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= Telopea oreades =
Telopea oreades , commonly known as the Gippsland- , mountain- or Victorian waratah , is a large shrub or small tree in the family Proteaceae . Native to southeastern Australia , it is found in wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest on rich acidic soils high in organic matter . No subspecies are recognised , though a northern isolated population hybridises extensively with the Braidwood waratah ( T. mongaensis ) . Reaching a height of up to 19 metres ( 62 feet ) , T. oreades grows with a single trunk and erect habit . It has dark green leaves with prominent veins that are 11 – 28 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 – 11 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide . The red flower heads , known as inflorescences , appear in late spring . Each is composed of up to 60 individual flowers .
In the garden , T. oreades grows in soils with good drainage and ample moisture in part @-@ shaded or sunny positions . Several commercially available cultivars that are hybrid forms with T. speciosissima have been developed , such as the ' Shady Lady ' series . The timber is hard and has been used for making furniture and tool handles .
= = Description = =
Telopea oreades grows as a large shrub or narrow tree 9 – 19 m ( 30 – 62 ft ) high with a trunk reaching 45 to 60 cm ( 18 to 24 in ) in diameter . Greyish brown , the trunk is thin in relation to the tree 's height and not buttressed . Its surface is smooth with horizontal lenticels and warty protuberances . Smaller branches are more brown and smooth . Young plants have a much more erect habit than other members of the genus Telopea and their stems have a distinct reddish tinge . The shiny dark green leaves are arranged alternately along the stems . The leaves are narrow @-@ obovate to spathulate , and measure 11 – 28 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 – 11 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 2 @.@ 36 in ) wide . They have a sunken midrib on the upperside ( and corresponding ridge on the underside ) with four to six pairs of lateral veins visible at a 45 degree angle to the midline . They veer and converge to form an easily seen vein that runs around 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) inside the leaf margin . The undersurface is paler and greyer . When dried , the leaves appear to have a granular texture .
Flowering occurs between October and December in its native range , with plants at higher elevations flowering later than ones at lower altitude . The crimson flowerheads , known as inflorescences , are about 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter . They are composed of 36 to 60 individual flowers with green to pink bracts , which may be up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . Each flower is encased in a 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) long perianth , which is a much brighter red on the surface facing the centre of the flower than the surface facing outwards . Anthesis , or the opening of the flowers , begins with those at the centre of the flowerhead and moves to the edges or base . The individual flower bears a sessile anther ( that is , it lacks a filament ) , which lies next to the stigma at the end of the style . The ovary lies at the base of the style and atop a stalk known as the gynophore , and it is from here that the seed pods then develop . Meanwhile , a crescent @-@ shaped nectary lies at the base of the gynophore .
After flowering , the curved leathery to woody follicles develop ; these are 5 to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 0 in ) long , which somewhat resemble a boat in shape . These ripen the following May to September , and split open to reveal ( and spill ) 10 – 16 seeds . Arranged in two columns , the winged , flat brown seeds are around 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long with a roughly rectangular wing 3 @.@ 5 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) long . New shoots often grow through flowerheads .
It can be difficult to distinguish T. oreades from T. mongaensis though the leaves of the latter species are more prominently veined , and mostly ( but not always ) narrower than 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) wide . Telopea oreades flowers around a month earlier than T. mongaensis in areas where both are present .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Gippsland waratah was first formally described by the Victorian Government Botanist Ferdinand von Mueller in 1861 in Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae . The type material was collected in rugged mountainous country around Nungatta Creek , a tributary of the Genoa River in south @-@ eastern New South Wales . Mueller had been surveying the mountainous eastern part of the state since the 1850s . The species name is derived from the Ancient Greek oreos " mountain " and hence means " of or relating to a mountain " . The only alternative scientific name proposed was in 1891 , when Otto Kuntze named it as Hylogyne oreades , but it was rejected as an illegitimate name . Common names applies to the species include Gippsland- , Victorian- , mountain- , and tree waratah .
Telopea oreades is one of five species from southeastern Australia that make up the genus Telopea . No subspecies are recognised . It has been difficult to distinguish from the similar T. mongaensis , but microscopic analysis has revealed that T. oreades has features termed sclereids while T. mongaensis does not . The two are sister species , and their next closest relative is the Tasmanian waratah ( T. truncata ) .
A disjunct northern population of T. oreades grows together with T. mongaensis in the southern Monga Valley in southern New South Wales , with some hybrids reported . Crisp and Weston concluded that the two species for the most part did not hybridise there . However , a genetic study using microsatellites found there was extensive hybridisation , with much of the presumed pure T. oreades showing a close relation to T. mongaensis . The populations of waratahs are thought to have grown and shrunk with the ebb and flow of ice ages in the Pleistocene , finally stranding a population of T. oreades located alongside T. mongaensis as conditions suitable for waratahs changed in southeastern Australia .
The genus lies in the subtribe Embothriinae , along with the tree waratahs ( Alloxylon ) from eastern Australia and New Caledonia , and Oreocallis and Chilean firetree ( Embothrium coccineum ) from South America . Almost all these species have red terminal flowers , and hence the subtribe 's origin and floral appearance must predate the splitting of Gondwana into Australia , Antarctica , and South America over 60 million years ago .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Telopea oreades occurs in moist forests and temperate rainforests of coastal ranges and tableland escarpments in two disjunct areas of southeastern Australia . The first is centred on East Gippsland in Victoria , from Orbost to the vicinity of Eden across the border in far southeastern New South Wales . There is a more northerly population around the Monga Valley near Braidwood , New South Wales extending to Moss Vale . There are unconfirmed reports of the species in the vicinity of Brown Mountain and Glenbog State Forest in southern New South Wales , which lie between the two areas . Plants in Victoria are found at altitudes ranging from 200 metres ( 660 ft ) in Lind National Park to 1 @,@ 300 metres ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) on Mount Ellery . Wetter eastern and southern slopes are favoured habitats , and the annual rainfall ranges from 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 to 79 in ) .
T. oreades grows in acidic soil that is high in nutrients and organic matter . Associated tree species in Victoria include shining gum ( Eucalyptus nitens ) , messmate ( E. obliqua ) , mountain grey gum ( E. cypellocarpa ) , cut @-@ tail ( E. fastigata ) , silvertop ash ( E. sieberi ) , southern sassafras ( Atherosperma moschatum ) , black oliveberry ( Elaeocarpus holopetalus ) , blanket leaf ( Bedfordia arborescens ) , Australian blackwood ( Acacia melanoxylon ) , privet mock ‐ olive ( Notelaea ligustrina ) , banyalla ( Pittosporum bicolor ) , Errinundra plum pine ( Podocarpus sp . Goonmirk Rocks ) , Errinundra pepper ( Tasmannia xerophila subsp. robusta ) and soft tree fern ( Dicksonia antarctica ) .
= = = Conservation = = =
Telopea oreades is not listed under Commonwealth environmental legislation and is not considered by respective state authorities to be rare or threatened in Victoria or New South Wales . The species does occur in the threatened Cool Temperate Rainforest Community in Victoria that is protected under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act , and it is a component of the threatened Southern Escarpment Wet Sclerophyll Forests of far southern New South Wales . Furthermore , planted specimens are frequently stolen from bush regeneration sites as they are desirable garden plants . Conversely in New Zealand , there is a report of T. oreades escaping into kanuka scrub from the trout hatchery gardens on the Tongariro River south of Lake Taupo .
= = Ecology = =
The prominent position and striking colour of Telopea oreades and many of its relatives within the subtribe Embothriinae — both in Australia and South America — strongly suggest it is adapted to pollination by birds , and has been for over 60 million years . Birds recorded visiting the flowers for their nectar include red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) , eastern spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris ) , crescent honeyeater ( Phylidonyris pyrrhopterus ) , yellow @-@ faced honeyeater ( Lichenostomus chrysops ) , brown @-@ headed honeyeater ( Melithreptus brevirostris ) , white @-@ naped honeyeater ( Melithreptus lunatus ) and silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis ) .
T. oreades has a central taproot and few lateral roots . Like most Proteaceae , it has fine proteoid roots that arise from larger roots . These are roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . They are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient @-@ poor soils , including the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia .
T. oreades has a swollen woody base largely under the soil known as a lignotuber , which stores energy and nutrients as a resource for rapid growth after a bushfire . The wet forests in which it grows seldom catch fire . When they do , the plant community becomes a more open sclerophyll woodland until slow @-@ growing plants with larger leaves take over . New shoots grow from the lignotuber , which survives bushfire as the rest of the plant above ground is burnt . The seed also germinates and grows in post @-@ bushfire soil , which is higher in nutrients and more open with fewer competing plant species . Waratah seeds are often eaten — and destroyed — by animals and do not travel far ( several metres ) from the parent plants .
= = Cultivation and uses = =
Telopea oreades needs a well @-@ drained location as well as reliable moisture to thrive . Soil with some clay content is beneficial . It is more shade @-@ tolerant than the more popular New South Wales waratah , preferring part @-@ shade but tolerating sunny aspects . It tolerates moderate frosts . Plants can be hard @-@ pruned — lopping old stems and branches can rejuvenate mature plants . Plants can benefit from low @-@ phosphorus fertilizer applied in spring and autumn . Propagation is by seed , the germination rates of which fall significantly after several months ' storage unless refrigerated , or by cuttings of new growth that has just hardened . Cultivars must be propagated by cutting to make daughter plants identical to the parent .
T. oreades has been grown successfully in England . The plant was first cultivated there by Canon Arthur Townsend Boscawen at Ludgvan in Cornwall from seed that he obtained in 1910 . He had succeeded in bringing the plant into flower by 1915 , providing material for illustration in Curtis 's Botanical Magazine in 1916 . A plant in Cornwall reached 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) in height , while another at Wakehurst Place reached 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) in the late 1980s . Although thriving at Wakehurst , the species can be very sensitive to English soils . The Royal Horticultural Society awarded the species an Award of Merit in 1916 .
A selected white @-@ flowered form from the Errinundra Plateau , which was originally known as ' Plateau View Alba ' or ' Plateau View White ' , was registered by the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority in 1990 as ' Errindundra White ' . Plantsmen have also developed several hybrids with T. speciosissima , looking to combine the hardiness of T. oreades with the showier flowerheads of the latter . Red- , pink- and even white @-@ flowered cultivars are available .
Telopea ' Champagne ' is a cultivar registered under plant breeders ' rights ( PBR ) in 2006 . Its creamy yellow flowerheads appear from October to December . It is a three @-@ way hybrid between T. speciosissima , T. oreades and the yellow @-@ flowered form of T. truncata .
Telopea ' Golden Globe ' is a cultivar registered under PBR in 2005 . Larger than ' Champagne ' , it is also a three @-@ way hybrid between T. speciosissima , T. oreades and the yellow @-@ flowered form of T. truncata . It has been propagated and sold as ' Shady Lady Yellow ' . It was originally bred in the Dandenong Ranges east of Melbourne .
Telopea ' Shady Lady Red ' is a larger shrub that may reach 5 m ( 16 ft ) high and 2 or 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 or 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide . A hybrid of T. speciosissima and T. oreades , it arose by chance in a Melbourne garden . The first of the ' Shady Lady ' series of cultivars , it became commercially available in the mid @-@ 1980s . The flowerheads are smaller and lack the bracts of the speciosissima parent . As its name suggests , it tolerates more shade . It is vigorous and more reliable in temperate and subtropical areas , and grows in semi @-@ shade or sun .
Telopea ' Shady Lady White ' is a white @-@ flowered hybrid between T. speciosissima and T. oreades .
Telopea ' Shady Lady Pink ' is the result of a cross between ' Shady Lady Red ' and ' Shady Lady White ' .
Telopea ' Shady Lady Crimson ' is a selected colour form developed from ' Shady Lady Red ' . It became commercially available in Australia in 2010 .
The timber is fairly hard and resembles silky oak ( Grevillea robusta ) . It is durable and can be readily polished and worked with , making it amenable for use in furniture , picture frames and tool handles .
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= SMS Kaiser Max ( 1862 ) =
SMS Kaiser Max was the lead ship of the Kaiser Max class of armored frigates built for the Austrian Navy in the 1860s . Her keel was laid in October 1861 at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard ; she was launched in March 1862 , and was completed in 1863 . She carried her main battery — composed of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder guns and fifteen 24 @-@ pounders — in a traditional broadside arrangement , protected by an armored belt that was 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick .
Kaiser Max saw action at the Battle of Lissa in July 1866 . She engaged the Italian coastal defense ship Palestro , which later exploded and sank after sustaining heavy Austrian fire . Kaiser Max emerged from the battle largely unscathed , save for minor damage to her funnel and rigging inflicted by the armored frigate Re d 'Italia . After the war , Kaiser Max was modernized slightly in 1867 to correct her poor seakeeping and improve her armament , but she was nevertheless rapidly outpaced by naval developments in the 1860s and 1870s . Obsolescent by 1873 , Kaiser Max was officially " rebuilt " , though in actuality she was broken up for scrap , with only her armor plate , parts of her machinery , and other miscellaneous parts being reused in the new Kaiser Max .
= = Design = =
Kaiser Max was 70 @.@ 78 meters ( 232 @.@ 2 ft ) long between perpendiculars ; she had a beam of 10 m ( 33 ft ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 32 m ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 588 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 531 long tons ; 3 @,@ 955 short tons ) . She had a crew of 386 . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller . The number and type of her coal @-@ fired boilers have not survived . Her engine produced a top speed of 11 @.@ 4 knots ( 21 @.@ 1 km / h ; 13 @.@ 1 mph ) from 1 @,@ 926 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 436 kW ) . She could steam for about 1 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Kaiser Max was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns and fifteen 24 @-@ pounder 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . She also carried a single 12 @-@ pounder gun and a six @-@ pounder The ship 's hull was sheathed with wrought iron armor that was 110 mm ( 4 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Kaiser Max was built by the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino ( STT ) shipyard ; her keel was laid down in October 1861 , and her completed hull was launched on 14 March 1862 . Fitting @-@ out work was completed the following year , when she was commissioned into the Austrian fleet . She proved to be very wet forward owing to her open bow , and as a result , tended to handle poorly . In June 1866 , Italy declared war on Austria , as part of the Third Italian War of Independence , which was fought concurrently with the Austro @-@ Prussian War . Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff , the commander of the Austrian Fleet , immediately began to mobilize his fleet . As the ships became fully manned , they began to conduct training exercises in Fasana . Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on 27 June , in an attempt to draw out the Italians , but the Italian commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , refused to engage Tegetthoff . Tegetthoff made another sortie on 6 July , but again could not bring the Italian fleet to battle .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet , with twelve ironclads , out of Ancona , bound for the island of Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers . Persano then spent the next two days bombarding the Austrian defenses of the island and unsuccessfully attempting to force a landing . Tegetthoff received a series of telegrams between the 17 and 19 July notifying him of the Italian attack , which he initially believed to be a feint to draw the Austrian fleet away from its main base at Pola and Venice . By the morning of the 19th , however , he was convinced that Lissa was in fact the Italian objective , and so he requested permission to attack . As Tegetthoff 's fleet arrived off Lissa on the morning of 20 July , Persano 's fleet was arrayed for another landing attempt . The latter 's ships were divided into three groups , with only the first two able to concentrate in time to meet the Austrians . Tegetthoff had arranged his ironclad ships into a wedge @-@ shaped formation , with Kaiser Max on his left flank ; the wooden warships of the second and third divisions followed behind in the same formation .
While he was forming up his ships , Persano transferred from his flagship , Re d 'Italia to the turret ship Affondatore . This created a gap in the Italian line , and Tegetthoff seized the opportunity to divide the Italian fleet and create a melee . He made a pass through the gap , but failed to ram any of the Italian ships , forcing him to turn around and make another attempt . After the second pass , Kaiser Max engaged Re d 'Italia , with the latter damaging Kaiser Max 's rigging and funnel . After the Italian ship had been rammed and sunk by Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , Kaiser Max attempted to ram another Italian vessel without success . She then engaged the small coastal defense ship Palestro with fifteen broadsides . The Austrian ironclad then Juan de Austria became surrounded by Italian ships , prompting Kaiser Max to come to her rescue .
Around this time , Persano broke off the engagement , and though his ships still outnumbered the Austrians , he refused to counter @-@ attack with his badly demoralized forces . In addition , the fleet was low on coal and ammunition . The Italian fleet began to withdraw , followed by the Austrians ; Tegetthoff , having gotten the better of the action , kept his distance so as not to risk his success . As night began to fall , the opposing fleets disengaged completely , heading for Ancona and Pola , respectively . Kaiser Max had emerged from the battle essentially undamaged , the Italian shells having been unable to penetrate her armor .
= = = Later career = = =
After returning to Pola , Tegetthoff kept his fleet in the northern Adriatic , where it patrolled against a possible Italian attack . The Italian ships never came , and on 12 August , the two countries signed the Armistice of Cormons ; this ended the fighting and led to the Treaty of Vienna . Though Austria had defeated Italy at Lissa and on land at the Battle of Custoza , Italy 's ally Prussia had decisively defeated the Austrian army at the Battle of Königgrätz . As a result , Austria , which became Austria @-@ Hungary in the Ausgleich of 1867 , was forced to cede the city of Venice to Italy .
Kaiser Max was rebuilt in 1867 , particularly to correct her poor seakeeping . Her open bow was plated over and she was rearmed with twelve 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) muzzleloaders manufactured by Armstrong and two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 4 @-@ pounder guns . By 1873 , the ship was obsolescent and had a thoroughly rotted hull , so the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy decided to replace the ship . Parliamentary objection to granting funds for new ships forced the navy to resort to subterfuge to replace the ship . Reconstruction projects were routinely approved by the parliament , so the navy officially " rebuilt " Kaiser Max and her sister ships . In reality , Kaiser Max was completely broken up at the STT shipyard starting in December 1873 , and only some parts of the engines , her armor plate , and other miscellaneous parts were salvaged for use in the new Kaiser Max , so @-@ named to conceal the fact that she was a new vessel .
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= The Negro Motorist Green Book =
The Negro Motorist Green Book ( at times styled The Negro Motorist Green @-@ Book or titled The Negro Travelers ' Green Book ) was an annual guidebook for African @-@ American roadtrippers , commonly referred to simply as the Green Book . It was originated and published by New York City mailman Victor H. Green in the United States from 1936 to 1966 , during the Jim Crow era , when open and often legally prescribed discrimination against non @-@ whites was widespread . Although pervasive racial discrimination and black poverty limited ownership of cars among African Americans , the emerging black middle class became car owners . In response , Green expanded the coverage in his book from the New York area to much of North America , also founding a travel agency .
Many blacks took to driving , in part to avoid segregation on public transportation . As the writer George Schuyler put it in 1930 , " all Negroes who can do so purchase an automobile as soon as possible in order to be free of discomfort , discrimination , segregation and insult . " Black Americans employed as athletes , entertainers , and salesmen also traveled frequently for work purposes . African @-@ American travelers faced a variety of dangers and inconveniences , such as white @-@ owned businesses refusing to serve them or repair their vehicles , being refused accommodation or food by white @-@ owned hotels , and threats of physical violence and forcible expulsion from whites @-@ only " sundown towns " . Green founded and published The Negro Motorist Green Book to tackle such problems , compiling resources " to give the Negro traveler information that will keep him from running into difficulties , embarrassments and to make his trip more enjoyable . "
From a New York @-@ focused first edition published in 1936 , Green expanded the work to cover much of North America , including most of the United States and parts of Canada , Mexico , the Caribbean , and Bermuda . The Green Book became " the bible of black travel during Jim Crow " , enabling black travelers to find lodgings , businesses , and gas stations that would serve them along the road . It was little known outside the African @-@ American community . Shortly after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , which outlawed the types of racial discrimination that had made the Green Book necessary , publication ceased and it fell into obscurity . There has been a revived interest in it in the early 21st century in connection with studies of black travel during the Jim Crow era .
Los Angeles is now considering offering special protection to the sites that kept black travelers safe . Ken Bernstein , principal planner for the city 's Office of Historic Resources notes , " At the very least , these sites can be incorporated into our city 's online inventory system . They are part of the story of African Americans in Los Angeles , and the story of Los Angeles itself writ large . "
= = Traveling while black : the African @-@ American travel experience = =
Until long after the Civil Rights era ( 1955 – 1968 ) , black travelers in the United States faced major problems to which most whites were oblivious . White supremacists had long sought to restrict black mobility . As a result , simply undertaking an auto journey was fraught with difficulty for black people and was potentially a dangerous undertaking . They were subjected to racial profiling by police departments ( " Driving While Black " ) , faced being punished for being seen as " uppity " or " too prosperous " if they were driving a car ( an act that many whites regarded as a white prerogative ) , and risked harassment or worse on and off the highway . A bitter commentary published in a 1947 issue of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People 's magazine , The Crisis , highlighted the uphill struggle blacks faced in undertaking recreational travel :
Would a Negro like to pursue a little happiness at a theater , a beach , pool , hotel , restaurant , on a train , plane , or ship , a golf course , summer or winter resort ? Would he like to stop overnight at a tourist camp while he motors about his native land ' Seeing America First ' ? Well , just let him try !
Such restrictions had their origins dating back to colonial times , and were found throughout the United States . After the end of legal slavery in the North and then later in the South after the Civil War , most freedmen continued to live at little more than a subsistence level , but a minority of African Americans gained a measure of prosperity . They could plan leisure travel for the first time . Affluent blacks arranged large group excursions for as many as 2 @,@ 000 people at a time , for instance , traveling by rail from New Orleans to resorts along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico . In the pre @-@ Jim Crow era this necessarily meant mingling with whites in hotels , transportation and leisure facilities . They were aided in this by the Civil Rights Act of 1875 , which had made it illegal to discriminate against African Americans in public accommodations and public transportation .
They encountered a white backlash , particularly in the South , where by 1877 white Democrats controlled every state government . The Act was declared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in 1883 , resulting in states and cities passing numerous segregation laws . White governments in the South required even interstate railroads to enforce their segregation laws , despite national legislation requiring equal treatment of passengers . The US Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson ( 1896 ) that " separate but equal " accommodations were constitutional but in practice , facilities for blacks were far from equal , generally being of lesser quality and underfunded . Blacks faced restrictions and exclusion throughout the United States . Generally if blacks were not barred entirely from facilities , they could use them only at different times from whites or in different places , such as segregated ( and usually inferior ) areas .
In 1917 , the black writer W. E. B. Du Bois observed that the impact of " ever @-@ recurring race discrimination " had made it so difficult to travel to any number of destinations , from popular resorts to major cities , that it was now " a puzzling query as to what to do with vacations " . It was a problem that came to affect an increasing number of black people in the first decades of the 20th century . Tens of thousands of southern African Americans migrated from farms in the south to factories and domestic service in the north . No longer confined to living at a subsistence level , many gained enough disposable income and time to engage in leisure travel . The development of affordable mass @-@ produced automobiles liberated black Americans from having to rely on the " Jim Crow cars " – smoky , battered and uncomfortable railroad carriages which were the separate but decidedly unequal alternatives to more salubrious whites @-@ only carriages . As one black magazine writer commented in 1933 , in an automobile " it 's mighty good to be the skipper for a change , and pilot our craft whither and where we will . We feel like Vikings . What if our craft is blunt of nose and limited of power and our sea is macademized ; it 's good for the spirit to just give the old railroad Jim Crow the laugh . "
Middle @-@ class blacks throughout the United States " were not at all sure how to behave or how whites would behave toward them " , as Bart Landry puts it . In Cincinnati , Ohio , the African @-@ American newspaper editor Wendell Dabney wrote of the situation in the 1920s that " hotels , restaurants , eating and drinking places , almost universally are closed to all people in whom the least tincture of colored blood can be detected . " Areas without significant black populations outside the South often refused to accommodate them : not one hotel or other accommodation was open to blacks in Salt Lake City , Utah , in the 1920s . Black travelers were stranded if they had to stop there overnight . Only six percent of the more than 100 motels that lined U.S. Route 66 in Albuquerque , New Mexico , admitted black customers . Across the whole state of New Hampshire , only three motels in 1956 served African Americans .
George Schuyler reported in 1943 , " Many colored families have motored all across the United States without being able to secure overnight accommodations at a single tourist camp or hotel . " He suggested that black Americans would find it easier to travel abroad than in their own country . In Chicago in 1945 , St. Clair Drake and Horace A. Cayton reported that " the city 's hotel managers , by general agreement , do not sanction the use of hotel facilities by Negroes , particularly sleeping accommodations . " One incident reported by Drake and Cayton illustrated the discriminatory treatment meted out even to blacks within racially mixed groups :
Two colored schoolteachers and several white friends attended a luncheon at an exclusive coffee shop . The Negro women were allowed to sit down , but the waitress ignored them and served the white women . One of the colored women protested and was told that she could eat in the kitchen .
= = = Coping with discrimination on the road = = =
While automobiles made it much easier for black Americans to be independently mobile , the difficulties they faced in traveling were such that , as Lester B. Granger of the National Urban League puts it , " so far as travel is concerned , Negroes are America 's last pioneers . " Black travelers often had to carry buckets or portable toilets in the trunks of their cars because they were usually barred from bathrooms and rest areas in service stations and roadside stops . Travel essentials such as gasoline were difficult to purchase because of discrimination at gas stations . To avoid such problems on long trips , African Americans often packed meals and carried containers of gasoline in their cars . Writing of the road trips that he made as a boy in the 1950s , Courtland Milloy of the Washington Post recalled that his mother spent the evening before the trip frying chicken and boiling eggs so that his family would have something to eat along the way the next day .
One black motorist observed in the early 1940s that while black travelers felt free in the mornings , by the early afternoon a " small cloud " had appeared . By the late afternoon , " it casts a shadow of apprehension on our hearts and sours us a little . ' Where , ' it asks us , ' will you stay tonight ? ' " . They often had to spend hours in the evening trying to find somewhere to stay , sometimes resorting to sleeping in haylofts or in their own cars if they could not find anywhere . One alternative , if it was available , was to arrange in advance to sleep at the homes of black friends in towns or cities along their route . However , this meant detours and an abandonment of the spontaneity that for many was a key attraction of motoring .
The civil rights leader John Lewis has recalled how his family prepared for a trip in 1951 :
There would be no restaurant for us to stop at until we were well out of the South , so we took our restaurant right in the car with us .... Stopping for gas and to use the bathroom took careful planning . Uncle Otis had made this trip before , and he knew which places along the way offered ' colored ' bathrooms and which were better just to pass on by . Our map was marked and our route was planned that way , by the distances between service stations where it would be safe for us to stop . "
Finding accommodation was one of the greatest challenges faced by black travelers . Not only did many hotels , motels , and boarding houses refuse to serve black customers , but thousands of towns across the United States declared themselves " sundown towns , " which all non @-@ whites had to leave by sunset . Huge numbers of towns across the country were effectively off @-@ limits to African Americans . By the end of the 1960s , there were at least 10 @,@ 000 sundown towns across the U.S. – including large suburbs such as Glendale , California ( population 60 @,@ 000 at the time ) ; Levittown , New York ( 80 @,@ 000 ) ; and Warren , Michigan ( 180 @,@ 000 ) . Over half the incorporated communities in Illinois were sundown towns . The unofficial slogan of Anna , Illinois , which had violently expelled its African @-@ American population in 1909 , was " Ain 't No Niggers Allowed " . Even in towns which did not exclude overnight stays by blacks , accommodations were often very limited . African Americans migrating to California to find work in the early 1940s often found themselves camping by the roadside overnight for lack of any hotel accommodation along the way . They were acutely aware of the discriminatory treatment that they received . Courtland Milloy 's mother , who took him and his brother on road trips when they were children , recalled that " after riding all day , I 'd say to myself , ' Wouldn 't it be nice if we could spend the night in one of those hotels ? ' or , ' Wouldn 't it be great if we could stop for a real meal and a cup of coffee ? ' We 'd see the little white children jumping into motel swimming pools , and you all would be in the back seat of a hot car , sweating and fighting . "
African @-@ American travelers faced real physical risks because of the widely differing rules of segregation that existed from place to place , and the possibility of extrajudicial violence against them . Activities that were accepted in one place could provoke violence a few miles down the road . Transgressing formal or unwritten racial codes , even inadvertently , could put travelers in considerable danger . Even driving etiquette was affected by racism ; in the Mississippi Delta region , local custom prohibited blacks from overtaking whites , to prevent their raising dust from the unpaved roads to cover white @-@ owned cars . A pattern emerged of whites purposefully damaging black @-@ owned cars to put their owners " in their place " . Stopping anywhere that was not known to be safe , even to allow children in a car to relieve themselves , presented a risk ; Milloy noted that his parents would urge him and his brother to control their need to use a bathroom until they could find a safe place to stop , as " those backroads were simply too dangerous for parents to stop to let their little black children pee " .
Racist local laws , discriminatory social codes , segregated commercial facilities , racial profiling by police , and sundown towns made road journeys a minefield of constant uncertainty and risk . Road trip narratives by blacks reflected their unease and the dangers they faced , presenting a more complex outlook from those written by whites extolling the joys of the road . Milloy recalls the menacing environment that he encountered during his childhood , in which he learned of " so many black travelers ... just not making it to their destinations . "
Even foreign black dignitaries were not immune to the discrimination that African @-@ American travelers routinely encountered . In one high @-@ profile incident , Komla Agbeli Gbedemah , the finance minister of newly independent Ghana , was refused service at a Howard Johnson 's restaurant at Dover , Delaware , while traveling to Washington , D.C. , even after identifying himself by his state position to the restaurant staff . The snub caused an international incident , to which an embarrassed President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded by inviting Gbedemah to breakfast at the White House . Repeated and sometimes violent incidents of discrimination directed against black African diplomats , particularly on U.S. Route 40 between New York and Washington , D.C. , led to the administration of President John F. Kennedy setting up a Special Protocol Service Section within the State Department to assist black diplomats traveling and living within the United States . The State Department considered issuing copies of The Negro Motorist Green Book to black diplomats , but eventually decided against steering them to black @-@ friendly public accommodations as it wanted them " to have all of the privileges of whiteness . "
John A. Williams wrote in his 1965 book , This Is My Country Too , that he did not believe " white travelers have any idea of how much nerve and courage it requires for a Negro to drive coast to coast in America . " He achieved it with " nerve , courage , and a great deal of luck , " supplemented by " a rifle and shotgun , a road atlas , and Travelguide , a listing of places in America where Negroes can stay without being embarrassed , insulted , or worse . " He noted that black drivers needed to be particularly cautious in the South , where they were advised to wear a chauffeur 's cap or have one visible on the front seat and pretend they were delivering a car for a white person . Along the way , he had to endure a stream of " insults of clerks , bellboys , attendants , cops , and strangers in passing cars . " There was a constant need to keep his mind on the danger he faced ; as he was well aware , " [ black ] people have a way of disappearing on the road . "
= = Navigating Jim Crow : the role of the Green Book = =
Segregation meant that facilities for African @-@ American motorists were limited , but entrepreneurs of both races realized that lucrative opportunities existed in marketing goods and services exclusively to black patrons . The challenge for travelers was to find such oases in the middle of a desert of discrimination . To address this problem , African @-@ American writers produced a number of guides to provide advice on traveling . These included directories of which hotels , camps , road houses , and restaurants would serve African Americans . Jewish travelers , who had long experienced discrimination at many vacation spots , created guides for their own community though they were at least able to visibly blend in more easily with the general population . African Americans followed suit with publications such as Hackley and Harrison 's Hotel and Apartment Guide for Colored Travelers , published in 1930 to cover " Board , Rooms , Garage Accommodations , etc. in 300 Cities in the United States and Canada " .
The Negro Motorist Green Book was one of the best known examples of the African @-@ American travel guide . It was conceived in 1932 and first published in 1936 by Victor H. Green , a World War I veteran from New York City who worked as a postal carrier and later as a travel agent . He said his aim was " to give the Negro traveler information that will keep him from running into difficulties , embarrassments and to make his trip more enjoyable . " According to an editorial written by Novera C. Dashiell in the Spring 1956 edition of the Green Book , " the idea crystallized when not only [ Green ] but several friends and acquaintances complained of the difficulties encountered ; oftentimes painful embarrassments suffered which ruined a vacation or business trip . "
Green asked his readers to provide information " on the Negro motoring conditions , scenic wonders in your travels , places visited of interest and short stories on one 's motoring experience . " He offered a reward of one dollar for each accepted account , which he increased to five dollars by 1941 . He also obtained information from colleagues in the US Postal Service , who would " ask around on their routes " to find suitable public accommodations . At that time , like it is now , the Postal Service was one of the largest employers of African Americans in the US , and its employees were ideally situated to inform Green of which places were safe and hospitable to African @-@ American travelers .
