an official enquiry later that year .
= = = Closure and subsequent use = = =
The state government made the decision to decommission Fremantle Prison in 1983 , but it remained in operation until 30 November 1991 . Prisoners were moved to a new metropolitan maximum security prison at Casuarina . There were divergent views in the community over the site 's future , whether it should be preserved or redeveloped . The ultimate decision was for conservation of the prison , but allowing for the buildings to be adapted for reuse by the community .
The Fremantle Prison Trust was established in 1992 to advise the Minister for Works on the management of the site . Various new uses were found for different parts of the prison , including wedding services in the chapels , the Coastal Business Centre in New Division , and the Fremantle Children 's Literature Centre in the hospital ; the prison also became a tourist attraction . A private company , the Fremantle Prison Guardians , organised the tourist operation for ten years under contract , until the end of 2001 ; subsequently , the state government took control . A hostel providing short @-@ stay accommodation in the Women 's Prison opened in May 2015 .
= = Staff and prisoners = =
= = = Administration = = =
Western Australia 's first comptroller general of convicts , Edmund Henderson , administered the convict establishment for thirteen years . The primary responsibilities of the comptroller general were to " direct convict labour and be responsible for convict discipline " . With the transfer of Fremantle Prison to the colonial government in 1886 , the role of the comptroller was replaced by that of the sheriff , responsible for all of the prisons in the colony . The position of comptroller general was recreated , with duties split off from the sheriff 's office , in early 1911 . In 1971 , the Prisons Department was renamed the Department of Corrections , restructured , and the position of comptroller general was replaced with director of the department . While the comptroller , sheriff , or director was responsible for the overall convict or prison system , largely centred around Fremantle Prison , the responsibility of the prison itself lay with the superintendent .
= = = Officers = = =
On convict ships , the convicts were guarded by pensioner guards , who were soldiers awarded pensions for their service in areas such as China , Crimea , and Afghanistan . Some remained in the military , but many opted to stay in the colony as settlers , having brought their wives and children with them . The pensioner guards were expected to help deal with any incidents of unrest at the prison .
Fremantle Prison 's officers were known as warders until the early 20th century . They lived in specially built terrace houses within walking distance of the prison , and their lives were just as regimented as the prisoners . In the 1890s warders still had stringent living and working conditions , including ten- to twelve @-@ hour working days . Due to a high turnover rate , many had little knowledge of either official policies or unofficial rules and traditions . The warder 's role , previously unwritten , only became clearly defined in 1902 . As well as guarding against escapes and enforcing discipline , they oversaw prisoner work and instructed inmates in trades . The warders were also supposed to be moral role models for prisoners , while maintaining a formal , distant , relationship .
The prison officer 's role in the 20th century did not change much , with the job still entailing a boredom @-@ inducing daily routine focused on security . Officer training became a priority under Campbell 's administration , from the late 1960s . Training courses were set up for staff inductions and promotions , and seminars were started for senior officers . The most significant change in this period , however , was that prison officers achieved representation through the Western Australian Prison Officers ' Union . The strength of the union was based on the ability to almost cripple the prison system through strike action , first taken in 1975 .
= = = Prisoners = = =
Convicts were introduced into Western Australia for three main purposes : inexpensive labour , additional labour , and an injection of British government spending into the local economy . During the initial years of transportation , convicts were generally young , from a rural background , and of good character , having only committed minor offences – potential future colonists , after their sentence had been served . By the 1860s the majority were older , more serious offenders from urban areas , including political prisoners considered to be " difficult and dangerous " . Following the transfer of Fremantle Prison to local control in 1886 , it became Western Australia 's primary prison . In the late 1880s and 1890s the number of inmates swelled dramatically . This increase predominantly comprised prisoners serving shorter sentences of under three months . The number of inmates in 1897 was 379 , and Inspector of Prisons James Roe viewed the prison as " inconveniently full " .
Despite a large expansion of the prison system , the problem of overcrowding remained throughout the 20th century , as did Western Australia 's high incarceration rate relative to the rest of Australia . The nature of prisoners changed , with three times the proportion of 16- to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds in 1984 compared to 1898 , and a growing over @-@ representation of Aboriginal prisoners to nearly half the incarcerated population . Sentences also increased in length , such that in 1984 more than 80 % of inmates were serving more than a year . In the 1970s and 1980s , there was an increasing number of people committed for violent crimes , but still a minority of the population . Both staff and prisoners , however , perceived a notable increase in violence during these years , coinciding with the rise of illegal drugs in prison , and of sentences for drug @-@ related offences .
= = Prison operation = =
= = = Routine = = =
In the Convict Establishment of 1855 , the day began with the wakeup bell at 4 : 30 am , and the officers and prisoners assembled in the parade ground at 5 : 25 am . Prisoners were sent to work before and after breakfast ( in their cells ) , before assembling for muster at midday . This was followed by dinner in the exercise yard or the work site , and more work throughout the afternoon , until supper at 6 : 00 pm in the cells . Night officers took over at 7 : 15 pm . The transfer of the Convict Establishment to the colonially @-@ run Fremantle Prison saw little change , and no new regulations .
A similar routine , but with fewer working hours , is described in the 1930s :
The following routine is observed by those who go to Fremantle Jail : — 6 @.@ 15 am . , warning bell ; prisoners rise and fold beds . 6 @.@ 30 @.@ officers muster and unlock cells . 7 @.@ 0 . [ sic ] breakfast , which lasts 15 minutes , after which men assemble in their respective exercise yards . 7 @.@ 55 , parade for work . 11 @.@ 45 , parade for dinner , after which men are in yard until 1 pm , parade for work ; 4 @.@ 45 parade for tea . 5 @.@ 30 @.@ muster ; all cells , etc . , locked for the night . 7 @.@ 55 @.@ warning bell ; prisoners to bed . 8 @.@ 0 , [ sic ] lights out except as provided for in reformatory regulations .
Not much had changed by the 1960s . The day began with a waking bell at 6 : 45 am . After a prisoner count , they moved into the yard until 7 : 30 , when they collected breakfast and headed back to their cells . The 8 : 00 bell signaled a parade , and then the start of work , which lasted until 11 : 15 . They ate a meal , locked in their cells until 12 : 20 pm , followed by some time in the yards . At 1 : 00 there was another parade , and another session of work which lasted to 4 : 15 . Another meal was collected , and prisoners were locked away in their cells overnight . The lights stayed on until 9 : 30 pm . On the weekends the routine featured no work , and included a film played for the prisoners .
= = = Diet = = =
Prisoners ate meals in their cells , from the early years of the prison through to its closure in 1991 . Bread from the prison bakehouse was included in every meal in the convict era . It was served with black tea for breakfast , and with either tea or cocoa in the evening . The main meal , called dinner , was in the middle of the day , and also featured soup , meat , and vegetables . By the 1890s food was still very limited in variety , with few vegetables . Porridge was given for breakfast , usually too fluid or overly solid , and the general standard of the prison 's food was quite low , particularly in 1897 and 1898 . However , the quality soon improved , as noted by the 1898 Royal Commission , which recommended decreasing rations to reduce costs .
In the 1960s , food preparation was overseen by a qualified chef , who also trained prisoners . The diet consisted of quality food , but " without trimmings " . Breakfast was porridge , with a third of a pint of milk , a hot drink ( tea , unless the prisoner bought coffee or cocoa ) , and either Vegemite , honey , or margarine , depending on the week . Lunch and dinner had more variation . Both meals consisted of a meat dish – corned beef , sausages , or mince pie – as well as mashed potato and cabbage , although there was occasionally a roast dinner . Meat , vegetables and bread were still a prominent part of the diet in 1991 .
= = = Labour = = =
As well as being used to build the prison itself , convict labour , with convicts in chain gangs , was used for other public works in the Fremantle and surrounding Perth area , including The Causeway , Perth Town Hall and Stirling Highway . The work undertaken by a convict depended on their behaviour and demeanour . Upon arrival to Western Australia , convicts were kept within the prison for a period of observation . If found to have a reasonable disposition , the convict would be sent to work , in a gang under the control of a warder . Typical activities included " quarrying , filling swamps , burning lime , constructing public buildings , roads and jetties " around Fremantle and Perth .
After some time , they might be sent to work on road or other projects away from these main settlements . Continued good behaviour could see the convict granted a ticket @-@ of @-@ leave , allowing private employment in a specified district of the colony , and eventually a Conditional Pardon , allowing most freedoms , except for returning to England . A Certificate of Freedom would only be granted at the end of a sentence . Misbehaviour would result in demotion through these levels of work , including returning to convict status within the prison . Re @-@ offenders and captured escapees , after corporal punishment and time in solitary confinement , would be placed on a chain gang undertaking hard labour , typically on roads near Fremantle .
Outside work , mostly on public infrastructure , continued beyond the convict era , but gradually declined due to discipline concerns , the rise of trade unions that saw such work as " a threat to free labour " , and an increasing emphasis on work as rehabilitation rather than punishment . By 1911 outside work had all but ceased , but could not adequately be replaced by employment within the prison walls ; a lack of suitable work plagued the prison throughout its lifetime . Work in the 19th century consisted of cooking , washing clothes , cleaning the prison , tailoring , bootmaking , and printing . However , demand exceeded the availability of such work – increasingly so in the later years of the 19th century – so prisoners were also given activities with no practical value other than keeping them occupied . These included breaking stones , operating a water pump , and oakum picking . Even with these extra activities , by 1899 , 60 to 70 men were employed at the pump , each doing only a few minutes work per hour , and occupied the rest of the time with recreation such as draughts .
New workshops built in 1901 allowed prisoners to work in bootmaking and tailoring , and from 1904 , printing . Only a small fraction of prisoners were allocated to the workshops – 35 out of an average of 279 prisoners in 1902 . In 1908 , there were still few men employed in the workshops , 20 in tailoring , 15 in bootmaking , and 12 in mat making , with only half of these working at a time , and little improvement by the 1911 Royal Commission . The 20th century saw little change in the work prisoners did . There were similar workshops , with the addition of metal work , and similar jobs around the prison complex , including in the laundry , in the kitchen , and cleaning the prison . In 1984 , 90 % of prisoners were reported to be employed , either full @-@ time or part @-@ time . The meaningfulness of the work was nominal , as work was viewed as " a management option rather than [ for ] production " , but security concerns and discipline restricted the rehabilitative value of the work , and limited much of the work to jobs non @-@ existent outside of prison .
= = = Punishments = = =
In the convict era , particularly during Hampton 's term as governor , misbehaving prisoners were punished with flogging , solitary confinement , and working in chain gangs at gunpoint . Particularly difficult prisoners were put to work hand pumping groundwater into the prison 's reservoir . Known as cranking , it was especially despised by the prisoners . Staff disliked giving the lashings – in 1851 , out of a total of 400 lashings ordered , 150 were remitted as the superintendent could not find anyone to undertake the task . The role was so disliked that inducements were offered , including extra pay or improved lodgings .
By the 1880s , punishments also included a restricted diet of bread and water ( for a short time span ) , time in irons , and a lengthening of a prisoner 's sentence by a visiting magistrate . The cat o ' nine tails , which had been used since the early days of the prison , was abolished during the post @-@ 1911 Royal Commission reforms . Other reforms in this period saw the number of punishments inflicted decrease from 184 in 1913 to 57 in 1914 , and 35 in 1915 .
Flogging was discontinued in the 1940s , with the last incident occurring in 1943 . From that decade , punishments were decided by the superintendent after hearing the case against a prisoner , or by a magistrate for grievous violations . Lesser transgressions could result in solitary confinement , or restriction from visitors , education , and concerts ; serious offences were punishable by the cancellation of any remission earned and a bread @-@ and @-@ water diet , normally over a two @-@ week period .
= = = Executions = = =
As soon as Fremantle Prison came under local control in 1886 , a refractory block with gallows was planned . It was completed in 1888 , and first used in 1889 to execute a convicted murderer , Jimmy Long , a Malayan . The gallows room was the only lawful place of execution in Western Australia between 1888 and 1984 . At least 43 men and one woman were hanged in this period . Martha Rendell was the only woman to be hanged at the prison , in 1909 . The last person to be hanged was serial killer Eric Edgar Cooke , executed in 1964 .
From the day of sentencing to death , prisoners were kept in a concrete @-@ floored cell in New Division . They were vigilantly observed to prevent them escaping their sentence through suicide . With hangings taking place on Monday mornings , at 8 : 00 am , condemned prisoners were woken three hours earlier , and provided with a last meal , shower , and clean clothes . Afterwards , handcuffed , they were moved to a holding or " condemned cell " nearby the gallows , and allowed a couple of sips of brandy to calm their nerves . Shortly before 8 : 00 am , they were hooded , led up to the execution chamber , which could hold as many as eleven witnesses , stood over the trap door , had a noose put around their neck , and were hanged by dropping through the opening trap door . After medical examination , the deceased was removed for burial .
= = = Escapes = = =
There were a multitude of attempted escapes from Fremantle Prison . Prominent escapees included Moondyne Joe in 1867 , John Boyle O 'Reilly in 1869 and six other Fenians in 1876 , and Brenden Abbott in 1989 .
= = = = Moondyne Joe = = = =
Joseph Bolitho Johns , better known as Moondyne Joe , was Western Australia 's best known bushranger . In July 1865 , Johns was sentenced to ten years penal servitude for killing a steer . He and another prisoner absconded from a work party in early November , and were on the run for nearly a month , during which time Johns adopted the nickname Moondyne Joe . For absconding and for being in possession of a firearm , Moondyne Joe was sentenced to twelve months in irons , and transferred to Fremantle Prison . In July 1866 he received a further six months in irons for trying to cut the lock out of his door , but in August Moondyne Joe succeeded in escaping again . Moondyne Joe formulated a plan to escape the colony by travelling overland to South Australia , but was captured on 29 September about 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) north @-@ east of Perth .
As punishment for escaping and for the robberies committed while on the run , Moondyne Joe received five years hard labour on top of his remaining sentence . Extraordinary measures were taken to ensure that he did not escape again . He was transferred to Fremantle Prison where a special " escape @-@ proof " cell was made for him , built from stone , lined with jarrah sleepers and over 1000 nails . In early 1867 Moondyne Joe was set to work breaking stone , but rather than permit him to leave the prison , the acting comptroller @-@ general ordered that the stone be brought in and dumped in a corner of the prison yard , where Moondyne Joe worked under the constant supervision of a warder .
Governor John Hampton was so confident of the arrangements , he was heard to say to Moondyne Joe : " If you get out again , I 'll forgive you " . However , the rock broken by Moondyne Joe was not removed regularly , and eventually a pile grew up until it obscured the guard 's view of him below the waist . Partially hidden behind the pile of rocks , he occasionally swung his sledgehammer at the limestone wall of the prison . On 7 March 1867 , Moondyne Joe escaped through a hole he had made in the prison wall . A few days before the second anniversary of his escape , Moondyne Joe was recaptured , returned to prison , and sentenced to an additional four years in irons . Eventually , Governor Frederick Weld heard of his predecessor Hampton 's promise , and decided that further punishment would be unfair . Moondyne Joe was given a ticket of leave in May 1871 .
= = = = The Fenians = = = =
From 1865 to 1867 , British authorities rounded up supporters of the Irish Republican Brotherhood , or Fenians , an Irish independence movement , and transported sixty @-@ two of them to Western Australia . In 1869 , John Boyle O 'Reilly escaped on the American whaling ship Gazelle and settled in Boston . Later that year , pardons were issued to many of the imprisoned Fenians , after which only eight militant Fenians remained in Western Australia 's penal system .
The Fenians in America bought the whaling ship Catalpa , which on 29 April 1875 sailed from New Bedford , Massachusetts on a secret rescue mission . Coordinating with local Fenian agents , the escape was arranged for 17 April 1876 , when most of the Convict Establishment garrison would be watching the Royal Perth Yacht Club regatta . Catalpa dropped anchor in international waters off Rockingham and dispatched a whaleboat to the shore . At 8 @.@ 30 am , six Fenians who were working in work parties outside the prison walls absconded , and were met by carriages that raced 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) south to where the boat was waiting .
The whaleboat managed to rendezvous with Catalpa the following day , which then headed out to sea . They were chased by the steamship SS Georgette , which had been commandeered by the colonial governor . Though Georgette caught up with the whaler on 19 April , Catalpa 's master claimed they were in international waters , and that an attack on Catalpa would be considered an act of war against the United States . Not wanting to cause a diplomatic incident , Georgette allowed Catalpa to flee .
= = = = Brenden Abbott = = = =
Brenden Abbott , " the Postcard Bandit " , escaped from Fremantle Prison in 1989 . He had been sentenced to twelve years in prison for " Australia 's first ' drop in ' -style bank robbery " at the Belmont branch of the Commonwealth Bank . While working in the prison 's tailor shop , he was able to stitch together overalls resembling those worn by the guards . Abbott and two accomplices took the opportunity to escape , wearing the overalls , when left unsupervised in the workshop . They cut through a bar and got onto the roof . One accomplice fell and broke his leg , but Abbott and the other managed to jump over to the wall , and thus escape .
Abbott avoided capture until 1995 , committing various robberies as he moved across Australia . He also escaped from a Queensland prison after two years and returned to Western Australia , allegedly robbing the Commonwealth Bank 's Mirrabooka branch . Abbott was recaptured in Darwin , six months after his escape , and was sent to a Queensland maximum @-@ security prison with a twenty year sentence to serve .
= = = Riots = = =
There have been various prisoner riots and other disturbances at Fremantle Prison over the years that it was operational . One of the earliest was in 1854 , while major riots which occurred in 1968 and 1988 resulted in damage to the prison .
= = = = 1968 = = = =
A riot occurred on 4 June 1968 , precipitated by the serving of allegedly contaminated food to prisoners the previous evening . Other factors that contributed were the rudimentary and deplorable state of sanitation and personal cleanliness facilities , tougher sentencing introduced with the Parole Act of 1964 , and the overcrowding . When the work bell was rung at 1 pm , prisoners rebelled ; refusing to go back to work , they assembled themselves in the exercise yards . The prison superintendent Mr Thorpe negotiated with two deputations of prisoners . As well as better food , they demanded single cells and the dismissal of specific wardens .
After approximately three hours , the negotiations broke down , and that night 's evening meal was withheld . That caused the prisoners to riot , breaking fittings ; during the commotion , three prison officers , three prisoners , and a detective sustained injuries . Additional police and wardens arrived at 5 pm , but took seven hours to subdue the prisoners , with the last of them locked in their cells just after midnight . The extent of the damage was in the order of $ 200 to $ 300 . To relieve the overcrowding and reduce prisoner agitation , around 60 men who had not taken part in the riot were transferred to prisons at Albany , Geraldton , Karnet , and Barton 's Mill . However , other improvements could not be undertaken without funding from the state government , which did not consider prison reform a priority .
= = = = 1988 = = = =
On 4 January 1988 , despite the 42 ° C ( 108 ° F ) heat , officers decided prisoners should remain outside in the exercise yards in the afternoon . As division 3 prisoners were let inside at around 4 pm , a voice exclaimed " Let 's take ' em " , and simultaneously , guards were splashed with boiling water , usually used for making tea . A horde of prisoners stormed the cellblock , attacking the guards with whatever makeshift weapons they could find . This resulted in pandemonium ; prisoners rushed along landings , overpowering officers and taking them hostage , while at the same time , other prisoners darted between cells , starting fires . The prisoners withdrew to the exercise yard , taking six hostages , as flames quickly overran the building , spread into the rafters , and caused the roof to collapse .
Police negotiators communicated with the ring leaders , and by nightfall only five hostages remained . Meanwhile , the fire brigade had trouble bringing the inferno in the main cell block under control , as the prison 's gate was too narrow for their trucks , and prisoners impeded their endeavours by throwing debris at them . The prisoners ' leaders made three demands : a meeting with Attorney General Joseph Berinson , access to the media , and a guarantee of no retribution afterwards . The next morning , after 19 hours , the hostages were released , even though only the third demand had been met . Prisoners did , however , have an opportunity to communicate with the press during the siege , as the riot was a live media event with television helicopters filming from overhead .
Although there were no deaths , the fire caused $ 1 @.@ 8 million of damage , and officers were injured . In the aftermath of the riot , there was extensive media attention on Fremantle Prison , and investigative journalists uncovered prior warnings to the prison authorities of the risk of such an event . The government hastily initiated an enquiry into the incident , and a report was completed within six weeks . A trial involving thirty @-@ three prisoners charged over the riot was also held , the largest in the state 's history , which resulted in lengthened sentences for the prisoners .
= = Conservation = =
= = = Heritage listing = = =
Fremantle Prison was listed in the Western Australian Register of Historic Places as an interim entry on 10 January 1992 and included as a permanent entry on 30 June 1995 . Described as the best preserved convict @-@ built prison in the country , it became the first building in Western Australia to be listed on the Australian National Heritage List , in 2005 . The Australian Federal Heritage Minister , Senator Ian Campbell , stated that it would be included in a nomination of eleven convict areas to become World Heritage Sites . Five years later , these locations were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2010 as the Australian Convict Sites .
The process of obtaining World Heritage listing focused historical interpretation and conservation efforts on the prison 's convict era . This came at the expense of its more recent history , included use as an internment centre during World War II , and the imprisonment of Aboriginal prisoners . The prioritisation , evident from the first conservation plans from before the prison closed , is reflected in the branding of the tourist experience as " Fremantle Prison – the Convict Establishment " , and through restorations that , while necessary to prevent damage and deterioration , strip away the site 's recent history .
= = = Restoration = = =
Various parts of Fremantle Prison have had restoration works undertaken since the 1990s ; a total of $ 800 @,@ 000 was spent between 1996 / 97 and 1998 / 99 on works which included restoring the facade of the Anglican chapel . In 2005 , work was undertaken on the restoration of the prison gatehouse area . Non @-@ original rendering was removed and the original stonework was revealed . Work was also completed on the tunnels during 2005 / 06 , and the main cell block was restored with an eighteen month , $ 1 @.@ 9 million project in 2006 and 2007 . The gallows room was restored in 2013 to conditions at the time of the last execution , in 1964 .
= = Tourism = =
Fremantle Prison receives international and domestic tourists , as well as ex @-@ prisoners , former prison officers , and their descendants . Tourist numbers increased each year from 2001 / 02 to 2009 / 10 , up from almost 105 @,@ 000 to nearly 180 @,@ 000 over that period . As of 2014 , the prison has won , been a finalist in , or received other commendation at tourism or heritage awards each year since 2006 . While the tourist experience is based on authenticity and heritage values , some details are concealed or de @-@ emphasised , such as prison tattooing , riots , and graffiti portraying revenge , sexuality , or brutality .
Attractions include guided tours , a visitors ' centre with searchable convict database , art gallery , café , gift shop , and tourist accommodation . Educational activities are regularly held for school children , as are exhibitions and re @-@ enactments of historical events . Functions such as theme parties and dinners are held in the prison , with re @-@ enactments serving as entertainment . Tours of the prison show aspects of prison life and recount successful and attempted escapes . Sections of the tunnels are accessible , and night tours focus on the prison 's reputation for being haunted .
The Fremantle Prison Collection contains around 15 @,@ 000 items associated with the prison 's site , history , or the experiences of its workers and prisoners . It is also involved in preserving oral histories , with interview transcripts stored at Fremantle Prison and recordings archived in the Battye Library Oral History Collection . Recollections have been recorded since 1989 , and include the experiences of authorities , staff , volunteer visitors , and prisoners . The Fremantle Prison records and collections , including archaeological , provide a substantial resource for researchers .
The Prison Gallery showcases and offers for sale the artworks of current and ex @-@ prisoners of Western Australia . It also hosts other exhibits related to the history of the prison , including historical artefacts . Many cells and areas of the prison depict prisoners ' artwork , including that of the 19th @-@ century forger James Walsh , whose artwork was hidden beneath layers of white @-@ wash for decades . Painting or drawing on walls was originally forbidden , though graffiti , which could be viewed as art or vandalism , occurred throughout the prison 's operational years . This rule was relaxed in special cases – including , from 1976 , long @-@ term prisoners within their own cells – but only for work considered art and not graffiti . Art , or art therapy , was not officially permitted until the 1980s ; graffiti was never formally permitted , but in the prison 's last six months , with closure imminent , the rule was not enforced .
A more contemporary prison artist was Dennis ( NOZ ) Nozworthy , who stated that he found art on death row , in 1982 . Some of his work currently is held in the collections of Curtin University , Perth Central TAFE , and the WA Government , Department of Justice . Other cells contain Aboriginal artwork , many by unknown artists . The Walmajarri artist Jimmy Pike started painting in Fremantle prison , having received tuition from Steve Culley and David Wroth .
= = = Attribution = = =
This article incorporates text from the source Australian Heritage Database – Fremantle Prison ( former ) , 1 The Terrace , Fremantle , WA , Australia , which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3 @.@ 0 Australia licence ( CC @-@ BY 3 @.@ 0 AU ) . Required attribution : © Commonwealth of Australia 2013 .
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= Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes , BWV 40 =
Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes ( For this the Son of God appeared ) , BWV 40 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in 1723 , his first year in Leipzig , for the Second Day of Christmas , and first performed it on 26 December that year in both main churches , Thomaskirche and Nikolaikirche . It was the first Christmas cantata Bach composed for Leipzig . The title of the cantata also appears in more modern German as Dazu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes .
The theme of the work is Jesus as the conqueror of the works of the devil , who is frequently mentioned as the serpent . The music is festively scored , using two horns , similar to Part IV of Bach 's later Christmas Oratorio . The text by an unknown poet is organised in eight movements , beginning with a choral movement on the biblical text , followed by a sequence of recitatives and arias which is structured as three stanzas from three different hymns . Only two of these hymns are Christmas carols .
Bach used the opening chorus for the concluding Cum Sancto Spiritu in his 1738 Missa in F major , BWV 233 .
= = History = =
Bach composed the cantata in his first year in Leipzig , for the Second Day of Christmas . On this day Leipzig celebrated Christmas and St. Stephen 's Day in alternating years , with different readings . In 1723 , St. Stephen 's Day was remembered , with the prescribed readings for the feast day from the Acts of the Apostles , the Martyrdom of Stephen ( Acts 6 : 8 – 7 @,@ 22 , Acts 7 : 51 – 59 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , Jerusalem killing her prophets ( Matthew 23 : 35 – 39 ) . The cantata text by an unknown author is not related to the martyrdom , but generally reflects Jesus as the conqueror of sin and the works of the devil . The text quotes the Bible in movement 1 , a verse from the First Epistle of John ( 1 John 3 : 8 ) . The contemporary poetry alludes to the Bible several times . Movement 2 is based on the Gospel of John ( John 1 : 14 ) . Movement 5 reflects the creation narrative ( Genesis 3 : 15 ) ; the image of the serpent is also used in movements 4 and 6 . Movement 7 finally picks up a line from the day 's Gospel , verse 37 , " how often would I have gathered thy children together , even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings " .
No fewer than three chorale stanzas from three different hymns are part of the structure : movement 3 is stanza 3 from Kaspar Füger 's " Wir Christenleut " ( 1592 ) ; movement 6 is stanza 2 from Paul Gerhardt 's " Schwing dich auf zu deinem Gott " ( 1648 ) ; and the closing chorale is the fourth ( final ) stanza from Christian Keymann 's " Freuet euch , ihr Christen alle " ( 1646 ) . This is unusual ; many of Bach 's cantatas include only one chorale stanza for a conclusion , and the cantata performed a day before , Christen , ätzet diesen Tag , BWV 63 , an early work composed in Weimar , contained no chorale at all . During the 1723 Christmas season , Bach used the structural device of three chorale stanzas , otherwise rare in his cantatas , twice more , in Sehet , welch eine Liebe hat uns der Vater erzeiget , BWV 64 , and in Schau , lieber Gott , wie meine Feind , BWV 153 . He used the structuring of major works in scenes which are closed by chorale later in his Passions and in his Christmas Oratorio . In this cantata , the first insertion is from a hymn that Bach would later use at the end of Part III of his Christmas Oratorio , sung to the earlier melody ( 1589 ) by an anonymous composer . The second insertion is not from a Christmas hymn , but its addressing the " alte Schlange " ( old serpent ) matches the context . It is sung to a melody possibly composed by Friedrich Funcke . The closing chorale is sung to a melody by Andreas Hammerschmidt , published in his collection Vierter Theill Musicalischer Andachten ( Fourth part of musical meditations ) in Freiberg , Saxony ( 1646 ) .
The cantata was the first Christmas cantata composed for Leipzig . Bach first performed it on 26 December 1723 , and once more , in either 1746 or 1747 . For the Christmas season of 1723 , from the First Day of Christmas to Epiphany , Bach had performed a program of six cantatas , five of them new compositions , and two major other choral works :
25 December
Main service : Christen , ätzet diesen Tag , BWV 63 and a new Sanctus in D major , BWV 238
vespers service , BWV 63 and the Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a
26 December : this cantata
27 December : Sehet , welch eine Liebe hat uns der Vater erzeiget , BWV 64
1 January : Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied , BWV 190
2 January : Schau , lieber Gott , wie meine Feind , BWV 153
6 January : Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen , BWV 65
The cantatas were performed twice on the principal feast days , in the main service , alternating in one of the two major churches of Leipzig Thomaskirche and Nikolaikirche , and in the vespers service in the other .
Bach parodied the first movement of this cantata for the Cum Sancto Spiritu fugue in his 1738 Missa in F major , BWV 233 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
For the festive occasion , the cantata is scored for three vocal soloists — alto , tenor and bass — a four @-@ part choir , two horns ( corno da caccia ) , two oboes , two violins , viola and basso continuo . Bach later used a similar scoring in Part IV of his Christmas Oratorio , to be performed on New Year 's Day .
The cantata consists of eight movements :
Chorus : Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes
Recitative ( tenor ) : Das Wort ward Fleisch
Chorale : Die Sünd macht Leid
Aria ( bass ) : Höllische Schlange , wird dir nicht bange ?
Recitative ( alto ) : Die Schlange , so im Paradies
Chorale : Schüttle deinen Kopf und sprich
Aria ( tenor ) : Christenkinder , freuet euch !
Chorale : Jesu , nimm dich deiner Glieder
= = Music = =
According to musicologist Julian Mincham , the cantata has three sections , each concluded by a chorale :
Chorus , recitative , chorale – " Christ 's purpose in a world of sin "
Aria , recitative , chorale – " Christ 's actions in dispelling Satan "
Aria , chorale – " consequential Christian delight "
Bach used material from the chorales in his own composition , for example deriving the first horn motif from the beginning of the chorale tune of the first chorale . This suggests that he had chosen the structure before he began the composition .
The opening chorus in F major is a setting of the short text " Dazu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes , daß er die Werke des Teufels zerstöre . " ( For this the Son of God appeared , that he might destroy the works of the Devil . ) Klaus Hofmann notes : " This work of destruction is portrayed in the chorus by repeated percussive notes and extended coloratura , but all these illustrative elements are subordinated to a festive Christmas spirit " . The horns open the ritornello with a short signal @-@ like motif that is picked up by the oboes and the strings . The movement resembles a prelude and fugue , because the text is first presented in homophony to a repeat of the beginning of the ritornello , then repeated as a fugue , and finally repeated in madrigal style similar to the first section .
John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted this and other Christmas cantatas during the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage with the Monteverdi Choir in 2000 , compares the movement 's style to the stilo concitato ( excited style ) of Claudio Monteverdi and notes its " vigorous endorsement to the military campaign against sin and the devil instituted with Jesus ' birth " . The text speaking of the " works of the devil " is rendered on repeated notes both in the prelude section as in the fugue section ; the destruction is pictured in a twisted , almost snake @-@ like , coloraturas in both sections , but the text " Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes " is graced by a new calm theme that is introduced by the tenor , followed by bass , soprano and alto , only accompanied by the continuo . Then the theme contrasts with the two other elements depicting the works of the devil and destruction ; it shines almost throughout the fugue .
The short secco recitative , sung by the tenor , the typical voice for Evangelist narration , delivers the message " Das Wort ward Fleisch und wohnet in der Welt " ( The word became flesh and lived in the world ) . The chorale , set for four parts , returns to the thought of sin , " Die Sünd macht Leid " ( Sin makes suffering ) . The bass line rises to affirm the last line " Wer ist , der uns als Christen kann verdammen ? " ( Who could condemn us as Christians ? ) .
The bass aria " Höllische Schlange , wird dir nicht bange ? " ( Hellish serpent , are you not afraid ) is accompanied by oboes and strings . Hofmann describes it as a " wide @-@ ranging , operatic bass solo , triumphant about the ' hellish snake ' " . The accompagnato recitative " Die Schlange , so im Paradies " ( The serpent that in Paradise ) explains that sin has been redeemed . The second chorale " Schüttle deinen Kopf und sprich " ( Shake your head and say ) is also a four @-@ part setting . The vivid bass line illustrates the crushing of the serpent 's head .
The tenor aria " Christenkinder , freuet euch ! " ( Christian children , rejoice ! ) is accompanied by both horns and oboes and stresses the words " freuet " ( be glad ) by extended coloraturas and " erschrecken " ( terrify ) by sudden rests . It reflects the joyful mood of the opening chorus . The cantata is closed by " Jesu , nimm dich deiner Glieder " ( Jesu , take to Yourself Your members ) , the third four @-@ part chorale , asking Jesus for further support in the new year . For several passages , the bass line is moving to illustrate joy and bliss . The harmonisation begins in F minor , changes several times according to the words and reaches F major on the final word " Genadensonne " ( Sun of mercy ) .
= = Selected recordings = =
A list of recordings is provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . The type of choir and orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background , and as an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance by green background .
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= Harlem Shake ( song ) =
" Harlem Shake " is a song recorded by American DJ and producer Baauer . It was released as his debut single on May 22 , 2012 , by Mad Decent imprint label Jeffree 's . The uptempo song incorporates a mechanical bassline , Dutch house synth riffs , a dance music drop , and samples of growling @-@ lion sounds . It also samples Plastic Little 's 2001 song " Miller Time " , specifically the vocal " then do the Harlem shake " , which is an allusion to the dance of the same name . Baauer added a variety of peculiar sounds to the song so that it would stand out .
The single did not begin to sell significantly until February 2013 , when a YouTube video set to its music developed into an Internet meme of the same name . The media response to the meme helped increase the single 's sales , as it charted at number one for five consecutive weeks on the US Billboard Hot 100 . It also reached number three in the United Kingdom and number one in both Australia and New Zealand . During the song 's chart run , Billboard enacted a policy that included video streams as a component of their charts .
" Harlem Shake " was well received by music critics , who viewed it as an appealing dance track , although some felt that it was more of a novelty song . After the song became a hit , Mad Decent label head Diplo reached an agreement with the artists of the song 's samples , which had not been contractually cleared before its release . However , according to Baauer , he has not received any of the money the song made because of the legal issues from not having properly cleared the samples . American rapper Azealia Banks released a remix to " Harlem Shake " on her SoundCloud page , which was subsequently removed at Baauer 's request and led to a dispute between the two .
= = Background = =
In 2011 , Baauer rededicated himself to music after studying at City College and began to practice making beats . He recorded " Harlem Shake " in 2012 in his bedroom studio in Brooklyn , New York . With the song , he wanted to record a high @-@ pitched , Dutch house synthesizer over a hip hop track and make it stand out by adding a variety of peculiar sounds . He later referred to it as " a goofy , fun song " . Baauer posted " Harlem Shake " , along with several of his other recordings , on his SoundCloud page , and in April , Scottish DJ Rustie featured the song in his Essential Mix for BBC Radio 1 . Record producer and Mad Decent label head Diplo heard the song , and released it on May 22 as a free digital download through Mad Decent 's imprint label Jeffree 's . It was Baauer 's debut single .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Harlem Shake " features harsh snares , a mechanical bassline , samples of growling lions , and Dutch house synth riffs . It has a high tempo characteristic of hip hop and a dance music drop . According to Andrew Ryce from Resident Advisor , " Harlem Shake " is a hip hop and bass song , while David Wagner of The Atlantic viewed it as trap , a musical subgenre with stylistic origins in EDM and Southern hip hop . Ryce felt the song 's music " represents the hip @-@ hop contingent of " bass music , which is typified by rolling snares and jerky basslines , finding it " particularly symptomatic of a growing strain of music obsessed with ' trap ' " . By contrast , Jon Caramanica from The New York Times argued that it " isn 't a hip @-@ hop song , but it is hip @-@ hop @-@ influenced . "
" Harlem Shake " begins with a sample of a voice shouting " con los terroristas " , a Spanish phrase which translates to " with the terrorists " in English . Although listeners assumed it was a female voice , the sample was taken from the 2006 reggaeton song " Maldades " by Héctor Delgado , who often used the line as a refrain on his other songs . In 2010 , the recorded phrase was used by Philadelphia disc jockeys Skinny Friedman and DJ Apt One on their remix of Gregor Salto 's dance track " Con Alegría " . Baauer said he found the vocal sample from an unidentified source on the Internet . The sampled voice is followed by building synths and snares , and a syncopated sub @-@ bass sound before another voice commands listeners to " do the Harlem shake " . The line was sampled from Plastic Little 's 2001 hip hop song " Miller Time " , which Baauer sampled after having a friend play it for him and " [ getting it ] stuck in my head for a while " . Plastic Little member Jayson Musson said his line was inspired by a fist @-@ fight that he ended by performing the harlem shake dance move : " This was my first fight and I didn ’ t know how to properly ' end ' a fight , so I just smiled at him and did the Harlem shake , blood gushing from glass cuts on my face . The other kid , I guess not wanting to fight anymore , or maybe not wanting to fight someone who just danced at him , got on his skateboard and took off without his shoes . "
= = Commercial performance = =
" Harlem Shake " was released commercially in June 2012 . Mad Decent commissioned a music video for the single at the time , but were not satisfied with the result and shelved it . It gradually received listens online , and was re @-@ released as a single on January 8 , 2013 . However , it did not begin to sell significantly until February , when its music was set to a YouTube video that developed into an Internet meme of the same name . The 30 @-@ second video featured people dancing to the song and was parodied more than 3 @,@ 000 times in other user @-@ submitted videos . Billboard magazine cited " Harlem Shake " as " the biggest viral sensation since PSY 's ' Gangnam Style ' " . Baauer and Mad Decent generated income from both the user @-@ submitted videos and Baauer 's original audio post on YouTube because of the site 's Content ID service , which allows artists , labels , and publishers to monetize songs . According to MSN Money , they earned $ 6 for every 1 @,@ 000 views of the video .
The late @-@ week media response to the meme helped the single sell 12 @,@ 000 units on iTunes in the week ending February 10 , according to Nielsen SoundScan . It consequently entered the US Dance / Electronic Digital Songs at number nine and the Dance / Electronic Songs at number twelve . Mad Decent 's manager Jasper Goggins said that " Harlem Shake " was the " biggest thing " they have released , " and it 's happened within six days . " In the United Kingdom , " Harlem Shake " reached number twenty @-@ two on the UK Singles Chart during the week of the meme 's phenomena . By the end of the chart week , the single had climbed nineteen spots to number three . Martin Talbot , the Official Charts Company 's managing director , said that the single 's climb on the chart " underlines just how quickly this track has turned into a bone fide phenomenon . At the start of the week , it wasn 't even selling enough to make the Top 20 — but it is now one of the UK 's most popular tracks . "
The following week , " Harlem Shake " debuted at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 and climbed to number one on the Dance / Electronic Songs , while selling 262 @,@ 000 units . It was the first instrumental track to top the Hot 100 since Jan Hammer 's 1985 Miami Vice theme . It was also the twenty @-@ first song in the Hot 100 's history to debut at number one and was aided by 103 million weekly video streams , which was announced that week by Billboard and Nielsen SoundScan as a new component of their charts . According to Billboard 's editorial director Bill Werde , " Harlem Shake " ' s success prompted them to enact the chart policy after two years of discussions with YouTube . However , Silvio Pietroluongo , the magazine 's director of charts , said in an interview for The A.V. Club that their timing was coincidental and came after a period of negotiating the chart policy and its logistics . However , because it lacked major label promotional support , the single registered low in airplay . It also debuted at number one on the ARIA Singles Chart and became 1000th number @-@ one song since Australia began compiling charts in 1940 .
" Harlem Shake " remained at number one on the Hot 100 in its second week , when it sold 297 @,@ 000 digital units . It also received more airplay after being promoted to radio by Warner Bros. Records , who had agreed to a deal with Mad Decent on February 26 to distribute the song worldwide . " Harlem Shake " topped the Hot 100 for a third week and sold 228 @,@ 000 units , despite a decline in YouTube streams . By March 10 , it had reached sales of one million digital units . On March 12 , Sean Michaels of The Guardian reported that the song had earned more than £ 50 @,@ 000 from YouTube . " Harlem Shake " remained at number one for five consecutive weeks on the Hot 100 .
= = Copyright infringement = =
Neither vocal samples used on " Harlem Shake " were contractually cleared with Héctor Delgado or Jayson Musson , who were both shocked to hear the song after it became a hit . In February , Delgado was told by his former manager Javier Gómez that he heard his voice on the song and wanted to take legal action . According to Gómez , Diplo subsequently called Delgado and told him that he was unaware " Harlem Shake " sampled his voice when it was released as a single . Gómez called " Harlem Shake " " a clear breaking of intellectual property rights " and said that since Diplo 's call , lawyers for Machete Music have been negotiating with Mad Decent over compensation for the sample .
Musson received an enthusiastic call in late February from a past member of Plastic Little telling him that his voice was sampled on " Harlem Shake " . Musson did not have a problem with Baauer using the sample without his permission and found the song 's production " phenomenal " . He subsequently called Baauer to thank him for " doing something useful with our annoying music " . However , he felt that the allusion to the dance was " peculiar " and outdated : " I was like , Who the fuck is rapping about the Harlem Shake in 2012 ? " Musson said in an interview in March that he was negotiating with Mad Decent over compensation and that , although no agreement had been reached , the label had been " more than cooperative during this " .
In April , Diplo told The Huffington Post that he had reached an agreement to clear the samples . However , in an August interview with Pitchfork Media , Baauer said that he has not made any money from the song , despite Diplo 's reported agreement : " I 'm meeting with my lawyer ... so I 'm gonna find that out . I think it 's mostly because of all the legal shit . I didn ’ t clear the samples because I was in my fucking bedroom on Grand Street . I wasn 't going to think to call up [ Delgado ] , I didn ’ t even know who it was who did that [ sample ] ; I knew the Jayson Musson [ sample ] . So I found myself in that fucking pickle . Legal letters and shit . Ugh . Lawyers . So exposure @-@ wise it was fantastic , but everything else ... "
= = Critical reception = =
Pitchfork Media 's Larry Fitzmaurice labelled the song " Best New Track " upon its release in May 2012 and called it a " disorienting banger " with an " irresistible appeal " that " owes almost everything " to its " menacing , world @-@ smashing bassline " . Fitzmaurice wrote in conclusion , " Along with this purely visceral pleasure , it 's hard not to marvel at how awesome those growling @-@ lion samples sound . " Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times said that he liked the song and viewed it as a " syrupy instrumental " that foreshadows " the convergence of hip @-@ hop , dance and rock " .
Andrew Ryce of Resident Advisor gave " Harlem Shake " a rating of three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five and found its musical climax " admittedly satisfying — that is , until it resumes flailing like a novelty track " , writing that " it 's not hard to see why the track is well @-@ liked , but its snowballing ubiquity is a bit of a head @-@ scratcher , simply because it 's not all that interesting . " Similarly , Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that , after hearing a minute of it being played during Power 105 @.@ 1 FM 's mixshow , the song " felt more like a novelty than like part of a strategy . " Caramanica felt that its success , along with that of Macklemore 's 2012 song " Thrift Shop " , reflects a " centerless future " for hip hop and stated , " Depending on your lens , this reflects a tremendous cultural victory for hip @-@ hop or the moment when hip @-@ hop , as a construct , begins to lose meaning . "
= = Remixes = =
On February 14 , 2013 , American rapper Azealia Banks released a remix to " Harlem Shake " on SoundCloud , which was then removed at Baauer 's request . Banks disparaged Baauer on Twitter in response and claimed to have e @-@ mails sent from him giving her permission to use the song . She then said that Diplo had sent her an e @-@ mail telling her that the remix was removed because they would rather have rapper Juicy J on it . On February 16 , Banks shared a music video for her remix on Vimeo , and revealed a purported e @-@ mail from Baauer saying he liked the remix . Baauer responded in an interview for The Daily Beast , saying that they had planned to release a version of the song with Banks , but felt that her verse did not meet their expectations :
Jon Caramanica of The New York Times cited Banks ' remix as one of her best songs , while Chris Martins of Spin wrote that she delivers " fire @-@ hot verse after fire @-@ hot verse " and facetiously remarked that " Banks raps all over your dumb ' Harlem Shake ' meme " .
Pitbull and Jim Jones also recorded freestyle raps over the song . After releasing his version , Jones claimed in an interview that " Harlem Shake " was a song he originally recorded one year ago for an album by Pauly D , but that they ultimately scrapped it : " When I started to hear the ' Harlem Shake ' and heard the beat , I was like damn , I had the record for a year . So I just put the record out . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Harlem Shake " – 3 : 16
" Yaow ! " – 2 : 11
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Zab Judah =
Zabdiel " Zab " Judah ( born Leroy Jones on October 27 , 1977 ) is an American professional boxer . He is a five @-@ time world champion at light welterweight and welterweight , and is a former undisputed welterweight world champion .
= = Amateur career = =
Judah began boxing at the age of six and compiled an amateur record of 110 – 5 . He was a two @-@ time US national champion and three @-@ time New York Golden Gloves Champion . He also won the 1996 PAL National Championship . Judah beat Ishe Smith and Hector Camacho , Jr . , but lost to David Díaz in the finals of the Olympic trials , thus failing to qualify for the Olympic boxing team .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Light Welterweight = = =
Judah made his professional debut as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old on September 20 , 1996 , in Miami , Florida and defeated Michael Johnson by technical knockout in the second round . Judah accidentally butted heads with Esteban Flores in a fight in March 1999 . Flores was cut on his forehead , and the match was halted in the third round . The bout was originally recorded as a technical draw , but the result was changed to a no contest in May 1998 . On April 14 , 1998 , Judah defeated Angel Beltre in the second round .
Judah then defeated Micky Ward by unanimous decision for the USBA Light Welterweight title . He successfully defended the USBA title by stopping Darryl Tyson in the eleventh round on October 15 , 1998 .
= = = = IBF Champion = = = =
Judah defeated Wilfredo Negron in January 1999 with a fourth @-@ round knockout to win the Interim IBF Light Welterweight title . On February 12 , 2000 , he defeated Jan Piet Bergman to win the vacant IBF Light Welterweight title . Bergman went down twice in the first round , but recovered in the second round , knocking Judah down . Judah knocked out Bergman in the fourth round to win the title . On June 20 , 2000 , Judah made his first title defense against Junior Witter in Glasgow , Scotland . It was an awkward fight for Judah , as Witter rarely engaged in an extended exchange of punches . Witter frequently switched between fighting right @-@ handed and left @-@ handed , making him an elusive opponent . Judah 's consistent body punching slowed Witter down , and in the fifth round , Judah caught Witter with a straight left hand that hurt Witter and sent his mouthpiece skittering across the ring . Judah defeated Witter by unanimous decision .
Two months later , on August 5 , 2000 , at the Mohegan Sun in Connecticut , Judah defeated former IBF Light Welterweight Champion Terron Millett by fourth round knockout . Judah was knocked down in the first round from a left hand . Judah rose quickly , and from that point on he dominated the fight . Judah hurt Millett with two combinations near the end of the first round . In round two , Judah sent Millett down with a right hand to the chin . Millett survived the round , but he was clearly hurt . In round four , Judah charged across the ring and inflicted a series of blows on Millett , knocking him down again . Millett got up , but Judah continued his assault and knocked Millett down again . Millett rose at the count of four , but his legs were unsteady and the referee decided to stop the bout .
In his third title defense , Judah stopped Hector Quiroz in the eighth round on October 20 , 2000 , at The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan . On January 13 , 2001 , Judah defeated Reggie Green by tenth round technical knockout at the Mohegan Sun in Connecticut . Judah had trouble landing punches effectively against Green for the majority of the fight , but in round ten , he knocked Green down with a left hook . Green beat the count , but Judah then ran across the ring and sent Green down to the canvas with a right hand , forcing the referee to stop the fight . On June 23 , 2001 , Judah defeated Allan Vester by third round knockout in his fifth successful defense of the IBF title . In round two , Judah put Vester down to the canvas twice . In the third round , Judah knocked out Vester with a left hand that connected on Vester 's temple . Vester went down on his knees and nearly lost his mouthpiece . The referee stopped the fight right before the closing bell . The fight would set up a unification match between Judah and WBC and WBA Light Welterweight Champion Kostya Tszyu , who defeated Oktay Urkal on the undercard .
= = = = Unification Match with Tszyu = = = =
The much anticipated matchup between Judah and Tsyzu took place on November 3 , 2001 , at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas , Nevada for the Undisputed Light Welterweight Championship . Judah entered the fight as a 3 @-@ to @-@ 1 favorite to win . With 10 seconds left to go in round two , Tszyu landed a right hand clean on Judah 's chin and he backed away from Tszyu with his hands down . Tszyu went after Judah , throwing another right hand that landed on his chin and sent Judah crashing to the canvas . Judah jumped up instinctively and tried to signal that he was fine to referee Jay Nady , but was still dazed by the punch and fell down a second time . When Judah collapsed , Nady waved the fight over , resulting in a technical knockout victory for Tsyzu and Judah 's first professional loss .
While Tszyu celebrated in his corner , Judah was in disbelief of what just happened and became infuriated . Judah picked up his stool and hurled it towards center ring . While being restrained by his father and trainer , Yoel Judah , he broke loose and walked up to Nady and stuck his gloved fist into his neck and had to be pulled off by cornermen . A few minutes later , Jimmy Lennon , Jr. announced the official decision and Judah screamed out and again had to be restrained by a growing number of security guards and cornermen . Judah was fined $ 75 @,@ 000 and suspended for six months by the Nevada State Athletic Commission .
After defeating Omar Weis by unanimous decision in July 2002 , Judah challenged DeMarcus Corley for the WBO Light Welterweight title on July 12 , 2003 , at the Orleans Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas . Judah knocked Corley down with a left hand in the third round en route to defeating Corley by split decision . Judah broke his left hand during the fight . In his only defense of the WBO title , Judah knocked out Jaime Rangel in the first round on December 13 , 2003 .
= = = Welterweight = = =
= = = = Cory Spinks = = = =
On April 10 , 2004 , at the Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino in Las Vegas , Judah fought Cory Spinks for the Undisputed Welterweight Championship . Judah had trouble at the start figuring out how to fight Spinks , the taller fighter . He could not move forward to get inside , but was having success moving laterally . Spinks scored a knockdown in the eleventh round , but Judah came back and put Spinks down to the canvas in the final round . In the end , Spinks defeated Judah by unanimous decision with scores of 114 – 112 twice and 116 – 111 .
For the rest of 2004 , Judah defeated Rafael Pineda by split decision and Wayne Martell by first round technical knockout . On February 5 , 2005 , Judah would get a rematch with Spinks at the Savvis Center in St. Louis , Missouri , Spinks ' hometown . The fight was the first major bout in St. Louis in more than 40 years , and it was a sellout . Judah was the aggressor throughout the fight . He knocked Spinks down to his knees at the bell in the seventh round , but it was not ruled a knockdown . Spinks had a strong start to the ninth round and connected with a left hand , then followed with a right hand and a combination , but Judah scored a knockdown moments later . Judah pressed the attack after the first knockdown and avoided Spinks ' desperate efforts to tie him up . After Spinks was knocked down for the second time , the referee stopped the fight , and Judah became the new Undisputed Welterweight Champion .
= = = = Undisputed Welterweight Champion = = = =
In his first fight as undisputed welterweight champion , he fought Cosme Rivera on May 14 , 2005 , at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas . Judah sent Rivera down with a straight left hand to the face less than 30 seconds into the bout . Rivera beat the count , but was knocked down again about 10 seconds later . Judah hit Rivera hard several times in the second round , and in the third round , he connected with a left uppercut , that caused Rivera to stagger backwards and fall into the ropes before hitting the canvas . Rivera rose at the count of five , but he was badly hurt and the referee stopped the fight .
His next fight took place on January 7 , 2006 at Madison Square Garden in New York City against Carlos Baldomir . For Judah , the fight was viewed as a tuneup bout that would lead to a lucrative bout between Judah and WBC Light Welterweight Champion Floyd Mayweather , Jr . , which was tentatively scheduled for April . Judah entered the fight as a 10 @-@ to @-@ 1 favorite over Baldomir . The stage was set when Judah unsportingly punched Baldomir on the thigh during the prefight introductions instead of touching gloves to show sportsmanship . The early rounds of the fight were close , but as the rounds passed , Judah was doing less than necessary to win , while Baldomir kept applying pressure on Judah . In round seven , Judah was hurt by a right hand and Baldomir landed a series of right hands to Judah 's head along the ropes during the tenth round . Baldomir defeated Judah by unanimous decision with scores of 115 – 113 , 114 – 113 and 115 – 112 from the three judges . The Ring named Baldomir 's victory over Judah the upset of the year for 2006 . Judah 's IBF and WBA belts were not on the line , because Baldomir did not pay sanctioning fees to the IBF and WBA . Baldomir did win The Ring and WBC titles , while the WBA ( Super ) title was vacated after Judah 's loss ( WBA ( Regular ) titleholder Luis Collazo became the sole WBA Champion ) , but the IBF still recognized him as their champion .
= = = = Judah vs. Mayweather = = = =
With the loss to Baldomir , it appeared that Judah 's much anticipated bout with Mayweather was off , but Judah 's promoter Don King and Mayweather 's promoter Bob Arum reworked the deals so the fight would go on . Mayweather was scheduled to earn a minimum $ 6 million while Judah was to earn $ 3 million plus a percentage of the profits , but because of Judah 's loss , Mayweather earned a minimum $ 5 million while Judah was guaranteed $ 1 million plus a percentage of profits above $ 7 million . The fight took place on April 8 , 2006 , at the Thomas and Mack Center in Las Vegas .
Judah started strongly and put up a valiant fight , at times matching Mayweather 's speed and punching precision . It appeared that Judah scored a knockdown in the second round when Mayweather 's glove touched the canvas ; however , referee Richard Steele ruled it a slip . In round four , Judah landed a right hand to the head that caused Mayweather to retreat to the ropes and cover up . The momentum changed in the fifth round , when Mayweather hurt Judah with a combination to the face . Then Mayweather landed a right hand on the bridge of Judah 's nose , and blood began to flow . The seventh round was the most dominant for Mayweather to that point . Once again , he drew blood from Judah 's nose . A combination from Mayweather backed Judah into a corner , and Judah 's foot movement was considerably slower than it had been earlier in the fight .
With about 10 seconds left in the tenth round , Judah hit Mayweather with a low blow and followed it with a right hand to the back of Mayweather 's head . As Mayweather hopped around the ring in pain , Steele called time to give Mayweather a rest period . Mayweather 's uncle and trainer , Roger Mayweather , climbed into the ring and approached Judah . Yoel Judah entered the ring and threw a punch at Roger . At that point , members of both fighters ' camps entered the ring and an all @-@ out melee ensued . More than a dozen security officers and police officers rushed into the ring and managed to control the situation . After the ring was cleared , Roger Mayweather was ejected from the fight . Mayweather cruised through the last two rounds on his way to a unanimous decision victory by scores of 116 – 112 , 117 – 113 and 119 – 109 .
After the fight , the purses for both fighters were withheld until video of the fight could be reviewed . Don King argued that Mayweather should have been disqualified because his uncle was the first person to enter the ring . At an April 13 hearing , the Nevada State Athletic Commission fined Roger Mayweather $ 200 @,@ 000 and revoked his boxing license for one year . At a hearing on May 8 , the Commission disciplined the other offenders in the melee . It fined Yoel Judah $ 100 @,@ 000 and revoked his license for one year , fined Mayweather cornerman Leonard Ellerbe $ 50 @,@ 000 and suspended his license for four months , and fined Zab Judah $ 350 @,@ 000 and revoked his license for one year .
= = = = Return from Suspension = = = =
On April 13 , 2007 , Judah made his return to the ring against Ruben Galvan at the Fitzgeralds Casino & Hotel in Tunica , Mississippi . Judah came out strongly in the first round , landing numerous shots on Galvan . During the round , a bad cut opened near the top of Galvan 's head . The referee called for a timeout to allow the doctor to take a look at the cut . Due to the severity of the cut , the fight was waved off . The cut was ruled to be caused by an accidental foul with an elbow and since the fight did not go past four rounds , the fight was ruled a no contest .
= = = = Judah vs. Cotto = = = =
On June 9 , 2007 , Judah took on WBA Welterweight Champion Miguel Cotto in New York City before a soldout crowd at Madison Square Garden . In the first round , Cotto landed a low blow that put Judah to the canvas . Referee Arthur Mercante , Jr. offered a stern warning to Cotto . In the third round , Judah took yet another low blow from Cotto , which resulted in Cotto receiving a point deduction . Cotto and Judah delivered an all @-@ action brawl , but after weathering some difficult early rounds as he figured out Judah 's southpaw style and adjusted to his speed , Cotto took over the bout . In round seven , both fighters went toe @-@ to @-@ toe and in round eight he hurt Judah several times . In round nine , Judah took a knee to gain a breather from Cotto 's aggressive style . By the tenth round , Judah was bleeding from a cut over his right eye and was hurt by an uppercut from Cotto that sent him retreating to the ropes , but Judah stayed upright . Early in the eleventh round , Cotto landed a combination that dropped Judah to the canvas . He managed to get to his feet , but Cotto went after Judah with a relentless attack , turning him sideways along the ropes as he continued to throw punches . That forced the referee to stop the fight .
Judah , who trailed 97 – 91 on all three scorecards , claimed he had been weakened by the two low blows early in the fight . He said , " The first low blow was very hard . The second one took a lot out of me . The low blows affected me from the time they hit me . " Cotto earned $ 2 @.@ 5 million plus a piece of the pay @-@ per @-@ view profits , while Judah earned $ 1 million plus a percentage of the profits .
Judah fought Edwin Vazquez at the Hard Rock resort in Biloxi , Mississippi on September 7 , 2007 . Despite suffering a cut over his left eye , Judah defeated the overmatched Vazquez by unanimous decision . Judah hurt Vazquez several times over the course of the contest , but he injured his left hand midway through the fight and was unable to finish off Vasquez . On November 17 , 2007 , in Providenciales , Judah defeated Ryan Davis by unanimous decision . Judah was scheduled to fight Shane Mosley on May 31 , 2008 , at the Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino in Las Vegas , but it was postponed after Judah needed 50 stitches in his right arm after slipping in his bathroom and smashing it through a glass shower door .
= = = = Judah vs. Clottey = = = =
On August 2 , 2008 , Judah lost to Joshua Clottey by technical decision in a fight for the vacant IBF Welterweight title at the Palms Casino Resort in Las Vegas . Judah began the busier fighter , showing quick hands and throwing effective combinations behind a jab . Clottey began steadily closing the distance between himself and his opponent from the third round , landing an increasing number of punches that took their toll on Judah . In round four , Clottey landed an uppercut that caused Judah to lose his balance , and by the end of the round , Judah had blood running down his nose . Judah staged a comeback in the sixth round , but in the middle of the seventh round , Clottey landed a right hand that hurt Judah and caused him to back into a corner . In round nine , Judah suffered a cut over his right eye and the fight was stopped after he said he could not see . The referee had ruled the cut was caused by an accidental clash of heads and so the fight went to the scorecards . Two judges scored the fight 86 – 85 and the other judge scored it 87 – 84 , all in favor of Clottey .
= = = = Comeback Trail = = = =
After the loss to Clottey , Judah fought Ernest Johnson on November 8 , 2008 , at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Judah dominated the bout early , but in round three , Judah suffered two cuts from accidental head butts . Finding success with lead right hands and short left hands . Judah won the bout by unanimous decision with scores of 99 – 91 , 98 – 92 and 98 – 92 .
On November 6 , 2009 , Judah took on Ubaldo Hernandez from Mexico at Palms Resort , in Las Vegas , Nevada . The former Undisputed Welterweight Champion won the fight by TKO in the second round .
Judah was in line for a fight with Devon Alexander , after the latter 's win against Juan Urango . He has also been linked to a match with Timothy Bradley , as he was considered as a possible replacement for Marcos Maidana . The former undisputed champion publicly challenged both of them on more than one occasion in 2010 . Promoter Gary Shaw tried to begin negotiations with Judah for a potential bout in 2010 . However , Judah declined the match but promised to fight Bradley and Alexander after a tune @-@ up fight on July 16 at the Prudential Center in New Jersey .
The Brooklyn native 's tune up fight in July was co @-@ promoted by Main Events and Super Judah Promotions . In June 2010 , Judah expressed his intention in moving down to the light welterweight division after the upcoming fight , hoping to revitalize his career . His opponent was Jose Armando Santa Cruz of Mexico ( 28 – 4 ; 17 KO ) . Judah won the bout by TKO in round three .
= = = Return to Light Welterweight = = =
On November 6 , 2010 , Judah won a split decision over previously undefeated Lucas Matthysse in a fight for the vacant regional NABO Light Welterweight title at the Prudential Center in Newark , New Jersey . The former world champion fought in the light welterweight division for the first time in almost seven years .
The Brooklyn native began the busier fighter , using the jab and trying to land uppercuts for the first two rounds , while Matthysse worked on the body . In round three , a clash of heads opened a cut outside of the left eye of Judah . Matthysse displayed more aggression and became the aggressor in the third and the fourth round and Judah switched to a defensive tactic . In the next two rounds , the American boxer picked up the pace , beginning to land more combinations . The seventh round was less active but in the eight , Judah landed some hard right counter shots . Judah continued to box throughout the ninth round but Matthysse began to show more power in the tenth , focusing on the head of his opponent and knocking down the American boxer after a hard right hand to the jaw . Judah got up but he was hurt , and the Argentine fighter tried to press the attack after the knockdown . However , Judah held and worked on the defensive and managed to finish the bout . Two judges scored the fight 114 – 113 for Judah , while the other judge scored it 114 – 113 for Matthysse .
= = = = Regaining the IBF title = = = =
Following the win against Matthysse , negotiations for a fight against Kaizer Mabuza began . Both sides eventually agreed to a March 5 bout , with the vacant IBF Light Welterweight title on the line . Former champion Pernell Whitaker joined Judah 's training camp to help him prepare for the match . Whitaker said : " I don 't train guys to be like me . I help guys to do the things that work for them . If I can teach you how to hit and not get hit , that 's a blessing for you . Zab has the same abilities I have , but Zab still has to put it together and do it the way that Zab knows how to do it . " On March 5 , 2011 , Judah defeated Mabuza via technical knockout in the seventh round , at the Prudential Center in Newark , New Jersey , claiming the IBF title again after almost ten years .
= = = = Judah vs. Khan unification bout = = = =
Judah fought WBA ( Super ) Champion Amir Khan in a unification bout on July 23 , 2011 at Mandalay Bay Resort & Casino , Las Vegas . Judah was knocked out by Khan in the 5th round after Khan landed an uppercut body shot . Judah was unable to answer the referee 's 10 count , thus recording his 7th career loss . Khan was ahead 40 @-@ 36 on all three judges score cards at the time of the knock out . Judah was adamant that the body shot should have been called low and claimed that he had been expecting a mandatory five @-@ minute recovery period .
= = = = Judah vs. Garcia = = = =
Judah 's next bout was scheduled for February 9 against undefeated WBC & WBA ( Super ) Champion Danny García at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn , but was subsequently rescheduled to April 27 , 2013 due to a rib injury sustained by Garcia during training .
After a heated week of pre @-@ fight confrontations , fans were expecting something special from Danny Garcia vs. Zab Judah . And the fighters delivered , though in an unanticipated fashion . From early on it was clear that the bad blood would not adversely impact the fight , as both men fought strong technical fights .
During the early rounds , Garcia steadily pulled ahead , outboxing Judah throughout . Judah was in serious trouble in rounds 5 and 6 , then finally went down in the 8th . From there , things took a surprising turn . Never known for his resolve or ability to turn the fight around late , Judah responded to the knockdown by coming on strong down the stretch . Judah took the last 3 rounds , though his deficit from earlier in the fight meant it wasn 't enough and Garcia defeated Judah by unanimous decision ( 115 @-@ 112 , 114 @-@ 112 , 116 @-@ 111 )
= = Professional boxing record = =
= = Titles in boxing = =
Major World Titles :
Interim IBF Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
IBF Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
WBO Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
WBC Welterweight Champion ( 147 lbs )
WBA ( Super ) Welterweight Champion ( 147 lbs )
IBF Welterweight Champion ( 147 lbs )
( 2 ) IBF Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
Minor World Titles :
International Boxing Council Light Middleweight Champion ( 154 lbs )
The Ring / Lineal Championship Titles :
The Ring Welterweight Champion ( 147 lbs )
Regional / International Titles :
Interim USBA Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
WBO Inter @-@ Continental Welterweight Champion ( 147 lbs )
WBO NABO Welterweight Champion ( 147 lbs )
= = Personal life = =
Judah has nine brothers and two sisters . Five of his brothers also box , with three of them , Josiah , Joseph and Daniel Judah , boxing professionally . Judah 's father and trainer , Rastus Jones , is a six @-@ time kickboxing world champion and a seventh degree black belt . Judah 's father is an avowed Black Hebrew Israelite and Judah 's family has declared themselves Jewish . Judah thanked " his Lord and Savior Jesus Christ " after his 2005 fight against Spinks . Zab is now a Born again Christian .
In July 2006 , he was arrested after a celebrity basketball game at Madison Square Garden on a Family Court warrant . In August 2007 , Judah became involved in a fight at Stereo nightclub in New York . According to the New York Daily News , Judah started throwing punches after he was hit first by someone who approached him . Two of the perpetrator 's friends then joined in the fight and eventually everyone involved were kicked out of the club . After reviewing the videotape , the club indicated the perpetrators " might have been plotting something . "
New York Police linked rapper Fabolous to a crew of robbers who targeted Judah twice . According to police reports , the Street Fam Crew , the gang that attempted to rob Judah , is made up of 20 members , all former drug dealers from Fabolous ' Brooklyn neighborhood . In 2006 , three men tried to rob Judah as he stood next to his Lamborghini on West 27th Street at 10th Avenue in New York City . The three men drove up to Judah in a minivan at about 5 am , and came out . One man pulled a handgun on Judah , and told him to put his jewelry on the hood of his car , but Judah ran instead . The muggers followed in their minivan , but crashed into a tree a block away . All three robbers fled the scene , but one was captured by a Homeland Security agent on his way to work , and another was grabbed by a nearby cab driver .
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= Billy Bremner =
William John " Billy " Bremner ( 9 December 1942 – 7 December 1997 ) was a Scottish professional footballer and manager known for his strength , skills and compact constitution .