The Green Book 's motto , displayed on the front cover , was for black travelers to " carry your Green Book with you – You may need it " . The 1949 edition included a quote from Mark Twain : " Travel is fatal to prejudice " , inverting Twain 's original meaning ; as Cotton Seiler puts it , " here it was the visited , rather than the visitors , who would find themselves enriched by the encounter . " Green commented in 1940 that the Green Book had given black Americans " something authentic to travel by and to make traveling better for the Negro . " Its principal goal was to provide accurate information on black @-@ friendly accommodations to answer the constant question that faced black drivers : " Where will you spend the night ? " As well as essential information on lodgings , service stations and garages , it provided details of leisure facilities open to African Americans , including beauty salons , restaurants , nightclubs and country clubs . The listings focused on four main categories – hotels , motels , tourist homes ( private residences , usually owned by African Americans , which provided accommodation to travelers ) , and restaurants . They were arranged by state and subdivided by city , giving the name and address of each business . For an extra payment , the listed businesses could have their listing displayed in bold type or to have a star next to it to denote that they were " recommended " .
Many such establishments were run by and for African Americans and in some cases were named after prominent figures in African @-@ American history . In North Carolina , such black @-@ owned businesses included the Carver , Lincoln , and Booker T. Washington hotels , the Friendly City beauty parlor , the Black Beauty Tea Room , the New Progressive tailor shop , the Big Buster tavern , and the Blue Duck Inn . Each edition also included feature articles on travel and destinations , and included a listing of black resorts such as Idlewild , Michigan ; Oak Bluffs , Massachusetts ; and Belmar , New Jersey . The state of New Mexico was particularly recommended as a place where most motels would welcome " guests on the basis of ‘ cash rather than color " .
= = = Influence = = =
The Green Book attracted sponsorship from a number of businesses , including the African @-@ American newspapers Call and Post of Cleveland , Ohio , and the Louisville Leader of Louisville , Kentucky . Standard Oil ( later Esso ) was also a sponsor , owing to the efforts of James " Billboard " Jackson , a pioneering African @-@ American Esso sales representative . Esso 's " race group " , part of its marketing division , promoted the Green Book as enabling Esso 's black customers to " go further with less anxiety " . By contrast , Shell gas stations were known to refuse serving black customers . The 1949 edition included an Esso endorsement message that told readers : " As representatives of the Esso Standard Oil Co . , we are pleased to recommend the Green Book for your travel convenience . Keep one on hand each year and when you are planning your trips , let Esso Touring Service supply you with maps and complete routings , and for real ' Happy Motoring ' – use Esso Products and Esso Service wherever you find the Esso sign . " Photographs of some African @-@ American entrepreneurs who owned Esso gas stations appeared in the pages of the Green Book .
Although Green usually refrained from editorializing in the Green Book , he let his readers ' letters speak for the influence of his guide . William Smith of Hackensack , New Jersey , described it as a " credit to the Negro Race " in a letter published in the 1938 edition . He commented :
It is a book badly needed among our Race since the advent of the motor age . Realizing the only way we knew where and how to reach our pleasure resorts was in a way of speaking , by word of mouth , until the publication of The Negro Motorist Green Book ... We earnestly believe that [ it ] will mean as much if not more to us as the A.A.A. means to the white race . "
Earl Hutchinson Sr. , the father of journalist Earl Ofari Hutchinson , wrote of a 1955 move from Chicago to California that " you literally didn 't leave home without [ the Green Book ] . " Ernest Green , one of the Little Rock Nine , used the Green Book to navigate the 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) from Arkansas to Virginia in the 1950s and comments that " it was one of the survival tools of segregated life " . According to the civil rights leader Julian Bond , recalling his parents ' use of the Green Book , " it was a guidebook that told you not where the best places were to eat , but where there was any place . " Bond comments :
You think about the things that most travelers take for granted , or most people today take for granted . If I go to New York City and want a hair cut , it 's pretty easy for me to find a place where that can happen , but it wasn 't easy then . White barbers would not cut black peoples ' hair . White beauty parlors would not take black women as customers — hotels and so on , down the line . You needed the Green Book to tell you where you can go without having doors slammed in your face .
While the Green Book was intended to make life easier for those living under Jim Crow , its publisher looked forward to a time when such guidebooks would no longer be necessary . As Green wrote , " there will be a day sometime in the near future when this guide will not have to be published . That is when we as a race will have equal opportunities and privileges in the United States . It will be a great day for us to suspend this publication for then we can go as we please , and without embarrassment . "
= = = Publishing history = = =
The Green Book was published locally in New York , but its popularity was such that from 1937 it was distributed nationally with input from Charles McDowell , a collaborator on Negro Affairs for the United States Travel Bureau , a government agency . With new editions published annually from 1936 to 1940 , the Green Book 's publication was suspended during World War II and resumed in 1946 . Its scope expanded greatly during its years of publication ; from covering only the New York City metropolitan area in the first edition , it eventually covered facilities in most of the United States and parts of Canada ( primarily Montreal ) , Mexico and Bermuda . Coverage was good in the eastern US and weak in Plains states such as North Dakota , where there were few black residents . It eventually sold around 15 @,@ 000 copies per year , distributed by mail order , by black @-@ owned businesses , and through Esso service stations , some of which – unusual for the oil industry at the time – were franchised to African Americans .
It originally sold for 25 cents , increasing to $ 1 @.@ 25 by 1957 . With the book 's growing success , Green retired from the post office and hired a small publishing staff that operated from 200 West 135th Street in Harlem . He also established a vacation reservation service in 1947 to take advantage of the post @-@ war boom in automobile travel . From 10 pages in its first edition , by 1949 he had expanded the Green Book to more than 80 pages , including advertisements .
The 1951 Green Book recommended that black @-@ owned businesses raise their standards , as travelers were " no longer content to pay top prices for inferior accommodations and services " . The quality of black @-@ owned lodgings was coming under scrutiny , as many prosperous blacks found them to be second @-@ rate compared to the white @-@ owned lodgings from which they were excluded . In 1952 , Green renamed the publication The Negro Travelers ' Green Book , in recognition of its coverage of international destinations requiring travel by plane and ship . Although segregation was still in force , by state laws in the South and often by practice elsewhere , the wide circulation of the Green Book had attracted growing interest from white businesses that wanted to tap into the potential sales of the black market . The 1955 edition noted :
" A few years after its publication ... white business has also recognized its [ The Green Book ’ s ] value and it is now in use by the Esso Standard Oil Co . , The American Automobile Assn. and its affiliate automobile clubs throughout the country , other automobile clubs , air lines , travel bureaus , travelers aid , libraries and thousands of subscribers . "
By the start of the 1960s , the Green Book ′ s market was beginning to erode ; civil rights activism was having effects , even before the passage of legislation later in the decade to prohibit racial segregation in public facilities . An increasing number of middle @-@ class African Americans were beginning to question whether guides such as the Green Book were accommodating Jim Crow by steering black travelers to segregated businesses , rather than encouraging them to push for equal access . Black @-@ owned motels in remote locations off state highways lost customers to a new generation of integrated interstate motels located near freeway exits . The 1963 Green Book acknowledged that the activism of the civil rights movement had " widened the areas of public accommodations accessible to all , " but it defended the continued listing of black @-@ friendly businesses because " a family planning for a vacation hopes for one that is free of tensions and problems . "
The 1966 edition was the last to be published after the Civil Rights Act of 1964 made the guide effectively obsolete , by outlawing racial discrimination in public accommodations . The last edition of the Green Book included significant changes that reflected the post @-@ Civil Rights Act outlook . The title was changed to Traveler 's Green Book : International Edition – no longer just for the Negro , or the motorist – as its publishers sought to widen its appeal . Although the content continued to proclaim its mission of highlighting leisure options for black travelers , the cover featured an affluent white blonde water @-@ skiing – a sign of how , as Michael Ra @-@ Shon Hall puts it , " the Green Book ‘ whitened ’ its surface and internationalized its scope , while still remaining true to its founding mission to ensure the security of African @-@ American travelers both in the US and abroad . "
= = Representation in other media = =
In the 2000s , academics , artists , curators , and writers exploring the history of African @-@ American travel in the United States during the Jim Crow era revived interest in the Green Book . The result has been a number of projects , books and other works referring to the Green Book . The book itself has acquired a high value as a collectors ' item ; a " partly perished " copy of the 1941 edition sold at auction in March 2015 for $ 22 @,@ 500 . Some examples are listed below .
= = = Digital projects = = =
The New York Public Library 's Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture has published digitized copies of 21 issues of the Green Book , dating from 1937 to 1964 . To accompany the digitizations , the NYPL Labs have developed an interactive visualization of the books ' data to enable web users to plot their own road trips and see heat maps of listings .
= = = Exhibitions = = =
In 2003 , the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History included the Green Book in an exhibition , America on the Move .
In 2007 , the book was featured in a traveling exhibition called Places of Refuge : The Dresser Trunk Project , organized by William Daryl Williams , the director of the School of Architecture and Interior Design at the University of Cincinnati . The exhibition drew on the Green Book to highlight artifacts and locations associated with travel by blacks during segregation , using dresser trunks to reflect venues such as hotels , restaurants , nightclubs and a Negro league baseball park .
In late 2014 , the Gilmore Car Museum in Hickory Corners , MI installed a permanent exhibit on the Green Book that features a 1956 copy of the book that guests can review as well as video interviews of those that utilized it .
In 2016 , a 1941 copy of the book will be displayed at the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture , when the museum opens .
= = = Films = = =
Calvin Alexander Ramsey and Becky Wible Searles interviewed people who traveled with the Green Book as well as Victor Green 's relatives as part of producing a documentary , The Green Book Chronicles ( 2016 ) .
100 Miles to Lordsburg ( 2017 ) , is a short film about a black couple crossing New Mexico in 1961 with aid of the Green Book . >
= = = Literature = = =
African @-@ American playwright Calvin Alexander Ramsey published a children 's book , Ruth and the Green Book ( 2010 ) , about a Chicago family 's journey to Alabama in 1952 , in which they use the Green Book as a guide .
Ramsey also wrote a play , called The Green Book : A Play in Two Acts , which debuted in Atlanta in August 2011 after a staged reading at the Lincoln Theatre in Washington , DC in 2010 . It centers on a tourist home in Jefferson City , Missouri . A black military officer , his wife , and a Jewish survivor of the Holocaust spend the night in the home just before the civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois is scheduled to deliver a speech in town . The Jewish traveler comes to the home after being shocked to find that the hotel where he planned to stay has a " No Negroes Allowed " notice posted in its lobby – an allusion to the problems of discrimination that Jews and blacks both faced at the time . The play was highly successful , gaining an extension of several weeks beyond its planned closing date .
= = = Photography projects = = =
Architecture at sites listed in the Green Book is being documented by photographer Candacy Taylor in collaboration with the National Park Service 's Route 66 Corridor Preservation Program . She is also planning to publish other materials and apps featuring such sites .
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= A Hard Day 's Night ( film ) =
A Hard Day 's Night is a 1964 British comedy film directed by Richard Lester and starring the Beatles — John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison and Ringo Starr — during the height of Beatlemania . It was written by Alun Owen and originally released by United Artists . The film portrays several days in the lives of the group .
The film was a financial and critical success . Time magazine rated it as one of the all @-@ time great 100 films . British critic Leslie Halliwell described it as a " comic fantasia with music ; an enormous commercial success with the director trying every cinematic gag in the book " and awarded it a full four stars . The film is credited as being one of the most influential musical films of all time , inspiring numerous spy films , the Monkees ' television show and pop music videos .
= = Plot = =
Bound for a London show , the Beatles escape a horde of fans . Once they are aboard the train and trying to relax , various interruptions test their patience : after a dalliance with a female passenger , Paul 's grandfather is confined to the guard 's van and the four lads join him there to keep him company . John , Paul , George , and Ringo play a card game , entertaining schoolgirls before arriving at their destination .
Upon arrival in London , the Beatles are driven to a hotel , only to feel trapped inside . After a night out during which Paul 's grandfather causes minor trouble at a casino , the group is taken to the theatre where their performance is to be televised . The preparations are lengthy so Ringo decides to spend some time alone reading a book . Paul 's grandfather , a " villain , a real mixer " , convinces him to go outside to experience life rather than reading books . Ringo goes off by himself . He tries to have a quiet drink in a pub , walks alongside a canal and rides a bicycle along a railway station platform . Meanwhile , the rest of the band frantically ( and unsuccessfully ) attempts to find Ringo . Finally , he returns after being arrested by the police along with Paul 's grandfather , and the concert goes ahead as planned . After the concert , the band is taken away from the hordes of fans via helicopter .
= = Cast = =
= = Screenplay = =
The screenplay was written by Alun Owen , who was chosen because the Beatles were familiar with his play No Trams to Lime Street , and he had shown an aptitude for Liverpudlian dialogue . McCartney commented , " Alun hung around with us and was careful to try and put words in our mouths that he might 've heard us speak , so I thought he did a very good script . " Owen spent several days with the group , who told him their lives were like " a train and a room and a car and a room and a room and a room " ; the character of Paul 's grandfather refers to this in the dialogue . Owen wrote the script from the viewpoint that the Beatles had become prisoners of their own fame , their schedule of performances and studio work having become punishing .
The script comments cheekily on the Beatles ' fame . For instance , at one point a fan , played by Anna Quayle , apparently recognises John Lennon , though she does not actually mention Lennon 's name , saying only " you are ... " . He demurs , saying his face is not quite right for " him " , initiating a surreal dialogue ending with the fan agreeing that Lennon doesn 't " look like him at all " , and Lennon saying to himself that " she looks more like him than I do " . Other dialogue is derived from actual interviews with the Beatles . When Ringo is asked if he 's a mod or a rocker , he replies : " Uh , no , I 'm a mocker " , a line derived from a joke he made on the TV show Ready Steady Go ! . The frequent reference to McCartney 's grandfather ( Wilfrid Brambell ) as a " clean old man " sets up a contrast with the stock description of Brambell 's character , Albert Steptoe in Steptoe and Son , as a " dirty old man " .
Audiences also responded to the Beatles ' brash social impudence . Director Richard Lester said , " The general aim of the film was to present what was apparently becoming a social phenomenon in this country . Anarchy is too strong a word , but the quality of confidence that the boys exuded ! Confidence that they could dress as they liked , speak as they liked , talk to the Queen as they liked , talk to the people on the train who ‘ fought the war for them ’ as they liked ... [ Everything was ] still based on privilege — privilege by schooling , privilege by birth , privilege by accent , privilege by speech . The Beatles were the first people to attack this … they said if you want something , do it . You can do it . Forget all this talk about talent or ability or money or speech . Just do it . "
Despite the fact that the original working titles of the film were first The Beatles and then Beatlemania , the group 's name is never spoken in the movie — it is , however , visible on Ringo 's drum kit , on the stage lighting , and on the helicopter in the final scene . The television performance scene also contains a visual pun on the group 's name , with photos of " beetles " visible on the wall behind the dancers .
= = Production = =
The film was shot for United Artists ( UA ) using a cinéma vérité style in black @-@ and @-@ white and produced over a period of sixteen weeks . It had a low budget for its time of £ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 500 @,@ 000 ) and filming was finished in under seven weeks . At first , the film itself was something of a secondary consideration to UA , whose primary interest was in being able to release the soundtrack album in the United States before Capitol Records ( the American EMI affiliate who had first shot at releasing Beatles music in the States ) got around to issuing their material ; in the words of Bud Ornstein , the European head of production for United Artists : " Our record division wants to get the soundtrack album to distribute in the States , and what we lose on the film we 'll get back on this disc . " As film historian Stephen Glynn put it , A Hard Day 's Night was intended as , " a low @-@ budget exploitation movie to milk the latest brief musical craze for all it was worth . "
Unlike most productions , it was filmed in near sequential order , as stated by Lennon in 1964 . Filming began on 2 March 1964 at Marylebone station in London ( sometimes misidentified as Paddington ) . The Beatles had joined the actors ' union , Equity , only that morning . The first week of filming was on a train travelling between London and Minehead . On 10 March , scenes with Ringo were shot at the Turk 's Head pub in Twickenham , and over the following week various interior scenes were filmed at Twickenham Studios . From 23 to 30 March , filming moved to the Scala Theatre , and on 31 March , concert footage was shot there , although the group mimed to backing tracks . The " Can 't Buy Me Love " segment , which featured creative camera work and the band running and jumping around in a field was shot on 23 April 1964 at Thornbury Playing Fields , Isleworth , Middlesex . The final scene was filmed the following day in West Ealing , London , where Ringo obligingly drops his coat over puddles for a lady to step on , only to discover that the final puddle is actually a large hole in the road .
Before A Hard Day 's Night was released in America , a United Artists executive asked Lester to dub the voices of the group with mid @-@ Atlantic accents . McCartney angrily replied , " Look , if we can understand a fucking cowboy talking Texan , they can understand us talking Liverpool . " Lester subsequently directed the Beatles ' 1965 film , Help ! .
= = = Casting = = =
Irish actor Wilfrid Brambell , who played Paul McCartney 's fictional grandfather John McCartney , was already well @-@ known to British audiences as co @-@ star of the British sitcom Steptoe and Son . The recurring joke that he was so clean reflects a play on his sitcom role , where he was always referred to as a dirty old man . In other roles , Norman Rossington played the Beatles ' manager Norm , John Junkin played the group 's road manager Shake , and Victor Spinetti played the television director . Brian Epstein , the group 's real manager , had an uncredited bit part .
The supporting cast included Richard Vernon as the " city gent " on the train and Lionel Blair as a featured dancer . There were also various cameos . John Bluthal played a car thief and an uncredited Derek Nimmo appeared as magician Leslie Jackson . David Janson played the small boy met by Ringo on his " walkabout " . Rooney Massara , who went on to compete in the 1972 Munich Olympics , was the sculler in the river in the " walkabout " scene by the river at Kew ( uncredited ) . Kenneth Haigh appeared as an advertising executive who mistakes George for a " new phenomenon . " David Langton also made a cameo appearance as an actor in the dressing room scene .
Mal Evans , one of the Beatles ' road managers , also appears briefly in the film — moving an upright bass through a tight hallway as Lennon talks with the woman who mistakes him for someone else .
George Harrison met his wife @-@ to @-@ be , Patricia Boyd , on the set when she made a brief ( uncredited ) appearance as one of the schoolgirls on the train . His initial overtures to her were spurned because she had a boyfriend at the time but he persisted and they were married within 18 months . The girl with Boyd in the dining car scene is Prudence Bury . Phil Collins appeared as an extra , uncredited as a boy in the concert audience , and would go on to become a very successful musician himself .
= = Reception = =
The film premiered at the Pavilion Theatre in London on 6 July 1964 — the eve of Ringo Starr 's 24th birthday — and the soundtrack was released four days later . A Hard Day 's Night set records at the London Pavilion by grossing over $ 20 @,@ 000 in the first week , ultimately becoming so popular that more than 1 @,@ 600 prints were in circulation simultaneously .
Reviews of the film were mostly positive ; one oft @-@ quoted assessment was provided by Andrew Sarris of The Village Voice , labeling A Hard Day 's Night " the Citizen Kane of jukebox musicals . " When The Village Voice published the results of its first annual film poll , A Hard Day 's Night placed second behind Stanley Kubrick 's Dr. Strangelove . Time magazine called the film " One of the smoothest , freshest , funniest films ever made for purposes of exploitation . " Film critic Roger Ebert described the film as " one of the great life @-@ affirming landmarks of the movies " , and added it to his list of The Great Movies . In 2004 , Total Film magazine named A Hard Day 's Night the 42nd greatest British film of all time . In 2005 , Time.com named it one of the 100 best films of the last 80 years . Leslie Halliwell gave the film his highest rating , four stars , the only British film of 1964 to achieve that accolade . It has a 99 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 101 reviews . It is also No.1 on Rotten Tomatoes ' list of the Top Ten Certified Fresh Musicals and No. 8 on the Best Reviewed Movies of All Time .
New York Times film critic Bosley Crowther noted the film was a subtle satire on Beatlemania and the Beatles themselves . The Beatles are portrayed as likeable young lads who are constantly amazed at the attention they receive and who want nothing more than a little peace and quiet ; however , they have to deal with screaming crowds , journalists who ask nonsensical questions , and authority figures who constantly look down upon them . In fact their biggest problem is McCartney 's elderly , but " clean " grandfather , played by Wilfrid Brambell . The New Yorker critic Brendan Gill wrote : " Though I don 't pretend to understand what makes these four rather odd @-@ looking boys so fascinating to so many scores of millions of people , I admit that I feel a certain mindless joy stealing over me as they caper about uttering sounds . "
A Hard Day 's Night was nominated for two Academy Awards : for Best Screenplay ( Alun Owen ) , and Best Score ( Adaptation ) ( George Martin ) .
By 1971 the film was estimated to have earned $ 11 million worldwide .
= = Influence = =
British critic Leslie Halliwell states the film 's influence as " ... it led directly to all the kaleidoscopic swinging London spy thrillers and comedies of the later sixties ... " In particular , the visuals and storyline are credited with inspiring The Monkees ' television series . The " Can 't Buy Me Love " segment borrowed stylistically from Richard Lester 's earlier The Running Jumping & Standing Still Film , and it is this segment , in particular using the contemporary technique of cutting the images to the beat of the music , which has been cited as a precursor of modern music videos . Roger Ebert goes even further , crediting Lester for a more pervasive influence , even constructing " a new grammar " : " he influenced many other films . Today when we watch TV and see quick cutting , hand @-@ held cameras , interviews conducted on the run with moving targets , quickly intercut snatches of dialogue , music under documentary action and all the other trademarks of the modern style , we are looking at the children of A Hard Day 's Night " . In an interview for the DVD re @-@ release of A Hard Day 's Night , Lester said he had been labeled the father of MTV and had jokingly responded by asking for a paternity test .
= = Title = =
The movie 's strange title originated from something said by Ringo Starr , who described it this way in an interview with disc jockey Dave Hull in 1964 : " We went to do a job , and we 'd worked all day and we happened to work all night . I came up still thinking it was day I suppose , and I said , ' It 's been a hard day ... ' and I looked around and saw it was dark so I said , ' ... night ! ' So we came to A Hard Day 's Night . "
According to Lennon in a 1980 interview with Playboy magazine : " I was going home in the car , and Dick Lester suggested the title , ' Hard Day 's Night ' from something Ringo had said . I had used it in In His Own Write , but it was an off @-@ the @-@ cuff remark by Ringo . You know , one of those malapropisms . A Ringo @-@ ism , where he said it not to be funny ... just said it . So Dick Lester said , ' We are going to use that title . ' "
In a 1994 interview for The Beatles Anthology , however , McCartney disagreed with Lennon 's recollections , recalling that it was the Beatles , and not Lester , who had come up with the idea of using Starr 's verbal misstep : " The title was Ringo 's . We 'd almost finished making the film , and this fun bit arrived that we 'd not known about before , which was naming the film . So we were sitting around at Twickenham studios having a little brain @-@ storming session ... and we said , ' Well , there was something Ringo said the other day . ' Ringo would do these little malapropisms , he would say things slightly wrong , like people do , but his were always wonderful , very lyrical ... they were sort of magic even though he was just getting it wrong . And he said after a concert , ' Phew , it 's been a hard day 's night . ' "
Yet another version of events appeared in 1996 ; producer Walter Shenson said that Lennon had described to him some of Starr 's funnier gaffes , including " a hard day 's night " , whereupon Shenson immediately decided that that was going to be the title of the film .
Regardless of which of these origin stories is the true one , the original tentative title for the film had been " Beatlemania " and when the new title was agreed upon , it became necessary to write and quickly record a new title song , which was completed on 16 April , just eight days before filming was finished . Lennon and McCartney wrote the song in one night , basing the lyrics on a birthday card sent to his young son Julian , and it went on to win a Grammy for Best Performance by a Vocal Group .
The film was titled Yeah Yeah Yeah in Germany , Tutti Per Uno ( All for One ) in Italy , Quatre Garçons Dans Le Vent ( Four Boys in the Wind ) in France , Yeah ! Yeah ! Tässä tulemme ! ( Yeah ! Yeah ! Here We Come ! ) in Finland and Os Reis do Iê @-@ Iê @-@ Iê ( The Kings of Yeah @-@ yeah @-@ yeah ) in Brazil .
= = Novelization = =
In 1964 , Pan Books published a novelisation of the film by author John Burke , described as " based on the original screenplay by Alun Owen " . The book was priced at two shillings and sixpence and contained an 8 @-@ page section of photographs from the movie . It is the first book in the English language to have the word ' grotty ' in it .
= = Songs = =
The film 's credits state that all songs are composed by John Lennon and Paul McCartney . However , a portion of " Don 't Bother Me " is heard in the film ; this song is , in fact , a George Harrison composition , and is identified as such on all album appearances .
" A Hard Day 's Night "
" I Should Have Known Better "
" I Wanna Be Your Man " ( sample )
" Don 't Bother Me " ( Harrison ) ( sample )
" All My Loving " ( sample )
" If I Fell "
" Can 't Buy Me Love "
" And I Love Her "
" I 'm Happy Just to Dance with You "
" Ringo 's Theme ( This Boy ) "
" Tell Me Why "
" She Loves You "
In addition to the soundtrack album , an EP ( in mono ) of songs from the film titled Extracts From The Film A Hard Day 's Night was released by Parlophone on 6 November 1964 , having the following tracks : Side A
" I Should Have Known Better "
" If I Fell "
Side B
" Tell Me Why "
" And I Love Her "
= = = Song notes = = =
" I 'll Cry Instead " was among several songs considered for the film but ultimately not included either as an on @-@ camera performance or for usage as an audio @-@ only track . It was to be used during the " escape / fire escape " sequence of the film , but ultimately director Richard Lester vetoed it because of its downbeat lyrics and it was replaced for that scene by " Can 't Buy Me Love " . Its status as an early contender for inclusion led to the song being included on the US soundtrack album .
In the 1982 US theatrical reissue of the film by Universal Pictures , the song " I 'll Cry Instead " was used as the audio track for a prologue sequence to the film which consisted of stills from the film and publicity photographs . The prologue was assembled without the involvement or knowledge of the film 's director Richard Lester , who subsequently expressed his disapproval of the addition . The prologue was not included on the 2000 restoration of the film .
The song " You Can 't Do That " was filmed as part of the film 's TV concert sequence , but was not included in the final cut of the film . At a point before a decision had been made to excise the song from the film , footage of that performance had been sent by the filmmakers and Brian Epstein to be aired on The Ed Sullivan Show as a tease to promote the forthcoming release of the movie . The clip aired on the Sullivan show on Sunday , 24 May 1964 in conjunction with an interview with The Beatles specially filmed by Sullivan in London . An extract of the footage of the song performance was included in the 1994 documentary The Making of " A Hard Day 's Night " .
The song " I Call Your Name " was cut from the film for unknown reasons .
= = Release history = =
1964 : A Hard Day 's Night was released by United Artists ;
1967 : The film premiered on American television on the NBC network ; the Peacock introduction was replaced as the film was not shot in color ;
1979 : Rights to the film were transferred to its producer , Walter Shenson ;
1984 : , MPI Home Video , under license from Shenson , first released A Hard Day 's Night on home video in the VHS , Betamax , CED Videodisc , and Laserdisc formats , which all included the prologue.The movie was also released by Janus Films as part of The Criterion Collection in both a single @-@ disc CLV and a DualDisc CAV Laserdisc format . The additional features section on the CAV edition include the original theatrical trailer , an interview with Richard Lester , and his The Running Jumping & Standing Still Film .
There were notable pitch problems with the songs in this version , precisely one octave lower than the original recordings . This was fixed in subsequent releases .
1993 : Voyager Company produced a CD @-@ ROM for Mac and PC platforms with video in QuickTime 1 format , containing most of Criterion 's elements , including the original script .
1997 : MPI Home Video released the first DVD edition . It contains the 1982 prologue and trailer , newsreels , an interview with Richard Lester , and The Running Jumping & Standing Still Film .
2000 : Miramax Films reissued the film in theatres in the United States and then as a collector 's edition DVD two years later , as well as its final issue in the VHS format . The film had been transferred from the restored 35 mm negative and presented in 1 @.@ 66 : 1 Widescreen . The prologue that Universal added in 1982 is absent on the Miramax releases.In addition to the original film , the DVD edition contained a bonus disc with over 7 hours of additional material including interviews with cast and crew members and Beatles associates . The DVD was produced by Beatles historian and producer Martin Lewis , a longtime friend of Walter Shenson .
2009 : The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in Canada ; however , the disc is region free and will play in any Blu @-@ ray machine . It contains most of the 2000 DVD bonus features .
2010 : Miramax was sold by Disney to Filmyard Holdings , LLC , and the home video sub @-@ licence transferred to Lionsgate , although no U.S. Blu @-@ ray release date had been announced .
2011 : A new Blu @-@ ray edition was released in Mexico , this version has Spanish subtitles .
2014 : Janus Films acquired the rights to the film from Miramax ( on behalf of the Shenson Estate , managed by Bruce A. Karsh ) and announced a domestic video re @-@ release via The Criterion Collection on 24 June 2014 . This dual @-@ format edition ( which incorporates the first ever U.S. issue on Blu @-@ ray ) contains various supplements from all previous video re @-@ issues . This marks the return of this film to Criterion for the first time in two decades . The film was also released in theaters across the U.S. and in the UK ( by Metrodome in the latter region ) on 4 July 2014 . On 6 July 2014 , the film was shown in re @-@ mastered HD on BBC Four in the UK to mark its 50th anniversary . Criterion 's DVD / Blu @-@ ray release of A Hard Day 's Night was duplicated by Umbrella Entertainment in Australia ( released 2 July ) and Second Sight Films in the UK ( released 21 July ) .
= = = 40th anniversary cast and crew reunion screening = = =
On 6 July 2004 , the 40th anniversary of the film 's world premiere , a private cast and crew reunion screening was hosted in London by DVD producer Martin Lewis . The screening was attended by McCartney , actors Victor Spinetti , John Junkin , David Janson and many crew members . In media interviews at the event , McCartney disclosed that while he had seen the film many times on video , he had not seen the film on the " big screen " since its 1964 premiere .
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= Leccinum holopus =
Leccinum holopus , commonly known as the white birch bolete , white bog bolete , or ghost bolete , is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae found in northern Asia , Europe , and northeastern North America . It associates with birch trees and is typically found in boggy or swampy areas , often growing among sphagnum moss .
Fruitbodies ( mushrooms ) of L. holopus have convex caps measuring up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) in diameter . Often pure white — especially in young fruitbodies — the caps sometimes become flushed with buff or brownish tints . The whitish surface of the stipe is covered with small , stiff , projecting scales ( scabers ) that become tan or darker in age . Some varieties of Leccinum holopus have been described that vary in cap color or staining reaction , but DNA evidence suggests that most are the same taxon . Although the fruitbodies are edible , opinions vary as to their culinary desirability .
= = Taxonomy = =
Initially named as a species of Boletus by German mycologist Friedrich Rostkovius in 1844 , the fungus was later transferred to Leccinum by Roy Watling in 1960 . Synonyms resulting from transfer to different genera include : Krombholzia holopoda and K. holopus ( both published by Albert Pilát in 1951 ) ; Krombholziella holopus ( Josef Šutara , 1989 ) ; Trachypus holopus ( Paul Konrad and André Maublanc , 1952 ) , and Trachypus scaber f. holopus ( Henri Romagnesi , 1939 ) . Other synonyms , according to Index Fungorum , include Leccinum olivaceosum , described from France in 1994 , and Leccinum aerugineum ( 1991 ) . Leccinum holopus is classified in section Scabra of genus Leccinum , a grouping that includes Northern Hemisphere species associating exclusively with birch .
The specific epithet holopus is Greek for " with perfect stalk " . Common names given to the fungus include white birch bolete , white bog bolete , and ghost bolete .
Several subtaxa of Leccinum holopus have been described . In form aerugineum , described by Josef Šutara in 2009 , the flesh discolors green after injury . The variety americanum , described by Alexander H. Smith and Harry Delbert Thiers in 1971 from collections made in Michigan , injured flesh stains reddish . Lannoy & Estadès described Leccinum nucatum in 1993 , a taxon that was later ( 2007 ) published as variety nucatum of L. holopus ; no molecular evidence was found supporting the existence of this as a distinct taxon , and it is therefore placed into synonymy with L. holopus . Leccinum holopus var. majus , described by Rolf Singer in 1966 ( originally published by Singer as Krombholzia scabra f. majus ) , is another historical variety without independent taxonomic significance .
= = Description = =
Fruitbodies of Leccinum holopus have convex to flattened caps measuring 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , with a narrow band of sterile tissue surrounding the margin . The caps are initially whitish , but can develop gray , buff , tan , or pinkish tints during maturity ; the color may also darken and become greenish with age . The cap surface is initially covered with very fine hairs , but later becomes more or less smooth , often with a sticky texture in age or in moist conditions . The flesh is white and lacks any distinct odor or taste ; it can have either little or no bruising color reaction with injury , or may become light pink in variety americanum . On the cap underside is a porous surface comprising pores numbering 2 to 3 per millimeter , each of which is the end of a tube that extends to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) deep . The color of the pore surface ranges from whitish to grayish to dingy brown , and has little color reaction to injury , although it may discolor yellowish or brownish . There is a depression where the pores meet the stipe . The stipe measures 8 – 14 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide . Its whitish surface is covered with scabers that darken in age to tan or darker . The stipe base often stains bluish .
Leccinum holopus produces a brown spore print . Spores are somewhat fusoid ( spindle @-@ shaped ) and measure 14 – 20 by 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored and measure 28 @.@ 5 – 36 @.@ 5 by 11 @.@ 5 – 12 @.@ 5 µm . Cystidia on the pores are flask @-@ shaped ( lageniform ) to fusiform , and 39 @.@ 0 – 45 @.@ 5 by 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 0 µm , while those of the stipe ( caulocystidia ) are fusiform , club @-@ shaped , or cylindrical , measuring 39 @.@ 0 – 54 @.@ 5 x 9 @.@ 1 – 13 @.@ 5 µm . There are no clamp connections present in the hyphae of L. holopus . The cap cuticle is arranged in the form of a cutis — with hyphae that run parallel to the cap surface .
Several chemical tests can be used to help verify an identification of L. holopus . A drop of ammonium hydroxide solution turns the cap cuticle a pinkish color , but has no reaction with the flesh . A drop of dilute potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) has no reaction on the cap surface , and either no reaction or a brownish reaction with the flesh . Application of iron ( II ) sulphate solution does not have a reaction on the cap surface , and either no reaction to slightly olive coloration on the flesh .
= = = Similar species = = =
Leccinellum albellum is similar in appearance to L. holopus , but grows in association with oak and has a more southerly distribution . L. scabrum is a widely distributed lookalike that can be distinguished from L. holopus by its larger size and generally darker colors .
= = Edibility = =
Although commonly considered edible , opinions vary on the culinary appeal of Leccinum holopus fruitbodies . Michael Kuo , writing in 100 Edible Mushrooms , considers it a good edible ; Peter Roberts and Shelley Evans in The Book of Fungi say " it is edible , but is said to be tasteless and pappy , so is not recommended . " Fruitbodies are optimally harvested when they are young , before the flesh becomes too spongy , and before insect larvae establish themselves . Minimal cleaning is required in the field . The mushroom has a mild , somewhat sweet flavor that is enhanced after brief sauteeing . Drying the mushrooms enhances the flavor , but diminishes the sweetness of fresh mushrooms .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Leccinum holopus is a mycorrhizal species . It fruits on the ground ( often among Sphagnum moss ) , singly to scattered in wet areas like cedar swamps , bogs , or soggy forests . Like most Leccinum species , the fungus is highly host @-@ specific and associates with birch ( Betula ) . In North America , the range of Leccinum holopus extends from eastern Canada to New York , extending west to the northern Rocky Mountains , roughly coinciding with the distribution of the paper birch ( Betula papyrifera ) . In this range , it is common and fruits from August to October . L. holopus var. americanum is known only from North America . The fungus is rare in southern Europe , but more common in the Sphagnum swamps in the north . In Asia , it has been recorded from Taiwan and Qinghai ( China ) .
Fruitbodies of L. holopus are a source of food for fly species such as Pegomya winthemi ( family Anthomyiidae ) and Megaelia pygmaeoides ( family Phoridae ) .
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= Cyclone Alibera =
Cyclone Alibera was the second longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone on record in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean , with a duration of 22 days . It formed on December 16 , 1989 , well to the northeast of Madagascar . For several days , it meandered southwestward while gradually intensifying . On December 20 , Alibera intensified to tropical cyclone status with 10 ‑ minute maximum sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , or the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . That day , the Météo @-@ France office in Réunion ( MFR ) estimated 10 ‑ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , an unofficial warning agency for the region , estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 150 mph ) . After drifting erratically for several days , the storm began a steady southwest motion on December 29 as a greatly weakened system . On January 1 , Alibera struck southeastern Madagascar near Mananjary , having re @-@ intensified to just below tropical cyclone status . It weakened over land but again restrengthened upon reaching open waters on January 3 . The storm turned to the southeast , then to the southwest , and finally back to the southeast , dissipating on January 5 .
Early in its duration , Alibera produced gusty winds in the Seychelles . Upon moving ashore in Madagascar , the cyclone lashed coastal cities with heavy rainfall and up to 250 @-@ km / h ( 150 @-@ mph ) wind gusts . In Mananjary , nearly every building was damaged or destroyed , and locals considered it the worst storm since 1925 . Across the region , the cyclone destroyed large areas of crops , thousands of houses , and several roads and bridges . Alibera killed 46 people and left 55 @,@ 346 people homeless . After the storm , the Malagasy government requested for international assistance .
= = Meteorological history = =
The first named storm of the season , Tropical Cyclone Alibera , formed on December 16 about halfway between Tromelin Island and Diego Garcia as a tropical disturbance . It originated from the Intertropical Convergence Zone and initially consisted of a spiral area of thunderstorms . The system moved erratically , first to the southwest , then to the southeast , and later curving back to the west , steered by a ridge to the southeast . On December 18 , the Météo @-@ France office in Réunion ( MFR ) estimated that the system attained winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , making it a moderate tropical storm . The MFR is the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the basin . As a result , the Mauritius Meteorological Service named the storm Alibera . Also on December 18 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , a joint United States Navy and Air Force task force issuing cyclone warnings for the region , assessed that the storm had winds equivalent to a minimal hurricane in a post @-@ storm analysis . While the storm was active , however , the JTWC did not begin advisories until the following day .
Alibera quickly intensified , attaining tropical cyclone status on December 20 while southwest of Agaléga . Although the MFR estimated 10 ‑ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) that day , the JTWC assessed that the storm was vastly stronger , estimating peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 150 mph ) . This is equivalent to a super typhoon , which made Alibera tied for the strongest cyclone in the southern hemisphere that season , along with Cyclone Alex in the Australian basin . On December 21 , Alibera turned sharply to the south and slowly weakened . On the next day , the storm curved to an eastward drift as a downgraded severe tropical storm , its path influenced by ridges to the east and west . It maintained its intensity for the next several days , turning back to the south on December 24 and slowly recurving to the west . However , the movement was erratic , and the storm executed four small loops . Although the MFR had forecasting difficulties during this time , the storm remained far enough to the north of the Mascarene Islands to limit rainfall warnings .
On December 29 , Alibera began a steady track to the southwest after the ridge weakened , and briefly deteriorated to minimal tropical storm status . However , it re @-@ intensified to just shy of tropical cyclone status on January 1 . Shortly thereafter , Alibera made landfall north of Mananjary in southeastern Madagascar , at 3 a.m. local time on New Year 's Day , with 10 ‑ minute winds of 115 km / h ( 70 mph ) . The storm quickly weakened over land , but again restrengthened upon reaching the Mozambique Channel on January 3 . This was short @-@ lived , as Alibera weakened back to tropical depression status by January 5 . The storm moved to the southeast , turned to the southwest , and finally back to the southeast before dissipating on January 7 , having been swept into the westerlies .
Alibera was the second longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone in the basin since the start of satellite imagery , with a duration of 22 days . Only Cyclone Georgette in 1968 lasted longer at 24 days . After Alibera , the only storm to approach Alibera 's duration was Cyclone Leon – Eline in 2000 , which lasted 21 days in the basin ( 29 days overall ) .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Before Alibera affected Madagascar , it produced winds of tropical cyclone force in the Seychelles . On Tromelin Island , Alibera produced sustained winds of 83 km / h ( 52 mph ) with gusts to 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) .
In Mananjary where the cyclone moved ashore , Alibera produced gusts of 250 km / h ( 150 mph ) . There , nearly every building was damaged or destroyed , including hospitals , government offices , and schools . About 80 % of houses were destroyed . The cyclone shut down the city 's water system , disrupted access to the ocean , cut communications , and blocked or damaged most roads . There were 15 deaths in Mananjary alone . The storm damage in Mananjary prevented ships from delivering supplies . Residents in the region considered the storm to be the worst since 1925 .
Elsewhere in southern Madagascar , the cyclone damaged about 70 % of the buildings in Nosy Varika and 15 % of Ivohibe . In the former town , many schools and houses were destroyed , leaving thousands homeless , and 4 @,@ 230 houses were destroyed in Vohipeno . Strong winds damaged walls and roofs in several other towns in Fianarantsoa Province . The offshore island of Île Sainte @-@ Marie sustained heavy damage . Across Fianarantsoa Province , Alibera destroyed 33 @,@ 065 ha ( 81 @,@ 710 acres ) of rice , corn , coffee , bananas , and vegetables , although most of the damage was to the rice crop . The cyclone also wrecked about 10 @,@ 000 ha ( 25 @,@ 000 acres ) of cotton and tobacco fields in Ihosy , and downed many trees along its path . Areas in southeastern Madagascar experienced heavy rainfall , which flooded rivers and canals in Fianarantsoa Province . Across the region , 23 roads were cut or damaged , totaling 19 @.@ 5 km ( 12 @.@ 1 mi ) of roads in need of repairs . This included a 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) portion of a mountain road that was destroyed , as well as a damaged section of Route nationale 7 . In Vohipeno , the floods destroyed 13 bridges , and a bridge was damaged in Ifanadiana . The cyclone also cut a portion of the Fianarantsoa @-@ Côte Est railway , thus disrupting regional economic activity . Across Madagascar , Alibera killed 46 people and left 55 @,@ 346 homeless .
On January 18 , the Malagasy government issued an appeal to the international community for assistance . The Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator provided $ 15 @,@ 000 ( USD ) in emergency funding to purchase immediate supplies . The United States sent $ 20 @,@ 000 to rebuild schools and hospitals . Other countries donated $ 135 @,@ 000 in supplies or cash , including $ 82 @,@ 000 from Japan and $ 23 @,@ 000 from the United Kingdom . In Mananjary , the local government provided 300 kg ( 660 lb ) of rice to affected families , while the national government provided other relief goods to the city after roads were cleared . After the storm , a school in Farafangana housed 900 locals who were left homeless . Existing food supplies were sufficient to feed affected residents after the storm passed .
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= Marge vs. the Monorail =
" Marge vs. the Monorail " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 1993 . The plot revolves around Springfield 's impulse purchase of a faulty monorail from a conman . The episode was written by Conan O 'Brien and directed by Rich Moore . Phil Hartman provided the voice of Lyle Lanley , while the American actor Leonard Nimoy made a guest appearance as himself .
The episode has been widely praised by fans and critics and is frequently cited as being among the best and funniest of the series . Writer Conan O 'Brien has claimed that , of the Simpsons episodes that he wrote , this was his favorite . Leonard Nimoy 's unexpected guest appearance was also widely praised . Despite this , the episode attracted some criticism when it was first aired due to the somewhat abstract and less situational nature of the plot , particularly from voice actor Yeardley Smith who in 1995 described the episode as " truly one of our worst " .
= = Plot = =
After being caught by the Environmental Protection Agency dumping nuclear waste in the city park , Mr. Burns is fined $ 3 million . A town meeting is held so that the citizens can decide how to spend the money . Marge suggests that the city use the money to fix Main Street , which is in poor condition . The town is about to vote in favor when someone new to town , a fast @-@ talking salesman named Lyle Lanley , suggests that Springfield construct a city monorail . After being swayed by a song , the now enthused townspeople decide to build the monorail .
Even though Lanley succeeds in winning over almost the entire town , his salesmanship fails to convince Marge , who is frustrated with the town 's purchase because she ( correctly ) believes the monorail is unsafe and that Lanley is a conman . While watching TV , Homer sees an advertisement that suggests he attend Lanley 's institute of monorail conducting , which is a transparent effort to make even more money from the con . Homer immediately decides to enroll . After a three @-@ week course , Lanley selects Homer at random from among his classmates to be the monorail conductor .
Still annoyed about the town 's lack of understanding of the monorail , Marge visits Lanley to question his motives , and discovers a notebook containing drawings which reveal Lanley ’ s intention to run off with bags of money skimmed from the monorail project while everyone else falls victim to his faulty train . Marge immediately drives to North Haverbrook , which Lanley mentioned was a previous purchaser of one of his monorails . She discovers that the town is in ruins . While exploring , Marge meets Sebastian Cobb , the engineer who designed Lanley 's North Haverbrook monorail . Cobb explains that Lanley embezzled construction funds through shoddy workmanship and materials , and that the entire project was a scam . Realizing Marge believes him , he offers his assistance in helping to prevent the same fate from happening to Springfield .
At the maiden voyage of the Springfield monorail , Lanley arranges for a well @-@ attended opening ceremony , which will divert the town 's attention while he escapes on a plane to Tahiti . The whole town turns out , and Leonard Nimoy is the guest of honor . The monorail departs just before Marge and Cobb arrive . Although it runs normally at the start , the controls soon malfunction and cause it to speed wildly around the track . Homer , Bart , and the passengers are in danger , but the monorail 's electricity cannot be shut off because of its solar power .
Meanwhile , Lanley 's flight to Tahiti is interrupted by a brief and unexpected stopover in North Haverbrook . The townsfolk are alerted to his presence and they storm the plane to attack Lanley as revenge for ruining their town . Back in Springfield , Marge and Cobb contact Homer by radio and Cobb tells Homer that he will need to find an anchor in order to stop the train . Improvising quickly , Homer pries loose the giant metal " M " from the logo on the side of the monorail 's engine , ties a rope to it , and throws it from the train . Eventually the " M " catches on the sign of a doughnut shop and the rope holds , stopping the monorail and saving its passengers .
= = Production = =
Conan O 'Brien conceived the idea when he saw a billboard that just had the word " Monorail " on it , with no other details or explanation . He first pitched this episode at a story retreat to Al Jean and Mike Reiss , who said the episode was a little crazy and thought he should try some other material first . O 'Brien had previously pitched episodes where Lisa had a rival and where Marge gets a job at the power plant and Burns falls in love with her ; both went well . James L. Brooks " absolutely loved " this episode when O 'Brien presented it .
Leonard Nimoy was not originally considered for the role as the celebrity at the maiden voyage of the monorail , as the writing staff did not think he would accept , because William Shatner had previously turned the show down . Instead , George Takei was asked to guest star as he had appeared on the show once before . After demanding several script changes , Takei declined , saying he did not want to make fun of public transportation as he was a member of the board of directors of the Southern California Rapid Transit District . As a result , the staff went to Nimoy , who accepted .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode is a partial spoof of the 1962 film The Music Man , with " The Monorail Song " strongly resembling the Music Man 's " Ya Got Trouble " and with Lyle Lanley being a doppelganger for Harold Hill .
The episode starts with a tribute song to The Flintstones as Homer heads home from work and crashes his car into a chestnut tree . Later , Leonard Nimoy makes a guest appearance as himself . References are made to his role in Star Trek : The Original Series , and an allusion to his role as the host of In Search of ... from 1976 to 1982 . Kyle Darren , the caricature of Luke Perry star of Beverly Hills , 90210 , appears as well . Mayor Quimby uses the phrase " May the Force be with you " from the Star Wars franchise , confusing it with Nimoy 's work on Star Trek ( and — at the same time — believing Nimoy to have been " one of The Little Rascals " ) . Homer 's Monorail conductor uniform is based on uniforms from Star Wars . When Mr. Burns is brought into the court room , he is restrained in the same way as Hannibal Lecter in the film The Silence of the Lambs . Homer briefly serenades Marge in their bedroom with a line from the folk song " The Riddle Song " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Marge vs. the Monorail " finished 30th in the ratings for the week of January 11 to January 17 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 7 . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
" Marge vs. the Monorail " has frequently been selected in lists of the show 's best episodes . In 2003 , Entertainment Weekly released a list of its Top 25 episodes , ranking this episode in fourth , saying " the episode has arguably the highest throwaway @-@ gag @-@ per @-@ minute ratio of any Simpsons , and all of them are laugh @-@ out @-@ loud funny . " In his book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner named the episode as being one of his five favorites . In 2006 , IGN.com named the episode the best of the fourth season . John Ortved of Vanity Fair called it the third best episode of the show , due to , " An amazing musical number ; Leonard Nimoy in a random guest appearance ... Besides being replete with excellent jokes , this episode reveals the town 's mob mentality and its collective lack of reason . This is the episode that defines Springfield more than any other . " In 2010 , Michael Moran of The Times ranked the episode as the ninth best in the show 's history .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " an unsurpassed episode . It 's hard to know where to start dishing out the praise — Leonard Nimoy 's guest appearance , the Monorail song , Marge 's narration , the truck full of popcorn ... " Robert Canning of IGN strongly praised the episode , stating " It is by far one of the most loved episodes of The Simpsons and can safely be called a classic by any fan . From beginning to end , there 's joke after joke after hilarious joke . There 's nothing in this half @-@ hour that doesn 't work , and no matter how many times I watch this episode , it never , ever gets old . " Todd VanDerWerff of Slant Magazine named it the show 's best episode , stating " It 's the one you think of when you think of a Simpsons episode " , and is " maybe the show 's funniest , and it most perfectly encapsulates what may be the show 's overriding theme : People are really stupid and self @-@ serving , but if you give them long enough , they 'll eventually bumble toward the right answer . "
Leonard Nimoy 's appearance as himself has been praised as being one of the show 's best guest appearances . In a list of the 25 greatest guest voices on the show , released September 5 , 2006 , IGN.com ranked Leonard Nimoy at 11th . Nathan Ditum ranked his performance as the 13th best guest appearance in the show 's history . Nimoy would make a second guest appearance in season eight 's " The Springfield Files " .
Conan O 'Brien has said that of all the episodes of The Simpsons he wrote , this is his favorite . Homer 's lines " I call the big one Bitey " and " Doughnuts , is there anything they can 't do ? " are among series creator Matt Groening 's favorite lines .
Conversely , the episode was not initially well received by many fans of the show 's earlier seasons , as it was a particularly absurd early example of the show taking a more joke @-@ based cartoon approach to comedy , rather than the more realistic situational style of comedy it had employed in its first few years . In 1995 , during the production of the seventh season , Yeardley Smith said of the episode as " truly one of our worst – we [ the entire cast ] all agree " .
In 2012 , " Marge vs. the Monorail " was the second @-@ place finisher in a Splitsider reader poll to decide on the best episode of any television sitcom , losing to the Community episode " Remedial Chaos Theory " .
Conan O 'Brien and Hank Azaria performed the monorail song live at the Hollywood Bowl from September 12 – 14 , 2014 as part of the show " The Simpsons Take The Bowl " .
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= Esther Drummond =
Esther Drummond is a fictional character in the science fiction series Torchwood , portrayed by American actress Alexa Havins . Havins is one of several American actors to join Torchwood in its fourth series , Torchwood : Miracle Day , which was co @-@ produced by Torchwood 's original British network BBC1 and the American premium television network Starz . The character appears in every episode of the fourth series in addition to a prequel novel , The Men Who Sold the World .
Within the series narrative , Esther is a Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) watch analyst who becomes aware of the defunct British Torchwood Institute on " Miracle Day " , when it is discovered that no one can die . Alongside her CIA colleague Rex Matheson she joins forces with the last two remaining Torchwood agents to investigate the phenomenon . Esther 's standing as a desk @-@ bound computer and technology expert puts her in contrast with the tougher and more action @-@ orientated characters in the series . By the Miracle Day finale , Esther has become a more competent field agent , but is murdered by the group 's enemies in an attempt to stop them progressing with their mission .
Havins was influenced in her decision to accept the part by her husband 's appreciation of the series . Like Rex , Esther is used by executive producer Russell T Davies as a means of introducing new American audiences to the established mythos of Torchwood . Havins stated the character to have an unrequited love for Rex , but explained that he does not appear to notice . Response to the character varied ; some critics praised her characterisation and portrayal whilst others felt her to display incompetency and to not have been taken to by the audience . The nature of her exit from the show was generally praised , though some reviewers felt it lacked the desired emotional impact .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
Esther Drummond , a Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) watch analyst , makes her first appearance in Torchwood : Miracle Day 's premiere episode " The New World " in which she informs colleague Rex Matheson ( Mekhi Phifer ) about a mysterious message containing the single word " Torchwood " . A distracted Rex is then fatally injured , leading Esther to blames herself for his accident . After finding out the process of death has been ceased in a global event termed " Miracle Day " , Esther begins tracking down information on Torchwood , supposing a link between the organisation and the start of " Miracle Day " . Amid her research , she encounters former head of Torchwood , Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) , who helps her escape the destructive blast of a suicide bomber . Harkness explains the history of the Torchwood Institute , but wipes Esther 's memory so she will not remember their encounter . Esther 's memory is later triggered when a hard copy of the Torchwood file lands on her desk . Esther 's investigation into Torchwood compromises her position within the CIA and she — like Rex — is set up by the agency . Forced into fugitive status , she finds herself working as part of Torchwood alongside Rex and the Torchwood Institute 's last surviving members , Captain Jack and Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) .
Esther fulfills Torchwood 's technical need for a competent hacker , researcher and computer expert . However , she initially struggles as a field agent , nearly compromising the team 's mission when she attempts to get help for her mentally ill sister Sarah ( Candace Brown ) . Later whilst trying to escape during an undercover mission in an effective concentration camp , in which the gravely wounded are incinerated , Esther strangles Colin Maloney ( Marc Vann ) in unarmed combat , leaving her aghast and shaken . In the following episode , Esther works out that Gwen is being blackmailed into delivering Jack to an unknown conspirator ; she has Gwen 's parents liberated by Sergeant Andy Davidson ( Tom Price ) , and alongside Rex , successfully snipes Jack 's would @-@ be captors . The Torchwood team subsequently end up in CIA custody . Though Esther is pardoned alongside Rex , Jack is shot as he tries to escape , leaving Esther with the responsibility of keeping him safe on the run . Two months later , in " The Gathering " , Esther has nursed Jack to health in Scotland where she drains his blood , believing it connected to the Miracle . The team learn that the Miracle originated at the near @-@ antipodes of Shanghai and Buenos Aires ; the team splits up , with Esther and Rex in the latter location . The series finale , " The Blood Line " , sees Esther fatally shot by a member of The Three Families — the villains behind Miracle Day — in an attempt to prevent Torchwood ending the Miracle , but Gwen persuades Jack and Rex that Esther has to die so that the Miracle can be ended . In the episode 's epilogue , Esther is among the few post miracle deceased to be allowed a full funeral service .
= = = Literature = = =
Esther features as a supporting character in the novel The Men Who Sold The World , which is featured as a prequel to Torchwood : Miracle Day . In the novel , Esther aids Rex in his mission to track down a CIA contingent who have gone rogue with dangerous alien weaponry . Reviewing the novel , SFX columnist Alasdair Stuart commented that author Guy Adams provided " interesting , and brave , context to Rex ’ s relationship with Esther . " According to Stuart , The Men Who Sold The World demonstrated that " Rex knows he manipulates her and doesn ’ t particularly care . She ’ s an asset , just one he can use better and faster than most " .
= = Characterisation = =
= = = Casting = = =
In the series ' planning stages , Esther 's surname was originally Katusi , and the casting call specified that this role would be for a non @-@ Caucasian actress . Greek star Amber Stevens was one of the actresses who auditioned for the part of Katusi . However , white actress Alexa Havins was announced by the BBC on 6 January 2011 , the character 's surname having been changed to Drummond . Havins was not initially sure about accepting the role when she was offered it due to having recently become a mother . She revealed that her husband , actor Justin Bruening , being a Torchwood " fan @-@ boy " influenced her decision to accept the role , stating that he told her " you 've got to take this part " and offered to assume child @-@ minding responsibilities . In preparation for the role Havins watched some of the earlier series of Torchwood to acquire a sense of the show 's tone , but did not fully immerse herself in the show 's history because , given her character 's ignorance , " not being so well @-@ versed in it played in my favour " .
= = = Concept and development = = =
Esther is introduced in press materials as being " an innocent in a world of assassins , liars and zealots " . Havins describes Drummond as " an optimist and the glass is half full person " . A promotional video released by Starz provided background information on Esther including her college education — the character introduces herself by stating that she has a BA in Linguistics and a Masters in Cognitive science . Series four writer Jane Espenson enjoyed writing for Esther as she felt the character to be most similar to herself . She notes that when devising Esther 's backstory the writer 's " ended up just putting my college experience down . " Esther 's introduction invites parallels that of lead female character Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) in the series ' 2006 premiere episode " Everything Changes " ; she represents an audience surrogate for new American viewers . Havins refers to Esther as the " tour guide " for new viewers coming to Torchwood for the first time , one who is " digging deeper and deeper into the rabbit hole " . Despite similarities to their introduction , Havins comments that Esther as a character has a less action @-@ orientated role than Gwen , being more the " techie " of the team who uses her intellect and technology as her weapons . The actress feels that Esther 's desk @-@ bound analyst position is " her safe little world " . Head writer and executive producer Russell T Davies described Esther as " a very healing force " in helping the other more outspoken characters gel together as a team because she is " much more able to empathise with people . " The character 's sister , Sarah Drummond ( Candace Brown ) , recurs throughout Miracle Day , Havins feels that her presence helps " humanise the situation " as including family members helps the audience " understand why people react a certain way . " Espenson notes that the first scene between Esther and Sarah was discussed at length at the writer 's room — the writers chose to make Esther 's choice whether or not to refer her ill sister to social services " as difficult as possible " to heighten the pain felt by the character .
Esther has a romantic interest in Rex Matheson ( Mekhi Phifer ) , who she idealises and looks up to . Despite her feelings , Rex does not appear to notice or reciprocate , actress Alexa Havins conjectures that " he 's so blind to her feelings " due to him having " this wall built up around him that it 's hard to break through . " Phifer commented that Rex sees Esther as a sister and conjectures that Esther 's interests in him are partly a result of her sensationalising his work . Despite her highly romanticised idea of field work , Esther is not as skilled in the field as more experienced agents Rex , Jack ( John Barrowman ) and Gwen . However , being part of a new Torchwood team means that Esther is " ripped away from her desk and thrust into the world of Torchwood on the run . " During the later parts of the series the character has to fight physically against the team 's enemies . Havins did not receive any training for these sequences , she felt that having been trained in fight sequences would have made Esther " too slick , too trained , too perfect , too in sync with the rest of the Torchwood crew . " Instead of being able to take out her attackers easily , when Esther has to fight for her life it is " raw and brutal " and " almost like a bar @-@ brawl meets a chick @-@ fight " . Espenson notes that by the final episode Esther has earned a degree of admiration from Rex through her work for the Torchwood team , which she feels to be because " he just can 't fail to see how smart and brave she is . " In regards to being killed off Havins states that she knew it was a possibility from the moment she accepted the role due to the danger present in the series and it 's precedence for killing characters. io9 's Charlie Jane Anders observed that the character 's death helps serve to illustrate " how hard it is to consign others to death , for the greater good . "
= = Reception = =
After the fourth series premiere TV.com 's Tim Surette wrote that Esther " is fantastic as the Torchwood newbie , holding hands with viewers who 've never watched the series before . " The HD Room 's James Zappie praised the friendship between Esther and Gwen stating that " It isn 't a trite Cagney & Lacey wannabe pairing of two female characters " and instead offers a chance for the two actresses " to branch out and add complexity to their characters ' personalities " . Den of Geek 's Simon Brew felt the character 's storyline with her sister in " Escape to L.A. " to be " welcome exposition , and Alexa Havins is proving to be an excellent bit of casting " . Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffrey stated that throughout the fourth series , " Alexa Havins was consistently excellent , bringing a real warmth and likability to her role . " The character attracted comparisons to previous Torchwood characters . Dan Martin wrote after the broadcast of " Rendition " that the character of Esther " is shaping up as a Toshiko @-@ style tragedy queen " . Dave Golder , writing for SFX noted the character 's incompetency in the episode " Escape to L.A. " showed her to be " every bit as incapable of acting professionally for more than 60 seconds as Owen and Tosh were back in the old days . "
Golder identified " Esther ’ s scarily casual death " as one of the gripping points of what he felt to be an underwhelming finale . The Daily Telegraph 's Gavin Fuller referred to her exit as " being a genuine , and saddening shock . " Jeffrey praised the character 's death as a " well @-@ handled shocker " , noting that all signs had indicated Rex would die instead . He felt it was " cruel trick on the writers ' part to off lovely Agent Drummond " and " all the crueler to keep viewings hanging until that first glimpse of her funeral . " He concluded by saying that " this kind of emotional sucker @-@ punch " is something Torchwood has always excelled at . Neela Debnath of The Independent commented that her death was sad because the " character went through so much " and that " there would have been room for more growth in subsequent series . " Conversely , Los Angeles Times correspondent Todd VanDerWerff opined that it was hard to invest in Esther , in addition to Rex and Oswald , and though her death was intended as the " one big , emotional moment of the finale " it came across to him as " kind of a dud " . He felt that throughout the fourth series Esther was used as " simply a plot device , someone the writers used when they needed something to go wrong or when they needed the story to move in a certain direction . " Blair Marnell of CraveOnline also notes in his review of the series finale that " Rex and Esther never really caught on as leading characters " and felt that it would have been better had the characters departed in symmetry .
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= Remember Paul ? =
" Remember Paul ? " is the seventh season premiere episode of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Desperate Housewives , and the 135th overall episode of the series . It was originally broadcast in the United States on September 26 , 2010 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . In the episode , Paul ( Mark Moses ) announces his return to Wisteria Lane while Carlos ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) learns that his daughter was accidentally switched with another baby at the hospital eight years earlier .
The episode was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by David Grossman . It included the introduction of Renee Perry ( Vanessa Williams ) , Lynette 's ( Felicity Huffman ) former college roommate . " Remember Paul ? " also dealt with Bree 's ( Marcia Cross ) divorce and continued the storyline of the financial problems of Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) and Mike ( James Denton ) .
" Remember Paul ? " garnered generally mixed reviews . Many critics drew both favorable and unfavorable comparisons between Williams ' performance in the episode and her portrayal of Wilhelmina Slater in Ugly Betty . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode drew just over 13 million viewers , making it the least watched season premiere at the time .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of several residents in the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane , as narrated by their deceased neighbor , Mary Alice Young ( Brenda Strong ) . In past episodes , a local hospital discovered that a nurse had accidentally switched two children at birth years earlier and that one of the involved families lives in town on Wisteria Lane . Bree Hodge ( Marcia Cross ) decided to confess to Gabrielle Solis ( Eva Longoria ) that her son , Andrew ( Shawn Pyfrom ) , was driving the car that killed Gabrielle 's mother @-@ in @-@ law eleven years earlier . As a result , her husband Orson ( Kyle MacLachlan ) decided to leave her . Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) and Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) slipped into financial crisis and decided to move into a small apartment across town . Mary Alice 's husband , Paul ( Mark Moses ) , avenged her suicide by killing her blackmailer , Martha Huber ( Christine Estabrook ) . In response , her sister , Felicia Tilman ( Harriet Sansom Harris ) , framed Paul for her own death and fled town . Ten years later , Paul was released from jail and returned to Wisteria Lane .
= = = Episode = = =
News of Paul 's return jolts the neighborhood , including Susan , who did not know that she had rented her home to him . Paul expresses interest in buying his old home across the street , despite just having signed a lease for Susan 's house . Felicia , whose plan was foiled when she was pulled over by a police officer for speeding , is now incarcerated and swears that Paul will be dead within six months .
Jack Pinkham ( Kevin Symons ) , a lawyer for Fairview Memorial Hospital , tells Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) that his daughter , Juanita ( Madison De La Garza ) , is not their biological child and was accidentally switched at birth with their daughter . Carlos decides to keep this information from Gabrielle to spare her the pain . Meanwhile , Bree tells Gabrielle that Andrew ran over Carlos ' mother , but Gabrielle decides not to tell Carlos because she does not want to upset him .