A midfielder , he played for Leeds United from 1959 to 1976 , and captained the side during this time , which was the most successful period of the club 's history . With the club he won the First Division ( 1968 – 69 and 1973 – 74 ) , Second Division ( 1963 – 64 ) , Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup ( 1968 and 1971 ) , FA Cup ( 1972 ) , League Cup ( 1968 ) , and Charity Shield ( 1969 ) . The club also finished second in numerous competitions , doing so in the league five times and ending as runners @-@ up in seven cup finals , including the 1975 European Cup . He was also named as the FWA Footballer of the Year in 1970 and was listed on the PFA Team of the Year in 1973 – 74 . He has since been voted Leeds United 's greatest player of all time and has a statue outside the South East corner of Elland Road . He has also been included in the Football League 100 Legends and is a member of both the English Football Hall of Fame and Scottish Football Hall of Fame .
He spent 1976 to 1978 at Hull City , before being appointed player @-@ manager at Doncaster Rovers in November 1978 . He spent seven years at the helm , guiding the club to promotion out of the Fourth Division in 1980 – 81 and 1983 – 84 , before he took on the managers job at Leeds United in October 1985 . He could not get the club promoted back into the top @-@ flight and left the club in September 1988 . He returned to Doncaster in July 1989 , ending his second spell in charge in November 1991 .
He is on the Scotland national football team roll of honour due to having won more than 50 caps for Scotland . He captained his country at the 1974 FIFA World Cup , where Scotland left at the Group Stages despite going unbeaten in the competition .
= = Club career = =
= = = Leeds United = = =
Born in Stirling , Stirlingshire , Scotland , to James and Bridget Bremner , he attended St Modan 's High School and represented Scotland Schoolboys . His father forbade him from joining Celtic as he did not want him involved in the religion @-@ based rivalry with Rangers , and Bremner rejected both Arsenal and Chelsea as he did not enjoy his stay in London during trial spells with the two clubs , and was instead convinced to join Bill Lambton 's Leeds United in 1959 . He joined along with his friend Tommy Henderson , who would return to Scotland due to homesickness without making a first team debut . Manager Jack Taylor gave him his debut at outside @-@ right in a 3 – 1 win against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge , at the age of 17 years and 47 days ; Yorkshire Evening Post reporter Phil Brown noted that Bremner showed " enthusiasm , guts , intelligence , most accurate use of the ball and unselfishness " despite poor weather conditions . A Sunday Times headline later dubbed him as " 10st of barbed wire " due to his tenacity and tough tackling . Regular outside @-@ right Chris Crowe was sold to Blackburn Rovers in March 1960 , allowing Bremner to take his place on a permanent basis . However , Leeds went on to be relegated from the First Division at the end of the 1959 – 60 season .
Dropped following an opening day defeat to Liverpool at Anfield , Bremner had to win back his first team place later in the 1960 – 61 season after meeting with Jack Taylor to explain his frustration at being left out of the team . Taylor resigned in March 1961 , and player Don Revie was promoted to manager . Revie rejected an approach of £ 25 @,@ 000 from Hibernian for Bremner , despite the player wanting to return to Scotland to be with his fiancée . Leeds struggled in the 1961 – 62 campaign , finishing just three points above the Second Division relegation zone , despite 12 goals in 45 appearances from Bremner , who finished as the club 's joint top @-@ scorer alongside centre @-@ half Jack Charlton . One bright spot was the signing of Bobby Collins in March , who helped form the " win @-@ at @-@ all @-@ costs " attitude that defined Leeds and Bremner throughout the rest of Revie 's 13 years as manager .
United had a more promising 1962 – 63 campaign , finishing four points shy of promotion , though Bremner was limited to 24 appearances . He was out of form and dropped from the first team during the end of season run @-@ in , which contained a disproportionately large number of games due to the high level of postponements that occurred during the harsh winter . Revie moved Bremner to central midfield , and bought Manchester United 's Johnny Giles to create what would prove to be one of the most highly effective central midfield partnerships of the next 12 years . With Bremner , Collins and Giles in midfield , Leeds went on to win promotion as champions in the 1963 – 64 season . The club won no friends in doing so however , and the following summer were labelled by the Football Association 's own FA News as " the dirtiest [ team ] in the Football League . In November of the 1964 – 65 season Bremner featured heavily in a win at Everton that was marred by violent clashes on the pitch , the game was stopped for a short spell ten minutes before half @-@ time as the referee felt that a spell of cooling down was needed to prevent further violence ; despite the referee only giving 12 Leeds fouls to Everton 's 19 the match helped to cement United 's reputation as a dirty and overly physical team . A run of victories put the club top by the new year , however they lost the title on goal average to Manchester United after drawing the last game of the season with already @-@ relegated Birmingham City . The Manchester club would become a keen rival , one which intensified after Leeds knocked them out of the FA Cup at the semi @-@ finals after two physical encounters . Leeds faced Liverpool in the final at Wembley , and the game went to extra @-@ time after a 0 – 0 draw ; Bremner scored a half @-@ volley in the 100th minute to cancel out Roger Hunt 's opener , but Ian St John won the game for Liverpool in the 113th minute .
In October 1965 , Leeds skipper Collins was injured in an Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup game against Torino and Revie gave the captaincy to Bremner after initially handing the armband to Charlton for the remainder of the season ; Charlton was keen to give up the captaincy as it prevented his superstitious ritual of coming out of the tunnel last on match days . Revie and Bremner had a strong bond of trust , which was why the manager gave him the captaincy at such a young age . Leeds finished second in the league in the 1965 – 66 campaign to Liverpool , who had finished six points clear at the top .
A poor start to the 1966 – 67 season prevented another push for the title , and Leeds eventually finished in fourth place . They made it to the FA Cup semi @-@ finals , before Chelsea knocked them out with a 1 – 0 win . In Europe they beat DWS ( Netherlands ) , Valencia ( Spain ) , Bologna ( Italy ) and Kilmarnock ( Scotland ) to reach the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup final against Dinamo Zagreb ( Yugoslavia ) ; Zagreb won 2 – 0 at the Stadion Maksimir and held Leeds to a 0 – 0 draw at Elland Road to leave Leeds with another second @-@ place finish .
The club had a slow start to the 1967 – 68 season but soon picked up , particularly so with a 7 – 0 victory over Chelsea , though for the second successive season they ended up in fourth spot . Success instead came from the cup competitions , as they first knocked out Luton Town , Bury , Sunderland , Stoke City and Derby County en route to the final against Arsenal at Wembley ; Leeds won the game 1 – 0 in a dour defensive manner but striker Jimmy Greenhoff later said it was the most memorable of the club 's trophies due to it being the first such success . The second soon followed , despite a disappointment of exiting the FA Cup at the semi @-@ final stage with defeat to Everton , as they reached the final of the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup by beating CA Spora ( Luxembourg ) , FK Partizan ( Yugoslavia ) , Hibernian ( Scotland ) , Rangers ( Scotland ) , and Dundee ( Scotland ) . They beat Ferencvárosi ( Hungary ) 1 – 0 at Elland Road and held them to a 0 – 0 draw at Népstadion to win the club 's first European trophy .
Revie targeted the title for the 1968 – 69 campaign and played Bremner in every league game as Leeds finished six points clear at the top to become champions of England for the first time . The title was secured with a 0 – 0 draw with title rivals Liverpool at Anfield on 28 April , after which Bremner led the players to applaud the Liverpool fans who responded by chanting " Champions , Champions , Champions ... " . Leeds set a number of records : most points ( 67 ) , most wins ( 27 ) , fewest defeats ( 2 ) , and most home points ( 39 ) . A still @-@ unbroken club record is their 34 match unbeaten run that extended into the following season .
The 1969 – 70 season opened with victory in the 1969 FA Charity Shield , as Bremner captained Leeds to a 2 – 1 victory over Manchester City . With new arrival Allan Clarke played upfront alongside Mick Jones and Peter Lorimer Revie had to instruct Bremner and Giles to resist the temptation to get forward and attack . It took the team some time to gel , as only two wins came from the opening eight league games , and Leeds eventually finished a distant second to champions Everton . They chased Everton all season only to give up on the title after a home defeat to Southampton late in the campaign . In the European Cup Leeds recorded a club record 10 – 0 win over Norwegian side Lyn , with Bremner netting two of the goals . However they exited the competition at the semi @-@ final stage after two defeats to Celtic ; Bremner levelled the aggregate score by putting United 1 – 0 ahead in front of a competition record 136 @,@ 505 spectators at Hampden Park , but Celtic came back to win the game and the tie with two second half goals . Further disappointment came in the 1970 FA Cup Final , where Leeds were beaten 2 – 1 in extra @-@ time of the replay at Old Trafford . Bremner was named as FWA Footballer of the Year for the season .
" Leeds , like Sisyphus , have pushed three boulders almost to the top of three mountains and are now left to see them all back in the dark of the valley . "
The league title in the 1970 – 71 season was decided in mid @-@ April in front of the Match of the Day cameras at Elland Road , when Leeds lost their lead at the top with defeat to West Bromwich Albion . The Leeds players blamed the referee for costing them the title as offside was not given for Colin Suggett 's winner , and despite Bremner saying " But we fight on . Make no mistake about that , it is not over yet " Leeds could not overtake Arsenal , who went on to win the Double . Success instead came in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , as Leeds knocked out Sarpsborg ( Norway ) , Dynamo Dresden ( East Germany ) , Sparta Prague ( Czechoslovakia ) , Vitória ( Portugal ) and Liverpool to reach the final with Juventus ( Italy ) . Bremner recovered from an ankle injury just in time to face Liverpool in the semi @-@ finals , and scored the only goal of the two @-@ legged tie with a header at Anfield . Leeds won the final on the away goals rule after recording a 2 – 2 draw at the Stadio Olimpico di Torino and then a 1 – 1 draw at Elland Road .
Leeds finished second in the league for the third successive season in the 1971 – 72 campaign , despite playing some of the best football in the club 's history . They knocked out Bristol Rovers , Liverpool , Cardiff City , Tottenham Hotspur and Birmingham City to reach the 1972 FA Cup Final with Arsenal ; they then won the trophy for the first time in the club 's history with Allan Clarke scoring the final 's only goal . Two days after the final Leeds could have secured the Double by winning a point against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux , but a 3 – 2 defeat handed the title to Derby County . On 3 February 1982 , Bremner won £ 100 @,@ 000 libel damages , along with legal costs , after he sued the Sunday People newspaper for publishing an article on 11 September 1977 that alleged he tried to fix football matches , including the May 1972 game at Wolves .
The title was nowhere near as close in the 1972 – 73 season , which saw Leeds finished third , seven points behind Liverpool . However more runners @-@ up medals came from the FA Cup and the European Cup Winners ' Cup . After Bremner scored the only goal of the semi @-@ final clash with Wolves , Leeds went on to lose the FA Cup final 1 – 0 to Second Division Sunderland . They were then beaten 1 – 0 by Italian side A.C. Milan at the Kaftanzoglio Stadium in the European Cup Winners ' Cup Final , though Bremner missed the final due to suspension .
Revie instructed Bremner to be more attacking in the 1973 – 74 campaign , and the result was 11 goals in 52 appearances , his biggest goal tally in 12 years . The manager focused entirely on the league and told his team the aim was to go the season unbeaten , and although they lost three games they secured a second league title by a five @-@ point margin on second @-@ place Liverpool . Bremner was named on the PFA Team of the Year and finished second in the FWA Footballer of the Year voting to Ian Callaghan . At the end of the season he was given a testimonial match against Sunderland which raised him £ 32 @,@ 500 ; he had chosen the opponents in an attempt to avenge defeat in the previous year 's FA Cup final .
Manager Don Revie took the England management job in July 1974 . Bremner applied for the vacant Leeds job after Johnny Giles had been named by Revie as his successor , but instead the board surprised everyone by appointing Brian Clough , who went on to a disastrous 44 day spell in charge of Leeds at the start of the 1974 – 75 season . Revie 's departure was tough for Bremner , who had a strong bond with his manager . Leeds lost the 1974 FA Charity Shield in a penalty shoot @-@ out to Liverpool , but more significantly Bremner and Kevin Keegan were sent off for fighting and received eleven game suspensions . By the time Bremner was allowed to play again Jimmy Armfield was the manager , though he refuted the accusation that he had attempted to undermine Clough as " ridiculous " . Teammate Peter Lorimer insisted that the only criticism he had of Bremner was in applying for the management job against Giles , which had caused to board to look elsewhere for fear of dividing the dressing room by choosing between Bremner and Giles . Results improved with Bremner back in the side , and though they ended the season in ninth place , they were only eight points behind champions Derby . The club 's biggest aim would be success in the European Cup , and they made it to the final after knocking out FC Zürich ( Switzerland ) , Újpest FC ( Hungary ) , Anderlecht ( Belgium ) , and Barcelona ( Spain ) . Their final opponents at Parc des Princes were defending champions Bayern Munich ( Germany ) , who beat Leeds 2 – 0 ; United had a goal controversially ruled out for offside and the tie ended in rioting by United fans .
With most of the Revie built team retiring or moving on to other clubs , Armfield had to rebuild the squad , though Bremner would still play 38 games in the 1975 – 76 campaign . However he missed a lengthy spell in the new year due to injury and results dipped during this time and ultimately ended the club 's title hopes ; they went on to end the campaign in fifth spot .
= = = Hull City = = =
Bremner signed with Hull City for a £ 25 @,@ 000 fee on 23 September 1976 , manager John Kaye feeling that Bremner 's experience would benefit his youthful Second Division side . His debut at Boothferry Park came against Brian Clough 's Nottingham Forest , and Bremner was credited with scoring the winning goal of the game with a free @-@ kick , though it seemed to have gone in with a significant deflection . Despite the good start results dipped midway through the 1976 – 77 season and the " Tigers " ended the season in 14th place . Despite suffering with a back injury Bremner was appointed as captain and played 32 games .
He missed the 1977 – 78 pre @-@ season with a knee injury , but recovered well enough to make 36 appearances throughout the campaign . Kaye was sacked after a poor start to the season , and was replaced by Bremner 's former Leeds teammate Bobby Collins , who had joined the club as assistant manager in the summer ; as at Leeds , Bremner had applied for the vacant managerial role , but was rejected . After being turned down for the job he announced his intention to retire as a player at the end of his contract in summer 1978 . The season was a disaster , and though Collins was sacked and replaced by youth coach Ken Houghton in February , results did not improve and Hull were relegated in last place , ten points from safety .
= = International career = =
Bremner was well established in the Scotland set @-@ up , winning three under @-@ 23 caps , before he made his debut for Scotland in a 0 – 0 draw with Spain at Hampden Park . He went on to feature in qualifying games for the 1966 FIFA World Cup , but defeats to Poland and Italy left Scotland second in the Group , which was not enough to qualify . He also played in friendlies against Brazil and Portugal , and received a black eye from Pelé 's elbow in a clash during a high ball ; despite this being an accident it still demonstrated to Bremner how he had failed to intimidate Pelé as he had done to many other great players of the day .
The England – Scotland football rivalry was intense throughout his playing career , and so great media attention came upon Bremner and the rest of the Scottish players after they beat World Cup winners England 3 @-@ 2 at Wembley to become " Unofficial World Champions " on 15 April 1967 . Many teammates said that Bremner held this match as one of the proudest moments of his career .
Placed in a tough group for qualification to the 1970 FIFA World Cup , Scotland failed to qualify after finishing in second place . Bremner captained his country throughout the process , having first taken up the armband in a friendly defeat to Denmark in Copenhagen . He scored his first international goal in a 2 – 1 qualifying victory over Austria at Hampden Park , his first game as captain . This game was followed by two victories over Cyprus and a 1 – 1 draw with West Germany , however a 3 – 2 defeat to West Germany in Hamburg ended their hopes of making it to the World Cup . Bremner 's second international goal came in a 3 – 2 win over Wales in a British Home Championship game at the Racecourse Ground .
Scotland were the only home nation to qualify for the 1974 FIFA World Cup after finishing ahead of Czechoslovakia and Denmark in their group . However , Bremner was nearly not selected by manager Willie Ormond after Ormond found him drunk in a bar not long after Jimmy Johnstone had to be rescued by the Coast guard having gotten stranded in a rowing boat during a night out following a Home Internationals match with Northern Ireland . Having been selected , Bremner captained Scotland to a 2 – 0 win over Zaire at the Westfalenstadion . A highly creditable 0 – 0 draw with World Champions Brazil left Scotland with high hopes of qualifying to the Second Round . Yet a 1 – 1 draw with Yugoslavia sent Scotland out of the competition unbeaten due to Brazil and Yugoslavia finishing level on points but with superior goal difference .
Bremner 's last cap came against Denmark on 3 September 1975 , an incident in Copenhagen after the game where several players were ejected from a nightclub for an alleged fight led to a lifetime ban from international football by the Scottish Football Association ; four other players , Willie Young , Joe Harper , Pat McCluskey and Arthur Graham also were banned for life ( Graham and Harper later had their bans overturned ) . Bremner maintained his innocence , stating that the incident had been blown out of proportion by the SFA .
= = Management career = =
= = = Doncaster Rovers = = =
Bremner was appointed manager of struggling Fourth Division side Doncaster Rovers in November 1978 . He oversaw a 1 – 0 win over Rochdale at Belle Vue in his first match in charge . Results fluctuated during the 1978 – 79 season , demonstrated by a 7 – 1 defeat to struggling Bournemouth punctuating a run of five wins in six games . Rovers ended the season in 22nd place , though 11 points ahead of Halifax Town and Crewe Alexandra , and successfully applied to the Football League for re @-@ election .
He introduced massages and changed the canteen and team kit for the 1979 – 80 campaign . With no money available for transfers he was forced to turn to the youth team for new players , though he could afford to take on Ian Nimmo , Hugh Dowd , John Dowie and Billy Russell on free transfers . He appointed former Leeds coach Les Cocker as his assistant . The season started poorly , but the squad bonded following Cocker 's death on 4 October and went on a run of six straight wins , for which Bremner was credited with the Fourth Division Manager of the Month award . However a run of just one win in 15 games followed , for which Bremner blamed his small squad and lack of training facilities . A mounting injury crisis caused him to make a return to playing on 29 March for the visit of Bournemouth , a game in which 16 @-@ year @-@ old Ian Snodin was named on the bench . Rovers ended the season in 12th place .
A disappointing opening sequence of the 1980 – 81 season was followed by six wins in six games in September , and Bremner won his second Manager of the Month award . The good results continued for the rest of the campaign , and Rovers were promoted in third place . He signed Celtic 's Colin Douglas for the challenge of Third Division football , but otherwise remained loyal to his promotion squad for the approaching 1981 – 82 season . Another strong September , six wins seeing the club rise to second in the table , won Bremner the Third Division Manager of the Month award . However a lean spell would follow , and from November to February Doncaster failed to win in the league . Results again picked up with only two defeats in the last 14 games , and they ended the campaign in 19th spot , three points above the relegation zone .
Strong competition promoted from the Fourth Division – Wigan Athletic , Sheffield United and Bradford City – made the 1982 – 83 campaign a tough prospect . A weak defence saw an unusual sequence of high @-@ scoring matches early in the season : 6 – 1 win over Exeter City , 7 – 5 win over Reading , 6 – 3 defeat to Wigan , and a 4 – 4 draw with Brentford . Only seven wins from the last 36 games of the season left Doncaster relegated in 23rd place , 16 points behind 20th @-@ place Orient .
To try and win immediate promotion during the 1983 – 84 season Bremner signed veteran forward Ernie Moss ( who had won three promotions out of the division ) , Andy Kowalski , left @-@ back John Breckin , experienced defender Bill Green , and young midfielder Mark Miller . Investment by new director Peter Wetzel allowed Bremner to spend £ 120 @,@ 000 on three players in March : £ 60 @,@ 000 on Stirling Albion defender John Philliben , £ 25 @,@ 000 on young Celtic midfielder Jim Dobbin , and £ 35 @,@ 000 on Shrewsbury Town defender Alan Brown . Promotion was secured in comfortable fashion , as they finished as runners @-@ up to runaway champions York City , ten points above fifth @-@ place Aldershot .
Building for the 1984 – 85 campaign , Bremner signed former Leeds striker Aiden Butterworth and winger John Buckley ( £ 25 @,@ 000 from Partick Thistle ) . Doncaster won five of their opening seven games , and though they were unable to sustain a promotion push they showed their ability with a 1 – 0 win over eventual champions Bradford at Valley Parade on Boxing Day and a 1 – 0 FA Cup win over First Division side Queens Park Rangers on 5 January . Rovers finished the season in 14th place , some distance from the promotion and the relegation places .
To pay for stadium upgrades necessitated by the aftermath of the Bradford City stadium fire Doncaster were forced to sell Ian and Glynn Snodin , who went to Leeds and Sheffield Wednesday and respectively for a total of £ 315 @,@ 000 . To replace then he bought Dave Rushbury from Gillingham for £ 10 @,@ 000 and spent £ 60 @,@ 000 on Millwall defender Dave Cusack .
= = = Leeds United = = =
Bremner was appointed as Leeds United manager in October 1985 , having impressed the boardroom with his work at Doncaster , particularly his negotiation skills during the sale of Ian Snodin ; Leeds paid Doncaster £ 45 @,@ 000 in compensation . The club had declined during his absence ; Leeds had dropped down into the Second Division , sold Elland Road to the council to raise money , and club supporters picked up a reputation for violence after regular hooligan riots in the stands . He quickly reinstated Don Revie 's philosophy and his little traditions , for example he reinstated the sessions of carpet bowls on Friday evenings . Despite this he appointed Ian Snodin as club captain , and dropped former captain and teammate Peter Lorimer from the starting line eleven . He also moved on the young players signed by former manager and teammate Eddie Gray , choosing to sign experienced players in their place . Five key young players to leave the club were Scott Sellars ( £ 20 @,@ 000 to Blackburn Rovers ) , Terry Phelan ( free transfer to Swansea City ) , Denis Irwin , Tommy Wright and Andy Linighan ( all to Oldham Athletic for £ 60 @,@ 000 , £ 55 @,@ 000 and £ 80 @,@ 000 respectively ) . The money raised allowed him to buy central defender Brendan Ormsby ( £ 65 @,@ 000 from Aston Villa ) , and also sign David Rennie , Brian Caswell and Ronnie Robinson . Leeds struggled in the 1985 – 86 season , but managed to steer away from the relegation zone to finish in 14th place .
In summer 1986 , Bremner spent £ 125 @,@ 000 on 29 @-@ year @-@ old Sheffield United striker Keith Edwards , and a further £ 80 @,@ 000 to bring in 31 @-@ year @-@ old Carlisle United defender Jack Ashurst and Newcastle United defender Peter Haddock . Other new arrivals were winger Russell Doig ( £ 15 @,@ 000 from East Stirlingshire ) , goalkeeper Ronnie Sinclair ( free transfer from Nottingham Forest ) and midfielder John Buckley ( £ 35 @,@ 000 from Doncaster Rovers ) . Aiming for a promotion push in the 1986 – 87 campaign , Leeds were stuck in mid @-@ table by February after selling Snodin to Everton for £ 840 @,@ 000 . This sale though allowed Bremner money for further signings and he took left @-@ back Bobby McDonald from Oxford United , full @-@ back Micky Adams from Coventry City for £ 110 @,@ 000 , and striker John Pearson and defender Mark Aizlewood from Charlton Athletic for £ 72 @,@ 000 and £ 200 @,@ 000 respectively . A 2 – 1 FA Cup Fifth Round victory over First Division side Queens Park Rangers then raised belief in the players , and they qualified for the play @-@ offs by the end of the campaign . The FA Cup run continued into the semi @-@ finals , where they were knocked out 3 – 2 by Coventry City at Hillsborough in a close @-@ run game that ran into extra @-@ time . After overcoming Oldham in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final their opponents in the play @-@ off final were Charlton Athletic , and after 1 – 0 home wins in both legs the tie went to a replay at St Andrew 's . John Sheridan put Leeds ahead in extra @-@ time of the replay , but two late goals from Peter Shirtliff changed the game and denied Leeds promotion .
Bremner signed a new three @-@ year contract in summer 1987 . New arrivals at the club were Glynn Snodin ( £ 150 @,@ 000 from Sheffield Wednesday ) , winger Gary Williams ( £ 230 @,@ 000 from Aston Villa ) and Bobby Davison ( £ 350 @,@ 000 from Derby County ) , as well as Jim Melrose and Ken DeMange . A more significant new face was David Batty , a key player of the future who was given his debut from the youth team . United started the season inconsistently , but five straight wins in December won Bremner the Second Division Manager of the Month award . The inconsistent results returned however , and Leeds finished the 1987 – 88 season in seventh place , eight points outside the play @-@ offs . Bremner did not enjoy a good relationship with the club 's board , who felt him to be uncommunicative with them , and after a poor start to the 1988 – 89 season he was sacked in September 1988 . His successor , Howard Wilkinson , was given money to spend by the board and Leeds went on to win promotion in 1990 .
= = = Return to Doncaster Rovers = = =
In July 1989 Bremner went back to Doncaster as manager , who had fallen back into the Fourth Division during his absence . He signed Lincoln City winger John McGinley and Leeds midfielder John Stiles , and led the club to a 20th @-@ place finish in 1989 – 90 , which represented a small improvement on the previous season . Greater success came in the Football League Trophy , Rovers reaching the area finals , where they were beaten by Third Division leaders Tranmere Rovers .
New additions for the 1990 – 91 campaign were Peterborough United goalkeeper Paul Crichton , Stoke City defender Andy Holmes and Tottenham Hotspur midfielder Eddie Gormley , as well as his former Leeds captain Brendan Ormsby . Rovers were top of the table at the turn of the year , but injuries and lack of form caused results to fall away , as did hopes of promotion , and Doncaster finished the campaign in 11th place . Rovers started the 1991 – 92 season badly and Bremner tendered his resignation on 2 November , with the club sitting bottom of the Football League .
= = Personal life = =
He married Vicky Dick in November 1961 . He had a ghost @-@ written column in Shoot throughout the 1970s . After retiring from football in November 1991 he took up work as an after dinner speaker .
At the beginning of December 1997 , Bremner was rushed to hospital after suffering from pneumonia , but suffered a suspected heart attack at his Doncaster home in the small village of Clifton and died two days before his 55th birthday .
= = Legacy = =
A statue by sculptor Frances Segelman of Bremner in celebratory pose was erected outside Elland Road in tribute in 1999 . In 1988 , the Football League , as part of its centenary season celebrations , included Bremner on its list of 100 League Legends . He was inducted into both the English Football Hall of Fame and the Scottish Football Hall of Fame . In 2006 he was voted Leeds United 's greatest player of all time . In September 2013 he was voted as the greatest captain in the Football League 's history .
" Billy Bremner was one of Britain 's most fiery , skilful and industrious footballers of the post @-@ war years . An essential cog in the pragmatic , often over @-@ robust yet frequently wonderfully entertaining Leeds United team of the Sixties and Seventies , he was also the red @-@ haired dynamo in Scotland 's international side , winning 54 caps . "
Bremner was portrayed by British actor Stephen Graham in the 2009 biographical drama film The Damned United , directed by Tom Hooper and starring Michael Sheen as former Leeds United manager Brian Clough .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Playing statistics = = =
a . ^ Includes matches in Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , European Cup , European Cup Winners ' Cup , and UEFA Cup competitions .
b . ^ Includes two FA Charity Shield appearances ( 1969 – 70 and 1974 – 75 ) .
= = = Managerial statistics = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = As a player = = =
Leeds United
Football League Second Division champion : 1963 – 64
Football League First Division champion : 1968 – 69 , 1973 – 74
Football League First Division runner @-@ up : 1964 – 65 , 1965 – 66 , 1969 – 70 , 1970 – 71 , 1971 – 72
FA Cup winner : 1972
FA Cup runner @-@ up : 1965 , 1970 , 1973
FA Charity Shield winner : 1969
FA Charity Shield runner @-@ up : 1974
Football League Cup winner : 1968
Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup runner @-@ up : 1967
Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup champion : 1968 , 1971
Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup play @-@ off runner @-@ up : 1971
European Cup Winners ' Cup runner @-@ up : 1973
European Cup runner @-@ up : 1975
Individual
FWA Footballer of the Year : 1970
PFA Team of the Year ( First Division ) : 1973 – 74
Scotland national football team roll of honour : 1974
= = = As a manager = = =
Doncaster Rovers
Football League Fourth Division third @-@ place promotion : 1980 – 81
Football League Fourth Division runner @-@ up : 1983 – 84
Individual
Football League Fourth Division Manager of the Month : October 1979 , September 1980
Football League Third Division Manager of the Month : September 1981
Football League Second Division Manager of the Month : December 1987
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= Thomas de Rossy =
Thomas de Rossy ( de Rossi ) O. F. M. was a late 14th century Scottish Franciscan friar , papal penitentiary , bishop and theologian . Of unknown , or at least unclear origin , he embarked on a religious career in his early years , entering the Franciscan Order , studying in England and at the University of Paris .
He preached and lectured on the Immaculate Conception , and rose to seniority under the patronage of the Avignon Papacy and King Robert II of Scotland , becoming Bishop of Galloway and the only Franciscan to hold a Scottish bishopric . Thereafter he was a staunch advocate of Avignon Pope Clement VII against the English @-@ backed Urban VI , for whom he engaged in partisan preaching and writing , famously challenging any English bishop to settle the issue by single combat .
= = Early years = =
There is not enough evidence to detail Rossy 's early life and career . His name indicates a family origin from Rossie , but many locations have this name , including Rossie in Gowrie , Rossie in Angus and Rossie in Strathearn . On 3 October 1371 , following a request from King Charles V of France and Robert II of Scotland , he received papal permission to take the Bachelor of Theology degree at the University of Paris ; this is his first appearance in contemporary records .
This Papal Bull provides information about his earlier life . He was Scottish , had entered the Order of the Friars Minor ( Franciscans ) , he had studied the Seven Liberal Arts and Theology at various locations — including the University of Paris — and had preached in Paris . It is likely that Thomas had returned to his home country to preach and teach , a custom in the Franciscan Order . In his later writings he claimed to have studied in Paris and to have lived among the English for seven years , obtaining a good " understanding of their character " .
= = Pre @-@ episcopal career = =
Thomas was at the Papal court in Avignon in 1371 acting as proctor for Patrick de Leuchars , Bishop of Brechin , making a payment to the papal chamber . Having obtained his Theology degree , Thomas lectured on the conception of the immaculate Virgin at Paris in 1373 as a Bachelor of Sentences ( baccatarius Sententiarum ) ; he had previously been appointed by the Chancellor of the university to deliver the summer lectures on the Sentences .
By 1375 Thomas , now vicar general of the Franciscan Order for Scotland , was running out of money . This put the completion of his studies in jeopardy . For this reason , Pope Gregory XI wrote to Walter de Wardlaw , Bishop of Glasgow , authorising Walter ( a renowned scholar himself ) and other doctors to grant Thomas , if they " found him fit " , a Licentiate and a Doctorate in Theology . Such a grant would enable Thomas to teach legally , allowing him to lessen the burden of his financial problems .
Thomas was at Avignon again in 1375 , but had returned to Scotland between March 1378 and April 1379 when he received a gift of £ 10 from the King of the Scots . By 22 June 1379 , Thomas was once again at the papal court at Avignon . While present , the recently elected anti @-@ Pope , Clement VII , appointed him papal penitentiary " for the English and Irish languages " .
= = Becoming Bishop of Galloway = =
On 15 July 1379 , Clement VII conditionally provided Thomas de Rossy to the Bishopric of Galloway with mandate for consecration should Ingram de Ketenis wish to resign his right to the see . On the same day Thomas and another Scot , Hugh de Dalmahon , were sent to Scotland with 50 florins and with documentary evidence regarding the events leading to the Western Schism , events which allegedly nullified the election of Pope Urban VI .
The Galloway bishopric was vacant because of the death of Adam de Lanark , a death which had occurred during the vacancy of papal see . Oswald , the prior of Glenluce Abbey , had been elected by the canons of Whithorn to succeed Adam , an election which Urban VI , sometime after 18 April 1378 , supported . This election was not supported by the Scottish @-@ backed anti @-@ Pope Clement VII . Clement instead appointed Ingram de Ketenis , Archdeacon of Dunkeld ; however , Ingram was unwilling to take up the bishopric , and raised objections to his own appointment .
Ingram 's refusal allowed Rossy to take up the bishopric . He was consecrated by 16 July 1380 . Oswald launched an appeal to Clement , but a letter to Thomas dated 29 October 1381 , confirmed this had been rejected . A further letter was sent , as follows :
To the bishops of St Andrews and Dunkeld . Mandate to enquire into the claim advanced by Oswald , claustral prior of Glenluys , O. Cist . , Galloway diocese , to be the true bishop of Galloway in virtue of his election by the chapter of Galloway and subsequent provision made by Urban VI . They are to impose silence on him and to put Thomas de Rossy , provided to the bishopric by Clement VII and duly consecrated , into peaceful possession .
The cancellation of Oswald 's appointment does not appear to have silenced Oswald , who appears active in England , a kingdom which supported Urban VII .
= = Pro @-@ Clementine Thomas = =
As bishop of Galloway Thomas remained a close and highly active supporter of Clement . He preached the cause of Clement before Robert II at Dundee on 2 February 1380 . A military attack by Clementine Scotland on Urbanist England was planned . John Wyclif related that a commission was granted to a Scottish bishop to lead a " crusade " on behalf of Clement into England ; this bishop was almost certainly Thomas de Rossy . Thomas preached sermons in the English marches attempting to win supporters for the cause , and authored a tractate attacking the Urbanist cause along with English support for it .
Although no " crusade " ever took place , around 1384 Thomas sent a letter to the bishops of England . The letter invited Henry le Despenser , Bishop of Norwich , or any other English bishop , to come to a debate with him ; if they preferred , he wrote , they could settle the matter for both countries through single combat . Henry le Despenser was probably addressed because he was known for his love of fighting , and had led a short expedition into France during the summer of 1383 . Despite his keenness to fight another bishop , Thomas de Rossy had apparently refused the offer of combat given by an English priest because of the latter 's lower status .
= = Bishop of Galloway = =
Thomas was the first and only Franciscan to become bishop of a Scottish diocese . Records of the day @-@ to @-@ day activities of Thomas as Bishop of Galloway , however , are thin . One charter survives , dated 16 July 1381 , confirming a grant of the church of Buittle to Sweetheart Abbey . The charter was issued at Kirkchrist in Twynholm parish , and was confirmed by the ( Avignon ) Pope on 18 October when Rossy himself was present at the papal court . On 31 December , he presented to Pope Clement VII a roll of petitions — a series of requests — all of which were granted .
After the death of King Robert II in 1390 , Bishop Thomas along with other prelates of the Scottish kingdom , attended the coronation of the new king . At Scone , on 16 August 1390 , two days after the coronation of Robert III of Scotland , Bishop Thomas gave a sermon ; according to Wyntoun :
The Byschape off Galloway thare , Thomas ,
( A theolog solempne he was ) ,
Made a sermownd rycht plesand ,
And to the matere accordand .
= = Death and succession = =
Bishop Thomas was at Avignon again in the mid @-@ 1390s , as attested by record of a series of mundane transactions conducted by him there . On 10 September 1395 , he was granted an indult to administer his bishopric in absentia , via a deputy ; he is not known to have returned to Scotland . His name appeared in the sources for the last time on 6 September 1397 .
The exact date he died is a mystery , but it was not until 28 May 1406 , that a successor , Elisaeus Adougan , was appointed to the see , meaning that Rossy 's death could have occurred anywhere between these dates .
As a friar and a bishop , Thomas could not father legitimate offspring and no partners or bastards are known . His own family background is likewise unknown , though he had a nephew for whom he obtained several papal favours .
= = Theology and writings = =
Thomas de Rossy was a theologian and known as such , though his extant writings are dominated by political invective . He authored two extant tractates and probably at least two others not extant . His Quaestio de Conceptione Virginis Immaculatae was a reiteration of some of the arguments for the Immaculate Conception made by Duns Scotus . It was also a refutation of the scholars who had written against it , including Bernard of Clairvaux , Giles of Rome , Bonaventure O. F. M. , Richard Middleton , Facinus de Ast , Robert Cowton O. F. M. , Alexander of Hales and Gregory of Rimini . Thomas ' focus on the Immaculate Conception stemmed from his days in Paris , where he preached in its favour ; it has even been suggested that Thomas was the Friar Minor particularly noted in Paris for his " cavalier treatment of St Bernard " .
Rossy 's second work , the Tractatus Episcopi Candidae Casae de Regno Scotiae in Facto Schismatis contra Anglicos suos Vicinos was a defense of Clement VII and an attack on the legitimacy of " Bartolomeo of Bari " ( i.e. Urban VI ) . It contains a long , detailed account of the events preceding the Schism , an account partially derived from a work of Cardinal Peter Flandrin . In justifying the pontificate of Clement , the Tractatus made extensive use of prophecy , especially prophecies attributed to Saint John of Bridlington . The Tractatus Episcopi is the work , mentioned above , to which his letter to the bishops of England was appended . In the Tractatus he accused the English of supporting Urban solely through hatred of the French .
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= The Care Bears Movie =
The Care Bears Movie is a 1985 Canadian / American animated fantasy film , the second feature production from the Toronto animation studio Nelvana . One of the first films based directly on a toy line , it introduced the Care Bears characters and their companions , the Care Bear Cousins . In the film , orphanage owners tell a story about the Care Bears , who live in a cloud @-@ filled land called Care @-@ a @-@ Lot . Travelling across Earth , the Bears help two lonely children named Kim and Jason find new parents , and also save a young magician 's apprentice named Nicholas from an evil spirit 's influence . Deep within a place called the Forest of Feelings , Kim , Jason , and their friends soon meet another group of creatures , the Care Bear Cousins .
American Greetings Corporation , the owners of the Care Bears characters , began development of a feature film in 1981 . Later on , the card company chose Toronto 's Nelvana to produce it , granted them rights to the Care Bears characters , and financed the film along with cereal manufacturer General Mills and television syndicator LBS Communications . Nelvana 's founders were on hand as producers , while fellow employee Arna Selznick directed . Production lasted eight months , cost no less than US $ 2 million , and took place in Canada , Taiwan , and South Korea . The voice cast included Mickey Rooney , Georgia Engel , Jackie Burroughs and Cree Summer . Two pop music stars , Carole King and John Sebastian , contributed several songs .
Although major US studios passed on the project , newly established independent distributor The Samuel Goldwyn Company acquired it and soon spent a record US $ 24 million promoting it . The film premiered on March 24 , 1985 , in Washington , D.C. and entered wide release in around 1 @,@ 000 North American theatres five days later . Another Nelvana work , Strawberry Shortcake Meets the Berrykins , played alongside the feature in theatres . The Care Bears Movie received mixed reviews from the outset ; critics raised concern over its potential as a full @-@ length advertisement for the title characters , among many other aspects . It went on to earn US $ 23 million domestically ; as Canada 's highest @-@ grossing film during 1985 ( with C $ 1 @.@ 845 million ) , it won a Golden Reel Award . Nelvana 's surprise hit also played in Europe , Australia , and Latin America . With over US $ 34 million in worldwide sales , it set a box @-@ office record for Canadian and non @-@ Disney animation , and has remained one of US distributor Goldwyn 's largest releases .
The movie 's success saved Nelvana from closing , helped revive films aimed at children in the US market , and has been cited as inspiring a spate of toy @-@ based animated and live @-@ action features . Nelvana produced two sequels in the next two years , A New Generation ( 1986 ) and Adventure in Wonderland ( 1987 ) ; neither surpassed the original financially or critically . The Care Bears franchise continues , and has included television series and specials , videos , and films .
= = Plot = =
Mr. and Mrs. Cherrywood are a middle @-@ aged couple who run an orphanage . Mr. Cherrywood tells the orphans a story about the Care Bears and Care @-@ a @-@ Lot , their home in the clouds . In the story , Friend Bear and Secret Bear travel looking for people to cheer up . They meet Kim and Jason , two lonely orphaned children . Friend Bear and Secret Bear introduce themselves and remind the children of their ambitions , but neither of them are interested .
At an amusement park , Tenderheart Bear spots a magician 's apprentice named Nicholas . While unloading a trunk of goods for his master , the " Great Fettucini " , Nicholas finds an old book with a diary @-@ style lock . When he unlocks it , an evil spirit appears as a woman 's face , and starts corrupting him . With his help , it lays waste to the park , and begins a quest to remove all caring from the world .
Back at Care @-@ a @-@ Lot , some of the other bears are working on their new invention : the Rainbow Rescue Beam , a portal that can send any bear to Earth and back . The two Care Bear cubs belonging to Grams Bear , Baby Hugs and Baby Tugs , interfere with it and bring forth a group of unexpected visitors : Friend Bear , Secret Bear , Kim , and Jason . The bears introduce themselves to the children , and give them a tour of their home . Tenderheart Bear returns on his now out of control Rainbow Roller just before a " Cloud Quake " caused by the spirit , which ruins Care @-@ a @-@ Lot . He informs the others of Nicholas ' troubles on Earth . Using the Rainbow Rescue Beam , he sends Kim and Jason to the park , along with Friend Bear and Secret Bear . They end up in the Forest of Feelings when the portal malfunctions . From a nearby river , the rest of the bears begin searching for them aboard a cloud ship called the Cloud Clipper .
Within the Forest , the children and their friends are introduced to Brave Heart Lion and Playful Heart Monkey , two of the Care Bear Cousins . Later on , the other bears discover more of these creatures , among them Cozy Heart Penguin , Lotsa Heart Elephant , Swift Heart Rabbit , and Bright Heart Raccoon . During their stay , the spirit attacks them in several disguises : a spearfish , tree , and eagle . After the Care Bears and their Cousins defeat it , they venture back to Earth to save Nicholas from its influence .
At the park , Nicholas obtains the ingredients for his spell against the children and the creatures . After he casts it , the Care Bears and company engage in a long battle . The bears shoot beams of bright light on him , forming their " Stare " ; the Cousins help with their " Call " . As the creatures ' power drains away , Nicholas and the spirit briefly regain control . After Kim and Jason assist him , he finally realizes his misdeeds . With Secret Bear 's help , he closes the spirit 's face back into the book and saves himself , the park , and the world . He thanks the group and reunites with Fettucini , while Tenderheart Bear inducts the Care Bear Cousins into the Care Bear Family , and Kim and Jason find new parents who take them to one of Nicholas ' shows .
As Mr. Cherrywood finishes his story , it is revealed that he is actually Nicholas , and that his wife is Kim . Tenderheart Bear , who has been listening from outside a window , returns to Care @-@ a @-@ Lot in his Cloudmobile . The film ends with every member of the Care Bear Family waving good @-@ bye .
= = Voice cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The Care Bears were created in 1981 by Those Characters from Cleveland ( TCFC ) , a division of the Cleveland greeting card company American Greetings Corporation ( AGC ) . That same year , the title characters made their debut on greeting cards by Elena Kucharik , while American Greetings began to develop a feature @-@ length film using the characters . Kucharik , along with Linda Denham , Linda Edwards , Muriel Fahrion , Dave Polter , Tom Schneider , Ralph Shaffer , and Clark Wiley , created the original characters . Early in their tenure , the Bears appeared as toys from the Kenner company , and starred in two syndicated television specials from a Canadian animation studio , Atkinson Film @-@ Arts of Ottawa : The Care Bears in the Land Without Feelings ( 1983 ) and The Care Bears Battle the Freeze Machine ( 1984 ) .
Production of the first feature took place at another Canadian outlet , Toronto 's Nelvana studio . This came in a period in the company 's history which Nelvana co @-@ founder Michael Hirsh refers to as its " dark years " . At the time , Nelvana had just finished production of its first full @-@ length film , 1983 's Rock & Rule , which was produced using almost all of its resources ( for around US $ 8 million ) , and failed to find proper distribution . The film put them on the verge of closing down . Soon after , the Nelvana team began doing work on television shows like Inspector Gadget ( from DIC Entertainment ) , 20 Minute Workout ( from Orion Television ) , and Mr. Microchip . During this period , they also made syndicated specials based on American Greetings properties : Strawberry Shortcake , The Get Along Gang , and Herself the Elf . " In some instances , " noted Harvey Levin , vice @-@ president of marketing and entertainment communications at TCFC , " their capabilities [ on the Strawberry Shortcake specials ] surpassed Disney quality . " Various companies vied to produce a Care Bears feature , and Nelvana was the first to do so ; Hirsh sought to seize the opportunity after hearing of its development . DIC Entertainment also expressed interest . Thanks to the Strawberry Shortcake specials and their experience on Rock & Rule , Nelvana acquired the rights to the characters and gained a contract from American Greetings to create the script . To convince the production partnership of TCFC and Kenner Toys , Hirsh held a competition inspired by Pepsi @-@ Cola 's " Pepsi Challenge " commercials of the time , in which he tested clips from Nelvana and other vying studios and checked the " animation quality , music , sound effects , and colour " of each . He then asked the producers to decide on the best demo , and Nelvana scored highest . Hirsh later recalled the words of his partners : " We know you 've rigged this against everybody else because you 've chosen the clips . But we like the approach . "
= = = Producers and crew = = =
The Care Bears Movie was one of the first films to be based directly on an established toy line . It featured the ten original Bears , along with six additions to the line @-@ up , and marked the media debut of the Care Bear Cousins . Produced for at least US $ 2 million , the film was financed by American Greetings , the owners of the Care Bears franchise ; General Mills , the toys ' distributor ; and television syndicator LBS Communications . The Kenner company also took part in the production . Brought in under budget , The Care Bears Movie became Nelvana 's second feature @-@ length production , and was made over an eight @-@ month period that lasted until February 1985 . Michael Hirsh is quoted as saying in Daniel Stoffman 's 2002 book , The Nelvana Story : " Nobody had ever made an animated movie for theatrical release for as little money and in as little time . " In 2009 his partner , Clive A. Smith , told Canadian Business magazine : " I swear I grimaced at the thought of doing a Care Bears feature . But Michael [ Hirsh ] went out and actually brought that project in . " Nelvana was responsible for the script , several special effects , including those for the " Care Bear Stare " , and hired musicians and voice actors . With this project , Arna Selznick became the third of only four women ever to direct an animated feature ; prior to this , she worked on several Nelvana productions , including Strawberry Shortcake and the Baby Without a Name . Nelvana 's founders — Michael Hirsh , Patrick Loubert , and Clive A. Smith — participated as the main producers . The studio 's roster included Charles Bonifacio , the director of animation , and supervising animator D. Brewster , who previously took part in the animation courses at Ontario 's Sheridan College . Dale Schott , who served as a storyboard artist , remarked that " Nelvana had a lot to do with reviving the low @-@ budget feature " with its efforts on The Care Bears Movie .
Four employees of the film 's financiers served as executive producers : Louis Gioia Jr . , president of Kenner 's Marketing Services division ; Jack Chojnacki , co @-@ president of TCFC ; Carole MacGillvray , who became president of General Mills ' M.A.D. ( Marketing and Design ) division in February 1984 ; and Robert Unkel , LBS ' senior vice @-@ president of programming . A fifth producer , American Greetings staffer W. Ray Peterson , went uncredited . Three associate producers worked on the film : Paul Pressler , another employee at Kenner ; John Bohach , who later became LBS ' executive vice @-@ president ; and Harvey Levin . Lenora Hume , the director of photography on Rock & Rule , was the supervising producer .
= = = Animation = = =
Along with Inspector Gadget , The Care Bears Movie was Nelvana 's first foray into animation outsourcing . Production took place at Nelvana 's facilities , Taiwan 's Wang Film Productions ( Cuckoo 's Nest Studio ) , and the newly established Hanho Heung @-@ Up and Mihahn studios in South Korea . Delaney and Friends , a Vancouver @-@ based outlet , did uncredited work . Nelvana faced several problems with their Korean contractors , among them the language barrier between the Canadian crew and the overseas staff , and the unwieldy processes through which the film reels were shipped to the West . At one point , Loubert , Smith , and fellow staffer David Altman spent three days trying to persuade several unpaid animators to return important layout sketches . In exchange for the layouts , Nelvana gave them US $ 20 @,@ 000 in Korean won . By then , the production was falling behind schedule , and an opening date was already set ; Loubert sent half of the work to Taiwan ( where Lenora Hume supervised ) , while the remainder stayed in Korea under Loubert 's and Smith 's watch .
Back in the Americas , Hirsh tried to promote the unfinished feature before its deadline ; unable to get available footage , he instead managed to show potential marketers some Leica reels and a few moments of completed colour animation . According to him , it was the first time an animated " work in progress " was screened to exhibitors ; this ploy has since been used by the Disney company , particularly in the case of Beauty and the Beast ( at the 1991 New York Film Festival ) . " People loved the movie anyway , " he said of this experiment . " I was told it was considered great salesmanship . It made [ them ] feel that they were part of the process because they were seeing unfinished work . "
= = = Music = = =
The music for The Care Bears Movie was composed by Patricia Cullen . The soundtrack album was released in LP and cassette format by Kid Stuff Records in the United States , and on Cherry Lane Records in the United Kingdom . Six songs were performed by Carole King , John Sebastian , NRBQ , and the Tower of Power ; actor Harry Dean Stanton had a guest appearance as Brave Heart Lion for the song " Home is in Your Heart " . The songs were produced by Lou Adler and John Sebastian , with additional lyrics and music by Ken Stephenson , Walt Woodward , and David Bird ; Nelvana crewmember Peter Hudecki prepared the song sequences .
Before The Care Bears Movie , Sebastian contributed to several other Nelvana specials , including The Devil and Daniel Mouse ( 1978 ) . When asked to compose three tracks for the film , he learned about the characters since he was unfamiliar with the franchise . Despite his misgivings on the marketing aspects , Sebastian said in April 1985 , " I think their central theme — being candid about your feelings , sharing your feelings — is a very positive message for children . "
Adele Freedman of Toronto 's The Globe and Mail wrote positively about the music in the film :
A lot of caring has gone into the soundtrack . It doesn 't attack the eardrum in the manner of so much current kids ' stuff . It supposes that a child 's ear can discriminate between good music and aural pollution as well as anybody else 's . Carole King ( of Tapestry fame ) wrote and performed the theme song , " Nobody Cares Like A Bear " . [ sic ] The remaining songs , written by John Sebastian , are likewise entertaining and imaginatively arranged . The music does a lot to make the kingdom of Care @-@ a @-@ lot , where the goody @-@ goody bears hang out on clouds monitoring life below on their Caring Meter , a slightly less irritable place .
Other critics tended to differ . The Houston Chronicle 's Stephen Hunter found that " the film integrates its music into the story very clumsily . It 's not merely that the numbers are forgettable — they are — it 's that they 're shoe @-@ horned so obviously into the story that they don 't amplify it , they stop it cold . " Likewise , Michael Blowen of The Boston Globe said that " the uninspired songs ... add nothing to the banal plot . "
= = Release = =
In 1984 , before the film 's completion , Carole MacGillvray offered The Care Bears Movie for consideration to major studios in the US Since they did not see the financial potential in a picture aimed strictly at children , they declined the offer . MacGillvray told Adweek magazine in April 1985 , " I made several trips , and I was really disappointed . They kept telling me things like ' Animated movies won 't sell ' and ' Maybe we 'd consider it if you were Disney , ' but most just said , ' You 're very nice , good @-@ bye . ' " When few takers were left , she took it to the Samuel Goldwyn Company . A newcomer in the independent market , it agreed to release the film . Comparing the title characters ' appeal to Hollywood stars like Barbra Streisand and Robert Redford , founder Samuel Goldwyn , Jr. remarked : " Having my [ two ] children , I know these bears are stars , too . "
According to the 1985 edition of Guinness Film Facts and Feats , the Samuel Goldwyn Company spent up to US $ 24 million on the publicity budget for The Care Bears Movie , the largest at that time . The film 's advertising budget was US $ 4 million ; Variety reported that " the beneficiaries of [ its ] merchandising tie @-@ ins have earmarked [ the remaining ] $ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to promo Care Bear products in step with the film 's release " . For the film 's promotion , Goldwyn 's staff partnered with Kenner Toys and the fast food chain Pizza Hut ; there were also tie @-@ ins on Trix cereal boxes . Parker Brothers published two tie @-@ in books , Meet the Care Bear Cousins and Keep On Caring , shortly after the film 's release ; both were reissued in October 1985 by Children 's Press .
The Goldwyn staff came up with two advertising strategies , which tested well with the company — one was aimed at the film 's target audience of children as young as age five ; another targeted grown @-@ ups , parents , and older children . In the words of Cliff Hauser , the distributor 's executive director of marketing , " We didn 't want parents to think the movie was threatening . So the big debate was — although the formula for success in animated film is the triumph of good over evil — how can you do that in single @-@ image ads ? " Jeff Lipsky , vice @-@ president of theatrical at Goldwyn , referred to the first one as " the cheery approach " ; ads therein featured the Care Bears on clouds , and carried the tagline " A movie that 'll make the whole family care @-@ a @-@ lot " . Hauser said , " That 's one that a mother can look at and know she can take the 2 @-@ year @-@ old to it and not worry . " The other campaign , which Lipsky called " more Disney @-@ esque " , featured an evil tree whose hands reached out to capture the Bears ; its tagline , " What happens when the world stops caring ? " , was also seen on the official poster . Bingham Ray , Goldwyn 's vice @-@ president of distribution , was involved in the promotional efforts .
Around opening time , Hirsh predicted that The Care Bears Movie would be its decade 's response to Pinocchio and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , both from Walt Disney Productions . Loubert added , " These characters say something important to children . Our challenge has been to create a very distinct character for each Care Bear . A lot of effort went into bringing out their individuality . " Some time afterward , Hirsh conceded that parents had to come to the film , out of respect for the dark content within . " Frightening scenes , " he said , " are a necessity for the reality of the hero and villain — just as it works in nursery rhymes . Kids work out their fears this way . " TCFC 's Jack Chojnacki offered this vindication in the Wall Street Journal : " We consider a film one of the many products we license . When we started the whole Care Bears project we knew the importance of bears in the market but that there was a void . There were no specific bears . In the movie marketplace there was a void for good family @-@ fare films . " And , in the words of Carole MacGillvray , " Toy recognition drives this movie . "
= = = North America = = =
The Care Bears Movie premiered in Washington , D.C. , on March 24 , 1985 , as part of a Special Olympics benefit ; Georgia Engel , the voice of Love @-@ a @-@ lot Bear , attended this event . The film opened on March 29 , 1985 , in the United States and Canada , as Nelvana 's first widely released feature . It became surprisingly successful at the North American box office , playing primarily at matinees and early evening showings . At the time , the North American film industry was bereft of children 's and family fare ; with The Care Bears Movie , Hirsh said , " There 's such a large audience for a film that appeals primarily to 6 @-@ year @-@ olds . " He remarked later on , " What we 've done [ at Nelvana ] is tailor the film to a pre @-@ literate audience , the very young . It 's interesting to see the audience . The kids are fixated on the screen . [ It 's ] awesome to them . " Clive A. Smith observed that some children came to showings with their Bears ; long line @-@ ups held back its audience in several cities . Among those attending the matinee screenings was John Waters , a filmmaker known for Pink Flamingos and Polyester . The film made an appearance at the USA Film Festival in Dallas , Texas , during its release .
When shown in theatres , the feature was immediately followed by Nelvana 's TV special , Strawberry Shortcake Meets the Berrykins . It was directed by Laura Shepherd and produced by Nelvana 's founders along with Lenora Hume . The story involves Strawberry Shortcake and a tiny group of creatures called the Berrykins as they work to clear their home of Strawberryland of the " world 's favourite perfume " , a pungent odour which was unleashed from a purple cloud . LBS Communications syndicated it on US television around the time of The Care Bears Movie 's theatrical tenure ; a video release from Family Home Entertainment soon followed .
The Care Bears Movie ranked fourth at the North American box office on its first two weekends , grossing US $ 3 @.@ 7 million and US $ 3 @.@ 2 million respectively . It was screened in 1 @,@ 003 venues during its first four weeks . After three months , it grossed about US $ 23 million in the United States , and placed 40th among 1985 's major films ; it brought in US $ 9 @,@ 435 @,@ 000 in rentals for the Goldwyn company . In Canada , the film was released by Astral Films and Criterion Pictures Corporation , and made C $ 1 @,@ 845 @,@ 000 by the end of 1985 . It was the year 's highest @-@ grossing release in that market , followed by Disney 's One Magic Christmas and a Quebec production called Le Matou .
Several months after The Care Bears Movie , Walt Disney Pictures released its animated feature The Black Cauldron . Costing US $ 25 million , it was the most expensive animated film of its time , but grossed nearly as much as Nelvana 's production ( US $ 21 @.@ 3 million ) . As a result , The Care Bears Movie 's performance alarmed animators at the Disney Studios ; Don Bluth , a former recruit , dismissed the " public taste " factor that it demonstrated . Another animator , Ron Clements , later reflected on this : " Everyone was kind of scared about the future of Disney animation . It wasn 't a good time . It was really a terrible time . " This sentiment was echoed in Waking Sleeping Beauty , Disney 's 2010 documentary on the revival of its animation unit . While comparing The Black Cauldron with The Care Bears Movie , The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution singled out the " putrid pastels " of Nelvana 's production and commented that they " don 't even deserve to be mentioned in the same review . " Months afterward , a re @-@ issue of Disney 's One Hundred and One Dalmatians surpassed both The Care Bears Movie and The Black Cauldron , with over US $ 30 million in sales .
Sometime after the film 's release , Children 's Video Library ( a division of Vestron Video ) picked up the video rights to The Care Bears Movie for US $ 1 @.@ 8 million . It was released in the United States on July 10 , 1985 , in VHS and Betamax formats . On August 10 , 1985 , it debuted in 26th place on Billboard 's Top Videocassette Rentals chart . It ranked fourth on the first edition of the magazine 's Top Kid Video chart ( on October 5 ) . It was tracked by Video Insider 's children 's chart ( on August 30 , 1985 ) , as one of five toy @-@ related titles on tape ( along with two compilations of Hasbro 's Transformers series ; another with Hallmark Cards ' Rainbow Brite ; and the last with Strawberry Shortcake ) . By 1988 , Vestron 's edition sold over 140 @,@ 000 copies . In 1990 Video Treasures reissued it on videocassette ; on October 10 , 1995 , Hallmark Home Entertainment published another VHS edition as part of a six @-@ title package from Goldwyn and Britain 's Rank Organisation .
On September 5 , 2000 , MGM Home Entertainment re @-@ released the film on video as part of its Family Entertainment Collection ; the DVD edition premiered on August 6 , 2002 , and was packaged with the 1978 British family film The Water Babies . In 2003 the film was inducted into the MGM Kids line . In honour of the Care Bears ' 25th anniversary , another DVD edition of the film was released on March 20 , 2007 , with restored picture quality ; it contained the franchise 's second Atkinson Film @-@ Arts special , The Care Bears Battle the Freeze Machine , as an extra . American Greetings launched an official anniversary website and a Dodge Grand Caravan giveaway as part of the proceedings . By 2007 , home video sales of The Care Bears Movie totalled over five million units .
The Care Bears Movie was scheduled to premiere on the US premium television network , Disney Channel , on June 28 , 1986 , but did so one month in advance . In September 1987 , the film made its terrestrial broadcast premiere on the ABC network 's Saturday morning schedule . It also aired on American Movie Classics in July 7 , 1991 , and on Showtime and The Movie Channel in the 2000s . The film aired on Starz Entertainment 's Encore channel in September 2007 , as part of its " Big ' 80s " Labour Day marathon , chronicling various releases from that decade . It was among the first films shown on Canada 's Moviepix channel in October 1994 .
= = = Overseas = = =
Amid the US and Canadian success of The Care Bears Movie , Goldwyn took the film to the 38th edition of the Cannes Film Festival , where it was highly received ; a group of costumed Care Bears strolled along the Croisette to promote the picture . Among its overseas distributors was Germany 's Filmwelt , which released it on March 20 , 1986 , under the title Der Glücksbärchi Film . It sold 538 @,@ 487 tickets in that territory , placing 47th among new releases , and grossed over DM4,013,000 ( € 2 @,@ 051 @,@ 600 ; US $ 2 @,@ 868 @,@ 000 ) . The film was released on VHS in October 1986 by the local division of CBS / Fox Video , and aired on national broadcaster ARD during the 1988 Christmas season .
The Care Bears Movie was released in the United Kingdom by Miracle Films in August 1985 , and did well in matinee @-@ only engagements ; a video edition from Vestron 's local branch came out some months later . In February 1986 the film was released by France 's Artédis under the franchise name Les Bisounours ; publishing rights were held by Hachette Livre . It opened on March 20 , 1986 , in the Netherlands as De Troetelbeertjes . On July 21 , 1986 , the Bermudez de Castro company opened the film in Madrid , Spain , as Los osos amorosos ; it grossed over 23 @,@ 728 @,@ 000 Pts ( € 142 @,@ 606 ; US $ 199 @,@ 500 ) from 93 @,@ 294 admissions . Among that country 's Catalan speakers , it is known as Els Óssos Amorosos . The film was released in Czechoslovakia by Ústřední půjčovna filmů on December 1 , 1988 , as Starostliví medvídci . It was advertised in Italy as Orsetti del cuore , and in Poland as Opowieść o Troskliwych Misiach .
In Mexico , The Care Bears Movie was released on April 24 , 1986 , as Los ositos cariñositos . In Brazil , the film was promoted as As novas aventuras dos ursinhos carinhosos . Television airings occurred on Australia 's Nine Network in 1987 , and Malaysia 's TV2 ( in August 1993 ) and Disney Channel in April 2002 .
= = = Aftermath = = =
As opposed to Rock & Rule ( which Nelvana owned outright ) , the characters in The Care Bears Movie were the property of American Greetings , who paid Nelvana a service fee to work on the film . Nelvana , however , hardly received any profits from the production ; this caused its founders to express regret about the situation . In The Nelvana Story , Patrick Loubert explained the catch @-@ 22 that they would face numerous times in the years to come : " We could have waived our fee and taken a big piece of the film . We were offered that deal . But if we had waived the fee , we couldn 't have made the payroll . Once the picture was hugely successful , we thought we should have waived the fee . But we couldn 't have . " At the time of production , Nelvana had begun embarking on service work that other companies provided them , not only to help ease the debts the studio incurred after Rock & Rule , but also because it proved profitable in due time .
By 1989 , The Care Bears Movie made over US $ 34 million worldwide , according to Maclean 's magazine ; this made it the highest @-@ grossing animated feature film to come from Canada . It became the highest @-@ grossing animated film not produced by the Disney company , surpassing the US $ 11 million of Atlantic Entertainment Group 's 1983 release The Smurfs and the Magic Flute ; Don Bluth 's An American Tail ( 1986 ) and The Land Before Time ( 1988 ) later took over this position . As of 2016 , that title is held by Illumination Entertainment 's Minions ( 2015 ) , with US $ 1 @.@ 157 billion . The film virtually saved a fledgling Nelvana from going out of business , and was the company 's highest @-@ grossing venture . It is also among the highest @-@ grossing releases from either incarnation of Samuel Goldwyn .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical analysis = = =
The Care Bears Movie received mixed reviews . During its original release , The Care Bears Movie had varying degrees of success with critics . The New York Times ' Richard Grenier wrote , " [ The film ] recalls vintage Walt Disney , both in substance and in the style of hand animation . " Rick Lyman of Knight Ridder News Services said in his review : " Any movie — even an animated one — that has characters with names such as Funshine Bear , Love @-@ a @-@ lot Bear , and Lotsa Heart Elephant is obviously going to rank quite high on the cute meter . And this one sends the needle right off the chart . You 've never seen such cuteness . " Adele Freedman also gave it a positive review , commenting : " [ It ] has a lot going for it if you can tolerate the Bears . " Edward Jones of Virginia 's The Free Lance @-@ Star praised it , but stated that " More comedy would have helped broaden [ its ] appeal to older youngsters . " The Deseret News of Utah gave it three stars out of four ( a " Good " grade ) with this comment : " Sticky sweet , but a nice message . "
Michael Blowen began his review of the film by stating that " [ it ] satisfies the primary obligation of a bedtime story — before it 's half over the children will be fast asleep . " He added that " this sugar @-@ coated trifle could only satisfy the most ardent Care Bears fan " , and that " the characters themselves lack definition " . The Arkansas Democrat @-@ Gazette said , " Who except a callous scrooge would carp about the fact that The Care Bears Movie espouses a psychopop philosophy of ' sharing our feelings ' that seems drawn straight from the pages on one of those insufferable self @-@ motivation tomes ? No one , that 's who . " In the words of The Washington Post reviewer Paul Attanasio , " The best cartoons recognize the dark side of kids , their penchant for violence , their fearful fantasies . [ This movie ] just patronizes them . It even has a child chortling , ' Aren 't parents great ! ' Well , they are and they aren 't , and kids know that . "
The animation in the film received mixed reviews as well . Adele Freedman praised the style and backgrounds , and called the special effects " stunning " . Likewise , John Stanley wrote that " The style is cartoonish and cute " in his 1988 film guide , Revenge of the Creature Features . While complimenting it as " a harmless film diversion " , Stephen Hunter said that " the movie has the lustrous , glossy look of the very best in children 's book illustrations " . " On the other hand , " he added , " the producers obviously couldn 't afford an expensive [ multiplane ] camera , the staple of the Disney product , and so the scenes have a depressing flatness to them . And the backgrounds , so brilliantly developed in Disney , tend to be blurry and hastily done . " Jim Moorhead of Florida 's The Evening Independent said , " [ Nelvana 's ] animation is not the best . Far from it . Everything 's in pastels , fine details are largely missing , mouth movements are minimal and the motions of the figures are scarcely better than some of those awful Saturday morning cartoons on TV . " The staff at Variety magazine stated that the " style ... tends towards a primer reading level . " Halliwell 's Film Guide called it " sluggishly animated and narrated " . As with the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , The New York Times ' Janet Maslin found that the quality paled in comparison to Disney features ( in this case , 1940 's Pinocchio ) .
The Los Angeles Times ' Charles Solomon ( in his 1989 book Enchanted Drawings : The History of Animation ) , and Michael Janusonis of Rhode Island 's Providence Journal , faulted the plot . The Evening Independent 's Moorhead and Jim Davidson of the Pittsburgh Press noticed at least two parallel storylines in the film , one of which involved the magician Nicholas . The National Coalition on Television Violence counted at least 20 acts of violence throughout the picture .
Critics questioned its purpose as a feature @-@ length advertisement for Care Bears merchandise ; among them were Charles Solomon , Paul Attanasio , The Morning Call of Pennsylvania , and Bill Cosford of The Miami Herald . The Boca Raton News ' Skip Sheffield commented , " I couldn 't help being bothered by the blatant commercialism of this whole venture . " The British magazine Films and Filming remarked : " The purpose of the film is presumably to sell more toys as it unashamedly pushes the message that without at least one Care Bear around life can be very lonely . " Stoffman observed , " one of the youngest target audiences of any animated movie " , as did the Halliwell 's staff ; film critic Leonard Maltin ( in his Movie Guide ) ; and Henry Herx ( in his Family Guide to Movies on Video ) .