Despite downsizing to a small apartment , Susan and Mike are still struggling financially . Susan receives an offer from her landlord , Maxine Rosen ( Lainie Kazan ) , to appear on her home @-@ run erotic website — " Va @-@ Va @-@ Va @-@ Broom ! " — for which she would film herself doing housework in lingerie . She initially refuses the offer , but when Mike considers taking a job on an oil rig in Alaska , Susan agrees to appear on the website ; however , she conceals her new job from her friends and family .
Bree struggles with her impending divorce . However , when Orson reveals that he has already begun dating his physical therapist , Bree takes an interest in her contractor , Keith ( Brian Austin Green ) . Meanwhile , Lynette 's old college frenemy Renee Perry ( Vanessa Williams ) , wife of New York Yankees player Doug Perry , comes to visit her , but their friendly bickering quickly escalates into an argument . Lynette threatens to kick her out but changes her mind when Renee reveals that Doug has left her for another woman .
= = Production = =
" Remember Paul ? " was written by series creator and executive producer Marc Cherry and directed by David Grossman . It marked the debut of Vanessa Williams as Renee Perry , an old college rival of Lynette Scavo . The addition of Williams to the cast was announced after the close of the series ' sixth season , as well as the finale of the ABC series Ugly Betty , in which Williams starred as Wilhelmina Slater . The character , who was originally named Renee Filmore @-@ Jones , was conceived as a trouble @-@ making vixen , similar to the Edie Britt character ( Nicollette Sheridan ) , who appeared on the series until the fifth season . Following the casting announcement , Williams admitted to having been a fan of the series during its first year , but stopped watching because of the racially insensitive second season mystery storyline . It focused on Betty Applewhite ( Alfre Woodard ) , the series ' first black main character . Williams explained to Entertainment Weekly , " [ Betty ] had her son in chains in the basement . It was like , ' Really ? Do we have to go there with our first Black character ? ' I honestly fell off the show after that . I think it was just so implausible and just an image that Black folks don 't want to see their child chained and shackled in the basement . " Cast member Felicity Huffman commented on Williams ' addition to the cast , saying " She 's such a great dash of vinegar to Wisteria Lane ! It 's going brilliantly — she 's a wonderful woman , she 's really smart , she 's really strong , a real team player . She 's a great addition . "
The episode also reintroduced the storyline of Paul Young and Felicia Tilman 's rivalry . Mark Moses returned to the series as a series regular after appearing briefly as Paul in the sixth season finale . On his return , Moses commented , " There was some talk about [ me coming back ] a year ago . And there ’ s often talk in Hollywood . Sometimes it pans out , sometimes it doesn ’ t . I don ’ t get super @-@ excited about a ' maybe ' in this town , because there are lots of maybes that don ’ t happen . But then this last year they called up my agent and said , ' We 're really thinking seriously about [ this ] . ' And eventually , they made an offer , and I was very pleased . " Harriet Samson Harris also returned to reprise her role as Felicia , while Steven Culp and Christine Estabrook returned as Rex Van de Kamp and Martha Huber respectively in flashback sequences . Kyle MacLachlan , who left Desperate Housewives as a series regular at the end of season six , reprised his role as Orson Hodge in this episode .
Kevin Rahm and Tuc Watkins , who have been portraying gay couple Bob Hunter and Lee McDermott since the series ' fourth season , were both promoted to series regulars for the seventh season . Darcy Rose Byrnes also joined the main cast as Penny Scavo , a role previously portrayed by Kendall Applegate . Brian Austin Green made his series debut in the episode as Keith Watson , " a new contractor and charming playboy " who catches the attention of both Bree and Renee , while Lainie Kazan began a multi @-@ episode guest appearance as Maxine Rosen , Susan 's landlady .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
According to Nielsen ratings , " Remember Paul ? " was watched by 13 @.@ 056 million viewers and held an 8 @.@ 1 rating / 12 share on its original American broadcast on September 26 , 2010 . Among viewers between 18 and 49 years of age , the episode drew a 4 @.@ 3 rating , making it the twelfth most @-@ watched show for the week in that demographic . The premiere was outperformed by Sunday Night Football on NBC and Family Guy on Fox , which respectively drew a 7 @.@ 3 and 4 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 to 49 demographic in the Desperate Housewives time slot . At the time , the episode was the least @-@ watched season premiere of Desperate Housewives , with an eleven percent decrease in viewership from the sixth season premiere one year earlier . ABC reported that the episode gained an additional 2 @.@ 1 million viewers and 1 @.@ 0 rating in the week following the original broadcast due to DVR recordings . " Remember Paul ? " was outperformed by the following episode , " You Must Meet My Wife " , which drew 13 @.@ 234 million viewers and scored 8 @.@ 2 rating / 12 share in total viewers and a 4 @.@ 4 rating in viewers between 18 and 49 years of age .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received mixed reviews . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly gave the premiere a positive review . He praised Williams ' performance , stating that she brought back a " brand of bitchery " that had been missing from the series since Nicollette Sheridan 's departure ; additionally , he favorably compared the performance to Williams ' portrayal of Wilhelmina Slater on Ugly Betty . He also complimented Harriet Sansom Harris ' performance , naming her " the creepiest character ... in the best possible way . " Stransky called the Gabrielle and Carlos storyline " sweet , " but criticized the ridiculousness of Susan 's storyline . Neal Justin of the Star Tribune said , " the premiere is packed with the zippy zingers that made us fall in love with the dramedy in the first place , " accrediting the series ' improved quality over season six to the return of Mark Moses as Paul Young . He also commented that Vanessa Williams gave " a repeat performance " of her character on Ugly Betty . Damian Holbrook of TV Guide also drew a comparison between Williams ' performances in the episode and on Ugly Betty , stating the two characters " have the same stiletto @-@ sharp tongue and prickly chemistry with everyone who enters her orbit . "
John Griffiths of Us Weekly gave the premiere a negative review , awarding it only two stars . He stated the show had turned into " a run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill sitcom " and criticized the writers for not being able to develop material to match the " venerable cast capable of great things . " He called the Paul storyline " corny " and the switched @-@ baby storyline " as compelling as a manicure , " and commented that both Williams and Brian Austin Greene deliver underwhelming performances . Isabelle Carreau of TV Squad called the episode " a solid season premiere for the series . " She was surprised by both the identity of the switched child and its early revelation . Carreau also praised Williams ' performance , writing : " The banter between Lynette and Renee was priceless ! "
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= Nur jedem das Seine , BWV 163 =
Nur jedem das Seine ( To each his own ! ) , BWV 163 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Weimar for the twenty @-@ third Sunday after Trinity and first performed it on 24 November 1715 .
This work was part of Bach 's sequence of composing monthly church cantatas for the Weimar court , which he began in 1714 . It was the first piece performed after a mourning period of several months for Prince Johann Ernst . The text , written by the court poet Salomon Franck , is based on the prescribed gospel reading for the Sunday , " Render unto Caesar ... " , and includes several allusions to money and gold . The cantata has six movements , beginning with an aria for tenor , followed by two pairs of recitatives and arias , one for bass and the other for the duet of soprano and alto , and a concluding chorale . Similar to other cantatas on words by Franck , the work is scored for a small Baroque chamber ensemble of two violins , viola , two cellos and continuo . Bach composed a unique aria with a dark texture of a bass voice and two obbligato cellos . A duet has been described as a love duet and compared to operatic duets . The music of the closing chorale is lost , except for the continuo part . It is not clear if Bach set the stanza printed in the libretto from Heermann 's " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " , or instead his " Meinen Jesum lass ich nicht " , in a tune that appears as a cantus firmus in movement 5 .
= = History and text = =
On 2 March 1714 Bach was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court orchestra ( Kapelle ) of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . As concertmaster , he assumed the principal responsibility for composing new works , specifically cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) , on a monthly schedule . Bach composed the cantata in 1715 for the twenty @-@ third Sunday after Trinity . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle to the Philippians , " our conversation is in heaven " ( Philippians 3 : 17 – 21 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , the question about paying taxes , answered by " Render unto Caesar ... " ( Matthew 22 : 15 – 22 ) . The librettist was Salomon Franck , the court poet in Weimar . He began with a paraphrase of the famous answer " Render unto Caesar " from the gospel , and included several allusions to money and gold ( he was also the numismatist of the Weimar court ) . Franck included a stanza from a hymn by Johann Heermann as the sixth and last movement of this cantata , according to the printed libretto the final stanza of " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " ( 1630 ) . The music of that chorale is lost ; only the continuo part has survived . Recent scholarship found that Bach possibly chose to set a stanza from Heermann 's " Meinen Jesum lass ich nicht " instead , in a tune he used instrumentally in movement 5 , which would match the continuo part .
Bach led the first performance on 24 November 1715 . It was the first cantata performed after a period of mourning for Prince Johann Ernst from August to November . No account is extant of a later performance in Leipzig , but the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff writes : " it seems safe to assume that it was [ revived ] " .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata in structured in six movements , beginning with an aria for tenor ( T ) , followed by two pairs of recitative and aria , one for bass ( B ) , the other for the duet of soprano ( S ) and alto ( A ) , and a concluding chorale when all four parts are united . As with several other cantatas on words by Franck , it is scored for a small Baroque chamber ensemble of two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , two cellos ( Vc ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring , keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
The opening da capo aria for tenor is based on a paraphrase of " Render to Ceasar " : " Nur jedem das Seine " . The aria features an unusual ritornello in which the strings assume a motif introduced by the continuo , which is then repeated several times through all parts . The movement is a da capo aria emphasizing dualism and debt . Craig Smith remarks that it is " almost academic in its metrical insistence " .
The second movement is a secco bass recitative , " Du bist , mein Gott , der Geber aller Gaben " ( You are , my God , the Giver of all gifts ) . It has been described as " operatic in its intensity and subtle adjustments of character " . The recitative is remarkable for its " aggressive , even belligerent " conclusion .
The following bass aria , " Laß mein Herz die Münze sein " ( Let my heart be the coin ) , has an unusual and unique accompaniment of two obbligato cellos with continuo . The cellos present an imitative motif to introduce the bass . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , comments that Bach " conjures up an irresistible picture of two coin @-@ polishers at work , a sort of eighteenth @-@ century sorcerer goading his apprentice " , observing that " two cellos polish away in contrary motion with wide intervalic leaps " . Bach was interested in coins and precious metals . The conductor Craig Smith compares the dark texture to the " descent into the earth in Wagner 's Das Rheingold " . The aria is in three thematic sections : " enjoining " , " melodramatically rhetoric " , and " imprecatory " .
The fourth movement is a soprano and alto duet recitative , " Ich wollte dir , o Gott , das Herze gerne geben " ( I would gladly , o God , give you my heart ) It is rhythmically metrical and presents five sections based on mood and text . The recitative is " high and light but very complicated in its myriad of detail " .
The duet aria , " Nimm mich mir und gib mich dir ! " ( Take me from myself and give me to You ! ) , again for soprano and alto , is in triple time . The tune of Johann Heermann 's hymn " Meinen Jesum lass ich nicht " ( I will not let go of my Jesus ) is interwoven in the texture as a cantus firmus of the upper strings in unison . The movement is a " love duet " characterized by " antiphonal avowals of commitment " to God rather than a carnal desire . The musicologist Julian Mincham compares its presentation to Monteverdi 's L 'incoronazione di Poppea . The movement begins with sparse scoring and becomes more richly textured as it progresses , adding the chorale tune .
The final movement , possibly " Führ auch mein Herz und Sinn " ( Also lead my heart and mind ) , is a four @-@ part chorale setting , marked " Chorale in semplice stylo " ; however , only the continuo line is extant . While the libretto shows that a stanza from Heermann 's " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " was to be used , sung to a melody by Christian Friedrich Witt , the Bach scholar Andreas Glöckner found that the continuo part matches the tune in the previous movement , which appeared in a hymnal published by Witt .
= = Selected recordings = =
Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir , Ton Koopman . J.S. Bach : Complete Cantatas Vol . 3 . Erato , 1995 .
Bach Collegium Japan , Masaaki Suzuki . J.S. Bach : Cantatas Vol . 4 . BIS , 1996 .
Gächinger Kantorei / Bach @-@ Collegium Stuttgart , Helmuth Rilling . Die Bach Kantate . Hänssler , 1977 .
Holland Boys Choir / Netherlands Bach Collegium , Pieter Jan Leusink . Bach Edition Vol . 11 . Brilliant Classics , 1999 .
Monteverdi Choir / English Baroque Soloists , John Eliot Gardiner . Bach Cantatas Vol . 12 . Soli Deo Gloria , 2000 .
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= Dysprosium =
Dysprosium is a chemical element with the symbol Dy and atomic number 66 . It is a rare earth element with a metallic silver luster . Dysprosium is never found in nature as a free element , though it is found in various minerals , such as xenotime . Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes , the most abundant of which is 164Dy .
Dysprosium was first identified in 1886 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran , but was not isolated in pure form until the development of ion exchange techniques in the 1950s . Dysprosium is used for its high thermal neutron absorption cross @-@ section in making control rods in nuclear reactors , for its high magnetic susceptibility in data storage applications , and as a component of Terfenol @-@ D ( a magnetostrictive material ) . Soluble dysprosium salts are mildly toxic , while the insoluble salts are considered non @-@ toxic .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Dysprosium is a rare earth element that has a metallic , bright silver luster . It is soft enough to be cut with a knife , and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided . Dysprosium 's physical characteristics can be greatly affected by even small amounts of impurities .
Dysprosium and holmium have the highest magnetic strengths of the elements , especially at low temperatures . Dysprosium has a simple ferromagnetic ordering at temperatures below 85 K ( − 188 @.@ 2 ° C ) . Above 85 K ( − 188 @.@ 2 ° C ) , it turns into an helical antiferromagnetic state in which all of the atomic moments in a particular basal plane layer are parallel , and oriented at a fixed angle to the moments of adjacent layers . This unusual antiferromagnetism transforms into a disordered ( paramagnetic ) state at 179 K ( − 94 ° C ) .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Dysprosium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily to form dysprosium ( III ) oxide :
4 Dy + 3 O2 → 2 Dy2O3
Dysprosium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water ( and quite quickly with hot water ) to form dysprosium hydroxide :
2 Dy ( s ) + 6 H2O ( l ) → 2 Dy ( OH ) 3 ( aq ) + 3 H2 ( g )
Dysprosium metal vigorously reacts with all the halogens at above 200 ° C :
2 Dy ( s ) + 3 F2 ( g ) → 2 DyF3 ( s ) [ green ]
2 Dy ( s ) + 3 Cl2 ( g ) → 2 DyCl3 ( s ) [ white ]
2 Dy ( s ) + 3 Br2 ( g ) → 2 DyBr3 ( s ) [ white ]
2 Dy ( s ) + 3 I2 ( g ) → 2 DyI3 ( s ) [ green ]
Dysprosium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow Dy ( III ) ions , which exist as a [ Dy ( OH2 ) 9 ] 3 + complex :
2 Dy ( s ) + 3 H2SO4 ( aq ) → 2 Dy3 + ( aq ) + 3 SO2 −
4 ( aq ) + 3 H2 ( g )
The resulting compound , dysprosium ( III ) sulfate , is noticeably paramagnetic .
= = = Compounds = = =
Dysprosium halides , such as DyF3 and DyBr3 , tend to take on a yellow color . Dysprosium oxide , also known as dysprosia , is a white powder that is highly magnetic , more so than iron oxide .
Dysprosium combines with various non @-@ metals at high temperatures to form binary compounds with varying composition and oxidation states + 3 and sometimes + 2 , such as DyN , DyP , DyH2 and DyH3 ; DyS , DyS2 , Dy2S3 and Dy5S7 ; DyB2 , DyB4 , DyB6 and DyB12 , as well as Dy3C and Dy2C3 .
Dysprosium carbonate , Dy2 ( CO3 ) 3 , and dysprosium sulfate , Dy2 ( SO4 ) 3 , result from similar reactions . Most dysprosium compounds are soluble in water , though dysprosium carbonate tetrahydrate ( Dy2 ( CO3 ) 3 · 4H2O ) and dysprosium oxalate decahydrate ( Dy2 ( C2O4 ) 3 · 10H2O ) are both insoluble in water . Two of the most abundant dysprosium carbonates , tengerite- ( Dy ) ( Dy2 ( CO3 ) 3 · 2 – 3H2O ) and kozoite- ( Dy ) ( DyCO3 ( OH ) ) are known to form via a poorly ordered ( amorphous ) precursor phase with a formula of Dy2 ( CO3 ) 3 · 4H2O . This amorphous precursor consists of highly hydrated spherical nanoparticles of 10 – 20 nm diameter that are exceptionally stable under dry treatment at ambient and high temperatures .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes : 156Dy , 158Dy , 160Dy , 161Dy , 162Dy , 163Dy , and 164Dy . These are all considered stable , although 156Dy decays by alpha decay with a half @-@ life of over 1 × 1018 years . Of the naturally occurring isotopes , 164Dy is the most abundant at 28 % , followed by 162Dy at 26 % . The least abundant is 156Dy at 0 @.@ 06 % .
Twenty @-@ nine radioisotopes have also been synthesized , ranging in atomic mass from 138 to 173 . The most stable of these is 154Dy , with a half @-@ life of approximately 3 × 106 years , followed by 159Dym with a half @-@ life of 144 @.@ 4 days . The least stable is 138Dy , with a half @-@ life of 200 ms . As a general rule , isotopes that are lighter than the stable isotopes tend to decay primarily by β + decay , while those that are heavier tend to decay by β − decay . However , 154Dy decays primarily by alpha decay , and 152Dy and 159Dy decay primarily by electron capture . Dysprosium also has at least 11 metastable isomers , ranging in atomic mass from 140 to 165 . The most stable of these is 165mDy , which has a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 257 minutes . 149Dy has two metastable isomers , the second of which , 149m2Dy , has a half @-@ life of 28 ns .
= = History = =
In 1878 , erbium ores were found to contain the oxides of holmium and thulium . French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran , while working with holmium oxide , separated dysprosium oxide from it in Paris in 1886 . His procedure for isolating the dysprosium involved dissolving dysprosium oxide in acid , then adding ammonia to precipitate the hydroxide . He was only able to isolate dysprosium from its oxide after more than 30 attempts at his procedure . On succeeding , he named the element dysprosium from the Greek dysprositos ( δυσπρόσιτος ) , meaning " hard to get " . The element was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of ion exchange techniques by Frank Spedding at Iowa State University in the early 1950s .
In 1950 , Glenn T. Seaborg , Albert Ghiorso , and Stanley G. Thompson bombarded 241Am with helium ions , which produced atoms with an atomic number of 97 and which closely resembled the neighboring lanthanide terbium . Because terbium was named after Ytterby , the city in which it and several other elements were discovered , this new element was named berkelium for the city in which it was synthesized . However , when the research team synthesized element 98 , they could not think of a good analogy for dysprosium , and instead named the element californium in honor of the state in which it was synthesized , California . The research team went on to " point out that , in recognition of the fact that dysprosium is named on the basis of a Greek word meaning ' difficult to get at , ' that the searchers for another element a century ago found it difficult to get to California " .
= = Occurrence = =
While dysprosium is never encountered as a free element , it is found in many minerals , including xenotime , fergusonite , gadolinite , euxenite , polycrase , blomstrandine , monazite and bastnäsite ; often with erbium and holmium or other rare earth elements . Currently , most dysprosium is being obtained from the ion @-@ adsorption clay ores of southern China , and future sources will include the Halls Creek region in Western Australia . In the high @-@ yttrium version of these , dysprosium happens to be the most abundant of the heavy lanthanides , comprising up to 7 – 8 % of the concentrate ( as compared to about 65 % for yttrium ) . The concentration of Dy in the Earth 's crust is about 5 @.@ 2 mg / kg and in sea water 0 @.@ 9 ng / L.
= = Production = =
Dysprosium is obtained primarily from monazite sand , a mixture of various phosphates . The metal is obtained as a by @-@ product in the commercial extraction of yttrium . In isolating dysprosium , most of the unwanted metals can be removed magnetically or by a flotation process . Dysprosium can then be separated from other rare earth metals by an ion exchange displacement process . The resulting dysprosium ions can then react with either fluorine or chlorine to form dysprosium fluoride , DyF3 , or dysprosium chloride , DyCl3 . These compounds can be reduced using either calcium or lithium metals in the following reactions :
3 Ca + 2 DyF3 → 2 Dy + 3 CaF2
3 Li + DyCl3 → Dy + 3 LiCl
The components are placed in a tantalum crucible and fired in a helium atmosphere . As the reaction progresses , the resulting halide compounds and molten dysprosium separate due to differences in density . When the mixture cools , the dysprosium can be cut away from the impurities .
About 100 tonnes of dysprosium are produced worldwide each year , with 99 % of that total produced in China . Dysprosium prices have climbed nearly twentyfold , from $ 7 per pound in 2003 , to $ 130 a pound in late 2010 . The price increased to $ 1 @,@ 400 / kg in 2011 but fell to $ 240 in 2015 , largely due to illegal production in China which circumvented government restrictions .
According to the United States Department of Energy , the wide range of its current and projected uses , together with the lack of any immediately suitable replacement , makes dysprosium the single most critical element for emerging clean energy technologies - even their most conservative projections predict a shortfall of dysprosium before 2015 . As of late 2015 , there is a nascent rare earth ( including dysprosium ) extraction industry in Australia .
= = Applications = =
There are not many applications unique to dysprosium . Theodore Gray wrote in his book The Elements : A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe " Look up dysprosium , and you have to go to the fourth page of results before finding anything that isn 't a periodic table website 's entry for dysprosium , usually an obligatory ' It 's an element , so we have to have a page about it ' sort of page . "
Dysprosium is used , in conjunction with vanadium and other elements , in making laser materials and commercial lighting . Because of dysprosium 's high thermal @-@ neutron absorption cross @-@ section , dysprosium @-@ oxide – nickel cermets are used in neutron @-@ absorbing control rods in nuclear reactors . Dysprosium – cadmium chalcogenides are sources of infrared radiation , which is useful for studying chemical reactions . Because dysprosium and its compounds are highly susceptible to magnetization , they are employed in various data @-@ storage applications , such as in hard disks . Dysprosium is increasingly in demand for the permanent magnets used in electric car motors and wind turbine generators .
Neodymium – iron – boron magnets can have up to 6 % of the neodymium substituted by dysprosium to raise the coercivity for demanding applications , such as drive motors for electric vehicles and generators for wind turbines . This substitution would require up to 100 grams of dysprosium per electric car produced . Based on Toyota 's projected 2 million units per year , the use of dysprosium in applications such as this would quickly exhaust its available supply . The dysprosium substitution may also be useful in other applications , because it improves the corrosion resistance of the magnets .
Dysprosium is one of the components of Terfenol @-@ D , along with iron and terbium . Terfenol @-@ D has the highest room @-@ temperature magnetostriction of any known material ; which is employed in transducers , wide @-@ band mechanical resonators , and high @-@ precision liquid @-@ fuel injectors .
Dysprosium is used in dosimeters for measuring ionizing radiation . Crystals of calcium sulfate or calcium fluoride are doped with dysprosium . When these crystals are exposed to radiation , the dysprosium atoms become excited and luminescent . The luminescence can be measured to determine the degree of exposure to which the dosimeter has been subjected .
Nanofibers of dysprosium compounds have high strength and a large surface area . Therefore , they can be used to reinforce other materials and act as a catalyst . Fibers of dysprosium oxide fluoride can be produced by heating an aqueous solution of DyBr3 and NaF to 450 ° C at 450 bar for 17 hours . This material is remarkably robust , surviving over 100 hours in various aqueous solutions at temperatures exceeding 400 ° C without redissolving or aggregating .
Dysprosium iodide and dysprosium bromide are used in high @-@ intensity metal @-@ halide lamps . These compounds dissociate near the hot center of the lamp , releasing isolated dysprosium atoms . The latter re @-@ emit light in the green and red part of the spectrum , thereby effectively producing bright light .
Several paramagnetic crystal salts of dysprosium ( Dysprosium Gallium Garnet , DGG ; Dysprosium Aluminum Garnet , DAG ; Dysprosium Iron Garnet , DyIG ) are used in adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators .
= = Precautions = =
Like many powders , dysprosium powder may present an explosion hazard when mixed with air and when an ignition source is present . Thin foils of the substance can also be ignited by sparks or by static electricity . Dysprosium fires cannot be put out by water . It can react with water to produce flammable hydrogen gas . Dysprosium chloride fires , however , can be extinguished with water , while dysprosium fluoride and dysprosium oxide are non @-@ flammable . Dysprosium nitrate , Dy ( NO3 ) 3 , is a strong oxidizing agent and will readily ignite on contact with organic substances .
Soluble dysprosium salts , such as dysprosium chloride and dysprosium nitrate , are mildly toxic when ingested . Based on the toxicity of dysprosium chloride to mice , it is estimated that the ingestion of 500 grams or more could be fatal to a human . The insoluble salts , however , are non @-@ toxic .
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= Tragedy of Otranto =
The Tragedy of Otranto took place on 28 March 1997 when the Albanian ship Kateri i Radës sank in a collision with the Italian naval vessel Sibilia in the Strait of Otranto and at least 57 Albanians , aged 3 months to 69 years , lost their lives . The emigrants had been part of a large migration of Albanians to Italy following a popular uprising that began after the collapse of several large @-@ scale pyramid schemes . In order to prevent the unauthorized entry of illegals migrants into Italy , the Italian Navy set up a procedure to board Albanian vessels whenever encountered , implementing a de facto blockade .
In proceeding to carry out a boarding , the Italian vessel Sibilia collided with Kater i Radës and capsized it , resulting in the Albanian deaths . The captains of both ships were held responsible for " shipwreck and multiple manslaughter " . The event raised questions over the extent of power that a state may exercise to protect itself from unauthorized entry . Arguments were presented that a state must limit coercive actions that are disproportionate to the risk of unauthorized entry . The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees criticized the Italian blockade as illegal since it had been established solely through an intergovernmental agreement with Albania .
= = Background = =
After years of enforced isolation and a ban on international travel , with shoot @-@ to @-@ kill orders on the border , thousands of Albanians began fleeing to Italy and Greece in late 1990 , when communism in Albania started to fall . Two large waves of people came to Italy , first in March and then in August 1991 . The first wave was sparked by a rumor that Italy was giving visas , and thousands of people commandeered boats of all sizes at the port of Durrës . The still @-@ communist Albanian government called the outflow a " national dementia . " By then , about 20 @,@ 000 Albanians had reached Italy , most of them in Brindisi . Much of the Italian media portrayed the situation as " barbarians " invading Italian soil . As a consequence of the Gulf War , Italian opinion @-@ makers voiced concerns regarding the alleged " Islamic danger " of the migration . Others saw a connection between the Ottoman invasion of Otranto ( 1480 – 1481 ) across the 40 miles ( 64 km ) wide Strait of Otranto and contemporary migration .
In 1997 , a crisis erupted in Albania after the collapse of several massive pyramid schemes , which resulted in social deterioration and violence in the country . An imposition of a curfew and a state of emergency on 2 March provoked a popular rebellion , causing concern in Italy , which feared another large @-@ scale migration flow . Albanian migration to Italy reached its peak in the latter half of March , bringing great pressure to Italian accommodation centers and provoking a strong reaction in Italian public opinion . Italy had been operating under a bilateral agreement with Albania to board Albanian vessels whenever encountered starting on 3 April 1997 and Albanian would @-@ be migrants going to Italy would be sent back to Albania , in exchange for Italian financial , police , and humanitarian assistance to the country . A military Operation White Flags was established in the international waters of the Strait and implemented a de facto naval blockade .
= = Sinking = =
The incident happened on 28 March 1997 in the Strait of Otranto when the Italian Navy vessel Sibilia collided with the Albanian ship Kateri i Radës which had left from the Albanian port city of Vlorë with 142 people on board . The Sibilla sought to stop and inspect the ship suspected of containing irregular migrants . The vessel instead ended up colliding with the ship and sinking it . According to Italian authorities , there was no intention to cause the collision . The Zefiro first approached and identified the Kateri i Radës as a motorboat with approximately 30 civilians on board . The motorboat continued toward Italy even though a stop order issued by the Zefiro . This happened around 4 : 30 PM , near the Albanian island Sazan . Sibilia then took over the operation and during its maneuvers , the Italian ship caused the Kateri i Radës to turn which resulted in subsequent deaths . After the Albanian ship was capsized , the Sibilia allegedly left and came back approximately 20 minutes later . The bodies of at least 52 who lost their lives were recovered . The total number of dead may be as high as 83 . The survivors were taken to the Apulian port of Brindisi , where they arrived at 2 : 45 AM . They were then put on a bus , and taken to an immigration center to be identified . On 29 and 30 March 1997 , news of the disaster made it to the first page of major Italian newspapers , relating the sense of gravity of the incident , which reported it as either a collision or a ramming . March 31 was a day of mourning in Albania .
On March 28 , the United Nations Security Council adopted resolution 1101 , which established a multinational protection force in Albania to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian assistance . The force , known as Operation Alba , was led by the Italians and included the participation of 6 @,@ 500 soldiers from eight other countries . The unspoken reason for the intervention was to stem the flow of refugees .
= = Legal proceedings = =
The accident raised questions about the extent of power that the state may use to protect itself from unauthorized entry . Although undisputed that the sinking was unintentional , controversy exists over whether it was a result of dangerous maneuvering , which was disproportionate in relation to the stopping of the ship . Authors argue that there is an obligation for the state to limit coercive actions which are disproportionate to the risk of intrusion . The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees criticized the Italian blockade as " illegal " since Italy established it only through a bilateral , intergovernmental agreement with Albania .
The Xhavara et. al v. Italy and Albania case was held to be inadmissible because of non @-@ exhaustible national remedies . The European Court of Human Rights , which held the case , assumed jurisdiction relying on the bilateral agreement between Albania and Italy . The ship was recovered 35 miles ( 56 km ) from the Italian coast , no more than 10 miles ( 16 km ) to 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the Albanian coast within Albanian territorial waters . The court held Italy responsible for the incident since it was considered to have exercised jurisdiction . Italy was also held responsible for holding an investigation of the deaths , a requirement which was considered to have been fulfilled by the public manslaughter proceedings held against the captain of the Italian vessel . By the end of eight years of proceedings , the Court of Brindisi convicted the Italian and Albanian captains together of " shipwreck and multiple manslaughter " with the first to three years in prison and the second to four . Responsibility for the " accident " was attributed to both and was relegated to the individual level . The larger chain of command , legal framework , discourses , and established practices which resulted in the sinking have not been judicially investigated .
= = Remembrance = =
The tragedy became part of the Albanian folk song repertoire relating to the migration of Albanians abroad . The leading figures of this practice were local intellectuals called rapsods related the mythistory of kurbet before World War II with the migration . They make use of metaphors and performance devices taken from oral folk poetry and death laments which react on the migrations to fix them in the memory of the community . This became a tool for responding to the loss of life for the tragedy of Otranto and other tragic events .
Parts of Kateri i Radës were transported to a concrete platform in the port of Otranto as a monument to the tragedy . The project cost € 150 thousand and was entrusted to the Greek sculptor Costas Varotsos . Before the project , what was left of the ship lay in a corner of the port of Brindisi . The project was titled L 'Approdo . Opera all 'Umanità Migrante ( The Landing . A work dedicated to Migrating Humanity ) . Photographers Arta Ngucaj and Arben Beqiraj published photographs of the ship on the Albanian @-@ Italian newspaper Shqiptari i Italisë . The families of the dead requested for the relics of Kateri i Radës to be placed in Albania after Italian media reported that it was to be used as a monument .
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= 1984 Intercontinental Cup =
The 1984 Intercontinental Cup was an association football match between Liverpool F.C. of England and Club Atlético Independiente of Argentina on 9 December 1984 at the National Stadium in Tokyo , Japan , the annual Intercontinental Cup contested between the winners of the Copa Libertadores and European Cup . Independiente were appearing in their sixth Intercontinental Cup , they had won the competition once in 1973 and lost the other four . Liverpool were making their second appearance in the competition , after their loss in 1981 .
The teams had qualified for the competition by winning their continent 's primary cup competition . Independiente qualified by winning the primary South American cup competition , the Copa Libertadores . They won the 1984 Copa Libertadores defeating Brazilian team Grêmio 3 – 1 on points in the finals . Liverpool qualified by winning the primary European cup competition , the European Cup . They beat Italian team A.S. Roma 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after the match finished 1 – 1 .
Watched by a crowd of 62 @,@ 000 , Independiente took the lead in the sixth minute when José Percudani scored . Liverpool had the better of the possession during the match , but they were unable to convert their chances ad the match finished in a 1 – 0 victory to Independiente . The win was the Argentine club 's second triumph in the competition and the fifth in a row by the South American team .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
Independiente qualified for the Intercontinental Cup as the reigning Copa Libertadores winners . They had won the 1984 Copa Libertadores beating Grêmio 3 – 1 on points over two legs in the finals . It would be Independiente 's sixth appearance in the competition . Their previous five appearances had resulted in one win in 1973 and four defeats in 1964 , 1965 , 1972 and 1974 .
Liverpool had qualified for the Intercontinental Cup as a result of winning the 1983 – 84 European Cup . They had beaten Roma 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after the match finished 1 – 1 to win their fourth European Cup . Liverpool were appearing in their second Intercontinental Cup . Their appearance in 1981 resulted in a 3 – 0 defeat against Flamengo . Liverpool were scheduled to appear in 1977 and 1978 but did not compete . They declined to play in 1977 and were replaced by runners @-@ up Borussia Mönchengladbach , while in 1978 , Liverpool and Boca Juniors declined to play each other .
Liverpool 's last match before the Intercontinental cup was against Coventry City in the 1984 – 85 Football League . They won 3 – 1 courtesy of two goals from John Wark and one from Ian Rush . The last match Independiente played before the Intercontinental Cup was against Rosario Central in the 1984 Argentine Primera División , which they lost 1 – 0 .
= = = Summary = = =
Before the match , Liverpool lost defender Mark Lawrenson who had injured his hamstring in training . Gary Gillespie was his replacement . Liverpool kicked off the match and the first few exchanges saw a number of rash tackles . Independiente defender Carlos Enrique tackled Craig Johnston robustly , but the referee indicated to play on . Moments later Liverpool midfielder Jan Mølby tackled Enrique late , which prompted the referee to award a free kick . Liverpool controlled the opening exchanges of the match , but could not work the ball into the Independiente penalty area . However , it was Independiente who opened the scoring , Claudio Marangoni sent a ball over the Liverpool defence for striker José Percudani , whose low shot beat the advancing Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar to give Independiente a 1 – 0 lead .
Following the goal , Independiente under instruction rom their manager José Pastoriza , began to sit back in their own half inviting Liverpool to attack them . Their plan worked as Liverpool were unable to break down their defence , while their strikers Percudani and Alejandro Barberón counter @-@ attacked when Independiente received the ball . The second half saw Liverpool continue to attack the Independiente goal , but to no avail . Midfielders John Wark and Mølby tried to find a way through the Independiente defence was equal to their efforts . Wark 's efforts trying to engineer an equalising goal resulted in him being substituted for Ronnie Whelan in the 76th minute , due to fatigue .
Despite being the better team for the majority of the match , Liverpool were unable to beat the Independiente defence , with their shooting in front of goal being the culprit . Both sides questioned some of the referee 's decisions . Liverpool believed they should have had two penalties , while Independiente felt that the assistant referee 's decisions were questionable . Incidentally , the referee had served half of his two match ban handed out by the Brazilian Football Association .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Despite the defeat , Liverpool manager Joe Fagan could not fault the effort his players had put in : " Independiente are a good defensive tactical team and we could find no way through , the weather was ideal , we were just as fit as they were . The South Americans have better ball control than we do . We were disappointed with the result but I wasn 't disappointed with the display . "
Liverpool finished the 1984 – 85 Football League in second place 13 points behind local rivals Everton . They also reached the final of the 1984 – 85 European Cup , which they lost 1 – 0 to Juventus . However the events of the match were overshadowed for the disaster that occurred before kick @-@ off . Liverpool fans breached a fence separating the two groups of supporters and charged the Juventus fans . The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse , killing 39 people and injuring hundreds . English clubs were banned indefinitely from European competition , with a condition that when the ban was lifted , Liverpool would serve an extra three @-@ year ban . The ban eventually lasted for five years , clubs returning to European competition in the 1990 – 91 season .
Independiente would finish their season in the Primera Division in 14th place . Despite this , they competed in the 1985 Copa Libertadores as the reigning champions . However , they were unable to retain their title as they exited in the semi @-@ finals .
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= If U Seek Amy =
" If U Seek Amy " ( edited for radio as " If U See Amy " ) is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her sixth studio album , Circus ( 2008 ) . It was released on March 10 , 2009 by Jive Records as the third single of the album , and was chosen by a poll on Spears 's official website . " If U Seek Amy " was written and produced by Swedish producer Max Martin , who also wrote previous hits for her first three albums and marked as Spears 's comeback song to Martin since 2001 . In the song , Spears is looking for a woman named Amy in a club , and although it appears to be about sex , it is actually about how society perceives her life . Musically , " If U Seek Amy " makes use of instruments such as keyboards and timpani .
" If U Seek Amy " was generally well received by contemporary critics , who praised Spears 's confident vocals and frequently cited it as the highlight of the album . After its release , " If U Seek Amy " caused controversy in English @-@ speaking countries for the euphemism and lyrical content , along with the fact that if pronounced in certain dialect , " If U Seek Amy " could be thought of as a double entendre that is interpreted as " F @-@ U @-@ C @-@ K Me " which caused the Parents Television Council ( PTC ) threatening to file indecency complaints against any radio station that played the song during daytime . An edited version of the song titled " If U See Amy " was released in some regions , including in stations owned by Clear Channel Radio and Austereo Radio Network . " If U Seek Amy " was a moderate success , reaching the top twenty in Australia , the United States , Canada , Ireland , the United Kingdom and many other countries worldwide . It was also her third single from Circus to reach the top twenty in the United States .
The music video for " If U Seek Amy " begins with a parody of an America 's Newsroom report by Megyn Kelly and portrays Spears at a sex party that takes place at her house . Towards the end , she changes into conservative housewife clothes and opens the front door with her family while paparazzi take pictures of them . It references some of her previous music videos such as " ... Baby One More Time " and " Piece of Me " . Critics noted the similarities with her past work and also compared it to the film Eyes Wide Shut . " If U Seek Amy " was performed at The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) and the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) . It is currently performed as part of the revamped set list of Spears ' Las Vegas residency show , Britney : Piece of Me ( 2013 – 17 ) .
= = Background = =
The song was co @-@ written and produced by Max Martin , who wrote hits for Spears ' first albums , including " ... Baby One More Time " ( 1998 ) and " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " ( 2000 ) . This marked the first time they worked together since her third studio album , Britney ( 2001 ) . Recording sessions took place at Conway Recording Studios and Sunset Studios in Hollywood , California . Background vocals by Kinnda and Martin were recorded at Maratone Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . The recordings were mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia . On December 5 , 2008 , a poll was added to Spears ' official website to choose the third single , involving ten other songs from Circus . On January 7 , 2009 , it was announced that " If U Seek Amy " had won , receiving 26 % of the total votes .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" If U Seek Amy " runs through a dance @-@ oriented beat and features many instruments , including keyboards , snare , bass drums , electric guitars and timpani . According to the sheet music published at musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , the song has a beat of 130 beats per minute and is written in the key of A minor . Spears 's vocal range spans from G3 @-@ C5 . In the song , Spears seems to be looking for a woman named Amy in a club . It has been suggested that Amy is either Amy Winehouse or an alter ego of Spears herself . The verses end with the hookline " Hahahehehahaho " , which , according to Poppy Cossins of The Sun , is fitting to " the album 's carnivalesque overtone " . The chorus begins with the lines " Love me , hate me / Say what you want about me " , a reference to the public 's perception and fascination with Spears ' life . This presents Spears both as " an object of desire and a punching bag " . According to Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph , this line also hints at the public image of British singer Amy Winehouse .
The title , " If U Seek Amy " , is a mondegreen , meaning to sound like " F @-@ U @-@ C @-@ K me " when heard in the chorus , " All of the boys and all of the girls are begging to , if you seek Amy . " This euphemism was compared to the title of Van Halen 's 1991 album , For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge , as well as a portion of James Joyce 's Ulysses .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews . Chris Williams of Billboard said the song is " Max Martin and Spears at their best : a stomping dance floor beat with building synths prodding the song along and the singer sounding like she 's having a blast being the bad girl " . Rolling Stone writer Caryn Ganz called the song one of the standout tracks of the album . Alexis Pretridis of The Guardian commented that her stronger and confident delivery in the chorus was noticeably lacking in the rest of the album . Joey Guerra of The Houston Chronicle also said that the " more aggressive , pointed persona " Spears adopts in the song is one of the high points of the album . The Emory Wheel 's writer Julia Cox called it " the album 's strongest and most unorthodox song " . Ricardo Baca of The Denver Post named the song the most fascinating track of the album and commented on the euphemism , saying " It 's trashy and clever , and it 's also quite fun . And fun is exactly what Spears should be aiming for " . However , there were also some negative reviews . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the song is " a Katy Perry @-@ styled exercise in crass commercial carnality that is at once the best and worst song here " . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly called it " puerile " and added that " it 'll be a middle @-@ school sensation " . NME named it one of the filthiest songs of all time .
= = Public reception = =
Controversy was first reported by Australian music site Undercover.com.au on December 5 , 2008 , after the release of the album . Leonie Barsenbach , a housewife from Sydney , said , " I was astonished and totally taken aback when I heard my 5 and 7 year old kids walking around the house singing ' F @-@ U @-@ C @-@ K ' ... When I asked them what it was , they told me it was Britney Spears . I was horrified . I got them the Circus album but there was no warning on it ... It is extremely offensive . I feel deceived . " Rolling Stone writer Daniel Kreps defended Spears , arguing that parents should have been aware of the singer 's musical themes . After the song was announced as the third single from the album , American radio stations were unsure about playing the track due to its double entendre in the chorus . Program directors of Z100 and KIIS @-@ FM compared the issues to be faced by their radio stations to the release of the 2005 The Black Eyed Peas single , " Don 't Phunk with My Heart " , saying that " listeners thought it was the other word , and so we had to change it to ' mess ' " . Program director Patti Marshall of Q102 said " It 's ok to put in on an album , have fun with it , but we 're publicly owned , you know ? [ ... ] It 's not about us . It 's about the mom in the minivan with her 8 @-@ year @-@ old . " WFLZ 's Tommy Chuck said his station produced their own edit of the song that replaced " seek " with " see " , with the station 's disc jockeys referring to it as " If U See Amy " .
Shortly after , the Parents Television Council ( PTC ) threatened to file indecency complaints with the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) against any station that played the song between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. PTC President Tim Winter said " there is no misinterpreting the lyrics to this song , and it 's certainly not about a girl named Amy . It 's one thing for a song with these lyrics to be included on a CD so that fans who wish to hear it can do so , but it 's an entirely different matter when this song is played over the publicly owned airwaves , especially at a time when children are likely to be in the listening audience . " RBR.com reported that " interestingly , Circus was reviewed by Common Sense Media , another organization whose mission is to help parents manage their children 's media consumption . It rated it appropriate for age 13 and up , but made no specific mention of ' If U Seek Amy ' . Even more interestingly , reputed incoming FCC Chair Julius Genachowski is a founding board member of Common Sense . " The threats of the PTC were later extended to cable music channels that played the music video ; however , the FCC does not have control over cable .
On January 23 , 2009 , Tom Poleman , senior vice president of programming for Clear Channel Radio , announced they planned to play an edited version . Sharon Dastur of Z100 added that Spears had recorded a new version of the song and the new edit would be provided by Jive Records . David Hinckley of the Daily News commented that " Clear Channel , which laid off 9 % of its workforce this week , is hardly in the mood to finance an FCC fight right now " . Finally , a radio edit titled " If U See Amy " was released to American radio stations , which changes the " seek " to " see " . The amended version was released in the UK in May . While the song has not officially been renamed or released in Australia , some radio stations , such as those belonging to the Austereo Radio Network , play the censored version , while others continue to play the uncensored . Both the music video and the international radio single remain " If U Seek Amy " .
= = Commercial performance = =
According to Nielsen SoundScan , " If U Seek Amy " sold over 107 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States within two weeks of the album 's release . On April 11 , 2009 , the song peaked at number seventeen on the Billboard Hot Digital Songs . On May 9 , 2009 , the song peaked at number nineteen on the Billboard Hot 100 , making Circus the first Spears album to have three top twenty hits since her 1999 debut , ... Baby One More Time . As of March 2015 , " If U Seek Amy " has sold 1 @.@ 3 million digital downloads in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan . It is her tenth best @-@ selling digital single in the country . In Canada the song debuted at eighty @-@ eight on December 20 , 2008 . It returned on February 14 , 2009 at eighty @-@ six before reaching the thirteenth position , where it finally peaked on April 4 , 2009 .
" If U Seek Amy " debuted at number forty @-@ nine on the ARIA Singles Chart on February 16 , 2009 , and moved to a peak position of eleven on March 30 , 2009 , also becoming the chart 's " greatest gainer " . It has since been certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) with sales of over 35 @,@ 000 copies . " If U Seek Amy " entered the UK Singles Chart at number forty @-@ five on April 6 , 2009 due to its rising digital sales . After its physical release , it peaked at number twenty on May 10 , 2009 . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 105 @,@ 000 copies there . " If U Seek Amy " also achieved success worldwide , reaching the top ten in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , France and Turkey , and the top twenty in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Ireland , New Zealand and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video for " If U Seek Amy " was filmed on February 7 , 2009 , at Pacific Palisades , California and was directed by Jake Nava , who previously worked with Spears for her " My Prerogative " music video . Spears was styled by David Thomas for the video . During the scenes at the party , she wears American Apparel wet @-@ looking leggings and a black corset from London lingerie designer Bordelle with diamond @-@ shaped holes . She also wears a pair of red high @-@ heeled Louboutins with rouced petals , that were not available for sale until a month after the video was released . When she is dressed as a housewife , Spears has a blonde wig , wears a pale pink sweater , a white skirt from Derek Lam and a Lacoste polo shirt . The music video premiered on March 12 , 2009 , on both Virgin Mobile 's official website and Spears 's official websites .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video starts with a news anchor ( played by Kristina Mitchell ) saying the title of the song above a news banner that reads " Britney Spears song lyrics spell out obscenity in disguise " . This is actually a parody of an America 's Newsroom report by Megyn Kelly . It then skips to a house , in which a sex party is coming to an end . Spears starts singing while sitting on the edge of a bed while the people that surround her are getting dressed . She gets up and looks out the window . As the first verse ends , she picks up a pair of panties from the floor , recalling her personal struggles and the " Piece of Me " video . She dances with four male dancers in the first chorus . During the second chorus , she dances with four other female dancers dressed in cheerleading outfits , while many men are watching them dance . The screen fades to white and Spears begins to change into a conservative ' 50s @-@ inspired housewife outfit . As the chorus begins again , she comes out of her bedroom . She walks down the stairs , with dancers surrounding her and a woman gives her a potholder , which she uses to pick up a pie . After this , she walks out the front door of the house and is joined by her seemingly conservative @-@ looking husband and children , one of them dressed with the schoolgirl outfit Spears wore in the " ... Baby One More Time " video . As they go down the walkway , they are surrounded by paparazzi , who have no idea what goes on behind closed doors . While the kids and husband wave , Spears smiles for the camera and blows a kiss . The video then ends with the news anchor saying , " Doesn 't make any sense , does it ? " .
= = = Reception = = =
James Montgomery of MTV stated that the video manages to combine elements from her previous music videos , such as the style of " Everytime " and the attitude of " Stronger " . He also referred to it as " a pretty amazing amalgamation of all things Brit , and a nice primer of her entire career up to this point " . Rolling Stone writer Daniel Kreps compared the party on the video to the 1999 film Eyes Wide Shut and added that " this may be the first Spears video ever crafted strictly with the morally @-@ lax Internet in mind , a brazen clip that doesn 't have to tone down its explicit nature lyrically and visually in order to get airplay " . Chris Johnson of the Daily Mail compared Spears ' housewife style to one of her looks in a 2001 Pepsi commercial . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said , " it 's kind of difficult to believe the song 's real meaning will get past even the thickest listener , the video itself is pretty tame ... almost disappointingly so " . The reviewer also compared the hairstyle of Spears during the housewife scenes to Marilyn Monroe .
= = Live performances = =
Spears performed the song during 2009 's The Circus Starring Britney Spears . After a performance of " Boys " from Britney , Spears performed a military drill with her male dancers , which ended with her putting on a faux fur vest to perform " If U Seek Amy " . At the end , Spears pulled a giant pink hammer and proceeded to knock her dancers off the stage , in a similar way to Whac @-@ A @-@ Mole . Jerry Shriver of USA Today said in the opening night of the tour , " [ the ] single ' If U Seek Amy ' draws a huge roar and sing @-@ along from the crowd as Spears shakes her long blond mane " . Craig Rosen of The Hollywood Reporter commented , " The artist that raised the ire of parents from the beginning in her scandalous schoolgirl outfit also continues to use shock @-@ and @-@ awe tactics . Her latest , ' If U Seek Amy ' [ ... ] was included in the set , much to the delight of her young fans " .
" If U Seek Amy " was also performed by Spears at 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour . Spears reappeared onstage after " Lace and Leather " to perform a jazz @-@ inspired version of the song , wearing a white skirt and standing over a fan , recalling Marilyn Monroe 's iconic scene in The Seven Year Itch ( 1955 ) . The backdrops behind her showed 1940s crime film @-@ inspired black @-@ and @-@ white footage while photographers in colorful outfits took pictures of her . Rick Florino of Artistdirect said , " Marrying old school detective fare and stadium @-@ size anthems is something no other pop star has done , and once again Britney 's the first . " Nicki Escudero of the Phoenix New Times stated that it was " nice " to hear remixed versions of older hits , " such as the jazzy ' If You Seek Amy , ' [ sic ] the sultry and Middle Eastern @-@ inspired ' Boys ' and the sped @-@ up ' Toxic ' . "
Spears currently performs the song at her revamped Las Vegas residency show , Britney : Piece of Me , at The AXIS theater at Planet Hollywood Resort & Casino . The performance , which pays homage to Spears ' ' Circus ' era , immediately follows the song " Circus " ( 2008 ) on the set list .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Vocals : Britney Spears
Writers : Max Martin , Shellback , Savan Kotecha and Alexander Kronlund
Producer : Max Martin
Mixing : Serban Ghenea
Protools editing : John Hanes
Programming : Shellback and Max Martin
Background vocals : Britney Spears , Kinnda and Max Martin
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= History of Milton Keynes =
This history of Milton Keynes details its development from the earliest human settlements , through the plans for a ' new city ' for 250 @,@ 000 people in south central England , its subsequent urban design and development , to the present day . ( Milton Keynes is a large town in South East England , founded in 1967 ) .
= = Overview = =
On 23 January 1967 when the formal new town designation order was made , the 21 @,@ 870 acres ( 8 @,@ 850 ha ) , area to be developed was largely farmland and undeveloped villages . Before construction began , every area was subject to detailed archaeological investigation : doing so has exposed a rich history of human settlement since Neolithic times and has provided a unique insight into the history of a large sample of the landscape of north Buckinghamshire .
From its establishment in 1967 to its abolition in 1992 , the Milton Keynes Development Corporation created by far the largest and most ambitious of the British new towns : indeed its objective was to build a new city of 250 @,@ 000 people . Many of Britain 's most acclaimed building and landscape architects contributed to what was to be a show @-@ piece of British design . Unlike previous new towns , Milton Keynes has a preponderance of privately funded development but these developments were subject to an exacting design brief in line with the design principles laid out in The Plan for Milton Keynes .
= = Pre @-@ history and early human settlement = =
Long before England existed , this area was at the bottom of a primeval sea . The most notable of the fossils uncovered is that of an ichthyosaur from Caldecotte , now on display in the central library .
Human settlement began in this area around 2000 BCE , mainly in the valleys of the rivers Ouse and Ouzel and their tributaries ( Bradwell Brook , Shenley Brook ) . Archaeological excavations revealed several burial sites dating from 2000 BCE to 1500 BCE . Evidence for the earliest habitation was found at Blue Bridge – production of flint tools from the Middle Stone Age . In the same area , an unusually large ( 18 @-@ metre or 59 @-@ foot diameter ) round house was excavated and dated to the Late Bronze Age / Early Iron Age , about 700 BCE . Other excavations in this Blue Bridge / Bancroft hill @-@ side uncovered a further seven substantial settlement sites , dating from then until 100 BCE .
= = = Milton Keynes Hoard = = =
The area that was to become Milton Keynes was relatively rich : the Milton Keynes Hoard is possibly the largest ( by weight , 2 @.@ 2 kilograms or 4 @.@ 9 pounds ) hoard of Bronze Age jewellery ever found in Britain . It was discovered in September 2000 at Monkston ( near Milton Keynes village ) and consists of two Bronze Age gold torcs and three gold bracelets in a datable clay pot .
= = Roman Britain = =
Before the Roman conquest of Britain of 43 CE , the Catuvellauni ( a British Iron Age tribe ) controlled this area from their hill fort at Danesborough , near Woburn Sands ( map ) . Under Roman occupation , the area thrived . The obvious reason for this is the major Roman road , Iter II ( later known as Watling Street ) , that runs through the area and that gave rise to an associated Roman town at Magiovinium ( Fenny Stratford ) . Possibly the oldest known gold coin in Britain was found here , a gold stater of the mid @-@ 2nd century BCE .
The foundations of a large Romano @-@ British villa were excavated at Bancroft Park , complete with under @-@ floor heating and mosaic floor . Further excavations revealed that this area ( map ) , overlooking the fertile valley of the Bradwell Brook , was in continuous occupation for 2 @,@ 000 years , from the Late Bronze Age to the early Saxon period . Cremation grave goods from the Iron Age found on the site included jewellery and fine pottery . Other Romano @-@ British settlements were found at Stantonbury , Woughton and Wymbush . Industrial activity of the period included bronze working and pottery making at Caldecotte , pottery also at Wavendon Gate , and many iron @-@ working sites ..
= = Anglo @-@ Saxon period = =
It seems that most of the Romano @-@ British sites were abandoned by the 5th century and the arable land reverted to scrub and woodland . Arriving in the 6th century , the Anglo @-@ Saxons began to clear the land again . Bletchley ( " Blaeca 's clearing " ) and Shenley ( " Bright clearing " ) date from this period . Large settlements have been excavated at Pennyland and near Milton Keynes Village . Their cemeteries have been found at Newport Pagnell , Shenley and Tattenhoe .
= = Norman conquest and the medieval period = =
Excavations in and around the modern villages have failed to find any evidence of occupation before the 10th or 11th centuries , except in Bradwell where Bradwell Bury is traced to the 9th century . The Domesday Book of 1086 provides the first documentary evidence for many settlements , listing Bertone ( Broughton ) , Calvretone ( Calverton ) , Linforde ( Great Linford ) , Lochintone ( Loughton , Milton Keynes ) , Neuport ( Newport Pagnell ) , Nevtone ( Newton Longville ) , Senelai ( Shenley ) , Siwinestone ( Simpson ) , Ulchetone ( Woughton ) , Waletone ( Walton ) , Wluerintone ( Wolverton ) and Wlsiestone ( Woolstone ) .
Administration of the area that was later to become the Borough of Milton Keynes was in ' Hundreds ' – initially ( 11C ) Sigelai ( or Secklow ) Hundred , Bunstou ( or Bunsty ) Hundred and Moulsoe Hundred , amalgamated as the ' three hundreds of Newport ' in the middle of the 13th Century . Bletchley , Bradwell , Calverton , Fenny Stratford , Great Linford , Loughton , Newport Pagnell , Newton Longville , Shenley ( part of ) , Simpson , Stantonbury , Stoke Hammond , Stony Stratford , Water Eaton , Willen , Great and Little Woolstone , Wolverton , and Woughton on the Green were in Sigelai Hundred ; Cold Brayfield , Castlethorpe , Gayhurst , Hanslope , Haversham , Lathbury , Lavendon , Little Linford , Olney , Ravenstone , Stoke Goldington , Tyringham with Filgrave , and Weston Underwood were in ( Bunstou Hundred ; and Bow Brickhill , Great Brickhill , Little Brickhill , Broughton , Chicheley , Clifton Reynes , North Crawley , Emberton , Hardmead , Lathbury , Lavendon , Milton Keynes ( village ) , Moulsoe , Newton Blossomville , Olney with Warrington , Ravenstone , Sherington , Stoke Goldington , Tyringham with Filgrave , Walton , Wavendon , Weston Underwood , and Willen were in Moulsoe Hundred . The modern Borough of Milton Keynes covers almost exactly the same area as Newport Hundred ( plus a little of the former Winslow Hundred which was one of 18 ancient hundreds amalgamated under the administrative control of Cottesloe Hundred ) .
The moot mound of Secklow Hundred has been found , excavated and reconstructed – it is on the highest point in the central area and is just behind the Library in modern Central Milton Keynes . Only one medieval manor house survives : the 15th century Manor Farmhouse in Loughton . There are sites of other manor houses in Great Woolstone , Milton Keynes village and Woughton on the Green . The oldest surviving domestic building is Number 22 , Milton Keynes ( village ) , the house of the bailiff of the manor of Bradwell .
Newport Pagnell , established early in the 10th century , was the principal market town for the area . Stony Stratford and Fenny Stratford were founded as market towns on Watling Street in the late 12th or early 13th centuries .
By the early 13th century , North Buckinghamshire had several religious houses : Bradwell Abbey ( 1154 ) is within modern Milton Keynes and Snelshall Priory ( 1218 ) is just outside it . Both were Benedictine priories . Many of the medieval trackways to these sites still survive and have become cycleways and footpaths of the Redway network .
Britain 's earliest ( excavated ) windmill is in Great Linford . The large oak beams forming the base supports still survived in the mill mound and were shown by radio carbon dating to originate in the first half of the 13th century . ( The present stone tower mill at Bradwell was built in 1815 , on a site convenient to the new Grand Junction Canal ) .
= = Early modern Britain = =
Enclosures
Most of the eighteen medieval villages in Milton Keynes are still extant and are at the heart of their respective districts . But some , such as Old Wolverton , remain only as field patterns marking a deserted village . The desertion of Old Wolverton was due to enclosure of the large strip cultivation fields into small " closes " by the local landlords , the Longville family , who turned arable land over to pasture . By 1654 , the family had completely enclosed the parish . With the end of the feudal system , the peasants had lost their land and tillage / grazing rights and were forced to find other work or starve . Thus Old Wolverton was reduced from about thirty peasant families in the mid 16th century to almost none , within the space of a century . There are also deserted village sites in Tattenhoe and Westbury ( Shenley Wood ) .
Turnpike roads
Some important roads cross the site of the new city . Most important of these is Watling Street from London to Chester . Originally , the Northampton to London road joined the Watling Street at Fenny Stratford , via Broughton and Simpson . The Oxford to Cambridge route came through Stony Stratford , Wolverton and Newport Pagnell . Unfortunately , the heavy clay soils , poor drainage and many streams made these routes frequently impassable in winter . The Hockliffe to Dunchurch stretch of Watling Street became a ( paved ) Turnpike in 1706 ( the first turnpike to be approved by parliament ) . Simpson remained a quagmire and in 1870 the new Northampton / London turnpike diverted away at Broughton to take the higher route through Wavendon and Woburn Sands to join Watling Street near Hockliffe . On the east / west route , the Stony Stratford to Newport Pagnell turnpike of 1814 extended the Woodstock , Oxfordshire / Bicester / Stony Stratford turnpike of 1768 . Turnpikes provided a major boost to the economy of Fenny Stratford and particularly Stony Stratford . In the stage coach era , Stony Stratford was a major resting place and exchange point with the east / west route . In the early 19th century , over 30 coaches a day stopped here . That traffic came to an abrupt end in 1838 when the London – Birmingham Railway ( now the West Coast Main Line ) opened at nearby Wolverton .
Grand Junction Canal
The Grand Junction Canal came through the area between 1793 and 1800 , with canal @-@ side wharfs in Fenny Stratford , Great Linford , Bradwell and Wolverton . The route bypassed Newport Pagnell but , in 1817 , an arm was dug to it from Great Linford . Trade along the canal stimulated the local economy . A large brickworks was established near the canal in Great Linford : two bottle kilns and the clay pits can still be seen on the site . Pottery from the Midlands begins to appear in excavations of dwellings from that period .
London and Birmingham Railway , Wolverton and New Bradwell new towns
The London and Birmingham Railway brought even more profound changes to the area . The coach trade on the turnpike through Stony Stratford collapsed , taking many businesses with it . Fortunately , Wolverton was the half way point on the rail route , where engines were changed and passengers alighted for refreshments . Wolverton railway works was established here , creating work for thousands of people in the surrounding area . In the period 1840 to 1880 , new towns were built in New Bradwell and Wolverton ( about 2 km or 1 @.@ 2 mi east of the original deserted village ) to house them . A narrow gauge railway , the Wolverton to Newport Pagnell Line , was built to Newport Pagnell in 1866 , much of it by closing and reusing the Newport Arm of the canal . The Wolverton and Stony Stratford Tramway ran to Stony Stratford from 1888 ( to 1926 ) and , in 1889 , was extended to Deanshanger in Northamptonshire .
Bletchley , on the 1846 junction of the London and Birmingham railway with the Bedford branch , was to become an important railway town too . In 1850 , another branch from Bletchley to Oxford was built , later to become the ( Cambridge / Oxford ) Varsity Line . Bletchley , originally a small village in the parish of Fenny Stratford , grew to reach and absorb its parent . In Stony Stratford , expertise learned in the works was applied to the construction of traction engines for agricultural use and the site of the present Cofferidge Close was engaged in their manufacture .
= = Bletchley Park = =
Bletchley Park is a former private estate located in Old Bletchley and modern Museum of Cryptography . Conveniently located at the junction of the Varsity Line with the West Coast Main Line , Bletchley Park , code @-@ named Station X , was the location of the Allied main code @-@ breaking establishment during World War II . Codes and ciphers of several Axis powers were deciphered there , most famously the German Enigma . Colossus , the world 's first programmable electronic digital computer was put to work here as part of the codebreaking effort . The high @-@ level intelligence produced by Bletchley Park , codenamed Ultra , is frequently credited with aiding the Allied war effort and shortening the war , although Ultra 's effect on the actual outcome of World War II is debated .
= = " Bigger , Better , Brighter " – Bletchley in the 20th century = =
Almost forty years after the construction of Bletchley railway station , the 1884 / 5 Ordnance Survey shows Bletchley as still just a small village around the C of E church at Bletchley Park , and a hamlet near the Methodist chapel and Shoulder of Mutton public house at the junction of Shenley Road / Newton Road with Buckingham Road . ( These districts are known today as Old Bletchley and Far Bletchley ) . The major settlement of the time is Fenny Stratford .
By 1911 , the population of the combined parishes was 5 @,@ 166 but the balance between them had changed : in that year , the name of the local council ( Urban District ) changed from Fenny Stratford UD to Bletchley UD . The 1926 Ordnance Survey shows the settlements beginning to merge , with large private houses along the Bletchley Road between them . In 1933 , the newly founded Bletchley Gazette began a campaign for a " Bigger , Better , Brighter , Bletchley " . As the nation emerged from World War II , Bletchley Council renewed its desire to expand from its 1951 population of 10 @,@ 919 . By mid @-@ 1952 , the Council was able to agree terms with five London Boroughs to accept people and businesses from bombed @-@ out sites in London . This trend continued through the 1950s and 1960s , culminating in the GLC @-@ funded Lakes Estate in Water Eaton parish , even as Milton Keynes was being founded . Industrial development kept pace , with former London businesses relocating to new industrial estates in Mount Farm and Denbigh – Marshall Amplification being the most notable . With compulsory purchase , Bletchley Road ( now renamed Queensway after a royal visit in 1966 ) became the new high street with wide pavements where front gardens once lay . Houses near the railway end were replaced by shops but those nearer Fenny Stratford became banks and professional premises . At the 1971 Census , the population of the Bletchley Urban District was 30 @,@ 642 .
Bletchley had fought to be the centre of the proposed new city , but it was not to be . The 1971 Plan for Milton Keynes placed Central Milton Keynes on a completely new hill @-@ top site four miles further north , half way to Wolverton . Bletchley was relegated to the status of suburb .
= = 1960s Plans for a new city in North Buckinghamshire , 1967 designation of Milton Keynes = =
In the 1960s , the Government decided that a further generation of new towns in South East England was needed to take the projected population increase of London , after the initial 1940s / 1950s wave . Bletchley had already been considered as a new town in this first wave , and had subsequently in the 1950s the London County Council constructed overspill housing for several London boroughs there .