The 1986 International Film Guide called it " an elementary piece of animation lacking colour and character , with not much humour , quite lacking in charm , and indifferently scored " . Maltin gave it two stars out of four in his Movie Guide ; similarly , the Gale Group publication , VideoHound 's Golden Movie Retriever , gave it two bones out of four in its 1997 edition . According to Derek Owen of Time Out 's Film Guide , " Adults forced to accompany three @-@ year @-@ olds to the movie would have had a little moment of satisfaction when the time came to shovel the Care Bears toys out of the house into landfill sites . "
The mixed reception carried on in the years ahead : in her 1995 book Inside Kidvid , Loretta MacAlpine said of the film and its subsequent follow @-@ ups , " If you can hack the sugarcoated attitudes of this group of cuddly bears , more power to you ! There 's nothing insidious about the Care Bears , but their overbearing sweetness may not appeal to all viewers . " She cautioned parents of the merchandising aspect behind the tapes . Dave Gathman of Illinois ' Courier @-@ News wrote in 1998 , " One Care Bears Movie ... can give all G @-@ rated entertainment a bad name . " In 2003 the Erie Times @-@ News acknowledged its financial success , but commented on its " lack of a creative title " . Animation expert Jerry Beck wrote in his 2005 book , The Animated Movie Guide , " It 's a simple , serviceable adventure with several standout sequences . ... There 's no doubt about it , this is a children 's film aimed at the under @-@ seven crowd . But it 's one of the better animated children 's films produced during this period . "
= = = Allusions = = =
In his Christian Science Monitor review , David Sterritt observed that The Care Bears Movie was mostly influenced by The Sorcerer 's Apprentice , a 1797 poem by German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , along with " a trace of H. P. Lovecraft " that probably wasn 't intended " . He went on to say , " I also noticed a subtle sexism at work . Why must it be the little girl [ Kim ] who dreams of being a nurse and the little boy [ Jason ] of being a jet pilot — and not the other way around , to stimulate young imaginations instead of echoing past patterns ? " Blowen wrote that the two children both get turned " from cynics to idealists " . Joe Fox of Ontario 's The Windsor Star , and Stephen Hunter , compared the Bears ' home of Care @-@ a @-@ lot to King Arthur 's mythical castle of Camelot ; Blowen commented that in this place , " altruism is king " . Hunter noted that " the celestial physics are left vague " , concerning Kim and Jason 's trip from Care @-@ a @-@ lot to the Forest of Feelings . Critics compared at least two aspects of the film to Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs : the Spirit received similarities to the Magic Mirror and the Wicked Queen , but Charles Solomon felt that the Bears lacked the individual qualities of the Dwarfs . Solomon noted that in animated features of that era , villains such as the Spirit " lacked motivation — if the viewer accepts their evil intentions , it 's only because he 's been told to " . According to Tom Ogden ( in his 1997 book Wizards and Sorcerers : From Abracabadra to Zoroaster ) , the Bears ' Stare against the Spirit serves as a kind of white magic . " Such a non @-@ violent solution , " wrote Bruce Bailey in The Montreal Gazette , " should sit well with peace lobbyists " . According to a 2005 article in The Times of London , an Internet reviewer called The Care Bears Movie " a fine example of Christian socialism " .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 1985 Genie Awards in its native Canada , The Care Bears Movie won the Golden Reel Award for being the country 's highest @-@ grossing film of the year . Ron Cohen , president of the Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television , presented the award to producers Hirsh , Loubert , and Smith . John Sebastian 's " Nobody Cares Like a Bear " received a Genie nomination for Best Original Song ; his performance was part of CBC 's live telecast of the ceremony on March 20 , 1986 . The film received a Young Artist Award nomination for " Best Family Animation Series or Special " , but lost to the CBS series The Charlie Brown and Snoopy Show . During its 21st annual award ceremony on October 17 , 1985 , Nashville 's performance rights organization SESAC honoured Woodward and Bird for their songwriting efforts .
= = Legacy = =
In the words of Jerry Beck , " [ The Care Bears Movie 's ] box @-@ office gross signalled to Hollywood a renewed interest in animated features , albeit for children . This is something The Secret of NIMH tried to accomplish but failed to do . " A plethora of children 's and family film entertainment followed in its wake , such as Sesame Street Presents Follow That Bird from Warner Bros. , and a re @-@ issue of Universal Studios ' E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial . Atlantic Releasing joined this movement by establishing Clubhouse Pictures , which showed G @-@ rated films during 1986 . Nelvana 's film helped to bring back matinee engagements to prominence across North America .
Mentioning The Care Bears Movie as " the most recent example " , Charles Solomon brought up the subject of feature @-@ length toy adaptations in an April 1985 interview on Los Angeles ' KUSC @-@ FM . He spoke to Warner Bros. animator Chuck Jones , who replied : " I feel that it 's proper — after all , that 's the way Alice in Wonderland was written : the dolls were all made first , then they made the picture about the dolls , right ? " In July 1985 Sarah Stiansen of United Press International ( UPI ) called The Care Bears Movie " another licensing innovation for TCFC " , following the department 's previous endeavours . UPI 's Vernon Scott ( in 1985 ) , and Bruce A. Austin ( in his 1989 book Immediate Seating ) , observed how the merchandising arrived in advance of the film 's release . In forthcoming years , several media adaptations based on established toy lines would follow a similar marketing tactic . Examples included films based on Hasbro 's Transformers ( in 1986 and 2007 ) and My Little Pony ; features with Tonka 's Gobots ( Battle of the Rock Lords ) and Pound Puppies ( Legend of Big Paw ) ; and a television series and feature with Hallmark 's Rainbow Brite . The Care Bears Movie was parodied in " At the Movies " , a 1991 episode of Nickelodeon and Klasky Csupo 's animated series Rugrats . In that episode , the Pickles family goes to see The Land Without Smiles , starring the Dummi Bears ( who are patterned after the Care Bears ) .
= = Follow @-@ ups = =
After the release of The Care Bears Movie , DIC Entertainment produced a syndicated 11 @-@ episode television series featuring the title characters . Another series , Nelvana 's The Care Bears Family , premiered on ABC in the US and Canada 's Global in September 1986 , and was subsequently broadcast in 140 countries . Nelvana followed the first film with another two theatrical instalments , Care Bears Movie II : A New Generation ( 1986 ) and The Care Bears Adventure in Wonderland ( 1987 ) ; neither made as much of a critical or commercial impact . A New Generation , released by Columbia Pictures , made over US $ 8 @.@ 5 million in North America and US $ 12 million worldwide . Adventure in Wonderland was self @-@ financed by Nelvana and released by Cineplex Odeon Films , and grossed US $ 2 @.@ 608 million domestically ; with worldwide earnings of US $ 6 million , it barely recovered its costs . Because of this , Michael Hirsh later declared , " It was just one sequel too many . " The Bears returned for one more animated production , Care Bears Nutcracker Suite , which debuted on video and television in December 1988 . The franchise 's next feature film , 2004 's Journey to Joke @-@ a @-@ lot , also premiered on video ( via Lionsgate and Family Home Entertainment ) .
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= Battle of Posada =
The Battle of Posada ( November 9 , 1330 – November 12 , 1330 ) was fought between Basarab I of Wallachia and Charles I Robert of Hungary .
The small Wallachian army led by Basarab , formed of cavalry and foot archers , as well as local peasants , managed to ambush and defeat the 30 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Hungarian army , in a mountainous region near the border between Oltenia and Severin .
The battle resulted in a major Wallachian victory and disaster for Charles Robert , becoming a turning point in the politics of Hungary , which had to abandon its hopes of extending the kingdom to the Black Sea . For Wallachia , the victory meant an increase in morale and the further evolution of the independent state .
= = Background = =
Some historians claim that the Cumans aided the Wallachians in the battle . In 1324 , Wallachia was a vassal of Hungary , and Robert referred to Basarab as " our Transalpine Voivode " .
The war started with encouragement from the Voivode of Transylvania and a certain Dionisie , who later bore the title Ban of Severin . In 1330 , Robert captured the long disputed Wallachian citadel of Severin and handed it to the Transylvanian Voivode .
Basarab sent envoys who asked for the hostilities to cease , and in return offered to pay 7 @,@ 000 marks in silver , submit the fortress of Severin to Robert , and send his own son as hostage . According to the Viennese Illuminated Chronicle , a contemporary account , Robert said about Basarab : " He is the shepherd of my sheep , and I will take him out of his mountains , dragging him by his beard . " Another account writes that Robert said that : " ... he will drag the Voivode from his cottage , as would any driver his oxen or shepherd his sheep . "
The King 's councillors begged him to accept the offer or give a milder reply , but he refused and led his 30 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army deeper into Wallachia " without proper supplies or adequate reconnaissance " . Basarab was unable to stand a battle in the open field against a large army , due to the poor state of his troops , and he decided to retreat somewhere into the Transylvanian Alps .
Robert entered Curtea de Argeş , the main city of the Wallachian state . He realised that Basarab had fled into the mountains and decided to give chase .
= = Battle = =
The location of the battle is still debated among historians . One theory gives the location of the battle at Loviştea , in some mountain gorges , in the valley of Olt , Transylvania . However , Romanian historian Neagu Djuvara denies this and states that the location of the battle was somewhere at the border between Oltenia and Severin .
The Wallachian army , led by Basarab himself , probably numbered less than 10 @,@ 000 men and consisted of cavalry , infantry archers , and some locally recruited peasants . When Robert saw his best knights being killed , without being able to fight back , while the escape routes were blocked by the Wallachian cavalry , he gave his royal robes and insignia to one of his captains – " who dies under a hail of arrows and stones " – and , with a few loyal subjects , made a difficult escape to Visegrád " clad in dirty civilian clothes " .
Robert later recounted in detail , in a charter of December 13 , 1335 , how one " Nicholas , son of " Radoslav " , saved his life by defending him from the swords of five Wallachian warriors , giving him enough time to escape . Most of the Hungarian army – which included many nobles – was destroyed ; among the casualties were the Voivode of Transylvania and the priest who accompanied the king .
= = Aftermath = =
The victory represented the survival of the Wallachian state , as well as the beginning of a period of tense relations between Basarab and the Kingdom of Hungary , which lasted until 1344 , when Basarab sent his son Alexandru in order to re @-@ establish a relationship between the two states .
Because of its large financial power , the Kingdom of Hungary quickly rebuilt its army and found itself in conflict with the Holy Roman Empire in 1337 . However , the Hungarian king maintained a de jure suzerainty over Wallachia until the diplomatic disputes had been resolved .
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= Crash : Mind over Mutant =
Crash : Mind over Mutant is a platform video game published by Activision in North America and by Sierra Entertainment internationally and developed by Vancouver @-@ based Radical Entertainment for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable ( ported by Virtuos ) , Wii and Xbox 360 . The Nintendo DS version of the game was developed by TOSE . It was released in North America on October 7 , 2008 and was later released in Europe and Australia on October 31 . It is the second game in the series not to have a Japanese release , after Crash of the Titans .
Crash : Mind over Mutant is the fifteenth and so far latest installment in the Crash Bandicoot video game series , the seventh in the main franchise , and is the second title in accordance to the mutant series ' chronology . The game 's story centers on the arrival of a popular technological device ( a parody of devices such as the iPhone and BlackBerry ) that puts whoever uses it under the control of the device 's creators Doctor Neo Cortex and Doctor Nitrus Brio , who serve as the stories ' primary antagonists . Crash Bandicoot - protagonist of the series and only one unaffected by the device besides his spirit ally Aku Aku - must free his friends from the control of the device and put an end to Doctor Cortex 's plot .
The title received a generally mixed response , with reviews varying from version to version . The Wii and PlayStation 2 versions were met with generally positive reviews , while the Xbox 360 version received a mediocre critical response . Much of the game 's praise went to the humorous cutscenes and dialogue , while the unadjustable camera and extensive use of backtracking was sharply criticised . The Nintendo DS version was received negatively for its dull and repetitive gameplay .
= = Gameplay = =
Crash : Mind over Mutant is a beat ' em up game in which the player controls Crash Bandicoot , whose main objective is to explore his home , Wumpa Island , and surrounding environments to uncover the mystery behind the " NV " , a personal digital assistant created by the main antagonist . Crash : Mind over Mutant is a mission @-@ based game as opposed to Crash of the Titans 's level @-@ based structure , with goals being given by non @-@ playable characters . Characters with exclamation points ( ! ) over their heads , when talked to , give out important information that is needed to continue the story .
Scattered throughout the world are special items that empower Crash in one way or another . Golden stopwatches trigger a time @-@ limited nanogame which usually involves collecting objects or breaking things to earn bonuses . Red running shoes serve to temporarily power up Crash 's kick attack and cause him to move faster , while the " Quad Damage " power @-@ up can be used by Crash to temporarily multiply his attack power by four .
= = = Combat = = =
Crash can perform both a light and heavy @-@ powered attack . He can also block , dodge @-@ and @-@ counter , or break an enemy 's block . When he defeats enemies or destroys objects , a magical substance known as Mojo is released that , when collected , allows Crash 's abilities to be upgraded .
While small minions require only a single combo attack for Crash to defeat , larger enemies , known as " Titans " , require more effort to subdue . Each of the unique Titans in the game possess a star meter that indicates how close they are to being stunned . When the meter is full , the Titan is susceptible to " jacking " , meaning Crash can mount the creature and control it . While controlled by the player , the Titan possesses a similar moveset to Crash , although some jacked Titans can shoot projectiles . Besides having more health , the Titans controlled by Crash have a purple Titan Meter which , when full , allows the Titan unleash a powerful special attack . This fully drains the meter in the process .
A feature new to the series involves Crash storing a Titan in his pocket and utilizing it when it is most advantageous . When Crash is riding a Titan , any Mojo collected goes to the Titan . If enough is collected , the Titan 's abilities are upgraded rather than Crash 's .
= = = Co @-@ operative play = = =
A player using a second controller can join in the game at any time . The second player will initially appear as a mask floating around Crash . The mask can attack enemies by using magic projectiles . By pressing a certain button , the second player 's character can exit and enter the mask . In the Wii and Xbox 360 versions of the game , Crash 's sister , Coco Bandicoot , fills in the role of the second player , while a white @-@ furred version of Crash known as " Carbon Crash " takes on this role in the PlayStation 2 version . Coco is not available for play until she is defeated in a boss fight , after which she is fully playable ( though the player can choose to continue with Carbon Crash ) . This method of play is useful for overpowering enemies and collecting Mojo faster .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game is played in a free @-@ roaming format rarely seen in previous games , although the DS version is played as a 2 @-@ D beat ' em up as a means of utilising the handheld 's hardware to its greatest capacity . The opening events of the game take place on Wumpa Island . Crash 's house is accessible here , and can be used by the player to access skins , concept art , enemy bios and cutscenes . Surrounding environments consist of societies inhabited by friendly Titans , including the Ratcicle Kingdom , the Rhinoroller Desert and the Sludge Junkyard . Other areas include the Evil Public School , attended by the main antagonist 's niece , and Mount Grimly , where the evil mask Uka Uka is held . The final events of the game take place in the Space Head , a space station recycled from junkyard parts that is operated by Doctor Neo Cortex .
= = = Characters = = =
Nine returning characters from previous Crash titles star in the home console version of Crash : Mind over Mutant . The protagonist of the game , Crash Bandicoot , is a bandicoot who must defeat the main antagonist Doctor Cortex and free the Titans from the control of Cortex 's new device . Aiding Crash is Aku Aku , an ancient wooden mask who can take control of Titans by entering their heads . Crash 's genius sister , Coco Bandicoot , appears initially as a boss character under the control of Cortex 's and Brio 's handheld device . Afterward , she acts as a playable character during the co @-@ operative mode of the Wii and Xbox 360 console versions ; she is replaced by a white @-@ furred version of Crash named " Carbon Crash " in the PlayStation 2 version . Crunch Bandicoot , Crash 's muscular cyborg friend , also appears in the game as a brainwashed boss .
The main antagonist of the series , Doctor Neo Cortex , is a mad scientist who plans on taking control of the denizens of the Wumpa Islands by marketing a mind @-@ controlling mobile phone , the " NV " , to them . Doctor Nitrus Brio makes a return appearance as Cortex 's partner , aiding him in the development of the NV . Uka Uka , Aku Aku 's evil twin brother , is the source of the bad Mojo necessary to take control of those using the NV device . Nina Cortex , Neo Cortex 's niece , also appears in the game , having been transferred to an evil public school by her uncle . Doctor N. Gin , Cortex 's demented right @-@ hand man , makes a relatively minor appearance as a boss character early in the game .
A number of small fodder enemies attempt to hinder Crash in his journey , much of them appearing in the previous Crash of the Titans . The Ratnicians , who previously worked for Doctor Neo Cortex , have since gone feral and vegetarian , and now work for the minor antagonist Doctor N. Gin . The Brat Girls , who previously worked for Nina Cortex , have betrayed her and now run the Evil Public School and supervise the Ratcicles in the Ratcicle Kingdom . The Doom Monkeys make a return appearance as employees of Nitrus Brio in the Sludge Junkyard . Two new fodder enemies make their debut in the game : the Znu , a group of small , warty creatures that inhabit Mount Grimly , and the Slap @-@ E 's , hand @-@ shaped robots that share Doctor Cortex 's memories and personal problems .
= = = Story = = =
Social satire and the theme of consumerism are frequent sources of humor in the plot of Crash : Mind over Mutant , with the game featuring jokes about SUVs and the skyrocketing prices of gas at the time . The game 's story is told through a number of cut scenes animated in 2D Animation with different styles , such as those of Dragon Ball , The Animatrix , and South Park .
Crash : Mind over Mutant takes place a year later after the events of where Crash of the Titans left off . The Titans , free from the control of Doctor Neo Cortex , have spread throughout the Wumpa Islands and cultivated their own societies and towns . All seems well until a rejuvenated Doctor Neo Cortex teams up with his old partner Doctor Nitrus Brio to invent a personal digital assistant , the " NV " , that can control the minds of both mutants and bandicoots by transmitting bad Mojo , forcefully siphoned from Cortex 's former boss Uka Uka . Crash and Aku Aku are not affected by the device , but their family members Coco and Crunch , are soon transformed into monstrous version of themselves who seek Crash 's destruction . After Coco is freed from the NV 's control , the Bandicoots learn of Doctor Cortex 's plot by accessing his blog , and decide to go to the Evil Public School , where Nina was placed by Doctor Cortex . Nina in return for Crash saving her science fair project , informs the heroes of Cortex 's and Brio 's alliance and reveals their location in the Junkyard , where Brio is recycling parts to create a new space station , the " Space Head " , for Cortex and new NV devices . Crash and Aku Aku find Crunch and Brio at the Junkyard and manage to break Crunch free from the NV 's control . After learning of Uka Uka 's whereabouts from Brio , Crash and Aku Aku go to Mount Grimly , where Uka Uka is being drained of all his Mojo . After being freed , Uka Uka informs Crash that his voodoo bones , his source of power , have been stolen and given to six of the worst Titans on the Island , and tells them to go and retrieve the bones for him . When the bones have been gathered , Uka Uka uses his restored power to send Crash to the Space Head and Crash can enact Uka Uka 's vengeance on Cortex . Crash engages in a fight against Cortex , who uses a mutation formula stolen from Brio to empower himself for the battle . Upon losing to the Bandicoot , Cortex throws a tantrum , causing the Space Head to fall towards the Earth . Cortex , having returned to normal , makes his escape from the plummeting Space Head , while Crash and Aku Aku brace themselves for a crash @-@ landing on Wumpa Island . Crash and Aku Aku manage to survive the crash and reunite with Coco and Crunch as parts of the Space Head rain down from the sky . As the story ends , Coco tells Aku Aku that they 're not going to help clean up , much to his chagrin .
= = Development = =
Development on Crash : Mind over Mutant began immediately after the completion of Crash of the Titans . The idea of preserving a titan for later use came from the play testing sessions of Crash of the Titans , in which the testers were found to be reluctant to leave the titans behind after an epic battle was won . Fans of the series were also a source of inspiration for Crash : Mind over Mutant , having such wishes as a free @-@ roaming environment , Coco Bandicoot being a playable character and the return of the character Doctor Nitrus Brio . Full camera control was considered for the game , but was rejected for graphical reasons and to avoid having to insert a split @-@ screen view in the cooperation mode . Online gameplay was also considered as a feature in the finished game , but was omitted due to the brief development schedule . Coco Bandicoot as a playable character was omitted from the PlayStation 2 version of the game due to her distinct animations taking up much of the console 's memory . The Wii version of Crash : Mind over Mutant was created first , with the graphics scaled up for the Xbox 360 , and scaled down for the PlayStation 2 . A PlayStation 3 version of the game was rumored , but was promptly debunked by Radical Entertainment as a mistake on many press sites ' behalf .
There was an open call for fan art of Crash Bandicoot to be submitted as part of a contest . The contest was hosted at Kidzworld as part of a preview page and was aimed at fans under the age of 18 . Selected artwork is included in the final build of the game either inside of a comic book in Crash 's house or on a wall in the school attended by Nina Cortex . In addition , winners had their names appear in the game 's credits and received a free copy of the game when it was released .
= = = Audio = = =
To ensure that the audio does not become repetitive , Crash : Mind over Mutant features more than 8 @,@ 500 lines of dialogue . Many of the voice actors from the previous Crash of the Titans reprised their roles , including Jess Harnell as Crash , Greg Eagles as Aku Aku , Lex Lang as Doctor Neo Cortex , Debi Derryberry as Coco , Nolan North as Doctor N. Gin , John DiMaggio as Uka Uka , Chris Williams as Crunch and Amy Gross as Nina Cortex . The role of Doctor Nitrus Brio is played by Maurice LaMarche , a newcomer to the series . Miscellaneous voices in the game are provided by a number of veteran voice actors , including Carlos Alazraqui , Rodger Bumpass , Grey DeLisle , Kathryn Feller , Quinton Flynn , Tabitha St. Germain , Tania Gunadi , Mark Hamill , Richard Steven Horvitz , Tom Kenny , Rik Kiviaho , Tara Strong , Lee Tockar , Billy West and Cedric Yarborough . The music of Crash : Mind over Mutant was composed by Radical Entertainment 's in @-@ house composer Marc Baril , who composed the music for the previous Crash Bandicoot games Crash Tag Team Racing and Crash of the Titans .
= = Reception = =
Reviews for the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions of Crash : Mind over Mutant were generally positive . Dakota Grabowski of GameZone considered the game " slightly better " than Crash of the Titans , noting improvements in controls , gameplay and storyline from its predecessor , but lamented that " the camera almost ruins the whole package . " The Wii version of Crash : Mind over Mutant was also met positively , though not to the same degree as the PlayStation 2 version . Louis Bedigian of GameZone stated that the young demographic of the Crash Bandicoot series " may be annoyed by the camera and / or repetitive objectives but will be entertained by what is the best Crash game developed in a long time – and one of the best Mario clones released for Nintendo Wii . " Neal Ronaghan of Nintendo World Report , meanwhile , felt that " the charming story and genuine humor " of the game were " overshadowed by the shallow gameplay . "
Reviews for the Xbox 360 version of Crash : Mind over Mutant were mixed . Christopher Ewen of GameZone praised the series ' transition into a free @-@ roaming gameplay environment , but felt that the game was too easy . Matt Casamassina of IGN found the game to be " exactly like its predecessor : a mildly enjoyable beat ' em up romp that 's sure to satisfy younger players , but won 't provide much that seasoned players haven 't already experienced before " . Andy Eddy of TeamXbox praised the game 's strong voice acting , but noted the uninspired gameplay , which was " not very consistent in its fun generation . " Justin Calvert of GameSpot claimed that the game " has too much backtracking and too many camera problems to make it recommendable " . Official Xbox Magazine concluded that " there 's very little about Mind over Mutant that makes it worth your $ 50 or the four hours it takes to complete . " Dan Pearson of Eurogamer criticized the game 's fixed camera , extensive backtracking , useless mission log and dated concepts . Andrew Reiner of Game Informer proclaimed that the game 's " unpredictable framerates , extensive backtracking , and the guarantee of one death caused by faulty camera positioning for every platforming segment " made it " a mess of a game , and a new low point for the once @-@ loved marsupial . "
The Nintendo DS version of the game received generally negative reviews compared to the console version . Mike David of GameZone denounced the game as the " first really disappointing Crash title " , while Neal Ronaghan of Nintendo World Report felt that the game " leaves much to be desired in terms of depth and level design . " Craig Harris of IGN affectionately christened the Nintendo DS version a " boring , drab , uninspired beat ' em up with none of what made last year 's game so good on DS . "
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= Dál Riata =
Dál Riata ( also Dalriada or Dalriata ) was a Gaelic overkingdom that included parts of western Scotland and northeastern Ireland , on each side of the North Channel . In the late 6th – early 7th centuries it encompassed roughly what is now Argyll in Scotland and County Antrim in the Irish province of Ulster .
In Argyll it consisted initially of three kindreds :
Cenél Loairn ( kindred of Loarn ) in north and mid @-@ Argyll
Cenél nÓengusa ( kindred of Óengus ) based on Islay
Cenél nGabráin ( kindred of Gabrán ) based in Kintyre
A fourth kindred , Cenél Chonchride in Islay , was seemingly too small to be deemed a major division . By the end of the 7th century another kindred , Cenél Comgaill ( kindred of Comgall ) , had emerged , based in eastern Argyll . The Lorn and Cowal districts of Argyll take their names from Cenél Loairn and Cenél Comgaill respectively , while the Morvern district was formerly known as Kinelvadon , from the Cenél Báetáin , a subdivision of the Cenél Loairn .
Latin @-@ language sources often referred to the inhabitants of Dál Riata as Scots ( Scoti in Latin ) , a name originally used by Roman and Greek writers for the Irish who raided Roman Britain . Later it came to refer to Gaelic @-@ speakers , whether from Ireland or elsewhere . They are referred to herein as Gaels , an unambiguous term , or as Dál Riatans .
The kingdom reached its height under Áedán mac Gabráin ( r . 574 – 608 ) , but King Æthelfrith of Bernicia checked its growth at the Battle of Degsastan in 603 . Serious defeats in Ireland and Scotland in the time of Domnall Brecc ( d . 642 ) ended Dál Riata 's " golden age " , and the kingdom became a client of Northumbria , then subject to the Picts . There is disagreement over the fate of the kingdom from the late eighth @-@ century onwards . Some scholars have seen no revival of Dál Riata after the long period of foreign domination ( after 637 to around 750 or 760 ) , while others have seen a revival of Dál Riata under Áed Find ( 736 – 778 ) , and later under Kenneth MacAlpin ( Cináed mac Ailpín , who ( some sources claim ) took the kingship there in c.840 following the disastrous defeat of the Pictish army by the Danes ) : some even claim that the Dál Riata usurped the kingship of Fortriu several generations before MacAlpin ( 800 – 858 ) . The kingdom 's independence ended in the Viking Age , as it merged with the lands of the Picts to form the Kingdom of Alba .
The name of the kingdom survives in the terminology of the Dalradian geological series , a term coined by Archibald Geikie in 1891 because its outcrop has a similar geographical reach to that of the former Dál Riata .
= = Name = =
The name Dál Riata is derived from Old Irish . Dál , cognate to English dole and deal , German Teil / Theil , and Latin tāliō and descendants including French taille and Italian taglia , means " portion " or " share " ( as in " a portion of land " ) ; Riata or Riada is believed to be a personal name . Thus , the name refers to " Riada 's portion " of territory in the area .
= = People , land and sea = =
The modern human landscape of Dál Riata differs a great deal from that of the first millennium . Most people today live in settlements far larger than anything known in early times , while some areas , such as Kilmartin and many of the islands , such as Islay and Tiree may well have had as many inhabitants as they do today . Many of the small settlements have now disappeared , so that the countryside is far emptier than was formerly the case , and many areas which were formerly farmed are now abandoned . Even the physical landscape is not entirely as it was : sea @-@ levels have changed , and the combination of erosion and silting will have considerably altered the shape of the coast in some places , while the natural accumulation of peat and man @-@ made changes from peat @-@ cutting has altered inland landscapes .
As was normal at the time , subsistence farming was the occupation of most people . Oats and barley were the main cereal crops . Pastoralism was especially important , and transhumance ( the seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures ) was the practice in many places . Some areas , most notably Islay , were especially fertile , and good grazing would have been available all year round , just as it was in Ireland . Tiree was famed in later times for its oats and barley , while smaller , uninhabited islands were used to keep sheep . The area , until lately , was notable for its inshore fisheries , and for plentiful shellfish , therefore seafood is likely to have been an important part of the diet .
The Senchus fer n @-@ Alban lists three main kin groups in Dál Riata in Scotland , with a fourth being added later :
The Cenél nGabráin , in Kintyre , supposedly the descendants of Gabrán mac Domangairt .
The Cenél nÓengusa , in Islay and Jura , supposedly the descendants of Óengus Mór mac Eirc .
The Cenél Loairn , in Lorne , perhaps also Mull and Ardnamurchan , supposedly the descendants of Loarn mac Eirc .
The Cenél Comgaill , in Cowal and Bute , a later addition , supposedly the descendants of Comgall mac Domangairt .
The Senchus does not list any kindreds in Ireland , but does also list an apparently very minor kindred called Cenel Chonchride in Islay descended from another son of Erc , Fergus Becc . Another kindred , Cenél Báetáin of Morvern ( later Clan Maclean ) , branched off from Cenel Laiorn about the same time Cenel Comgaill separated from its parent kindred . The Cenel Loairn may have been the largest of the " three kindreds " , as the Senchus reports it being divided further into Cenel Shalaig , Cenel Cathbath , Cenel nEchdach , Cenel Murerdaig . Among the Cenél Loairn it also lists the Airgíalla , although whether this should be understood as being Irish settlers or simply another tribe to whom the label was applied is unclear . Bannerman proposes a tie to the Uí Macc Uais . The meaning of Airgíalla ' hostage givers ' adds to the uncertainty , although it must be observed that only one grouping in Ireland was apparently given this name and it is therefore very rare , perhaps supporting the Ui Macc Uais hypothesis . There is no reason to suppose that this is a complete or accurate list .
Among the royal centres in Dál Riata , Dunadd appears to have been the most important . It has been partly excavated , and weapons , quern @-@ stones and many moulds for the manufacture of jewellery were found in addition to fortifications . Other high @-@ status material included glassware and wine amphorae from Gaul , and in larger quantities than found elsewhere in Britain and Ireland . Lesser centres included Dun Ollaigh , seat of the Cenél Loairn kings , and Dunaverty , at the southern end of Kintyre , in the lands of the Cenél nGabráin . The main royal centre in Ireland appears to have been at Dunseverick ( Dún Sebuirge ) .
The difficulty of overland travel and the many islands made Dál Riata an archipelago , with travel by sea by far the easiest means of moving any distance . As well as long distance trade , local trade must also have been significant . Currachs were probably the most common seagoing craft , and on inland waters dugouts and coracles were used . Large timber ships , called long ships , perhaps similar to the Viking ships of the same name , are attested to in a variety of sources .
= = Religion and art = =
No written accounts exist for pre @-@ Christian Dál Riata , and the earliest known records come from the chroniclers of Iona and Irish monasteries . Adomnán 's Life of St Columba implies a Christian Dál Riata . Whether this is true cannot be known . The figure of Columba looms large in any history of Christianity in Dál Riata . Adomnán 's Life , although useful as a record , was not intended to serve as history , but rather as hagiography . Because the writing of the lives of the saints in Adomnán 's day had not reached the stylised formulas of the High Middle Ages , the Life contains a great deal of historically valuable information . It is also a vital linguistic source indicating the distribution of Gaelic and P @-@ Celtic placenames in northern Scotland by the end of the 7th century . It famously notes Columba 's need for a translator when conversing with an individual on Skye . This evidence of a non @-@ Gaelic language is supported by a sprinkling of P @-@ Celtic placenames on the remote mainland opposite the island .
Columba 's founding Iona within the bounds of Dál Riata ensured that the kingdom would be of great importance in the spread of Christianity in northern Britain , not only to Pictland , but also to Northumbria , via Lindisfarne , to Mercia , and beyond . Although the monastery of Iona belonged to the Cenél Conaill of the Northern Uí Néill , and not to Dál Riata , it had close ties to the Cenél nGabráin , ties which may make the annals less than entirely impartial .
If Iona was the greatest religious centre in Dál Riata , it was far from unique . Lismore , in the territory of the Cenél Loairn , was sufficiently important for the death of its abbots to be recorded with some frequency . Applecross , probably in Pictish territory for most of the period , and Kingarth on Bute are also known to have been monastic sites , and many smaller sites , such as on Eigg and Tiree , are known from the annals . In Ireland , Armoy was the main ecclesiastical centre in early times , associated with Saint Patrick and with Saint Olcán , said to have been first bishop at Armoy . An important early centre , Armoy later declined , overshadowed by the monasteries at Movilla ( Newtownards ) and Bangor .
As well as their primary spiritual importance , the political significance of religious centres cannot be dismissed . The prestige of being associated with the saintly founder was of no small importance . Monasteries represented a source of wealth as well as prestige . Additionally , the learning and literacy found in monasteries served as useful tools for ambitious kings .
The illuminated manuscript Book of Kells was probably at least begun at Iona , although not by Columba as legend has it , as it dates from about 800 ( it may have been commissioned to mark the bicentennial of Columba 's death in 597 ) . Whether it was or not , Iona was certainly important in the formation of Insular art , which combined Mediterranean , Anglo @-@ Saxon , Celtic and Pictish elements into a style of which the book of Kells is a late example .
For other arts , a number of sculptures remain to give an impression of Dál Riatan work . The St. Martin 's Cross on Iona is the best @-@ preserved high cross , probably inspired by Northumbrian free @-@ standing crosses , such as the Ruthwell Cross , although a similar cross exists in Ireland ( Ahenny , County Tipperary ) . The Kildalton Cross on Islay is similar . A sculpted slab at Ardchattan appears to show strong Pictish influences , while the Dupplin Cross , it has been argued , shows that influences also moved in the opposite direction . Fine Hiberno @-@ Saxon metalwork such as penannular brooches is believed to have been created at Dunadd .
In addition to the monastic sites , a considerable number of churches are attested , not only from archaeological evidence , but also from the evidence of place @-@ names . The element " kil " , from Gaelic cill , can be shown in many cases to be associated with early churches , such as at Kilmartin by Dunadd .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The Duan Albanach ( Song of the Scots ) tells that the three sons of Erc — Fergus Mór , Loarn and Óengus — conquered Alba ( Scotland ) around 500 AD . Bede offers a different , and probably older , account wherein Dál Riata was conquered by Irish Gaels led by a certain Reuda . Old Gaelic Dál means " portion " or " share " , and is usually followed by the name of an eponymous founder . Bede 's tale may come from the same root as the Irish tales of Cairpre Riata and his brothers , the Síl Conairi ( sons / descendants of Conaire Mór / Conaire Cóem ) . The story of Dál Riata moves from foundation myth to something nearer to history with the reports of the death of Comgall mac Domangairt around 540 and of his brother Gabrán around 560 .
The version of history in the Duan Albanach was long accepted , although it is preceded by the purely fictional tale of Albanus and Brutus conquering Britain . The presence of Gaelic in Scotland was seen as the result of either a large @-@ scale migration from Ireland , or a takeover by Irish Gaelic elites . However , this theory is no longer universally accepted . In his academic paper Were the Scots Irish ? , archaeologist Dr Ewan Campbell says that there is no archaeological or placename evidence of a migration or takeover . This lack of archaeological evidence was previously noted by Professor Leslie Alcock . Archaeological evidence shows that Argyll was different from Ireland , before and after the supposed migration , but that it also formed part of the Irish Sea province with Ireland , being easily distinguished from the rest of Scotland . Campbell suggests that Argyll and Antrim formed a " maritime province " , united by the sea and isolated from the rest of Scotland by the mountainous ridge called the Druim Alban . This allowed a shared language to be maintained through the centuries ; Argyll remained Gaelic @-@ speaking while the rest of Scotland was Pictish / Brittonic @-@ speaking . Campbell argues that the medieval accounts were a kind of dynastic propaganda , constructed to bolster a dynasty 's claim to the throne and to bolster Dál Riata claims to territory in Antrim . This view of the medieval accounts is shared by other historians . In her critical analysis of Campbell 's paper , Bridget Brennan criticizes his archeological arguments , but says that many of them " are sound , particularly with respect to historical documentation and even to a certain extent the linguistic argument " .
However Dál Riata came to be , the time in which it arose was one of great instability in Ulster , following the Ulaid 's loss of territory ( including the ancient centre of Emain Macha ) to the Airgíalla and the Uí Néill . Whether the two parts of Dál Riata had long been united , or whether a conquest in the 4th century or early 5th century , either of Antrim from Argyll , or vice versa , in line with myth , is not known . " The thriving of Dalriada " , pp. 47 – 50 , notes that a conquest of Irish Dál Riata from Scotland , in the period after the fall of Emain Macha , fits the facts as well as any other hypothesis .
Linguistic and genealogical evidence associates ancestors of the Dál Riata with the prehistoric Iverni and Darini , suggesting kinship with the Ulaid and a number of shadowy kingdoms in distant Munster . The Robogdii have also been suggested as ancestral . Ultimately the Dál Riata , according to the earliest genealogies , are descendants of Deda mac Sin , a prehistoric king or deity of the Érainn .
= = = Druim Cett to Mag Rath = = =
By the mid 6th @-@ century , the Dál Riata possessions in Scotland came under serious threat from Bridei I , king of the Picts , resulting in them seeking the aid of the Irish Northern Uí Néill . The king of Dál Riata , Áedán mac Gabráin , had already granted the island of Iona off the coast of Scotland to the Cenél Conaill prince and saint , Columba , who in turn negotiated an alliance between the Northern Uí Néill and Dál Riata in 575 at the Convention of Druim Ceit near Derry . The result of this pact was the removal of Dál Riata from Ulaid 's overlordship allowing it to concentrate on extending its Scottish domain .
The kingdom of Dál Riata reached its greatest extent in the reign of Áedán mac Gabráin . It is said that Áedán was consecrated as king by Columba . If true , this was one of the first such consecrations known . As noted , Columba brokered the alliance between Dál Riata and the Northern Uí Néill . This pact was successful , first in defeating Báetan mac Cairill , then in allowing Áedán to campaign widely against his neighbours , as far afield as Orkney and lands of the Maeatae , on the River Forth . Áedán appears to have been very successful in extending his power , until he faced the Bernician king Æthelfrith at Degsastan c . 603 . Æthelfrith 's brother was among the dead , but Áedán was defeated , and the Bernician kings continued their advances in southern Scotland . Áedán died c . 608 aged about 70 . Dál Riata did expand to include Skye , possibly conquered by Áedán 's son Gartnait .
It has been suggested that Fiachnae mac Báetáin ( d . 626 ) , Dál nAraidi over @-@ king of Ulaid , was overlord of both parts of Dál Riata . Fiachnae campaigned against the Northumbrians , and besieged Bamburgh , and the Dál Riatans are thought to have fought in this campaign .
Dál Riata remained allied with the Northern Uí Néill until the reign of Domnall Brecc , who was persuaded by the king of Dál nAraidi , Congal Cáech , to renounce this alliance . In an attempt to have himself installed as High King of Ireland , Congal made alliances with Dál Riata and Strathclyde , which resulted in the disastrous Battle of Moira in 637 , which saw Congal slain by High King Domnall mac Áedo of the Northern Uí Néill and resulted in Irish Dál Riata losing possession of its Scottish lands . A battle had also taken place at sea at Sailtír , off Kintyre , in 637 . This defeat was then attributed as divine retribution for Domnall Brecc turning his back on his prior alliance . Domnall Brecc 's policy appears to have died with him in 642 , at his final , and fatal , defeat by Eugein map Beli of Strathclyde at Strathcarron , for as late as the 730s , armies and fleets from Dál Riata fought alongside the Uí Néill .
This defeat shattered the power of Dál Riata as well as that of Dál nAraidi , allowing the Northern Uí Néill to become the dominant force in the north of Ireland . By the 10th @-@ century , the Irish lands of Dál Riata were under the control of the Uí Tuirtri , and their clients , the Fir Lí .
= = = Mag Rath to the Pictish Conquest = = =
It has been proposed that some of the more obscure kings of Dál Riata mentioned in the Annals of Ulster , such as Fiannamail ua Dúnchado and Donncoirce may have been kings of Irish Dál Riata .
The after @-@ effect of the Battle of Moira in regards to Scottish Dál Riata , appears to have resulted in it becoming tributary to Northumbrian kings , which lasted until the Pictish king Bruide mac Bili defeated Ecgfrith of Northumbria at Dun Nechtain in 685 . It is not certain that this subjection ended in 685 , although this is usually assumed to be the case . However , it appears that Eadberht Eating made some effort to stop the Picts under Óengus mac Fergusa crushing Dál Riata in 740 . Whether this means that the tributary relationship had not ended in 685 , or if Eadberht sought only to prevent the growth of Pictish power , is unclear .
Since it has been thought that Dál Riata swallowed Pictland to create the Kingdom of Alba , the later history of Dál Riata has tended to be seen as a prelude to future triumphs . The annals make it clear that the Cenél Gabraín lost any earlier monopoly of royal power in the late 7th century and in the 8th , when Cenél Loairn kings such as Ferchar Fota , his son Selbach , and grandsons Dúngal and Muiredach are found contesting for the kingship of Dál Riata . The long period of instability in Dál Riata was only ended by the conquest of the kingdom by Óengus mac Fergusa , king of the Picts , in the 730s . After a third campaign by Óengus in 741 , Dál Riata then disappears from the Irish records for a generation .
= = = The last century = = =
Áed Find may appear in 768 , fighting against the Pictish king of Fortriu . At his death in 778 Áed Find is called " king of Dál Riata " , as is his brother Fergus mac Echdach in 781 . The Annals of Ulster say that a certain Donncoirche , " king of Dál Riata " died in 792 , and there the record ends . Any number of theories have been advanced to fill the missing generations , none of which are founded on any very solid evidence . A number of kings are named in the Duan Albanach , and in royal genealogies , but these are rather less reliable than we might wish . The obvious conclusion is that whoever ruled the petty kingdoms of Dál Riata after its defeat and conquest in the 730s , only Áed Find and his brother Fergus drew the least attention of the chroniclers in Iona and Ireland . This argues very strongly for Alex Woolf 's conclusion that Óengus mac Fergusa " effectively destroyed the kingdom . "
It is unlikely that Dál Riata was ruled directly by Pictish kings , but it is argued that Domnall , son of Caustantín mac Fergusa , was king of Dál Riata from 811 to 835 . He was apparently followed by the last named king of Dál Riata Áed mac Boanta , who was killed in the great Pictish defeat of 839 at the hands of the Vikings .
= = = From Dál Riata to the Innse Gall = = =
If the Vikings had a great impact on Pictland and in Ireland , in Dál Riata , as in Northumbria , they appear to have entirely replaced the existing kingdom with a new entity . In the case of Dál Riata this was to be known as the kingdom of the Sudreys , traditionally founded by Ketil Flatnose ( Caitill Find in Gaelic ) in the middle of the 9th century . The Frankish Annales Bertiniani may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides , the seaward part of Dál Riata , by Vikings in 847 .
Alex Woolf has suggested that there occurred a formal division of Dál Riata between the Norse @-@ Gaelic Uí Ímair and the natives , like those divisions that took place elsewhere in Ireland and Britain , with the Norse controlling most of the islands , and the Gaels controlling the Scottish coast and the more southerly islands . In turn Woolf suggests that this gave rise to the terms Airer Gaedel and Innse Gall , respectively " the coast of the Gaels " and the " Islands of the foreigners " .
= = = Under the House of Alpin = = =
Woolf has further demonstrated that by the time of Malcolm II , the leading cenela of Dál Riata had moved from the southwest of the region ( north of the Firths ) to the north , east , and northeast , with Cenel Loairn moving up the Great Glen to occupy Moray , the former and sometimes still Fortriu , one branch of Cenel nGabhrain occupying the district known as Gowrie and another the district of Fife , Cenel nOengusa giving its name to Circinn as Angus , Cenel Comgaill occupying Strathearn , and another lesser known kindred , Cenel Conaing , probably moving to Mar.
= = In fiction = =
In Rosemary Sutcliff 's 1965 novel The Mark of the Horse Lord the Dál Riada undergo an internal struggle for control of royal succession , and an external conflict to defend their frontiers against the Caledones .
In Rosemary Sutcliff 's historical adventure novel The Eagle of the Ninth ( 1954 ) , a young Roman officer searches to recover the lost Roman eagle standard of his father 's legion in the northern part of Great Britain . The story is based on the Ninth Spanish Legion 's supposed disappearance in the Scottish Highlands near the end of the Roman occupation . The novel was adapted by Jeremy Brock into the film The Eagle ( 2011 ) .
In the Kushiel novels ( a series , beginning with Kushiel 's Dart , 2001 ) , by Jacqueline Carey , the Dalriada of the Kingdom of Alba figure prominently in a Royal marriage and subsequent alliance with France ( known in the series as " Terre d 'Ange " ) .
In Julian May 's Saga of Pliocene Exile series , the non @-@ born Aiken Drum 's homeworld is an ethnic Scottish planet called Dalriada .
In the Lost Girl TV series , the pub where the Light Fae and the Dark Fae mingle is called the Dal Riata ; named after the ancient kingdom .
In Jules Watson 's Dalriada Trilogy ( 2006 – 2008 ) , three centuries are chronicled during the time of the Roman Invasion of Britain .
A feature length fantasy film named Dalriata 's King is being made in Scotland , with a story based loosely on the first king of the Scots . It is currently in postproduction and the release date is set for late 2016 .
Dál Riata is a playable nation in Paradox Interactive 's 4X video game Crusader Kings II . At the earliest start date , 769 AD with the Charlemagne DLC , they are an independent petty kingdom and considered ethnically Irish with Catholicism as their default religion . In start dates from 867 to 1241 the area is under first Norse , then Norwegian control , while by the latest 1337 start date it has become a vassal of King David II of Scotland .
Dalriada is the name of a Hungarian folk metal band : Dalriada .
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= Robert Kurrle =
Robert Kurrle , also known as Robert B. Kurrle was an American cinematographer during the silent and early talking film eras . Prior to entering the film industry , he was already experimenting with aerial photography . Considered a very prominent cinematographer , even his early work received notice and praise from both critics and other industry professionals . The advent of sound film did not abate his continued rise , and he became the top director of photography at Warner Brothers by 1932 .
He shot 70 films over the sixteen years of his career , working with such prominent directors as William Wellman , Raoul Walsh , Michael Curtiz , Archie Mayo , and William Dieterle . He was a member of the American Society of Cinematographers by 1921 , and he was also one of the inaugural members of the International Photographers branch of I.A.T.S.E. ( International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees ) . In October 1932 , at the height of his career , he suddenly fell ill after wrapping a film . Hospitalized , his condition quickly worsened and within a week he was dead of an infection to the brain .
= = Early life = =
Born Robert Bard Kurrle in Port Hueneme , California on February 2 , 1890 , Kurrle had at least one sibling , Ernest W. Kurrle . Prior to his entry into the film industry , Kurrle was already an innovative filmmaker . In 1909 , flying in a Curtiss open cockpit bi @-@ plane , he photographed the Panama Canal from the air . In 1913 , Kurrle would become the first photographer to take an aerial photograph of the city of Oakland , California . Describing the experience , Kurrle said " ... we went along just as smoothly as if we were riding on velvet " .
= = Film career = =
= = = Metro years and freelancing = = =
Kurrle 's first foray into the film industry was on the 1916 film , Her Great Price , directed by Edwin Carewe . He later collaborated with Carewe on a number of pictures during the 1920s . He began his career working for Metro Pictures , where he stayed at until 1921 . Metro was one of the film companies which merged in 1924 to form Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . The quality of Kurrle 's work was noticed even early in his career . His filming of 1919 's Lion 's Den was called " spectacular " . Kurrle 's work the following year on The Right of Way was described by some as " ... remarkable even in this day of almost perfect cinematography . " By 1921 , Kurrle was already a member of the American Society of Cinematographers ( ASC ) . Early that year , he followed Carewe and left Metro to become a freelance cinematographer . Fifteen of the twenty @-@ four films Kurrle worked on during 1921 @-@ 27 were directed by Carewe . In 1922 , while filming a Carewe picture , I Am the Law , Kurrle successfully tested a new high @-@ speed film from Eastman . The new film allowed interior filming with less lighting , reducing both equipment and staffing costs .
Over the course of his career , Kurlle received numerous positive criticism and attention from other industry members and publications . He was highlighted in American Cinematographer on many occasions , the first time being in the 1922 edition , where he was called a " valued member " of the ASC . When he was selected to man the camera for fellow ASC member Phil Rosen 's film , Abraham Lincoln , a prominent industry magazine stated that Kurlle 's career had been " brilliant " up to that point . In July 1924 , after Kurrle 's return from north Africa where he shot A Son of the Sahara , American Cinematographer called him " ... a master of his profession . "
For 1926 's Wings of the Storm , Kurrle 's exterior shots in Mt . Rainier National Park received positive comments from industry trade papers . In 1927 Kurrle was lauded for his camerawork on the film adaptation of Tolstoy 's Resurrection , which was directed by his long @-@ term collaborator Carrewe . The following year , in the first ever American Cinematographer poll of the top Hollywood directors , Kurrle was selected as one of the top 10 cinematographers in the industry . That same year , 1928 , his camera work on Sadie Thompson , was lauded as " ... beautifully done , and the settings are completely in the mood of the story " .
= = = Universal and Warner Brothers = = =
By 1928 Kurrle was being called a " camera ace " , a reference not only to his skill behind the camera , but also to the fact that he was one of the few people in Hollywood to own their own plane . In 1928 he worked exclusively with Universal Pictures , before returning to freelance the following year . In mid @-@ 1930 , Kurrle signed a contract with Warner Brothers . Over the next two years he rose to become their top cinematographer . During his sixteen @-@ year career , he worked with such notable directors as John Ince , William Wellman , Raoul Walsh , Michael Curtiz , Archie Mayo , and William Dieterle ( who directed the final film Kurrle photographed ) . In 1928 Kurrle was one of the inaugural members of the International Photographers branch of the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees ( I.A.T.S.E. ) .
Even when the film was given less than stellar press , Kurrle 's work was often praised , as in the case of the 1929 film Her Majesty , Love , where it was noted , " The story is negligible , the cast , though capable , has nothing to do , and the direction is heavy handed and slow . But Robert Kurrle 's cinematography is outstanding . " That same year , his camerawork on another Carewe film , an adaptation of Longfellow 's Evangeline , was deemed as " beautiful " by the Film Daily . The magazine also rated his photography as " excellent " for Merian Cooper 's version of the classic tale , The Four Feathers . There were times when his work only garnered average reviews in some papers , such as 1930 's Hit the Deck , while still gaining praise in others .
Kurrle was behind the camera for Lloyd Bacon 's 1930 version of Moby Dick , for which his work received high praise , being called " ... one of the three outstanding elements of the entire work . " In 1931 , his work on Resurrection was described as " ... brilliant and sweeping " . During 1932 , Kurrle was the director of photography on ten feature films which were released that year . In September and October 1932 , he worked on back to back films . The first was The Match King , featuring Warren William and Lily Damita , followed by Lawyer Man , starring William Powell and Joan Blondell . Lawyer Man was his final film .
= = Death = =
Following the completion of his work on Lawyer Man , he went to the hospital for treatment of a persistent cold . This developed into a sinus infection , which further worsened into an infection in his brain . He remained in the hospital for over a week , fighting the infection , but eventually died from it . His death at the age of 42 on October 27 , 1932 , shocked the film industry . Later it was reported that the infection was meningitis . The last two films he worked on were released posthumously . Upon his death , American Cinematographer said , " The Motion Picture Industry lost one of its greatest cinematographers and finest gentlemen ... "
His memorial service was held at The Little Church of the Flowers in Glendale , California , after which he was interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park , also in Glendale .
= = Filmography = =
( Per AFI database )
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= Little Sammy Sneeze =
Little Sammy Sneeze was a comic strip by American cartoonist Winsor McCay . In each episode the titular Sammy sneezed himself into an awkward or disastrous predicament . The strip ran from July 24 , 1904 , until December 9 , 1906 , in the New York Herald , where McCay was on the staff . It was McCay 's first successful comic strip ; he followed it with Dream of the Rarebit Fiend later in 1904 , and his best @-@ known strip Little Nemo in Slumberland in 1905 .
In contrast to the imaginative layouts of Little Nemo , Sammy Sneeze was confined to a rigid grid and followed a strict formula : Sammy 's sneeze would build frame by frame , contorting the protagonist 's face until it erupted in the second @-@ to @-@ last panel . In the closing panel he suffered the consequences — often a kick in the rear . McCay targeted middle @-@ class pretensions such as consumerism and squeamishness over bodily functions , while reaffirming the social order by ensuring that Sammy received punishment .
McCay 's artwork was finely detailed and highly accurate in its persistent repetition . He delved into modernist experimentation , shattering fourth walls and even the strip 's panel borders . The panel @-@ by @-@ panel buildup displayed McCay 's concern with depicting motion , a concern that was to culminate in his pioneering animated films of the 1910s , such as Gertie the Dinosaur ( 1914 ) .
= = Premise = =
The strip followed a simple concept : each week , little Sammy would sneeze with such power that it wreaked havoc with his surroundings . His sneeze would build up until its release with the onomatopoeia " Chow ! " in the second @-@ to @-@ last panel . In the last panel he would suffer the consequences — being driven away by one of his victims , or often receiving a kick in the rear .
Examples of ' ' Little Sammy Sneeze ' '
= = Background = =
Winsor McCay had worked in dime museums in Cincinnati from 1891 , where he drew posters and advertisements . McCay 's ability to draw quickly with great accuracy drew crowds when he painted advertisements in public . He began working as a newspaper cartoonist full @-@ time in 1898 , and also freelanced for humor magazines . McCay moved to New York City in 1903 to work for the New York Herald , leaving behind his first comic strip , A Tale of the Jungle Imps by Felix Fiddle . From January 1904 he created a number of other short @-@ lived strips , before finding popular success with Sammy Sneeze that July .
McCay was noted not only for his exceptional drafting skills , but also his remarkable prolificacy . In addition to his editorial cartooning , in 1905 he was producing five regular comic strips : Little Sammy Sneeze , Dream of the Rarebit Fiend , Little Nemo in Slumberland , Hungry Henrietta , and A Pilgrim 's Progress .
= = Style and analysis = =
The strip was almost always laid out in a rigid grid : Sammy 's sneeze would build in the first four panels to a release in the fifth and consequences for Sammy in the sixth . This is in contrast to the great variety of panel sizes and layouts displayed in McCay 's earlier strip The Jungle Imps , and later much more prominently in Little Nemo . Though not to the degree applied to Little Nemo , McCay 's backgrounds were heavily detailed , and he drew monotonous , repetitive images with great accuracy ; McCay later applied these skills to his animation work . Sammy was inarticulate , making little more than mouth noises ; the adults around him conversed , but in a monotonous manner that did not invite careful reading .
The artwork displays an attention to detail McCay is known for . The backgrounds remain the same from panel to panel , while passersby unwittingly pass Sammy during his buildup . McCay took the visual ideas he experimented with in Little Sammy Sneeze and Dream of the Rarebit Fiend ( also 1904 ) and more fully explored them when he began Little Nemo the following year .
Examples of ' ' Little Sammy Sneeze ' '
While the technical dexterity Little Nemo draws the greatest share of attention among McCay 's works , Katherine Roeder finds the formally lower @-@ key Sammy Sneeze " tested the limits of visual representation and demonstrated the comic strip 's potential as a vehicle for modernist experimentation " . McCay was fond of breaking the fourth wall , a well @-@ known example of which is the September 24 , 1905 , episode : the gag unfolds according to formula , culminating in the destruction of the very panel borders of the comic strip itself . The strip may pay homage to Fred Ott 's Sneeze — a filmstrip of the progression of a man sneezing . The photographs appeared in Harper 's Magazine in 1884 and were well known . As in the film , and unusual for the Sammy Sneeze strip , the September 24 episode has a closeup of the sneezer against a blank background , and Sammy 's gestures echo those of Ott .
McCay was concerned with depicting the seldom @-@ perceived minutiae of movement , though his was not the scientific curiosity found in the chronophotography of Eadweard Muybridge , Étienne @-@ Jules Marey , and Georges Demenÿ . McCay emphasizes the lack of order and irrational unpredictability of the human body . McCay 's concern was to culminate in his pioneering animated films such as Gertie the Dinosaur ( 1914 ) .
Though the story of mischievous children and the trouble they caused was typical of comic strips of the day , in contrast to such other popular strips as The Katzenjammer Kids and Buster Brown , the havoc Sammy wreaked was unintentional . To Roeder , the humor at the expense of both the adults and the child likely appealed to a broad range of readers , and may have broadened the appeal of comic strips to conservative middle @-@ class audiences . These audiences may have seen the inevitable consequences for Sammy as a restoration of a natural social order , one that was left rent asunder in other comic strips .
Sammy is given an unappealing character design and personality , with dull features and expression that do not invite the reader 's sympathy ; his character is never developed . Similar to Buster Brown , Sammy dresses in a dress shirt , lace collar , and cravat . This style associated with middle @-@ class aspirations and popularized toward the end of the 19th century in the wake of the success of Little Lord Fauntleroy . By the time Sammy Sneeze had begun the style was a subject of ridicule ; in an age where respectable society went to lengths to avoid drawing attention to bodily functions , it emphasized the humorous contortions of Sammy 's face as he built up toward his sneeze . His sneeze could also tear down other symbols of the middle @-@ class , such as an expansive department store display of goods at Christmas .
The strip 's header declared to each side of the title " He just simply couldn 't stop " and " He never knew when it was coming " , and never strayed from the basic formula of build @-@ up , release , and consequence . McCay was to make use of such framing devices throughout his career , as in Little Nemo where the reader could rely on the protagonist awakening in the closing panel each week . Scott Bukatman and Thierry Smolderen saw the monotony of Sammy Sneeze as an attempt by McCay at parody — one that , in Smolderen 's words , " chuckles at the absurdity of ... doing the same thing ad nauseam " . Noah Berlatsky objected to the idea , calling the strip " excessive and infantile , linked , not to a sense of irony , but a sense of wonder " , which he compared to the " eternal appetite of infancy " that G. K. Chesterton in Orthodoxy ( 1908 ) attributed to the Christian God .
= = Publication history = =
Little Sammy Sneeze began on July 24 , 1904 , in the New York Herald , where McCay had joined the staff in 1903 . It ran in color until partway through 1905 , and came to an end December 9 , 1906 . In 1906 , a compilation volume of the strips appeared — not only in the United States , but in France where the Herald 's publisher James Gordon Bennett , Jr. was based . Sammy was one of the earliest American strips to appear in Europe .
Sunday Press Books released a deluxe 11 in × 16 in ( 28 cm × 41 cm ) landscape @-@ format hardcover volume called Little Sammy Sneeze : The Complete Color Sunday Comics 1904 – 1905 in 2007 . On the reverse of each Sammy Sneeze page was printed a non @-@ Sammy Sneeze strip — the complete run of McCay 's The Story of Hungry Henrietta , as well as selections from John Prentiss Benson 's The Woozlebeasts , and Gustave Verbeek 's The Upside @-@ Downs of Little Lady Lovekins and Old Man Muffaroo and The Terrors of the Tiny Tads . These bonus strips appeared in monochrome to Sammy Sneeze 's color , as they would have at the time when newspapers normally printed color on only one side of the page .
= = Legacy = =
After a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year run , McCay dropped the strip , while continuing to work on Dream of the Rarebit Fiend , Pilgrim 's Progress , and his best @-@ known work , Little Nemo . It has since mostly been remembered as a precursor to McCay 's better @-@ known strips , receiving little attention itself outside of a few key strips . The strip 's concept was later picked up by the creators of characters such as Sneezly Seal and Li 'l Sneezer .
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= Mzoli 's =
Mzoli 's ( also known as Mzoli 's Place , Mzoli 's Meat , or Mzoli 's Butchery ) is a butchery in Gugulethu , a township on the outskirts of Cape Town , South Africa . Since Mzoli 's opened in early 2003 , the restaurant has become a popular gathering spot for Cape Town residents and a tourist attraction . Amongst Gugulethu 's residents , Mzoli 's Place has a reputation for public drunkenness and disrespect for the local community . Mzoli 's is named after the founder and owner , Mzoli Ngcawuzele .
= = History = =
The establishment opened in early 2003 . Owner Mzoli Ngcawuzele obtained start @-@ up funding from the Development Bank of South Africa , which supports black @-@ owned businesses . In October 2006 , an economic study said that Mzoli had " moved , from selling meat informally from a garage , to owning one of the most popular hangouts in Cape Town " .
In November 2006 , more than 30 restaurant patrons , including a group of tourists and Democratic Alliance councillor Masizole Mnqasela , were arrested in a police raid for drinking in public . The restaurant did not sell alcohol , but Ngcawuzele explained that he could not stop people from bringing their own . The incident generated controversy in the local press . Tour operator Ryan Hunt claimed that police swore at the patrons and threatened people for asking questions . " The police created a dangerous situation . People are always encouraged to visit township attractions , but now they are turned away with that kind of situation , " he said . Mnqasela , a member of Cape Town 's economic development committee , added , " Mzoli 's is internationally acclaimed and is key to township tourism . What kind of message is the police sending ? " The African National Congress approved the police actions , citing a need to curtail public drunkenness .
= = Business = =
Located in the township of Gugulethu , a black neighbourhood 15 kilometres southeast of the centre of Cape Town , Mzoli 's is a " do @-@ it @-@ yourself " market and eatery , selling meat to patrons who in turn hire independent entrepreneurs running braai stalls on the grounds to grill the meat and prepare meals . Mzoli 's also provides live entertainment and has become noted as a venue for deep house and kwaito music .
As well as local people , Mzoli 's attracts television stars , DJs such as DJ Fresh , politicians such as Tony Yengeni , businesspeople , tourists , and college students . Mzoli 's is considered to be a " base camp " where " black diamonds " gather and network . In September 2006 , Sasha Planting of Financial Mail called it " the destination for everyone " .
= = Reception by locals = =
Some local residents near a long @-@ planned shopping mall that is being built by a business partly owned by Mzoli 's owner criticized his plans in 2008 . Some businesses were legally evicted or threatened with eviction from older buildings owned by Mzoli , which were then knocked down to make room for the new property development . Other nearby residents have complained that the property developer has not hired enough local residents . Critics threatened to vandalize or burn both Mzoli 's Place and Ngcawuzele 's home if he did not meet their demands for jobs and permanent , guaranteed space for informal traders at the new shopping mall .
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= SMS Lützow =
SMS Lützow was the second Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruiser built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( English : Imperial Navy ) before World War I. Ordered as a replacement for the old protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta , Lützow was launched on 29 November 1913 , but not completed until 1916 . Lützow was a sister ship to Derfflinger from which she differed slightly in that she was armed with an additional pair of 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) secondary guns and had an additional watertight compartment in her hull . She was named in honor of the Prussian general Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow who fought in the Napoleonic Wars .
Lützow was commissioned on 8 August 1915 , but did not join the I Scouting Group until 20 March due to engine damage during trials . This was after most of the major actions conducted by the German battlecruiser force had taken place . As a result , Lützow saw very little action during the war . She took part in only one bombardment operation : the Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 – 25 April 1916 , after which she became Admiral Franz von Hipper 's flagship . One month later , the ship was heavily engaged during the Battle of Jutland , on 31 May – 1 June . During the battle , Lützow sank the British battlecruiser HMS Invincible and is sometimes given credit for the armored cruiser HMS Defence . However , she was heavily damaged by an estimated 24 heavy @-@ caliber shell hits . With her bow thoroughly flooded , the ship was unable to make the return voyage to German ports ; her crew was evacuated and she was sunk by torpedoes fired by one of her escorts , the torpedo boat G38 .
= = Construction = =
Lützow was ordered as Ersatz Kaiserin Augusta , to replace the elderly protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta , which was by then 20 years old . Built by Schichau @-@ Werft in Danzig , her keel was laid down in May 1912 , and she was launched on 29 November 1913 . Lützow was commissioned on 8 August 1915 for trials , and was sent to Kiel on 23 August . There she completed her final fitting out , including her armament . While on trials on 25 October , Lützow 's port low @-@ pressure turbine was badly damaged . Repairs were conducted in Kiel until late January 1916 , after which the ship underwent further trials . These were finished on 19 February ; Lützow was assigned to the I Scouting Group on 20 March , and arrived at her new unit four days later .
On completion she displaced nearly 27 @,@ 000 t ( 27 @,@ 000 long tons ; 30 @,@ 000 short tons ) and was 210 @.@ 40 metres ( 690 ft 3 in ) long . The ship was capable of a top speed of 26 @.@ 4 knots ( 48 @.@ 9 km / h ; 30 @.@ 4 mph ) , and could steam for 5 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 400 km ; 6 @,@ 400 mi ) at a cruising speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . Mounting a main armament of eight 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) guns , Lützow was the largest and most powerful German battlecruiser at the time , along with her elder sister Derfflinger .
= = Service = =
= = = Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft = = =
Lützow ' first major operation was the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 – 25 April . Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper , the commander of the I Scouting Group , was away on sick leave , so the German ships were under the command of Rear Admiral Friedrich Boedicker . The German battlecruisers Seydlitz , the flagship , followed by Derfflinger , Lützow , Moltke , and Von der Tann left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 on 24 April , and were supported by a screening force of 6 light cruisers and two torpedo boat flotillas . The heavy units of the High Seas Fleet sailed at 13 : 40 , with the objective to provide distant support for Boedicker 's ships . The British Admiralty was made aware of the German sortie through the interception of German wireless signals , and deployed the Grand Fleet at 15 : 50 .
By 14 : 00 , Boedicker 's ships had reached a position off Norderney , at which point he turned his ships northward to avoid the Dutch observers on the island of Terschelling . At 15 : 38 , Seydlitz struck a mine , which tore a 15 @-@ metre ( 49 ft ) long hole in her hull , just abaft of the starboard broadside torpedo tube , allowing 1 @,@ 400 short tons ( 1 @,@ 250 long tons ) of water to enter the ship . Seydlitz turned back with the screen of light cruisers at a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . The four remaining battlecruisers turned south immediately in the direction of Norderney to avoid further mine damage . By 16 : 00 , Seydlitz was clear of imminent danger , so the ship stopped to allow Boedicker to disembark . The torpedo boat V28 brought Boedicker to Lützow .
At 04 : 50 on 25 April , the German battlecruisers were approaching Lowestoft when the light cruisers Rostock and Elbing , which had been covering the southern flank , spotted the light cruisers and destroyers of Commodore Tyrwhitt 's Harwich Force . Boedicker refused to be distracted by the British ships , and instead trained his ships ' guns on Lowestoft . The German battlecruisers destroyed two 6 in ( 15 cm ) shore batteries and inflicted other damage to the town . In the process , a single 6 in shell from one of the shore batteries struck Moltke , but the ship sustained no significant damage .