Buckinghamshire County Council 's architect , Fred Pooley , had spent considerable time in the early sixties developing ideas for a new town in the Bletchley and Wolverton area . He developed a futuristic proposal based on a monorail linking a series of individual townships to a major town centre . The county council published the proposals in 1966 , but it was too late to influence the government .
In 1964 , a Ministry of Housing and Local Government study recommended " a new city " near Bletchley . A further MoH & LG study in 1965 proposed that the proposed new city would encompass the existing towns of Bletchley , Stony Stratford and Wolverton . It was to be the biggest new town yet , with a target population of 250 @,@ 000 . A Draft Order was made in April 1966 . The Housing Minister , Anthony Greenwood , made his formal announcement on 23 January 1967 . The designated area was 21 @,@ 870 acres ( 8 @,@ 850 ha ) , somewhat smaller than the 27 @,@ 000 acres ( 11 @,@ 000 ha ) in the Draft Order ( due to the exclusion of the Calverton Wealds ) . The name " Milton Keynes " was also unveiled at this time , taken from the existing village of Milton Keynes on the site . The site was deliberately located ( roughly ) equidistant from London , Birmingham , Leicester , Oxford and Cambridge . With its large target population , Milton Keynes was eventually intended to become a city . All subsequent planning documents and popular local usage make use of the term " city " or " new city " , even though formal city status has not been awarded .
When the boundary of Milton Keynes was defined , some 40 @,@ 000 people lived in the " designated area " of 88 @.@ 51 km ² ( 21 @,@ 833 acres ) . The area was split between five existing local authorities : Bletchley , Newport Pagnell and Wolverton Urban Districts together with the Newport Pagnell Rural District and the Winslow Rural District . Planning control was taken from elected local authorities and delegated to the Milton Keynes Development Corporation ( MKDC ) .
= = = Existing settlements and oral history = = =
The designated area outside the four main towns ( Bletchley , Newport Pagnell , Stony Stratford , Wolverton ) was largely rural farmland but included many picturesque North Buckinghamshire villages and hamlets : Bradwell village and Abbey , Broughton , Caldecotte , Fenny Stratford , Great Linford , Loughton , Milton Keynes Village , New Bradwell , Shenley Brook End , Shenley Church End , Simpson , Stantonbury , Tattenhoe , Tongwell , Walton , Water Eaton , Wavendon , Willen , Great and Little Woolstone , Woughton on the Green . All of these had a rich oral history , which has been recorded .
= = Milton Keynes Development Corporation : designing a city for 250 @,@ 000 people = =
Following publication of the Draft Master Plan for Milton Keynes , the government appointed Lord Campbell ( " Jock " Campbell ) to lead the Milton Keynes Development Corporation . He and his chief executive , Walter Ismay , appointed Llewellyn Davies as principal planning consultants – the team included Richard Llewellyn @-@ Davies , Walter Bor and John de Monchaux . Execution of the plan was led by Fred Roche . The goals declared in the master plan were these :
opportunity and freedom of choice
easy movement and access
good communications
balance and variety
an attractive city
public awareness and participation
efficient and imaginative use of resources
The Corporation was determined to learn from the mistakes made in the earlier new towns and revisit the Garden City ideals . They set in place the characteristic grid roads that run between districts , the Redway system of independent cycle / pedestrian paths , and the intensive planting , lakes and parkland that are so appreciated today . Central Milton Keynes was not intended to be a traditional town centre but a business and shopping district that supplemented the Local Centres in most of the Grid Squares . This non @-@ hierarchical devolved city plan was a departure from the English New Towns tradition and envisaged a wide range of industry and diversity of housing styles and tenures across the city . The radical grid plan was inspired by the work of Californian urban theorist Melvin M Webber ( 1921 – 2006 ) , described by the founding architect of Milton Keynes , Derek Walker , as the city 's " father " . Webber thought that telecommunications meant that the old idea of a city as a concentric cluster was out of date and that cities that enabled people to travel around them readily would be the thing of the future , achieving " community without propinquity " for residents .
Urban design
Since the radical plan form and large scale of the New City attracted international attention , early phases of the city include work by celebrated architects , including Sir Richard MacCormac , Lord Norman Foster , Henning Larsen , Ralph Erskine , John Winter , and Martin Richardson . The Corporation itself attracted talented young architects led by the young and charismatic Derek Walker . Its strongly modernist designs featured regularly in the magazines Architectural Design and the Architects ' Journal . Though strongly committed to sleek " Miesian " minimalism inspired by the German / American architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , they also developed a strand of contextualism in advance of the wider adoption of commercial Post @-@ Modernism as an architectural style in the 1980s . In the Miesian tradition were the Pineham Sewage Works , which Derek Walker regarded as his finest achievement , and the Shopping Building designed by Stuart Mosscrop and Christopher Woodward . The contextual tradition that ran alongside it is exemplified by the Coproration 's infill scheme at Cofferidge Close , Stony Stratford , designed by Wayland Tunley , which inserts into a historic stretch of High Street a modern retail facility , offices and car park .
" City in the forest "
The original Development Corporation design concept aimed for a " forest city " and its foresters planted millions of trees from its own nursery in Newlands in the following years . As of 2006 , the urban area has 20 million trees . Following the winding up of the Development Corporation , the lavish landscapes of the Grid Roads and of the major parks were transferred to the MK Parks Trust , an independent non @-@ profit charity which is quite separate from the municipal authority and which was intended to resist pressures to build on the parks over time . The Parks Trust is endowed with a portfolio of commercial properties , the income from which pays for the upkeep of the green spaces , a city @-@ wide maintenance model which has attracted international attention .
Public art
The Development Corporation had an ambitious public art programme and over 50 works were commissioned , mostly still extant . This programme also had two strands : a populist one which involved the local community in the works , the most famous of which is Liz Leyh 's Concrete Cows , a group of concrete Friesian cows which have become the unofficial logo of the city ; and a tradition of abstract geometrical art , such as Lilliane Lijn 's " Circle of Light " hanging in the Midsummer Arcade of the Central Milton Keynes Shopping Centre .
Demographics
Unusually for a new town , Milton Keynes has arrived at a bias in favour of private sector investment , with about 80 % of owner @-@ occupied homes . The political climate determined this : previous new towns were mainly controlled by Labour Governments but Milton Keynes was mainly built during the Conservative years .
= = Further development plans = =
In January 2004 , Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott announced the United Kingdom government 's Expansion plans for Milton Keynes
He proposed that the population of Milton Keynes should double in the next 20 years . He appointed English Partnerships to do so , taking planning controls away from Milton Keynes Borough Council and making EP the statutory planning authority . In turn , EP established a subsidiary Milton Keynes Partnership to manage the programme locally . Their proposal for the next phase of expansion moves away from grid squares to large scale , mixed use , higher density developments which are more based on assumptions about public transport than private car usage .
= = Milestones since 1967 = =
1960s
1961 Census : Population of districts to become the Borough of Milton Keynes
= 52 @,@ 931
1967 Designation
1969 The Open University moves to its new headquarters in Walton Hall .
1970s
1970 First section of new city grid road system ( H2 from V4 Watling Street ) . The Stables presents its first concert .
1971 First major housing scheme ( Galley Hill , Stony Stratford ) .
1971 Census : Population of future Borough of Milton Keynes =
66 @,@ 949 ;
population of designated area
= 46 @,@ 500
1974 Stantonbury Campus opens ; first major grid road ( V8 Marlborough Street connects Bletchley to Stantonbury ( for New Bradwell and Wolverton ) ; work begins on the Shopping Building ( now The Centre : MK ) ; the first balancing lake ( Willen Lake ) is finished . Borough of Milton Keynes created ( as a district of Buckinghamshire until 1997 )
1975 The first office building in Central Milton Keynes ( Lloyds Court ) opens .
1979 First concert at Milton Keynes Bowl ( Desmond Dekker / Geno Washington ) ; Margaret Thatcher opens the Shopping Building .
1980s
1980 A5D opens , bypassing Watling Street ; Peace Pagoda dedicated at Willen .
1981 Homeworld , Central Library , Willen Hospice
1981 Census : Population of the Borough of Milton Keynes =
123 @,@ 289 ;
population of designated area 95 @,@ 800
1982 Central Milton Keynes railway station officially open .
1983 Caldecotte balancing lake ready .
1984 A421 road connects to M1 motorway at Junction 13 ; Milton Keynes General Hospital opens ( renamed Milton Keynes University Hospital in 2015 ) .
1985 Britain 's first multiplex cinema , The Point , opens .
1986 Energy World ; new County Court ; Forte Crest Hotel ( now Holiday Inn ) ; Gyosei school ( closes 2002 ) .
1987 Woughton Marina opens .
1989 Furzton balancing lake , Bradwell aqueduct ( first aqueduct on Grand Union in over 100 years ) .
1990s
1991 Census : Population of the Borough of Milton Keynes
= 179 @,@ 252 ;
population of designated area =
144 @,@ 700 .
1991 Church of Christ the Cornerstone was completed ; De Montfort University opens Milton Keynes campus . ( Closes 2003 ) .
1992 Milton Keynes Development Corporation wound up , replaced by Commission for New Towns ; Kingston District Centre ; Woodhill ( HM Prison ) .
1994 Westcroft district centre .
1996 National Hockey Stadium opens .
1997 Borough of Milton Keynes unitary authority
1999 Milton Keynes Theatre , Art Gallery and new Visitor Centre .
2000s
2000 Xscape opens .
2001 Census : Population of Borough of Milton Keynes
= 207 @,@ 063 ;
population of designated area =
177 @,@ 500 .
2003 Wimbledon F.C. moves to the former England National Hockey Stadium .
2004 ( " MMIV " ) Wimbledon F.C. renamed and relaunched as Milton Keynes Dons F.C ..
2007 Stadium : mk opens and Milton Keynes Dons move in .
2007 The Hub & Vizion developments are completed at the western end of the town centre
2008 University Centre Milton Keynes opens .
2010s
2010 former England National Hockey Stadium is demolished , construction begins on Network Rail National Centre . Milton Keynes Shopping Centre is grade II listed . IF : Milton Keynes International Festival is launched .
2011 Census : Population of Borough of Milton Keynes = 248 @,@ 800
2012 Network Rail National Centre ( Quadrant : MK ) officially opens .
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= Kenya Airways =
Kenya Airways Ltd . , more commonly known as Kenya Airways , is the flag carrier of Kenya . The company was founded in 1977 , after the dissolution of East African Airways . The carrier 's head office is located in Embakasi , Nairobi , with its hub at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport .
The airline was wholly owned by the Government of Kenya until April 1995 ( 1995 @-@ 04 ) , and it was privatised in 1996 , becoming the first African flag carrier to successfully do so . Kenya Airways is currently a public @-@ private partnership . The largest shareholder is the Government of Kenya ( 29 @.@ 8 . % ) , followed by KLM , which has a 26 @.@ 73 % stake in the company . The rest of the shares are held by private owners ; shares are traded on the Nairobi Stock Exchange , the Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange , and the Uganda Securities Exchange .
Kenya Airways is widely considered as one of the leading Sub @-@ Saharan operators ; as of January 2013 , the carrier was ranked fourth among the top ten ones that operate in Africa by seat capacity , behind South African Airways , Ethiopian Airlines and EgyptAir . The airline became a full member of SkyTeam in June 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 06 ) , and is also a member of the African Airlines Association since 1977 . As of March 2015 , the company had 3 @,@ 986 employees .
= = History = =
Kenya Airways was established by the Kenyan government on 22 January 1977 ( 1977 @-@ 01 @-@ 22 ) , following the break @-@ up of the East African Community and the consequent demise of East African Airways ( EAA ) . On 4 February 1977 ( 1977 @-@ 02 @-@ 04 ) , two Boeing 707 – 321s leased from British Midland Airways inaugurated operations , serving the Nairobi – Frankfurt – London route . On internal and regional flights , the carrier deployed aircraft formerly operated by the EAA consortium , such as one Douglas DC @-@ 9 @-@ 52 and three Fokker F @-@ 27 @-@ 200s . In late 1977 , three Boeing 707s were acquired from Northwest Orient . The following year , the company formed a charter subsidiary named Kenya Flamingo Airlines , which leased aircraft from the parent airline in order to operate international passenger and cargo services . Aer Lingus provided the company with technical and management support in the early years .
In July 1980 ( 1980 @-@ 07 ) the airline had 2 @,@ 100 employees and a fleet of three Boeing 707 @-@ 320Bs , one Boeing 720B , one DC @-@ 9 @-@ 30 and three Fokker F @-@ 27 @-@ 200s . At this time , Addis Ababa , Athens , Bombay , Cairo , Copenhagen , Frankfurt , Jeddah , Kampala , Karachi , Khartoum , London , Lusaka , Mauritius , Mogadishu , Rome , Salisbury , Seychelles and Zurich were part of the airline 's list of international destinations , whereas domestic services radiating from Nairobi to Kisumu , Malindi , Mombasa and Mumias were also operated . A Nairobi – Bombay nonstop route was launched in 1982 using Boeing 707 @-@ 320B equipment . A year later , the company commenced serving Tanzania . Flights to Burundi , Malawi and Rwanda were launched in 1984 . Capacity on the European routes was boosted in November 1985 ( 1985 @-@ 11 ) with the incorporation of an Airbus A310 @-@ 200 leased from Condor . Kilimanjaro was first served in March 1986 ( 1986 @-@ 03 ) . That year , the airline ordered two Airbus A310 @-@ 300s . Kenya Airways became the first African carrier in acquiring the type , and they were the first wide @-@ bodies ordered by the company . Funded with a US $ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 43 @,@ 175 @,@ 471 in 2015 ) loan , the delivery of these two aircraft took place in May and September 1986 ( 1986 @-@ 09 ) . They were put on service on the Kenya – Europe corridor , and permitted Kenya Airways to return the A310 @-@ 200 to the lessor . In early 1988 , the carrier ordered two Fokker 50s ; aimed at operating domestic routes , the airline received the first of these aircraft at the end of the year . Also in 1988 , the lease of a third A310 @-@ 300 was arranged with the International Lease Finance for a ten @-@ year period ; the aircraft joined the fleet in November 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 11 ) . Leased from Ansett Worldwide , the first Boeing 757 @-@ 200 was handed over to the company in January 1990 ( 1990 @-@ 01 ) , whereas a third Fokker 50 was incorporated in October the same year . By late 1991 , two Boeing 737 @-@ 200s had been leased from Guiness Peat Aviation .
In 1986 , Sessional Paper Number 1 was published by the Government of Kenya , outlining the country 's need for economic development and growth . The document stressed the government opinion that the airline would be better off if owned by private interests , thus resulting in the first attempt to privatise the airline . The government named Philip Ndegwa as Chairman of the Board in 1991 , with specific orders to make the airline a privately owned company . In 1992 , the Public Enterprise Reform paper was published , giving Kenya Airways priority among national companies in Kenya to be privatised . Ndegwa was succeeded by Isaac Omolo Okero . In September 1992 ( 1992 @-@ 09 ) , Brian Davies , was appointed as the new managing director of the company . Davies had been previously hired to carry out a study of viability on privatisation , working for British Airways ' Speedwing consulting arm . Swissair was the first company that provided Kenya Airways with privatisation advice . In the fiscal year 1993 to 1994 , the airline produced its first profit since the start of commercialisation . In 1994 , the International Finance Corporation was appointed to provide assistance in the privatisation process , which effectively began in 1995 . A large aviation industry partner was sought to acquire 40 % of the shares , with another 40 % reserved for private investors and the government keeping the remaining stake . The government would absorb almost US $ 90 million in debts and would convert another US $ 31 million it provided in loans into equity ; after reorganisation , the company would have a debt of approximate US $ 78 million . British Airways , KLM , Lufthansa and South African Airways were among the airlines that expressed interest in taking a stake in Kenya Airways .
KLM was eventually awarded the privatisation of the company , which restructured its debts and made a master corporation agreement with the Dutch airline that bought 26 % of the shares , becoming the largest single shareholder since then . Shares were floated to the public in March 1996 ( 1996 @-@ 03 ) , and the airline started trading on the Nairobi Stock Exchange . The Government of Kenya kept a 23 % stake in the company , and offered the remaining 51 % to the public ; however , non @-@ Kenyan shareholders could at most had a participation of 49 % in the airline . Despite 40 % of the shares being kept by foreign investors following privatisation ( including KLM 's 26 % stake ) , top management positions were held by Kenyans . Following the takeover , the government of Kenya capitalised US $ 70 million , while the airline was awarded a US $ 15 million loan from the International Finance Corporation to modernise its fleet . In a deal worth US $ 82 million , two Boeing 737 @-@ 300s were ordered in July 1996 ( 1996 @-@ 07 ) .
In January 2000 ( 2000 @-@ 01 ) , the airline experienced its first fatal accident when an Airbus A310 that had been bought new in 1986 crashed off Ivory Coast , shortly after taking off from Abidjan . By April the same year , the aircraft park consisted of four Airbus A310 @-@ 300s , two Boeing 737 @-@ 200 Advanced and four Boeing 737 @-@ 300s . At this time the company had a staff of 2 @,@ 780 , including 400 engineers , 146 flight crew and 365 cabin crew . From its main hub at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport , scheduled services were operated to Abidjan , Addis Ababa , Amsterdam , Bujumbura , Cairo , Copenhagen , Dar es Salaam , Douala , Dubai , Eldoret , Entebbe / Kampala , Harare , Johannesburg , Karachi , Khartoum , Kigali , Kinshasa , Lagos , Lilongwe , Lokichoggio , London , Lusaka , Mahe Island , Malindi , Mombasa , Mumbai , and Zanzibar . In 2002 , an order for three Boeing 777 @-@ 200ERs was placed with Boeing ; an additional aircraft of the type was acquired in November 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 11 ) . In March 2006 ( 2006 @-@ 03 ) , six Boeing 787 @-@ 8s were ordered ; the first two examples would be delivered in 2010 and the rest in 2011 . The original Boeing 787 order was amended nine months later to include three more aircraft of the type .
In June 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 06 ) the company announced the issuance of rights worth KSh20 billion , aimed at increasing capital to support expansion plans . Following the allocation of shares , KLM increased their stake in the company from 26 % to 26 @.@ 73 % , while the Kenyan government boosted their participation into the company from 23 % to 29 @.@ 8 % , becoming the new major shareholder of the carrier .
= = Corporate affairs = =
= = = Key people = = =
As of February 2016 , Kenya Airways ' Managing Director and chief executive officer ( CEO ) positions were held by Mbuvi Ngunze . Ngunze , who had been appointed CEO in June 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 06 ) , was the company 's former chief operating officer . Dennis Awori was the airline 's chairman , as of July 2016 .
= = = Subsidiaries and associates = = =
The cargo handling company African Cargo Handling Limited is a wholly owned subsidiary of Kenya Airways ; partly owned companies are Kenya Airfreight Handling Limited , dedicated to the cargo handling of perishable goods ( 51 % -owned ) and Tanzanian carrier Precision Air ( 41 @.@ 23 % -owned ) . A new low @-@ cost subsidiary named Jambojet was created in 2013 .
= = = Business trends = = =
The key trends for the Kenya Airways group over recent years are shown below ( as at year ending 31 March ) :
= = Destinations = =
= = = Alliances = = =
KLM sponsored the process of the company joining SkyTeam in mid @-@ 2005 . In September 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 09 ) , the alliance welcomed Kenya Airways as one of the first official SkyTeam Associate Airlines . SkyTeam upgraded the status of the company to a full membership in June 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 06 ) . The alliance provides Kenya Airways ' passengers with access to the member airlines ' worldwide network and passenger facilities .
= = = Codeshare agreements = = =
As of January 2015 , the carrier has codeshare agreements with the following companies , which are the actual operators on the routes specified in parenthesis :
= = = Future plans = = =
In April 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 04 ) , the airline launched a plan named Project Mawingu ( the Swahili word meaning Clouds ) to add 24 destinations by 2021 , including the start of services to Australia , and North and South America , and expanding its presence in Asia as well . The carrier intends to add new flights to São Paulo ( FY2014 / 15 ) , Toronto ( FY2015 / 16 ) , and Perth ( FY 2016 / 17 ) , and to build up a network in Mainland China consisting of eight cities by 2021 , adding seven new destinations ( Beijing , Chengdu , Chongqing , Kunming , Shanghai , Ürümqi , and Xiamen ) to Guangzhou , the only city served in the region , as of April 2012 . In June 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 06 ) , the carrier announced the suspension of services to Rome and Muscat as part of cost @-@ cutting measures , following a 50 % fall in profit for FY2011 / 12 .
In October 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 10 ) , the airline reaffirmed its intention of expanding its route network with the addition of six new destinations every year , following the delivery of Boeing 777s and 787s the carrier has on order . Beijing and Shanghai are expected to be included in the airline 's route network by the end 2014 .
= = Fleet = =
= = = Recent developments and future plans = = =
The first of five Embraer 190s ordered in 2010 was incorporated into the fleet in December 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 12 ) . An additional order for ten aircraft of the same type was placed in August 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 08 ) ; the carrier took delivery of the first and second of these fully owned aircraft in September 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 09 ) . In October 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 10 ) , the airline took possession of the 900th E @-@ Jet manufactured by Embraer .
The company announced in late February 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 02 ) its intention of acquiring a freighter aircraft to boost cargo capacity on African operations . Until February 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 02 ) , when a joint freighter service with KLM was launched , the carrier 's cargo division has been using belly capacity on its operations ; there are plans to buy and lease more freighter aircraft in order to boost capacity in the growing cargo market between Africa and Asia . Furthermore , the airline announced in October 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 10 ) the conversion of some Boeing 737 @-@ 300s into freighter aircraft to complement the Boeing 747 @-@ 400F service , jointly operated with KLM and Martinair Cargo . The first of four converted Boeing 737 @-@ 300s was delivered to the company in April 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 04 ) ; Kenya Airways will fly this aircraft on routes to eastern , central and southern Africa that are served by the Embraer 190s , in order to boost cargo capacity . The company took delivery of its first Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , on lease from GECAS , in October 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 10 ) . It had been previously announced that this aircraft would be deployed on a new route to Guangzhou in November .
Kenya Airways had nine Boeing 787 Dreamliners on order , as of April 2011 , although the company considered cancelling the order after systematic delays with the delivery dates . The airline received some compensation , in cash and in kind , from Boeing for the delays . Afreximbank are financing the acquisition of the 20 aircraft the airline has on order . The handover of the first Boeing 787 took place on 4 April 2014 . On 4 June 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 06 @-@ 04 ) , Nairobi – Paris became the first route that was served using the Boeing 787 . In August 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 08 ) , Dreamliners were also deployed on the Nairobi – Johannesburg route .
As of April 2015 , the carrier was set to sell some aircraft , including four Boeing 777s , following a decrease in passenger traffic .
= = = Current fleet = = =
As of May 2016 , the carrier 's fleet consists of the following aircraft :
= = = Retired fleet = = =
The company has previously operated the following equipment :
= = = Livery = = =
In 2005 , Kenya Airways changed its livery . The four stripes running all through the length of the fuselage were replaced by the company slogan Pride of Africa , whereas the KA tail logo was replaced by a styled K encircled with a Q to evoke the airline 's IATA airline code .
= = Services = =
= = = Frequent flyer programmes = = =
Former Kenya Airways ' frequent flyer programme Msafiri was merged with KLM 's Flying Dutchman in 1997 , which was in turn merged with that of Air France and rebranded as Flying Blue in 2005 , following the fusion of both companies . Gold Elite and Platinum Elite members of the Flying Blue programme are offered the JV Lounge . This service is provided to Kenya Airways passengers , and to passengers flying with its partner airlines as well . Simba Lounge is a service provided to Kenya Airways Business passengers only . Both lounges are located at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport .
= = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = =
Different in @-@ flight entertainment is available depending upon the aircraft and the class travelled . The airline 's in @-@ flight magazine is called Msafiri , and is distributed among the passengers in all aircraft , irrespective of the class .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
As of October 2014 , Kenya Airways has had two fatal accidents and two hull loss accidents .
10 July 1988 : A Fokker F27 @-@ 200 , registration 5Y @-@ BBS , approached the runway too fast and made a belly landing at Kisumu Airport inbound from Nairobi as Flight 650 , skidding down the runway for some 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) .
11 July 1989 : A Boeing 707 @-@ 320B , registration 5Y @-@ BBK , overran the runway at Bole International Airport following a brake failure . The aircraft had departed from the same airport , and the non @-@ retraction of the landing gear prompted the crew to return .
30 January 2000 : Flight 431 was a scheduled Abidjan – Lagos – Nairobi service , operated with an Airbus A310 @-@ 304 , registration 5Y @-@ BEN , that plunged into the Atlantic Ocean and broke up , about a minute after it took off from Abidjan 's Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny International Airport . There were 179 people aboard , of whom ten were crewmembers ; most of the occupants were Nigerians . 169 people perished in the accident . This was the carrier 's first fatal accident .
5 May 2007 : Flight 507 , operated with a Boeing 737 @-@ 800 , tail number 5Y @-@ KYA , crashed into a mangrove swamp immediately after takeoff for Nairobi , about 5 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 42 mi ) southeast of Douala International Airport . The flight originated in Abidjan , with a stopover in Douala to pick up passengers . There were 114 people on board , 105 passengers from 23 countries — the majority of them Cameroonians — plus 9 crew members ; all of them perished in the accident .
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= Black Rock Harbor Light =
Black Rock Harbor Light , also known as Fayerweather Island Light , is a lighthouse in Bridgeport , Connecticut , United States which stands on the south end of Fayerweather Island and marks the entrance to Black Rock Harbor . The first lighthouse at the site , built by Abisha Woodward under contract with the United States government , was a wooden tower that was lit and made operational by 1808 . A storm destroyed the tower in 1821 and the current , stone lighthouse was erected in its place in 1823 . The Black Rock Harbor Light was an active navigational aid until 1933 when it was replaced by two automatic lights offshore . The beacon was subsequently given to the City of Bridgeport in 1934 . Two significant efforts during the 1980s and 1990s served to restore the aging tower and the light was relit as a non @-@ navigational aid in 2000 . Black Rock Lighthouse is listed as a contributing property for Bridgeport 's Seaside Park historic district .
= = Construction = =
In 1807 , the United States government bought the 9 @.@ 5 acres ( 3 @.@ 8 ha ) of land upon which the lighthouse stands from Daniel Fayerweather for $ 200 . The government appropriated $ 5000 for the light station in February 1807 and contracted Abisha Woodward to construct the light . The first Black Rock Harbor Light was a 40 foot ( 12 @.@ 1 meter ) octagonal wooden tower built in 1808 . Abisha Woodward , who previously constructed the 1801 New London Harbor Light and the 1802 Falkner Island Light , constructed a wooden tower that was lit and made operational by October 1808 . The lightkeeper 's home was a small one and a half story home built on the opposite side of a marsh , several hundred feet away from the tower . Another brick structure was built to house the oil . The total cost of the wooden lighthouse , and likely the accompanying keeper 's house and oil house , was listed at $ 4604 @.@ 69 .
On September 3 , 1821 , the wooden tower was destroyed in the Norfolk and Long Island hurricane and was replaced with a 40 foot ( 12 @.@ 1 meter ) octagonal stone tower at a cost of $ 2300 @.@ 53 . Completed in 1823 , the new tower was made of coursed sandstone ashlar and rubble mortar and was claimed by its builder to " withstand the storm of ages . " This boisterous claim was countered by Edmund Blunt , an American Coast Pilot , who stated , " a more contemptible Lighthouse does not disgrace Long Island Sound , most shamefully erected and badly kept . " In 1835 , $ 2052 @.@ 63 was used to preserve the buildings on Fayerweather Island , including the lighthouse . Three years later , in 1838 , on the report of a Captain Gregory , another $ 1529 @.@ 60 was used to build a seawall to protect the buildings . Another $ 15 @,@ 000 would be used from 1847 through 1849 to complete the seawall . The original keeper 's quarters , then referred to as a " dilapidated old edifice " , was replaced in 1879 .
= = Service = =
The lighthouse originally had a whale oil spider lamp from the Stratford Point Light , but it was upgraded to a system with eight lamps in 1830 . In 1838 , it was reported by Lieutenant George Bache that the reflectors were out of alignment and the light was barely visible in hazy conditions . In 1854 , a fifth @-@ order Fresnel lens was installed . The Black Rock Harbor Light was deactivated in 1932 following the construction of two offshore automatic lights .
= = Restoration = =
The lighthouse was given to the city of Bridgeport , Connecticut in 1934 and became a part of Seaside Park . In the following years , vandals " gutted the interior " of the lighthouse . In 1977 , the keeper 's quarters building was destroyed in a fire . The first restoration effort came in 1983 when the Friends of Seaside Park restored the tower . Fayerweather Island was cleaned of debris , landscaped and established as a nature preserve . They installed steel " windows " and also secured the entry with a steel panel , but vandals again forced their way into the lighthouse .
A second effort was mounted by David Grant Grimshaw and Patricia Roche in 1993 . A sum of $ 25 @,@ 000 cash and in @-@ kind services was raised with fundraising and annual Preservation Balls ; it was later matched by the City of Bridgeport 's Board of Park Commissioners with another grant of $ 25 @,@ 000 . During the night of the 1996 Preservation Ball the lighthouse was mysteriously lit , but Grimshaw did not arrange the illumination . D 'Entremont writes that " maybe the spirit of Kate Moore had grown tired of waiting for the restoration . " The 1998 restoration was conducted under the direction of David Barbour , a local architect . The restoration included masonry repairs , reglazing the lantern room , rust removal from the railings , new doors and windows with vandal @-@ proof steel panes . The lighthouse was repainted with graffiti @-@ resistant paint in the original paint and mortar colors . The light , relit in 2000 , does not serve as an active navigational aid . The light is powered by solar panels on the top of the lighthouse ; it was donated by United Illuminating and Bridgeport Energy . In 2004 , vandals smashed the solar panels and new panels with protective cages were installed in 2007 .
= = Access = =
The lighthouse is listed as a contributing property for Bridgeport 's Seaside Park historic district , which was listed on July 1 , 1982 . The grounds are accessible by parking at Seaside Park and crossing a breakwater , but the lighthouse is not open to the public .
= = List of keepers = =
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= I Vampiri =
I Vampiri ( lit . The Vampires ) is a 1957 Italian horror film . The film was directed by Riccardo Freda and completed by the film 's cinematographer , Mario Bava . It stars Gianna Maria Canale , Carlo D 'Angelo and Dario Michaelis . The film is about a series of murders on young women who are found with all their blood drained . The newspapers describes the killer as the Vampire and young journalist Pierre Lantin researches the crimes . Lantin investigates the mysterious Du Grand family who lives in a castle occupied by Gisele Du Grand who is in love with Lantin . She lives with her aunt who hides her face in a veil as well as the scientist Julian Du Grand who is trying to find the secret to eternal youth .
The film was developed during a growth in the Italian film industry which allowed for the market to expand beyond a local Italian audience , and would allow Italian film makers to explore new genres of filmmaking . Freda made a deal with producers at the Italian film studio Titanus to create a low budget horror film by writing a story in one day and filming it in two weeks . The producers agreed and Freda began filming . On the final day of shooting , Freda left the set which led to the cinematographer Mario Bava to direct the rest of the film , which changed various plot points and added the inclusion of stock footage .
On the film 's release in 1957 , it became Italy 's first horror film of the sound era . It was not successful in Italy , which Freda interpreted as an audience not interested in horror films made by Italians . The film was released theatrically as The Devil 's Commandment and Lust of the Vampire in the United States and United Kingdom respectively . English critics predominantly discuss the film in terms of its cinematography and place in film history . Despite being the first of the Italian horror films , it was not until the British film Dracula ( 1958 ) and the international hit Black Sunday were released that a greater amount of horror films began being produced in Italy .
= = Plot = =
In 1957 Paris , a series of mysterious killings are committed against young women of the same blood type who are found dead and drained of their blood . These killings are reported in the press as being performed by a murderer coined The Vampire . The journalist Pierre Lantin ( Dario Michaelis ) begins to investigate , and becomes more involved when his fiancee , the dancer Nora Duval is kidnapped . As Inspector Chantal ( Carlo D 'Angelo ) examines the crime scene , Lantin arrives predicting that the crime was committed by The Vampire . Lantin investigates the school that the latest murder happened at to search for clues and finds that the woman was being followed by a tall man before the murder . Elsewhere , a man named Joseph ( Paul Muller ) begs for " his fix " in a dark room is told to go after a woman named Lorette ( Wandisa Guida ) and that he " know what to do " at Rue Saint Etienne . Joseph arrives at the location and is spotted by Lantin but manages to get away from him . Joseph arrives at the clinic of Professor Julian Du Grand ( Antoine Balpêtré ) and demands money to leave town or he will report what 's happening to the police . He is strangled by Du Grand 's assistant when a shadowed woman named Marguerite arrives and states that if the police track them down , it will be the end of Du Grands career . A newspaper headline later reveals that Professor Julian Du Grand has died unexpectedly .
After a funeral procession for Julian , a group of men arrive and reveal that the body buried was that of Joseph . Joseph 's corpse is taken to a castle where he is experimented on by Julian who is attempting discover the secret for eternal life . Later , Lorette meets a blind man in the street who asks her to drop off a letter . On dropping the letter off , she is kidnapped and finds herself locked in a bedroom with the skeletons of the The Vampire 's previous victims . As the police try and track down Lorette 's kidnappers , Lantin is reassigned from following the Vampire story and is set to cover a ball at the castle of Du Grand . At the castle , he meets Gisele ( Gianna Maria Canale ) who expresses admiration for Lantin as he reminds her of his father . Lantin leaves the party and is pursued by the photographer Donald . Lantin states he does not want to lead on Gisele with her emotions which leads to Donald re @-@ entering the castle to profess his love for Gisele . Gisele turns him down as her face begins to grow old before his eyes as she reveals that each person killed restores her youth for a short time . Knowing her secret , she reaches for a pistol and murders Donald . Gisele then calls upon Professor Julian to make her eternally young . Julian states that under her fragile emotional state it may not work , but begins an experimental transfer Lorette 's youth and beauty to Giselle .
Gisele meets Pierre the next day when she is picking up a painting where he spots odd behavior in her such as writing with the wrong hand , which leads him to return to her castle to investigate further . Gisele begins growing ill from her previous experiment and calls upon Professor Julian to aid her . As he leaves , Joseph awakens in Julian 's lab . Pierre triggers an alarm which has him race out the castle where he meets the disoriented Joseph . Pierre takes Joseph to the police station where he reveals he was the kidnapper of the young women but the people in the castle are the real murderers . The police arrive looking for Marguerite but only find Gisele who denies any knowledge of Joseph . Pierre and the police explore the castle without finding clues . On leaving , Gisele begins transforming back into Marguerite before their eyes prompting for an emergency search of the castle . A gun battle ensues between Professor Du Grands assistant and the police leaving the assistant and Professor Du Grand shot . This leads the police to open his grave where they find Lorette . Lorette is sent home and Inspector Chantal reveals that Giselle confessed to the crimes and died shortly after .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and development = = =
Around the time I Vampiri was in development , Italian film productions had grown exponentially . Italian film productions rose from 25 films in 1945 , to 204 in 1954 . This growth allowed film makers in Italy to approach new genres and new styles not attempted before . In 1956 , the chief executive officer of Titanus , Goffredo Lombardo , stated that Italian film productions should be aimed a European market opposed to just an Italian one . During the production of the film Beatrice Cenci ( 1956 ) , director Riccardo Freda and his friend , cinematographer Mario Bava discussed the idea of developing a horror film . Horror films had been previously banned in Italy during the 1930s and 1940s , while a new taste for the macabre was developing . Italian film historian Goffredo Fofi stated in 1963 that " ghosts , monsters and the taste for the horrible appears when a society that became wealthy and evolves by industrializing , and are accompanied by a state of well @-@ being which began to exist and expand in Italy only since a few years "
Freda 's ambition to make a horror film derived from his desire to make films in the fantastique style , feeling that only the Americans and German expressionists were able to make such films in the past . Freda approached film producer Luigi Carpentieri with the idea of the film despite not having a treatment ready . Promising them that he would have something for them by the next day , he returned with a tape of his treatment that was complete with sound effects . Carpentieri phoned Goffredo Lombardo to convince him further . Freda followed up his tape with the promise that his script could pass the censors and could be filmed in 12 days . This convinced the producer who allowed Freda to create what became I Vampiri .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
The screenplay of I Vampiri is credited to Piero Regnoli and the fictional writer and scenarist Rijk Sijöstrom . The story of the film features contributions from Freda , who has only mentioned Regnoli during the writing process . Both Freda and Regnoli have uncredited roles in the film as the autopsy doctor and Mr.Bourgeois respectively . Freda had the film set in the 1950s opposed the 18th or 19th Century to lower the cost of re @-@ creating a period set as well as making the film 's plot feel like it could actually happen . The film 's story borrows from uncredited stories . This includes the crimes committed by Gianna Maria Canale 's character Giselle Du Grand , which are based upon the legend of Elizabeth Bathory who bathed in the blood of virgins to stay young . Another influence that Freda acknowledged was Edgar Allan Poe 's short story " The Fall of the House of Usher " , with its suggested parallel between decaying , dissipated interiors and the Canale 's vampire @-@ like character .
Gianna Maria Canale took the female lead in the film despite not initially wanting the role . The film was the last of her many films she made with Freda . Freda and Canale had first worked together on Il cavaliere misterioso ( 1948 ) ; their relationship led to Freda leaving his wife to go with Canale to Brazil where they made two more films . On their return to Italy , Canale would have the female lead role in nearly all his films including The Iron Swordsman , Sins of Rome and Theodora , Slave Empress .
= = = Production = = =
Filming began in Rome in 1956 . The film was a low budget production as Lombardo did not care for horror films . Freda and his crew utilized mostly existing sets with only a single scene at the Aniene river filmed outside the studio . The film was shot in black and white by cinematographer Mario Bava , who felt that that style would better suit the special effects in the film and keep the budget down . Bava worked on the special effects on the film without credit . One of his effects involved Gianna Maria Canale aging make @-@ up that would only be revealed when certain coloured lights were revealed on her . This effect had been done previously in older films such as Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde ( 1931 ) and contemporary films including The Man Who Turned to Stone ( 1957 ) .
Freda 's deal with his producers failed when he left the set on the twelfth day of production . After an argument with the producers , Freda left the production allowing Mario Bava to step in to finish the film in the next two days . Reasons for Freda leaving production differ , and range from Freda having a misunderstanding with the producers , to Bava stating that Freda was taking too long to make the film . Bava 's ending was different than Freda 's initial ending which involved finding the heroine hanged . Among the changes Bava made to finish the film , included changing the supporting character of the journalist becoming the lead and removing a sub @-@ plot about a dismembered criminal who returns to life on being reassembled . Bava also extended other portions of the film with stock footage and montages of newspaper presses .
= = Release = =
I Vampiri was released in Italy on 5 April 1957 in San Remo . It grossed a total of 125 @.@ 3 million Italian lire on its initial theatrical run . The film was not a box office success in either Italy or France . It was released in the United States in 1960 in a heavily altered version under the title The Devil 's Commandment . This version of the film featured new scenes written by J. V. Rhems and filmed by Ronald Honthauer in New York . In the United Kingdom , the film was released under the title Lust of the Vampire . Mario Bava biographer Tim Lucas wrote in 1992 that a version of the film also titled Lust of the Vampire was assembled in the United States which incorporates scenes of nudity .
= = = Home media = = =
A photonovel version of I Vampiri was released in Italy . Photo novels were similar to comic strips in that they use a succession of panels and speech captions . The main difference is that they rely on photographs of films opposed to illustrations . I Vampiri 's photonovel was titled Quella che voleva amare ( English : The One Who Wanted to Be Loved ) which appeared in I Vostri Film in August 1958 .
I Vampiri was released uncut for the first time on DVD in the United States in 2001 by Image Entertainment . IGN gave a positive review of the DVD , referring to the image quality as " stunning " and that the film was the original cut , " not the butchered Devil 's Commandment version aired on late night television over the years . " It was also released on DVD as a bonus feature from Arrow Films on their Black Sunday blu @-@ ray on February 4 , 2013 .
= = Critical reception = =
In a contemporary review , The Monthly Film Bulletin described the film as a " bizarre and grisly Italian effort " that " drags in everything from drug addiction to perpetual youth , crypts to skeletons , but has only a few moments which can claim to be genuinely macabre . " The review praised the special effects involving a transition between a young to aged woman and back again , and concluded that " if only story , treatment and performance ... had been comparable , the film might have been really high in its class . " Variety described the film as an " attempt at a horror film which doesn 't quite come off with only a few moments in succeeding in being chilling . " The review concluded that the film was " strictly for devotees of the genre " In Italy , La Stampa noted the surprise that the film avoided being banned by Italian censors and that when the film takes on thriller motives , it achieves some effective moments .
In their retrospective review , AllMovie wrote " While I Vampiri is more important for its place in history than for it ultimate effectiveness as a film , it is nevertheless an entertaining horror flick . " Danny Shipka , who discussed this film in his book on European exploitation films , noted that the film " set the standard for visual style that would be the foundation for most Italian Gothic films of this nature . " He also described the film as " a little ponderous and talky " while praising Canale 's transformation scenes and the " masterful filming of cobwebs , creaking doors , and decay , along with great lighting " . IGN wrote that " anyone interested in the history of [ Italian horror cinema ] should see the film " and that the film was " showing its age and is incredibly tame compared with the gore shockers that Italy would eventually become famous for " . Martyn Conterio , in his book on Black Sunday stated that it would be " pushing it to declare I Vampiri as a neglected masterpiece , but it is a hugely underrated work and very cleverly sets out what a horror film with a modern edge and sensibility could achieve . " Louis Paul wrote a negative review of the film in his book Italian Horror Film Directors , opining that the film suffered some damaging influences from neorealistic cinema , which turned on very static scenes . He also opined that the film spends too much time with Dario Michaelis character , and the " mind @-@ numbingly dull and endless police procedural scenes "
= = Aftermath and influence = =
Freda felt that I Vampiri did not succeed financially in Italy due to the country 's audience reluctance to an Italian interpretation of the horror genre . For Freda 's next film , Caltiki – The Immortal Monster , he used an English pseudonym of Robert Hampton to give the impression that the film was not Italian . Freda attempted a gothic horror film again five years later with his film The Horrible Dr. Hichcock . Other crew members would go on to direct horror films following I Vampiri , such as screenwriter Piero Regnoli who directed The Playgirls and the Vampire ( 1960 ) and Bava who became the cinematographer on Freda 's Caltiki as well as directing Black Sunday ( 1960 ) .
I Vampiri was the first Italian horror film of the sound era , following the lone silent horror film Il mostro di Frankenstein ( 1920 ) Despite the film being the first Italian film of the sound era , it did not start a new wave of Italian horror productions . The British Film Institute stated that it required the international success of Mario Bava 's Black Sunday to initiate the start of horror films in Italy . Italian screenwriter Ernesto Gastaldi suggested that it was when Terence Fisher 's film Dracula ( 1958 ) was released in Italy that a " hailstorm of vampire movies flooded the screens " .
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= Pitot @-@ static system =
A pitot @-@ static system is a system of pressure @-@ sensitive instruments that is most often used in aviation to determine an aircraft 's airspeed , Mach number , altitude , and altitude trend . A pitot @-@ static system generally consists of a pitot tube , a static port , and the pitot @-@ static instruments . This equipment is used to measure the forces acting on a vehicle as a function of the temperature , density , pressure and viscosity of the fluid in which it is operating . Other instruments that might be connected are air data computers , flight data recorders , altitude encoders , cabin pressurization controllers , and various airspeed switches . Errors in pitot @-@ static system readings can be extremely dangerous as the information obtained from the pitot static system , such as altitude , is potentially safety @-@ critical . Several commercial airline disasters have been traced to a failure of the pitot @-@ static system .
= = Pitot @-@ static pressure = =
The pitot @-@ static system of instruments uses the principle of air pressure gradient . It works by measuring pressures or pressure differences and using these values to assess the speed and altitude . These pressures can be measured either from the static port ( static pressure ) or the pitot tube ( pitot pressure ) . The static pressure is used in all measurements , while the pitot pressure is used only to determine airspeed .
= = = Pitot pressure = = =
The pitot pressure is obtained from the pitot tube . The pitot pressure is a measure of ram air pressure ( the air pressure created by vehicle motion or the air ramming into the tube ) , which , under ideal conditions , is equal to stagnation pressure , also called total pressure . The pitot tube is most often located on the wing or front section of an aircraft , facing forward , where its opening is exposed to the relative wind . By situating the pitot tube in such a location , the ram air pressure is more accurately measured since it will be less distorted by the aircraft 's structure . When airspeed increases , the ram air pressure is increased , which can be translated by the airspeed indicator .
= = = Static pressure = = =
The static pressure is obtained through a static port . The static port is most often a flush @-@ mounted hole on the fuselage of an aircraft , and is located where it can access the air flow in a relatively undisturbed area . Some aircraft may have a single static port , while others may have more than one . In situations where an aircraft has more than one static port , there is usually one located on each side of the fuselage . With this positioning , an average pressure can be taken , which allows for more accurate readings in specific flight situations . An alternative static port may be located inside the cabin of the aircraft as a backup for when the external static port ( s ) are blocked . A pitot @-@ static tube effectively integrates the static ports into the pitot probe . It incorporates a second coaxial tube ( or tubes ) with pressure sampling holes on the sides of the probe , outside the direct airflow , to measure the static pressure . When aircraft climbs , static pressure will decrease .
= = = Multiple pressure = = =
Some pitot @-@ static systems incorporate single probes that contain multiple pressure @-@ transmitting ports that allow for the sensing of air pressure , angle of attack , and angle of sideslip data . Depending on the design , such air data probes may be referred to as 5 @-@ hole or 7 @-@ hole air data probes . Differential pressure sensing techniques can be used to produce angle of attack and angle of sideslip indications .
= = Pitot @-@ static instrument = =
The pitot @-@ static system obtains pressures for interpretation by the pitot @-@ static instruments . While the explanations below explain traditional , mechanical instruments , many modern aircraft use an air data computer ( ADC ) to calculate airspeed , rate of climb , altitude and Mach number . In some aircraft , two ADCs receive total and static pressure from independent pitot tubes and static ports , and the aircraft 's flight data computer compares the information from both computers and checks one against the other . There are also " standby instruments " , which are back @-@ up pneumatic instruments employed in the case of problems with the primary instruments .
= = = Airspeed indicator = = =
The airspeed indicator is connected to both the pitot and static pressure sources . The difference between the pitot pressure and the static pressure is called dynamic pressure . The greater the dynamic pressure , the higher the airspeed reported . A traditional mechanical airspeed indicator contains a pressure diaphragm that is connected to the pitot tube . The case around the diaphragm is airtight and is vented to the static port . The higher the speed , the higher the ram pressure , the more pressure exerted on the diaphragm , and the larger the needle movement through the mechanical linkage .
= = = Altimeter = = =
The pressure altimeter , also known as the barometric altimeter , is used to determine changes in air pressure that occur as the aircraft 's altitude changes . Pressure altimeters must be calibrated prior to flight to register the pressure as an altitude above sea level . The instrument case of the altimeter is airtight and has a vent to the static port . Inside the instrument , there is a sealed aneroid barometer . As pressure in the case decreases , the internal barometer expands , which is mechanically translated into a determination of altitude . The reverse is true when descending from higher to lower altitudes .
Main errors produced in altimeter ! ! 1 ) Blockage error 2 ) Lag error 3 ) Instruments error 4 ) Position error 5 ) Temperature error 6 ) Barometric error 7 ) Transonic Jump
= = = Machmeter = = =
Aircraft designed to operate at transonic or supersonic speeds will incorporate a machmeter . The machmeter is used to show the ratio of true airspeed in relation to the speed of sound . Most supersonic aircraft are limited as to the maximum Mach number they can fly , which is known as the " Mach limit " . The Mach number is displayed on a machmeter as a decimal fraction .
= = = Vertical speed indicator = = =
The variometer , also known as the vertical speed indicator ( VSI ) or the vertical velocity indicator ( VVI ) , is the pitot @-@ static instrument used to determine whether or not an aircraft is flying in level flight . The vertical speed specifically shows the rate of climb or the rate of descent , which is measured in feet per minute or meters per second . The vertical speed is measured through a mechanical linkage to a diaphragm located within the instrument . The area surrounding the diaphragm is vented to the static port through a calibrated leak ( which also may be known as a " restricted diffuser " ) . When the aircraft begins to increase altitude , the diaphragm will begin to contract at a rate faster than that of the calibrated leak , causing the needle to show a positive vertical speed . The reverse of this situation is true when an aircraft is descending . The calibrated leak varies from model to model , but the average time for the diaphragm to equalize pressure is between 6 and 9 seconds .
= = Pitot @-@ static errors = =
There are several situations that can affect the accuracy of the pitot @-@ static instruments . Some of these involve failures of the pitot @-@ static system itself — which may be classified as " system malfunctions " — while others are the result of faulty instrument placement or other environmental factors — which may be classified as " inherent errors " .
= = = System malfunctions = = =
= = = = Blocked pitot tube = = = =
A blocked pitot tube is a pitot @-@ static problem that will only affect airspeed indicators . A blocked pitot tube will cause the airspeed indicator to register an increase in airspeed when the aircraft climbs , even though actual airspeed is constant . This is caused by the pressure in the pitot system remaining constant when the atmospheric pressure ( and static pressure ) are decreasing . In reverse , the airspeed indicator will show a decrease in airspeed when the aircraft descends . The pitot tube is susceptible to becoming clogged by ice , water , insects or some other obstruction . For this reason , aviation regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) recommend that the pitot tube be checked for obstructions prior to any flight . To prevent icing , many pitot tubes are equipped with a heating element . A heated pitot tube is required in all aircraft certificated for instrument flight except aircraft certificated as Experimental Amateur @-@ Built .
= = = = Blocked static port = = = =
A blocked static port is a more serious situation because it affects all pitot @-@ static instruments . One of the most common causes of a blocked static port is airframe icing . A blocked static port will cause the altimeter to freeze at a constant value , the altitude at which the static port became blocked . The vertical speed indicator will become frozen at zero and will not change at all , even if vertical speed increases or decreases . The airspeed indicator will reverse the error that occurs with a clogged pitot tube and cause the airspeed to be read less than it actually is as the aircraft climbs . When the aircraft is descending , the airspeed will be over @-@ reported . In most aircraft with unpressurized cabins , an alternative static source is available and can be selected from within the cockpit .
= = = Inherent errors = = =
Inherent errors may fall into several categories , each affecting different instruments . Density errors affect instruments metering airspeed and altitude . This type of error is caused by variations of pressure and temperature in the atmosphere . A compressibility error can arise because the impact pressure will cause the air to compress in the pitot tube . At standard sea level pressure altitude the calibration equation ( see calibrated airspeed ) correctly accounts for the compression so there is no compressibility error at sea level . At higher altitudes the compression is not correctly accounted for and will cause the instrument to read greater than equivalent airspeed . A correction may be obtained from a chart . Compressibility error becomes significant at altitudes above 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) and at airspeeds greater than 200 knots ( 370 km / h ) . Hysteresis is an error that is caused by mechanical properties of the aneroid capsules located within the instruments . These capsules , used to determine pressure differences , have physical properties that resist change by retaining a given shape , even though the external forces may have changed . Reversal errors are caused by a false static pressure reading . This false reading may be caused by abnormally large changes in an aircraft 's pitch . A large change in pitch will cause a momentary showing of movement in the opposite direction . Reversal errors primarily affect altimeters and vertical speed indicators .
= = = = Position errors = = = =
Another class of inherent errors is that of position error . A position error is produced by the aircraft 's static pressure being different from the air pressure remote from the aircraft . This error is caused by the air flowing past the static port at a speed different from the aircraft 's true airspeed . Position errors may provide positive or negative errors , depending on one of several factors . These factors include airspeed , angle of attack , aircraft weight , acceleration , aircraft configuration , and in the case of helicopters , rotor downwash . There are two categories of position errors , which are " fixed errors " and " variable errors " . Fixed errors are defined as errors which are specific to a particular model of aircraft . Variable errors are caused by external factors such as deformed panels obstructing the flow of air , or particular situations which may overstress the aircraft .
= = = = Lag errors = = = =
Lag errors are caused by the fact that any changes in the static or dynamic pressure outside the aircraft require a finite amount of time to make their way down the tubing and affect the gauges . This type of error depends on the length and diameter of the tubing as well as the volume inside the gauges . Lag error is only significant around the time when the airspeed or altitude are changing . It is not a concern for steady level flight .
= = Pitot @-@ static related disasters = =
1 December 1974 — Northwest Airlines Flight 6231 , a Boeing 727 , crashed northwest of John F. Kennedy International Airport during climb en route to Buffalo Niagara International Airport because of blockage of the pitot tubes by atmospheric icing .
6 February 1996 — Birgenair Flight 301 crashed into the sea shortly after takeoff due to incorrect readings from the airspeed indicator . The suspected cause is a blocked pitot tube ( this was never confirmed , as the airplane wreck was not recovered ) .
2 October 1996 — Aeroperú Flight 603 crashed because of blockage of the static ports . The static ports on the left side of the aircraft had been taped over while the aircraft was being waxed and cleaned . After the job was done , the tape was not removed .
February 23 , 2008 — B @-@ 2 bomber crash in Guam caused by moisture on sensors .
1 June 2009 — The French air safety authority BEA said that pitot tube icing was a contributing factor in the crash of Air France Flight 447 .
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= The Boat Race 1878 =
The 35th Boat Race took place on 13 April 1878 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In total , ten former Blues took part in the contest . The race was umpired by former rower Joseph William Chitty and Oxford won by a margin of 10 lengths in a time of 22 minutes 15 seconds . The victory took the overall record to 18 – 16 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Neither crew went into the race as reigning champions – the previous year 's race had been declared a " dead heat " . However Oxford held the overall lead , with 17 victories to Cambridge 's 16 .
Cambridge 's coach was James Brooks Close ( who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1872 , 1873 and 1874 races ) . Oxford were coached by William Grenfell ( who had rowed for the Dark Blues the previous year and was rowing at number four in 1878 ) , A. J. Mulholland ( who rowed in 1877 ) and Edmund Warre ( who represented the Oxford in the 1857 and the 1858 races ) .
The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle and the finishing judge was E. H. Fairrie .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 3 @.@ 675 lb ( 77 @.@ 7 kg ) , 6 @.@ 875 pounds ( 3 @.@ 1 kg ) more than their opponents . Cambridge saw four former Blues return , including the cox George Latham Davies who was taking part in his fourth consecutive Boat Race . Oxford 's crew included six individuals with experience of the race , with boat club president Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss making his fourth appearance in the event . Drinkwater suggested that the Oxford crew was the " best ... up to that date " .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . The race commenced at 10.15am. Out @-@ rating Oxford by four strokes per minute , Cambridge took an early lead and were half a length ahead after the first minute . They held the lead round the bend which favoured them but as the river curved to favour Oxford , the Dark Blues quickly overtook , even with the slower stroke rate . They were at least half @-@ a @-@ length clear at the Crab Tree pub which they had extended to four lengths by Hammersmith Bridge . Oxford won by 40 seconds ( approximately 10 lengths ) in a time of 22 minutes and 15 seconds , their second victory in nine years , which took the overall record to 18 – 16 in their favour .
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= Star Trek ( film ) =
Star Trek is a 2009 American science fiction adventure film directed by J. J. Abrams , written by Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman and distributed by Paramount Pictures . It is the 11th film of the Star Trek film franchise and is also a reboot that features the main characters of the original Star Trek television series , portrayed by a new cast and the first in the reboot series . The film follows James T. Kirk ( Chris Pine ) and Spock ( Zachary Quinto ) aboard the USS Enterprise as they combat Nero ( Eric Bana ) , a Romulan from their future who threatens the United Federation of Planets . The story takes place in an alternate reality because of time travel by both Nero and the original Spock ( Leonard Nimoy ) . The alternate timeline was created in an attempt to free the film and the franchise from established continuity constraints while simultaneously preserving original story elements .
Development for Star Trek originated in 1968 , when creator Gene Roddenberry announced plans to produce a prequel modeled after the television series . The concept resurfaced temporarily in the late 1980s , when it was postulated by Harve Bennett as a possible plotline for the movie that would become Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country , but was rejected in lieu of other projects by Roddenberry . Following the critical and commercial failure of Star Trek : Nemesis and the cancellation of the television series Star Trek : Enterprise , franchise executive producer Rick Berman and screenwriter Erik Jendresen wrote an unproduced film , titled Star Trek : The Beginning , which would take place after Enterprise . After the separation between Viacom and CBS Corporation , former Paramount president Gail Berman convinced CBS to produce a feature film . Orci and Kurtzman , both fans of the Star Trek series , were approached to write the film and Abrams was approached to direct it . Kurtzman and Orci used inspiration from novels and graduate school dissertations as well as the series itself .
Principal photography commenced on November 7 , 2007 and ended on March 27 , 2008 . The film was shot in various locations around California and Utah . Abrams wanted to avoid using bluescreen and greenscreen , opting to use sets and locations instead . Heavy secrecy surrounded the film 's production and was under the fake working title Corporate Headquarters . Industrial Light & Magic used digital ships for the film , as opposed to the previous films in the franchise . Production for the film concluded by the end of 2008 .
Star Trek was heavily promoted the months preceding its release ; pre @-@ release screenings for the film premiered in select cities around the world including Austin , Texas ; Sydney , Australia ; and Calgary , Alberta . It was released in the United States and Canada on May 8 , 2009 , to positive reviews . Critics praised the character development as well as the storyline in the film . Star Trek became a box office success , grossing over $ 385 @.@ 7 million worldwide . It was nominated for several awards , including four Academy Awards at the 82nd Academy Awards , ultimately winning in the category for Best Makeup , making it the first Star Trek film to win an Academy Award . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray for the film were released on November 17 , 2009 .
The film is followed by two sequels , Star Trek Into Darkness ( 2013 ) and Star Trek Beyond ( 2016 ) with a fourth being announced .
= = Plot = =
In the 23rd century , the Federation starship USS Kelvin is investigating a " lightning storm " in space . A Romulan ship , the Narada , emerges from the storm and attacks the Kelvin . Narada 's first officer , Ayel , demands that the Kelvin 's Captain Robau come aboard to negotiate a truce . Robau is questioned about the current stardate and an " Ambassador Spock " , whom he does not recognize . Narada 's commander , Nero , kills him , and resumes attacking the Kelvin . George Kirk , the Kelvin 's first officer , orders the ship 's personnel , including his pregnant wife Winona , to abandon ship while he pilots the Kelvin on a collision course with the Narada . Kirk sacrifices his life to ensure Winona 's survival as she gives birth to James T. Kirk .
Seventeen years later , on the planet Vulcan , a young Spock is accepted to join the Vulcan Science Academy . Realizing the Academy views his human mother Amanda as a " disadvantage " , he joins Starfleet instead . On Earth , Kirk becomes a reckless but intelligent young adult . Following a bar fight with Starfleet cadets accompanying Nyota Uhura , Kirk meets Captain Christopher Pike , who encourages him to enlist in Starfleet Academy , where Kirk meets and befriends doctor Leonard McCoy .
Three years later , Commander Spock accuses Kirk of cheating during the Kobayashi Maru simulation . Kirk argues that cheating was acceptable because the simulation was designed to be unbeatable . The disciplinary hearing is interrupted by a distress signal from Vulcan . With the primary fleet out of range , the cadets are mobilized . McCoy and Kirk board Pike 's ship , the Enterprise . Realizing that the " lightning storm " observed near Vulcan is similar to the one that occurred when he was born , Kirk breaks protocol to convince Pike that the distress signal is a trap .
Enterprise finds the fleet destroyed and the Narada drilling into Vulcan 's core . The Narada attacks the Enterprise and Pike surrenders , delegating command of the ship to Spock and promoting Kirk to first officer . Kirk , Hikaru Sulu and Chief Engineer Olson perform a space jump onto the drilling platform . Olson is killed but Kirk and Sulu disable the drill . Despite their efforts , Nero launches " red matter " into Vulcan 's core , forming an artificial black hole that destroys Vulcan . Spock rescues the high council and his father Sarek , but Amanda dies .
As the Narada moves toward Earth , Nero tortures Pike to gain access to Earth 's defense codes . Spock maroons Kirk on Delta Vega after Kirk attempts mutiny . Kirk encounters an older Spock , who explains that he and Nero are from 129 years in the future . In that future , Romulus was threatened by a supernova . Spock 's attempt to use " red matter " to create an artificial black hole and consume the supernova failed , and Nero 's family perished along with Romulus . The Narada and Spock 's vessel were caught in the black hole , sending them back in time . Nero stranded Spock on Delta Vega to watch Vulcan 's destruction .
Reaching a Starfleet outpost , Kirk and the elder Spock meet Montgomery Scott . With the elder Spock 's help , Kirk and Scott beam onto the Enterprise . Following the elder Spock 's advice , Kirk provokes younger Spock into attacking him , forcing Spock to recognize he is emotionally compromised and relinquish command to Kirk . After talking with Sarek , Spock decides to help Kirk . While the Enterprise hides itself within the gas clouds of Titan , Kirk and Spock beam aboard the Narada . Kirk fights with Nero and Ayel , killing the latter and rescuing Pike while Spock uses the elder Spock 's ship to destroy the drill . Spock leads the Narada away from Earth and sets his ship to collide with Nero 's ship . Enterprise beams Kirk , Pike and Spock aboard . The older Spock 's ship and the Narada collide , igniting the " red matter " . Kirk offers Nero help to escape , but Nero refuses , prompting Kirk to give the order to fire , dooming the Narada to be consumed in a black hole .
Kirk is promoted to Captain and given command of the Enterprise while Pike is promoted to Rear Admiral . Spock encounters his older self , who persuades his younger self to continue serving in Starfleet , encouraging him to do what feels right instead of what is logical . Spock remains in Starfleet , becoming first officer under Kirk 's command . The Enterprise goes to warp as the elder Spock speaks the " where no one has gone before " monologue .
= = Cast = =
Chris Pine as James T. Kirk
Pine described his first audition as " awful " , because he could not take himself seriously as a leader . Abrams did not see Pine 's first audition , and it was only after Pine 's agent met Abrams ' wife that the director decided to give him another audition opposite Quinto . Quinto was supportive of Pine 's casting because they knew each other as they worked out at the same gym . After getting the part , Pine sent William Shatner a letter and received a reply containing Shatner 's approval . Pine watched classic episodes and read encyclopedias about the Star Trek universe , but stopped as he felt weighed down by the feeling he had to copy Shatner . Pine felt he had to show Kirk 's " humor , arrogance and decisiveness , " but not Shatner 's speech pattern , which would have bordered on imitation . Pine said when watching the original series , he was also struck by how Shatner 's performance was characterized by humor . Instead , Pine chose to incorporate elements of Tom Cruise from Top Gun and Harrison Ford 's portrayals of Indiana Jones and Han Solo . Chris Pratt also auditioned for the role.Jimmy Bennett portrays a younger Kirk .
Zachary Quinto as Spock
The younger alternate timeline Spock . Quinto expressed interest in the role because of the duality of Spock 's half @-@ human , half @-@ Vulcan heritage , and how " he is constantly exploring that notion of how to evolve in a responsible way and how to evolve in a respectful way . I think those are all things that we as a society , and certainly the world , could implement . " He mentioned he heard about the new film and revealed his interest in the role in a December 2006 interview with the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette : the article was widely circulated and he attracted Abrams ' interest . For the audition , Quinto wore a blue shirt and flattened his hair down to feel more like Spock . He bound his fingers to practice the Vulcan salute , shaved his eyebrows and grew and dyed his hair for the role . He conveyed many of Spock 's attributes , such as his stillness and the way Nimoy would hold his hands behind his back . Quinto commented the physical transformation aided in portraying an alien , joking " I just felt like a nerd . I felt like I was 12 again . You look back at those pictures and you see the bowl cut . There 's no question I was born to play the Spock role . I was sporting that look for a good four or five years . The film officially establishes ( to Kirk 's surprise ) that Uhura and Spock are lovers and have been romantically linked for some time , a point which had never been previously explored on TV or in film . " Adrien Brody had discussed playing the role with the director before Quinto was cast.Jacob Kogan portrays a younger Spock .
Eric Bana as Captain Nero
The film 's time @-@ traveling Romulan villain . Bana shot his scenes toward the end of filming . He wasn 't " a huge Trekkie when [ he ] was a kid " , and he had not seen the films . Even though he was " crazy about the original series , " he would not have accepted the role unless he liked the script , which he deemed " awesome " once he read it . Bana knew Abrams because they coincidentally shared the same agent . Bana improvised the character 's speech patterns .