At 05 : 20 , the German raiders turned north , towards Yarmouth , which they reached by 05 : 42 . The visibility was so poor that the German ships fired one salvo each , with the exception of Derfflinger , which fired fourteen rounds from her main battery . The German ships turned back south , and at 05 : 47 encountered for the second time the Harwich Force , which had by then been engaged by the six light cruisers of the German screening ships . Boedicker 's ships opened fire from a range of 12 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 yards ) . Tyrwhitt immediately turned his ships around and fled south , but not before the cruiser Conquest sustained severe damage . Due to reports of British submarines and torpedo attacks , Boedicker broke off the chase and turned back east towards the High Seas Fleet . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's sortie from Scapa Flow , turned back towards Germany .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
At 02 : 00 CET , on 31 May 1916 , the I Scouting Group departed the Jade estuary ; Lützow , Hipper 's flagship , was the leading vessel , followed by her sister Derfflinger , Seydlitz , Moltke , and Von der Tann . The ships were accompanied by the II Scouting Group , under the command of Rear Admiral Boedicker , composed of the four light cruisers Frankfurt , Wiesbaden , Pillau , and Elbing . The reconnaissance force was screened by 30 torpedo boats of the II , VI , and IX Flotillas , directed by the cruiser Regensburg .
An hour and a half later , the High Seas Fleet — under the command of Admiral Scheer — left the Jade with 16 dreadnoughts . It was accompanied by the IV Scouting Group , composed of the light cruisers Stettin , München , Hamburg , Frauenlob , and Stuttgart , and 31 torpedo boats of the I , III , V , and VII Flotillas , led by the light cruiser Rostock . The six pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the II Battle Squadron had departed from the Elbe roads at 02 : 45 , and rendezvoused with the battle fleet at 5 : 00 . The operation was to be a repeat of previous German fleet actions : to draw out a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it .
= = = = Opening actions = = = =
Shortly before 16 : 00 , Hipper 's force encountered Vice Admiral Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron . At 16 : 00 , Hipper ordered the signal " Distribution of fire from left " be hoisted on Lützow . The German ships were the first to open fire , at a range of approximately 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . The two leading British battlecruisers , Lion and Princess Royal , concentrated their fire on Lützow . The British rangefinders had misread the range to their German targets , and so the first salvos fired by the British ships fell a mile beyond their German opponents . As the two lines of battlecruisers deployed to engage each other , Lützow began to duel with her opposite in the British line , Lion . By 16 : 51 , Lützow had hit her opponent twice , but caused no significant damage . Nine minutes later , Lion scored the first hit on Lützow ; a salvo from the British ship struck the battlecruiser on her forecastle , but no major damage was done . Nearly simultaneously , Lützow dealt a tremendous blow to Lion ; one of her 30 @.@ 5 cm shells penetrated the roof of Lion 's center " Q " turret and detonated the munitions that were stored inside . Only by the resolute actions of the turret commander — Major Francis Harvey , who ordered the magazine be flooded — did the ship avoid a catastrophic magazine explosion . Indeed , approximately 30 minutes after the turret was destroyed , the fire in the turret spread to the working chamber that was directly above the magazine ; there it detonated propellant charges that had been stored there . The resulting explosion would have likely destroyed the ship if the ammunition magazine had not been flooded .
At 17 : 03 , the rearmost British battlecruiser , Indefatigable , was struck by several shells from her opponent , Von der Tann . The forward ammunition magazines were penetrated and set on fire ; the resulting explosion tore the ship apart . Shortly thereafter , Lützow scored several more hits on Lion , though without serious damage being done . In an attempt to regroup his ships , Admiral Beatty sought to turn his ships away by 2 degrees while the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron arrived on the scene and provided covering fire . As the British battlecruisers began to turn away , Seydlitz and Derfflinger were able to concentrate their fire on Queen Mary . Witnesses reported at least 5 shells from two salvos hit the ship , which caused an intense explosion that ripped the Queen Mary in half . Shortly after the destruction of Queen Mary , both British and German destroyers attempted to make torpedo attacks on the opposing lines . The British destroyers Nestor and Nicator each fired two torpedoes at Lützow , though all four missed .
The leading ships of the German battle fleet had by 18 : 00 come within effective range of the British ships , and had begun trading shots with the British battlecruisers and Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships . During the engagements between the combined German fleet and the British 1st Battlecruiser and 5th Battle Squadrons , Lützow had both of her wireless transmitters damaged ; after that point , the only method of communication between ships was via searchlight .
= = = = Battlefleets engage = = = =
Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the battlecruiser Invincible ; the German battlecruisers made a 16 @-@ point turn to the northeast and made for the crippled cruiser at high speed . The III Battle Squadron of the German fleet , which contained the most powerful battleships of the German navy , also altered course to assist Wiesbaden . Simultaneously , the British III and IV Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . During the turn to the northeast , the British destroyers Onslow and Acasta approached to launch torpedoes at Lützow , though without success . Onslow was hit three times by Lützow 's secondary battery and was forced to withdraw .
At 19 : 15 , the German battlecruisers spotted the British armored cruiser Defence , which had joined the attack on Wiesbaden . Hipper initially hesitated , believing the ship was the German cruiser Rostock , but at 19 : 16 , Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Harder , Lützow 's commanding officer , ordered his ships ' guns to fire . The other German battlecruisers and battleships joined in the melee ; Lützow fired five broadsides in rapid succession . In the span of less than 5 minutes , Defence was struck by several heavy @-@ caliber shells from the German ships . One salvo penetrated the ship 's ammunition magazines and , in a massive explosion , destroyed the cruiser .
By 19 : 24 , the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron had formed up with Beatty 's remaining battlecruisers ahead of the German line . The leading British ships spotted Lützow and Derfflinger , and began firing on them . In the span of 8 minutes , the battlecruiser Invincible scored eight hits on Lützow ; these hits were mainly concentrated in the ship 's bow and were the primary cause of the flooding that would eventually cause her to sink . In return , both Lützow and Derfflinger concentrated their fire on Invincible , and 19 : 33 , Lützow 's third salvo penetrated Invincible 's center turret and ignited the magazine ; the ship disappeared in a series of massive explosions .
By 19 : 30 , the High Seas Fleet , which was by that point pursuing the British battlecruisers , had not yet encountered the Grand Fleet . Scheer had been considering retiring his forces before darkness exposed his ships to torpedo boat attack . He had not yet made a decision when his leading battleships encountered the main body of the Grand Fleet . This development made it impossible for Scheer to retreat , for doing so would have sacrificed the slower pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the II Battle Squadron . If he chose to use his dreadnoughts and battlecruisers to cover their retreat , he would have subjected his strongest ships to overwhelming British fire . Instead , Scheer ordered his ships to turn 16 points to starboard , which would bring the pre @-@ dreadnoughts to the relative safety of the disengaged side of the German battle line .
= = = = Lützow withdraws = = = =
The other battlecruisers followed the move , but Lützow had lost speed and was unable to keep up . Instead , the ship tried to withdraw to the southwest to escape the punishing British gunfire . By 20 : 00 , flooding in the forward part of the ship had reached the magazine for the forward turret . The gun crew brought up as many shells and propellant charges as could be stored in the working chamber below the turret . Shortly before , at 19 : 50 , Kommodore Michelson , aboard the cruiser Rostock , dispatched the torpedo boats of I Half @-@ Flotilla to assist Lützow . G39 came alongside and took Hipper and his staff aboard , in order to transfer him to one of the other battlecruisers . V45 and G37 began laying a smoke screen between the battered ship and the British line , but at 20 : 15 , before it was finished , Lützow was struck in quick succession by four heavy @-@ caliber shells . One pierced the ship 's forward superfiring turret and temporarily disabled it . The shell detonated a propellant charge and the right gun was destroyed . The second hit disabled the electric training gear of the rearmost turret , which now had to be operated by hand . Lützow fired her last shot at 20 : 45 , at which point the smoke screen had successfully hidden her from the British line .
As the German fleet began to withdraw after nightfall , Lützow , steaming at 15 knots , attempted to pass behind the German line to seek the safety of the disengaged side . By 22 : 13 , the last German ship in the line lost sight of Lützow , which was unable to keep up with the fleet . Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander of the High Seas Fleet , hoped that in the foggy darkness , Lützow could evade detection and successfully return to a German port . By 21 : 30 , the ship was settling deeper into the sea . Water began to wash onto the deck and into the forecastle above the main armored deck ; this would prove to be a significant problem .
= = = = Lützow scuttled = = = =
At midnight , there was still hope that the severely wounded Lützow could make it back to harbor . The ship was capable of 7 knots up until around 00 : 45 when she began taking on more water . By 01 : 00 , there was too much water in the hull for the pumps to handle . Water began to enter the forward generator compartments , which forced the crew to work by candlelight . Lützow was so low in the water by 01 : 30 that water began to flood the forward boiler room . By that point , almost all of the compartments in the forward part of the ship , up to the conning tower and below the main armored deck , were thoroughly flooded . Water had also entered the ship through shell holes in the forecastle above the armored deck ; the majority of the upper portion of the ship forward of the forward @-@ most barbette was flooded as well . The battlecruiser 's crew attempted to patch the shell holes three times , but as the flooding worsened and the draft increased , water increasingly washed over the deck and inhibited progress on the repair work .
The crew attempted to reverse direction and steam backwards , but this had to be abandoned when the bow became so submerged that the propellers were pulled partially out of the water ; forward draft had increased to over 17 meters . By 2 : 20 , an estimated 8 @,@ 000 tons of water was in the ship , and she was in serious danger of capsizing , so KzS Harder gave the order to abandon ship . The torpedo boats G37 , G38 , G40 , and V45 came alongside the stricken battlecruiser to evacuate the ship 's crew , though six men were trapped in the bow and could not be freed . By 02 : 45 Lützow was submerged up to her bridge . G38 fired two torpedoes into the ship , and two minutes later she disappeared below the waves . The ship was approximately 60 km ( 37 mi ) north @-@ west of Horns Reef when she was scuttled . The position of the wreck is estimated to be 56 ° 15 ′ N 5 ° 53 ′ E.
During the battle , Lützow had fired an estimated 380 main battery shells and 400 rounds from her secondary guns , as well as two torpedoes . In return , she was hit 24 times by British heavy @-@ caliber shells . The ship 's crew suffered 115 men killed and another 50 wounded , second only to Derfflinger , which lost 157 men killed and 26 wounded .
In 2015 , the survey ship HMS Echo conducted an exploration of the area while laying a tide gauge . During the search , Echo 's sonar located Lützow on the sea floor , some eight miles from her last recorded position . Echo took sonar images of the wreck , which her commander stated would " ensure the ship 's final resting place is properly recognised as a war grave . "
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= Misterioso ( Thelonious Monk album ) =
Misterioso is a 1958 live album by American jazz ensemble the Thelonious Monk Quartet . By the time of its recording , pianist and composer Thelonious Monk had overcome an extended period of career difficulties , including the loss of his cabaret card . After a six @-@ month residency at the New York City 's Five Spot Café in 1957 , he returned the following year for a second stint with his quartet , featuring drummer Roy Haynes , bassist Ahmed Abdul @-@ Malik , and tenor saxophonist Johnny Griffin . Along with Thelonious in Action ( 1958 ) , Misterioso captured portions of the ensemble 's August 7 show at the venue .
The title of Misterioso referred to Monk 's reputation as an enigmatic , challenging musician . The album 's cover art , which appropriated Giorgio de Chirico 's 1915 painting The Seer , was part of Riverside 's attempt to capitalize on Monk 's popularity with listeners such as the intellectual and bohemian audiences at the Five Spot Café . The record features four of his earlier compositions , which Monk reworked live . It was one of the first successful live recordings of his music and was produced by Orrin Keepnews , who said that Monk played more distinctly than on his studio albums in response to the audience 's enthusiasm .
Misterioso was released in 1958 by Riverside Records to a mixed critical reaction ; reviewers complimented Monk 's performance but were critical of Griffin , whose playing they felt was out of place with the quartet . The album was remastered and reissued in 1989 and 2012 by Original Jazz Classics , and has since received retrospective acclaim from critics , some of whom viewed Griffin 's playing as the record 's highlight .
= = Background = =
After twenty years of career struggles and obscurity , Thelonious Monk had become a jazz star with a residency at the Five Spot Café in New York City 's East Village . In his first stable job in years , he helped transform the small bar into one of the city 's most popular venues , as it attracted bohemians , hipsters , and devout fans of Monk 's music . His employment there was a result of an appeal by his manager Harry Colomby to the State Liquor Authority ( SLA ) to restore Monk 's cabaret card . Monk was stripped of the card in 1951 when he was convicted of narcotics possession ; he had refused to betray his friend and pianist Bud Powell to the police after they discovered Powell 's glassine envelope of heroin laying beside Monk 's feet in the car of Powell 's female companion .
Although the loss limited Monk as a performer , he recorded several albums of original music and received much attention from the press , which led Colomby to argue to the SLA that he was " a drug @-@ free , law @-@ abiding citizen , whose productivity and growing popularity as a recording artist demonstrates his standing as a responsible working musician " . In May 1957 , the SLA said Monk needed to get a club owner to hire him first , so Colomby considered the Five Spot Café : " I wanted to find a place that was small . I once drove past this place in the Village and there was a bar and I heard music ... A place where poets hung out . " Joe Termini , who co @-@ owned the venue with his brother Iggy , testified at Monk 's police hearing , which resulted in his card being reinstated .
In July 1957 , Monk began to perform at the venue for six months with saxophonist John Coltrane , bassist Ahmed Abdul @-@ Malik , and drummer Shadow Wilson in his group . However , by the time Monk 's employment there ended in December , he had lost Wilson to poor health , while Coltrane left in pursuit of a solo career and a return to Miles Davis 's group . After returning to New York City 's club scene with a new quartet , Monk received an eight @-@ week offer from Joe and Iggy Termini to play the Five Spot Café beginning on June 12 , 1958 . He played most nights during the weekend to capacity crowds with Abdul @-@ Malik , drummer Roy Haynes , and tenor saxophonist Johnny Griffin , who had performed with Monk before . Griffin was unfamiliar with all of his repertoire and , like Coltrane , found it difficult to solo over Monk 's comping during their first few weeks : " Any deviation , one note off , and you sound like you 're playing another tune , and you 're not paying attention to what 's going on . And it 's so evident ... there 's no space . " During their performances , Monk often left the stage for a drink at the bar or danced around , which gave Griffin an opportunity to play with more space . However , the quartet eventually developed a sufficient rapport and grasp of the set list .
= = Recording and production = =
Producer Orrin Keepnews attempted to record the quartet live at the Five Spot Café on two different occasions in 1958 . His first recording of the ensemble was of two sets during their July 9 show . Monk was disappointed with the recording and did not allow his label Riverside Records to release it , although it was released later after his death . Keepnews returned to the venue on August 7 when Monk performed an evening show in the club 's overcrowded room set up with recording equipment . This yielded both Misterioso and Thelonious in Action , which was released first in 1958 . The show was believed to be the first successful live recording of Monk 's music , until the recording of his 1957 concert with Coltrane at Carnegie Hall was discovered and released in 2005 . The two live albums from the Five Spot Café are the only recordings that document Monk 's time with Griffin .
According to Keepnews , who produced Misterioso , the album and its title track were named as a slight play on the words " mist " and " mystery " , meant to evoke the perception of Monk 's music as enigmatic and challenging at the time . Jazz critic Neil Tesser said that the word , which is Latin for " in a mysterious manner " , was " used most often as a musical direction in classical music scores . But by the time Monk 's quartet recorded this music [ in 1958 ] ' Misterioso ' had largely come to identify Monk himself . "
To capitalize on Monk 's popularity with intellectual and bohemian fans from venues such as the Five Spot Café , Riverside released Misterioso and reissues of his older records with designs referencing 20th century works of art . The album 's cover art is a reproduction of Giorgio de Chirico 's 1915 painting The Seer , which was originally painted as a tribute to French poet Arthur Rimbaud . Monk biographer Robin Kelley argued that , because Rimbaud had " called on the artist to be a seer in order to plumb the depths of the unconscious in the quest for clairvoyance " , the painting was the best choice for the cover : " The one @-@ eyed figure represented the visionary ; the architectural forms and the placement of the chalkboard evoked the unity of art and science — a perfect symbol for an artist whose music has been called ' mathematical . ' " According to musicologist Robert G. O 'Meally , the cover reflected " the mysterious violations of convention of perspective , the silences , and oddly attractive angles ( the overall futuristic quality ) in Monk 's music " .
= = Composition and performance = =
According to jazz critic Gary Giddins , Misterioso is a hard bop record . The songs performed for the album were arranged by Monk , who reworked four of his earlier compositions . In the album 's liner notes , Keepnews wrote of Monk 's approach to arrangements : " It should be axiomatic that Monk is a constantly self @-@ renewing composer @-@ arranger @-@ musician , that each new recording of an ' old ' number , particularly with different personnel , represents a fresh view of it — almost a new composition . " According to Keepnews , he played piano more vividly and less introspectively than on his studio recordings in response to the enthusiastic crowds he drew nightly to the Five Spot Café .
On " Nutty " , Griffin incorporated lines from " The Surrey with the Fringe on Top " and exhibited a frenetic swing that was complemented by counterplay from Haynes and Monk . " Blues Five Spot " , a new composition by Monk for the album , is a twelve @-@ bar blues homage to the Five Spot Café and featured solos from each player . Griffin and Monk transfigured chord structures and melodies throughout the performance . Griffin 's solo vamp maintained the rhythm while quoting lines from other pieces , including the theme song for the animated Popeye theatrical shorts ; he played " The Sailor 's Hornpipe " at the end of " Blues Five Spot " .
The quartet began " In Walked Bud " with an eight @-@ bar piano intro and thirty @-@ two @-@ bar form . Griffin began his solo a minute into the song with saxophone wails . In the third minute , Monk did not play , while Griffin played fast phrases at the top of his register with intermittently slower R & B and free jazz elements . Monk shouted approvingly throughout Griffin 's solo before he resumed piano and played a two @-@ minute theme . " Just a Gigolo " , a standard , was the only song on the album not composed by Monk , who performed it in a brief , unaccompanied version . It was played as a single chorus repeated at length .
The title track — first recorded for Blue Note Records in 1948 with vibraphonist Milt Jackson — is one of Monk 's most influential recordings and is based on a series of minor second clusters . His performance of the song at the Five Spot Café showcased his idiosyncratic playing of one blue note next to another . Monk superimposed musical ideas that deviated from the song 's original tonal center , adding a C blue note to the D @-@ flat blue note . Haynes ' subdued drumming backed Griffin 's aggressive bop playing and extended solo on " Misterioso " .
= = Release and reception = =
Misterioso was released in 1958 by Riverside and was Monk 's eighth album for the label . Writing for Hi Fi Review , critic Nat Hentoff said the record was " not one of his best " and observed " too little space for Monk 's soloing and somewhat too much " for Griffin , whose saxophone cry and timing were more impressive than his solos . Hentoff also believed Haynes and Abdul @-@ Malik did not support Monk as creatively as Wilbur Ware and Art Blakey had on his previous Riverside albums , where he said Monk was in more compelling form . In 1959 , Monk was voted the pianist of the year in an annual poll of international jazz critics from Down Beat magazine , who said he was heard " at his challenging , consistently creative best " on Misterioso . When Misterioso was released in 1964 in the United Kingdom , Charles Fox gave it a positive review in Gramophone . He found its music on @-@ par with Monk 's usual standards and highlighted by exceptional playing by him and the rhythm section , particularly Haynes , who showed " once again what a great drummer he was then — and , indeed , still is today " . However , Fox felt Griffin did not fit in with the quartet and overshadowed Monk 's compositions , finding his solos diffuse and characterized by trivial quotations rather than musical development .
In the All Music Guide to Jazz ( 2002 ) , Lindsay Planer wrote that Monk 's quartet " continually reinvented " their strong , cohesive sound with " overwhelming and instinctual capacities " throughout Misterioso . He especially praised Griffin , saying he " consistently liberated the performances " . Monk biographer Robin Kelley felt because he had mastered Monk 's songs at that point , his solos on Misterioso and Thelonious in Action were excursive and spirited . Jazz critic Scott Yanow found Misterioso to be the superior record because of what he said was Griffin 's unforgettable solo on a passionate rendition of " In Walked Bud " , while music historian Ted Gioia listed Monk and Griffin 's " freewheeling " performance on the title track as one of his recommended recordings of the composition . According to Robert Christgau , both this record and Brilliant Corners ( 1957 ) represented Monk 's artistic peak . He cited Misterioso as his favorite album and , in a 2009 article for The Barnes & Noble Review , wrote that Griffin 's tenor solo during " In Walked Bud " remained his " favorite five minutes of recorded music " . Liam McManus from PopMatters was less enthusiastic about Griffin 's playing , which he believed was occasionally heavy @-@ handed and detracted from the music , but still recommended Misterioso as an exceptional Monk record featuring him in a casual performance with his quartet .
In 1989 , Misterioso was digitally remastered by mastering engineer Joe Tarantino for the album 's CD reissue . Tarantino used 20 @-@ bit K2 Super Coding System technology at Fantasy Studios in Berkeley , California . On May 15 , 2012 , Concord Music Group also reissued the album as part of their Original Jazz Classics Remasters series , along with Jazz at Massey Hall ( 1953 ) and Bill Evans ' 1962 record Moon Beams . The reissue featured 24 @-@ bit remastering by Tarantino and three bonus tracks , including a medley of " Bye @-@ Ya " and " Epistrophy " performed with drummer Art Blakey . Concord vice president Nick Phillips , who produced the reissue series , said Misterioso was " an all @-@ time classic live Thelonious Monk record " and " an indelible snapshot of Monk live in the late ' 50s . " In a 2012 review , McManus wrote that as with most reissues of jazz albums , the bonus tracks on Misterioso were valuable and showcased uninhibited performances of Monk 's past compositions .
= = Track listing = =
All songs were composed by Thelonious Monk , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Release history = =
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= St. Louis Eagles =
The St. Louis Eagles were a professional ice hockey team and a former member of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) based in St. Louis , Missouri . The Eagles existed for only one year , playing in the 1934 – 35 NHL season .
The team was originally founded in 1883 as the Ottawa Senators , a successful independent team that joined the NHL as a charter member in 1917 . From the mid @-@ 1920s onward , they endured financial strain caused in part by being in the NHL 's smallest market . The financial problems forced the Senators to suspend operations for the 1931 – 32 season . Upon their return to play – and having sold their better players in an effort to raise funds – the Senators finished in last place for two straight seasons and continued to lose money . Following the repeat last place finish , the team decided it could not survive in Ottawa and hoped to move to a bigger market .
In an attempt to recoup losses and pay outstanding debts , the Senators moved the NHL franchise to St. Louis , where it was nicknamed the Eagles . However , the team continued to lose money due to travel expenses , and it was forced to sell players to other teams to meet its financial obligations . After the season , the owners asked the NHL for a second time for permission to suspend operations . This time , the NHL refused the request . Instead , the league bought back the franchise , halted its operations and dispersed its players among the remaining teams .
= = History = =
= = = The move from Ottawa = = =
The Ottawa Senators were founded in 1883 as an amateur club . They began paying their players " under the table " in 1903 and turned openly professional in 1907 . They were a charter member of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) in 1917 , and won the Stanley Cup four times in the NHL 's first decade ( and seven times prior to the league 's formation – including their time as the Silver Seven ) .
However , for the better part of their tenure in Ottawa , the Senators played in the smallest market in the NHL . The 1931 census listed only 110 @,@ 000 people in the city of Ottawa — roughly one @-@ fifth the size of Toronto — which was the league 's second @-@ smallest market . The team started having attendance problems when the NHL expanded to the United States in 1924 ; games against the new American teams did not draw well . Despite winning what would be its last Stanley Cup in 1927 , the team lost $ 50 @,@ 000 for the season . The Senators asked the NHL for permission to suspend operations for the 1931 – 32 season in order to help eliminate debt . The league granted the request and during their suspended season Ottawa received $ 25 @,@ 000 for the use of its players , while the NHL co @-@ signed a Bank of Montreal loan of $ 28 @,@ 000 for the franchise . The Senators returned for the 1932 – 33 season and finished in last place . They finished last again in 1933 – 34 season . After the season , the Ottawa Auditorium , owners of the Senators , announced that the team would be moving elsewhere for the next season due to losses of $ 60 @,@ 000 over the previous two seasons . Auditorium officials said they needed to move the Senators to a larger city in order to protect the shareholders and pay off their debts .
The Senators ' owners ultimately decided to move the franchise to St. Louis , Missouri and the transfer was approved by the league on May 14 , 1934 . Thomas Franklin Ahearn resigned as president of the Ottawa Auditorium and Redmond Quain became president . Quain transferred the players ' contracts and franchise operations to a new company called the Hockey Association of St. Louis , Inc . Eddie Gerard was hired to coach the new team . The club was renamed the Eagles , inspired by the logo of the Anheuser @-@ Busch brewing company , which was founded in St. Louis . The Senators name and logo remained in Ottawa and would be used by a senior amateur team until 1954 . At the time , St. Louis was the seventh largest city in the United States , with over 800 @,@ 000 inhabitants — over seven times larger than Ottawa . Despite this , St. Louis had been denied an NHL franchise in 1932 because travel to the Midwest was considered too expensive during the Great Depression .
Even before the official debut of the Eagles , a problem had arisen for the new NHL club . There was already a professional hockey team in the city , the St. Louis Flyers , playing in the minor @-@ pro American Hockey Association ( AHA ) . The owners of the Flyers claimed they had an agreement with the NHL which prevented it from settling west of the Mississippi . They threatened to sue for $ 200 @,@ 000 in compensation as soon as the Eagles played their first game . Following a visit from the AHA President , the Flyers were asked not to go forward with the lawsuit . The Flyers did not pursue further legal action and eventually changed home venues .
= = = 1934 – 35 season = = =
At the time there were nine teams in the NHL , divided into two divisions , the Canadian and American . Logically , the Eagles should have been placed in the American Division with the Boston Bruins , Chicago Black Hawks , New York Rangers and Detroit Red Wings . However , in defiance of all geographic reality , the Eagles retained the Senators ' place in the Canadian Division alongside the Toronto Maple Leafs , Montreal Canadiens , Montreal Maroons , and New York Americans . The core of the Senators ' players returned and the team played their games in the St. Louis Arena . The arena was built in 1929 to host the National Dairy Show , but had suffered financially . In 1931 , an ice hockey rink was set up to attract new business . Once the Eagles began play the St. Louis Arena gained the distinction of being the only NHL stadium with racially segregated seating .
In their first game the Eagles succumbed to a late rally by the defending Stanley Cup champion Black Hawks , losing 3 – 1 . They registered their first win in the next game winning 4 – 2 over the Rangers . Following the win the Eagles went on an eight @-@ game losing streak . After the first 13 games the Eagles posted a 2 – 11 – 0 record placing them last in their division . Gerard resigned as head coach and was replaced by George " Buck " Boucher , the coach that Gerard himself had replaced after the franchises last season in Ottawa .
Under Boucher 's coaching the team showed improvement , posting a 3 – 3 – 3 record in the first nine games . However , the early losing streak had already damaged the fan base . Their inaugural game drew 12 @,@ 622 fans , but attendance quickly diminished . In early January 1935 the team cut ticket prices to the lowest in the league in an attempt to bring out fans . By February the financial state of the team forced the Eagles to essentially sell leading goal scorer Syd Howe to the Detroit Red Wings . Officially , the trade broke down as such - Detroit received Howe and Ralph Bowman in exchange for Teddy Graham and $ 50 @,@ 000 . At the time it was considered a large sum of money . Likewise Frank Finnigan was sold to the Maple Leafs . The Eagles were unable to maintain the early success under Boucher , and finished last in the Canadian division with a record of 11 – 31 – 6 . With only 84 goals scored , they were the lowest scoring team in the league . Only the Montreal Canadiens allowed more goals during the season , surrendering 145 to the Eagles ' 144 .
= = = The end of the Eagles = = =
By season 's end the Eagles ownership had lost $ 70 @,@ 000 , due primarily to the cost of train travel . In those days , NHL teams traveled primarily by rail . Due to being in the Canadian Division , the Eagles had to make a large number of trips to Montreal and Toronto . An attempt to stabilize the franchise by selling off some of its players netted $ 58 @,@ 000 . The owners had hoped to move once more to save the franchise . There was interest from Cleveland and also in a return to Ottawa , but neither came to fruition .
As a result , the ownership again petitioned the NHL to allow them to suspend operations for a year . This time the NHL refused and the Eagles were put up for sale . After no credible offers surfaced , the NHL bought the franchise and player contracts for $ 40 @,@ 000 , and opted to play as an eight @-@ team league . If the NHL ever resold the franchise , proceeds were to go to the Ottawa Hockey Association . The NHL distributed the players under contract with St. Louis through a dispersal draft . Teams selected players in an order based on the previous season 's standings . Teams with the lowest point totals selected first . The Chicago Black Hawks did not participate in the draft . Eighteen of the twenty @-@ three players under contract were selected with the remaining players being placed in the minor leagues . The players were distributed as follows :
New York Americans : Forwards : Pete Kelly , Eddie Finnigan
Montreal Canadiens : Goaltender : Bill Beveridge , Defenseman : Irv Frew , Forwards : Paul Drouin , Henri Lauzon
Detroit Red Wings : Forward : Carl Voss , Goaltender : William Peterkin
New York Rangers : Forward : Glen Brydson , Defenseman : Vernon Ayres
Montreal Maroons : Forward : Joe Lamb , Goaltender : Bill Taugher
Boston Bruins : Forward : Bill Cowley , Defenseman : Teddy Graham
Toronto Maple Leafs : Forwards : Gerry Shannon , Cliff Purpur , Jim Dewey , Defenseman : Mickey Blake
No credible offers to purchase the dormant franchise ever surfaced . As a result , the once @-@ proud Senators / Eagles franchise never took the ice again , and remain one of two NHL teams to fold after winning a Stanley Cup ( the other being the Maroons ) .
In 1938 , the Montreal Maroons attempted to move to St. Louis . They were denied by the NHL due to the high travel costs that plagued the Eagles . The NHL eventually returned to St. Louis in 1967 , when the league doubled in size from the Original Six . The new team was named the Blues and they joined the Minnesota North Stars , Los Angeles Kings , Oakland Seals , Philadelphia Flyers , and Pittsburgh Penguins as part of the new expansion .
= = Final standings = =
Note : W |
= Wins , L =
Losses , T |
= Ties , GF =
Goals For , GA |
= Goals Against , Pts =
Points
Teams that qualified for the playoffs are highlighted in bold .
= = Players = =
Twenty @-@ nine players in all represented the Eagles during their lone season of existence . The last active player who played with the Eagles was Bill Cowley , who retired in 1947 after his final season with the Boston Bruins . He was also the only player in franchise history to start his career with the Eagles and be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Syd Howe was the only captain of the team during its existence and the two players were the only Eagles players to be inducted into the Hall of Fame .
Carl Voss led the team with 18 assists and 31 points Howe led them in goalscoring registering 14 , despite being traded midway through the season . The totals were much lower than the NHL leaders as Charlie Conacher of Toronto led the league with 36 goals and 57 points , while Art Chapman of the Americans led for assists notching 34 . Bill Beveridge was the only goaltender the team used during the season . Out of his 11 wins three were shutouts .
The list of players in the history of the team is presented below .
Goaltending
All player stats taken from Hockey @-@ Reference.com
= = = Team captains = = =
Syd Howe , 1934 – 35
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= New Guys =
" New Guys " is the first episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 177th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on September 20 , 2012 . The episode was written and directed by series creator Greg Daniels ; this is his first writing credit for the series since the seventh season episode " Goodbye , Michael " , and his first directing credit since " PDA " .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , two new employees ( Clark Duke and Jake Lacy ) are hired by the Scranton branch and cause trouble for Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) returns from manager training , hoping for revenge on Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) . Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) considers adopting Angela Lipton 's ( Angela Kinsey ) cat . Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) tries to save a turtle .
" New Guys " was the inception of several story arcs and saw the departure of Mindy Kaling as Kelly Kapoor , due to her involvement in her own sitcom The Mindy Project . " New Guys " received largely positive pre @-@ release reviews from television critics . Post @-@ release reviews were moderately positive ; while many felt that the episode was a distinct step in the right direction for the show , others took issues with some of the comedic aspects of the episode . " New Guys " was viewed by 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , making it the show 's lowest @-@ rated season premiere . The episode ranked second in its timeslot and was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Over the summer , Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) tried to save a turtle that he ran over , but only ended up killing it . Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) moved to Ohio with her fiancé Ravi and Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) also moved to Ohio for " unrelated reasons . " Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) learned that he is not the biological father of Angela 's ( Angela Kinsey ) baby .
While talking to the camera , Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) reveal that Jim was offered an entrepreneurial sports job by an old college friend based on an idea the two had in college . Jim tells the camera that he turned it down , because it would not be good for his family . Pam and Jim begin to take off their microphones and Pam makes a remark , noting that , after nine years , the cameramen should have enough footage for a documentary . One of the cameramen then addresses the two , saying that they are more interested in the developments of the office workers themselves , especially Jim and Pam , rather than the office now . Jim looks pensive when Pam tells the cameramen that , with work and kids , nothing interesting will happen to the Halperts in a long time .
Two new employees , Clark ( Clark Duke ) and Pete ( Jake Lacy ) , who are quickly dubbed " Dwight , Jr . " and " The New Jim , " are hired by the Scranton branch and cause trouble for Jim and Dwight . At first , Dwight is happy to have a protege , acting as a fatherly figure to Clark due to the office noting their visual similarity , but soon begins to fear that Clark is after his job . Jim , on the other hand , does not feel that Pete is anything like him . However , after hearing Pete discuss his future plans , Jim realizes that he used to have Pete 's ambition but has become stuck at the same job for over nine years . Meanwhile , Angela puts one of her cats , Comstock , up for adoption as her baby is allergic to it . Oscar ( Oscar Nunez ) initially refuses to adopt Comstock despite Angela 's pleas , but agrees to adopt it after learning that it is her husband Robert 's ( Jack Coleman ) favorite cat . It is implied that Robert and Oscar are having an affair , as Robert told Angela he was having a business dinner on the night he actually had plans with Oscar .
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) returns from Outward Bound manager training — where he became more " decisive and confident " — hoping for revenge on Nellie ( Catherine Tate ) for commandeering his job during the previous spring . To do this , Andy sets up a slackline in the parking lot and makes the employees walk across it , humiliating Nellie as she insists on walking in her heels and fails to keep her balance . After Clark proves that he is talented at balancing , Dwight attempts to one @-@ up him , but ends up failing repeatedly and hurting himself . Eventually , Dwight tries to prove his superiority by riding a bicycle across a tight @-@ rope suspended between the roof and a telephone pole , but the photocopier he is using as a counterweight is not heavy enough and he ends up losing his balance and hanging from the bicycle above the parking lot . Much to his embarrassment , he has to be rescued by a team of firefighters , while Creed ( Creed Bratton ) mistakenly believes the incident to be a circus act . While everyone is outside crowding around Dwight , Jim calls up his old college friend and tells him that he wants to be involved in the new business deal , even though he did not have Pam 's approval .
= = Production = =
On May 11 , 2012 , NBC renewed The Office for a ninth season and it was later announced that Greg Daniels , who had been the series showrunner from season one through five , would be returning . " New Guys " was written and directed by Daniels . This is his first writing credit for the series since the seventh season entry , " Goodbye , Michael " , and his first directing credited since season seven 's " PDA " . This also marks the third time he has both written and directed an episode , after the first season episode " Basketball " and the fourth season opener , " Fun Run " . Daniels later revealed that " New Guys " would be the inception of big season arcs . He went on the record saying " I 'll tell you that the last couple of years , I don 't think we did any big arc @-@ type things in the way that we used to in the beginning , I think the thing we 're going to do is bring back a lot of arcs " . Jenna Fischer later stated that part of the Jim and Pam arc would be dependent on " things that happened in seasons past that didn 't seem very relevant at the time and [ that ] they 're going to become important this season . "
" New Guys " featured one of the final few performances of Mindy Kaling as Kelly Kapoor , who left the series to star in her own comedy television series The Mindy Project , which was created for the Fox Broadcasting Company . Both Novak and Kaling appeared in two episodes of the season — " New Guys " and " Finale " . The episode features both Clark Duke and Jake Lacy as two new Dunder Mifflin employees who have been hired to " go through the back log of over 4 @,@ 000 unanswered customer complaints that " Kelly has ignored the past few years . Duke noted that filming the slack lining scene " was not that fun ; it was really hard " . He did , however , state that Helms was able to do it well " with no practice " . The voice of the documentarian that responds to Jim is that of series director David Rogers . Rogers also voiced the same character in the penultimate episode opener " A.A.R.M. " . Originally , Daniels had re @-@ recorded the line in " New Guys " , but ended up liking Roger 's voice better . He asked him to reprise the role in " A.A.R.M. " to preserve continuity .
The official website of The Office included several cut scenes from " New Guys " within a week of the episode 's release . In the first 40 @-@ second clip , Dwight tries to bond with Clark by discussing an article he read in Time magazine about dub @-@ step . Clark teases Dwight for reading the magazine , something he considers for older audiences , but Dwight is oblivious . In the second 75 @-@ second clip , Toby calls a workplace bullying meeting and the office discussing how Andy has been harassing various people . Kevin tries to maintain that Angela bullies him , and states that she will not give him her cat because he killed his turtle " a few times " . In the third and final 30 @-@ second clip , Jim tries to convince Dwight that the relationship Dwight shares with Clark is similar to that of Darth Vader and Luke Skywalker , characters from the popular science fiction movie franchise Star Wars .
= = Cultural references = =
Much like the sixth season starter " Gossip " — which featured parkour in the cold opening — the seventh season opener " Nepotism " — which started with a lip dub — and the eighth season premiere " The List " — which opened with a bit about planking — " New Guys " also contains a plot involving a popular Internet meme , in this case slacklining , which is a practice in balance that typically uses nylon webbing tensioned between two anchor points . When Ryan is leaving , he claims he is going to Ohio because " they call it the Silicone Prairie , " a reference to Silicon Valley , a part of the San Francisco Bay Area in Northern California in the United States that is home to many of the world 's largest technology corporations . Andy returns from Outward Bound , an organization that aims to foster the personal growth and social skills of participants by using challenging expeditions in the outdoors . Dwight tries to talk to Clark about the heavy metal band Slayer , noting that he has tickets for a show in ten months . Jim asks Pete if he likes the Philadelphia Phillies , but Pete mistakes his reference to mean horses .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club compared Dwight and Clark 's relationship to that of the mythical characters of King Laius and Oedipus , respectively . The story , which was later turned into a popular play Oedipus Rex by Greek writer Sophocles , tells of how Laius hears of a prophecy that his son will kill him . Fearing the prophecy , Laius abandons his son , Oedipus ' , who is raised in the city of Thebes . Oedipus later crosses paths with Laius and gets into a fight and , not knowing that Laius is his father , kills him . Adams , thus , states that the " break @-@ room conversation " Dwight and Clark share starts to make Dwight paranoid and fear that Clark is after his job .
Many reviewers noted that the episode made references to previous episodes of the series . The ending , featuring Dwight riding a bicycle on the roof , was positively compared to the third season episode " Safety Training " . Adams wrote that many of the scenes " take characters to corners of the office tied to memories of episode ’ s [ sic ] past " , such as Oscar 's phone call , which takes place in the stairwell where Dwight pumped himself up for his work review in the second season episode " Performance Review " , and Pam climbing up the rooftop access ladder , which is reminiscent of Pam and Jim 's first " date " in the second season episode " The Client " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" New Guys " originally aired on NBC on September 20 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 / 6 percent share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 46 percent drop in viewership from the season eight premiere " The List " and made it the lowest premiere of the The Office to air . The Office finished second in its time slot , being beaten by an episode of the Fox series Glee , which received a 2 @.@ 9 / 8 percent rating . " New Guys " , however , finished ahead of repeats of the CBS show Two and a Half Men and the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy and a new episode of The CW show The Next . The Office was also the highest @-@ rated NBC television program of the night . " New Guys " was the twenty @-@ first most @-@ watched show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 . This marked a slight improvement from the season eight premiere , " The List " , which ranked as the twenty @-@ second . When DVR numbers were included , the episode increased its ratings up 52 percent to a 3 @.@ 2 , meaning it was seen by , in total , 3 @.@ 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds .
= = = Reviews = = =
Several pre @-@ release reviews of the episode were generally positive . Bruce Miller of the Sioux City Journal gave the episode a largely positive review and noted that " If you can erase last season from your mind , you 'll see this [ ... ] is exactly how The Office should have carried on after Steve Carell left . " Furthermore , he praised the addition of Duke and Lacy , calling their performances " so good you could see them become the centerpiece of a new series . " Verne Gay of Newsweek awarded the episode an " A – " and called the installment " very ( very ) funny . " He was especially happy about the addition of Lacy and Duke , calling them " flashbacks to a younger Jim and Dwight . " Furthermore , he noted that " the ninth and final season actually may offer completion " of a show that has just " merely offered variations on [ the characters ' ] tics " for the past eight seasons . Bob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette called the episode " generally funnier than [ the show ] was last season " and wrote that the episode would be a good opportunity " for viewers who quit the [ series ] last year [ ... ] to come back to the show . " Particularly , he was excited to " see the seeds of the show 's end planted . "
Entertainment Weekly writer Ken Tucker concluded that " New Guys " has " a lot more snap and vigor than most of last season 's episodes . " He was extremely complimentary towards the Pam and Jim story arc that was hinted at , noting that , after settling into a comfortable marriage , the show was finally trying to make them interesting again . David Silverberg of DigitalJournal.com called the entry " one of the show 's best [ premieres ] in recent years " and concluded that the addition of Duke and Lacy " work as a better foil than Nellie and the creepy boss played by James Spader . " Adams awarded the episode a " B + " and called it " a fresh start " for the series after the eighth season . Adams also complimented the show for " stop [ ing ] every so often to acknowledge the fans that have stuck with the series [ and ] also mak [ ing ] subtler callbacks to the show ’ s glory days . " He was also complimentary towards the fact that Duke and Lacy have not been thrown into stories of their own , rather , they " serve as parallels and stimulants to Dwight and Jim . "
Nick Campbell of TV.com called the episode " a decent " and " moderately sharp " season premiere . He concluded that , " While the episode still wasn 't on par with those of the show 's earliest seasons , [ ... ] The episode wasn 't lazy — and for The Office , that 's a win . " Other reviews were slightly more mixed . TV Fanatic reviewer Dan Forcella awarded the episode a three out of five , but was appreciative of the additions to the cast , as well as many of the actors story lines . Jeffrey Hyatt of Screencrave noted that the episode was similar in tone to the season eight finale , " Free Family Portrait Studio " , but that " the addition of Lacy and Duke pay quick dividends as the opener provides flashes of comedy moxie , while helping wash away painful memories of last season . " David Hinckley of the New York Daily News awarded the episode three stars out of five and wrote that " The deadpan goofiness remains fresh enough to keep fans interested " and that " the fact that this whole drama doesn ’ t feel new and shiny anymore isn ’ t anyone ’ s fault . [ ... ] All The Office needs to do now is march out proudly random , zany and off @-@ center . " HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall , however , was critical of the episode 's humor , noting that it " didn 't give me a lot of hope for a last @-@ minute resurgence " . Matt Roush of TV Guide wrote that the " one interesting storyline " may make him watch the remainder of Pam and Jim 's story , but not " the rest of this sadly played @-@ out workplace comedy . "
Many reviews were complimentary towards the interaction Pam and Jim had with the cameramen . Silverberg called it " a nice surprise " . Tucker called the sequence one of the " biggest reveals " in the episode . Sepinwall , despite being critical of the episode 's humor , found the sub @-@ plot " interesting " . He called it " a character arc I 've been waiting for the show to remember to do for years now , and the scenes here were promising ( if not incredibly funny ) " .
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= Amanita thiersii =
Amanita thiersii , commonly called Thiers ' lepidella , is a North @-@ American saprotrophic basidiomycete fungus in the genus Amanita . It is a white mushroom originally described from Texas but today found in nine states of North America . It was named after Harry Delbert Thiers . The cap of this small mushroom is white and convex , measuring 35 – 100 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) and covered by volval remnants . It is sticky to the touch when wet . The gills are variable in length and number and are densely packed in some specimens and widely spaced in others . They are not attached to the stipe , which is 8 – 20 cm ( 3 – 8 in ) long and about 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick , with a white ring . The spores measure 7 @.@ 8 – 9 @.@ 8 by 7 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 0 µm and are roughly spherical in shape . The spore print is white .
The mushroom grows in lawns , pastures and prairies . It is a saprotroph , living on decaying plant material , and not mycorrhizal as is the case in most other species of Amanita . Fruit bodies appear during July and August , either in isolation or in groups , and often form fairy rings . The genome of A. thiersii is being sequenced as part of the United States Department of Energy 's Joint Genome Institute Community Sequencing Program . It is hoped that this will provide a better understanding of the cellulose decomposition capabilities of the fungus . The toxicity of A. thiersii has not been studied but it is suspected of being poisonous .
= = Taxonomy = =
Amanita thiersii was first described in 1957 by Harry Delbert Thiers , an American mycologist , who had spotted it on a campus lawn when he was a student . He named it Amanita alba but that name was disallowed as it had already been used for another species . In 1969 it was renamed by the Dutch mycologist Cornelis Bas as Amanita thiersii in honour of its finder . It is placed in the genus Amanita in the section Lepidella and subsection Vittadiniae . Bas created the stirps ( an informal ranking below species level ) Thiersii , in which he places A. thiersii along with A. albofloccosa , A. aureofloccosa , A. foetens and A. praeclara . The mushroom is commonly called " Thiers ' lepidella " .
= = Description = =
The cap is white and dry , measuring 35 – 100 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide , and convex in shape ( conico- or plano @-@ convex ) . It often has a broad low umbo . The cap 's flesh may be 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick . At first the cap is covered by the soft , white fragmentary remains of the universal veil , which become more widely separated as the cap expands . They are shaggy and somewhat sticky .
The gills are of varying lengths . They are free from the stipe and vary from crowded to widely spaced . They may be narrow or broad and are white to creamy yellow in color . The stipe is white and is 80 – 200 mm ( 3 – 8 in ) long and 10 – 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide . In some specimens , the stipe bruises to a yellow color . It is either hollow or lightly stuffed with a cottony tissue . The bulb at the base is slightly broader than the rest of the stipe . The bulb is 25 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) long and 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) wide . A shaggy , drooping ring is present which is often shed before maturity .
Spores of A. thiersii are white and roughly spherical . They measure approximately 7 @.@ 8 – 9 @.@ 8 by 7 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 0 µm and are amyloid . In an analysis , both monokaryotic ( one nucleus per cell ) and dikaryotic ( two nuclei per cell ) strains were isolated from fruit bodies . All the spores were found to be binucleate but the researchers believed that in the monokaryotic strain , the second nucleus had failed to pass through the germ tube .
The odor of this mushroom is indistinct but with age can become unpleasant , like that of decay or cheese . The fungus is said to taste oily bitter or bitter metallic .
= = = Identification = = =
A. thiersii may be gathered inadvertently and thought to be edible due to the fact that it grows on lawns among grasses . This is in contrast to most of the other Amanita species which grow around trees and are thus usually seen in forests . It can be distinguished from other white fungi growing in grassland by its fluffy cap , though the white veil fragments may eventually get washed away by rain .
It is similar in appearance to a number of other Amanita species . It can be distinguished from A. praegraveolens microscopically by the absence of clamp connections between the cells in A. thiersii . Both A. thiersii and A. aureofloccosa have hollow stems but the latter has a more tapering stipe and the whole fruit body is yellower . A. silvifuga is another species that grows in similar locations in grassland in Texas and H. D. Thiers described the taste of both it and A. thiersii as being bitter . It can be distinguished by its darker coloration and more warted appearance .
= = Toxicity = =
The species is suspected of being toxic as is the case in most of its close relatives . Handling the mushroom is harmless ; poisoning occurs only on ingestion . A case of poisoning that may have been caused by A. thiersii has been reported from the state of Puebla , Mexico . The outcome of this case is unknown . Symptoms of poisoning in humans include reversible impairment of kidney function . A Meixner test revealed that amatoxins were not involved in the Puebla case .
= = Ecology and habitat = =
Amanita thiersii inhabits lawns , pastures and prairies throughout the Mississippi River Basin . It often forms fairy rings or arcs but also sometimes fruits as isolated specimens . It has been found growing in the same lawn as Chlorophyllum molybdites . Analysis using stable carbon isotopes has proved that this mushroom is saprotrophic in nature , unlike the other mycorrhizal Amanitas .
The fruit bodies of A. thiersii grow during the mid or late summer until early fall . Since it was first reported in 1952 in Texas , this species has been expanding its range . It appeared in southern Illinois in the 1990s and has since spread to central Illinois , where it is the most common mushroom found in lawns during July and August . Today it occurs in nine states including Missouri , Oklahoma , Texas , Kentucky , Ohio , Kansas and Illinois . It also occurs in Mexico .
= = Genome project = =
The main source from which A. thiersii derives its carbon is the cellulose of the decomposing plant material found in its grassland habitat . The enzymes that degrade cellulose are homologous to the enzymes used by ectomycorrhizal fungi that have symbiotic associations with plant roots . In an attempt to identify the genes involved in these processes , researchers at the United States Department of Energy and Harvard University are jointly working to sequence the A. thiersii genome and to compare it with that of Amanita bisporigera , a species which forms mycorrhizal relationships with tree and which has already been partly sequenced . They hope to better understand the genetic pathways involved in the evolution of ectomycorrhizal associations . Another research objective is to establish whether the enzymes used by A. thiersii to degrade cellulose can be cost @-@ effectively used in the conversion of crop residues into biofuels . A. thiersii seems to be expanding its range northwards and its genome may provide clues as to how it is adapting to climate change and further information on mycorrhizal relationships .
This research has shown that there was a single origin of ectomycorrhizal symbiosis in the Amanita genus . DNA analysis has shown that a group of species in the subsection Vittadiniae ( which includes A. thiersii ) has few derived characteristics . This clade has a single ancestor ( or a very small number ) and seems to have come into being at a very early stage in the evolution of the genus .
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= Jack the Writer =
" Jack the Writer " is the fourth episode of the first season of the American situation comedy 30 Rock , which aired on November 1 , 2006 on the NBC network in the United States , and on November 1 , 2007 in the United Kingdom . The episode was written by Robert Carlock and was directed by Gail Mancuso . Guest stars in this episode include Katrina Bowden , Keith Powell , Maulik Pancholy , Tom Broecker , Jonathan Lutz , James Anderson and Sharon Wilkins .
The episode focuses on the relationship between Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , head writer of TGS with Tracy Jordan , and Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , her boss ; and the distractions the writers of TGS face when writing sketches . This becomes evident when Liz 's assistant , Cerie ( Katrina Bowden ) , wears sexually suggestive clothing ; and when Jack decides to join the writers for observation . Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) learns that working for Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) , the main star of TGS , is more than he expected .
= = Plot = =
The staff are preparing to write sketches for TGS with Tracy Jordan when Jack arrives and announces that he went through a program at General Electric ( GE ) called Six Sigma , which encourages bosses to interact with their staff . He tells Liz and the writers that he will be sitting in the writers ' room every day as an observer . As days pass , Jack begins to interfere with the writers ' work , and instead of just being an observer , he regularly gives the writers ideas for upcoming sketches . This causes a major frustration for the staff , so Liz tells Jack that the writers do not like his involvement . Jack says that although he enjoyed joining the writers every day , he tells Liz that he accepts their decision .
Afterwards , Jack 's secretary tells Liz that Jack wants her to apologize , but that she has to pretend that it was her idea . Liz goes to Jack 's office and apologizes , and they forgive each other . While the staff eats their lunch , Jack introduces the staff to two of his guests . The writers mention to Liz that they would love to go outside to the same roof that is used for The Today Show , and Liz tells them that she can make it happen now that she and Jack are friends . Liz asks Jack , but he denies the request . He tells her that the two guests were his bosses from GE , and then criticizes Liz and her staff . He apologizes to Liz , but she says that their friendship is over . Having settled the situation with Jack , Liz tries to talk to her assistant Cerie about her attire , which seems to distract the writers . Liz attempts to convince her to wear something conservative , but Cerie tells Liz that she would look great in something sexy herself , and Liz is later seen walking down the hallway with a dress that reads " Dirty Diva " .
Kenneth , who is now working for Tracy , learns that working for Tracy is more than he expected . Tracy orders Kenneth to complete several tasks , including going to the Yankee Stadium for nachos , and picking up an important package , which turns out to be an illegal fish that Tracy wants to put in his aquarium . Tracy then tells Kenneth to buy something for his wife , Angie Jordan ( Sharon Wilkins ) , and to take her to a fancy restaurant , where he gives her Tracy 's gift .
= = Production = =
30 Rock and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , both of which debuted on 2006 – 07 NBC lineup , revolved around the off @-@ camera happenings on a sketch comedy series . Evidence of the overlapping subject matter between the shows , as well as the conflict between them , arose when Aaron Sorkin , the creator of Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , asked Lorne Michaels to allow him to observe Saturday Night Live for a week , a request Michaels denied . Despite this , Sorkin sent Fey flowers after NBC announced it would pick up both series , and wished her luck with 30 Rock . Fey wound up " winning " over Sorkin when Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip was cancelled after one season and 30 Rock was renewed for a second . Though 30 Rock 's first season ratings proved lackluster and were lower than those of Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , the latter was more expensive to produce . " Jack the Writer " contains a self @-@ referencing walk and talk sequence , which is commonly used on Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip and Sorkin 's previous series .
Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode where Tracy Jordan is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz Lemon admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , and saying she dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia for several Halloweens . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to Robert Carlock , who she described as " the resident expert " . In this episode , Liz repeatedly uses analogies from Star Wars for her situation with Jack , when she realizes that she " need [ s ] to get new DVDs " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Jack the Writer " was watched by approximately 4 @.@ 61 million American viewers , ranking eighty @-@ first in the weekly charts . The episode received a rating of 1 @.@ 7 / 5 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . The 1 @.@ 7 refers to 1 @.@ 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and the 5 refers to 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . In the United Kingdom , the episode attracted 500 @,@ 000 viewers and a 4 % share of the viewing audience at the time of the broadcast .
Robert Canning of IGN felt that while the episode was " still an entertaining half @-@ hour , there was nothing to it that was incredibly memorable . " He said that Tracy Jordan was " quickly becoming one of the more enjoyable aspects of the show " . Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide felt that " this outing fell a bit flat for [ him ] " . He thought that " the best moment this week , by far , had to be that big , fat wink to Aaron Sorkin 's Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip ( and West Wing , and Sports Night ... ) , where Liz and Pete , upon realizing that they had traveled in a small circle over the course of a banter exchange , shrugged and said , ' Nice walk @-@ and @-@ talk ' , and then bumped fists . Nice . "
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= The Twilight Saga ( film series ) =
The Twilight Saga is a series of five romance fantasy films from Summit Entertainment based on the four novels by American author Stephenie Meyer . The films star Kristen Stewart , Robert Pattinson , and Taylor Lautner . The series has grossed over $ 3 @.@ 3 billion in worldwide receipts and consists , to date , of five motion pictures . The first installment , Twilight , was released on November 21 , 2008 . The second installment , New Moon , followed on November 20 , 2009 , breaking box office records as the biggest midnight screening and opening day in history , grossing an estimated $ 72 @.@ 7 million . The third installment , Eclipse , was released on June 30 , 2010 , and was the first Twilight film to be released in IMAX .
The series was in development since 2004 at Paramount Pictures , during which time a screen adaptation of Twilight that differed significantly from the novel was written . Three years later , Summit Entertainment acquired the rights to the film . After Twilight grossed $ 35 @.@ 7 million on its opening day , Summit Entertainment announced they would begin production on New Moon ; they had acquired the rights to the remaining novels earlier that same month . A two @-@ part adaptation of Breaking Dawn began shooting in November 2010 with November 18 , 2011 , and November 16 , 2012 , release dates .
= = Development = =
Twilight was in development for approximately three years at Paramount Pictures 's MTV Films , during which time a screen adaptation differing significantly from the novel was written . For example , the script transformed Bella into a star athlete . Stephenie Meyer stated that there was some debate in allowing the movie to be made because of the negative or positive outcome of the movie compared to the book , ' " They could have put that [ earlier ] movie out , called it something else , and no one would have known it was Twilight ! " The idea of seeing a scene converted correctly , specifically the meadow scene , convinced Meyer to sell the rights . In seeing the script , she was frightened that she had made the wrong decision . When Summit Entertainment reinvented itself as a full @-@ service studio in April 2007 , it successfully acquired the rights to the novel . Erik Feig , President of Production at Summit Entertainment , guaranteed a close adaptation to the book . The company perceived the film as an opportunity to launch a franchise based on the success of Meyer 's book and its sequels . Meyer felt that Summit was open to letting her be a part of the film . Catherine Hardwicke was hired to direct the film , and soon afterward , Melissa Rosenberg was selected to be the film 's structural base as the writer of the film .
Rosenberg developed an outline by the end of August and collaborated with Hardwicke on writing the screenplay during the following month . " [ She ] was a great sounding board and had all sorts of brilliant ideas .... I 'd finish off scenes and send them to her , and get back her notes . " Because of the impending WGA strike , Rosenberg worked full @-@ time to finish the screenplay before October 31 . In adapting the novel for the screen , she " had to condense a great deal . " Some characters were left out , and others were combined . " [ O ] ur intent all along was to stay true to the book , " Rosenberg explained , " and it has to do less with adapting it word for word and more with making sure the characters ' arcs and emotional journeys are the same . " Hardwicke suggested the use of voice over to convey the protagonist 's internal dialogue , since the novel is told from Bella 's point of view ; and she sketched some of the storyboards during pre @-@ production .
Meyer , the author , and Hardwicke , the director , had a close relationship while developing Twilight . Hardwicke wanted to embrace the experience and make the characters in the books come to life . She would call Meyer after changing a scene slightly , which surprised the author because , " I 've heard the stories ... I know it 's not normally like that when you adapt a book . " Meyer , a natural pessimist , was waiting for the worst but , instead , called her experience in the book 's film adaptation " the best I could have hoped for . "
Originally scheduled for release in December 2008 , Twilight was moved to a worldwide release of November 21 , 2008 , after Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince moved from a November 2008 release to being released in July 2009 .
= = Casting = =
Kristen Stewart was on the set of Adventureland when Hardwicke visited her for an informal screen test , which " captivated " the director . Hardwicke did not initially choose Robert Pattinson for the role of Edward Cullen ; but , after an audition at her home with Stewart , he was selected . Meyer allowed Pattinson to view a manuscript of the unfinished Midnight Sun , which chronicles the events in Twilight from Edward 's point of view . Meyer was " excited " and " ecstatic " in response to the casting of the two main characters . She had expressed interest in having Emily Browning and Henry Cavill cast as Bella and Edward , respectively , prior to pre @-@ production .
Peter Facinelli was not originally cast as Carlisle Cullen : " [ Hardwicke ] liked [ him ] , but there was another actor that the studio was pushing for . " For unknown reasons , that actor was not able to play the part , and Facinelli was selected in his place . The choice of Ashley Greene to portray Alice Cullen was criticized by some fans because Greene is 7 inches ( 18 cm ) taller than her character as described in the novel . Meyer said that Rachael Leigh Cook resembled her vision of Alice . Nikki Reed had previously worked with Hardwicke on the successful Thirteen ( 2003 ) , which they co @-@ wrote , and Lords of Dogtown ( 2005 ) .
Kellan Lutz was in Africa , shooting the HBO miniseries Generation Kill , when the auditions for the character of Emmett Cullen were conducted . The role had already been cast by the time the HBO production ended in December 2007 , but the selected actor " fell through " . Lutz subsequently auditioned and was flown to Oregon , where Hardwicke personally chose him .
Rachelle Lefèvre wanted a role in the film because Hardwicke was director ; she saw " the potential to explore a character , hopefully , over three films " ; and she wanted to portray a vampire . " [ She ] thought that vampires were basically the best metaphor for human anxiety and questions about being alive . " Christian Serratos initially auditioned for Jessica Stanley , but she " fell totally in love with Angela " after reading the books and took advantage of a later opportunity to audition for Angela Weber . The role of Jessica Stanley went to Anna Kendrick , who got the part after two mix @-@ and @-@ match auditions with various actors .
Because of major physical changes that occur in the character of Jacob Black between Twilight and New Moon , director Chris Weitz considered replacing Taylor Lautner in the sequel with an actor who could more accurately portray " the new , larger Jacob Black . " Trying to keep the role , Lautner worked out extensively and put on 30 lbs . In January 2009 , Weitz and Summit Entertainment announced that Lautner would continue as Jacob in The Twilight Saga : New Moon .
In late March 2009 , Summit Entertainment released a list of the actors who would be portraying the " wolf pack " alongside Lautner . The casting for the rest of the Quileute tribe was headed by casting director Rene Haynes , who has worked on films with large American Indian casts , such as Dances with Wolves and Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee .
In mid @-@ 2009 , it was announced that Bryce Dallas Howard would be replacing Rachelle Lefevre as Victoria for the third Twilight film , The Twilight Saga : Eclipse . Summit Entertainment attributed the change to scheduling conflicts . Lefevre said she was " stunned " and " greatly saddened " by the decision . Jodelle Ferland was cast as the newly turned vampire , Bree . Other new cast members for the third film include Xavier Samuel as Riley , Jack Huston as Royce King II , Catalina Sandino Moreno as Maria , Julia Jones as Leah Clearwater , and BooBoo Stewart as Seth Clearwater .
= = Production = =
Principal photography for Twilight took 44 days , after more than a week of rehearsals , and completed on May 2 , 2008 . Similar to her directorial debut thirteen , Hardwicke opted for an extensive use of hand @-@ held cinematography to make the film " feel real " . Meyer visited the production set three times , and was consulted on different aspects of the story ; she also has a brief cameo in the film . To make their bodily movements more elegant , and to get used to their characters ' fighting styles , the cast playing vampires participated in rehearsals with a dance choreographer and observed the physicality of different panthera . Instead of shooting at Forks High School itself , scenes taking place at the school were filmed at Kalama High School and Madison High School . Other scenes were also filmed in St. Helens , Oregon , and Hardwicke conducted some reshooting in Pasadena , California , in August .
In early November 2008 , Summit announced that they had obtained the rights to the remaining books in Stephenie Meyer 's Twilight series : New Moon , Eclipse , and Breaking Dawn . On November 22 , 2008 , one day after the theatrical release of Twilight , Summit confirmed that they would begin working on New Moon . Melissa Rosenberg had been working on adapting the novel prior to Twilight 's release and handed in the draft for New Moon during Twilight 's opening weekend in November 2008 .
In early December 2008 , it was announced that Twilight director Catherine Hardwicke would not be returning to direct the sequel . Hardwicke cited time restrictions as the reason behind her leaving the project . Instead , Chris Weitz , director of The Golden Compass and co @-@ director of American Pie , was hired to direct The Twilight Saga : New Moon . Filming for New Moon began in Vancouver in late March 2009 , and in Montepulciano , Italy , in late May 2009 .
In early 2009 , before the release of The Twilight Saga : New Moon , Summit confirmed that they would begin production on The Twilight Saga : Eclipse . Since Weitz would be in post @-@ production for New Moon when The Twilight Saga : Eclipse began shooting , he would not be directing the third film . Instead , The Twilight Saga : Eclipse was helmed by director David Slade , with Melissa Rosenberg returning as screenwriter . Filming began on August 17 , 2009 at Vancouver Film Studios and finished in late October , with post @-@ production beginning early the following month . In April 2010 , it was revealed that re @-@ shoots of the film were needed . Slade , who previously said he would not be around for them , was seen , along with Stephenie Meyer , on set . The three main stars were also present .
Wyck Godfrey , producer of the previous films in the series , stated in mid @-@ 2009 that they had every intention to make the film version of Breaking Dawn . Following months of speculation and cast rumors , it was officially announced on April 28 , 2010 , that Academy Award winner Bill Condon , who directed Gods and Monsters and Dreamgirls , would direct Breaking Dawn ; producing the film will be Wyck Godfrey , Karen Rosenfelt , and author Stephenie Meyer . " I 'm very excited to get the chance to bring the climax of this saga to life on @-@ screen . As fans of the series know , this is a one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind book – and we 're hoping to create an equally unique cinematic experience , " said Bill Condon . A November 18 , 2011 release date has been set for the first part , while the second is scheduled for release on November 16 , 2012 . Following that announcement , Summit officially confirmed that a two @-@ part adaption of the fourth book would start production in the fall on June 11 , 2010 . With this announcement , it was made clear that all major actors , including the three lead roles , the Cullen family , and Charlie Swan , would return for both parts . Bill Condon was also confirmed to direct both parts .
In order to keep the budget on both parts of Breaking Dawn reasonable , which would be substantially greater than the previous installments in the series , filming in Louisiana is also being negotiated . Shooting in Louisiana would provide larger tax credits , which a studio as low @-@ profile as Summit Entertainment would benefit from .
= = Films = =
= = = Twilight ( 2008 ) = = =
Twilight was directed by Catherine Hardwicke and written by Melissa Rosenberg . It focuses on the development of a personal relationship between human teenager Bella Swan ( Kristen Stewart ) and vampire Edward Cullen ( Robert Pattinson ) , and the subsequent efforts of Edward and his family to keep Bella safe from a separate group of hostile vampires .
The film was released theatrically starting on November 21 , 2008 . It grossed $ 35 @.@ 7 million on its opening day , and has come to gross US $ 408 @.@ 9 million worldwide . The DVD was released on March 21 , 2009 and grossed an additional $ 201 million from sales .
= = = The Twilight Saga : New Moon ( 2009 ) = = =
The Twilight Saga : New Moon was directed by Chris Weitz and written by Melissa Rosenberg . The film follows Bella Swan 's fall into a deep depression until she develops a strong friendship with werewolf Jacob Black . Jacob and his tribe must protect Bella from Victoria , a gregarious herd of vampires . The film was released theatrically starting on November 20 , 2009 , and set numerous records . It is currently the biggest advance @-@ ticket seller on Fandango and held the biggest midnight opening in domestic ( United States and Canada ) box office history , grossing an estimated $ 26 @.@ 3 million . Its sequel , The Twilight Saga : Eclipse , broke that record in June 2010 , grossing $ 72 @.@ 7 million on its opening day domestically , $ 709 Million Worldwide and becoming the biggest single @-@ day opening in domestic history . It is the twelfth highest opening weekend in domestic history with $ 142 @,@ 839 @,@ 137 .
= = = The Twilight Saga : Eclipse ( 2010 ) = = =
The Twilight Saga : Eclipse was directed by David Slade and written by Melissa Rosenberg . The film follows Bella Swan as she develops awareness of the complications of marrying Edward Cullen . As Victoria draws nearer with a group of newborn vampires , Jacob Black and the rest of the werewolves form a temporary alliance to destroy her , in turn , to keep Bella safe . While Bella tries to decide who she is , a fight brews and the consequences are paid once Jacob gets hurt . Intent on keeping a compromise with Edward , she vows to keep true to her engagement and marry him .
The film was released theatrically starting on June 30 , 2010 , and is the first Twilight film to be released in IMAX . It set a new record for biggest midnight opening in domestic ( United States and Canada ) in box office history , grossing an estimated $ 30 million in over 4 @,@ 000 theaters . The previous record holder was the previous film in the series , The Twilight Saga : New Moon with $ 26 @.@ 3 million in 3 @,@ 514 theaters . The film then scored the biggest Wednesday opening in domestic history with $ 68 @,@ 533 @,@ 840 beating Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen 's $ 62 million . The Twilight Saga : Eclipse has also become the film with the widest independent release , playing in over 4 @,@ 416 theaters , surpassing its predecessor , The Twilight Saga : New Moon , which held the record since November 2009 .
= = = The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn – Part 1 ( 2011 ) = = =
The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn was directed by Bill Condon , and author Stephenie Meyer co @-@ produced the film along with Karen Rosenfelt and Wyck Godfrey , with Melissa Rosenberg penning the script . The book 's plot was split into two films , the first of which was released on November 18 , 2011 . The filming of Breaking Dawn began in November 2010 . The first part follows Bella and Edward as they get married and then learn that Bella has become pregnant . They deal with her struggle of being pregnant and almost passing away because of the half vampire @-@ half human child .
= = = The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn – Part 2 ( 2012 ) = = =
The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn Part 2 was directed by Bill Condon , and author Stephenie Meyer co @-@ produced the film along with Karen Rosenfelt and Wyck Godfrey , with Melissa Rosenberg penning the script . The book 's plot was split into two films , the first of which was released on November 18 , 2011 . The second was released on November 16 , 2012 . The second part of Breaking Dawn saw the climax of Bella and Edward 's relationship , as Bella must learn to adapt to immortality as a newly transformed vampire and motherhood .
= = Soundtracks = =
= = = Twilight = = =
The Twilight Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was chosen by music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas . The album was released on November 4 , 2008 by Patsavas ' Chop Shop label , in conjunction with Atlantic Records . The album debuted at # 1 on the Billboard 200 , having sold about 165 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , 29 % of which were digital downloads . Twilight is the best @-@ selling theatrical movie soundtrack in the United States since Chicago .
Twilight : The Score was composed and orchestrated by Carter Burwell over a 9 – 10 week period , and was recorded and mixed in about 2 weeks in late September 2008 . Burwell began the score with a " Love Theme " for Bella and Edward 's relationship , a variation of which became " Bella 's Lullaby " that Robert Pattinson plays in the film , and that is included on the Twilight Original Motion Picture Soundtrack . The original theme is featured throughout the film , and serves to " play the romance that drives the story " . Another theme Burwell composed was a " Predator Theme " , which opens the film , and is intended to play Edward 's vampire nature . Other themes include a bass @-@ line , drum beat and distorted guitar sound for the nomadic vampires , and a melody for the Cullen family . Twilight : The Score was released digitally on November 25 , 2008 and in stores on December 9 .
= = = The Twilight Saga : New Moon = = =
The score for The Twilight Saga : New Moon was composed by Alexandre Desplat while Alexandra Patsavas returned as music supervisor for the rest of the soundtrack . Weitz has a working relationship with Desplat , who scored one of his previous films , The Golden Compass . The The Twilight Saga : New Moon : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack album was released on October 16 , 2009 by Patsavas ' Chop Shop label , in conjunction with Atlantic Records . The album debuted at # 2 on the Billboard 200 , later jumped to # 1 with 153 @,@ 000 copies sold . The Twilight Saga : New Moon : The Score was released on November 24 @,@ 2009 .
= = = The Twilight Saga : Eclipse = = =
The score for The Twilight Saga : Eclipse was composed by Howard Shore , who composed the scores for The Lord of the Rings trilogy . The film 's soundtrack was released on June 8 , 2010 by Atlantic Records in conjunction with music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas ' Chop Shop label . The lead single from the soundtrack is " Neutron Star Collision ( Love Is Forever ) " , performed by the British band Muse . The soundtrack debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart with estimated sales of 144 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn – Part 1 = = =
The Breaking Dawn – Part 1 soundtrack saw the release of two singles : " A Thousand Years " by Christina Perri and " It Will Rain " by Bruno Mars . The former reached number one and the latter of the two number three on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = = The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn – Part 2 = = =
= = Reaction = =
= = = Box office performance = = =
Twilight grossed over $ 7 million in ticket sales from midnight showings alone on November 21 , 2008 . It grossed $ 35 @.@ 7 million on its opening day . For its opening weekend in the United States and Canada , Twilight accumulated $ 69 @.@ 6 million from 3 @,@ 419 theaters at an average of $ 20 @,@ 368 per theater .
The film has made $ 192 @.@ 7 million in the United States and Canada , and a further $ 192 @.@ 2 million in international territories for a total of $ 384 @.@ 9 million worldwide .
The film was released on DVD in North America on March 21 , 2009 through midnight release parties , and sold over 3 million units in its first day . It has continued to sell units , totaling as of July 2012 , making $ 201 @,@ 323 @,@ 629 .
The Twilight Saga : New Moon set records for advance ticket sales , causing some theaters to add additional showings . The film set records as the biggest midnight opening in domestic ( United States and Canada ) box office history , grossing an estimated $ 26 @.@ 3 million in 3 @,@ 514 theatres , before expanding to 4 @,@ 024 theaters . The record was previously held by Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , which grossed $ 22 @.@ 2 million domestically during its midnight premiere . The film grossed $ 72 @.@ 7 million on its opening day domestically , becoming the biggest single @-@ day opening in domestic history , beating The Dark Knight 's $ 67 @.@ 2 million . This opening strongly contributed to another record : the first time that the top ten films at the domestic box office had a combined gross of over $ 100 million in a single day .
The opening weekend of The Twilight Saga : New Moon is the ninth @-@ highest opening weekend in domestic history with $ 142 @,@ 839 @,@ 137 . The film also has the sixth highest worldwide opening weekend with $ 274 @.@ 9 million total .
= = = Critical response = = =
While The Twilight Saga has been successful in the box office , critical reception of the films was mixed , and significantly declined as the series continued .
New York Press critic Armond White called Twilight " a genuine pop classic " , and praised Hardwicke for turning " Meyer 's book series into a Brontë @-@ esque vision " . USA Today gave the film two out of four stars and Claudia Puig wrote : " Meyer is said to have been involved in the production of Twilight , but her novel was substantially more absorbing than the unintentionally funny and quickly forgettable film . "
Robert Ignizio of the Cleveland Scene described The Twilight Saga : New Moon as an " entertaining fantasy " , and noted that it " has a stronger visual look [ than Twilight ] and does a better job with its action scenes while still keeping the focus on the central love triangle . " Michael O 'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film two and half stars out of four , praised Kristen Stewart 's performance in the film and wrote : " Despite melodrama that , at times , is enough to induce diabetes , there 's enough wolf whistle in this sexy , scary romp to please anyone . " The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer gave the film a " B " grading and said , " the movie looks tremendous , the dialogue works , there are numerous well placed jokes , the acting is on point . " Mick Lasalle from the San Francisco Chronicle responded with a more mixed review , stating , " [ E ] xpect this film to satisfy its fans . Everybody else , get ready for a bizarre soap opera / pageant , consisting of a succession of static scenes with characters loping into the frame to announce exactly what they 're thinking . " Roger Ebert gave the film 1 star out of 4 and said that it " takes the tepid achievement of Twilight , guts it , and leaves it for undead . " The release of the movie has also inspired feminist criticism , with Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly making light of the claim that Edward Cullen is little better than a stalker . In any case , the influx of female viewers into the theaters indicates the increasing importance of the female demographic in dictating Hollywood 's tastes .
The Hollywood Reporter posted a positive review of The Twilight Saga : Eclipse , saying the film " nails it " . Variety reports that the film " finally feels more like the blockbuster this top @-@ earning franchise deserves " . One review stated the film was the best in The Twilight Saga so far , acknowledging that , " The person who should be worried is Bill Condon , the director tapped for the two @-@ part finale , Breaking Dawn . He 's got a real challenge to make movies as good as Eclipse . " A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised David Slade 's ability to make an entertaining film , calling it funny and better than its predecessors , but pointed out the acting hasn 't improved much .
A more negative review said that while " Eclipse restores some of the energy New Moon zapped out of the franchise and has enough quality performances to keep it involving " , the film " isn 't quite the adrenaline @-@ charged game @-@ changer for love story haters that its marketing might lead you to believe . The majority of the ' action ' remains protracted and not especially scintillating should @-@ we @-@ or @-@ shouldn 't @-@ we conversations between the central triangle . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times gave the film a more positive review than for the first two films in the saga , but still felt the movie was a constant , unclever conversation between the three main characters . He criticized the " gazes " both Edward and Jacob give Bella throughout the movie , and noted that the mountain range that appears in the film looks " like landscapes painted by that guy on TV who shows you how to paint stuff like that . " He also predicted that a lack of understanding for the film series in general would not bode well with the audience , stating , " I doubt anyone not intimately familiar with the earlier installments could make head or tails of the opening scenes . " He gave the film 2 stars out of 4 .
Breaking Dawn – Part 1 received mostly negative reviews from critics . Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that just 24 % of critics ( of the 188 counted reviews ) gave the film a positive review , and the site 's consensus reads " Slow , joyless and loaded with unintentionally humorous moments , Breaking Dawn Part 1 may satisfy the Twilight faithful , but it 's strictly for fans of the franchise " . Part 2 had a mixed critical reception but was much more favorable than Part 1 . Bruce Diones of New Yorkers gave the film a positive review , citing " A feast of ripe dialogue and bloodsucking action " . On the other hand , Richard Roeper said that " The fifth and final entry in the historically successful Twilight franchise is the most self @-@ aware and in some ways the most entertaining " .
= = = Review aggregate results = = =
= = = Home media sales = = =
List indicator ( s )
( B ) indicates the yearly rank based on the number of DVDs sold during the year released ( calculated by The Numbers ) .
= = Twilight in popular culture = =
The 2010 Portuguese teen series Lua Vermelha ( Red Moon ) had a similar premise of vampire romance but differed in the story .
The 2010 parody film Vampires Suck spoofed the film series . A television show within the canon of Canadian teen vampire film My Babysitter 's a Vampire and the television series sequel called Dusk is a parody of Twilight .
The 2012 film Breaking Wind ( parodying the title of Breaking Dawn , but parodying the whole film series ) , directed by Craig Moss ( best known for The 41 @-@ Year @-@ Old Virgin Who Knocked Up Sarah Marshall and Felt Superbad About It ) , is also a spoof of the films and a parody version of Breaking Dawn Part – 1 .
The 2012 animated movie Hotel Transylvania has a scene inspired by Twilight .
The 2013 Filipino comedy sitcom entitled My Daddy is a Vampire resembled some Twilight scenes .
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= Panzer Dragoon Saga =
Panzer Dragoon Saga ( アゼル パンツァー ドラグーン RPG , Azel : Panzer Dragoon RPG ) is a 1998 role @-@ playing video game ( RPG ) for the Sega Saturn , published by Sega and developed by Sega 's Team Andromeda studio . It is the third game in the main Panzer Dragoon series and the only instalment that is not a rail shooter , combining traditional role @-@ playing elements such as random encounters with the 3D shooting elements of previous games .
The player controls Edge , a young mercenary who battles an empire on a flying dragon and encounters a mysterious girl from a vanished civilization . Unlike the other Panzer Dragoon games , whose gameplay takes place while flying on the dragon , the player has full 3D movement and some areas are explored on foot . The battle system mixes real @-@ time and turn @-@ based elements , with the player circling enemies on the dragon to expose weak spots and escape dangerous positions .
Development of Panzer Dragoon Saga began around the same time as that of its predecessor , Panzer Dragoon II Zwei ( 1996 ) . According to director Yukio Futatsugi , the need to blend the series ' shooting elements into an RPG with full 3D and voice acting - both unusual for RPGs at the time - made it the most difficult Panzer Dragoon game to develop . Two staff members died during its two @-@ year development , which Futatsugi attributed to the stressful working conditions of the video game industry .
According to GameRankings , Panzer Dragoon Saga is the most critically acclaimed Saturn game , winning praise for its story , graphics , music , and unusual battle system . It has appeared in several " greatest games of all time " lists . As Sega had shifted its focus to its next console , the Dreamcast , the game had a limited release outside Japan , attracting a cult following . It has not been rereleased and is now a rare collector 's item . After its release , Sega disbanded Team Andromeda ; several staff joined Sega 's Smilebit studio and went on to develop the final game in the series , Panzer Dragoon Orta , released for Xbox in 2002 .
= = Gameplay = =
Unlike the otherPanzer Dragoon games , which are rail shooters , Panzer Dragoon Saga is a role @-@ playing video game ( RPG ) . The player controls the young mercenary Edge , who flies a powerful dragon . Gameplay is divided into three modes : traversing large areas on the dragon , battling enemies , and exploring on foot . The game uses a random encounter system , whereby battles are triggered randomly as the player flies .
Movement is not " on rails " , and the player can explore the 3D environments in all directions . A targeting reticle is used to interact with locks , doors , and other elements ; on the dragon , this can also be used to fire lasers to activate triggers or break objects . On foot , Edge can talk to non @-@ player characters and buy items including health potions and weapon upgrades . Different zones are accessed via a map screen , which changes as the game progresses . Campsites serve as rest areas and save points .
As with other Panzer Dragoon games , the characters speak a fictional language , " Panzerese " , which combines elements of Ancient Greek , Latin and Russian . However , Panzerese is only used in the introduction sequence ; the rest of the dialogue is in Japanese , subtitled in English for the western release .
= = = Battle system = = =
Panzer Dragoon Saga 's battles mix real @-@ time and turn @-@ based elements , with three action gauges that charge in real time . When a gauge fills , the player can make a move , such as attacking or using an item such as a shield or poison cure . Waiting for multiple gauges to charge facilitates more options , such as making multiple moves in quick succession , but this gives the enemy more opportunity to attack . The speed at which the gauges charge is governed by the dragon 's agility attribute ; if this is higher than the enemy 's agility attribute , the player can make moves more frequently than the enemy , and vice @-@ versa .
During combat , the player can circle the enemy to expose weak points and escape dangerous positions . Changing position temporarily stops the gauges charging . Likewise , enemies may change position to force the dragon into vulnerable areas ; a radar at the bottom of the screen indicates safe , neutral and dangerous areas , with the front and rear areas typically posing the most danger . Weak points can sometimes only be attacked from dangerous areas , and enemies ' attack patterns often change mid @-@ battle , forcing the player to adapt .
The player can attack with the dragon 's laser , which strikes multiple targets simultaneously , or Edge 's gun , which focuses damage on a single target and is useful for striking weak points . Edge 's gun can be upgraded with power @-@ ups including three @-@ way fire and the " Sniper " modification , which deals additional damage to weak points . The dragon 's " berserks " , the equivalent of magic spells in other RPGs , have effects including powerful attacks , healing , and boosting the dragon 's defense or agility . Berserks require berserk points ( BP ) and sometimes multiple action gauges .
The dragon can be morphed to change its attack , defense , agility and spiritual attributes . Boosting one attribute diminishes another ; for example , boosting the attack attribute reduces the spiritual attribute , meaning berserks require more BP , while boosting means gauges fill faster at the expense of defense . Certain berserks are only available in certain dragon configurations .
= = Plot = =
Edge , a mercenary hired by the Empire , guards a site where artefacts from an ancient advanced civilization are being excavated . Fending off an ancient monster , he discovers a girl buried in a wall . The site is attacked by the mutinous Black Fleet , who seize the girl and kill Edge 's companions . Edge escapes with the help of a mysterious flying dragon and swears revenge on the Black Fleet leader , Craymen .
Edge rescues Gash , one of a band of scavengers called the Seekers , from a monster . Gash directs him to a nearby nomadic caravan , where he learns the location of the Black Fleet . Edge and the dragon defeat the fleet , but learn that Craymen has already reached the Tower , an ancient structure of tremendous power . They fend off an attack by the girl from the excavation site , who has sworn allegiance to Craymen and rides an enormous dragon , Atolm .
In the town of Zoah , Edge meets an engineer , Paet , who will trade information about the Tower for ancient artefacts . Searching an ancient vessel for parts , Edge is captured by imperial soldiers but rescued by Gash . Paet reveals that the Tower can be reached via the ruins of Uru ; there , Edge is attacked again by the girl and Atolm . After the battle , separated from their dragons , he and the girl fall into an ancient underground facility and form a truce to escape . The girl explains that she is an ancient bio @-@ engineered being named Azel , created in the facility , and designed to interface with ancient technology . After Edge 's dragon rescues them , Azel warns Edge that she will kill him if he crosses Craymen 's path again and leaves on Atolm .
Craymen surprises Edge in Zoah and asks for his help fighting the Empire . Paet tells Edge he can find the Tower by deactivating an ancient machine , Mel @-@ Kava , that obscures the Tower 's location with fog . In exchange for destroying an imperial base , the village leader gives Edge access to an ancient artefact that grants him a vision of Mel @-@ Kava 's location . Edge and the dragon destroy Mel @-@ Kava , clearing the fog , but are attacked again by Azel and Atolm . They shoot down Atolm and rescue Azel as she falls .
The Emperor 's flagship , Grig Orig , destroys Zoah , but the Black Fleet intervenes before Edge and the dragon are killed . At the Tower , Craymen tells Edge that it is one of several that manufacture monsters to combat humanity 's destructive forces . He needs Azel to activate the Tower and destroy the Empire before they can use it for themselves . Imperials arrive and capture Edge and Craymen . After the Emperor forces Azel to activate the Tower , monsters emerge and kill everyone but Edge and Azel , who escape on Edge 's dragon . At the Seeker stronghold , Gash explains that the Tower will destroy humanity if it is not deactivated . He believes Edge 's dragon is the prophesied Divine Visitor who will be humanity 's salvation . Edge and the dragon battle rampaging monsters and destroy the infested Grig Orig .
Edge rescues Azel from monsters in the Uru facility , where she has returned to contemplate her purpose . They infiltrate the Tower and Azel prepares to transfer Edge and the dragon into Sestren , the AI network that controls the towers . She confesses her love for Edge and he promises to return . Inside Sestren , Edge and the dragon defeat the network 's " anti @-@ dragon " programs . Through visions , Edge learns his dragon originated as the Heresy Program , a rogue AI purged from Sestren . The Heresy Program explains that the Divine Visitor is actually " the one from the outside world " who has guided Edge , and who must now destroy Sestren with Edge inside .
Gash awaits Edge in the desert , to no avail . Travelling alone , Azel asks directions across treacherous land .
= = Development = =
Panzer Dragoon Saga was developed by Sega 's Team Andromeda studio for the Saturn over approximately two years . Development began around the same time as development of the game 's predecessor , Panzer Dragoon II Zwei ( 1996 ) , with a team of about 40 , twice as many as the Zwei team . Director Yukio Futatsugi stated that Saga was the hardest Panzer Dragoon game to develop , as the team had to implement fully 3D environments and full voice acting , unusual for RPGs at the time .
It took about a year to rework the previous games ' shooting gameplay into an RPG . Once the team had settled on the core action of " locking on " to targets , such as enemies , NPCs , or other elements , the rest of the design followed . Futatsugi originally conceived a battle system in which the player would fight enemies for space , which became the game 's positioning system . The dragon 's morphing ability was added to compensate for the lack of a party of characters with different skills common in other RPGs . The team wanted to show the dragon morphing between forms , but dismissed the idea as too difficult to implement ; one day , a programmer surprised them with a working prototype , and the idea became a feature . After the battle system was finalized , development proceeded quickly and some members were moved to help complete Zwei .
Rather than create a " save @-@ the @-@ world " story with a large cast , Futatsugi wanted to concentrate on a small number of characters " who you are really close to " , which he felt would make the story more meaningful . An early version had Edge as an imperial soldier who defects ; Craymen also had an extensive backstory , explaining his motivations for betraying the Empire . Both stories were cut for time . Although Edge is not a silent protagonist , Futatsugi minimized his dialogue outside cutscenes to focus on Azel 's story , whom he felt was the most important character .
The team did not want the android Azel to be a typical energetic anime @-@ style heroine , and instead tried to make her simultaneously appealing and frightening . Her character underwent the most revisions , emphasizing her human and non @-@ human aspects , and one early design had a hole in her torso . Art director Manabu Kusunoki picked Katsumi Yokota to design the characters ; according to Futatsugi , Yokota is " a very , very good artist . The fragility of the character Azel exists because of Yokota @-@ san . "
The game uses the Zwei engine . As the dragon 's movement is not " on rails " , unlike other Panzer Dragoon games , the engine had to support free exploration along with battle sequences and real @-@ time morphing and shading ; according to GameSpot , this pushed the Saturn 's hardware further than any game . Futatsugi felt it would not have been possible on PlayStation , as the Saturn 's " cloudier " palette gives the Panzer Dragoon series its atmosphere . Rather than using pre @-@ recorded music , the game 's soundtrack is mostly generated via pulse @-@ code modulation by the Saturn ’ s sound hardware , as with Zwei .
Two staff died during development : one in a motorcycle accident and the other from suicide . Futatsugi attributed the deaths to the stressful working conditions of the video game industry . In 2013 , he said : " All we could do was carry on and finish the game - it was out of my hands . Part of me did want to stop though . That was definitely the toughest project I 've ever worked on . Personal relationships became strained . The stress was overwhelming . " Despite the difficulty of the project , he felt it had benefited from having " someone who plays the bad guy role , someone who acts a little selfish , acts a little forceful to the team to achieve specific goals ... Having team members that will support that kind of bad cop is necessary , and if they don 't exist then you can 't get those kind of results . "
= = Release = =
Panzer Dragoon Saga was released in North America in April 1998 on four CDs , one of the last Saturn games released outside Japan . As Sega had moved its focus to its next console , the Dreamcast , fewer than 20 @,@ 000 copies were released in the west and the game 's Japanese voice acting was subtitled rather than rerecorded in English . IGN 's Levi Buchanan characterized the release as an example of the Saturn 's " ignominious send @-@ off " , writing that " sunset Saturn games like Panzer Dragoon Saga and Burning Rangers demanded far better launches . The way these games were slipped into retail with zero fanfare and low circulation was insulting to both hard @-@ working developers and Sega fans . "
Because of its limited release , English @-@ language copies of Panzer Dragoon Saga are rare and sell for high prices . It has not been re @-@ released . In 2009 , game @-@ downloading service GameTap ’ s general manager Sene Sorrow stated that GameTap had the rights to distribute the game , but as Saturn emulation is difficult , he did not believe there was enough demand to make it a priority . In the same year , Futatsugi stated that Sega had lost the game 's source code , which would make porting the game difficult .
= = Reception and legacy = =
According to the review aggregator GameRankings , Panzer Dragoon Saga is the most critically acclaimed Saturn game , with an aggregate score of 92 % . It received praise for its graphics , gameplay , story and music , and many critics felt it was one of the best RPGs of all time . In 2007 , Game Informer wrote that " critically , the game was a smash hit , lauded as one of the year 's best , and generally considered the Saturn 's finest title . "
Edge praised the game 's range of enemies , tactical gameplay , and especially its extensive FMV cutscenes , which have " a cinematic quality that shames the work of almost every other developer " . It concluded that the game had " true creative integrity " and lamented that the Saturn 's failure meant it would not find a wider audience . Game Informer described it as " easily " the best Saturn RPG , praising its graphics , story , sound , and originality , and felt it was rivalled on other consoles only by Final Fantasy VII , released the previous year . Sega Saturn Magazine described the game as " a monumental effort , a work of art , and quite clearly a labour of love " , concluding that it was the best adventure on the Saturn . GameSpot praised its graphics , music , battle system , and story , concluding that it was " flawlessly executed " and " possibly the finest RPG of 1998 " . Electronic Gaming Monthly reviewers unanimously praised the game as one of the best RPGs of all time .
In 2007 , 1UP described Panzer Dragoon Saga as " the greatest RPG you 've never played " and one of the " most unique " RPGs of all time . In 2005 , Electronic Gaming Monthly placed Panzer Dragoon Saga # 1 in its list of cult classic games . Game Informer ranked it # 1 in its 2006 list of the " top 10 rare RPGs you need " . It was named one of best games of all time by Computer and Video Games in 2000 , Electronic Gaming Monthly in 2001 and 2006 , IGN readers in 2005 , IGN in 2007 and G4 in 2012 . In 2010 , NowGamer named it the 30th greatest retro game and called it " one of Sega ’ s greatest non @-@ hedgehog moments " .
After the game 's completion , Sega disbanded Team Andromeda . Futatsugi left Sega and joined Konami , while other staff moved to Sega teams including Smilebit , which went on to develop the final Panzer Dragoon game , Panzer Dragoon Orta ( 2002 ) , for Xbox .
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= Typhoon Vera ( 1983 ) =
Typhoon Vera , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Bebeng , was a tropical cyclone that brought significant flooding to the Philippines in July 1983 . The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression on July 12 east of the Philippines . Although the depression was initially slow to organize , the system headed west @-@ northwestward , strengthening to a tropical storm the following day and a typhoon on the July 14 . Vera moved onshore early the next day as a minimal typhoon in the Philippines before weakening slightly over the islands . However , Vera managed to restrengthen over the South China Sea while accelerating , later attaining winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . After crossing Hainan while still at peak intensity and moving into the northern portion of the Gulf of Tonkin , Vera gradually weakened before moving ashore in northern Vietnam on July 18 . By July 19 , Vera had dissipated inland .
Across the Philippines , Typhoon Vera killed 123 and left 60 missing and 45 hurt . Approximately 200 @,@ 000 people were homeless . The typhoon destroyed 29 @,@ 054 dwellings and " badly " damaged 5 @,@ 558 others . A total of 76 @,@ 346 homes were " partially " damaged . Moreover , 24 @,@ 280 people sought shelter due to Vera . Around 80 % of Manila 's residents lost power . Many low @-@ lying areas of Manila were underwater while strong winds damaged homes and trees . The province of Bataan sustained the worst damage from the storm and 10 nearby villages were destroyed . Throughout the province , 50 people perished , primarily due to drownings . In all , damage totaled $ 42 million ( 1983 USD ) . In addition to the impact on the Philippines , Typhoon Vera claimed three lives in Vietnam and damaged 2 @,@ 500 houses . Offshore China , a swimmer drowned due to rough seas caused by Vera .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Vera can be traced back to a poorly organized monsoon trough that extended westward from the Philippines to the 160th meridian east in early July . On July 4 , the storm developed a persistent circulation . Four days later , a pair of organized areas of convection began to form , one near the 120th meridian east and another close to Guam . A Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued at 0600 UTC on July 10 after the storm developed a well @-@ defined upper @-@ level circulation . However , further development was slow to occur and the TCFA was re @-@ issued 24 hours later despite Hurricane Hunters suggesting that the storm did not have a low @-@ level circulation . Early on July 12 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) upgraded the system into a tropical depression after Hurricane Hunters indicated that the system had developed a closed wind circulation . Twelve hours later , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical storm , bypassing the tropical depression stage .
After tropical cyclogenesis , the depression began to strengthen quite steadily . Meanwhile , the storm slowed down , and by July 13 , Verna turned west @-@ northwest and towards the Central Philippines . At 1200 UTC , the JMA estimated that Vera had deepened into a severe tropical storm . Several hours later , the JTWC upgraded the storm into a typhoon . At 0000 UTC on July 14 , the JMA upgraded Vera into a typhoon while skirting Samar . Around this time , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Bebeng . Even though meteorologists from the JTWC anticipated weakening as it moved through the island group , this did not occur . Convention gradually increased , until very early on July 15 , when the storm started to interact with rugged terrain near Manila . Around this time , the JMA downgraded Vera into a severe tropical storm as it passed very close to Manila Bay . Within the next several hours , the JMA decreased the winds to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Late on July 15 , the storm began to reintensify and the JTWC upgraded Vera back to typhoon status . Early the following morning , the JMA followed suit . Accelerating , the storm continued to slowly deepen and early on July 27 , the JMA reported that Vera reached its peak intensity , with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . Around this time , the JTWC estimated peak winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , making it equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . After crossing Hai @-@ Nan at peak intensity and moving into the northern portion of the Gulf of Tonkin , Vera slowly weakened before moving ashore near Haiphong at around 0000 UTC on July 18 . At the time of landfall , the JMA estimated winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Severe Tropical Storm Vera rapidly weakened over land and by July 19 , the JMA stopped monitoring Vera .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Prior to the arrival of Vera , schools and government offices were shut down . Railway services were suspended ; Philippine Airlines called off domestic services .
Upon making landfall , Vera became the first storm to hit the nation in eight months while helping to relieve drought conditions . Typhoon Vera killed 123 and left 60 others missing across the Philippines , including 100 in Luzon alone . A total of 145 people were also injured . Around 200 @,@ 000 people were homeless . The typhoon destroyed 29 @,@ 054 houses and " badly " damaged 5 @,@ 558 others . A total of 76 @,@ 346 homes were " partially " damaged , which directly affected 628 @,@ 985 people . According to authorities , 24 @,@ 280 persons sought shelter . Moreover , more than 40 domestic flights were canceled due to the storm .
About 80 % of Manila 's 7 million residents lost power due to the storm . Low @-@ lying areas of Manila were underwater as strong winds blew away roofs of shacks and uprooted trees . Throughout the city , four deaths happened . One man was electrocuted while another man was crushed by debris . Fifty people were confirmed to have died and 2 @,@ 089 dwellings were damaged in nearby Bataan after storm surge crashed into the area . Most of the casualties in Bataan were due to drownings ; the city was also the hardest hit by the storm . Throughout the area near Bataan , 10 villages were destroyed . In Pantalan Luma , all but four of the town 's 400 huts were destroyed .
About 30 houses in San Pablo , Laguna were either demolished by strong winds or by falling coconut trees . Elsewhere , in Zambales , a woman was killed after she was struck by lighting . In Lucena City , a farmer was swept away via floods and two boys died due to fallen trees . The resort city of Legaspi suffered severe damage because hundreds of dwellings were destroyed , forcing many residents to seek shelter in schools or churches . Along the east coast of Luzon , seven people perished when hit by falling coconut trees in Quezon . Meanwhile , three casualties occurred in a fire in the province of Sorsogon . A total of 15 people drowned in the town of Sexmoan . The nearby towns of Macabebe and Masantol saw two drownings each . In the city of Manila or the provinces of Batangas , Quezon , Laguna , and Cavite , 34 @,@ 000 people were displaced . Overall , damage totaled $ 42 million ( 1983 USD ) . Infrastructure damage totaled $ 31 million . However , damage to crops totaled to only $ 9 @.@ 4 million since residents were just beginning to replant fields .
According to the Philippine Red Cross , 26 @,@ 845 families necessitated emergency assistance . Government agencies were ordered to arrest profiteers , hoarders and looters . President Ferdinand Marcos ordered all relief agencies to submit damage reports so emergency funds can be issued .
= = = Vietnam and China = = =
After striking Vietnam , Typhoon Vera claimed three lives and damaged 2 @,@ 500 houses . Heavy rains helped alleviate a prolonged drought in northern Vietnam , which had prevented the planting of rice . Because Typhoon Vera posed a threat to Southern China , 36 bulletins were issued by the Hong Kong Royal Observatory . A Typhoon signal No. 3 was also issued . After passing south of the area , a peak windspeed of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) was measured at Tate 's Cairn . In addition , the storm generated showers and squally weather to the region . One swimmer drowned due to rough seas .
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= Alaska @-@ class cruiser =
The Alaska class was a class of six large cruisers ordered before World War II for the United States Navy . They were officially classed as large cruisers ( CB ) , but others have regarded them as battlecruisers . They were all named after territories or insular areas of the United States , signifying their intermediate status between larger battleships and smaller heavy / light cruisers . Of the six planned , two were completed , the third 's construction was suspended on 16 April 1947 , and the last three were canceled . Alaska and Guam served with the U.S. Navy for the last year of World War II as bombardment ships and fast carrier escorts . They were decommissioned in 1947 after spending only 32 and 29 months in service , respectively .
The idea for a large cruiser class originated in the early 1930s when the U.S. Navy sought to counter Deutschland @-@ class " pocket battleships " being launched by Germany . Planning for ships that eventually evolved into the Alaska class began in the late 1930s after the deployment of Germany 's Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships and rumors that Japan was constructing a new battlecruiser class . To serve as " cruiser @-@ killers " capable of seeking out and destroying these post @-@ Treaty heavy cruisers , the class was given large guns of a new and expensive design , limited armor protection against 12 @-@ inch shells , and machinery capable of speeds of about 31 – 33 knots ( 36 – 38 mph , 58 – 61 km / h ) .
= = Background = =
Heavy cruiser development steadied between World War I and World War II thanks to the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and successor treaties and conferences , where the United States , Britain , Japan , France , and Italy agreed to limit heavy cruisers to 10 @,@ 000 tons displacement with 8 @-@ inch main armament . Up until the Alaska class , US cruisers designed between the wars followed this pattern .
The initial impetus for the Alaska design came from the deployments of Germany 's so @-@ called pocket battleships in the early 1930s . Though no actions were immediately taken , these thoughts were revived in the late 1930s when intelligence reports indicated Japan was planning or building " super cruisers " that would be much more powerful than the current US heavy cruisers . The navy responded in 1938 when the General Board asked the Bureau of Construction and Repair to conduct a " comprehensive study of all types of naval vessels for consideration for a new and expanded building program " . The US President at the time , Franklin Delano Roosevelt , may have taken a lead role in the development of the class with his desire to have a counter to raiding abilities of Japanese cruisers and German pocket battleships . While these claims are difficult to verify , they have led to the speculation that their design was " politically motivated " . These were the most powerful cruisers ever built .
= = = Design = = =
One historian described the design process of the Alaska class as " torturous " due to the numerous changes and modifications made to the ship 's layouts by numerous departments and individuals . Indeed , there were at least nine different layouts , ranging from 6 @,@ 000 @-@ ton Atlanta @-@ class anti @-@ aircraft cruisers to " overgrown " heavy cruisers and a 38 @,@ 000 @-@ ton mini @-@ battleship that would have been armed with twelve 12 @-@ inch and sixteen 5 @-@ inch guns . The General Board , in an attempt to keep the displacement under 25 @,@ 000 tons , allowed the designs to offer only limited underwater protection . As a result , the Alaska class , when built , were vulnerable to torpedoes and shells that fell short of the ship . The final design was a scaled @-@ up Baltimore @-@ class class that had the same machinery as the Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers . This ship combined a main armament of nine 12 @-@ inch guns with protection against 10 @-@ inch gunfire into a hull that was capable of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) .
The Alaskas were officially funded in September 1940 along with a plethora of other ships as a part of the Two @-@ Ocean Navy Act . Their role had been altered slightly : in addition to their surface @-@ to @-@ surface role , they were planned to protect carrier groups . Because of their bigger guns , greater size and increased speed , they would be more valuable in this role than heavy cruisers , and would provide insurance against reports that Japan was building super cruisers more powerful than U.S. heavy cruisers .
= = = Possible conversion to aircraft carriers = = =
Yet another drastic change was considered during the " carrier panic " in late 1941 , when the Navy realized that they needed more aircraft carriers as quickly as possible . Many hulls currently under construction were considered for conversion into carriers . At different times , they considered some or all of the Cleveland @-@ class light cruisers , the Baltimore @-@ class heavy cruisers , the Alaska @-@ class , and even one of the Iowa @-@ class battleships ; in the end , they chose the Clevelands , resulting in the conversion of nine ships under construction at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation shipyard as the light aircraft carriers comprising the Independence @-@ class .
A conversion of the Alaska cruisers to carriers was " particularly attractive " because of the many similarities between the design of the Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers and the Alaska class , including the same machinery . However , when Alaska cruisers were compared to the Essex carriers , converted cruisers would have had a shorter flight deck ( so they could carry only 90 % of the aircraft ) , would have been 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) lower in the water , and could travel 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ) less at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . In addition , the large cruiser design did not include the massive underwater protections found in normal carriers due to the armor weight devoted to counter shell fire . Lastly , an Alaska conversion could not satisfy the navy 's goal of having new aircraft carriers quickly , as the work needed to modify the ships into carriers would entail long delays . With this in mind , all planning to convert the Alaskas was abandoned on 7 January 1942 .
= = Construction = =
Of the six Alaska @-@ class cruisers that were planned , only three were laid down . The first two , Alaska and Guam , were completed . Construction of Hawaii , the third , was suspended on 16 April 1947 when she was 84 % complete . The last three , Philippines , Puerto Rico , and Samoa , were delayed since all available materials and slipways were allocated to higher priority ships , such as aircraft carriers , destroyers , and submarines . Construction had still not begun when steel shortages and a realization that these " cruiser @-@ killers " had no more cruisers to hunt — as the fleets of Japanese cruisers had already been defeated by aircraft and submarines — made the ships " white elephants " . As a result , construction of the last three members of the class never began , and they were officially canceled on 24 June 1943 .
= = Service history = =
Alaska and Guam served with the U.S. Navy during the last year of World War II . Similar to the Iowa @-@ class fast battleships , their speed made them useful as shore bombardment ships and fast carrier escorts . Both protected Franklin when she was on her way to be repaired in Guam after being hit by two Japanese bombs . Afterward , Alaska supported the landings on Okinawa , while Guam went to San Pedro Bay to become the leader of a new task force , Cruiser Task Force 95 . Guam , joined by Alaska , four light cruisers , and nine destroyers , led the task force into the East China and Yellow Seas to conduct raids upon shipping ; however , they only encountered Chinese junks . By the end of the war , the two had become celebrated within the fleet as excellent carrier escorts . During the war , both ships were part of Cruiser Division 16 commanded by Rear Admiral Francis S. Low , USN .
After the war , both ships served as part of Task Force 71 , the designation for the U.S. Seventh Fleet 's North China Naval Force . Its mission was to support the allied occupation of the Korean peninsula . This included executing various show @-@ the @-@ flag operations along the western coast of Korea as well as in the Gulf of Chihli . These naval demonstrations preceded Operation Campus , the amphibious landing of U.S. Army ground forces at Jinsen , Korea , on 8 September 1945 . Subsequently , both ships returned to the United States in mid @-@ December 1945 , and they were decommissioned and " mothballed " in 1947 @.@ after having spent 32 months ( Alaska ) and 29 months ( Guam ) in service .
In 1958 , the Bureau of Ships prepared two feasibility studies to explore whether Alaska and Guam could be suitably converted into guided @-@ missile cruisers . The first study involved removing all of the guns in favor of four different missile systems . At $ 160 million , the cost of this proposed removal was seen as prohibitive , so a second study was initiated . The study left the forward batteries ( the two 12 @-@ inch triple turrets and three of the 5 @-@ inch dual turrets ) unchanged , and added a reduced version of the first plan on the stern of the ship . Even though the proposals would have cost approximately half as much as the first study 's plan ( $ 82 million ) , it was still seen as too expensive . As a result , both ships were stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 June 1960 . Alaska was sold for scrap on 30 June 1960 , and Guam on 24 May 1961 .
The still @-@ incomplete Hawaii was considered for a conversion to be the Navy 's first guided @-@ missile cruiser ; this thought lasted until 26 February 1952 , when a different conversion to a " large command ship " was contemplated . In anticipation of the conversion , her classification was changed to CBC @-@ 1 . This would have made her a " larger sister " to Northampton , but a year and a half later ( 9 October 1954 ) she was re @-@ designated CB @-@ 3 . Hawaii was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 9 June 1958 and was sold for scrap in 1959 .
= = " Large cruisers " or " battlecruisers " = =
Early in its development , the class used the US battlecruiser designation CC , which had been planned for the Lexington class . However , the designation was changed to CB to reflect their new status , " large cruiser " , and the practice of referring to them as battlecruisers was officially discouraged . The U.S. Navy then named the individual vessels after U.S. territories , rather than states ( as was the tradition with battleships ) or cities ( for which cruisers were named ) , to symbolize the belief that these ships were supposed to play an intermediate role between heavy cruisers and fully @-@ fledged battleships .
The Alaska class certainly resembled contemporary US battleships ( particularly the North Carolina class , South Dakota class , and Iowa class ) in appearance , including the familiar 2 @-@ A @-@ 1 main battery and massive columnar mast , and displaced twice that of the newest heavy cruisers ( the Baltimore class ) . In weight , the ships were only 5 @,@ 000 tons less than the London Treaty battleship standard displacement limit of 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) , also longer than several treaty battleships such as the King George V and North Carolina @-@ classes .
In design and armor the Alaska class are regarded as " large cruisers " rather than battlecruisers . Their design was scaled up from the treaty cruisers limited by the Washington , London and Second London naval treaties . In common with U.S. heavy cruisers , they had aircraft hangars and a single large rudder . Their armor lacked the underwater protection systems found on full @-@ fledged battleships and even intermediate capital ships like the French Dunkerque and German Scharnhorst classes . This left the Alaskas virtually defenseless against torpedoes , as well as vulnerable to shells falling slightly short and continuing underwater to hit the hull . While the Alaskas had more side armor than other contemporary U.S. cruisers , their protection was only marginally capable of stopping 12 " fire ; they were vulnerable to battleship fire ( 14 – 16 " fire ) at any range .
In addition , despite being much larger than the Baltimore class , the numbers of secondary and anti @-@ aircraft batteries of the Alaskas were similar . Whereas the Alaska class carried twelve 5 " / 38 caliber in six twin turrets , fifty @-@ six 40 mm , and thirty @-@ four 20 mm guns , the Baltimore class carried the same number of 5 " / 38s , eight fewer 40 mm , and ten fewer 20 mm . , considerably fewer than new U.S. battleships that had ten ( save for South Dakota ( BB @-@ 57 ) ) 5 " / 38 twin mounts while older refitted U.S. battleships had eight . Author Richard Worth remarked that when they were finally completed , launched , and commissioned , they had the " size of a battleship but the capabilities of a cruiser " . The Alaska class was similarly expensive to build and maintain as contemporary battleships yet far less capable due to armor deficiencies , while only able to put up an anti @-@ aircraft defense comparable to the much cheaper Baltimore cruisers .
Despite these cruiser @-@ like characteristics , and the U.S. Navy 's insistence on their status as cruisers , the Alaska class has been frequently described as battlecruisers . The official navy magazine All Hands said " The Guam and her sister ship Alaska are the first American battle cruisers ever to be completed as such . " Some modern historians take the view that this is a more accurate designation because they believe that the ships were " in all senses of the word , battlecruisers " , with all the vulnerabilities of the type . The traditional Anglo @-@ American battlecruiser concept had always sacrificed protection for the sake of speed and armament — they were not intended to stand up against the guns they themselves carried . The Alaska 's percentage of armor tonnage , 28 @.@ 4 % , was slightly less than that of fast battleships ; the British King George V @-@ class , the American Iowa class , and the battlecruiser / fast battleship HMS Hood all had armor percentages between 32 and 33 % , whereas the Lexington @-@ class battlecruiser design had a nearly identical armor percentage of 28 @.@ 5 % . In fact , older battlecruisers , such as the Invincible ( 19 @.@ 9 % ) , had a significantly lower percentage . Armament @-@ wise , they had much larger guns than contemporary heavy cruisers ; while the Baltimore class only carried nine 8 " / 55 caliber Marks 12 and 15 guns , the Alaska class carried nine 12 " / 50 caliber guns that were as good as , if not superior to , the old 14 " / 50 caliber gun used on the U.S. Navy 's pre @-@ treaty battleships .
= = Armament = =
= = = Main battery = = =
As built , the Alaska class had nine 12 " / 50 caliber Mark 8 guns mounted in three triple ( 3 @-@ gun ) turrets , with two turrets forward and one aft , a configuration known as " 2 @-@ A @-@ 1 " . The previous 12 " gun manufactured for the U.S. Navy was the Mark 7 version , which had been designed for and installed in the 1912 Wyoming @-@ class battleships . The Mark 8 was of considerably higher quality ; in fact , it " was by far the most powerful weapon of its caliber ever placed in service . " Designed in 1939 , it weighed 121 @,@ 856 pounds ( 55 @,@ 273 kg ) , including the breech , and could sustain an average rate of fire of 2 @.@ 4 – 3 rounds a minute . It could throw a 1 @,@ 140 @-@ pound ( 520 kg ) Mark 18 armor @-@ piercing shell 38 @,@ 573 yards ( 35 @,@ 271 m ) at an elevation of 45 ° , and had a 344 @-@ shot barrel life ( about 54 more than the much larger but similar 16 " / 50 caliber Mark 7 gun found in the Iowa battleships . ) . The Alaska 's Mark 8 guns were the heaviest main battery of any cruiser of World War II , and as capable as the old 14 " / 50 caliber gun used on the U.S. Navy 's pre @-@ treaty battleships .
The turrets were very similar to those of the Iowa @-@ class battleships , but differed in several ways ; for example , the Alaska class had a two @-@ stage powder hoist instead of the Iowa class 's one @-@ stage hoist . These differences made operating the guns safer and increased the rate of fire . In addition , a " projectile rammer " was added to Alaska and Guam . This machine transferred shells from storage on the ship to the rotating ring that fed the guns . However , this feature proved unsatisfactory , and it was not planned for Hawaii or any subsequent ships .
Because Alaska and Guam were the only two ships to mount these guns , only ten turrets were made during the war ( three for each ship including Hawaii and one spare ) . They cost $ 1 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 each and were the most expensive heavy guns purchased by the U.S. Navy in World War II .
= = = Secondary battery = = =
The secondary battery of the Alaska class was composed of twelve dual @-@ purpose ( anti @-@ air and anti @-@ ship ) 5 " / 38 caliber guns in twin mounts , with four offset on each side of the superstructure ( two on each beam ) and two centerline turrets fore and aft . The 5 " / 38 was originally intended for use on only destroyers built in the 1930s , but by 1934 and into World War II it was being installed on almost all of the U.S. ' s major warships , including aircraft carriers , battleships , and heavy and light cruisers .
= = = Anti @-@ aircraft battery = = =
For anti @-@ aircraft armament , the Alaska @-@ class ships carried 56 × 40 mm guns and 34 × 20 mm guns . These numbers are comparable to 48 × 40 mm and 24 × 20 mm on the smaller Baltimore @-@ class heavy cruisers and 80 × 40 mm and 49 × 20 mm on the larger Iowa battleships .
Arguably the most efficient light anti @-@ aircraft gun of World War II , the 40 mm Bofors was used on nearly every major warship in the U.S. and UK fleets during World War II from about 1943 to 1945 . Although they were a descendant of German and Swedish designs , the Bofors mounts used by the United States Navy during World War II had been heavily " Americanized " to U.S. Navy standards . This new standard resulted in a gun system set to English standards ( now known as the Standard System ) with interchangeable ammunition , simplifying the logistics situation for World War II . When coupled with hydraulic couple drives to reduce salt contamination and the Mark 51 director for improved accuracy , the 40 mm Bofors became a fearsome adversary , accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircraft shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945 .
The Oerlikon 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun was one of the most extensively used anti @-@ aircraft guns of World War II ; the U.S. alone manufactured a total of 124 @,@ 735 of these guns . When activated in 1941 , they replaced the 0 @.@ 50 " M2 Browning machine gun on a one @-@ for @-@ one basis . The Oerlikon gun remained the primary anti @-@ aircraft weapon of the United States Navy until the introduction of the 40 mm Bofors in 1943 .
= = Ships = =
USS Alaska ( CB @-@ 1 ) was commissioned on 17 June 1944 . She served in the Pacific , screening aircraft carriers , providing shore bombardment at Okinawa , and going on raiding missions in the East China Sea . She was decommissioned on 17 February 1947 after less than three years of service and was scrapped in 1960 .
USS Guam ( CB @-@ 2 ) was commissioned on 17 September 1944 . She served in the Pacific with Alaska on almost all of the same operations . Along with Alaska , she was decommissioned on 17 February 1947 and was scrapped in 1961 .
USS Hawaii ( CB @-@ 3 ) was intended as a third ship of the class , but she was never completed . Numerous plans to utilize her as a guided @-@ missile cruiser or a large command ship in the years after the war were fruitless , and she was scrapped .
USS Philippines ( CB @-@ 4 ) , Puerto Rico ( CB @-@ 5 ) , and Samoa ( CB @-@ 6 ) were planned as the fourth , fifth , and sixth ships of the class , respectively . All were going to be built at Camden , New Jersey , but they were canceled before construction could begin .
= = Endnotes = =
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= Vijayanagara literature in Kannada =
Vijayanagara literature in Kannada is the body of literature composed in the Kannada language of South India during the ascendancy of the Vijayanagara Empire which lasted from the 14th through the 16th century . The Vijayanagara empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I. Although it lasted until 1664 , its power declined after a major military defeat by the Shahi Sultanates in the battle of Talikota in 1565 . The empire is named after its capital city Vijayanagara , whose ruins surround modern Hampi , now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka .
Kannada literature during this period consisted of writings relating to the socio @-@ religious developments of the Veerashaiva and Vaishnava faiths , and to a lesser extent to that of Jainism . Writing on secular topics was popular throughout this period . Authorship of these writings was not limited to poets and scholars alone . Significant literary contributions were made by members of the royal family , their ministers , army commanders of rank , nobility and the various subordinate rulers . In addition , a vast body of devotional folk literature was written by musical bards , mystics and saint @-@ poets , influencing society in the empire . Writers of this period popularised use of the native metres : shatpadi ( six @-@ line verse ) , sangatya ( compositions meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument ) , and tripadi ( three @-@ line verse ) .
The development of Veerashaiva literature was at its peak during the reign of King Deva Raya II , the best @-@ known of the Sangama dynasty rulers . The rule of King Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty and his successors was a high point in Vaishnava literature . The influence of Jain literature , which had dominated Kannada language in the previous centuries , was on the wane with increasing competition from the resurgent Veerashaiva faith and Vaishnava bhakti movement ( devotional movement of the haridasas ) . Interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures left lasting influences that continued after the Vijayanagara era .
= = Court literature = =
= = = Overview = = =
Before the 12th century , Jain writers had dominated Kannada literature with their champu ( verses mixed with prose ) style of writings popular in court literature . In the later medieval period , they had to contend with the Veerashaivas who challenged the very notion of royal literature with their vachana poetry , a stylised form of spoken language , more popular in folk genres . The popular growth of Veerashaiva ( devotees of the Hindu god Shiva ) literature began in the 12th century , while Vaishnava ( devotees of the Hindu god Vishnu ) writers began to exert their influence from the 15th century . Jain writers had to reinvent their art , moving away from the traditional themes of renunciation and tenets to focus on contemporary topics . Andayya 's 13th century classic Kabbigara Kava ( " Poets defender " ) was an early example of the change in literary style , and also reflected the hostility toward the Veerashaivas ; the Jain author found it ideal to narrate the story of Manmatha , the God of Love , who turned Shiva into a half woman . The Veerashaivas had initiated an important change , casting aside the concept of formal literature and making way for shorter local genres . The Vaishnava haridasas later popularised musical forms that were more acceptable to the common man . Written classics eulogising kings and commanders were a thing of the past . Kannada literature had moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions , with singability being its hallmark , and devotion to God its goal .
This significant shift in the literary landscape was coupled with major political changes that were taking place in southern India in the early 14th century . With the decline of the regional Hindu kingdoms , the Vijayanagara Empire had risen as a bulwark against Muslim incursions from the north while creating an atmosphere conducive to development of the fine arts . In an important age of Kannada literature , competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers came to the fore . Literary disputations between the two sects were common , especially in the court of King Deva Raya II . Acute rivalry led to " organised processions " in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects . With the exception of the best @-@ known writers from these faiths , many authors produced lesser quality writings with a sectarian and propagandist bent .
The Vaishnava writers consisted of two groups who seemed to have no interaction with each other : the Brahmin commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty ; and the Bhakti ( devotion ) poets who played no role in courtly matters , instead taking the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs composed using folk genres . Kumara Vyasa and Timmanna Kavi were well @-@ known among the Brahmin commentators , while Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa were the most famous of the Bhakti writers . The philosophy of Madhvacharya , which originated in the Kannada – speaking region in the 13th century , spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries . The itinerant haridasas , best described as mystic saint @-@ poets , spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada , winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of jnana ( enlightenment ) , bhakti ( devotion ) and vairagya ( detachment ) .
This was the age of the shatpadi metre , although only the most skilled of poets , such as Chamarasa , Kumara Vyasa , Kanaka Dasa and Bhaskara used it to the best effect . Mentioned for the first time in Kannada literature by Nagavarma I in his Chhandombudhi ( c . 990 ) and successfully used by the 12th century Hoysala poet Raghavanka , this hexa @-@ metre style suited for narrative poetry found immense popularity throughout the Vijayanagara period . The shataka metre ( string of 100 verses ) was put to best use by the Veerashaivas who produced most of the didactic writings in this metre , although the Jain poet Ratnakaravarni is the most famous exponent of it . The writings of Ratnakaravarni and Kanaka Dasa in sangatya metre are considered masterpieces from this period .
In the royal courts , there was increased interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures , continuing a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period . Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular . Well @-@ known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi , Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya . Some Telugu poets , including Dhurjati , were so well versed in Kannada that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings . It was because of this " familiarity " with Kannada language that the notable writer Srinatha called his Telugu writings " Kannada " . Translations by bilingual writers continued in the centuries to follow .
With the disintegration of the Vijayanagara Empire in the late 16th and early 17th centuries , the centres of Kannada literature moved to the courts of the emerging independent kingdoms , the Kingdom of Mysore and the Keladi Nayakas . Writers in these courts , many of whom were Veerashaiva by faith , were not only adept in Kannada but often also in Sanskrit and / or Telugu . Two such writers were Kalale Nanjaraja and Kempe Gowda , the founder of Bangalore . This multi @-@ linguality was perhaps a lingering legacy of the cosmopolitan Vijayanagara literary culture and the emerging social responsibilities of the Veerashaiva monastic order which no longer confined itself to a Kannada only audience , but rather sought to spread its influence across southern India .
In the Kingdom of Mysore , the Veerashaiva literary school was challenged by the growing influence of the Srivaishnava intelligentsia in the Wodeyar court . The Srivaishnava writers ( followers of a sect of Vaishnavism ) of Kannada literature were also in competition with Telugu and Sanskrit writers , their predominance continuing into the English colonial rule over the princely state of Mysore . Meanwhile , the radical writings of 16th @-@ century poet Ratnakaravarni had made way for a new kind of poetry heralded by those who were not poets in the traditional courtly sense , rather itinerant poets who travelled across the Kannada @-@ speaking region , cutting across court and monastery , writing poems ( in the tripadi metre ) and influencing the lives of people with their humanistic values which overcame the social barriers of caste and religion . Sarvajna ( often compared to Telugu poet Vemana ) , Sisunala Sherif , Mupina Sadakshari , Navalingayogi and Kadakolada Madivalappa are the best @-@ known among them . These maverick poets heralded yet another epoch of unconventional literature in Kannada language , free of courtly conservatism and established literary tastes .
= = = Vaishnava writings = = =
Vaishnava authors wrote treatments of the Hindu epics , the Ramayana , the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata , as well as the Vedanta and other subjects from the Hindu puranic traditions . This was the age of Kumara Vyasa , an influential Vaishnava poet and a doyen of medieval Kannada epic poetry . Historians have drawn parallels between Adikavi Pampa ( c . 941 ) and Kumaraya Vyasa , while identifying fundamental differences in their style . Both are considered masters of their respective periods ; while Pampa is identified as a stylist of the classical age , Kumara Vyasa is considered a generalist of the medieval age . Unlike Pampa , a product of the marga ( Sanskritic @-@ mainstream ) period of Kannada literature , Kumara Vyasa successfully wielded the flexibility of the desi ( native ) shatpadi metre , which used a range of language that included metaphors , similes , humour and even vulgarity .
Kumara Vyasa wrote Gadugina Bharata in 1430 in the Vyasa tradition . The title of the work is a reference to Gadagu ( modern Gadag ) , where the author lived . The writing is based on the first ten chapters of the Hindu epic Mahabharata and is also alternatively titled Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari or Kumaravyasa Bharata . It is a dedication to the deity of Gadag and emphasises the divinity and grace of the Hindu god Krishna . Unlike Pampa , who adhered to a strictly Jain interpretation of the epic in his Vikramarjuna Vijaya ( 941 ) , eulogising Pandava Arjuna as the hero , making Draupadi solely Arjuna 's wife and casting the Kaurava prince Duryodhana and his loyal companion Karna as lofty individuals , Kumara Vyasa portrays all characters with the exception of Krishna as deeply human with foibles . His depiction of the secondary characters , such as the cunning Keechaka and the coward Uttara Kumara , is also noteworthy . An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humour exhibited by the poet and his hero , Krishna . This work marks the transition in Kannada literature from old to modern . Particularly known for his use of sophisticated metaphors , Kumara Vyasa earned the title Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti ( " Emperor of the land of Metaphors " ) . The remaining chapters of the epic were translated by Timmanna Kavi ( 1510 ) of the court of King Krishnadevaraya . The poet named his work Krishnaraya Bharata after his patron king . Airavata ( 1430 ) by Kumara Vyasa recounts an episode from the Mahabharata and is a story of the elephant ridden by god Indra .
Inspired by Kumara Vyasa , the first complete brahminical adaptation of the epic Ramayana was written by Kumara Valmiki ( a pseudonym of Narahari , 1500 ) and is called Torave Ramayana after the village Torave , where it was composed . As with the Mahabharata , this adaptation veers away from the Jain version by Nagachandra ( 1105 ) . Nagachandra had used the champu metre popular in Sanskrit works and sought to portray Ravana as a tragic hero . In a departure from the original version ( by Valmiki ) , the Jain epic ends with Rama 's asceticism and nirvana . Kumara Valmiki 's account , written in the Valmiki tradition , is in the shatpadi metre and is steeped in the author 's devotion for the god Rama , an incarnation of the god Vishnu . According to the author , the epic he wrote was actually a recounting of Shiva 's conversation with his consort Parvati . In this version of the epic , King Ravana , the villain , is one of the suitors at Sita 's Swayamvara ( lit a ceremony of " choice of a husband " ) . His failure in winning the bride 's hand results in jealousy towards Rama , the eventual bridegroom . As the story progresses , Hanuman , for all his services , is heaped with encomium and is exalted to the status of " the next creator " . At the end of the story , during the war with Rama , Ravana realises that Rama is none other than the god Vishnu and hastens to die at his hands to achieve salvation . The chapter narrating the war ( Yuddhakanda ) is given prominence over all other chapters . The writing has remained popular for centuries and inspired folk theatre such as the Yakshagana , which draws from episodes of Torave Ramayana for enactment . The influence of the Puranic tradition and that of Madhavacharya are visible in this lively yet religious narration that uses every opportunity to glorify its hero , Rama . However , the author has been criticised for dwelling in abstractions and for not reaching the graceful poetic level of his predecessor Kumara Vyasa .
The early Bhagavata writings in Sanskrit by well @-@ known acharyas ( gurus ) were solely meant to have a proselytising effect on the masses , encouraging them to a theistic way of life and belief in the god Krishna . Chatu Vitthalanatha , who flourished as a court poet of King Krishnadeva Raya and his successor King Achyuta Raya , was the first to translate the Bhagavata into Kannada in a voluminous writing comprising 12 @,@ 247 stanzas divided into 280 sections . The work covered the entire original version in shatpadi metre . Two other names appear in the colophons , Sadananda Yati and Nityatma Sukayogi , prompting some scholars to attribute the work to the group while others consider them alternate names of the same writer . The work covers all ten avatars of the god Vishnu , though it is essentially centred on the depiction of Krishna as the supreme Lord . The purana covers stories of Vishnu 's famous devotees such as Prahlad and Dhruva in detail , as well as stories of demons Vritasura , Hiranyakashipu and others who sought to attain salvation by dying at the hands of Vishnu . Most noteworthy is the epic 's influence on the compositions of the Haridasas . Though the writing is not considered as important as the other two epics of the period , its significance to religiously minded people is well accepted . Chatu Vitthalanatha wrote a fuller version of portions of the epic Mahabharata as well . Other notable writers of the 16th century were Tirumala Bhatta ( Siva Gite ) and Ramendra ( Saundarya Katharatna , using tripadi metre ) .
= = = Veerashaiva writings = = =
The Veerashaiva writers were devotees of the Hindu god Shiva , his 25 forms , and the expositions of Shaivism . An important development in their literature during this period was the recasting the saints of the 12th century Veerashaiva movement ( Basavanna , Allama Prabhu and others ) as the protagonists of their writings .
Bhima Kavi paved the way for the shatpadi metre tradition in his work Basavapurana ( c.1369 ) , a form first experimented with by the 12th century Hoysala poet Raghavanka . Bhima Kavi 's work , a biography of Basavanna , is an important Veerashaiva purana . It was inspired by earlier biographies of Basavanna by the Hoysala poet Harihara ( the author of the first biographical narrative poem of the protagonist 's life called Basavaraja Ragale ) and the Telugu writings of Palkuriki Somanatha of the 13th century . Bhima Kavi humbly acknowledges and eulogises his predecessors in a writing full of well @-@ known personalities .
The author starts with Basavanna 's birth and weaves episodes of other famous sharanas ( devotees of Hindu god Shiva ) — such as Allama Prabhu — into his life history . Basavanna is depicted as a saintly person , a great devotee of Shiva , an incarnation of Nandi , a man of miracles and one with a mission , sent to re @-@ establish the Veerashaiva faith on earth . The work is arranged into eight aswasas ( divisions ) containing sixty @-@ one sandhis ( chapters ) and 3 @,@ 621 verses . The narration includes stories of devotees of Shiva who overcame their egos . Apart from a few variations , the writings of Bhima Kavi and his predecessors are complementary . Two lost works of Bhima Kavi are the Bhimakaviswara Ragale and the Bhringidandaka .
Chamarasa , Lakkanna Dandesa and Jakkanarya flourished under the patronage of King Deva Raya II . Chamarasa , champion of the Veerashaiva faith , was a rival of Kumara Vyasa in the court of King Deva Raya II . His magnum opus , the Prabhulinga Lile ( 1430 ) was a eulogy of 12th @-@ century saint Allama Prabhu ; it was translated into Telugu and Tamil language at the behest of his patron king , and later into the Sanskrit and Marathi languages . In the story , the saint is considered an incarnation of Hindu god Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi . In stark contrast to Kumara Vyasa 's war @-@ torn epic , Chamarasa delivered a writing full of spirituality . A remark made by the poet in the writing , that his story is " not about ordinary mortals " , implied that the Vaishnava epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were about mortals ; this was evidence of rivalry between the two faiths .
Lakkanna Dandesa , the king 's prime minister and provincial governor , wrote an encyclopaedia on the beliefs and rites of the Veerashaiva faith titled Sivatattva Chintamani . This work is an account of the life of Basavanna , the progenitor of the faith , and hundreds of his followers , making it valuable material for students of the Lingayat movement . Numerous references are made in this work to the capital city of Vijayanagara and its suburbs . Jakkanarya , a minister in the court , not only wrote Nurondusthala ( one hundred and one stories ) but also was patron to Kumarabanka Natha and Mahalinga Deva , poet @-@ saints who wrote vachana poems and books on the Shaiva philosophy ( called shatsthala ) . Other writers of the 15th century worthy of mention are Kavi Linga ( 1490 ) , court poet of King Saluva Narasimha I , Adrisappa ( Praudaraya Charitra ) , Bommarasa ( Soundara Purana ) , Kallarasa ( Janavasya ) , Chaturmukha Bommarasa ( Revanasiddhesvara Purana ) , Suranga Kavi ( Trisashti Puratanara Charitre ) , and Nilakanthacharya ( Aradhya Charitra ) , court poet of the Ummattur chieftain Virananjendra .
In 1500 , inspired by Palkuriki Somanatha ( a bilingual poet in Kannada and Telugu ) , Singiraja synthesised an account on the life of Basavanna titled Maha Basavaraja Charitra ( or Singiraja Purana ) , using the protagonist 's vachana poems and giving details of his 88 famous deeds , as well as information about his opponents in the court of Southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II . An eminent poet of this time was Guru Basava , known for his authorship of seven famous poems ( Sapta Kavya ) , all but one being written in the shatpadi metre . He expounded on religious teachings in the form of formal discussions between the guru and disciple . His kavyas ( classical epic poems ) deal with spiritualism and extrasensory perception .
Mallanarya of Gubbi , a poet bilingual in Kannada and Sanskrit , enjoyed the patronage of King Krishnadeva Raya . His important writings in Kannada in the shatpadi metre are the Bhava Chintaratna ( also called Satyendra Chole Kathe , 1513 ) and the Virasaivamrita Purana ( 1530 ) . The former was based on a 7th @-@ century Tamil work and about a Chola King in the context of the Shaiva faith ; the latter is a writing of encyclopedic proportions that goes beyond philosophical content , describing the various forms ( or sports , called lila ) of god Shiva and the lives of famous Shaiva saints .
In 1584 , Virupaksha Pandita , the head priest at the Virupaksha Temple in Vijayanagara , wrote an account on the life and deeds of the 12th @-@ century saint and vachana poet Chennabasava . The writing , titled Chenna Basava Purana , regards the protagonist as an incarnation of god Shiva and describes the glory of Shiva and his famous devotees . The book gives valuable information , including dates , about early Veerashaiva saints and vachanakaras ( vachana poets ) . In addition to religious content , the writing provides useful insights about the former capital Vijayanagara , its royal palace , its market places and merchants , its military encampments , specialisations and divisions and the guilds of workers who served the military in various capacities . Other authors from the 16th century were Chermanka ( Chermanka Kavya ) , Virabhadraraja ( Virabhadra Vijaya ) , Chennabasavanka ( Mahadevi Akkanna Purana ) , Nanjunda of Ikkeri ( Bhairavaesvara Kavya ) and Sadasiva Yogi ( Ramanatha Vilasa ) .
= = = Jain writings = = =
The cultural supremacy of the Jains steadily diminished from the 12th century ; the decline began in the 10th century after the conquest of the predominantly Jain Rashtrakutas by the Western Chalukya Empire , and the defeat of the Ganga kingdom by the Cholas of Tanjore . While Veerashaivism flourished in northern Karnataka from the time of Basavanna , Sri Vaishnavism ( a branch of Vaishnavism ) thrived in the South due to the influence of Ramanujacharya . The Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana and his descendants took to Vaishnavism . Though tolerant of all faiths , the founders of the Vijayanagara Empire and the succeeding kings of the Sangama dynasty were Shaivas by faith ( devotees of Shiva ) while the later Tuluva dynasty kings were Sri Vaishnavas ( followers of Sri Vaishnavism ) . The Jain population appears to have begun its decline from this period ; however , available records include a decree by King Bukka Raya I giving Jains freedom of worship , following their complaint of persecution . Although the influence of Jainism and its literature was on the wane , the coastal areas of modern Karnataka , where important Jain monuments and monoliths were constructed , remained a stronghold . As in earlier centuries , Jain authors wrote about tirthankars , princes and other personages important to the Jain religion . Most famous among Jain poets from the coastal Karnataka region were Ratnakaravarni , Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda , Salva and Nemanna .
Ratnakaravarni of Mudabidri ( 1557 ) , court poet at Karkala under the patronage of Bhairasa Wodeyar , is famous for successfully integrating an element of worldly pleasure into asceticism and for treating the topic of eros with discretion in a religious epic , his magnum opus the Bharatadesa Vaibhava . One of the most popular poets of Kannada literature , Ratnakaravarni 's writings were popular across religions and sects . He appears to have had tense relationships with both court and monastery , however , owing to writings on erotics and the science of pleasure , rather than purely spiritual poetry . A radical and sensitive poet , he once claimed that spiritual meditation " was boring " . Tradition has it that Ratnakaravarni converted to Veerashaivism when his Bharatadesa Vaibhava ( also called Bharatesvara Charite ) was initially scorned , later to return to the Jain fold and pen other important writings . The Bharatadesa Vaibhava is written in eighty cantos and includes 10 @,@ 000 verses . His other important writings include the 2 @,@ 000 spiritual songs called Annagalapada ( " Songs of the Brothers " ) and the three shatakas : the Ratnakara sataka , the Aparajitesvara shataka ( a discourse on Jain morals , renunciation and philosophy ) and the Trilokya shataka , an account of the universe as seen by Jains , consisting of heaven , hell and the intermediate worlds .
Bharatadesa Vaibhava is a version of the earlier Poorvapurana by Jinasenacharya and reflects a different perspective than the Adipurana written by Adikavi Pampa c . 941 . Centred on the glorification of the enlightened Bharata , the son of the first Jain tirthankar Adinatha , Ratnakaravarni cleverly focuses on those aspects that the original by Pampa ignored . Ratnakaravarni goes into minute detail about prince Bharata who , according to the author , serves as the ideal balance between detachment ( yoga ) and attachment ( bhoga ) . Though married to " 96 @,@ 000 women " , Bharata is depicted as one who at once could separate himself from worldly pleasures . Unlike Pampa , who focused on the conflict between the brothers Bahubali and Bharata , ending with Bahubali 's asceticism and Bharata 's humiliation , Ratnakaravarni 's eulogy of Bharata leaves room only for Bahubali 's evolution towards sainthood . Eventually , Bharata attains moksha ( liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth ) by burning himself in ascetic fire . The author showers encomium on Bharata in his various roles as monarch , husband , son , friend and devotee , a rare description of a " perfect human being " among Jain writings . Since details of the early life of Bharata as a young ruler did not exist in previous writings or in tradition , much of Ratnakaravarni 's vivid description of that period was a product of his imagination . This work finds its pride of place in Kannada 's epic poetry as the longest poem in the folk sangatya metre .
Salva ( 1550 ) , who was the court poet of a Konkan prince named Salvamalla , wrote a propagandist work called the Salva Bharata . This was a Jain version of the epic Mahabharata in sixteen parvas ( divisions ) , intended to compete with the Vaishnava version of the epic written by Kumar Vyasa in the mid @-@ 15th century . Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda of Gerosoppa ( 1553 ) wrote Kavya Sara , a 1 @,@ 143 verse anthology of extracts of subjects written about by earlier poets between 900 and 1430 . The text closely resembles an anthology written by Hoysala poet Mallikarjuna ( 1245 ) , with some additions to account for writings in the post Mallikarjuna era . A staunch Jain and a disputant , Vidyananda argued for the cause of his faith in the Vijayanagara court and other provincial courts . Nemanna ( 1559 ) wrote Jnana Bhaskara Charite on the importance of inner contemplation rather than rituals as the correct path towards emancipation .
In Vijayanagara , Madhura was the court poet of King Harihara II and King Deva Raya I under the patronage of their respective prime ministers . He is famous for his account of the 15th tirthankar titled Dharmanatha Purana ( 1385 ) , written in a style similar to that of Jain poets of earlier centuries . Madhura is also credited with a poem about Gomateshwara of Shravanabelagola . Ayata Varma , who is tentatively dated to 1400 , translated from Sanskrit a champu ( mixed prose @-@ verse ) titled Ratna Karandaka describing Jain ideologies . Manjarasa , a feudatory king of Kallahalli and a Vijayanagara general of rank , wrote two books . Nemijinesa Sangata , completed in 1508 , was an account of the life of the 22nd Jain tirthankar ; Samyukta Koumudi , written in 1509 , comprised 18 short stories on religious values and morals .
An important shatpadi writing from this period is the Jivandhara Charite ( 1424 ) by Bhaskara , a story of Prince Jivanadhara , who regained the throne usurped by his father . Other well @-@ known Jain writers were Kalyanakirti ( Jnanachandrabhyudaya , 1439 ) , Santikirtimuni ( Santinathacharite , 1440 ) , Vijayanna ( Dvadasanuprekshe , 1448 ) , Bommarasa of Terakanambi ( Sanatkumara Charite , 1485 ) , Kotesvara ( 1500 ) , Mangarasa III ( Jayanripa Kavya ) , Santarasa ( Yogaratnakara ) , Santikirti ( Santinatha Purana , 1519 ) , Doddayya ( Chandraprabha Purana , 1550 ) , Doddananka ( Chandraprabha Purana , 1578 ) and Bahubali Pandita of Sringeri ( Dharmanathapuranam , 1352 ) .
= = = Secular writings = = =
Although most of the writings that have survived from this period are religious in nature , there is sufficient literary evidence that secular writing was also popular in the imperial court . Some of these writings carry useful information on urban life , grandeur of the imperial and provincial courts , royal weddings and ceremonies . Other works refer the general town planning , fortifications and ordnance details at Vijayanagara and other important cities , irrigation reservoirs , merchants and shops dealing in a variety of commodities . On occasion , authors dwell on mythical cities that reflect their idealised views on contemporary life . Commonly found in these works are description of artists and professionals and their relationship with the court . These included poets , bards , composers , painters , sculptors , dancers , theatrical performers and even wrestlers . Others who find mention are political leaders , ambassadors , concubines , accountants , goldsmiths , moneylenders and even servants and door keepers .
Writings in various literary genres such as romance , fiction , erotica , folk songs and musical compositions were popular . A wealth of literature dealing in subjects such as astronomy , meteorology , veterinary science and medicine , astrology , grammar , philosophy , poetry , prosody , biography , history and lexicon , as well as dictionaries and encyclopedias , were written in this era .
In 1360 , Manjaraja I wrote a book on medicine called Khagendra Mani Darpana , basing it on the 5th century writings of Pujyapada . Padmananka ( 1385 ) wrote a biography of his ancestor Kereya Padmarasa , a Hoysala minister and poet , in a work titled Padmaraja Purana . The writing provides details about the Hoysala Empire and notable personalities such as the poets Harihara and Raghavanka . Chandrashekara ( or Chrakavi ) , a court poet of Deva Raya II , wrote an account on the Virupaksha temple , its precincts and settlements at Pampapura ( modern Hampi ) in the Pampasthana Varnanam in 1430 . Mangaraja II authored a lexicon called Mangaraja Nighantu in 1398 , while Abhinava Chandra gave an account on veterinary science in his book called Asva Vaidya in the 14th century . Kavi Malla wrote on erotics in the Manmathavijaya in the 14th century . In the 15th century , Madhava translated an earlier Sanskrit poem by Dandi and called it Madhavalankara , and Isvara Kavi ( also called Bana Kavi ) wrote a prosody called Kavijihva Bandhana .
Deparaja , a member of the royal family , authored Amaruka and a collection of romantic stories called the Sobagina Sone ( 1410 ) , written in the form of a narration by the author to his wife . However , according to Kotraiah , Sobagina Sone was actually written by King Deva Raya II . The writing contains interesting details on the king 's hunting expeditions and on the professional hunters who accompanied him . In 1525 , Nanjunda Kavi , a feudatory prince wrote on local history , published a eulogy of prince Ramanatha ( also called Kumara Rama ) titled Ramanatha Charite ( or Kumara Rama Sangatya ) in the sangatya metre . The poem is about the prince of Kampili and his heroics at the dawn of the Muslim invasion into southern India . This work combines folk and epic literature . The protagonist rejects the advances of his stepmother , only to be condemned to death . He is rescued by a minister , but eventually achieves martyrdom fighting Muslim invaders at the capital .
In 1567 , Jain ascetic Srutakirti of Mysore translated from Sanskrit a biographic poem of a Hoysala lady Vijayakumari in Vijayakumari Charite . The writing goes into detail about a city ( believed to be Vijayanagara , the royal capital ) , discussing its shops , guilds and businesses . The text describes the rigid caste @-@ based human settlements and notes that people involved in mundane duties such as washing , barbering , pot @-@ making and carpentry lived outside the fort walls in streets constructed specifically for them . Salva ( 1550 ) authored two poems called Rasa Ratnakar and Sharada Vilas . The former is about rasa ( poetical sentiment or flavour ) and the latter , only portions of which have been recovered , is about the dhvani ( suggested meaning ) in poems . Thimma 's Navarasalankara of the 16th century also discusses poetical flavour . In the 16th century , lexicons were written by Lingamantri ( Kabbigarakaipidi ) and Devottama ( Nanaratha Ratnakara ) . At the turn of the 17th century , Bhattakalanka Deva wrote comprehensively on old Kannada grammar . His Karnataka Sabdanusasanam is modelled on the lines of Sanskrit grammar and is considered an exhaustive work .
= = Bhakti literature = =
= = = Vaishnava writings = = =
Unlike the Veerashaiva movement which preached devotion to the god Shiva with an insistence on a classless society and had its inspiration from the lower classes of society , the haridasa movement started from the higher echelons and preached devotion to the god Vishnu in a more flexible caste @-@ based society , eventually becoming popular among the common people . The beginnings of the haridasa tradition can be traced to the Vaishnava school of Dvaita philosophy pioneered by Madhvacharya . Its influence on Kannada literature in the early 14th century is seen in the earliest known compositions written by Naraharitirtha , a prominent disciple of Madhvacharya .
The Vaishnava Bhakti ( devotional ) movement involving well @-@ known haridasas ( devotee saints ) of the 14th through 16th centuries made an indelible imprint on Kannada literature , with the development of a body of literature called Haridasa Sahitya ( " Haridasa literature " ) . This philosophy presented another strong current of devotion , pervading the lives of millions , similar to the effects of the Veerashaiva movement of the 12th century . The haridasas conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through esoteric Sanskrit writings ( written by Vyasa kuta or Vyasa school ) and simple Kannada language compositions , appealing to the common man , in the form of devotional songs ( written by the Dasa Kuta or Dasa school ) . The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha , Jayatirtha , Vyasatirtha , Sripadaraya , Vadirajatirtha , Purandara Dasa , Kanaka Dasa and others .
Compositions in the haridasa literature are sub @-@ divided into four types : kirthane , suladi , ugabhoga and mundige . Kirthanes are devotional musical compositions with refrains based on raga and tala and celebrate the glory of god . The suladi are tala based , the ugabhoga are melody based while the mundige are in the form of riddles . Compositions were also modelled on jogula ( lullaby songs ) and sobane ( marriage songs ) . A common feature of haridasa compositions are influences from the Hindu epics , the Ramayana , the Mahabharata and Bhagavata .
Haridasa poetry , which faded for a century after the death of Naraharitirtha , resurfaced with Sripadaraya , who was for some time the head of the Madhva matha ( monastery of Madhvacharya ) at Mulubagilu ( in modern Kolar district ) . About a hundred of his kirthanes have survived , written under the pseudonym " Sriranga Vithala " . Sripadaraya is considered a pioneer of this genre of devotional songs . Sripadaraya 's disciple , Vyasatirtha ( or Vyasaraya ) , is most famous among the latter day Madhva saints . It was he who created the Vyasa kuta and Dasa kuta schools within the Madhva order . He commanded respect from King Krishnadeva Raya , who honoured him with the title kuladevata ( family god ) . A poet of merit in Kannada and the author of seminal works in Sanskrit , Vyasatirtha was the guru responsible for shaping the careers of two of Kannada 's greatest saint @-@ poets , Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa . Another prominent name in the age of Dasa ( devotee ) literature is Vadirajatirtha , a contemporary of Purandara Dasa and the author of many works in Kannada and Sanskrit .
Purandara Dasa ( 1484 – 1564 ) , a wandering bard who visited Vijayanagara during the reign of King Achyuta Raya , is believed to have composed 475 @,@ 000 songs in the Kannada and Sanskrit languages , although only about 1 @,@ 000 songs are known today . Composed in various ragas , and often ending with a salutation to the Hindu deity Vittala , his compositions presented the essence of the Upanishads and the Puranas in simple yet expressive language . He also devised a system by which the common man could learn Carnatic music , and codified the musical composition forms svaravalis , alankaras and geethams . Owing to his contributions in music , Purandara Dasa earned the honorific Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha ( " Father of Carnatic Music " ) .
Kanaka Dasa ( whose birth name was Thimmappa Nayaka , 1509 – 1609 ) of Kaginele ( in modern Haveri district ) was an ascetic and spiritual seeker , who according to historical accounts came from a family of Kuruba ( shepherds ) or beda ( hunters ) . Under the patronage of the Vijayanagara king , he authored such important writings as Mohanatarangini ( " River of Delight " , 1550 ) , written in dedication to King Krishnadevaraya , which narrates the story of Krishna in sangatya metre . His other famous writings are Narasimhastava , a work dealing with glory of God Narasimha , Nalacharita , the story of Nala , which is noted for its narration , and Hari Bhaktisara , a spontaneous writing on devotion in shatpadi metre . The latter writing , which is on niti ( morals ) , bhakti ( devotion ) and vairagya ( renunciation ) , continues to be a popular standard book of learning for children . A unique allegorical poem titled Ramadhanya Charitre ( " Story of Rama 's Chosen Grain " ) which exalts ragi over rice was authored by Kanaka Dasa . In this poem , a quarrel arises between ragi , the food grain of the poor , and rice , that of the rich , as to which is superior . Rama decides that ragi is superior because it does not rot when preserved . This is one of the earliest poetic expressions of class struggle in the Kannada language . In addition to these classics , about 240 songs written by Kanaka Dasa are available .
For a brief period following the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire , the devotional movement seemed to lose momentum , only to become active again in the 17th century , producing an estimated 300 poets in this genre ; famous among them are Vijaya Dasa ( 1682 – 1755 ) , Gopala Dasa ( 1721 – 1769 ) , Jagannatha Dasa ( 1728 – 1809 ) , Mahipathi Dasa ( 1750 ) , Helavanakatte Giriamma and others . Over time , their devotional songs inspired a form of religious and didactic performing art of the Vaishnava people called the Harikatha ( " Stories of Hari " ) . Similar developments were seen among the followers of the Veerashaiva faith , who popularised the Shivakatha ( " Stories of Shiva " ) .
= = = Veerashaiva writings = = =
Vachana poetry , developed in reaction to the rigid caste @-@ based Hindu society , attained its peak in popularity among the under @-@ privileged during the 12th century . The Veerashaivas , who wrote this poetry , had risen to influential positions by the Vijayanagara period . Following the Muslim invasions in the early 14th century , Brahmin scholars methodically consolidated writings of Hindu lore . This inspired several Veerashaiva anthologists of the 15th and 16th centuries to collect Shaiva writings and vachana poems , originally written on palm leaf manuscripts . Because of the cryptic nature of the poems , the anthologists added commentaries to them , thereby providing their hidden meaning and esoteric significance . An interesting aspect of this anthological work was the translation of the Shaiva canon into Sanskrit , bringing it into the sphere of the Sanskritic cultural order .
Well @-@ known among these anthologies are Ganabhasita Ratnamale by Kallumathada Prabhudeva ( 1430 ) , Visesanubhava Satsthala by Channaviracharya ( 16th century ) and Bedagina Vachanagalu by Siddha Basavaraja ( 1600 ) . The unique Shunyasampadane ( the ' mystical zero ' ) was compiled in four versions . The first among them was anthologised by Shivaganaprasadi Mahadevaiah ( 1400 ) , who set the pattern for the other three to follow . The poems in this anthology are essentially in the form of dialogues between patron saint Allama Prabhu and famous Sharanas ( devotees ) , and was meant to rekindle the revolutionary spirit of the 12th century . Halage Arya ( 1500 – 1530 ) , Gummalapura Siddhalinga Yati ( 1560 ) and Gulur Siddaveeranodaya ( 1570 ) produced the later versions .
Though the writing of vachana poems went into decline after the passing of the Basavanna era in the late 12th century , latter day vachanakaras such as Tontada Siddhesavara ( or Siddhalinga Yati ) , a noted Shaiva saint and guru of King Virupaksha Raya II , started a revival . He wrote Shatsthala Jnanamrita ( 1540 ) , a collection of 700 poems . In 1560 , Virakta Tontadarya made the life of Tontada Siddhesavara the central theme in his writing Siddhesvara Purana . Virakta Tontadarya , Gummalapura Siddhalinga , Swatantra Siddhalingeshwara ( 1560 ) and Ghanalingideva ( 1560 ) are some well @-@ known vachana poets who tried to recreate the glory days of the early poets , though the socio @-@ political expediency did not exist .
Mystic literature had a resurgence towards the beginning of the 15th century , in an attempt to synthesise the Veerashaiva and advaitha ( monistic ) philosophies ; this trend continued into the 19th century . Prominent among these mystics was Nijaguna Shivayogi , by tradition a petty chieftain near the Kollegal region ( modern Mysore district ) turned Shaiva saint , who composed devotional songs collectively known as Kaivalya sahitya ( or Tattva Padagalu , literally " songs of the pathway to emancipation " ) . Shivayogi 's songs were reflective , philosophical and concerned with yoga . They were written in almost all the native metres of Kannada language with the exception of shatpadi metre .
Shivayogi 's other writings include a scientific encyclopaedia called Vivekachintamani , so well regarded that it was translated into Marathi language in 1604 and Sanskrit language in 1652 and again in the 18th century . The writing categorises 1 @,@ 500 topics based on subject and covers a wide array such as poetics , dance and drama , musicology and erotics . His translation of the Shiva Yoga Pradipika from Sanskrit was done to elucidate the Shaiva philosophy and benefit those ignorant of the original language .
In the post @-@ Vijayanagara era , the Kaivalya tradition branched three ways . The first consisted of followers of the Nijaguna Shivayogi school , the second was more elitist and brahminical in nature and followed the writings of Mahalingaranga ( 1675 ) , while the third was the branch that kept the vachana tradition alive . Well @-@ known poet @-@ saints from this vachana tradition were Shivayogi 's contemporary Muppina Sadakshari , whose collection of songs are called the Subodhasara ; Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century ; and Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century . So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied .
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= Pepper Martin =
Johnny Leonard Roosevelt " Pepper " Martin ( February 29 , 1904 – March 5 , 1965 ) was an American professional baseball player and minor league manager . He was known as the Wild Horse of the Osage because of his daring , aggressive baserunning abilities . Martin played in Major League Baseball as a third baseman and an outfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals during the 1930s and early 1940s . He was best known for his heroics during the 1931 World Series , in which he was the catalyst in a Cardinals ' upset victory over the Philadelphia Athletics .
Martin was an integral member of the Cardinals ' teams of the 1930s that became known as the Gashouse Gang for their roguish behavior and practical jokes . Early in his career , he was labeled by some contemporary press reports as the next Ty Cobb because of his spirited , hustling style of play . However , because his headlong attitude on the playing field took a physical toll on his body , he never lived up to those initial expectations . After the end of his playing career , he continued his career in baseball as a successful minor league baseball manager .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Temple , Oklahoma , Martin moved to Oklahoma City with his parents at the age of six where he grew up playing baseball . He began his professional baseball career at the age of 19 when he signed to play as a shortstop in the Oklahoma State League for a team in Guthrie , Oklahoma . When the league folded in 1924 , his contract was sold to the Greenville Hunters of the East Texas League . In 1925 , he posted a .340 batting average in 98 games for the Hunters . He continued to post batting averages above the .300 mark and in 1927 , he was signed by the St. Louis Cardinals to play for their affiliate , the Houston Buffaloes . He hit for a .306 average in 147 games with Houston , he earned a promotion to the major leagues .
After spending five years in the minor leagues , Martin made his major league debut with the Cardinals on April 16 , 1928 at the age of 24 . He posted a .308 batting average in 39 games as a utility player , helping the Cardinals win the National League pennant . Martin made one appearance as a pinch runner in the 1928 World Series , when the Cardinals lost in four straight games to the New York Yankees . Despite his respectable batting average , Martin was sent back to the Houston Buffaloes in January 1929 where he hit for a .298 batting average . The following season , he was promoted to the Rochester Red Wings where his offensive statistics improved with 20 home runs , a .363 batting average and a .631 slugging percentage , helping the Red Wings win the 1930 International League title . The Red Wings then defeated the Louisville Colonels of the American Association to win the Junior World Series .
Martin 's performance earned him a return to the major leagues with the Cardinals in 1931 . When veteran center fielder Taylor Douthit went into a hitting slump , Martin replaced him and played well enough that Cardinals ' president , Branch Rickey , traded Douthit to the Cincinnati Reds in June . Martin impressed observers with his hustle in the outfield as well as on the base paths where he often slid into bases head @-@ first . He ended the year with a .300 batting average along with seven home runs and 75 runs batted in to help the Cardinals clinch the 1931 National League pennant by 13 games over the New York Giants .
= = = World Series star = = =
The 1931 World Series was a rematch of the previous year 's participants , pitting the Cardinals against the Philadelphia Athletics . Led by Connie Mack , the Athletics had won the previous two World Series and were heavily favored to win for a third consecutive year . They featured a lineup that included five future National Baseball Hall of Fame members in Mickey Cochrane , Jimmie Foxx , Lefty Grove , Waite Hoyt and Al Simmons .
In Game 1 held at Sportsman 's Park in St. Louis , Martin had three hits , including a double , a stolen base and drove in one run in a 6 @-@ 2 loss to the ace of the Athletics staff , 31 @-@ game winning pitcher Lefty Grove . Martin proved to be the difference in Game 2 in what was otherwise a tight pitching duel between Bill Hallahan of the Cardinals and George Earnshaw for the Athletics . He scored the first run of the game in the second inning by stretching a single into a double when the ball was mishandled in the outfield , stealing third base , and then scoring on a sacrifice fly . Martin added another run in the seventh inning when he hit a single , stole second base , took third base on a fielder 's choice , and then scored on a squeeze bunt . Those would be the only runs of the game as Hallahan pitched a three @-@ hit shutout to even the series at one win apiece . The series then moved to Shibe Park in Philadelphia for Game 3 , where Martin had two hits , including a double and scored twice in a 5 @-@ 2 Cardinals ' victory over Grove . In Game 4 , he produced the only two hits by the Cardinals as they lost to Earnshaw , 3 @-@ 0 . Martin almost single @-@ handedly provided the offense for the Cardinals in Game 5 , driving home four runs with two singles , a home run and a sacrifice fly , as the Cardinals triumphed 5 @-@ 1 . Although he was held hitless in the final two games of the series , he made an impressive catch to extinguish an Athletics two @-@ run rally in the ninth inning of Game 7 to end the game and clinch the world championship for the Cardinals .
He set a then record 12 hits in the series , including four doubles , a home run , five stolen bases and five runs batted in . Martin 's .500 series batting average may have made the difference in the series outcome , as without him the Cardinals batted just .205 as a team . During the series , Martin was asked how he had learned to run so fast ; he replied , " I grew up in Oklahoma , and once you start runnin ' out there there ain 't nothin ' to stop you " . Longtime major league manager , John McGraw , described Martin 's performance as " the greatest individual performance in the history of the World Series . " In December , he was selected as male athlete of the year by the Associated Press .
= = = Later career = = =
Martin experienced an injury @-@ plagued season in 1932 , missing several weeks when he dislocated his shoulder in April and missed a month and a half when he broke a finger in July while sliding into home plate . In August , Cardinals manager Gabby Street converted Martin into a third baseman in an attempt to fill the gap left by the injured Sparky Adams . Martin was not a naturally gifted third baseman , often fielding balls after having stopped them with his chest . He ended the season with a .238 batting average with four home runs and 34 runs batted in as the Cardinals fell to seventh place in the National League .
Having rebounded from his injuries , in 1933 Martin was leading the league in hitting with a .363 batting average in the middle of June , earning him a starting role as the third baseman for the National League team in the inaugural Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game held on July 6 , 1933 . Now hitting as the Cardinals ' leadoff hitter , he finished the season ranked sixth in the league with a career @-@ high .316 average and led the league with 122 runs scored and 26 stolen bases . Martin ranked tenth in the league with a .456 slugging percentage , and he had a career @-@ high .387 on @-@ base percentage along with 36 doubles , 12 triples and eight home runs as the Cardinals improved to a fifth @-@ place finish . He came in fifth place in the voting results for the 1933 National League Most Valuable Player Award .
Martin 's batting average dropped to .289 in 1934 , but he once again led the league in stolen bases as the Cardinals rallied from seven games behind the New York Giants in early September to win the National League pennant on the last day of the season . He made an appearance as a relief pitcher on August 19 , allowing one hit in two innings pitched . In a memorable 1934 World Series against the Detroit Tigers , the Cardinals were down 3 games to 2 , before rebounding to win the final two games . The series was highlighted by several rough plays on the base paths that culminated in Game 7 , when Joe Medwick made a rough slide into Tigers ' third baseman Marv Owen . The following inning , outraged Detroit fans pelted Medwick with debris when he assumed his defensive position in the outfield . The disturbance wasn 't quelled until the umpires appealed to Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis , who had Medwick removed from the game . Martin ended the series with 11 hits for a .355 average , stole two bases and scored eight runs in the series . He experienced difficulties in the field , committing 3 errors in Game 4 and setting a World Series record with four errors overall . While in a St. Louis hospital in December 1934 , for a minor operation on his left arm , Martin insisted that he be entertained by a cowboy musical group that he had hired . He created such a disturbance among the other patients that the hospital staff moved him to an isolated wing . Martin , along with Cardinals teammates such as Leo Durocher , Dizzy Dean and Joe Medwick among others , became known as the 1934 Gashouse Gang due to their boisterous activities on and off the field . He played the guitar in a hillbilly band composed of Cardinals players named The Mudcat Band .
Although Martin had a good year offensively in 1935 , he continued to struggle defensively at third base . In the midst of a tight pennant race in July , he committed three costly errors in a loss to the New York Giants , and ended the year with 30 errors . He was hitting for a .333 average by mid @-@ season to earn the starting third baseman 's position in the 1935 All @-@ Star Game . For the season , he hit for a .299 average with nine home runs and 54 runs batted in . In October , Martin underwent surgery again , this time on his right arm . In January 1936 , Branch Rickey asked Martin to curtail his extra @-@ curricular activities . Already well known as a hunting and fishing enthusiast , Martin had taken up the hobby of midget car racing and was also playing in football and basketball games during the winter months . He also became the vice @-@ president and general manager of an Oklahoma City ice hockey team .
Martin moved back to the outfield , playing as the Cardinals ' right fielder in 1936 as the Cardinals battled the New York Giants for the National League title before settling for second place . He responded with a good year offensively , hitting for a .309 average with career @-@ highs in home runs ( 11 ) and in runs batted in ( 76 ) . Martin also led the National League in stolen bases with 23 . He continued to hit well , by 1937 although , he was relegated to a part @-@ time role , as his spirited , headlong style of play took its toll on his body . At the beginning of the 1939 season , he was named as the Cardinals ' team captain , taking the job from Leo Durocher who had been traded to the Brooklyn Dodgers . He experienced a resurgence , leading the team with a .340 batting average in June before a sprained wrist put him out of action for two weeks . He ended the season with a .306 batting average in 88 games , helping the Cardinals to finish second in the National League . Martin hit for a respectable .316 average in 1940 before the Cardinals named him as the player @-@ manager of the Sacramento Solons of the Pacific Coast League in October .
Martin led Sacramento to a second @-@ place finish in 1941 before leading them to their first Pacific Coast League championship in 38 years in 1942 . He then became a player @-@ manager for the Rochester Red Wings in 1943 . When professional baseball experienced a shortage of players during World War II , Martin returned to the major leagues in 1944 with the Cardinals at the age of 40 . In 40 games with the Cardinals , he posted a .279 batting average and an impressive .386 on @-@ base percentage to help the Cardinals clinch the 1944 National League pennant . Martin did not appear in the 1944 World Series , playing his final major league game on October 1 , 1944 .
= = Career statistics = =
In a 13 @-@ year major league career , Martin played in 1 @,@ 189 games , accumulating 1 @,@ 227 hits in 4 @,@ 117 at bats for a .298 career batting average along with a .443 slugging percentage , 59 home runs , 501 runs batted in , 146 stolen bases and an on @-@ base percentage of .358 . He retired with a .973 career fielding percentage in 613 games as an outfielder and a .927 fielding percentage in 429 games as a third baseman . A four @-@ time All @-@ Star , Martin 's World Series career batting average of .418 is still a series record , and he is tied for 10th with seven World Series stolen bases . He led the National League three times in stolen bases and once in runs scored . On May 5 , 1933 , Martin hit for the cycle in a game against the Philadelphia Phillies at the Baker Bowl .
= = Managing career = =
After the end of his major league career , Martin returned to the minor leagues , serving as a player @-@ manager with the San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League in 1945 and 1946 before becoming the player @-@ manager for the Greenville Spinners of the South Atlantic League in 1947 . His fiery , competitive nature was still evident in July 1945 when it was reported that he had punched one of his players for not performing to his standards . While managing the Miami Sun Sox of the Florida International League in 1949 , he was fined and suspended for the remainder of the season for choking an umpire . In August 1951 , he made news again when he was arrested after a Sun Sox game when he went into the stands to punch a spectator in Lakeland , Florida .
When the Sun Sox released him , Martin was hired to manage the Miami Beach Flamingos of the Florida International League in 1952 . Despite leading them to a 103 @-@ 49 record , the Flamigos finished the season one game behind his former team , the Sun Sox . In 1953 , he became the manager of the Fort Lauderdale Lions and led them to the Florida International League title . After spending the 1954 season as the manager for the Portsmouth Merrimacs , Martin was named as a coach for the Chicago Cubs in September 1955 . Stan Hack was fired as the Cubs manager when they finished in last place in the 1956 season , and the new Cubs manager , Bob Scheffing , asked for Martin 's resignation along with the rest of the coaching staff . Martin returned to the minor leagues once again where he became a player @-@ coach for the Tulsa Oilers , playing his final game at the age of 54 . He took his final field assignment as the manager of the Miami Marlins in 1959 .
= = Later life = =
Before his death , he served briefly as the athletic director of the Oklahoma State Penitentiary at McAlester , Oklahoma . Martin died on March 5 , 1965 , after suffering a heart attack . His wife , Ruby , survived him by over four decades , dying just after her 99th birthday in 2009 . Martin was inducted into the Oklahoma Sports Hall of Fame in 1992 .
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= Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood ( traditional Chinese : 寶貝計劃 ; simplified Chinese : 宝贝计划 , also known as Robin @-@ B @-@ Hood ) is a 2006 Hong Kong action comedy film written , produced and directed by Benny Chan , and starring Jackie Chan , Louis Koo , Yuen Biao and Michael Hui . The film was produced with a budget of HK $ 130 million ( US $ 16 @.@ 8 million ) and filmed between December 2005 and January 2006 . Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood is the first film in over 30 years in which Jackie Chan plays an anti @-@ hero .
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood tells the story of a kidnapping gone wrong in Hong Kong ; a trio of burglars consisting of Thongs ( Chan ) , Octopus ( Koo ) and the Landlord ( Hui ) kidnap a baby from a wealthy family on behalf of triads . With the Landlord arrested , Thongs and Octopus take care of the baby for a short time , developing strong bonds with him . Reluctant to hand the baby over , the two are forced to protect him from the triads who hired them in the first place .
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood was released in Hong Kong , China and Southeast Asia on 29 September 2006 based in Hong Kong to generally positive reviews . The film topped the Chinese box office in October 2006 and despite not being given a release in most European and North American countries , it grossed over US $ 20 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
The film begins showing Thongs and Octopus evading security guards in a hospital , having stolen money and cancer medication from the safe . Meanwhile , a newborn baby to the wealthy Lee family is snatched by Max , the mother 's ex @-@ boyfriend , prompting the security guards give chase , ignoring the burglars , and corner Max on an escalator . Following a violent struggle , Max and the baby fall over the side — the baby is caught by Thongs , while Max plummets to his death . While the guards are distracted , Thongs and Octopus leave in the Landlord 's minivan .
A few months later , the Landlord finds his flat burgled , his life savings gone . He receives a phone call from his middleman Uncle Seven , offering him a job to kidnap baby Lee on behalf of a triad boss , who claims the baby is his grandson . Enticed by the HK $ 7 million reward , Thongs and Octopus accept the job without knowing its objectives , finding out only after the Landlord has fled the Lees ' mansion with the baby . Disgusted by the idea of kidnapping a baby , Thongs threatens to return him , but relents after the Landlord tells him of his predicament . En route to their rendezvous point in Sai Kung , the trio encounter a police road block which the Landlord attempts to outrun , only to crash his van down a hill . As the police close in on them , the stuck Landlord instructs Thongs and Octopus to leave with the baby . While in custody for reckless driving , the Landlord learns of the baby 's value through the news . He phones Thongs , instructing him not to hand the baby over to anyone prior to his release so he can jack up the price . Over the next few days , Thongs and Octopus take care of the baby , developing a strong bond with him . The two begin to regret their vices : Thongs resists the urge to gamble , while Octopus feels sorry for cheating on his wife . Meanwhile , both the triads and the police are after the baby . The triad boss , enraged by the non @-@ delivery of his " grandson " , sends his men to retrieve the baby from Thongs ' flat . Confronted by both the triads and Police Inspector Mok , Thongs and Octopus go into hiding with the baby .
Shortly after his release , the Landlord is brought to the triad boss , who increases his offer to HK $ 30 million for the baby . He finds Thongs and Octopus at the hospital , where the baby is being treated for fever . The Landlord informs the two of the triads ' latest offer , but Thongs and Octopus are more concerned about the baby 's welfare than the cash . However , the two agree to bring the baby to the triad boss ' mansion , where the Landlord will meet them with the rest of the money . They reach the triad boss ' mansion and hand over the baby reluctantly . As the trio are about to leave , they hear the baby crying for them as a blood sample is taken from his arm . Thongs and Octopus experience a flashback of the days they spent with the baby . Overcome by their feelings , they fight their way into the triad boss ' private amusement park to recover the baby while the Landlord leaves with the money . Thongs almost manages to escape with the baby , but is forced to surrender when the triads threaten to hurl Octopus to his death .
Thongs and Octopus are taken to the triad boss , who insists the baby is his grandson , only to be proven wrong by the blood test . Driven mad , the boss places the baby in a deep freeze room next to Max 's corpse so the baby can be with his son , prompting Thongs and Octopus to fight for the baby . The two end up trapped in the room with two minions , but are saved when Inspector Mok arrives with the Landlord , who swiftly cracks the lock to the room . Thongs and Octopus run to the garage with the comatose baby , where Thongs attempts to revive him with a makeshift defibrillator powered by a car battery from a Pagani Zonda . Despite his efforts , the baby does not come to and is driven off in an ambulance , where his heart is found to be beating weakly . Imprisoned for kidnapping , Thongs , Octopus and the Landlord volunteer for a mock capital punishment demonstration during an open day , using the opportunity to apologise to their loved ones . After the demonstration , Inspector Mok informs the three that their sentences have been further reduced by the Department of Justice . Thongs , Octopus , and the Landlord then see the baby alive and well with his parents . As a token of appreciation for saving the baby 's life , Thongs , Octopus and the Landlord are offered jobs by the Lee family as a bodyguard , chauffeur and head of security respectively .
= = Cast = =
Jackie Chan ( 成龍 ) as Thongs ( 人字拖 ) : A professional burglar who has stolen a variety of expensive goods . A compulsive gambler , he has fallen out with his family over his lifestyle , resulting in his father having a stroke . Despite his vices , Thongs maintains a sense of ethics , making him reluctant to kidnap the baby . The name " Thongs " refers to his flip @-@ flop footwear .
Louis Koo ( 古天樂 ) as Octopus ( 八達通 ) : A fellow burglar working with Thongs . He uses the money he steals to buy expensive cars and to court a rich girl . He neglects his pregnant wife ( played by Charlene Choi ( 蔡卓妍 ) , forcing her into a series of dead end jobs to make ends meet .
Michael Hui ( 許冠文 ) as The Landlord ( 包租公 ) : The mentor of Thongs and Octopus for over 20 years . Unlike his trainees , the Landlord does not spend his share of the loot , instead stashing it in a safe in his home .
Matthew Medvedev as Matthew the Baby : The infant son of the wealthy Lee family , kidnapped by Thongs , Octopus and the Landlord on behalf of a triad boss .
Yuen Biao ( 元彪 ) as Inspector Steve Mok ( 莫史迪 ) : The policeman in charge of the case involving the baby 's disappearance .
Teresa Carpio as The Landlady ( 包租婆 ) : The Landlord 's wife . Driven mad by the death of her only son many years earlier , the Landlady carries a doll of a baby boy with her at all times .
Gao Yuanyuan ( 高圓圓 ) as Melody : A student nurse from the Peking University , who works as a part @-@ time childcare consultant , teaching Thongs and Octopus how to take care of the baby , and later becomes Thong 's love interest .
Terence Yin ( 尹子維 ) as Max : The former boyfriend of the baby 's mother who claims the baby as his . He dies from a fall following a struggle for the baby in a hospital soon after it is born .
Chen Baoguo ( 陳寶國 ) as The Triad boss : Having lost his only son Max , the triad boss will stop at nothing to capture the baby .
Ken Lo ( 盧惠光 ) and Hayama Go ( 葉山豪 ) as Balde and Tokyo Joe : Two high @-@ ranking minions of the triad gang .
Daniel Wu as agen Daniel ( cameo appearance )
Nicholas Tse as agen Nicholas ( cameo appearance )
= = = Jackie Chan stunt team = = =
Chan Man @-@ ching
Nicky Li
Ken Lo
Wu Gang
He Jun
Park Hyun Jin
Lee In Seob
Han Kwan Hua
= = Production = =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood was a joint production from JCE Movies Limited , a company set up by Jackie Chan in 2003 , and Huayi Brothers Film & Taihe Investment Company , distributors of films such as Warriors of Heaven and Earth , The Banquet and Kekexili : Mountain Patrol . Chan has starred in over 50 action films , and has intimated in recent years that he has grown tired of being typecast as the " nice guy " . The film is notable as the first in over 30 years , in which he plays a negative character — a criminal and compulsive gambler .
= = = Writing = = =
Jackie Chan contacted Benny Chan shortly after the release of New Police Story to discuss plans for a new action film . Chan stated that he did not want to play the typical nice guy role that has been the staple of his previous films . Eventually , Benny Chan and scriptwriter Alan Yuen came up with a daring idea : Chan will play Thongs , a petty criminal who has fallen out with his family over his gambling habit . Benny Chan had originally intended for Jackie to play a full @-@ fledged villain , who " hits women and burns people with cigarettes " . However , the script was toned down to appease the Chinese censors , who found the character to be too evil . Nevertheless , for only the third time in his acting career , Chan plays a character who is sentenced to prison .
Chan co @-@ wrote the film and designed the action sequences , whilst director Benny Chan wrote the film 's dramatic elements , completing the script by October 2005 . Two additional protagonists were designed as Thongs ' partners in crime , with the intention of increasing the comedic value of the film through their interactions . The film 's Chinese title is Bo Bui Gai Wak ( Cantonese : 寶貝計劃 , literally Project BB , with " BB " being a homophone for " Baby " ) , a reference to Chan 's award winning 1983 film Project A ( Cantonese : A Gai Wak , A計劃 ) .
= = = Casting = = =
The cast of Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood includes actors ranging from newcomer Gao Yuanyuan to veteran actor Chen Baoguo . Daniel Wu and Nicholas Tse , stars of New Police Story , make cameo appearances as homosexual security van drivers during a car chase in the film .
Octopus , Thong 's partner in crime , is played by Louis Koo , an award winning actor with past appearances including the TVB drama series Detective Investigation Files IV and the films Election and Election 2 . Although Koo co @-@ starred with Jackie Chan , a number of action scenes involving his character were shot with a stunt double . In addition , Koo was the baby 's favourite on set — Whenever the baby cried , Koo was always the first to cheer him up .
The Landlord , the leader of Thongs and Octopus , is played by Michael Hui , a Hong Kong Film Award @-@ winning comedic actor who starred in various box office hits from 1970s to 1990s before emigrating to Canada shortly before the handover of Hong Kong . Hui was chosen for the part because he is the ideal actor to play a character who persuades others to do bad things . The producers had originally intended Hui to fight along with Chan and Koo , however , it was eventually decided that Hui would simply act as the brains of the gang .
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood features a collaboration between Jackie Chan and Yuen Biao . The pair , along with Sammo Hung , were Peking Opera School classmates and co @-@ starred in a number of action comedy films in the 1980s , including Project A , Wheels on Meals , and the Lucky Stars trilogy . Chan had originally intended to co @-@ star with both Yuen and Hung , reuniting the trio for the first time since 1988 film Dragons Forever . However , Hung declined due to a scheduling conflicts . Yuen Biao plays the role of Police Inspector Steve Mok , assigned to investigate the baby 's disappearance . Some of Yuen 's past antics were revisited in Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood , including a fight in which he tried in vain to handcuff Chan 's character .
Over 100 auditions were held before the suitable baby was found to star in the film . Benny Chan chose Matthew Medvedev , a one @-@ year @-@ old infant of Chinese and Colombian descent . Medvedev , known as Baby Matthew , was literally recruited off the street when an assistant director spotted him with his parents on the MTR . Although his family was simply visiting Hong Kong , they agreed to stay and let Matthew appear in Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood .
= = = Filming = = =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood is the third Jackie Chan film directed by Benny Chan , following Who Am I ? and New Police Story . Filming took place in Hong Kong between December 2005 and April 2006 with a budget of HK $ 16 @.@ 8 million . Filming locations included Central , Sai Kung , Sha Tin , Hong Kong Ocean Park , Cyberport , Tai Po Waterfront Park and Victoria Prison .
Benny Chan described the filming process as some of the darkest days of his career , explaining that the baby was a factor beyond his control , and could not work more than eight hours a day . Whenever a scene involving the baby was shot , the crew members had to be silent , communicating in sign language . Benny Chan stated it took time , patience , and money to guide the baby through each shot , and numerous retakes were required due to the baby 's constant crying and napping . As a result , production went over budget . Special methods were sometimes used to coax the baby into co @-@ operation . One scene required the baby to suckle Chan 's nipple . The baby was initially hesitant , but relented after the crew brushed a large amount of honey onto the nipple .
Jackie Chan was the stunt director of Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood , having choreographed all the stunts with the Jackie Chan Stunt Team . He continued his tradition of performing his own stunts in the film , for example , jumping between several air @-@ conditioners on the outer wall of a tall building to reach the ground . Several scenes required Chan to co @-@ ordinate his stunts with the baby , including a car chase around the Sha Tin industrial area , in which he managed to snatch the baby away seconds before a car crashed into him ; and a scene in Ocean Park in which he climbed on the underside of a roller coaster with the baby in hand . Chan suffered minor injuries attempting stunts in the film , having been kicked in the chest by a stuntman wearing the wrong boots and fallen off a quad bike , while attempting to perform a wheelie . Chan 's combat choreography included the use of improvised weapons in combat ; when he fought a pair of skilled henchmen in a deep freeze room , he defeated them by spraying them with milk and then using a large fan to blast them with cold air .
= = Releases = =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on 8 September 2006 . After the film 's premiere at the Venice Film Festival , several scenes highlighting the personal relationships between characters were deleted from Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood prior to its release to the general public . Benny Chan explains that including too many dramatic scenes may distract the audience from the plot . The uncut version of Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood is included in the DVD release as the " Extended Version " feature .
The cut version of the film was released simultaneously in Hong Kong , China , Singapore , Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries on 29 September . Afterwards , Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood was released in Japan on 7 April 2007 . Greece remains the only European country in which Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood was released , on 13 February 2007 . The film is rated IIA in Hong Kong ( unsuitable for children ) , G in Singapore and U in Malaysia .
The Japanese title of Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood is プロジェクトBB ( Purojekuto BB ) , literally Project BB , the name initially proposed for the film . In Greece , the film is known as Ασύλληπτοι Απατεώνες ( transliteration : Asulliptoi Apateones ) , meaning Inconceivable Frauds . In the United States , the film is known as Robin @-@ B @-@ Hood .
= = = DVD = = =
The first pressing of the DVD was released in Hong Kong in November 2006 on Region 0 . This has since been discontinued and the subsequent standard and limited edition releases were on Region 3 . All Hong Kong versions contain two discs : a movie disc and an extras disc . The movie disc features both the cinematic and uncut versions of the film , along with a commentary track by Benny Chan . The extras disc contains a " behind @-@ the @-@ scenes " video , the post @-@ production press conference , a collection of deleted scenes and the music video of the theme song .
The limited edition DVD is housed in a box @-@ file style box and contains various pieces of merchandise including branded sandals and door signs . An even more limited release of 5000 units was briefly available , and handed out at various film festivals . This edition contained a crystal dummy , an imitation bank note and a branded 2007 calendar in addition to the merchandise in the other limited edition release .
The DVD was later released in other East Asian countries , including China ( Region 6 ) , Japan ( Region 2 ) , South Korea , Thailand and Malaysia ( Region 3 ) . On 26 December 2007 , the DVD was released in the US ( Region 1 ) by Dragon Dynasty in a " two @-@ disc ultimate edition " , which contains much of the same extras as the Hong Kong releases , including the commentary by Benny Chan , though with US trailers replacing the domestic ones . However , the runtime for this release is 126 : 28 , which is somewhere between the theatrical cut ( 121 : 46 ) and the director 's cut ( 135 : 11 ) on the Hong Kong releases .
On 24 May 2010 , DVD was released by Cine Asia in a two @-@ disc ultimate edition at the United Kingdom in Region 2 .
= = Reception = =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood was generally well received by critics . Jay Weissberg of Variety described the film as " a mildly fun ride that banked on Jackie 's tried @-@ and @-@ true comic charm in a standard baby kidnapping farce enlivened by just enough action sequences to keep hoary diaper scenes from soiling the playpen " . Credit was given to the stunt choreography and the acting partnership of Jackie Chan and Louis Koo , although some reviewers were disappointed about the absence of Sammo Hung .
The plot of Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood received mixed reviews : The Chinese newspaper Xiao Xiang Chen Bao found it concise , hilarious and touching , whereas Jay Weissberg criticised it for being unoriginal . In addition , Felix Cheong of Channel NewsAsia found the subplots involving the antagonists ' families redundant , detracting from the main story and making the film " tediously long " . However , Chan was praised for his decision to play a darker character in Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood . Andrew Sun of South China Morning Post stated that " one of the best things Chan can do for his flagging movie career is to play a heavy — a nasty , scum @-@ of @-@ the @-@ earth antagonist , since you do not always have to play a hero to be a hero . " Sun emphasised the need for Chan to show flexibility in his roles , citing a number of actors that have thrived by playing the occasional villain .
= = = Box office = = =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood grossed HK $ 1 @.@ 2 million the day it was released in Hong Kong . In China , the film topped the box office during the four @-@ day National Day holiday weekend , grossing ¥ 8 @.@ 9 million . It went on to top the Chinese box office in October with box office figures exceeding ¥ 90 million . Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood performed well in Southeast Asia , grossing US $ 404 @,@ 000 in Singapore , US $ 400 @,@ 000 in Malaysia and US $ 604 @,@ 000 in Thailand during its first four days . In total , Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood had a worldwide gross of US $ 20 @,@ 434 @,@ 179 despite not being released in North America and most of Europe .
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= Landkreuzer P. 1000 Ratte =
The Landkreuzer P. 1000 " Ratte " ( English : Land Cruiser P. 1000 " Rat " ) was a design for a super @-@ heavy tank for use by Nazi Germany during World War II , proposed by Krupp director Edward Grotte in June 1942 , who had already named it " Landkreuzer " . Submitted designs and drawings of the tank went under the names OKH Auftrag Nr. 30404 and E @-@ 30404 / 1 , which were presented in December 1942 . The tank was planned to be 1000 metric tonnes , being far heavier than the Panzer VIII " Maus " , the heaviest tank ever built ( weighing 188 tonnes ) . The project gained the approval of Adolf Hitler , who had expressed interest in the development of the tank . The project was canceled by Albert Speer in early 1943 , with no prototype tank ever built .
= = Development = =
The development history of the Ratte originated with a 1941 strategic study of Soviet heavy tanks conducted by Krupp , the study also giving birth to the Panzer VIII Maus super @-@ heavy tank . The study led to a suggestion from Krupp 's director ( Grotte ) , a special officer for submarine construction , who , on 23 June 1942 , proposed to Hitler a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ tonne tank which he named " Landkreuzer " . It was to be armed with naval artillery and armored with 25 centimetres ( 10 in ) of hardened steel , so heavy that only similar weapons could hope to affect it .
Hitler became enamored with Grotte 's concept and ordered Krupp to begin development of it in 1942 . As of December 29 , 1942 a few preliminary drawings had been completed , by which time the concept had been named " Ratte " ( Rat ) by Hitler himself . These submitted designs went under the titles OKH Auftrag Nr. 30404 and E @-@ 30404 / 1 . Albert Speer saw no reasonable use of the tank and canceled the project in 1943 before any prototype could be manufactured , although this did lead to the concept of the Landkreuzer P. 1500 Monster self @-@ propelled siege gun , which would have been heavier than the Ratte . The general idea for such a big tank was best summed up by Heinz Guderian , saying that : " Hitler 's fantasies sometimes shift into the gigantic " .
= = Description = =
The Ratte is known for its enormous size : it would have weighed 1 @,@ 000 tonnes , five times the weight of the Panzer VIII Maus . The divided weight of the Ratte includes 300 tonnes of armament ( the total weight of the guns themselves are 100 tonnes , so turret armour would have weighed 200 tonnes ) , 200 tonnes of armour and frame and 100 tonnes of track and automotive components , while remaining weight would be distributed to miscellaneous features . It was planned to be 35 m ( 115 ft ) long ( 39 metres ( 128 ft ) when including naval guns ) , 11 m ( 36 ft ) high and 14 m ( 46 ft ) wide . To compensate for its immense weight , the Ratte would have been equipped with three 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) wide and 21 m ( 69 ft ) long treads on each side with a total tread width of 7 @.@ 2 m ( 23 ft 7 in ) . This would help stability and weight distribution , but the vehicle 's sheer mass would have destroyed roads and rendered bridge crossings next to impossible . It was expected that its height , and its ground clearance of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , would have allowed it to ford most rivers with relative ease .
Planned propulsion was by two MAN V12Z32 / 44 24 @-@ cylinder marine diesel engines of 6 @,@ 300 kW ( 8 @,@ 400 hp ) each ( as used in U @-@ boats ) or eight Daimler @-@ Benz MB 501 20 @-@ cylinder marine diesel engines of 1 @,@ 500 kW ( 2 @,@ 000 hp ) each ( as used in E @-@ boats ) to achieve the 12 @,@ 000 kW ( 16 @,@ 000 hp ) needed to move this tank . The engines were to be provided with snorkels , also like those used by German submarines . The snorkels were designed to provide a way for oxygen to reach the engine , even during amphibious operations passing through deep water .
The Ratte 's primary weapon would have been a dual 280 mm SK C / 28 gun turret . This was the same turret that was used on the German capital ship Gneisenau but modified by removing one of the guns and its associated loading mechanism . Removing the third gun allowed extra accommodation of ammunition , which on ships is stored in the hull and later on sent to the turret through an ammunition elevator . This reduced the total weight of the tank by 50 tonnes . The guns used for the Ratte would have fired ammunition developed for other naval guns . It also included armour @-@ piercing rounds with 8 @.@ 1 kg ( 18 lb ) of explosive filler , and high @-@ explosive rounds with 17 @.@ 1 kg ( 38 lb ) of explosive filler .
Further armament was to consist of a 128 mm anti @-@ tank gun of the type used in the Jagdtiger or Maus , two 15 mm Mauser MG 151 / 15 autocannons , and eight 20 mm Flak 38 anti @-@ aircraft guns , probably with at least four of them as a Flakvierling quad mount . The 128 mm anti @-@ tank gun 's precise location on the Ratte is a point of contention among historians , most believing that it would have been mounted within the primary turret , with some others thinking a smaller secondary turret at the rear of the Ratte more logical . Some concept drawings exist to suggest a flexible mount on the glacis plate . The tank was to be provided with a vehicle bay that could hold two BMW R12 motorcycles for scouting , and several smaller storage rooms , a compact infirmary area , and a self @-@ contained lavatory system .
= = Issues = =
Its large size and weight would have rendered the tank unable to cross bridges at the risk of collapsing them , and travelling on roads would soon destroy them . Its top intended speed was 40 kilometres per hour , resulting in a slow , highly visible tank , vulnerable to air bombardment and artillery fire , despite having heavy armour . Issues with transporting the vehicle to the battlefield were also prominent . No railway or train car could bear the weight and the width would be too large for any railway or tunnel to accommodate .
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= 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year problem =
The 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year problem ( " 100 ky problem " , " 100 ka problem " ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800 @,@ 000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21 @,@ 000 , 40 @,@ 000 , 100 @,@ 000 , and 400 @,@ 000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations .
While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100 @,@ 000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100 @,@ 000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41 @,@ 000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid @-@ Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800 @,@ 000 years ago .
The related " 400 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ problem " refers to the absence of a 400 @,@ 000 @-@ year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1 @.@ 2 million years .
= = Recognition of the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year cycle = =
The geologic temperature record can be reconstructed from sedimentary evidence . Perhaps the most useful indicator of past climate is the fractionation of oxygen isotopes , denoted δ18O . This fractionation is controlled mainly by the amount of water locked up in ice and the absolute temperature of the planet , and has allowed a timescale of marine isotope stages to be constructed .
By the late 1990s , δ18O records of air ( in the Vostok ice core ) and marine sediments was available and was compared with estimates of insolation , which should affect both temperature and ice volume . As described by Shackleton ( 2000 ) , the deep @-@ sea sediment record of δ18O " is dominated by a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year cyclicity that is universally interpreted as the main ice @-@ age rhythm " . Shackleton ( 2000 ) adjusted the time scale of the Vostok ice core δ18O record to fit the assumed orbital forcing and used spectral analysis to identify and subtract the component of the record that in this interpretation could be attributed to a linear ( directly proportional ) response to the orbital forcing . The residual signal ( the remainder ) , when compared with the residual from a similarly retuned marine core isotope record , was used to estimate the proportion of the signal that was attributable to ice volume , with the rest ( having attempted to allow for the Dole effect ) being attributed to temperature changes in the deep water .
The 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year component of ice volume variation was found to match sea level records based on coral age determinations , and to lag orbital eccentricity by several thousand years , as would be expected if orbital eccentricity were the pacing mechanism . Strong non @-@ linear " jumps " in the record appear at deglaciations , although the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year periodicity was not the strongest periodicity in this " pure " ice volume record .
The separate deep sea temperature record was found to vary directly in phase with orbital eccentricity , as did Antarctic temperature and CO2 ; so eccentricity appears to exert a geologically immediate effect on air temperatures , deep sea temperatures , and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations . Shackleton ( 2000 ) concluded : " The effect of orbital eccentricity probably enters the paleoclimatic record through an influence on the concentration of atmospheric CO2 " .
Elkibbi and Rial ( 2001 ) identified the 100 ka cycle as one of five main challenges met by the Milankovitch model of orbital forcing of the ice ages .
= = Hypotheses to explain the problem = =
As the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year periodicity only dominates the climate of the past million years , there is insufficient information to separate the component frequencies of eccentricity using spectral analysis , making the reliable detection of significant longer @-@ term trends more difficult , although the spectral analysis of much longer palaeoclimate records , such as the Lisiecki and Raymo stack of marine cores and James Zachos ' composite isotopic record , helps to put the last million years in longer term context . Hence there is still no clear proof of the mechanism responsible for the 100ka periodicity — but there are several credible hypotheses .
= = = Climatic resonance = = =
The mechanism may be internal to the Earth system . The Earth 's climate system may have a natural resonance frequency of 100ka ; that is to say , feedback processes within the climate automatically produce a 100ka effect , much as a bell naturally rings at a certain pitch . Opponents to this claim point out that the resonance would have to have developed 1 million years ago , as a 100ka periodicity was weak to non @-@ existent for the preceding 2 million years . This is feasible — continental drift and sea floor spreading rate change have been postulated as possible causes of such a change . Free oscillations of components of the Earth system have been considered as a cause , but too few Earth systems have a thermal inertia on a thousand @-@ year timescale for any long @-@ term changes to accumulate . The 100 @,@ 000 year problem has been scrutinized by José A. Rial , Jeseung Oh and Elizabeth Reischmann who find that master @-@ slave synchronization between the climate systems natural frequencies and the eccentricity forcing started the 100ky ice ages of the late Pleistocene and explain their large amplitude .
= = = Orbital inclination = = =
Orbital inclination has a 100ka periodicity , while eccentricity 's 95 and 125ka periods could inter @-@ react to give a 108ka effect . While it is possible that the less significant , and originally overlooked , inclination variability has a deep effect on climate , the eccentricity only modifies insolation by a small amount : 1 – 2 % of the shift caused by the 21 @,@ 000 @-@ year precession and 41 @,@ 000 @-@ year obliquity cycles . Such a big impact from inclination would therefore be disproportionate in comparison to other cycles . One possible mechanism suggested to account for this was the passage of Earth through regions of cosmic dust . Our eccentric orbit would take us through dusty clouds in space , which would act to occlude some of the incoming radiation , shadowing the Earth . In such a scenario , the abundance of the isotope 3He , produced by solar rays splitting gases in the upper atmosphere , would be expected to decrease — and initial investigations did indeed find such a drop in 3He abundance . But the idea of an inclination effect has been deemed unnecessary ( Rial 1999 ) . However , there is still the possibility that the 100ka eccentricity cycle acts as a " pacemaker " to the system , amplifying the effect of precession and obliquity cycles at key moments , pushing the system out of a locally stable state and triggering a swift melting phase , by a small perturbation .
= = = Precession cycles = = =
A similar suggestion holds the 21 @,@ 636 @-@ year precession cycles solely responsible . Ice ages are characterized by the slow buildup of ice volume , followed by relatively swift melting phases . It is possible that ice built up over several precession cycles , only melting after four or five such cycles .
= = = Solar Luminosity Fluctuation = = =
A mechanism that may account for periodic fluctuations in solar luminosity has also been proposed as an explanation . Diffusion waves occurring within the sun can be modeled in such a way that they explain the observed climatic shifts on earth . However , the He3 signal again appears to contradict this finding .
= = = Land vs. oceanic photosynthesis = = =
The Dole effect describes trends in δ18O arising from trends in the relative importance of land @-@ dwelling and oceanic photosynthesizers . Such a variation is a plausible cause of the phenomenon .
= = = Ongoing research = = =
The recovery of higher @-@ resolution ice cores spanning more of the past 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years by the ongoing EPICA project may help to shed more light on the matter . A new , high @-@ precision dating method developed by the team allows better correlation of the various factors involved and puts the ice core chronologies on a stronger temporal footing , endorsing the traditional Milankovitch hypothesis , that climate variations are controlled by insolation in the northern hemisphere . The new chronology is inconsistent with the " inclination " theory of the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year cycle . The establishment of leads and lags against different orbital forcing components with this method — which uses the direct insolation control over nitrogen @-@ oxygen ratios in ice core bubbles — is in principle a great improvement in the temporal resolution of these records and another significant validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis . An international climate modelling exercise ( Abe @-@ ouchi et al . , Nature , 2013 ) demonstrated that climate models can replicate the 100 @,@ 000 year cyclicity given the orbital forcing and carbon dioxide levels of the late Pleistocene . The isostatic history of ice sheets was implicated in mediating the 100 @,@ 000 year response to the orbital forcing . Larger ice sheets are lower in elevation because they depress the continental crust upon which they sit , and are therefore more vulnerable to melting .
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= S. A. Andrée 's Arctic Balloon Expedition of 1897 =
S. A. Andrée 's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897 was an effort to reach the North Pole in which all three expedition members perished . S. A. Andrée ( 1854 – 97 ) , the first Swedish balloonist , proposed a voyage by hydrogen balloon from Svalbard to either Russia or Canada , which was to pass , with luck , straight over the North Pole on the way . The scheme was received with patriotic enthusiasm in Sweden , a northern nation that had fallen behind in the race for the North Pole .
Andrée ignored many early signs of the dangers associated with his balloon plan . Being able to steer the balloon to some extent was essential for a safe journey , and there was plenty of evidence that the drag @-@ rope steering technique he had invented was ineffective ; yet he staked the fate of the expedition on drag ropes . Worse , the polar balloon Örnen ( The Eagle ) was delivered directly to Svalbard from its manufacturer in Paris without being tested ; when measurements showed it to be leaking more than expected , Andrée refused to acknowledge the alarming implications of this . Most modern students of the expedition see Andrée 's optimism , faith in the power of technology , and disregard for the forces of nature as the main factors in the series of events that led to his death and those of his two companions Nils Strindberg ( 1872 – 97 ) and Knut Frænkel ( 1870 – 97 ) .
After Andrée , Strindberg , and Frænkel lifted off from Svalbard in July 1897 , the balloon lost hydrogen quickly and crashed on the pack ice after only two days . The explorers were unhurt but faced a grueling trek back south across the drifting icescape . Inadequately clothed , equipped , and prepared , and shocked by the difficulty of the terrain , they did not make it to safety . As the Arctic winter closed in on them in October , the group ended up exhausted on the deserted Kvitøya ( White Island ) in Svalbard and died there . For 33 years the fate of the Andrée expedition remained one of the unsolved riddles of the Arctic . The chance discovery in 1930 of the expedition 's last camp created a media sensation in Sweden , where the dead men had been mourned and idolized .
Andrée 's motives have since been re @-@ evaluated , along with assessing the role of the polar areas as the proving @-@ ground of masculinity and patriotism . An early example is Per Olof Sundman 's fictionalized bestseller novel of 1967 , The Flight of the Eagle , which portrays Andrée as weak and cynical , at the mercy of his sponsors and the media . ( This was later adapted and filmed as Flight of the Eagle , 1982 , directed by Jan Troell . ) The verdict on Andrée by modern writers for virtually sacrificing the lives of his two younger companions varies in harshness , depending on whether he is seen as the manipulator or the victim of Swedish nationalist fervor around the turn of the 20th century .
= = S. A. Andrée 's scheme = =
The second half of the 19th century has often been called the Heroic Age of polar exploration . The inhospitable and dangerous Arctic and Antarctic regions appealed powerfully to the imagination of the age , not as lands with their own ecologies and cultures , but as challenges to be conquered by technological ingenuity and manly daring .
The Swede Salomon August Andrée shared these enthusiasms , and proposed a plan for letting the wind propel a hydrogen balloon from Svalbard across the Arctic Sea to the Bering Strait , to fetch up in Alaska , Canada , or Russia , and passing near or even right over the North Pole on the way . Andrée was an engineer at the patent office in Stockholm , with a passion for ballooning . He bought his own balloon , the Svea , in 1893 and made nine journeys with it , starting from Gothenburg or Stockholm and travelling a combined distance of 1 @,@ 500 kilometers ( 930 mi ) . In the prevailing westerly winds , the Svea flights had a strong tendency to carry him uncontrollably out to the Baltic Sea and drag his basket perilously along the surface of the water and / or slam it into one of the many rocky islets in the Stockholm archipelago ( see artist 's impression , right ) . On one occasion he was blown clear across the Baltic to Finland . His longest trip was due east from Gothenburg , across the breadth of Sweden and out over the Baltic to Gotland . Even though he saw a lighthouse and heard breakers off Öland , he remained convinced that he was travelling over land and seeing lakes .
During a couple of the Svea flights , Andrée tested and tried out the drag @-@ rope steering technique which he had developed and wanted to use on his projected North Pole expedition . Drag ropes , which hang from the balloon basket and drag part of their length on the ground , are designed to counteract the tendency of lighter @-@ than @-@ air craft to travel at the same speed as the wind , a situation that makes steering by sails impossible . The friction of the ropes was intended to slow the balloon to the point where the sails would have an effect ( beyond that of making the balloon rotate on its axis ) . Andrée reported , and presumably believed , that with drag rope / sails steering he had succeeded in deviating about ten degrees either way from the wind direction . This notion is rejected by modern balloonists ; the Swedish Ballooning Association maintains that Andrée 's belief that he had deviated from the wind was mistaken , being misled by inexpertise and a surfeit of enthusiasm in an environment of variable winds and poor visibility . Use of drag ropes ( prone to snapping , falling off , or becoming entangled with each other or the ground , in addition to being ineffective ) is not considered by any modern expert to be a useful steering technique .
= = Promotion and fundraising = =
The Arctic ambitions of Sweden were still unrealized in the late 19th century , while neighboring and politically subordinate Norway was a world power in Arctic exploration through such pioneers as Fridtjof Nansen . The Swedish political and scientific elite were eager to see Sweden take that lead among the Scandinavian countries which seemed her due , and Andrée , a persuasive speaker and fundraiser , found it easy to gain support for his ideas . At a lecture in 1895 to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , Andrée thrilled the audience of geographers and meteorologists . A polar exploration balloon , he explained , would need to fulfill four conditions :
It must have enough lifting power to carry three people and all their scientific equipment , advanced cameras for aerial photography , provisions for four months , and ballast , altogether about 3000 kilograms ( about 3 @.@ 5 short tons ) .
It must retain the gas well enough to stay aloft for 30 days .
The hydrogen gas must be manufactured , and the balloon filled , at the Arctic launch site .
It must be at least somewhat steerable .
Andrée gave a glowingly optimistic account of the ease with which these requirements could be met . Larger balloons had been constructed in France , he claimed , and more airtight , too . Some French balloons had remained hydrogen @-@ filled for over a year without appreciable loss of buoyancy . As for the hydrogen , filling the balloon at the launch site could easily be done with the help of mobile hydrogen manufacturing units ; for the steering he referred to his own drag @-@ rope experiments with the Svea , stating that a deviation of 27 degrees from the wind direction could be routinely achieved .
Andrée assured the audience that Arctic summer weather was uniquely suitable for ballooning . The midnight sun would enable observations round the clock , halving the voyage time required , and do away with all need for anchoring at night , which might otherwise be a dangerous business . Neither would the balloon 's buoyancy be adversely affected by the cold of night . The drag @-@ rope steering technique was particularly well adapted for a region where the ground , consisting of ice , was " low in friction and free of vegetation " . He said that the minimal precipitation in the area posed no threat of weighing down the balloon . If some rain or snow did fall on the balloon , Andrée argued , " precipitation at above @-@ zero temperatures will melt , and precipitation at below @-@ zero temperatures will blow off , for the balloon will be travelling more slowly than the wind . " The audience was convinced by these arguments , so disconnected were they from the realities of the Arctic summer storms , fogs , high humidity , and ever @-@ present threat of ice formation . The academy approved Andrée 's expense calculation of 130 @,@ 800 kronor in all , corresponding in today 's money to just under a million U.S. dollars , of which the single largest sum , 36 @,@ 000 kronor , was for the balloon . With this endorsement , there was a rush to support his project , headed by King Oscar II , who personally contributed 30 @,@ 000 kronor , and Alfred Nobel , the dynamite magnate and founder of the Nobel Prize .
There was also considerable international interest , and the European and American newspaper @-@ reading publics were curious about a project that seemed as modern and scientific as the books of contemporary author Jules Verne . The press fanned the interest with a wide range of predictions , from certain death for the explorers to a safe and comfortable " guidance " of the balloon ( upgraded by the reporter to an " airship " ) to the North Pole in a manner planned by Parisian experts and Swedish scientists .
" In these days , the construction and guidance of airships have been improved greatly " , wrote The Providence Journal , " and it is supposed , both by the Parisian experts and by the Swedish scientists who have been assisting M. Andree , that the question of a sustained flight in this case will be very satisfactorily answered by the character of the balloon , by its careful guidance and , providing it gets into a Polar current of air , by the elements themselves . "
Faith in the experts and in science was common in the popular press , but with international attention came also for the first time informed criticism . Andrée being Sweden 's first balloonist , no national had the requisite knowledge to second @-@ guess him about buoyancy or drag ropes ; but both Germany and France had long ballooning traditions and several of their more experienced balloonists expressed skepticism about Andrée 's methods and inventions . However , just as with the Svea mishaps , all objections failed to dampen Andrée 's optimism . Eagerly followed by national and international media , he began negotiations with the well @-@ known aeronaut and balloon builder Henri Lachambre in Paris , world capital of ballooning , and ordered a varnished three @-@ layer silk balloon , 20 @.@ 5 meters ( 67 ft ) in diameter , from his workshop . The balloon , originally called Le Pôle Nord ( French for " The North Pole " ) , was to be renamed Örnen ( Swedish for " The Eagle " ) .
Special technical solutions had to be designed for the accommodations for three adults to be confined in a small balloon basket for up to 30 days . The sleeping berths for the crew were fitted at the floor of the basket , along with some of stores and provisions . The highly flammable hydrogen meant that cooking could not be done in the basket itself . The solution was a modified primus stove ( designed by a friend of Andrée 's ) that could be dangled 8 m ( 26 ft ) below the crew and then lit from the basket , at a safe distance . An angled mirror attached to the specially designed stove allowed the crew to determine whether it was successfully lit or not .
= = The 1896 fiasco = =
For his 1896 attempt to launch the balloon , Andrée had many eager volunteers to choose from . He picked Nils Gustaf Ekholm ( 1848 – 1923 ) , an experienced Arctic meteorological researcher and formerly his boss during an 1882 – 83 geophysical expedition to Spitsbergen , and Nils Strindberg ( 1872 – 97 ) , a brilliant student who was doing original research in physics and chemistry . The main scientific purpose of the expedition was to map the area by means of aerial photography , and Strindberg was both a devoted amateur photographer and a skilled constructor of advanced cameras . This was a team with many useful scientific and technical skills , but lacking any particular physical prowess or training for survival under extreme conditions . All three men were indoor types , and only one , Strindberg , was young . Andrée expected a sedentary voyage in a balloon basket , and strength and survival skills were far down on his list .
Modern writers all agree that Andrée 's North Pole scheme was unrealistic . He relied on the winds blowing more or less in the direction he wanted to go , on being able to fine @-@ tune his direction with the drag ropes , on the balloon being sealed tight enough to stay airborne for 30 days , and on no ice or snow sticking to the balloon to weigh it down . In the attempt of 1896 , the wind immediately refuted his optimism by blowing steadily from the north , straight at the balloon hangar at Danes Island , until the expedition had to pack up , let the hydrogen out of the balloon , and go home . It is now known that northerly winds are to be expected at Danes Island ; but in the late 19th century , information on Arctic airflow and precipitation existed only as contested academic hypotheses . Even Ekholm , an Arctic climate researcher , had no objection to Andrée 's theory of where the wind was likely to take them . The observational data simply did not exist .
On the other hand , Ekholm was skeptical of the balloon 's ability to retain hydrogen , from his own measurements . His buoyancy checks in the summer of 1896 , during the process of producing the hydrogen and pumping it into the balloon , convinced him that the balloon leaked too much to ever reach the Pole , let alone go on to Russia or Canada . The worst leakage came from the approximately eight million tiny stitching holes along the seams , which no amount of glued @-@ on strips of silk or applications of special secret @-@ formula varnish seemed to seal . The balloon was losing 68 kilograms ( 150 lb ) of lift force a day . Taking into account its heavy load , Ekholm estimated that it would be able to stay airborne for 17 days at most , not 30 . When it was time to go home , he warned Andrée that he would not take part in the next attempt , scheduled for summer 1897 , unless a stronger , better @-@ sealed balloon was bought .
Andrée resisted Ekholm 's criticisms to the point of deception . On the boat back from Svalbard , Ekholm learned from the chief engineer of the hydrogen plant the explanation of some anomalies he had noticed in his measurements : Andrée had from time to time secretly ordered extra topping @-@ up of the hydrogen in the balloon . Andrée 's motives for such self @-@ destructive behavior are not known . Several modern writers , following Sundman 's Andrée portrait in the semi @-@ documentary novel , The Flight of the Eagle ( 1967 ) , have speculated that Andrée had by this time become the prisoner of his own successful funding campaign . The sponsors and the media followed every delay and reported on every setback , and were clamoring for results . Andrée , Strindberg , and Ekholm had been seen off by cheering crowds in Stockholm and Gothenburg ( see image from Aftonbladet , right ) , and now all the expectations were coming to nothing with the long wait for southerly winds at Danes Island . Especially pointed was the contrast between Nansen 's simultaneous return , covered in polar glory from his daring yet well @-@ planned expedition on the ship Fram , and Andrée 's failure even to launch his own much @-@ hyped conveyance . Sundman theorizes that Andrée could not face letting the press report that he did not know the prevailing wind direction , and had also miscalculated in ordering the balloon , and needed a new one to rectify his error .
After the 1896 launch was called off , enthusiasm declined for joining the expedition for a second attempt in 1897 . From the candidates Andrée picked the 27 @-@ year @-@ old engineer , Knut Frænkel , to replace Ekholm . Frænkel was a civil engineer from the north of Sweden , an athlete who was fond of long mountain hikes . He was enrolled specifically to take over Ekholm 's meteorological observations . Despite lacking Ekholm 's theoretical and scientific knowledge , he handled this task efficiently . His meteorological journal has enabled researchers to reconstruct the movements of the three men during their last few months with considerable precision .
= = The 1897 disaster = =
= = = Launch , flight , and landing = = =
Returning to Danes Island in the summer of 1897 , the expedition found that the balloon hangar built the year before had weathered the winter storms well . The winds were more favorable , too . Andrée had strengthened his leadership by replacing the older and critical Ekholm , an authority in his field , with the 27 @-@ year @-@ old enthusiast Knut Frænkel . On July 11 , in a steady wind from the south @-@ west , the top of the plank hangar was dismantled , the three explorers climbed into the already heavy basket , and Andrée dictated one last @-@ minute telegram to King Oscar and another to the paper Aftonbladet , holder of press rights to the expedition . The large support team cut away the last ropes holding the balloon and it rose slowly . Moving out low over the water , it was pulled so far down by the friction of the several @-@ hundred @-@ meter @-@ long drag ropes against the ground as to dip the basket into the water . The friction also twisted the ropes round , detaching them from their screw holds . These holds were a new safety feature that Andrée had reluctantly been persuaded to add , whereby ropes that got caught on the ground could be more easily dropped .
Most of them unscrewed at once and 530 kilograms ( 1170 lb ) of rope were lost , while the three explorers could simultaneously be seen to dump 210 kilograms of sand overboard to get the basket clear of the water . Seven hundred and forty kilograms ( 1630 lb ) of essential weight was thus lost in the first few minutes . Before it was well clear of the launch site , the Eagle had turned from a supposedly steerable craft into an ordinary hydrogen balloon with a few ropes hanging from it , at the mercy of the wind ; its crew had no means to direct it to any particular goal and had too little ballast for stability . Lightened , the balloon rose to 700 meters ( 2300 ft ) , an unimagined height , where the lower air pressure made the hydrogen escape all the faster through the eight million little holes .
The balloon had two means of communication with the outside world , buoys and homing pigeons . The buoys , steel cylinders encased in cork , were intended to be dropped from the balloon into the water or onto the ice , to be carried to civilization by the currents . Only two buoy messages have ever been found . One was dispatched by Andrée on July 11 , a few hours after takeoff , and reads " Vår resa har hittills gått bra . Seglatsen fortgår på ungefär 250 m. höjd med en riktning till en början åt N 10 ° ost rättvisande men sednare åt N 45 ° ost rättvisande . [ … ] Vädret härrligt [ sic ] . Humöret utmärkt . " ( " Our journey goes well so far . We sail at an altitude of about 250 m , at first N 10 ° east , but later N 45 ° east . [ … ] Weather delightful . Spirits high . " ) The second was dropped an hour later and gave the height as 600 meters .
The newspaper Aftonbladet had supplied the pigeons , bred in northern Norway with the optimistic hope that they would manage to return there , and their message cylinders contained pre @-@ printed instructions in Norwegian asking the finder to pass the messages on to the newspaper 's address in Stockholm . Andrée released at least four pigeons , but only one was ever retrieved , by a Norwegian steamer where the pigeon had alighted and been promptly shot . Its message is dated July 13 and gives the travel direction at that point as East by 10 ° South . The message reads : " Från Andrées Polarexp. till Aftonbladet , Stockholm . Den 13 juli kl . 12 @,@ 30 midd . Lat . 82 ° 2 ' Long . 15 ° 5 ' ost god fart åt ost 10 ° syd . Allt väl ombord . Detta är tredje dufposten . Andrée . " ( " The Andree Polar Expedition to the " Aftonbladet " , Stockholm . July 13 12.30pm , 82 deg. north latitude , 15 deg.5 min. east longitude . Good journey eastwards , 10 deg. south . All goes well on board . This is the third message sent by pigeon . Andree . " ) Lundström and others note that all three messages fail to mention the accident at takeoff , or the increasingly desperate situation , which Andrée was describing fully in his main diary . The balloon was out of equilibrium , sailing much too high and thereby losing hydrogen faster than even Nils Ekholm had feared , then repeatedly threatening to crash on the ice . It was weighed down by being rain @-@ soaked ( " dripping wet " , writes Andrée in the diary ) , and the men were throwing all the sand and some of the payload overboard to keep it airborne .
Free flight lasted for 10 hours and 29 minutes and was followed by another 41 hours of bumpy ride with frequent ground contact before the inevitable final crash . The Eagle traveled for 2 days and 3 ½ hours altogether , during which time , according to Andrée , none of the three men got any sleep . The definitive landing appears to have been gentle . Neither the men nor the homing pigeons in their wicker cages were hurt , and none of the equipment was damaged , not even the delicate optical instruments and Strindberg 's two cameras .
= = = On foot on the ice = = =
From the moment the three were grounded on July 14 , Strindberg 's highly specialized cartographic camera , which had been brought to map the region from the air , became instead a means of recording daily life in the icescape and the constant danger and drudgery of the trek . Strindberg took about 200 photos with his seven @-@ kilogram ( 15 lb ) camera over the course of the three months they spent on the pack ice , one of the most famous being his picture of Andrée and Frænkel contemplating the fallen Eagle ( see image above ) .
Andrée and Frænkel also kept meticulous records of their experiences and geographical positions , Andrée in his " main diary " , Frænkel in his meteorological journal . Strindberg 's own stenographic diary was more personal in content , and included his general reflections on the expedition , as well as several messages to his fiancée Anna Charlier . All three manuscripts were eventually retrieved from the ice on Kvitøya in 1930 .
The Eagle had been stocked with safety equipment such as guns , snowshoes , sleds , skis , a tent , a small boat ( in the form of a bundle of bent sticks , to be assembled and covered with balloon silk ) , most of it stored not in the basket but in the storage space arranged above the balloon ring . These items had not been put together with great care , or with any acknowledgement of adopting indigenous peoples ' techniques for dealing with the extreme environment . In this , Andrée contrasted not only with later but also with many earlier explorers . Sven Lundström points to the agonizing extra efforts that became necessary for the team due to Andrée 's mistaken design of the sleds , with a rigid construction that borrowed nothing from the long proven Inuit sleds , and were so impractical for the difficult terrain . Andrée called it " dreadful terrain " , with channels separating the ice floes , high ridges , and partially iced @-@ over melt ponds . The men 's clothes included no furs but were woollen coats and trousers , plus oilskins . They wore the oilskins but the explorers reported always seeming to be damp or wet from the half @-@ frozen pools of water on the ice and the typically foggy , humid Arctic summer air , and preoccupied with drying their clothes , mainly by wearing them . Danger was everywhere , as it would have meant certain death to lose the provisions lashed to one of the inconvenient sleds into one of the many channels that had to be laboriously crossed .
Before starting the march across the " dreadful terrain , " the three men spent a week in a tent at the crash site , packing up and making decisions about what and how much to bring and where to go . The far @-@ off North Pole was not mentioned as an option ; the choice lay between two depots of food and ammunition laid down for their safety , one at Cape Flora in Franz Josef Land and one at Sjuøyane ( Seven Islands ) in Svalbard ( see map ) . Inferring from their faulty maps that the distances to each were about equal , they decided to try for the bigger depot at Cape Flora . Strindberg took more pictures during this week than he would at any later point , including 12 frames that make up a 360 @-@ degree panorama of the crash site .
The balloon had carried a lot of food , of a kind adapted more for a balloon voyage than for travels on foot . Andrée had reasoned that they might as well throw excess food overboard as sand , if losing weight was necessary ; and if it was not , the food would serve if wintering in the Arctic desert did after all become necessary . There was therefore less ballast and large amounts of heavy @-@ type provisions , 767 kg ( 1690 lb ) altogether , including 200 liters of water and some crates of champagne , port , beer , etc . , donated by sponsors and manufacturers . There was also lemon juice , though not as much of this precaution against scurvy as other polar explorers usually thought necessary . Much of the food was in the form of cans of pemmican , meat , sausages , cheese , and condensed milk . By the time they crashed , they had thrown some of it overboard . The three men took most of the rest with them on leaving the crash site , along with other necessities such as guns , tent , ammunition , and cooking utensils , making a load on each sled of more than 200 kg ( 440 lb ) . This was not realistic , as it broke the sleds and wore out the men . After one week , they sorted out and left behind a big pile of food and non @-@ essential equipment , bringing the loads down to 130 kg per sled . It became more necessary than ever to hunt for food . They shot and ate seals , walruses , and especially polar bears throughout the march .
Starting out for Franz Josef Land to the south @-@ east on July 22 , the three soon found that their struggle across the ice , which had ridges two @-@ stories high , was hardly bringing the goal any nearer : the drift of the ice was in the opposite direction , moving them backwards . On August 4 they decided , after a long discussion , to aim for Sjuøyane in the southwest instead , hoping to reach the depot there after a six- to seven @-@ week march , with the help of the current . The terrain in that direction was mostly extremely difficult , sometimes necessitating a crawl on all fours , but there was occasional relief in the form of open water — the little boat ( not designed by Andrée ) was apparently a functional and safe conveyance — and smooth , flat ice floes . " Paradise ! " wrote Andrée . " Large even ice floes with pools of sweet drinking water and here and there a tender @-@ fleshed young polar bear ! " They made fair apparent headway , but the wind turned almost as soon as they did , and they were again being pushed backwards , away from Sjuøyane . The wind varied between southwest and northwest over the coming weeks ; they tried in vain to overcome this by turning more and more westward , but it was becoming clear that Sjuøyane was out of their reach .
On September 12 , the explorers resigned themselves to wintering on the ice and camped on a large floe , letting the ice take them where it would , " which " , writes Kjellström , " it had really been doing all along " ( p . 47 ) . Drifting rapidly due south towards Kvitøya , they hurriedly built a winter " home " on the floe against the increasing cold , with walls made of water @-@ reinforced snow to Strindberg 's design ( see plan , below , left ) . Observing the rapidity of their drift , Andrée recorded his hopes that they might get far enough south to feed themselves entirely from the sea . However , the floe began to break up directly under the hut on October 2 from the stresses of pressing against Kvitøya , and they were forced to bring their stores on to the island itself , which took a couple of days . " Morale remains good " , reports Andrée at the very end of the coherent part of his diary , which ends : " Med sådana kamrater bör man kunna reda sig under snart sagdt hvilka omständigheter som helst . " ( " With such comrades one should be able to manage under , I may say , any circumstances " . ) It is inferred from the incoherent and badly damaged last pages of Andrée 's diary that the three men were all dead within a few days of moving onto the island .
= = Speculation and recovery = =
For the next 33 years , the fate of the expedition was shrouded in mystery and its disappearance part of cultural lore in Sweden and to a certain extent elsewhere . It was actively sought for a couple of years and remained the subject of myth and rumor , with frequent international newspaper reports of possible findings . An extensive archive of American newspaper reports from the first few years , 1896 – 99 , titled " The Mystery of Andree " , shows a much richer media interest in the expedition after it disappeared than before . A great variety of fates are suggested for it , inspired by finds , or reported finds , of remnants of what might be a balloon basket , or great amounts of balloon silk , or by stories of men falling from the sky , or visions by psychics , all of which would typically locate the stranded balloon far from Danes Island and Svalbard .
Lundström points out ( p . 134 ) that some of the international and national reports took on the features of urban legends . They reflected a prevailing disrespect for the indigenous peoples of the Arctic , who were portrayed in the newspapers as uncomprehending savages who had killed the three men or showed a deadly indifference to their plight . These speculations were refuted in 1930 , upon the discovery of the expedition 's final resting place on Kvitøya by the crews of two ships , the Bratvaag and the Isbjørn .
The Norwegian Bratvaag Expedition , studying the glaciers and seas of the Svalbard archipelago from the Norwegian sealing vessel Bratvaag of Ålesund , found the remains of the Andrée expedition on August 5 , 1930 . Kvitøya was usually inaccessible to the sealing or whaling ships of the time , as it is typically surrounded by a wide belt of thick polar ice and often hidden by thick ice fogs . However , summer in 1930 had been particularly warm , and the surrounding sea was practically free of ice . As Kvitøya was known to be a prime hunting ground for walrus and the fogs over the island on that day were comparatively thin , some of the crew of the Bratvaag took this rare opportunity to land on what they called the " inaccessible island " . Two of the sealers in search of water , Olav Salen and Karl Tusvick , discovered Andrée 's boat near a small stream , frozen under a mound of snow and full of equipment , including a boathook engraved with the words " Andrée 's Polar Expedition , 1896 " . Presented with this hook , the Bratvaag 's captain , Peder Eliassen , assigned the crew to search the site together with the expedition members . Among other finds , they uncovered a journal and two skeletons , identified as Andrée 's and Strindberg 's remains by monograms found on their clothing .
The Bratvaag left the island to continue its scheduled hunting and observations , with the intent of coming back later to see if the ice had melted further and uncovered more artifacts . Further discoveries were made by the M / K Isbjørn of Tromsø , Norway , a sealing sloop chartered by news reporters to waylay the Bratvaag . Unsuccessful in this , the reporters and the Isbjørn crew made instead for Kvitøya , landing on the island on September 5 in fine weather and finding even less ice than the Bratvaag had . After photographing the area , they searched for and found Frankel 's body , and additional artifacts , including a tin box containing Strindberg 's photographic film , his logbook and maps . The crews of both ships turned over their finds to a scientific commission of the Swedish and Norwegian governments in Tromsø on September 2 and 16 , respectively . The bodies of the three explorers were transported to Stockholm , arriving on October 5 .
= = Cause of deaths = =
The bodies of the three men were cremated in 1930 without further examination upon being returned to Sweden . The question of what , exactly , caused their deaths has attracted both interest and controversy among scholars . Several medical practitioners and amateur historians have read the extensive diaries with a detective 's eye , looking for clues in the diet , for telltale complaints of symptoms , and for suggestive details at the death site . They agree on many particulars . For instance , the explorers are known to have eaten mainly scanty amounts of canned and dry goods from the balloon stores , plus huge portions of half @-@ cooked meat of polar bears and occasionally seals . They suffered often from foot pains and diarrhea , and were always tired , cold , and wet . When they moved on to Kvitøya from the ice , they left much of their valuable equipment and stores outside the tent , and even down by the water 's edge , as if they were too exhausted , indifferent , or ill to carry it further . Strindberg , the youngest , died first and was " buried " ( wedged into a cliff aperture ) by the others . However , the interpretation of these observations is contested .
The best @-@ known and most widely credited suggestion is that made by Ernst Tryde , a medical practitioner , in his book De döda på Vitön ( " The Dead on Kvitøya " ) in 1952 : that the men succumbed to trichinosis , which they had contracted from eating undercooked polar bear meat . Larvae of Trichinella spiralis were found in parts of a polar bear carcass at the site . Lundström and Sundman both favor this explanation . Critics note that the diarrhea , which Tryde cites as the main symptomatic evidence , hardly needs an explanation beyond the general poor diet and physical misery , but some more specific symptoms of trichinosis are missing . Also , Fridtjof Nansen and his companion Hjalmar Johansen had lived largely on polar bear meat in exactly the same area for 15 months without any ill effects . Other suggestions have included vitamin A poisoning from eating polar bear liver ; however , the diary shows Andrée to have been aware of this danger . Carbon monoxide poisoning is a theory that has found a few adherents , such as the explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson . The chief objection is that their primus stove had kerosene still in the tank when found . Stefansson argues that they were using a malfunctioning stove , something he has experienced in his own expeditions . Lead poisoning from the cans in which their food was stored is an alternative suggestion , as are scurvy , botulism , suicide ( they had plenty of opium ) , and polar bear attack . A combination favoured by Kjellström is that of cold and hypothermia as the Arctic winter closed in , with dehydration and general exhaustion , apathy , and disappointment . Kjellström argues that Tryde never takes the nature of their daily life into account , and especially the crowning blow of the ice breaking up under their promisingly mobile home , forcing them to move onto a glacier island . " Posterity has expressed surprise that they died on Kvitøya , surrounded by food , " writes Kjellström . " The surprise is rather that they found the strength to live so long " ( p . 54 ) .
In 2010 , writer and researcher Bea Uusma at Karolinska institutet , Sweden , rejected the theory that larvae of Trichinella spiralis killed the expedition members . After examining the men 's clothes , she concluded that at least Strindberg was killed by polar bears .
= = Legacy = =
In 1897 , Andrée 's daring or foolhardy undertaking nourished Swedish patriotic pride and Swedish dreams of taking the scientific lead in the Arctic . The title of " Engineer " — " Ingenjör Andrée " — was generally and reverentially used in speaking of him , and expressed high esteem for the late 19th @-@ century ideal of the engineer as a representative of social improvement through technological progress . The three explorers were fêted when they departed and mourned by the nation when they disappeared . When they were found , they were celebrated for the heroism of their doomed two @-@ month struggle to reach populated areas and were seen as having selflessly perished for the ideals of science and progress . The procession carrying their mortal remains from the ships into Stockholm on October 5 , 1930 , writes Swedish historian of ideas Sverker Sörlin ,
" must be one of the most solemn and grandiose manifestations of national mourning that has ever occurred in Sweden . One of the rare comparable events is the national mourning that followed the Estonia disaster in the Baltic Sea in September 1994 " ( p . 100 ) .
More recently , Andrée 's heroic motives have been questioned , beginning with Per Olof Sundman 's bestselling semi @-@ documentary novel of 1967 , The Flight of the Eagle . Sundman portrays Andrée as the victim of the demands of the media and the Swedish scientific and political establishment , and as ultimately motivated by fear rather than courage . Sundman 's interpretation of the personalities involved , the blind spots of the Swedish national culture , and the role of the press is reflected in the film adaptation , Flight of the Eagle ( 1982 ) , based on his novel and directed by Jan Troell . It was nominated for an Oscar .
Appreciation of Nils Strindberg 's role seems to be growing , both for the fortitude with which the untrained and unprepared student kept photographing , in what must have been a more or less permanent state of near @-@ collapse from exhaustion and exposure , and for the artistic quality of the result . Out of the 240 exposed frames that were found on Kvitøya in waterlogged containers , 93 were saved by John Hertzberg at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm , Strindberg 's former workplace . In his article , " Recovering the visual history of the Andrée expedition " ( 2004 ) , Tyrone Martinsson has lamented the traditional focus by previous researchers on the written records — the diaries — as primary sources of information ; he renewed his claim for the historical significance of the photographs .
Some of the items from the expedition , including the balloon @-@ silk boat and the tent , are on display at the Andréeexpeditionen Polar Centre at Grenna Museum , Sweden . The expedition is also featured in the Spitsbergen Airship Museum in Longyearbyen , Svalbard .
= = Representation in other media = =
In 1983 , American composer Dominick Argento created a song cycle for baritone and piano entitled The Andrée Expedition . This cycle sets to music texts from the diaries and letters .
Swedish composer Klas Torstensson 's opera Expeditionen ( 1994 – 99 ) is based on Andrée 's story .
An account of the expedition is included in The Ghost Disease and Twelve Other Stories of Detective Work in the Medical Field , by Michael Howell and Peter Ford ( Penguin , 1986 ) .
It was dramatised as a play by Michael Butt for BBC Radio 4 as The Stranded Eagle , as part of the " Medical Detectives " series . The radio play aired 1 April 1998 and starred John Woodvine ( Knut Stubbendorf ) , Clive Merrison ( Ernst Tryde ) , Ken Stott ( S.A. Andrée ) , Jack Klaff ( Knut Fraenkel ) and Scott Handy ( Nils Strindberg ) . The play has subsequently been broadcast on the digital channel , BBC 7 .
In 2013 the NIE Theatre Group produced a play about the expedition , entitled North , North , North , and presented it on tour around the UK .
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= North by North Quahog =
" North by North Quahog " is the first episode of the fourth season of Family Guy , following the revival of the series three years after its cancellation in 2002 . The episode was first broadcast on May 1 , 2005 , on Fox , though it had premiered three days earlier at a special screening at the University of Vermont , Burlington . In the episode , Peter and Lois go on a second honeymoon to spice up their marriage , but are chased by Mel Gibson after Peter steals the sequel to The Passion of the Christ from Gibson 's private hotel room . Meanwhile , Brian and Stewie take care of Chris and Meg at home .
Family Guy had been canceled in 2002 due to low ratings , but was revived by Fox after reruns on Adult Swim became the cable network 's most watched program , and more than three million DVDs of the show were sold . " North by North Quahog " was directed by Peter Shin and written by series creator Seth MacFarlane . Much of the plot and many of the technical aspects of the episode , as well as the title , are direct parodies of the 1959 Alfred Hitchcock movie North by Northwest ; in addition , the episode makes use of Bernard Herrmann 's theme music from that film . The episode contains many cultural references ; in the opening sequence Peter lists 29 shows that were canceled by Fox after Family Guy was canceled and says that if all of those shows were to be canceled , they might have a chance at returning .
Critical responses to " North by North Quahog " were mostly positive , with the opening sequence being praised in particular . The episode was watched by nearly 12 million viewers and received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) . Shin won an Annie Award for Directing in an Animated Television Production for this episode .
= = Plot = =
In the cold open , Peter tells his family that they have " been canceled " . He then lists all 29 shows that were canceled by Fox between the show 's cancellation and revival and says that if all of those shows were to be canceled , they might have a chance at returning .
As Peter and Lois are having sex , she yells out George Clooney 's name , so Peter realizes that she is imagining him as Clooney to maintain her libido . Lois and Peter decide to take a second honeymoon to enliven their marriage , and leave their anthropomorphic dog Brian to take care of their children Stewie , Chris , and Meg . Brian is unable to control the children , but Stewie offers to help ( in exchange for Brian changing his diaper ) and together they manage the home . The pair chaperone a dance at Chris 's school , during which a school staff member catches Chris in the boys ' restroom with vodka that belongs to his classmate Jake Tucker . Although Brian and Stewie punish Chris by grounding him , they try to clear his name . Jake 's father Tom refuses to believe Brian and Stewie , so they resort to planting cocaine in Jake 's locker , and Jake is sentenced to community service .
On the way to their vacation spot , Peter reads a comic book while driving with Lois asleep , and crashes his car into a tree . They are forced to spend their entire honeymoon money on car repairs and are about to return home when Peter discovers that actor / director Mel Gibson has a private suite at a luxurious hotel nearby , " which he barely uses " . He and Lois then go to the hotel , where Peter poses as Gibson to gain access to his room . When Lois yells out Gibson 's name during intercourse , Peter , again , decides to return home . As the two are about to leave , Peter accidentally stumbles upon Gibson 's private screening room and discovers a sequel to The Passion of the Christ entitled The Passion of the Christ 2 : Crucify This . To spare the world from " ... another two hours of Mel Gibson Jesus mumbo @-@ jumbo , " Peter steals the film . However , when they leave the hotel , they are noticed by two priests , Gibson 's associates , who were there to collect the film .
Pursued by the priests in a car chase that leads them through a shopping mall , Lois and Peter escape from the priests and drive to a cornfield where Peter buries the film . While he is doing so , the priests fly down in a crop @-@ duster and kidnap Lois . Peter is then given a message telling him that if he does not return the film to Gibson at his estate on top of Mount Rushmore , his wife will be killed . Peter arrives at the house and gives Gibson a film can . As Peter and Lois are about to leave , Gibson discovers that the film has been replaced with dog feces , leading to a chase on the face of the mountain . While being chased , Lois slips but hangs on to George Washington 's lips . Peter grabs her and , while being held at gunpoint , he tells Gibson that the film " is in President Rushmore 's mouth " and points to the other side of the monument . Gibson follows Peter 's direction and falls off the edge as Peter pulls Lois to safety . Upon climbing back to the top of the mountain , the two have sexual intercourse there , improving their marriage .
= = Production and development = =
In 2002 , Family Guy was canceled after three seasons due to low ratings . The show was first canceled after the 1999 – 2000 season , but following a last @-@ minute reprieve , it returned for a third season in 2001 . Fox tried to sell rights for reruns of the show , but it was hard to find networks that were interested ; Cartoon Network eventually bought the rights , " [ ... ] basically for free " , according to the president of 20th Century Fox Television Production . When the reruns were shown on Cartoon Network 's Adult Swim in 2003 , Family Guy became Adult Swim 's most @-@ watched show with an average 1 @.@ 9 million viewers an episode . Following Family Guy 's high ratings on Adult Swim , the first season was released on DVD in April 2003 . Sales of the DVD set reached 2 @.@ 2 million copies , becoming the best @-@ selling television DVD of 2003 and the second highest @-@ selling television DVD ever , behind the first season of Comedy Central 's Chappelle 's Show . The second season DVD release also sold more than a million copies . The show 's popularity in both DVD sales and reruns rekindled Fox 's interest in it . They ordered 35 new episodes in 2004 , marking the first revival of a television show based on DVD sales . Fox president Gail Berman said that it was one of her most difficult decisions to cancel the show , and was therefore happy it would return . The network also began production of a film based on the series .
" North by North Quahog " was the first episode to be broadcast after the show 's cancellation . It was written by MacFarlane and directed by Peter Shin , both of whom also wrote and directed the pilot . MacFarlane believed the show 's three @-@ year hiatus was beneficial because animated shows do not normally have hiatuses , and towards the end of their seasons " ... you see a lot more sex jokes and ( bodily function ) jokes and signs of a fatigued staff that their brains are just fried " . With " North by North Quahog " , the writing staff tried to keep the show " ... exactly as it was " before its cancellation , and did not " ... have the desire to make it any slicker " than it already was . Walter Murphy , who had composed music for the show before its cancellation , returned to compose the music for " North by North Quahog " . Murphy and the orchestra recorded an arrangement of Bernard Herrmann 's score from North by Northwest , a film referenced multiple times in the episode .
Fox had ordered five episode scripts at the end of the third season ; these episodes had been written but not produced . One of these scripts was adapted into " North by North Quahog " . The original script featured Star Wars character Boba Fett , and later actor , writer and producer Aaron Spelling , but the release of the iconic film The Passion of the Christ inspired the writers to incorporate Mel Gibson into the episode . Multiple endings were written , including one in which Death comes for Gibson . During production , an episode of South Park was released entitled " The Passion of the Jew " that also featured Gibson as a prominent character . This gave the Family Guy writers pause , fearing accusations " [ ... ] that we had ripped them off . "
Three days before the episode debuted on television , it was screened at the University of Vermont ( UVM ) in Burlington , accompanied by an hour @-@ long question @-@ and @-@ answer session with MacFarlane . The UVM 's special screening of the episode was attended by 1 @,@ 700 people . As promotion for the show , and to , as Newman described , " expand interest in the show beyond its die hard fans " , Fox organized four Family Guy Live ! performances , which featured cast members reading old episodes aloud ; " North by North Quahog " was also previewed . In addition , the cast performed musical numbers from the Family Guy Live in Vegas comedy album . The stage shows were an extension of a performance by the cast during the 2004 Montreal Comedy Festival . The Family Guy Live ! performances , which took place in Los Angeles and New York , sold out and were attended by around 1 @,@ 200 people each .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode opens with Peter telling the rest of the family that Family Guy has been canceled . He lists the following 29 shows ( in chronological order ) , that he says Fox has to make room for : Dark Angel , Titus ( though Titus was facing cancellation the same year Family Guy was ) , Undeclared , Action , That ' 80s Show , Wonderfalls , Fastlane , Andy Richter Controls the Universe , Skin , Girls Club , Cracking Up , The Pitts , Firefly , Get Real , Freakylinks , Wanda at Large , Costello , The Lone Gunmen , A Minute with Stan Hooper , Normal , Ohio , Pasadena , Harsh Realm , Keen Eddie , The $ treet , The American Embassy , Cedric the Entertainer Presents , The Tick , Luis , and Greg the Bunny . Lois asks whether there is any hope , to which Peter replies that if all these shows are canceled they might have a chance , the joke being all these shows had indeed already been canceled by Fox . The New York Times reported that , during the first Family Guy Live ! performance , " ... the longer [ the list ] went , the louder the laughs from the Town Hall crowd [ became ] " .
Australian @-@ American actor Mel Gibson is prominently featured in the episode ; his voice was impersonated by André Sogliuzzo . Gibson directed the film The Passion of the Christ and , in the episode , is seen making a sequel entitled Passion of the Christ 2 : Crucify This . The fictional sequel is a combination of The Passion of the Christ and Rush Hour , and stars Chris Tucker , who starred in Rush Hour , and James Caviezel who portrayed Jesus in The Passion of the Christ .
The episode contains several references to Alfred Hitchcock 's 1959 film North by Northwest . Besides the title of the episode , several scenes in " North by North Quahog " are inspired by the Hitchcock film . In the scene in which Lois is kidnapped by Gibson 's associates , the two priests chase Peter through a cornfield , flying a crop @-@ duster , parodying the crop @-@ duster scene from the film . The final face @-@ off between Peter , Lois and Gibson that takes place on Mount Rushmore is also a reference to North by Northwest .
As Peter and Lois are driving to Cape Cod for their second honeymoon , Peter is reading a Jughead comic book and their car crashes . The fictional Park Barrington Hotel , where Peter and Lois steal Gibson 's film , is located in Manhattan . The car chase scene through a shopping mall is a recreation of a scene from the 1980 comedy film The Blues Brothers . To stop Meg and Chris from fighting , Brian reads to them from one of the few books Peter owns , a novelization of the 1980 film Caddyshack and quotes a line by Chevy Chase 's character , Ty Webb .
The episode contains a number of other cultural references . When Peter and Lois enter their motel room and find a hooker on the bed , Peter warns Lois to stay perfectly still , as the prostitute 's vision is based on movement . This is a reference to a scene in the movie Jurassic Park in which Dr. Grant gives this warning in reference to a Tyrannosaurus Rex . Pinocchio appears in a cutaway gag , in which Gepetto bends over and deliberately sets Pinocchio up to tell a lie in an attempt to emulate anal sex . This was based on a joke MacFarlane 's mother had told her friends when he was a child . Lois yells out George Clooney 's name when she and Peter are having sex . The 1950s sitcom The Honeymooners is also referenced when a fictional episode of the sitcom is shown in which Ralph Kramden , the show 's main character , hits his wife , something he would only threaten to do on the show . Meg watches an episode of the CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men , which shows three men in a living room , one of whom is cut in half at the waist and screaming in agony , the other two standing over him and screaming in horror . Fictional army soldier Flint of G.I. Joe : A Real American Hero appears briefly after Chris is caught drinking vodka , and educates the children on drinking and informs them that " ... knowing is half the battle " . Flint 's voice was provided by Bill Ratner , the actor who had voiced the character in the G.I. Joe television series . According to Seth Green , who voices Chris , the reason the Family Guy cast members did not voice Flint themselves is because if you have the original actor providing the voice " [ ... ] you take it with a little bit more gravitas " .
= = Reception = =
" North by North Quahog " was broadcast on May 1 , 2005 as part of an animated television night on Fox , was preceded by two episodes of The Simpsons ( including the show 's 350th episode ) , and was followed by the premiere of MacFarlane 's new show , American Dad ! . It was watched by 11 @.@ 85 million viewers , higher than both The Simpsons and American Dad . The episode 's ratings were Family Guy 's highest ratings since the airing of the season one episode " Brian : Portrait of a Dog " . Family Guy was the week 's highest @-@ rated show among teens and men in the 18 to 34 demographic , and more than doubled Fox 's average in its timeslot . The episode 's first broadcast in Canada on Global was watched by 1 @.@ 27 million viewers , making it fourth for the week it was broadcast , behind CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , CSI : Miami and Canadian Idol .
The reactions of television critics to " North by North Quahog " were mostly positive . In a simultaneous review of the two episodes of The Simpsons that preceded this episode and the American Dad ! pilot , Chase Squires of the St. Petersburg Times stated that " North by North Quahog " " ... score [ d ] the highest " . Multimedia news and reviews website IGN was pleased to see Stewie and Brian get more screen time as a duo , something they thought had always been one of the show 's biggest strengths . IGN placed Peter 's idea to pose as Mel Gibson and steal Passion of the Christ 2 in 9th place on their list of " Peter Griffin 's Top 10 Craziest Ideas " . Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe commented that the episode 's material " would wear thin after a while if the character 's weren 't as distinct and endearing as they are , most notably Stewie , the wrathful infant . "
Critics reacted positively to the opening sequence ; in his review of the episode , Mark McGuire of The Times Union wrote : " ... the first minute or so of the resurrected Family Guy ranks among the funniest 60 seconds I 've seen so far this season . " Variety critic Brian Lowry considered the opening sequence to be the best part of the episode . M. Keith Booker , author of the book Drawn to Television : Primetime Television from The Flintstones to Family Guy , called the opening sequence an " ... in @-@ your @-@ face , I @-@ told @-@ you @-@ so rejoinder to the Fox brass [ ... ] followed by one of the most outrageous Family Guy episodes ever " .
However , the episode also garnered negative responses . Melanie McFarland of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer stated that " Three years off the air has not made the ' Family Guy ' team that much more creative " . Kevin Wong of PopMatters thought the episode made fun of easy targets such as Gibson and The Passion of The Christ , although he felt Family Guy regained " ... its admirable mix of niche nostalgia and hysterical characterizations " after the first two episodes of the new season . Though Alex Strachan , critic for The Montreal Gazette , praised the opening sequence , he felt " it 's all downhill from there " . Bill Brioux of the Toronto Star considered the show to be similar to The Simpsons . Media watchdog group the Parents Television Council , a frequent critic of the show , branded the episode the " worst show of the week " .
" North by North Quahog " was nominated for an Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) , the eventual recipient of the award being South Park episode " Best Friends Forever " . Peter Shin , director of the episode , won the Annie Award for Best Directing in an Animated Television Production . Fellow Family Guy director Dan Povenmire , was nominated for the same award for directing " PTV " .
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= My Chick Bad =
" My Chick Bad " is a song by American rapper Ludacris . The song features American recording artist Nicki Minaj , who co @-@ wrote the song with Ludacris , Samuel Lindley , and Derrelle Davidson . The track was produced by The Legendary Traxster . " My Chick Bad " serves as the second single from Ludacris ' eighth album , Battle of the Sexes . An official remix to the song was also released , featuring female rappers Diamond , Eve , and Trina .
The song was a commercial success , peaking at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song reached number two on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Rap Songs charts , and also appeared on the Pop Songs without an official release to pop radio . " My Chick Bad " was nominated for a 2011 Grammy Award in the category Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group . The accompanying music video for both versions of the song take place in a dungeon during the filming of a movie , with Minaj portraying a Freddy Krueger @-@ esque character .
= = Background = =
In an interview with Rap @-@ Up , on Nicki Minaj , Ludacris said , " She ’ s an animated female and I ’ m an animated rapper myself . " Before it was released as a single , in the interview , he said , " That ’ s one of the records that we gonna put out there . " The official remix features Eve , Trina , and Diamond , while Ludacris only has background vocals . The remix was also included on Battle of the Sexes , and an extension of the original video was made to accompany it . On the set of the video , Eve said , " I ’ m just happy that Luda [ cris ] got this together and made this happen . This is just a nice prelude to what ’ s about to happen . I think it ’ s about to be another movement of strong women . "
= = Composition = =
The song carries a " thumping " and " dark " tone described as " spooky . " Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club described the song as " swaggering " , and it has been called " rambunctious " by XXL . It also features the catchy hook , " My chick bad / My chick ' hood / My chick do stuff that your chick wish she could . " As Ludacris 's verse brags about his significant other , Minaj 's as well as the females present on the remix , brag about themselves . In the song , Ludacris refers to tennis stars Venus and Serena Williams , and to the Tiger Woods scandal in a reference of his wife , Elin Nordegren . Minaj refers to basketball star Lisa Leslie , as well as the horror franchises A Nightmare on Elm Street and Friday the 13th , and their respective main antagonists , Freddy Krueger and Jason Voorhees .
= = Critical reception = =
August Brown of the Los Angeles Times complimented " a cameo from the ever @-@ delightful Nicki Minaj . " Sarah Godfrey of the Washington Post commented that the remix version of the song was the only track on Battle of the Sexes to fully live up to the album 's name and original premise . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club said the song provide a " vital forum for red @-@ hot Lil Wayne protégé Nicki Minaj on the original track and Eve on the remix . " XXL said : Minaj 's turn at the song " proves she ’ s got the goods to be the perfect playmate to any of rap ’ s leading men . " Jesal Padania of RapReviews called Minaj impressive on the song , and said the song had less energy than lead single " How Low " , but more " meat . "
People Magazine , Rap @-@ Up , and Ken Capbobianco of the Boston Globe referred to the song as one of the highlights of Battle of the Sexes . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly also chose the track as two of the album 's best , calling Minaj 's appearance " scene @-@ stealing . " Jason Richards of Now Magazine was not impressed , calling the song " particularly gross " and called the production " bargain @-@ basement . It was named the eighth worst song of 2010 by The Village Voice ; Christopher Weingarten , writing for the publication , described the song as " loathsome " , criticizing its " hashtag rap " .
The song was nominated for a 2011 Grammy Award in the category Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group , but lost to " On to the Next One " by Jay @-@ Z and Swizz Beatz .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending March 13 , 2010 , " My Chick Bad " debuted at 46 on the Billboard Hot 100 . After its release to radio , followed by increasing digital sales , the song eventually continued to rise , and peaked at number 11 for two weeks . The song peaked at two on both Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Rap Songs charts . Although the song never officially went for adds on mainstream airplay , the song appeared on the Pop Songs chart at 39 . As of December 2014 the song has sold 1 @.@ 8 million copies in the US .
= = Music video = =
The music video was filmed the weekend of February 6 , 2010 in Miami , Florida , directed by TAJ Stansberry . Two clips were filmed , one for the original song and one for the remix version . On the set of the video , Ludacris said , " It hasn ’ t been this many women on the same song or the same video set in ... I don ’ t know how long , so we making history and it feels damn good . " It premiered on February 19 , 2010 on BET 's 106 & Park and VEVO .
The video takes place in a lair / dungeon setting , as Ludacris is directing a movie but the filming is on break . During that time Ludacris begins to brag about his " girl " towards the other cast members . Later in the video Minaj is revealed as the actress of the film , portraying a Freddy Krueger character , complete with the trademark glove made of razor blades . She is found lying in a couch , held by restraints , before the video ends with Ludacris and Nicki performing in the lair . The remix video with Diamond , Trina and Eve , also directed by TAJ , premiered on March 26 , 2010 on VEVO and 106 & Park . The video is an extension of the original clip , featuring the same concept and premise . While Eve , Trina , and Diamond , make cameos near the end of the original video , Rick Ross , Lil Scrappy , DJ Khaled , Larenz Tate , and 2 Chainz make cameo appearances both clips .
= = Live performances = =
The song was first performed by the duo at BET 's Rip the Runway 2010 , which Minaj co @-@ hosted with The Game actor Pooch Hall . While Ludacris wore a black vest similar to in the " How Low " video , Minaj 's attire was from the " My Chick Bad " video , as she donned a pink wig and similar clothing as in the Freddy Kruger @-@ lair scene . Ludacris and Minaj performed the song at MTV 's Spring Break 2010 in Acapulco , Mexico , featuring Minaj donning a blonde wig . The duo also performed the song at the 2010 BET Awards on June 27 , 2010 , as a part of a medley with the remix of " All I Do Is Win " , featuring Ludacris in a mask , flanked by violin players , and Minaj with a spiraling blonde wig seated in a medieval chair , similar to her scene in the music video . Minaj has also recited her verse on select dates of her debut tour , the Pink Friday Tour . She has performed her verse in a medley on her Pink Friday : Reloaded Tour .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Dolphinarium =
A dolphinarium is an aquarium for dolphins . The dolphins are usually kept in a large pool , though occasionally they may be kept in pens in the open sea , either for research or for public performances . Some dolphinariums consist of one pool where dolphins perform for the public , others are part of larger parks , such as marine mammal parks , zoos or theme parks , with other animals and attractions as well .
While cetaceans have been held in captivity since the 1860s , the first commercial dolphinarium was opened only in 1938 . Their popularity increased rapidly until the 1960s . Since the 1970s , increasing concern for animal welfare led to stricter regulation , which in several countries ultimately resulted in the closure of some dolphinariums . Despite this trend , dolphinariums are still widespread in Europe , Japan and North America .
The most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums is the bottlenose dolphin , as it is relatively easy to train and has a long lifespan in captivity . While trade in dolphins is internationally regulated , other aspects of keeping dolphins in captivity , such as the minimum size and characteristics of pools , vary among countries . Though animal welfare is perceived to have improved significantly over the last few decades , many animal rights groups still consider keeping dolphins captive to be a form of animal abuse .
= = History = =
Though cetaceans have been held in captivity in both North America and Europe since the 1860s , the first being a pair of Beluga Whales in the New York museum , dolphins were first kept for paid entertainment in the Marine Studios dolphinarium founded in 1938 in St. Augustine , Florida . It was here that it was discovered that dolphins could be trained to perform tricks . Recognizing the success of Marine Studios , more dolphinariums began keeping dolphins for entertainment . In the 1960s , keeping dolphins in zoos and aquariums for entertainment purposes increased in popularity after the 1963 Flipper movie and subsequent Flipper television series . In 1966 , the first dolphin was exported to Europe . In these early days , dolphinariums could grow quickly due to a lack of legislation and lack of concern for animal welfare .
New legislation , most notably the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act in the United States , combined with a more critical view on animal welfare , forced many dolphinariums around the world to close . A prominent example is the United Kingdom ; in the early 1970s there were at least 36 dolphinariums and traveling dolphin shows , however , the last dolphinarium closed its doors in 1993 . The last dolphinarium in Hungary was closed in 1992 . In 2005 both Chile and Costa Rica prohibited keeping cetaceans captive . However , around 60 dolphinariums currently exist across Europe , of which 34 are within the EU . Japan , Mexico and the United States are also home to a relatively large number of dolphinariums .
= = Design = =
Many varied designs exist , but basic dolphinarium design for public performances often consists of stands for the public around a semi @-@ circular pool , sometimes with glass walls which allow underwater viewing , and a platform in the middle from which the trainers direct and present the show .
The water in the pools has to be constantly filtered to keep it clean for the dolphins and the spectators , and the temperature and composition of the water has to be controlled to match the conditions dolphins experience in the wild . In the absence of a common international regulation , guidelines regarding the minimum size of the pools vary between countries . To give an indication of pool sizes , the European Association for Aquatic Mammals recommends that a pool for five dolphins should have a surface area of 275 m2 ( 2 @,@ 960 sq ft ) plus an additional 75 m2 ( 810 sq ft ) for every additional animal , have a depth of 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) and have a water volume of at least 1 @,@ 000 m3 ( 35 @,@ 000 cu ft ) with an additional 200 m3 ( 7 @,@ 100 cu ft ) for every additional animal . If two of these three conditions are met , and the third is not more than 10 % below standard , the EAAM considers the pool size to be acceptable .
= = Animals = =
= = = Species = = =
Various species of dolphins are kept in captivity as well as several other small whale species such as Harbour Porpoises , Finless Porpoises and Belugas , though in those cases the word dolphinarium may not be fitting as these are not true dolphins . Bottlenose Dolphins are the most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums as they are relatively easy to train , have a long lifespan in captivity and a friendly appearance . Hundreds if not thousands of Bottlenose Dolphins live in captivity across the world , though exact numbers are hard to determine . Orcas are well known for their performances in shows , but the number of Orcas kept in captivity is very small , especially when compared to the number of bottlenose dolphins , with only 44 captive orcas being held in aquaria as of 2012 . Of all Orcas kept in captivity , the majority are located in the various SeaWorld parks in the United States . Other species kept in captivity are Spotted Dolphins , False Killer Whales , Pilot Whales and Common Dolphins , Commerson 's Dolphins , as well as Rough @-@ toothed Dolphins , but all in much lower numbers than the Bottlenose Dolphin . There are also fewer than ten , Amazon River Dolphins , Risso 's Dolphins , Spinner Dolphins , or Tucuxi in captivity . Two unusual and very rare hybrid dolphins known as Wolphins are kept at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii , which are a cross between a Bottlenose Dolphin and a False Killer Whale . Also two Common / Bottlenose hybrids reside in captivity : one at Discovery Cove and the other SeaWorld San Diego .
= = = Trade and capture = = =
In the early days , many Bottlenose dolphins were wild @-@ caught off the coast of Florida . Though the Marine Mammal Protection Act , established in 1972 , allows an exception for the collection of dolphins for public display and research purposes when a permit is obtained , Bottlenose dolphins have not been captured in American waters since 1989 . In most Western countries , breeding programs have been set up to provide the dolphinariums with new animals . To achieve a sufficient birth rate and to prevent inbreeding , artificial insemination ( AI ) is occasionally used . The use of AI also allows dolphinariums to increase the genetic diversity of their population without having to bring in any dolphins from other facilities .
The trade of dolphins is regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( also known as the Washington Convention or CITES ) . Endangered dolphin species are included in CITES ’ Appendix I , in which case trade is permitted only in exceptional circumstances . Species considered not to be threatened with extinction are included in Appendix II , in which case trade “ must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival ” . Most cetacean species traded for display in captivity to the public or for use in swimming with dolphins and other interaction programs are listed on Appendix II .
However , live dolphins trade still continues . A live Bottlenose Dolphin is estimated to be worth between a few thousand to several tens of thousands of US dollars , depending on age , condition and prior training . Captures are reported to be on the rise in the South Pacific and the Caribbean , Cuba has also been an exporter of dolphins in recent years , this being organized by the Acuario Nacional de Cuba . In recent years , the Solomon Islands have also allowed the collection and export of dolphins for public display facilities . A 2005 law banned the export of dolphins , however , this ban was seemingly overturned in 2007 when some 28 dolphins were shipped to Dubai . Some , mainly Japanese , dolphinariums obtain their dolphins from local drive hunts , though several other countries in Asia also import dolphins from Japan . Several American dolphinariums had also done so . This practice was halted in 1993 , when the US National Marine Fisheries Service refused a permit for Marine World Africa USA to import four False Killer Whales caught in a Japanese drive hunt .
= = Criticism = =
= = = Animal welfare = = =
Many animal welfare groups such as the World Animal Protection consider keeping dolphins in captivity to be a form of animal abuse . The main arguments are that dolphins do not have enough freedom of movement in pools , regardless of pool size , ( in the wild , dolphins swim hundreds of miles every day ) and do not get enough stimulation . Dolphins often show repetitive behavior in captivity and sometimes become aggressive towards other animals or people . In some cases , the behavior of dolphins in captivity also results in their own death .
The lifespan of dolphins in captivity is another subject of debate . Research has shown that Orcas indeed have a much lower survival rate in captivity ; however , there is no significant difference between wild and captive survival rates for Bottlenose dolphins . This does not , however , reflect a global state of affairs : for example , Bottlenose dolphins in captive facilities in Jamaica suffer from extremely high mortality rates .
Some scientists suggest that the " unusually high " intelligence of dolphins means that they should be recognized as " non @-@ human persons " . In 2013 , the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests prohibited the captivity of dolphins on these grounds , finding it " morally unacceptable to keep them captive for entertainment purpose " .
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= Ocean Village Marina , Gibraltar =
The Ocean Village Marina is one of three marinas in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar , at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula . Formerly Sheppard 's Marina , it is located in the Bay of Gibraltar , between the North Mole of Gibraltar Harbour and the runway of Gibraltar International Airport . Both Ocean Village Marina and the adjacent Marina Bay have been incorporated into the Ocean Village Project , a luxury resort .
Ocean Village Marina and the adjacent Marina Bay together have 330 berths , with a draft ( or draught ) of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) . The marina can accommodate vessels up to 90 metres ( 300 ft ) to 100 metres ( 330 ft ) in length . There are three residential towers with blue glass balconies overlooking the marina : Grand Ocean Plaza , Imperial Plaza , and Majestic Plaza . On 4 June 2012 , Ocean Village Marina hosted 161 vessels which formed the Gibraltar Diamond Jubilee Flotilla , celebrating sixty years of the Queen 's reign .
= = Location = =
Gibraltar has three marinas : Marina Bay , Ocean Village Marina , and Queensway Quay Marina . Ocean Village Marina is located on Gibraltar 's Westside , outside the northern end of Gibraltar Harbour , in the Bay of Gibraltar , next to the airport runway . It is adjacent to Marina Bay which is just to its north . The marina forms part of the Ocean Village Project or Ocean Village Marina Complex , often referred to as just Ocean Village . Ocean Village Marina is the former Sheppard 's Marina or Sheppard 's Yard . Both Marina Bay and Ocean Village Marina have been incorporated into Ocean Village , between the North Mole and the airport runway . The strategic location of the marina offers protection from moisture @-@ laden Levanter winds .
= = History = =
Ocean Village Marina was formerly Sheppard 's Marina , owned by H. Sheppard & Co . By 2004 , the marina had been sold to Ocean Village Investments Ltd and demolition had commenced . The marina retained its original name , at least informally , for several years after the sale . The sale of Sheppard 's Marina was not without controversy , as some residents of the marina were eventually evicted from their berths by the new owners . After Ocean Village Investments acquired the adjacent Marina Bay in 2006 , both marinas were incorporated into Ocean Village , a resort with residential , retail , and leisure facilities .
On 4 June 2012 , the Ocean Village Marina hosted 161 vessels which formed the Gibraltar Diamond Jubilee Flotilla , celebrating sixty years of the Queen 's reign . The flotilla took place one day after a similar event in London up the Thames . The festivities started officially with greetings from Gregory Butcher , founder of Ocean Village , and Ros Astengo , event organiser of Ocean Village . The Gibraltar Port Authority addressed those assembled on the topic of safety , and made recommendations regarding precautions which ranged from sunscreen to the distance between vessels . The flotilla departed from the marina at midday , sailing from the western side of the runway , passing Europa Point , and returning after reaching the eastern side of the runway . Boats up to 70 metres ( 230 ft ) participated in the flotilla . Small boats led the flotilla , followed by power boats over 9 metres ( 30 ft ) , and , finally , sailing vessels . The General Elliot , a Gibraltar Port Authority vessel , was at the head of the flotilla , and was supported by other official vessels .
= = Facilities = =
Ocean Village Marina and the adjacent Marina Bay together have 330 berths , with a draft of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) . The marina can accommodate vessels up to 90 metres ( 300 ft ) to 100 metres ( 330 ft ) in length . The marina now offers premier berths , the majority of which are between 18 metres ( 59 ft ) and 25 metres ( 82 ft ) , although the largest can accommodate vessels up to 80 metres ( 260 ft ) in length . The Yacht Reporting Berth for Gibraltar closed in 2005 and customs clearance of vessels is now performed by the individual marinas . Each berth at Ocean Village Marina offers utilities which include metered water and electricity , as well as access to satellite television , telephone , fax , and Wi @-@ Fi . Other amenities include laundry and concierge services . Gasoline and diesel are available at the quayside .
In addition to the marina , the Ocean Village resort features three residential towers , with blue glass balconies , that also have commercial space : Grand Ocean Plaza , Imperial Plaza , and Majestic Plaza . Construction of a new World Trade Center in Ocean Village was scheduled to begin in 2012 . The development has a variety of restaurants , bars , and retail outlets , as well as executive office space . Leisure Island , on reclaimed land , has a business centre and casino , among other facilities .
Sheppard 's of Gibraltar , the former owner of the marina which was established in 1961 , still has a presence there . The business provides support services for yacht owners from both their chandlery and shipyard departments . Their chandlery shop on the ground floor of Marina Court at Ocean Village has a variety of products for yacht equipment and maintenance . Their shipyard on Coaling Island near Queensway Quay Marina performs repair services such as engine rebuilds , rigging , welding , and painting . Sheppard 's attends to yachts at all three of Gibraltar 's marinas , and also has a 40 @-@ ton lift when haul @-@ outs are needed . Their haul @-@ out work includes hull cleaning , replacement of anodes or transducers , and slurry blasting , among other services . Haul @-@ outs are performed at both Coaling Island and the North Mole .
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= Self @-@ harm =
Self @-@ harm ( SH ) is defined as the intentional , direct injuring of body tissue , done without suicidal intentions . The term self @-@ harm means the same as self @-@ injury . These terms are used in the more recent literature in an attempt to reach a more neutral terminology . The older literature , especially that which predates the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR ) , almost exclusively refers to self @-@ mutilation .
The most common form of self @-@ harm is skin @-@ cutting , but self @-@ harm also covers a wide range of behaviors including burning , scratching , banging or hitting body parts , interfering with wound healing ( dermatillomania ) , hair @-@ pulling ( trichotillomania ) and the ingestion of toxic substances or objects . Behaviours associated with substance abuse and eating disorders are usually not considered self @-@ harm because the resulting tissue damage is ordinarily an unintentional side effect . However , the boundaries are not always clearly defined and in some cases behaviours that usually fall outside the boundaries of self @-@ harm may indeed represent self @-@ harm if performed with explicit intent to cause tissue damage . Although suicide is not the intention of self @-@ harm , the relationship between self @-@ harm and suicide is complex , as self @-@ harming behaviour may be potentially life @-@ threatening . There is also an increased risk of suicide in individuals who self @-@ harm to the extent that self @-@ harm is found in 40 – 60 % of suicides . However , generalising self @-@ harmers to be suicidal is , in the majority of cases , inaccurate .
The desire to self @-@ harm is listed in the DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR as a symptom of borderline personality disorder . However , patients with other diagnoses may also self @-@ harm , including those with depression , anxiety disorders , substance abuse , eating disorders , post @-@ traumatic stress disorder , schizophrenia , and several personality disorders . Self @-@ harm is also apparent in high @-@ functioning individuals who have no underlying clinical diagnosis . The motivations for self @-@ harm vary and it may be used to fulfill a number of different functions . These functions include self @-@ harm being used as a coping mechanism which provides temporary relief of intense feelings such as anxiety , depression , stress , emotional numbness or a sense of failure or self @-@ loathing and other mental traits including low self @-@ esteem or perfectionism . Self @-@ harm is often associated with a history of trauma and abuse , including emotional and sexual abuse . There are a number of different methods that can be used to treat self @-@ harm and which concentrate on either treating the underlying causes or on treating the behaviour itself . When self @-@ harm is associated with depression , antidepressant drugs and treatments may be effective . Other approaches involve avoidance techniques , which focus on keeping the individual occupied with other activities , or replacing the act of self @-@ harm with safer methods that do not lead to permanent damage .
In 2013 about 3 @.@ 3 million cases of self @-@ harm occurred . Self @-@ harm is most common in adolescence and young adulthood , usually first appearing between the ages of 12 and 24 . Self @-@ harm in childhood is relatively rare but the rate has been increasing since the 1980s . However , self @-@ harm behaviour can nevertheless occur at any age , including in the elderly population . The risk of serious injury and suicide is higher in older people who self @-@ harm . Self @-@ harm is not limited to humans . Captive animals , such as birds and monkeys , are also known to participate in self @-@ harming behaviour .
= = Classification = =
Self @-@ harm ( SH ) , also referred to as self @-@ injury ( SI ) , self @-@ inflicted violence ( SIV ) , nonsuicidal self injury ( NSSI ) or self @-@ injurious behavior ( SIB ) , refers to a spectrum of behaviors where demonstrable injury is self @-@ inflicted . The behavior involves deliberate tissue damage that is usually performed without suicidal intent . The most common form of self @-@ harm involves cutting of the skin using a sharp object , e. g. a knife or razor blade . The term self @-@ mutilation is also sometimes used , although this phrase evokes connotations that some find worrisome , inaccurate , or offensive . Self @-@ inflicted wounds is a specific term associated with soldiers to describe non @-@ lethal injuries inflicted in order to obtain early dismissal from combat . This differs from the common definition of self @-@ harm , as damage is inflicted for a specific secondary purpose . A broader definition of self @-@ harm might also include those who inflict harm on their bodies by means of disordered eating .
Nonsuicidal self injury ( NSSI ) was added to the DSM @-@ V as its own disorder , which distinguishes it from milder forms of self @-@ harm . This disorder occurs when a person is deliberately harming themselves in a physical way without the intent of committing suicide . Self @-@ harm without suicidal intent can be seen on a spectrum , just like many other disorders ( substance abuse , gambling addiction ) . Just like these other disorders , once the self harming behaviors cross a certain threshold , it then becomes classified as a mental health disorder . Criteria for NSSI include five or more days of self @-@ inflicted harm over the course of one year without suicidal intent , and the individual must have been motivated by seeking relief from a negative state , resolving an interpersonal difficulty , or achieving a positive state .
A common belief regarding self @-@ harm is that it is an attention @-@ seeking behavior ; however , in most cases , this is inaccurate . Many self @-@ harmers are very self @-@ conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior , leading them to go to great lengths to conceal their behavior from others . They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries , or conceal their scars with clothing . Self @-@ harm in such individuals may not be associated with suicidal or para @-@ suicidal behavior . People who self @-@ harm are not usually seeking to end their own life ; it has been suggested instead that they are using self @-@ harm as a coping mechanism to relieve emotional pain or discomfort or as an attempt to communicate distress . Alternatively , interpretations based on the supposed lethality of a self @-@ harm may not give clear indications as to its intent : life risking behaviour may have no suicidal intent , whilst seemingly superficial cuts may have been a suicide attempt .
Studies of individuals with developmental disabilities ( such as intellectual disability ) have shown self @-@ harm being dependent on environmental factors such as obtaining attention or escape from demands . Some individuals may have dissociation harboring a desire to feel real or to fit into society 's rules .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Eighty percent of self @-@ harm involves stabbing or cutting the skin with a sharp object . However , the number of self @-@ harm methods are only limited by an individual 's inventiveness and their determination to harm themselves ; this includes burning , self @-@ poisoning , alcohol abuse , self @-@ embedding of objects , hair pulling , bruising / hitting one 's self , scratching to hurt one 's self , knowingly abusing over the counter or prescription drugs , and forms of self @-@ harm related to anorexia and bulimia . The locations of self @-@ harm are often areas of the body that are easily hidden and concealed from the detection of others . As well as defining self @-@ harm in terms of the act of damaging the body , it may be more accurate to define self @-@ harm in terms of the intent , and the emotional distress that the person is attempting to deal with . Neither the DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR nor the ICD @-@ 10 provide diagnostic criteria for self @-@ harm . It is often seen as only a symptom of an underlying disorder , though many people who self @-@ harm would like this to be addressed .
= = Cause = =
= = = Mental disorder = = =
Although some people who self @-@ harm do not have any form of recognised mental disorder , many people experiencing various forms of mental ill @-@ health do have a higher risk of self @-@ harm . The key areas of disorder which exhibit an increased risk include autism spectrum disorders , borderline personality disorder , bipolar disorder , depression , phobias , and conduct disorders . Schizophrenia may also be a contributing factor for self @-@ harm . Those diagnosed with schizophrenia have a high risk of suicide , which is particularly greater in younger patients as they may not have an insight into the serious effects that the disorder can have on their lives . Substance abuse is also considered a risk factor as are some personal characteristics such as poor problem @-@ solving skills and impulsivity . There are parallels between self @-@ harm and Münchausen syndrome , a psychiatric disorder in which individuals feign illness or trauma . There may be a common ground of inner distress culminating in self @-@ directed harm in a Münchausen patient . However , a desire to deceive medical personnel in order to gain treatment and attention is more important in Münchausen 's than in self @-@ harm .
= = = Psychological factors = = =
Abuse during childhood is accepted as a primary social factor increasing the incidence of self @-@ harm , as is bereavement , and troubled parental or partner relationships . Factors such as war , poverty , and unemployment may also contribute . Self @-@ harm is frequently described as an experience of depersonalisation or a dissociative state . As many as 70 % of individuals with borderline personality disorder engage in self @-@ harm . An estimated 30 % of individuals with autism spectrum disorders engage in self @-@ harm at some point , including eye @-@ poking , skin @-@ picking , hand @-@ biting , and head @-@ banging .
= = = Genetics = = =
The most distinctive characteristic of the rare genetic condition , Lesch – Nyhan syndrome , is self @-@ harm and may include biting and head @-@ banging . Genetics may contribute to the risk of developing other psychological conditions , such as anxiety or depression , which could in turn lead to self @-@ harming behaviour . However , the link between genetics and self @-@ harm in otherwise healthy patients is largely inconclusive .
= = = Drugs and alcohol = = =
Substance misuse , dependence and withdrawal are associated with self @-@ harm . Benzodiazepine dependence as well as benzodiazepine withdrawal is associated with self @-@ harming behaviour in young people . Alcohol is a major risk factor for self @-@ harm . A study which analysed self @-@ harm presentations to emergency rooms in Northern Ireland found that alcohol was a major contributing factor and involved in 63 @.@ 8 % of self @-@ harm presentations . A recent study in the relation between cannabis use and deliberate self @-@ harm ( DSH ) in Norway and England found that , in general , cannabis use may not be a specific risk factor for DSH in young adolescents .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Self @-@ harm is not typically suicidal behaviour , although there is the possibility that a self @-@ inflicted injury may result in life @-@ threatening damage . Although the person may not recognise the connection , self @-@ harm often becomes a response to profound and overwhelming emotional pain that cannot be resolved in a more functional way .
The motivations for self @-@ harm vary , as it may be used to fulfill a number of different functions . These functions include self @-@ harm being used as a coping mechanism which provides temporary relief of intense feelings such as anxiety , depression , stress , emotional numbness and a sense of failure or self @-@ loathing . There is also a positive statistical correlation between self @-@ harm and emotional abuse . Self @-@ harm may become a means of managing and controlling pain , in contrast to the pain experienced earlier in the person 's life of which they had no control over ( e.g. , through abuse ) .
Other motives for self @-@ harm do not fit into medicalised models of behaviour and may seem incomprehensible to others , as demonstrated by this quotation : " My motivations for self @-@ harming were diverse , but included examining the interior of my arms for hydraulic lines . This may sound strange . "
Assessment of motives in a medical setting is usually based on precursors to the incident , circumstances , and information from the patient . However , limited studies show that professional assessments tend to suggest more manipulative or punitive motives than personal assessments .
The UK ONS study reported only two motives : " to draw attention " and " because of anger " . For some people , harming themselves can be a means of drawing attention to the need for help and to ask for assistance in an indirect way . It may also be an attempt to affect others and to manipulate them in some way emotionally . However , those with chronic , repetitive self @-@ harm often do not want attention and hide their scars carefully .
Many people who self @-@ harm state that it allows them to " go away " or dissociate , separating the mind from feelings that are causing anguish . This may be achieved by tricking the mind into believing that the present suffering being felt is caused by the self @-@ harm instead of the issues they were facing previously : the physical pain therefore acts as a distraction from the original emotional pain . To complement this theory , one can consider the need to " stop " feeling emotional pain and mental agitation . " A person may be hyper @-@ sensitive and overwhelmed ; a great many thoughts may be revolving within their mind , and they may either become triggered or could make a decision to stop the overwhelming feelings . "
Alternatively , self @-@ harm may be a means of feeling something , even if the sensation is unpleasant and painful . Those who self @-@ harm sometimes describe feelings of emptiness or numbness ( anhedonia ) , and physical pain may be a relief from these feelings . " A person may be detached from himself or herself , detached from life , numb and unfeeling . They may then recognise the need to function more , or have a desire to feel real again , and a decision is made to create sensation and ' wake up ' . "
Those who engage in self @-@ harm face the contradictory reality of harming themselves while at the same time obtaining relief from this act . It may even be hard for some to actually initiate cutting , but they often do because they know the relief that will follow . For some self @-@ harmers this relief is primarily psychological while for others this feeling of relief comes from the beta endorphins released in the brain . Endorphins are endogenous opioids that are released in response to physical injury , act as natural painkillers , and induce pleasant feelings and would act to reduce tension and emotional distress . Many self @-@ harmers report feeling very little to no pain while self @-@ harming and , for some , deliberate self @-@ harm may become a means of seeking pleasure .
As a coping mechanism , self @-@ harm can become psychologically addictive because , to the self @-@ harmer , it works ; it enables him or her to deal with intense stress in the current moment . The patterns sometimes created by it , such as specific time intervals between acts of self @-@ harm , can also create a behavioural pattern that can result in a wanting or craving to fulfill thoughts of self @-@ harm .
= = = Autonomic nervous system = = =
Everyone has a natural set point for their ability to experience stress . For some people , this is a very high threshold , whereas other people can become overwhelmed very quickly . Emotional pain activates the same regions of the brain as physical pain , so this can be a significantly intolerable state for some people . Some of this is environmental and some of this is due to physiological differences in responding . The autonomic nervous system is composed of two components : the sympathetic nervous system controls arousal and physical activation ( i. e. the fight @-@ or @-@ flight response ) and the parasympathetic nervous system controls physical processes that are automatic ( e.g. , saliva production ) . The sympathetic nervous system innervates ( i.e. , is physically connected to and regulates ) many parts of the body involved in stress responses . Studies of adolescents have shown that adolescents who self @-@ injure have greater physiological reactivity ( i.e. , skin conductance ) to stress than adolescents who do not self @-@ injure . This stress response persists over time , staying constant or even increasing in self @-@ injuring adolescents , but gradually decreases in adolescents who do not self @-@ injure .
= = Treatment = =
There is considerable uncertainty about which forms of psychosocial and physical treatments of people who harm themselves are most effective . Psychiatric and personality disorders are common in individuals who self @-@ harm and as a result self @-@ harm may be an indicator of depression and / or other psychological problems . Many people who self @-@ harm have moderate or severe depression and therefore treatment with antidepressant medications may often be used . There is tentative evidence for the medication flupentixol ; however , greater study is required before it can be recommended .
= = = Therapy = = =
There is no well @-@ established treatment for self @-@ injurious behavior in children or adolescents . Cognitive behavioural therapy may also be used to assist those with Axis I diagnoses , such as depression , schizophrenia , and bipolar disorder . Dialectical behaviour therapy ( DBT ) can be successful for those individuals exhibiting a personality disorder , and could potentially be used for those with other mental disorders who exhibit self @-@ harming behaviour . Diagnosis and treatment of the causes of self @-@ harm is thought by many to be the best approach to treating self @-@ harm . But in some cases , particularly in people with a personality disorder , this is not very effective , so more clinicians are starting to take a DBT approach in order to reduce the behaviour itself . People who rely on habitual self @-@ harm are sometimes hospitalised , based on their stability , their ability and especially their willingness to get help . In adolescents multisystem therapy shows promise . Treatments such as CBT , family intervention , interpersonal therapy , and various psychodynamic therapies were all shown to be possibly effective in treating self @-@ injurious behavior in children and adolescents .
A meta @-@ analysis found that psychological therapy is effective in reducing self @-@ harm . The proportion of the adolescents who self @-@ harmed over the follow @-@ up period was lower in the intervention groups ( 28 % ) than in controls ( 33 % ) . Psychological therapies with the largest effect sizes were dialectical behavior therapy ( DBT ) , cognitive @-@ behavioral therapy ( CBT ) , and mentalization @-@ based therapy ( MBT ) .
In individuals with developmental disabilities , occurrence of self @-@ harm is often demonstrated to be related to its effects on the environment , such as obtaining attention or desired materials or escaping demands . As developmentally disabled individuals often have communication or social deficits , self @-@ harm may be their way of obtaining these things which they are otherwise unable to obtain in a socially appropriate way ( such as by asking ) . One approach for treating self @-@ harm thus is to teach an alternative , appropriate response which obtains the same result as the self @-@ harm .
= = = Avoidance techniques = = =
Generating alternative behaviours that the person can engage in instead of self @-@ harm is one successful behavioural method that is employed to avoid self @-@ harm . Techniques , aimed at keeping busy , may include journaling , taking a walk , participating in sports or exercise or being around friends when the person has the urge to harm themselves . The removal of objects used for self @-@ harm from easy reach is also helpful for resisting self @-@ harming urges . The provision of a card that allows the person to make emergency contact with counselling services should the urge to self @-@ harm arise may also help prevent the act of self @-@ harm . Alternative and safer methods of self @-@ harm that do not lead to permanent damage , for example the snapping of a rubber band on the wrist , may also help calm the urge to self @-@ harm . Using biofeedback may help raise self @-@ awareness of certain pre @-@ occupations or particular mental state or mood that precede bouts of self @-@ harming behaviour , and help identify techniques to avoid those pre @-@ occupations before they lead to self @-@ harm . Any avoidance or coping strategy must be appropriate to the individual 's motivation and reason for harming .
= = Epidemiology = =
It is difficult to gain an accurate picture of incidence and prevalence of self @-@ harm . This is due in a part to a lack of sufficient numbers of dedicated research centres to provide a continuous monitoring system . However , even with sufficient resources , statistical estimates are crude since most incidences of self @-@ harm are undisclosed to the medical profession as acts of self @-@ harm are frequently carried out in secret , and wounds may be superficial and easily treated by the individual . Recorded figures can be based on three sources : psychiatric samples , hospital admissions and general population surveys .
The World Health Organization estimates that , as of 2010 , 880 @,@ 000 deaths occur as a result of self @-@ harm . About 10 % of admissions to medical wards in the UK are as a result of self @-@ harm , the majority of which are drug overdoses . However , studies based only on hospital admissions may hide the larger group of self @-@ harmers who do not need or seek hospital treatment for their injuries , instead treating themselves . Many adolescents who present to general hospitals with deliberate self @-@ harm report previous episodes for which they did not receive medical attention . In the United States up to 4 % of adults self @-@ harm with approximately 1 % of the population engaging in chronic or severe self @-@ harm .
Current research suggests that the rates of self @-@ harm are much higher among young people with the average age of onset between 14 and 24 . The earliest reported incidents of self @-@ harm are in children between 5 and 7 years old . In the UK in 2008 rates of self @-@ harm in young people could be as high as 33 % . In addition there appears to be an increased risk of self @-@ harm in college students than among the general population . In a study of undergraduate students in the US , 9 @.@ 8 % of the students surveyed indicated that they had purposefully cut or burned themselves on at least one occasion in the past . When the definition of self @-@ harm was expanded to include head @-@ banging , scratching oneself , and hitting oneself along with cutting and burning , 32 % of the sample said they had done this . In Ireland , a study found that instances of hospital @-@ treated self @-@ harm were much higher in city and urban districts , than in rural settings . The CASE ( Child & Adolescent Self @-@ harm in Europe ) study suggests that the life @-@ time risk of self @-@ injury is ~ 1 : 7 for women and ~ 1 : 25 for men .
= = = Gender differences = = =
In general , the latest aggregated research has found no difference in the prevalence of self @-@ harm between men and women . This is in contrast to past research which indicated that up to four times as many females as males have direct experience of self @-@ harm . However , caution is needed in seeing self @-@ harm as a greater problem for females , since males may engage in different forms of self @-@ harm ( e.g. , hitting themselves ) which could be easier to hide or explained as the result of different circumstances . Hence , there remain widely opposing views as to whether the gender paradox is a real phenomenon , or merely the artifact of bias in data collection .
The WHO / EURO Multicentre Study of Suicide , established in 1989 , demonstrated that , for each age group , the female rate of self @-@ harm exceeded that of the males , with the highest rate among females in the 13 – 24 age group and the highest rate among males in the 12 – 34 age group . However , this discrepancy has been known to vary significantly depending upon population and methodological criteria , consistent with wide @-@ ranging uncertainties in gathering and interpreting data regarding rates of self @-@ harm in general . Such problems have sometimes been the focus of criticism in the context of broader psychosocial interpretation . For example , feminist author Barbara Brickman has speculated that reported gender differences in rates of self @-@ harm are due to deliberate socially biased methodological and sampling errors , directly blaming medical discourse for pathologising the female .
This gender discrepancy is often distorted in specific populations where rates of self @-@ harm are inordinately high , which may have implications on the significance and interpretation of psychosocial factors other than gender . A study in 2003 found an extremely high prevalence of self @-@ harm among 428 homeless and runaway youths ( aged 16 – 19 ) with 72 % of males and 66 % of females reporting a history of self @-@ harm . However , in 2008 , a study of young people and self @-@ harm saw the gender gap close , with 32 % of young females , and 22 % of young males admitting to self @-@ harm . Studies also indicate that males who self @-@ harm may also be at a greater risk of completing suicide .
There does not appear to be a difference in motivation for self @-@ harm in adolescent males and females . For example , for both genders there is an incremental increase in deliberate self @-@ harm associated with an increase in consumption of cigarettes , drugs and alcohol . Triggering factors such as low self @-@ esteem and having friends and family members who self @-@ harm are also common between both males and females . One limited study found that , among those young individuals who do self @-@ harm , both genders are just as equally likely to use the method of skin @-@ cutting . However , females who self @-@ cut are more likely than males to explain their self @-@ harm episode by saying that they had wanted to punish themselves . In New Zealand , more females are hospitalised for intentional self @-@ harm than males . Females more commonly choose methods such as self @-@ poisoning that generally are not fatal , but still serious enough to require hospitalisation .
= = = Elderly = = =
In a study of a district general hospital in the UK , 5 @.@ 4 % of all the hospital 's self @-@ harm cases were aged over 65 . The male to female ratio was 2 : 3 although the self @-@ harm rates for males and females over 65 in the local population were identical . Over 90 % had depressive conditions , and 63 % had significant physical illness . Under 10 % of the patients gave a history of earlier self @-@ harm , while both the repetition and suicide rates were very low , which could be explained by the absence of factors known to be associated with repetition , such as personality disorder and alcohol abuse . However , NICE Guidance on Self @-@ harm in the UK suggests that older people who self @-@ harm are at a greater risk of completing suicide , with 1 in 5 older people who self @-@ harm going on to end their life . A study completed in Ireland showed that older Irish adults have high rates of deliberate self @-@ harm , but comparatively low rates of suicide .
= = = Developing world = = =
Only recently have attempts to improve health in the developing world concentrated on not only physical illness but also mental health . Deliberate self @-@ harm is common in the developing world . Research into self @-@ harm in the developing world is however still very limited although an important case study is that of Sri Lanka , which is a country exhibiting a high incidence of suicide and self @-@ poisoning with agricultural pesticides or natural poisons . Many people admitted for deliberate self @-@ poisoning during a study by Eddleston et al. were young and few expressed a desire to die , but death was relatively common in the young in these cases . The improvement of medical management of acute poisoning in the developing world is poor and improvements are required in order to reduce mortality .
Some of the causes of deliberate self @-@ poisoning in Sri Lankan adolescents included bereavement and harsh discipline by parents . The coping mechanisms are being spread in local communities as people are surrounded by others who have previously deliberately harmed themselves or attempted suicide . One way of reducing self @-@ harm would be to limit access to poisons ; however many cases involve pesticides or yellow oleander seeds , and the reduction of access to these agents would be difficult . Great potential for the reduction of self @-@ harm lies in education and prevention , but limited resources in the developing world make these methods challenging .
= = = Prison inmates = = =
Deliberate self @-@ harm is especially prevalent in prison populations . A proposed explanation for this is that prisons are often violent places , and prisoners who wish to avoid physical confrontations may resort to self @-@ harm as a ruse , either to convince other prisoners that they are dangerously insane and resilient to pain or to obtain protection from the prison authorities .
= = History = =
Self @-@ harm is known to have been a regular ritual practice by cultures such as the ancient Maya civilization , in which the Maya priesthood performed auto @-@ sacrifice by cutting and piercing their bodies in order to draw blood . A reference to the priests of Baal " cutting themselves with blades until blood flowed " can be found in the Hebrew Bible . However , in Judaism , such self @-@ harm is forbidden under Mosaic law .
Self @-@ harm is also practised by the sadhu or Hindu ascetic , in Catholic mortification of the flesh , in ancient Canaanite mourning rituals as described in the Ras Shamra tablets and in the Shi 'ite annual ritual of self @-@ flagellation , using chains and swords , that takes place during Ashura where the Shi 'ite sect mourn the martyrdom of Imam Hussein .
The term " self @-@ mutilation " occurred in a study by L. E. Emerson in 1913 where he considered self @-@ cutting a symbolic substitution for masturbation . The term reappeared in an article in 1935 and a book in 1938 when Karl Menninger refined his conceptual definitions of self @-@ mutilation . His study on self @-@ destructiveness differentiated between suicidal behaviours and self @-@ mutilation . For Menninger , self @-@ mutilation was a non @-@ fatal expression of an attenuated death wish and thus coined the term partial suicide . He began a classification system of six types :
neurotic – nail @-@ biters , pickers , extreme hair removal and unnecessary cosmetic surgery .
religious – self @-@ flagellants and others .
puberty rites – hymen removal , circumcision or clitoral alteration .
psychotic – eye or ear removal , genital self @-@ mutilation and extreme amputation
organic brain diseases – which allow repetitive head @-@ banging , hand @-@ biting , finger @-@ fracturing or eye removal .
conventional – nail @-@ clipping , trimming of hair and shaving beards .
Pao ( 1969 ) differentiated between delicate ( low lethality ) and coarse ( high lethality ) self @-@ mutilators who cut . The " delicate " cutters were young , multiple episodic of superficial cuts and generally had borderline personality disorder diagnosis . The " coarse " cutters were older and generally psychotic . Ross and McKay ( 1979 ) categorized self @-@ mutilators into 9 groups : cutting , biting , abrading , severing , inserting , burning , ingesting or inhaling and hitting and constricting .
After the 1970s the focus of self @-@ harm shifted from Freudian psycho @-@ sexual drives of the patients .
Walsh and Rosen ( 1988 ) created four categories numbered by Roman numerals I – IV , defining Self @-@ mutilation as rows II , III and IV .
Favazza and Rosenthal ( 1993 ) reviewed hundreds of studies and divided self @-@ mutilation into two categories : culturally sanctioned self @-@ mutilation and deviant self @-@ mutilation . Favazza also created two subcategories of sanctioned self @-@ mutilations ; rituals and practices . The rituals are mutilations repeated generationally and " reflect the traditions , symbolism , and beliefs of a society " ( p . 226 ) . Practices are historically transient and cosmetic such as piercing of earlobes , nose , eyebrows as well as male circumcision ( for non @-@ Jews ) while Deviant self @-@ mutilation is equivalent to self @-@ harm .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Awareness = = =
There are many movements among the general self @-@ harm community to make self @-@ harm itself and treatment better known to mental health professionals , as well as the general public . For example , March 1 is designated as Self @-@ injury Awareness Day ( SIAD ) around the world . On this day , some people choose to be more open about their own self @-@ harm , and awareness organizations make special efforts to raise awareness about self @-@ harm . Some people wear an orange awareness ribbon or wristband to encourage awareness of self @-@ harm .
= = Other animals = =
Self @-@ harm in non @-@ human mammals is a well @-@ established but not widely known phenomenon . Its study under zoo or laboratory conditions could lead to a better understanding of self @-@ harm in human patients .
Zoo or laboratory rearing and isolation are important factors leading to increased susceptibility to self @-@ harm in higher mammals , e.g. , macaque monkeys . Lower mammals are also known to mutilate themselves under laboratory conditions after administration of drugs . For example , pemoline , clonidine , amphetamine , and very high ( toxic ) doses of caffeine or theophylline are known to precipitate self @-@ harm in lab animals .
In dogs , canine obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder can lead to self @-@ inflicted injuries , for example canine lick granuloma . Captive birds are sometimes known to engage in feather @-@ plucking , causing damage to feathers that can range from feather shredding to the removal of most or all feathers within the bird 's reach , or even the mutilation of skin or muscle tissue .
Breeders of show mice have noticed similar behaviors . One known as " barbering " involves a mouse obsessively grooming the whiskers and facial fur off of themselves and cage @-@ mates . Other behaviors include scratching ears so severely , that large sections are lost .
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= Epacris impressa =
Epacris impressa , also known as common heath , is a plant of the heath family , Ericaceae , that is native to southeast Australia ( the states of Victoria , Tasmania , South Australia and New South Wales ) . French botanist Jacques Labillardière collected the species in 1793 and described it in 1805 . Four forms have been identified , but no subspecies are recognised . Growing in heathland , shrubland or open forest , it is generally a small shrub around 0 @.@ 5 to 1 m ( 1 ft 8 in to 3 ft 3 in ) tall , with small stiff leaves . The red , pink or white tube @-@ like flowers appear from late autumn to early spring . Honeyeaters , particularly the eastern spinebill , feed upon the nectar of the flowers . It regenerates after bushfire by seed or by resprouting .
A highly regarded garden plant , the common heath was first cultivated in England in 1825 ; over seventy named cultivars have been developed , most of which have now vanished . A pink @-@ flowered form , often referred to as " pink heath " , is the floral emblem of the state of Victoria . Epacris impressa has proven a difficult plant to propagate reliably , which has limited its use in horticulture and revegetation . It grows best in well @-@ drained but moist soil in a semishaded position .
= = Description = =
Epacris impressa grows as a woody shrub with an erect habit , sometimes reaching 2 to 3 m ( 6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in ) in height although plants in the range of 0 @.@ 5 to 1 m ( 1 ft 8 in to 3 ft 3 in ) tall are more commonly observed . The branches are stiff and have small leaves with prickly , pointed apices that are 8 – 16 mm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 5 ⁄ 8 in ) long . The flowers mainly occur between late autumn and early spring , arising in dense and sometimes pendulous clusters along the stems . White , pink or red in colour , they are 1 – 2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) and are narrow and tubular with five indentations on the base . The corolla of the flower is formed by five petals , fused at the base to form a tubelike structure , with the free petal ends forming five lobes at the apex . There are five whorled sepals at the base of the corolla . Within the corolla is a central style that persists through development of the fruit . The style connects the stigma at the apex and ovary at the base , where the nectar is also located . Different colour forms are often observed growing near each other . The fruit is a 5 @-@ locule capsule that is about 3 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 ⁄ 8 in ) in diameter . It is globular in shape , sometimes with one end flattened . Initially green , it dries and splits , releasing numerous tiny seeds .
= = Taxonomy = =
The type specimen of common heath was collected in 1793 by French botanist Jacques Labillardière in Van Diemen 's Land ( now Tasmania ) during a voyage with Antoine Bruni d 'Entrecasteaux . Labillardière described it in his 1805 work Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen , giving it its current name Epacris impressa . The Latin specific epithet impressa ( meaning " impressed " or " indented " ) alludes to the indentations on the floral tube . The original mounted specimen is currently held at the National Herbarium of Victoria at the Royal Botanic Gardens , Melbourne .
A number of specimens once described as separate species are now regarded as Epacris impressa , with no recognised subspecies . Scottish botanist Robert Brown described Epacris ruscifolia in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen alongside E. impressa . John Lindley described Epacris tomentosa from plant specimens collected during the third expedition of Thomas Mitchell in 1838 . Upon encountering Epacris impressa on Mount William in the Grampians , Mitchell remarked that it was " A most beautiful downy @-@ leaved Epacris with large , curved , purple flowers , allied to E. grandiflora but much handsomer " . Dr Robert Graham described Epacris ceriflora ( which he spelt ceraeflora ) from plants cultivated at the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens in 1832 . The seed had come from Tasmania , the resulting progeny flowering over April and May 1832 . A year later , he described E. nivalis , which he called an " exceedingly beautiful species " , from specimens growing in Loddiges nursery . He also noted a form with long corollas that had been called E. variabilis that was in cultivation at the time , and noted it was difficult to describe the precise characteristics that distinguished E. ceraeflora , E. nivalis , E. variabilis and E. impressa .
In his landmark Flora Australiensis ( 1869 ) , George Bentham argued that several previously described species were in fact a single species – E. impressa , uniting E. variabilis , a short red @-@ flowered E. campanulata , E. ruscifolia , which had narrow leaves and long flowers , the white @-@ flowered E. nivalis , and short white @-@ flowered E. ceraeflora . He re @-@ classified as a separate species – E. reclinata – several plants that Allan Cunningham had collected in the Blue Mountains and classified as E. impressa .
In the same work , Bentham named and described two naturally occurring varieties , Epacris impressa var. grandiflora and E. impressa var. ovata . Plant specimens designated as grandiflora had been collected in the Wimmera , the Grampians ( including those previously designated as E. tomentosa ) and at Stawell in Victoria . Those classified as ovata were collected at Twofold Bay and Mount Imlay in southeastern New South Wales as well as Woolnorth and Rocky Cape in northern Tasmania . Bentham noted that , although variable , all forms had " five impressed cavities outside , alternating with the stamens immediately above the ovary . "
In his 1972 publication A Handbook to Plants in Victoria , Australian botanist Jim Willis expressed his view that dividing the species into subspecies was not feasible given that common heath is highly variable in flower colour and leaf shape , though he conceded the Grampians race grandiflora might be distinctive based on its larger corollas and coarser and hairier foliage . Currently , both grandiflora and ovata are regarded as synonyms of Epacris impressa rather than being classified as distinct varieties . The plant populations that best fit Bentham 's original description of grandiflora , also known as Grampians heath , occur naturally on sandstone at locations including Mount Zero , Mount Stapylton and the Black Range . Other nearby populations are regarded as having intermediate characteristics , including those in the Victoria Range and Mount Arapiles . Although not recognised in the Australian Plant Census , the variety is noted as " rare " on the list of Advisory List of Rare or Threatened Plants in Victoria issued by the Department of Environment and Primary Industries .
= = = Variation in flower colour and length = = =
In 1977 Helen Stace and Yvonne Fripp from La Trobe University studied 195 populations of Epacris impressa in Victoria , South Australia and Tasmania and found that 120 consisted of mixed stands of two or more races while 75 populations were of one race only . They identified four races based on the following corolla characteristics :
white @-@ flowered with a markedly shortened corolla that is 9 – 12 mm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long and red @-@ purple anthers , usually found in sites with greater sun exposure . Occurring throughout the species range , this form is the most widely distributed .
pink @-@ flowered , with a longer corolla that is 12 – 19 mm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long and cream @-@ white anthers , in more shaded sites . This form occurs throughout the species range . Field work in Victoria and Tasmania found that pink @-@ flowered plants in mixed populations often have pink or red anthers .
long scarlet race , with orange @-@ red flowers and corolla 15 – 19 mm ( 5 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long and cream @-@ white anthers . Those from the granitic mountains of Wilsons Promontory and near W Tree in East Gippsland in Victoria flower between April and November . Other localities where this race has been recorded include the Howe Ranges and Clyde Mountain in New South Wales .
broad pink or white , the grandiflora race from the Grampians and Mount Arapiles in Victoria . Plants of this race are taller , often reaching 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) in height . White or pink colour bear no relation to corolla length . Plants from Mount Arapiles are always pink @-@ flowered .
The long @-@ pink and short @-@ white races frequently occur in close proximity to each other ; in these mixed populations the former tends to flower in winter and the latter in spring . The question has been raised whether these different forms are becoming incompatible . However , controlled cross @-@ pollination between plants with short and long corollas showed that there was no incompatibility between them .
Pink @-@ flowering populations have a relatively distinct genetic makeup , whereas red or white flowering populations have more evident sharing of genetic traits . Research based on DNA profiling has revealed substantial genetic diversity within and between flower colour races and site populations . This has implications for vegetation projects in that provenance material needs to be collected from a wide geographic area to maintain this diversity .
= = Distribution = =
Epacris impressa is commonly found in coastal regions and nearby foothills , ranging from Kangaroo Island and the southern Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia across southern Victoria , extending to the Grampians and the Little Desert , and northwards to southern New South Wales as far as the Clyde River in the Budawang Range . It is also widespread in Tasmania . Plants are recorded at altitudes up to 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) at Mount Stradbroke and Mount Tingaringy in East Gippsland . The species grows in widely diverse habitats including sand and clay heathland , herb @-@ rich and heathy woodland , lowland and shrubby dry forests , riparian thickets , montane rocky shrubland and rocky outcrops .
= = Ecology = =
Honeyeaters such as the eastern spinebill are attracted to the flowers . As the bird gathers the nectar , the pollen , which has fins , attaches itself to the feathers on the heads of the birds and is carried to other flowers , aiding cross pollination . A study in forests near Hobart in Tasmania found that the eastern spinebill arrived in the area at the same time the common heath was in flower in March , and left once flowering had finished . Other honeyeaters , such as the strong @-@ billed , crescent and yellow @-@ throated honeyeaters , fed occasionally at common heath flowers . Field work in the Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia recorded the white @-@ plumed and New Holland honeyeaters , as well as the crescent honeyeater and the eastern spinebill .
Insects recorded visiting white @-@ flowered plants include the Australian painted lady ( Vanessa kershawi ) and yellow admiral ( V. itea ) , as well as bees . Field work in southern Tasmania showed that the introduced bumblebee ( Bombus terrestris ) sometimes robbed nectar by piercing the base of the tube . This then allowed honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) to retrieve nectar the same way . Epacris impressa is host to the scale insect Lecanodiaspis microcribraria .
A field study of the invasion of the pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi into the Brisbane Ranges National Park in Victoria in 1971 indicated that Epacris impressa was moderately susceptible to the pathogen . Inoculation of seedlings confirmed this . Fieldwork in the Brisbane Ranges National Park in 1985 showed that there was some evidence that E. impressa seedlings were able to recolonise areas that had been infested with P. cinnamomi a decade before .
Epacris impressa regenerates after bushfire by seed and resprouting . Fieldwork in heathland in the Otway Ranges in the years following the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires showed that large numbers of E. impressa seedlings appeared in some areas , and that flowering took place as early as the second year after the fire .
The roots of Epacris impressa are colonized by fungi forming ericoid mycorrhiza . It is believed that the fungal species vary between regions .
= = Cultivation = =
Propagated from seed collected by William Baxter in southern Australia , common heath was introduced into cultivation in England by the Clapton Nursery in 1825 . Due to its frost @-@ tenderness , it was mostly restricted to greenhouse cultivation . In 1873 , a variety known as Epacris impressa alba was recorded as being grown commercially for cut flowers in Boston in the United States . While initially popular – over seventy cultivars appeared in the literature at the time – most have since disappeared .
Plants grow best in a moist but well @-@ drained , acidic soil , with added peat being helpful . They may be grown in coastal gardens in a sheltered position , and generally require some degree of shade . Once established , plants can tolerate short dry spells . As they age , plants may become straggly , but benefit from hard pruning after fertilizing and watering , which promotes compact , bushier growth . Common heath can be short @-@ lived and difficult to transplant , though it can be readily grown as a pot plant . Along with other members of the genus , Epacris impressa initially proved difficult to grow and maintain on original soil in the Australian National Botanic Gardens in Canberra .
Propagation both by seed and cuttings is difficult , reducing potential production by plant nurseries . Germination rates of soil @-@ stored seeds have been found to increase substantially with the application of heat and aqueous solutions of smoke . The most satisfactory results from cuttings can be achieved by using tip growth , taken six weeks after the cessation of flowering , and kept under a fogging system for twenty weeks . Plantsman Neil Marriott recommends semi @-@ hardened cutting material taken in spring and autumn . Roots of cuttings are brittle and easily damaged .
= = = Cultivars = = =
The following forms have been selected and grown for cultivation :
'Bega'
This is a form from Bega in southern New South Wales that has bright red flowers and grows to 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It is regarded as one of the more reliable forms in cultivation . White- and pink @-@ flowered forms from the same region also have horticultural potential .
'Cranbourne Bells ' and other double @-@ flowered forms
'Cranbourne Bells ' is a double @-@ flowered form with pink flower buds fading to white as they open . Registered by the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority in 1988 , it occurred naturally near the Royal Botanic Gardens Cranbourne in Victoria , but its habitat has since been cleared . A double @-@ flowered form of Epacris impressa was collected as early as the 1860s in Victoria when Government Botanist Ferdinand von Mueller sent a specimen to Kew Gardens . This was examined by botanist William Hemsley in 1865 . The specimen , labelled as Epacris impressa var. pleniflora , originated from Stawell in western Victoria . Another specimen given the same name by Mueller was collected at Nunawading , today a suburb of Melbourne . Charles French , co @-@ founder of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria , collected a white double @-@ flowered form from Cheltenham south of Melbourne in 1859 and a pink double @-@ flowered form from Dromana on the Mornington Peninsula in about 1862 . These were later sent as rooted cuttings to Veitch Nurseries in England . Double @-@ flowered forms of various colours have since been found throughout Victoria , but only single plants have been observed in any location , and they are still regarded as a rarity . A naturally occurring form of the variety grandiflora with rosebud @-@ like double flowers is also grown .
'Spring Pink'
A form with deep pink flowers on long spikes , ' Spring Pink ' appears in spring . It grows to 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) high .
= = Symbolism = =
At a meeting of representatives of government and other bodies in 1951 it was agreed that the pink form of the common heath , the " pink heath " , be adopted as the official floral emblem for the state of Victoria . Victoria was the first Australian state to adopt a floral emblem . The proclamation , made on 11 November 1958 by Governor Dallas Brooks , was as follows :
I , the Governor of the State of Victoria , in the Commonwealth of Australia , by and with the advice of the Executive Council of the said State , do by this my Proclamation declare that the Pink Form of the Common Heath , Epacris impressa Labill . , be adopted as the Floral Emblem for the State of Victoria "
An Australian stamp issue of state floral emblems was issued in 1968 , including the pink heath which was featured on the 13 cent stamp . In 2014 a 70 @-@ cent stamp labelled as " Common Heath " was issued . The pink heath is also depicted on the Victorian driver 's licence . In 1973 , a depiction of pink heath was added to the armorial bearings for Victoria .
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= Ellie Cole =
Ellie Victoria Cole OAM ( born 12 December 1991 ) is an Australian Paralympic swimmer and wheelchair basketball player . After having her leg amputated due to cancer , she trained in swimming as part of her rehabilitation program and progressed more rapidly than instructors had predicted . She began competitive swimming in 2003 and first competed internationally at the 2006 IPC Swimming World Championships , where she won a silver medal . Since then , she has won medals in the Pan Pacific Swimming Championships , the Commonwealth Games , the Paralympic Games , the IPC Swimming World Championships , and various national championships . At the 2012 London Paralympics , she won four gold and two bronze medals . After the Games , she underwent two shoulder reconstructions and made a successful return to swimming at the 2015 IPC Swimming World Championships winning five medals including three gold medals . She has been selected to represent Australia at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Paralympics .
= = Personal = =
Ellie Victoria Cole was born in the Melbourne suburb of Lilydale on 12 December 1991 . Her mother and grandfather were both swimmers , and her father was athletic . At two years of age , she was diagnosed with a rare tumour , a sarcoma that was wrapped around the nerves of her right leg . After unsuccessful attempts to treat her cancer with chemotherapy , her right leg was amputated above the knee on 14 February 1994 . Eight weeks after the surgery , as part of her rehabilitation , Cole 's mother Jenny enrolled her in swimming lessons . Cole 's instructors expected her to take up to a year to learn how to swim in a straight line , but it took her two weeks .
Cole attended Mount Eliza North Primary school and Frankston High School , both in the outer Melbourne suburb of Frankston . As of 2015 she lives in Sydney and trains at the Castle Hill RSL Swim Club while she works towards a Bachelor of Sports Coaching and Exercise Science at the Australian Catholic University . She has a twin sister , Brittany .
= = Swimming = =
Cole is classified in the S9 category in swimming due to her amputation , a classification that also includes swimmers who have joint restrictions in one leg and those with double below @-@ knee amputations . She began competitive swimming in 2003 and , at the 2006 IPC Swimming World Championships in Durban , she won a silver medal in the women 's 100 m backstroke S9 event . Also in 2006 Cole won the 100 m backstroke at the Telstra Australian Swimming Championships . Cole qualified for the Australian Paralympic Swim Team in 2008 and , in the same year , attended the Beijing Paralympics where she won a silver medal in the Women 's 100 m Butterfly S9 event and bronze medals in the 400 m Freestyle and 100 m Backstroke events .
On 12 August 2009 Cole participated in the 100 m freestyle multi @-@ disability event in the 2009 Australian Short Course Swimming Championships in Hobart , where she broke the world record with a time of 1 : 04 : 06 . This championship is the qualifying event for the IPC Swimming World Championships , run by FINA , the international organization for swimming . The same year Cole participated in the 2009 IPC Swimming World Championships 25 m in Rio de Janeiro , where she won bronze medals in the 100 m backstroke , 400 m freestyle , 4 × 100 m freestyle relay and the 200 m individual medley .
In 2010 at the IPC Swimming World Championships in Eindhoven , Netherlands she won bronze medals in the women 's 200 m individual medley and 400 m freestyle S9 events . In that same year she won bronze medals in the 100 m Freestyle S9 and 100 m Butterfly S9 events at the 2010 Commonwealth Games in New Delhi . At the 2011 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Edmonton , Alberta , Canada she won a total of six gold medals , emerging victorious in the women 's 50 m freestyle , 100 m freestyle , 400 m freestyle , 100 m butterfly , 100 m backstroke and 200 m individual medley S9 events . Cole has also participated in national championships such as the Australian Age Multi Class Swimming Championships and the New South Wales State Open championships . The former competition is held in Canberra at the Australian Institute of Sport and is designed to prepare elite swimmers for international competition . She then participated in the 2012 New South Wales State Open Championships in multi @-@ class events .
Cole was an Australian Institute of Sport Scholarship holder . Her coach , Graeme Carroll , trained her in Canberra in preparation for the 2012 London Paralympics with an approach that combined swim training with aerobics and gym work . She trained with Teigan Van Roosmalen , a blind and deaf S13 swimmer . Cole also mentors young athletes . When not in high school Cole was undertaking ten or more swimming sessions a week but , while at school , she reduced her load . As of 2015 , her coach is Nathan Doyle .
At the 2012 London Paralympics , Cole participated in eight events and won six medals . In her first event , the 100 m Butterfly S9 , she finished fourth , while South Africa 's Natalie du Toit finished first . However , the following night , Cole won the 100 m Backstroke S9 , winning her first gold medal of the games in Australian record time . She told the press that it had " been a goal of mine ever since I was 12 years old to beat Natalie du Toit " who was " kind of like the Michael Phelps of swimming for me , she has been a great mentor and relaxes me in the marshalling room . She is my biggest hero . " Cole won a second gold medal in the 4 x 100 m freestyle relay 34 pts , this time in World Record time . In the 400 m Freestyle S9 , she was again beaten by du Toit , who finished first , while Cole took bronze . Cole won a second bronze in the 50 m Freestyle S9 , in which du Toit finished seventh , and then gold in the 100 m Freestyle S9 , in which du Toit finished third . Cole capped off the games , surprising even herself with a fourth gold medal , in the 4 x 100 m freestyle relay 34 pts , again in Australian record time .
After the London Paralympics , she underwent two shoulder reconstructions that threatened her swimming career . At the 2015 IPC Swimming World Championships , she won gold medals in the Women 's 100 m Backstroke S9 breaking the world record in the heats and final , Women 's 100 m Freestyle S9 and Women 's 4 x 100 m Freestyle Relay 34 points , a silver medal in the Women 's 4 × 100 m Medley Relay and a bronze medal in the Women 's 50 m Freestyle S9 .
Cole became the first S9 swimmer to break 29 seconds in the 50m freestyle in winning the gold medal at the 2016 Australian Swimming Championships in Adelaide in the 50m Freestyle Multiclass event . Her time of 28 @.@ 75 broke Natalie du Toit 's world record of 29 @.@ 04 .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
Cole played wheelchair basketball for Victoria in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League in 2013 and 2014 as a 4 @.@ 0 point player , taking out the league 's award for Best New Talent in 2013 . " I loved working in a team because swimming isn 't considered a team sport , " Cole told an interviewer in 2013 . " I definitely wanted a new challenge because when you 've been competing for a decade the increments of improvements are quite small . However , in wheelchair basketball I knew that I could make big improvements . I 've been chosen for the women 's national league team , which is great , so I 'm actually getting somewhere , which is a surprise . But my heart is definitely in swimming and I think it always will be . "
= = Recognition = =
During her time at Frankston High School , Cole received a Debbie Flintoff @-@ King award for the most outstanding sporting achievement from the institution three years in a row ; she was also nominated for the Junior Paralympian of the Year award . The award was received for winning silver and two bronze medals in the Beijing Paralympic Games , silver in 100 m butterfly and bronze in 100 m backstroke and 400 m freestyle . In 2009 she received an Outstanding Sporting Achievement Award from the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development . In 2011 she was nominated for The Age 's Sport Performer Award in the Performer with a Disability category . In August of the same year she was voted International Paralympic Committee Athlete of the Month after winning six gold medals in Edmonton . She was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia in the 2014 Australia Day Honours " for service to sport as a Gold Medallist at the London 2012 Paralympic Games . " In November 2015 , she was awarded Cosmopolitan Magazine 's 2015 Sportswoman of the Year .
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= Chikaraishi =
Chikaraishi ( 力石 , chikaraishi , lit . " strength stones " ) ( also hakari @-@ ishi ( 秤石 , " weighing stones " ) or bijuru ( Okinawan ) ) are heavy rocks used at least since the 8th century CE in Japan to develop or demonstrate physical strength . Commonly found within Shinto shrines , they were used for competition , divination , physical fitness and entertainment ; some famous examples have also become tourist attractions , and many have been recognised as Important Cultural Assets by the Japanese Government .
Competitive stone @-@ lifting is still continued in modern times , and a number of competitive forms of stone @-@ lifting exist , employing different physical techniques .
= = History = =
Strength @-@ stones are found throughout Japan , often at Shinto shrines . In 2005 around 14 @,@ 000 strength @-@ stones were recorded in shrines around Japan . Of these , around 300 are designated as Important Cultural Assets . Many are inscribed with the names and feats of those who lifted them . The oldest @-@ known inscribed stone is from Shinobu , and dates to 1664 . The first recorded incidence of strength @-@ stone lifting is attributed to the samurai Kamakura Gongorō Kagemasa in 1089 , however the practice itself is much older , dating to before the 8th century . The Nippo Jisho , also called the Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam , a Japanese – Portuguese dictionary published in 1603 , includes the term chikaraishi in the written record as early as the 17th century . The Nippo Jisho , published in Nagasaki and associated with the Jesuit priest João Rodrigues ( 1561 or 1562 – 1633 ) , identically records both the modern pronunciation and written form of the term chikaraishi.A
It is one of the few traditional sports not solely the preserve of the samurai class , being popular among peasants and sake brewers . Both professions valued the manual labor of young people , and similar practices called kyokumochi also existed , which involved lifting sacks of rice or barrels of sake . The sporting aspect of stone @-@ lifting developed in Edo around the seventeenth century , likely evolving from the sack @-@ lifting contests of the stevedores and labourers . Historically , the lifting of strength @-@ stones was exclusively practiced by men .
The practice of lifting strength @-@ stones was especially popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries ( roughly coinciding with the Meiji period ) , with organised competitions occurring . Stones used in competition were usually inscribed with their weight , measured in kan ( 貫 ) ( a unit of approximately 3 @.@ 75 kg ( 8 lb ) ) , and if not naturally smooth , were often sculpted into a roughly oval shape .
Some strength @-@ stones have become tourist attractions due to the legends attached to them . In Nerima , for example , tourists still visit Sobei 's Horse @-@ Headed Kannon Stone , a strength @-@ stone associated with the tale of Kato Sobei from 1840 . According to the story , Sobei was awarded possession of a heavy stone that he managed to lift . However , his horse collapsed and died under the weight of the stone , and in its memory , he erected the stone as the horse 's grave marker . Another famous stone is the Benkei @-@ ishi , a huge rock supposedly moved from present @-@ day Himeji , Hyōgo , Hyōgo Prefecture to its current resting place on Mount Shosha by the folk hero Benkei ( 1155 – 1189 ) . The Benkei @-@ ishi can be viewed at Engyō @-@ ji , high above Himeji .
= = Purpose = =
A general lack of recorded evidence makes it difficult to ascertain the intended purpose of stone @-@ lifting . It has been assumed that the practice was for competition , physical fitness or entertainment purposes ( sumo wrestlers have been known to perform such feats between bouts for the entertainment of their audience ) . Records of competition techniques and winners ( such as the 1836 list of " Men of Strength in Edo " , which ranks competitors by weights lifted ) indicate a competitive aspect .
Strength @-@ stones are used in modern times for strength training , particularly in the martial arts where such practices are known as hojo undō . Special stones are manufactured for this purpose , usually with a wooden handle to aid their manipulation ; such stones are also known as chi ishi . It is a common practice in karate , used in solo training to improve stances and upper body strength .
= = = In divination = = =
The prevalence of the stones in Shinto shrines and temples has led to speculation that rock @-@ lifting was used for divining the future , a practice known as ishi @-@ ura ( 石占 ) . The ease with which a petitioner lifted the stones indicated the likelihood of his preferred outcome occurring . Ishi @-@ ura was notably practiced in ancient Shinano Province , now modern @-@ day Nagasaki Prefecture . Smaller versions of these stones were sometimes placed by a child 's bed , in the belief that this would strengthen the child .
= = = As a sport = = =
Several forms of competition were employed in stone @-@ lifting , each sometimes using a particular type of stone . Ishizashi ( 石差 , " various stones " ) was the simplest form , requiring competitors to hoist a rock of about 70 kg ( 154 lb ) , known as a sashi @-@ ishi ( サシ石 ) , from the ground to above the head . It was permissible for participants to pause and readjust their grip once the rock was at chest height . Ishikatsugi ( 石担 , " shoulder carried stone " ) contests required that the stone be lifted to the shoulder ; this form employed heavier rocks ( up to 240 kg ( 529 lb ) ) , known as a katage @-@ ishi ( カタゲ石 ) , and allowed the use of a rope wrapped around the stone . In ishihakobi ( 石運び , " stone carrying " ) competitions , the aim was to carry the stone as far as possible , the winner naturally being the man who carried it the greatest distance , whilst ashiuke ( 足受 , " foot receiving " ) contests featured extremely heavy stones that were lifted with the feet by competitors lying on their backs . Rocks that were too heavy to be lifted clear of the ground were employed in ishiokoshi ( 石起し , " stone raising " ) , using a type of stone called the chigiri @-@ ishi ( チギリ石 ) , the aim of which was to raise a stone so that it was balanced on its edge .
Stone @-@ lifting contests still take place in the modern era . The city of Sōja , Okayama hosts an annual competition in which local teams participate .
= = Footnote = =
A. ^ The Nippo Jisho romanizes " chikaraishi " as " chicara ixi " ; the difference in spelling reflects the early Portuguese romanization of the Japanese language , not a difference between the early 17th century and modern pronunciations of the name .
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= George Balabushka =
George Balabushka ( Russian : Григорий Антонович Балабушка Grigoriy Antonovich Balabushka ; December 9 , 1912 – December 5 , 1975 ) was a Russian @-@ born billiards ( pool ) cue maker , arguably the most prominent member of that profession , and is sometimes referred to as " the Stradivarius of cuemakers " . His full name or last name standing alone is often used to refer to a cue stick made by him . Arriving in the U.S. in 1924 , he worked at various carpentry and toy and furniture making jobs . He was an avid pool player and purchased a pool room with a business partner in 1959 and thereafter started making cues as gifts for friends which quickly blossomed into a business when others wanted to purchase them .
Balabushka turned out approximately 1 @,@ 200 handcrafted cues during his 16 @-@ year cue @-@ making career , spanning from 1959 to his death in 1975 . His cues are highly valued collectors items , made more so after being prominently featured in Martin Scorsese 's 1986 film , The Color of Money . Balabushka cues are generally separated into three distinct classes and time periods related to what blanks Balabushka was using in cue construction : The Titlist blank era ( 1959 – 1966 ) , the Burton Spain blank era ( 1966 – 1971 ) and the Gus Szamboti blank era ( 1971 – 1975 ) . Original Balabushka cues with verified provenance may realize tens of thousands of dollars at auction .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
George Balabushka was born in Russia on December 9 , 1912 and immigrated to the United States in 1924 at 12 years of age . His family , parents Anton and Natalie and younger sister Mary , settled in New York City . Although originally named Gregori , according to Balabushka he was given a new first name , George , by immigration officials when he was processed through Ellis Island .
= = = Employment = = =
Balabushka 's first job was as a wooden toy designer and maker , working for the Educational Equipment Company , then located at 71 West 23rd St. , in Manhattan , which made building blocks for nurseries and schools . Thereafter he built children 's furniture for the Playtime Woodworking Company located on Greenwich Village 's Jane Street . While on the job , Balabushka lost his middle finger to a band saw . Using a wooden mold , he made himself a replacement plastic finger of such craftsmanship that even his friends did not realize his loss until long after the incident . As Balabushka 's carpentry skills deepened he began building accordions and other detailed carpentry pieces on his own time . In 1949 , Balabushka applied for patent on a folding leg bracket mechanism he invented , which was granted in 1951 .
= = = Marriage and children = = =
While working at Playtime Woodworking he met a woman named Josephine , his future wife , who then lived directly across the street from the toy company . They were married in 1941 , and bought a home in Brooklyn several years later . Josephine and George had two sons , Gregory and George , both named after their father .
Josephine was not just a source of love and stability but was the rock that allowed Balabushka the ability to hone his craft . According to the writers of the The Billiard Encyclopedia , " Josephine 's limitless patience and strong sense of independence would afford George the time and solitude necessary that a great artist needs in order to perfect his craft . "
= = = Transition to cuemaker = = =
Balabushka was an avid billiards player , especially of the game of straight pool , taking part in competitions and spending time with well @-@ known practitioners of the sport . In 1959 , he purchased a Brooklyn @-@ based pool hall with partner , Frank McGown , which was located at 50th Street and 5th Avenue . While running the room , he began repairing cues as a hobby , and soon the idea was sparked to design and manufacture his own line of pool cues .
By the end of 1959 , Balabushka had made a number of cues , most of which were given to friends as Christmas gifts . As this practice went on , he began receiving orders for his cues . His first cues were conversions of the popular Brunswick @-@ Balke @-@ Collender Company manufactured " Titlist " cues , which were one @-@ piece cues ; that is , they had no joint in the middle that would allow a player to break down the cue into two sections for ease of transport . At the time he started , there were very few private cuemakers , the industry being dominated by large manufacturers .
= = = Cuemaking career and death = = =
Between 1959 and 1962 , Balabushka handcrafted between 20 and 30 cues per year on a part @-@ time basis . Because of the relative dearth of private cuemakers and the excellence of his product , Balabushka 's name quickly became known amongst professional players . By the end of 1962 , Balabushka was receiving more orders for cues than he could fill given his time constraints . Balabushka accordingly sold his interest in the pool room , converted his garage into a carpentry shop , and by 1964 was building cues full @-@ time , while continuing to hone his cuemaking abilities .
Unlike many of the large manufacturers of the day , Balabushka 's emphasis was on playing ability and fine craftsmanship , reflecting the values he had held during his years in the woodworking business . He was an innovator in cue construction , cue finishes and cue design . Balabushka 's cues were not the elaborately decorated attempts at building art that became a mainstay of the cue market starting in the 1980s and onward . Rather , most Balabushka cues are relatively plain and without grand ornamentation flourishes . Many of his trademark construction techniques have become standard in the industry , such as the use of Irish linen for wrap material and block style checkered @-@ pattern ringwork above a cue 's wrap , commonly employing alternating ebony and ivory , pieces which are eponymously named " Bushka rings . "
George Balabushka died in 1975 at the age of 62 . He was posthumously honored as the first inductee into the American Cuemakers Association Hall of Fame in February , 1993 . In 2004 , he was inducted into the Meritorious Service category of the Billiard Congress of America 's Hall of Fame .
= = Cue details = =
There are three distinct classes of cues produced during different time periods related to what blanks Balabushka was using in cue construction : The Titlist blank era ( 1959 – 1966 ) , the Burton Spain blank era ( 1966 – 1971 ) and the Gus Szamboti blank era ( 1971 – 1975 ) . The " blanks " referred to are the bottom ( butt ) portion of a cue where the splicing of various hardwoods has been completed but the cue has not yet been turned on a lathe to produce the final shape , and certain features have not yet been added such as a wrap , joint mechanism , butt cap , bumper and any inlays .
While blank variety is the defining demarcation between one Balabushka cue and another , there are some shared features spanning Balabushka 's fleeting 16 @-@ year career . Cue forearms were characteristically made with straight @-@ grained maple , based on Balabushka 's belief that a single @-@ direction maple grain provided superior integrity to that of curly maple or birdseye maple . He used stainless steel joints and delrin butt caps almost exclusively . A small number of his cues feature ivory joints and ivory butt caps , making them highly valued collector 's items . Balabushka used a distinguishing reddish @-@ brown bumper , and employed Cortland Irish linen for many of his wraps , with the highly sought after leather wrap a rare departure for him and a distinct value enhancer . Unless a different length was specified , Balabushka made all his cues to a standard 57 ½ inches in length .
In addition to Bushka rings , various other decorative rings were commonly incorporated , including various colored plastics ( often marbleized ) , and silver and contrasting wooden rings . For decoration , Balabushka often inlaid small mother @-@ of @-@ pearl dots and notched diamonds . Series of window @-@ shaped maple pieces commonly adorned Balabushka butt sleeves , with each window usually featuring one burl for its aesthetic effect . Some other features common to many other cuemakers ' lines from the same era are notably absent or mostly absent from Balabushka 's , including ivory inlays and the signing of his cues . A long @-@ standing controversy exists over what finish Balabushka used . One side argues that he used an oil finish on all his cues , while the other insists that his later cues were coated with a spray lacquer .
= = = Titlist era = = =
When Balabushka first started repairing cues while working at his pool room , he started converting house cues into custom cues . Many of these house cues were made by Brunswick . When he started building his own cues in 1959 , he used blanks purchased from Brunswick for their " Titlist " cue line ; the same used in the construction of the house cues he had been converting . Many of the fine cuemakers working during the same era as Balabushka did likewise , including Frank Paradise ( Paradise cues ) , Eugene Balner ( Palmer cues , named after Arnold Palmer ) and Ernie Gutierrez ( Ginacue ) , all following in the footsteps of earlier master cuemaker , Herman Rambow .
Building a full spliced blank from scratch was an expensive and painstaking process , and the large manufacturing facilities of Brunswick turned out good quality blanks , with beautiful points , veneers and sound construction . In Balabushka 's case , his entire workshop consisted of a single lathe and other woodworking equipment in the confines of his modest garage , and building his own full @-@ splice butts would have been prohibitively difficult and expensive for him .
= = = Burton Spain era = = =
Balabushka used Titlist blanks until 1966 when he was contacted by Chicagoan Burton Spain . Spain had recently begun making handmade spliced blanks and was supplying them to Balabushka 's closest rival , Frank Paradise . Spain had become fascinated by splicing technology when he came upon a Titlist cue split down the middle in 1965 and set out to perfect and even improve on the Titlist splice . Spain 's original intent was to be predominantly a cuemaker in his own right using his proprietary spliced blanks . However , by 1966 Spain 's superior blanks were in high demand and he instead turned to making blanks for other cuemakers full @-@ time , which he continued until 1970 .
Balabushka took Spain up on his offer after seeing the quality of his splices . Buying from Spain also had the advantage that he was able to have Spain customize the blanks to his specifications . During this period Balabushka began incorporating more elaborate details into his cues , including the eponymous Bushka rings innovation . Many later cuemakers would install Bushka rings both above the wrap and on the butt sleeve below the wrap . Balabushka used them only above the wrap , which is believed to have aided him in keeping the balance point higher on the cue . In 1970 , Spain sold his cue business to tool and die maker John Davis , who had been assisting Spain for a number of years . Balabushka continued buying blanks from Davis until 1971 .
= = = Gus Szamboti era = = =
In 1971 , Balabushka met Penndel , Pennsylvania native Gus Szamboti at a tournament . Szamboti had been working for RCA as a draftsman and designer , but RCA layoffs were common at the time , and he had started designing and selling pool cues as a more stable job path . Though he too started production with Titlist blanks as well as blanks manufactured by WICO of Chicago , Szamboti later began making his own . Balabushka was very impressed with Szamboti 's blanks and , in addition to the two men becoming fast friends , he became Szamboti 's first customer , buying blanks from him for $ 18 apiece .
Balabushka cues from the Gus Szamboti era are typified by straight grained maple forearms bearing four ebony points , with four veneers included , normally colored black , green , white and mahogany , or sometimes with an orange veneer in place of mahogany . Balabushka cues from this era , spanning the last five years of his life , are considered the finest of his career as a class . There have been unconfirmed rumors that some few cues made during this period included splices made by Balabushka himself .
= = Prominence = =
It is estimated that Balabushka produced between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 200 cues during his lifetime . However , by the mid @-@ 1960s , forged Balabushka cues started circulating in the market , as he was already recognized as the premier cue maker of the era , referred to as " the Stradivarius of cuemakers " . Balabushka and his cues achieved much wider recognition after being prominently featured in Martin Scorsese ’ s 1986 film , The Color of Money ( the sequel to the classic 1961 film The Hustler ) .
In the film , Tom Cruise ’ s character , Vincent Lauria , is presented with a beautiful cue by Paul Newman 's character , Fast Eddie Felson . Vincent takes the cue , his reverence obvious , and is told by Eddie " it 's a Balabushka . " After this , Balabushka 's name became associated by the general public with highly valued and rare cues . The cue actually used in the film was , however , not a genuine Balabushka , but a Joss Cues model J @-@ 18 ( renamed the N @-@ 07 ) , custom @-@ made to look like a Balabushka . The filmmakers feared that any cue used might get damaged during filming ; especially in light of a scene set in a pool room where Cruise 's character rapidly whirls the cue around in time to the song Werewolves of London . An original Balabushka was thus considered too valuable to be risked in the production .
Original Balabushka cues with verified provenance may realize tens of thousands of dollars at auction . In 1994 , for example , a Balabushka was purchased by a collector for $ 45 @,@ 000 . In a 1998 Syracuse Herald @-@ Journal article a collection of thirty original Balabushkas cues and six Gus Szamboti cues was estimated to be worth 2 million dollars , the cues said to be the equivalent in the cue collecting world of Rembrandts and van Goghs respectively . There are , however , many fake Balabushka cues in existence . Complicating matters , in the 1980s with the permission and license of his surviving family , a line of Balabushka replicas began to be manufactured in large quantities by the Adam Custom Cue Company .
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= Bill Szymczyk =
William Frank " Bill " Szymczyk ( / ˈsɪmzɪk / ; born February 13 , 1943 ) is an American music producer and technical engineer best known for working with rock and blues musicians , most notably the Eagles in the 1970s . He produced many top albums and singles of the 1970s , though he retired from the music business by 1990 . He re @-@ emerged in the late 2000s , taking on select projects including the 2007 Eagles album Long Road Out of Eden and the 2008 eponymous debut of Brian Vander Ark .
Unlike many music producers , Szymczyk has no background as a musician . He was originally a sonar operator for the U.S. Navy and took some audio production classes as part of his Navy training . Besides his work with the Eagles , he has produced hit songs and albums for such diverse artists as B.B. King , Joe Walsh , The James Gang , and Elvin Bishop .
= = Early life = =
Bill Szymczyk was born in Muskegon , Michigan on February 13 , 1943 . His mother worked as a nurse , and his father held several jobs , including factory worker and maintenance at a school . Growing up , his first introduction to music and electronics was when he built his own crystal radio from a kit . Using his radio , he became a fan of blues and R & B while listening to a station out of Nashville , Tennessee .
He joined the United States Navy in 1960 , where he worked as a sonar technician . It was in the Navy that he took his first course in radio and television production . Upon leaving the service in 1964 , and without much of an idea of what to do for a post @-@ military career , he enrolled at New York University 's Media Arts School .
= = Professional career = =
Bill Szymczyk began working at a firm which produced demo recordings for Screen Gems Records and worked extensively with Brill Building songwriters such as Carole King and Gerry Goffin . He also worked as an assistant to music producers and songwriters Quincy Jones and Jerry Ragovoy , eventually working his way up to chief engineer at Ragavoy 's Hit Factory recording studio . His first work as the primary producer on an album came for a Harvey Brooks solo record . He dropped out of NYU to work full @-@ time in the music industry .
He left the Hit Factory and took a job at ABC Records , taking a large pay cut in exchange for the opportunity to move from engineer to producer . He successfully lobbied ABC to let him work with B. B. King , whose own record label was a subsidiary of ABC and who was a long time idol of Szymczyk 's . After convincing King that he could improve his sound to make him more appealing to a wider audience , King himself agreed to let Szymczyk produce for him . Among the albums he produced for King are the 1969 live album Live & Well , King 's first ever top @-@ 100 album . He produced his follow @-@ up studio album Completely Well , which featured " The Thrill Is Gone " , the biggest hit of King 's career and his signature song . He would continue to produce blues albums throughout the early 1970s for the likes of King and Albert Collins .
Szymczyk was moved several times while working for ABC Records ; first to Los Angeles when ABC acquired Dunhill Records and Szymczyk took over production for the West Coast operations , and later to Denver when he decided to form his own label , Tumbleweed Records . He worked for a while as a disc jockey at radio station KFML , and continued to produce albums in New York and Los Angeles , such as the J. Geils Band 's 1971 album The Morning After , recorded at the Los Angeles Record Plant . He did extensive work at the Colorado studio Caribou Ranch , where would be the center of his operations for the rest of the 1970s .
After producing the James Gang 's first three albums , he followed singer @-@ guitarist Joe Walsh when he left the band , first as a solo artist with the Szymczyk @-@ produced albums Barnstorm ( the first recorded at the Caribou Ranch studio ) and The Smoker You Drink , the Player You Get and later with the Eagles . His most prolific collaborations have been with Walsh ; the two have made over 15 albums together in many settings . Walsh himself moved to Boulder , Colorado in 1971 in order to work with Szymczyk and the location would inspire one of Walsh 's biggest solo hits , 1973 's " Rocky Mountain Way " . Besides work with Walsh in his band The James Gang and as a solo @-@ artist , he also brought Walsh in to work on several albums he was doing with other musicians , using him as a session player for the B. B. King album Indianola Mississippi Seeds and the Michael Stanley album Friends and Legends . It was at Szymczyk 's suggestion that the Eagles bring in Walsh to give them a " rock " edge ; Walsh remains a core member of the band to this day .
His long relationship with the Eagles began with their 1974 album On the Border , an album he took over from London @-@ based producer Glyn Johns . He would be the sole producer for the next three Eagles studio albums , including 1976 's Hotel California , the first to feature Joe Walsh . Szymczyk was instrumental in giving the Eagles a more " rock sound " and helping them to move away from their country rock roots .
Among the other acts he worked with extensively through the 1970s include Michael Stanley and the The J. Geils Band . While working with The Outlaws , he coined the term " Guitar Army " to describe the band 's sound ; the name continues as a nickname for the band . He worked in the studio for the Edgar Winter Group 's biggest hit , the Rick Derringer @-@ produced " Frankenstein " , and later produced Derringer 's best known solo album All American Boy and its hit single , " Rock and Roll , Hoochie Koo " . At the start of the 1980s he was a highly sought @-@ after producer , and worked on such albums as Bob Seger 's 1980 album Against the Wind and The Who 's 1981 release Face Dances . During this time period , Szymczyk produced such hit singles as Elvin Bishop 's " Fooled Around and Fell in Love " , The Who 's " You Better You Bet " , The Eagles ' " Hotel California " , and Bob Seger 's " Against the Wind " .
His workload tailed off in the mid @-@ 1980s , due mostly to his own financial success . He officially retired from the music industry in 1990 , but re @-@ emerged in 2005 , producing Dishwalla 's self @-@ titled fourth album . He returned to work with the Eagles on the 2007 album Long Road Out of Eden , and followed that with the 2008 solo debut of ex @-@ Verve Pipe singer Brian Vander Ark .
He now lives in Little Switzerland , North Carolina with his wife , Lisi Szymczyk . The couple has two sons , Michael and Daniel , and have become involved in their local community , having raised money for a local shelter for victims of domestic violence , among other charity work . He still works as a producer , but is more selective about projects he works on .
= = Production style = =
Bill Szymczyk 's has frequently been noted as the sort of producer who pushes bands to expand their musical horizons ; he has been brought in with the specific intent of changing a band 's sound . He himself has credited this tendency to his lack of musical knowledge , stating : " I 'm a professional listener . I listen and I react . I never was a musician , so I don 't bring any preconceived prejudices to the table ; I don 't favour the guitar over the keyboard , and so forth . I just listen and try to figure out if I have anything I can bring to a song . "
For his work with the Eagles , he has been cited for his innovative mixing of drums , laboriously working to get the right microphones and placements for just the right sound . Rather than recording harmony vocals individually , and mixing them together later , as was common , Szymczyk preferred to capture the Eagles singing in ensemble , often spending many hours to record each phrase " just right " .
For the Elvin Bishop hit , " Fooled Around and Fell in Love , " it was Szymczyk who suggested the inclusion of the song on Bishop 's Struttin ' My Stuff album , feeling the blues @-@ oriented album lacked a pop single . The song would go on to become Bishop 's biggest hit . Such a pattern was repeated throughout his career . The Eagles brought him in to refine and improve their " rock " sound , and all of their biggest selling albums and songs were Szymcyzk @-@ produced . Martin Turner of Wishbone Ash has called him " my all time favourite producer " . While the two did not always get along during recording , usually over Turner 's bass @-@ playing style , Turner does credit Szymczyk with giving the band a more commercial sound on one of their most successful albums , 1974 's There 's the Rub .
= = Selected discography = =
All credits as producer unless otherwise noted .
= = = B. B. King = = =
Live & Well ( 1969 )
Completely Well ( 1969 )
Indianola Mississippi Seeds ( 1970 )
Live in Cook County Jail ( 1971 )
= = = Silk / Michael Stanley / Michael Stanley Band = = =
Smooth as Raw Silk ( 1969 )
Michael Stanley ( 1972 )
Friends and Legends ( 1973 )
You Break It ... You Bought It ( 1975 )
Ladies Choice ( 1976 )
Stagepass ( 1977 )
= = = The James Gang = = =
Yer ' Album ( 1969 )
James Gang Rides Again ( 1970 )
Thirds ( 1971 )
James Gang Live in Concert ( 1971 )
= = = Joe Walsh = = =
Barnstorm ( 1972 )
The Smoker You Drink , the Player You Get ( 1973 )
So What ( 1974 )
But Seriously , Folks ... ( 1978 )
You Bought It , You Name It ( 1983 )
Ordinary Average Guy ( as engineer ) ( 1991 )
Songs for a Dying Planet ( 1992 )
= = = The Eagles = = =
On the Border ( 1974 )
One of These Nights ( 1975 )
Hotel California ( 1976 )
The Long Run ( 1979 )
Eagles Live ( 1980 )
Long Road Out of Eden ( 2007 )
= = = The J. Geils Band = = =
The Morning After ( 1971 )
Bloodshot ( 1973 )
Ladies Invited ( 1973 )
Nightmares ... and Other Tales from the Vinyl Jungle ( 1974 )
Hotline ( 1975 )
Blow Your Face Out ( live , 1976 )
= = = Jo Jo Gunne / Jay Ferguson = = =
Bite Down Hard ( 1973 )
Jumpin ' the Gunne ( 1973 )
All Alone in the End Zone ( 1976 )
Thunder Island ( 1978 )
Real Life Ain 't This Way ( 1979 )
= = = Others = = =
Ford Theatre - Time Changes ( 1969 )
Edgar Winter Group - They Only Come Out at Night ( as technical director ) ( 1972 )
Johnny Winter - Still Alive and Well ( as technical director ) ( 1973 )
Rick Derringer - All American Boy ( 1973 )
Wishbone Ash - There 's the Rub ( 1974 )
Johnny Winter - Saints & Sinners ( as engineer ) ( 1974 )
Elvin Bishop - Struttin ' My Stuff ( 1975 )
Rick Derringer - Spring Fever ( 1975 )
REO Speedwagon - This Time We Mean It ( as Executive Producer ) ( 1975 )
Elvin Bishop - Hometown Boy Makes Good ! ( 1976 )
The Outlaws - Hurry Sundown ( 1977 )
The Outlaws - Bring It Back Alive ( live , 1978 )
Bob Seger & The Silver Bullet Band - Against the Wind ( 1980 )
The Who - Face Dances ( 1981 )
Santana - Shango ( 1982 )
Dishwalla - Dishwalla ( 2005 )
Brian Vander Ark - Brian Vander Ark ( 2008 )
Brian Vander Ark - Magazine ( 2011 )
Tide Brothers - High Water Mark ( as mixing and mastering engineer ) ( 2016 )
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