Leonard Nimoy as Spock Prime : Nimoy reprises the role of the older Spock from the original Star Trek timeline , credited as " Spock Prime " . He is a longtime friend of Abrams ' parents , but became better acquainted with Abrams during filming . Although Quinto watched some episodes of the show during breaks in filming , Nimoy was his main resource in playing Spock . Abrams and the writers met Nimoy at his house ; writer Roberto Orci recalled the actor gave a " ' Who are you guys and what are you up to ? ' vibe " before being told how important he was to them . He was silent , and Nimoy 's wife Susan Bay told the creative team he had remained in his chair after their conversation , emotionally overwhelmed by his decision after turning down many opportunities to revisit the role . Had Nimoy disliked the script , production would have been delayed for it to be rewritten . Nimoy later said , " This is the first and only time I ever had a filmmaker say , ' We cannot make this film without you and we won 't make it without you ' " . He was " genuinely excited " by the script 's scope and its detailing of the characters ' backstories , saying , " We have dealt with [ Spock being half @-@ human , half @-@ Vulcan ] , but never with quite the overview that this script has of the entire history of the character , the growth of the character , the beginnings of the character and the arrival of the character into the Enterprise crew . " Abrams said " it was surreal to direct him as Spock , because what the hell am I doing there ? This guy has been doing it for forty years . It 's like ' I think Spock would ... ' "
Zoe Saldana as Nyota Uhura
Abrams asked her to play the role because he had seen her previous work and liked it . Saldana had never seen the original series , though she had played a Trekkie in The Terminal ( 2004 ) , but agreed to play the role after Abrams complimented her . " For an actor , that 's all you need , that 's all you want . To get the acknowledgment and respect from your peers , " she said . She met with Nichelle Nichols , who explained to her how she had created Uhura 's background and had named the character . Saldana 's mother was a Star Trek fan and sent her voice mails during filming , giving advice on the part . Sydney Tamiia Poitier also auditioned for the part . The film officially establishes the character 's first name , which had never been previously uttered on TV or in film . It also establishes ( in an officially discreet manner ) that Uhura and Spock are , in fact , lovers and had been romantically linked for some time during the film .
Karl Urban as Dr. Leonard " Bones " McCoy
Like Pine , Urban said of taking on the role that " it is a case of not doing some sort of facsimile or carbon copy , but really taking the very essence of what DeForest Kelley has done and honoring that and bringing something new to the table " . Urban has been a fan of the show since he was seven years old and actively pursued the role after rediscovering the series on DVD with his son . Urban was cast at his first audition , which was two months after his initial meeting with Abrams . He said he was happy to play a role with lots of comedy , something he had not done since The Price of Milk , because he was tired of action @-@ oriented roles . When asked why McCoy is so cantankerous , Urban joked the character might be a " little bipolar actually ! " Orci and Kurtzman had collaborated with Urban on Xena : Warrior Princess , in which he played Cupid and Caesar .
Simon Pegg as Montgomery " Scotty " Scott
Abrams contacted Pegg by e @-@ mail , offering him the part . To achieve Scotty 's accent , Pegg was assisted by his wife Maureen , who is from Glasgow , although Pegg said that Scotty was from Linlithgow and that he therefore wanted his accent to sound more East Coast Scottish . As a result , the accent he used is a mixture of both , although it leans more towards the West sound . He was also aided by James Doohan 's son , Chris , and Tommy Gormley , the film 's Glaswegian first assistant director . Pegg described Scotty as a positive Scottish stereotype , noting " Scots are the first people to laugh at the fact that they drink and fight a bit " , and that Scotty comes from a long line of Scots with technical expertise , such as John Logie Baird and Alexander Graham Bell . Years before , Pegg 's character in Spaced joked that every odd @-@ numbered Star Trek film being " shit " was a fact of life . Pegg noted " Fate put me in the movie to show me I was talking out of my ass . "
John Cho as Hikaru Sulu
Abrams had at first been concerned about casting a Korean @-@ American as a Japanese character , but George Takei reassured him that Sulu had been meant to represent all of Asia on the Enterprise , so Abrams went ahead with Cho . Cho acknowledged that being an Asian @-@ American , " there are certain acting roles that you are never going to get , and one of them is playing a cowboy . [ Playing Sulu ] is a realization of that dream – going into space . " He cited the masculinity of the character as being important to him , and spent two weeks fight training . Although Cho suffered an injury to his wrist during filming , a representative reassured the public that the injury was " no big deal " . James Kyson Lee had originally been interested in playing the part of Sulu , but both he and Quinto , who had already been cast as Spock , were at the time members of the cast of the television series Heroes , and its producers told Lee they did not want to lose another cast member for three months .
Anton Yelchin as Pavel Chekov
As with the rest of the cast , Yelchin was allowed to choose what elements there were from their predecessor 's performances . Yelchin decided to carry on Walter Koenig 's speech patterns of replacing " v " s with " w " s , although he and Abrams felt this was a trait more common of Polish accents than Russian ones . He described Chekov as an odd character , being a Russian who was brought on to the show " in the middle of the Cold War . " He recalled a " scene where they 're talking to Apollo [ who says ] , ' I am Apollo . ' And Chekov is like , ' And I am the czar of all the Russias . ' [ ... ] They gave him these lines . I mean he really is the weirdest , weirdest character . "
Bruce Greenwood as Christopher Pike , the captain of the Enterprise .
Ben Cross as Sarek , Spock 's father .
Winona Ryder as Amanda Grayson , Spock 's mother .
Clifton Collins , Jr. as Ayel , Nero 's first officer .
Chris Hemsworth plays George Kirk , James Tiberius Kirk 's father , who dies aboard the USS Kelvin while battling Nero , Mark Wahlberg was also approached for the role . Faran Tahir plays Kelvin captain Richard Robau . Winona Kirk , Kirk 's mother , is played by Jennifer Morrison . Greg Ellis plays Chief Engineer Olson , the redshirt who is killed during the space jump .
Additional minor roles include Rachel Nichols as Gaila , an Orion Starfleet cadet ; Deep Roy as Scotty 's alien ( Royla ) assistant Keenser ; and Paul McGillion as a Starfleet barracks leader . Chris Doohan , the son of the original Scotty , James Doohan , makes a cameo appearance in the transporter room as Lt. Kyle . Some characters had their scenes substantially or entirely cut from the film , including Brad William Henke as Kirk 's stepfather ( the character 's lines in the film were spoken by Greg Grunberg ) . Spencer Daniels originally played Kirk 's older brother , George Samuel " Sam " Kirk , Jr . , but the majority of his scenes were cut and the opening car chase scene where Kirk can be heard calling out to him was overdubbed . Victor Garber plays a Klingon interrogator who tortures Nero during his time on Rura Penthe .
Tyler Perry appears as the head of Starfleet Academy , Admiral Richard Barnett . James Cawley , producer and star of the web series Star Trek : New Voyages , appears as a Starfleet officer , while Pasha Lychnikoff and Lucia Rijker play Romulans , Lychnikoff a Commander and Rijker a Communications Officer . W. Morgan Sheppard , who played a Klingon in Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country , as well as Data 's allegorical grandfather in the TNG episode " The Schizoid Man " , appears in this film as the head of the Vulcan Science Council . Wil Wheaton , known for portraying Wesley Crusher on Star Trek : The Next Generation , was brought in , through urging by Greg Grunberg , to voice several of the other Romulans in the film . Star Trek fan and Carnegie Mellon University professor Randy Pausch cameoed as a Kelvin crew member , and has a line of dialogue . Majel Barrett , the widow of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry , reprised her role as the voice of the Enterprise 's computer , which she completed two weeks before her death on December 18 , 2008 .
Orci and Kurtzman wrote a scene for Shatner , in which old Spock gives his younger self a recorded message by Kirk from the previous timeline . " It was basically a Happy Birthday wish knowing that Spock was going to go off to Romulus , and Kirk would probably be dead by the time , " and it would have shifted into Shatner reciting " Where no man has gone before " . However , Shatner wanted to share Nimoy 's major role , and did not want a cameo , despite his character 's death in Star Trek Generations . He suggested the film canonize his novels where Kirk is resurrected , but Abrams decided if his character was accompanying Nimoy 's , it would have become a film about the resurrection of Kirk , and not about introducing the new versions of the characters . Nimoy disliked the character 's death in Generations , but also felt resurrecting Kirk would be detrimental to this film , and his friendship with Shatner caused them to avoid discussing the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
As early as the 1968 World Science Fiction Convention , Star Trek creator Roddenberry had said he was going to make a film prequel to the television series . But the prequel concept did not resurface until the late 1980s , when Ralph Winter and Harve Bennett submitted a proposal for a prequel during development of the fourth film . Roddenberry rejected Bennett 's prequel proposal in 1991 , after the completion of Star Trek V : The Final Frontier . Then David Loughery wrote a script entitled The Academy Years , but it was shelved in light of objections from Roddenberry and the fanbase . The film that was commissioned instead ended up being Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country . In February 2005 , after the financial failure of the tenth film , Star Trek : Nemesis ( 2002 ) , and the cancellation of the television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the franchise 's executive producer Rick Berman and screenwriter Erik Jendresen began developing a new film entitled Star Trek : The Beginning . It was to revolve around a new set of characters , led by Kirk 's ancestor Tiberius Chase , and be set during the Earth @-@ Romulan War — after the events of Enterprise but before the events of the original series .
In 2005 , Viacom , which owned Paramount Pictures , separated from CBS Corporation , which retained Paramount 's television properties , including ownership of the Star Trek brand . Gail Berman , then president of Paramount , convinced CBS ' chief executive , Leslie Moonves , to allow them eighteen months to develop a new Star Trek film before CBS would re @-@ earn the rights to develop a new television series ( in return , CBS would keep merchandising rights ) . Berman approached Mission : Impossible III writers Orci and Kurtzman for ideas on the new film , and after the film had completed shooting she asked their director , Abrams , to produce it . Abrams , Orci and Kurtzman , plus producers Damon Lindelof and Bryan Burk , felt the franchise had explored enough of what took place after the series , Orci and Lindelof consider themselves trekkies , and feel some of the Star Trek novels have canonical value , although Roddenberry never considered the novels to be canon . Kurtzman is a casual fan , while Burk was not . Abrams ' company , Bad Robot Productions produced the film with Paramount , marking the first time another company had financed a Star Trek film . Bill Todman , Jr . ' s Level 1 Entertainment also co @-@ produced the film , but , during 2008 , Spyglass Entertainment replaced them as financial partner .
In an interview , Abrams said that he had never seen Star Trek : Nemesis because he felt the franchise had " disconnected " from the original series . For him , he said , Star Trek was about Kirk and Spock , and the other series were like " separate space adventure [ s ] with the name Star Trek " . He also acknowledged that as a child he had actually preferred the Star Wars movies . He noted that his general knowledge of Star Trek made him well suited to introduce the franchise to newcomers , and that , being an optimistic person , he would make Star Trek an optimistic film , which would be a refreshing contrast to the likes of The Dark Knight . He added that he loved the focus on exploration in Star Trek and the idea of the Prime Directive , which forbids Starfleet to interfere in the development of primitive worlds , but that , because of the budgetary limitations of the original series , it had " never had the resources to actually show the adventure " . He noted he only became involved with the project as producer initially because he wanted to help Orci , Kurtzman and Lindelof .
On February 23 , 2007 , Abrams accepted Paramount 's offer to direct the film , after having initially been attached to it solely as a producer . He explained that he had decided to direct the film because , after reading the script , he realized that he " would be so agonizingly envious of whoever stepped in and directed the movie . " Orci and Kurtzman said that their aim had been to impress a casual fan like Abrams with their story . Abrams noted that , during filming , he had been nervous " with all these tattooed faces and pointy ears , bizarre weaponry and Romulan linguists , with dialogue about ' Neutral Zones ' and ' Starfleet ' [ but ] I knew this would work , because the script Alex and Bob wrote was so emotional and so relatable . I didn 't love Kirk and Spock when I began this journey – but I love them now . "
= = = Writing = = =
Orci said getting Nimoy in the film was important . " Having him sitting around a camp fire sharing his memories was never gonna cut it " though , and time travel was going to be included in the film from the beginning . Kurtzman added , saying the time travel creates jeopardy , unlike other prequels where viewers " know how they all died " . The writers acknowledged time travel had been overused in the other series , but it served a good purpose in creating a new set of adventures for the original characters before they could completely do away with it in other films . Abrams selected the Romulans as the villains because they had been featured less than the Klingons in the series , and thought it was " fun " to have them meet Kirk before they do in the series . Orci and Kurtzman noted it would feel backward to demonize the Klingons again after they had become heroes in later Star Trek series , and the Romulan presence continues Spock 's story from his last chronological appearance in " Unification " , an episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation set in 2368 . The episode of the original continuity in which Kirk becomes the first human to ever see a Romulan , " Balance of Terror " , served as one of the influences for the film . Orci said it was difficult giving a good explanation for the time travel without being gimmicky , like having Nero specifically seeking to assassinate Kirk .
Orci noted while the time travel story allowed them to alter some backstory elements such as Kirk 's first encounter with the Romulans , they could not use it as a crutch to change everything and they tried to approach the film as a prequel as much as possible . Kirk 's service on the Farragut , a major backstory point to the original episode " Obsession " , was left out because it was deemed irrelevant to the story of Kirk meeting Spock , although Orci felt nothing in his script precluded it from the new film 's backstory . There was a scene involving Kirk meeting Carol Marcus ( who is revealed as the mother of his son in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan ) as a child , but it was dropped because the film needed more time to introduce the core characters . Figuring out ways to get the crew together required some contrivances , which Orci and Kurtzman wanted to explain from old Spock as a way of the timeline mending itself , highlighting the theme of destiny . The line was difficult to write and was ultimately cut out .
The filmmakers sought inspiration from novels such as Prime Directive , Spock 's World and Best Destiny to fill in gaps unexplained by canon ; Best Destiny particularly explores Kirk 's childhood and names his parents . One idea that was justified through information from the novels was having the Enterprise built on Earth , which was inspired by a piece of fan art of the Enterprise being built in a shipyard . Orci had sent the fan art to Abrams to show how realistic the film could be . Orci explained parts of the ship would have to be constructed on Earth because of the artificial gravity employed on the ship and its requirement for sustaining warp speed , and therefore the calibration of the ship 's machinery would be best done in the exact gravity well which is to be simulated . They felt free to have the ship built in Iowa because canon is ambiguous as to whether it was built in San Francisco , but this is a result of the time travel rather than something intended to overlap with the original timeline . Abrams noted the continuity of the original series itself was inconsistent at times .
Orci and Kurtzman said they wanted the general audience to like the film as much as the fans , by stripping away " Treknobabble " , making it action @-@ packed and giving it the simple title of Star Trek to indicate to newcomers they would not need to watch any of the other films . Abrams saw humor and sex appeal as two integral and popular elements of the show that needed to be maintained . Orci stated being realistic and being serious were not the same thing . Abrams , Burk , Lindelof , Orci and Kurtzman were fans of The Wrath of Khan , and also cited The Next Generation episode " Yesterday 's Enterprise " as an influence . Abrams ' wife Katie was regularly consulted on the script , as were Orci , Kurtzman and Lindelof 's wives , to make the female characters as strong as possible . Katie Abrams ' approval of the strong female characters was partly why Abrams signed on to direct .
Orci and Kurtzman read graduate school dissertations on the series for inspiration ; they noted comparisons of Kirk , Spock and McCoy to Shakespearian archetypes , and Kirk and Spock 's friendship echoing that of John Lennon and Paul McCartney . They also noted that , in the creation of this film , they were influenced by Star Wars , particularly in pacing . " I want to feel the space , I want to feel speed and I want to feel all the things that can become a little bit lost when Star Trek becomes very stately " said Orci . Star Wars permeated in the way they wrote the action sequences , while Burk noted Kirk and Spock 's initially cold relationship mirrors how " Han Solo wasn 't friends with anyone when they started on their journey . " Spock and Uhura were put in an actual relationship as a nod to early episodes highlighting her interest in him . Orci wanted to introduce strong Starfleet captains , concurring with an interviewer that most captains in other films were " patsies " included to make Kirk look greater by comparison .
The USS Kelvin , the ship Kirk 's father serves on , is named after J.J. Abrams ' grandfather , as well as the physicist and engineer Lord Kelvin ( William Thomson ) . The Kelvin 's captain , Richard Robau ( Faran Tahir ) , is named after Orci 's Cuban uncle : Orci theorized the fictional character was born in Cuba and grew up in the Middle East . Another reference to Abrams ' previous works is Slusho , which Uhura orders at the bar where she meets Kirk . Abrams created the fictitious drink for Alias and it reappeared in viral marketing for Cloverfield . Its owner , Tagruato , is also from Cloverfield and appears on a building in San Francisco . The red matter in the film is in the shape of a red ball , an Abrams motif dating back to the pilot of Alias .
= = = Design = = =
The film 's production designer was Scott Chambliss , a longtime collaborator with Abrams . Chambliss worked with a large group of concept illustrators , including James Clyne , Ryan Church , creature designer Neville Page , and Star Trek veteran John Eaves . Abrams stated the difficulty of depicting the future was that much of modern technology was inspired by the original show , and made it seem outdated . Thus the production design had to be consistent with the television series but also feel more advanced than the real world technology developed after it . " We all have the iPhone that does more than the communicator , " said Abrams . " I feel like there 's a certain thing that you can 't really hold onto , which is kind of the kitschy quality . That must go if it 's going to be something that you believe is real . " Prop master Russell Bobbitt collaborated with Nokia on recreating the original communicator , creating a $ 50 @,@ 000 prototype . Another prop recreated for the film was the tricorder . Bobbitt brought the original prop to the set , but the actors found it too large to carry when filming action scenes , so technical advisor Doug Brody redesigned it to be smaller . The phaser props were designed as spring @-@ triggered barrels that revolve and glow as the setting switches from " stun " to " kill " . An Aptera Typ @-@ 1 prototype car was used on location .
Production designer Scott Chambliss maintained the layout of the original bridge , but aesthetically altered it with brighter colors to reflect the optimism of Star Trek . The viewscreen was made into a window that could have images projected on it to make the space environment palpable . Abrams compared the redesign to the sleek modernist work of Pierre Cardin and the sets from 2001 : A Space Odyssey , which were from the 1960s . He joked the redesigned bridge made the Apple Store look " uncool " . At the director 's behest , more railings were added to the bridge to make it look safer , and the set was built on gimbals so its rocking motions when the ship accelerates and is attacked was more realistic . To emphasize the size of the ship , Abrams chose to give the engine room a highly industrial appearance : he explained to Pegg that he was inspired by RMS Titanic , a sleek ship in which there was an " incredible gut " .
Abrams selected Michael Kaplan to design the costumes because he had not seen any of the films , meaning he would approach the costumes with a new angle . For the Starfleet uniforms , Kaplan followed the show 's original color @-@ coding , with dark gray ( almost black ) undershirts and pants and colored overshirts showing each crew member 's position . Command officers wear gold shirts , science and medical officers wear blue , and operations ( technicians , engineers , and security personnel ) wear red . Kaplan wanted the shirts to be more sophisticated than the originals and selected to have the Starfleet symbol patterned on them . Kirk wears only the undershirt because he is a cadet . Kaplan modelled the uniforms on the Kelvin on science fiction films of the 1940s and 1950s , to contrast with the Enterprise @-@ era uniforms based on the ones created in the 1960s . For Abrams , " The costumes were a microcosm of the entire project , which was how to take something that 's kind of silly and make it feel real . But how do you make legitimate those near @-@ primary color costumes ? "
Lindelof compared the film 's Romulan faction to pirates with their bald , tattooed heads and disorganized costuming . Their ship , the Narada , is purely practical with visible mechanics as it is a " working ship " , unlike the Enterprise crew who give a respectable presentation on behalf of the Federation . Chambliss was heavily influenced by the architecture of Antoni Gaudí for the Narada , who created buildings that appeared to be inside out : by making the ship 's exposed wires appear like bones or ligaments , it would create a foreboding atmosphere . The ship 's interior was made of six pieces that could be rearranged to create a different room . The Romulan actors had three prosthetics applied to their ears and foreheads , while Bana had a fourth prosthetic for the bitemark on his ear that extends to the back of his character 's head . The film 's Romulans lacked the ' V ' -shaped ridges on the foreheads , which had been present in all of their depictions outside the original series . Neville Page wanted to honor that by having Nero 's crew ritually scar themselves too , forming keloids reminiscent of the ' V ' -ridges . It was abandoned as they did not pursue the idea enough . Kaplan wanted aged , worn and rugged clothes for the Romulans because of their mining backgrounds , and found some greasy looking fabrics at a flea market . Kaplan tracked down the makers of those clothes , who were discovered to be based in Bali , and commissioned them to create his designs .
Barney Burman supervised the makeup for the other aliens : his team had to rush the creation of many of the aliens , because originally the majority of them were to feature in one scene towards the end of filming . Abrams deemed the scene too similar to the cantina sequence in Star Wars and decided to dot the designs around the film . A tribble was placed in the background of Scotty 's introduction . Both digital and physical makeup was used for aliens .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for the film began on November 7 , 2007 and culminated on March 27 , 2008 ; however second unit filming occurred in Bakersfield , California in April 2008 , which stood in for Kirk 's childhood home in Iowa . Filming was also done at the City Hall of Long Beach , California ; the San Rafael Swell in Utah ; and the California State University , Northridge in Los Angeles ( which was used for establishing shots of students at Starfleet Academy ) . A parking lot outside Dodger Stadium was used for the ice planet of Delta Vega and the Romulan drilling rig on Vulcan . The filmmakers expressed an interest in Iceland for scenes on Delta Vega , but decided against it : Chambliss enjoyed the challenge of filming scenes with snow in southern California . Other Vulcan exteriors were shot at Vasquez Rocks , a location that was used in various episodes of the original series . A Budweiser plant in Van Nuys was used for the Enterprise 's engine room , while a Long Beach power plant was used for the Kelvin 's engine room .
Following the initiation of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike on November 5 , 2007 , Abrams , himself a WGA member , told Variety that while he would not render writing services for the film and intended to walk the picket line , he did not expect the strike to impact his directing of the production . In the final few weeks before the strike and start of production , Abrams and Lindelof polished the script for a final time . Abrams was frustrated that he was unable to alter lines during the strike , whereas normally they would have been able to improvise new ideas during rehearsal , although Lindelof acknowledged they could dub some lines in post @-@ production . Orci and Kurtzman were able to stay on set without strikebreaking because they were also executive producers on the film ; they could " make funny eyes and faces at the actors whenever they had a problem with the line and sort of nod when they had something better " . Abrams was able to alter a scene where Spock combats six Romulans from a fistfight to a gunfight , having decided there were too many physical brawls in the film .
The production team maintained heavily enforced security around the film . Karl Urban revealed , " [ There is a ] level of security and secrecy that we have all been forced to adopt . I mean , it 's really kind of paranoid crazy , but sort of justified . We 're not allowed to walk around in public in our costumes and we have to be herded around everywhere in these golf carts that are completely concealed and covered in black canvas . The security of it is immense . You feel your freedom is a big challenge . " Actors like Jennifer Morrison were only given the scripts of their scenes . The film 's shooting script was fiercely protected even with the main cast . Simon Pegg said , " I read [ the script ] with a security guard near me – it 's that secretive . " The film used the fake working title of Corporate Headquarters . Some of the few outside of the production allowed to visit the set included Rod Roddenberry , Ronald D. Moore , Jonathan Frakes , Walter Koenig , Nichelle Nichols , Ben Stiller , Tom Cruise and Steven Spielberg ( who had partially convinced Abrams to direct because he liked the script , and he even advised the action scenes during his visit ) .
When the shoot ended , Abrams gave the cast small boxes containing little telescopes , which allowed them to read the name of each constellation it was pointed at . " I think he just wanted each of us to look at the stars a little differently , " said John Cho . After the shoot , Abrams cut out some scenes of Kirk and Spock as children , including seeing the latter as a baby , as well as a subplot involving Nero being imprisoned by the Klingons and his escape : this explanation for his absence during Kirk 's life confused many to whom Abrams screened the film . Other scenes cut out explained that the teenage Kirk stole his stepfather 's antique car because he had forced him to clean it before an auction ; and that the Orion he seduced at the Academy worked in the operations division . Afterwards , she agrees to open the e @-@ mail containing his patch that allows him to pass the Kobayashi Maru test .
Abrams chose to shoot the film in the anamorphic format on 35 mm film after discussions about whether the film should be shot in high @-@ definition digital video . Cinematographer Dan Mindel and Abrams agreed the choice gave the film a big @-@ screen feel and the realistic , organic look they wanted for the film setting . Abrams and Mindel used lens flares throughout filming to create an optimistic atmosphere and a feeling that activity was taking place off @-@ camera , making the Star Trek universe feel more real . " There 's something about those flares , especially in a movie that potentially could be incredibly sterile and CG and overly controlled . There 's just something incredibly unpredictable and gorgeous about them . " Mindel would create more flares by shining a flashlight or pointing a mirror at the camera lens , or using two cameras simultaneously and therefore two lighting set @-@ ups . Editor Mary Jo Markey later said in interview that he had not told her ( or fellow editor Maryann Brandon ) this , and initially contacted the film developers asking why the film seemed overexposed .
= = = Effects = = =
Industrial Light & Magic and Digital Domain were among several companies that created over 1 @,@ 000 special effect shots . The visual effects supervisors were Roger Guyett , who collaborated with Abrams on Mission : Impossible III and also served as second unit director , and Russell Earl . Abrams avoided shooting only against bluescreen and greenscreen , because it " makes me insane " , using them instead to extend the scale of sets and locations . The Delta Vega sequence required the mixing of digital snow with real snow .
Star Trek was the first film ILM worked on using entirely digital ships . The Enterprise was intended by Abrams to be a merging of its design in the series and the refitted version from the original film . Abrams had fond memories of the revelation of the Enterprise 's refit in Star Trek : The Motion Picture , because it was the first time the ship felt tangible and real to him . The iridescent pattern on the ship from The Motion Picture was maintained to give the ship depth , while model maker Roger Goodson also applied the " Aztec " pattern from The Next Generation . Goodson recalled Abrams also wanted to bring a " hot rod " aesthetic to the ship . Effects supervisor Roger Guyett wanted the ship to have more moving parts , which stemmed from his childhood dissatisfaction with the ship 's design : The new Enterprise 's dish can expand and move , while the fins on its engines split slightly when they begin warping . The Enterprise was originally redesigned by Ryan Church using features of the original , at 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) long , but was doubled in size to 2 @,@ 357 feet ( 718 m ) long to make it seem " grander " , while the Romulan Narada is five miles long and several miles wide . The filmmakers had to simulate lens flares on the ships in keeping with the film 's cinematography .
Carolyn Porco of NASA was consulted on the planetary science and imagery . The animators realistically recreated what an explosion would look like in space : short blasts , which suck inward and leave debris from a ship floating . For shots of an imploding planet , the same explosion program was used to simulate it breaking up , while the animators could manually composite multiple layers of rocks and wind sucking into the planet . Unlike other Star Trek films and series , the transporter beam effects swirl rather than speckle . Abrams conceived the redesign to emphasize the notion of transporters as beams that can pick up and move people , rather than a signal composed of scrambled atoms .
Lola Visual Effects worked on 48 shots , including some animation to Bana and Nimoy . Bana required extensive damage to his teeth , which was significant enough to completely replace his mouth in some shots . Nimoy 's mouth was reanimated in his first scene with Kirk following a rerecording session . The filmmakers had filmed Nimoy when he rerecorded his lines so they could rotoscope his mouth into the film , even recreating the lighting conditions , but they realized they had to digitally recreate his lips because of the bouncing light created by the camp fire .
= = = Music = = =
Michael Giacchino , Abrams ' most frequent collaborator , composed the music for Star Trek . He kept the original theme by Alexander Courage for the end credits , which Abrams said symbolized the momentum of the crew coming together . Giacchino admitted personal pressure in scoring the film , as " I grew up listening to all of that great [ Trek ] music , and that 's part of what inspired me to do what I 'm doing [ ... ] You just go in scared . You just hope you do your best . It 's one of those things where the film will tell me what to do . " Scoring took place at the Sony Scoring Stage with a 107 @-@ piece orchestra and 40 @-@ person choir . An erhu , performed by Karen Han , was used for the Vulcan themes . A distorted recording was used for the Romulans . Varèse Sarabande , the record label responsible for releasing albums of Giacchino 's previous scores for Alias , Lost , Mission : Impossible III , and Speed Racer , released the soundtrack for the film on May 5 . The music for the theatrical trailers were composed by Two Steps from Hell .
= = = Sound effects = = =
The sound effects were designed by Star Wars veteran Ben Burtt . Whereas the phaser blast noises from the television series were derived from The War of the Worlds ( 1953 ) , Burtt made his phaser sounds more like his blasters from Star Wars , because Abrams ' depiction of phasers were closer to the blasters ' bullet @-@ like fire , rather than the steady beams of energy in previous Star Trek films . Burtt reproduced the classic photon torpedo and warp drive sounds : he tapped a long spring against a contact microphone , and combined that with cannon fire . Burtt used a 1960s oscillator to create a musical and emotional hum to the warping and transporting sounds .
= = Release = =
In February 2008 , Paramount announced they would move Star Trek from its December 25 , 2008 release date to May 8 , 2009 , as the studio felt more people would see the film during summer than winter . The film was practically finished by the end of 2008 . Paramount 's decision came about after visiting the set and watching dailies , as they realized the film could appeal to a much broader audience . Even though the filmmakers liked the Christmas release date , Damon Lindelof acknowledged it would allow more time to perfect the visual effects . The months @-@ long gap between the completion of the production and release meant Alan Dean Foster was allowed to watch the whole film before writing the novelization , although the novel would contain scenes absent from the final edit . Quinto narrated the audiobook .
A surprise public screening was held on April 6 , 2009 , at the Alamo Drafthouse theater in Austin , Texas , hosted by writers Robert Orci , Alex Kurtzman , and producer Damon Lindelof . The showing was publicized as a screening of Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan , followed by a ten @-@ minute preview of the new Star Trek film . A few minutes into Khan , the film appeared to melt and Nimoy appeared on stage with Orci , Kurtzman and Lindelof , asking the audience , " wouldn 't you rather see the new movie ? " Following the surprise screening in Texas , the first of many premieres across the world was held at the Sydney Opera House in Sydney on April 7 , 2009 . For almost two years , the town of Vulcan , Alberta had campaigned to have the film premiere there , but because it had no theater , Paramount arranged instead a lottery where 300 winning residents would be taken to a prerelease screening in Calgary .
= = = Marketing = = =
The first teaser trailer debuted in theaters with Cloverfield on January 18 , 2008 , which showed the Enterprise under construction . Abrams himself directed the first part of the trailer , where a welder removes his goggles . Professional welders were hired for the teaser . The voices of the 1960s played over the trailer were intended to link the film to the present day ; John F. Kennedy in particular was chosen because of similarities with the character of James T. Kirk and because he is seen to have " kicked off " the Space Race . Orci explained that : " If we do indeed have a Federation , I think Kennedy ’ s words will be inscribed in there someplace . " Star Trek 's later trailers would win four awards , including Best in Show , in the tenth annual Golden Trailer Awards .
Paramount faced two obstacles in promoting the film : the unfamiliarity of the " MySpace generation " with the franchise and the relatively weak international performance of the previous films . Six months before the film 's release , Abrams toured Europe and North America with 25 minutes of footage . Abrams noted the large @-@ scale campaign started unusually early , but this was because the release delay allowed him to show more completed scenes than normal . The director preferred promoting his projects quietly , but concurred Paramount needed to remove Star Trek 's stigma . Abrams would exaggerate his preference for other shows to Star Trek as a child to the press , with statements like " I 'm not a Star Trek fan " and " this movie is not made for Star Trek fans necessarily " . Orci compared Abrams ' approach to The Next Generation episode " A Matter of Honor " , where William Riker is stationed aboard a Klingon vessel . " On that ship when someone talks back to you , you would have to beat them down or you lose the respect of your crew , which is protocol , whereas on a Federation ship that would be a crime . So we have to give [ J. J. Abrams ] a little bit of leeway , when he is traveling the ' galaxy ' over there where they don 't know Trek , to say the things that need to be said in order to get people onto our side . "
Promotional partners on the film include Nokia , Verizon Wireless , Esurance , Kellogg 's , Burger King and Intel Corporation , as well as various companies specializing in home decorating , apparel , jewelry , gift items and " Tiberius " , " Pon Farr " and " Red Shirt " fragrances . Playmates Toys , who owned the Star Trek toy license until 2000 , also held the merchandise rights for the new film . The first wave was released in March and April 2009 . Playmates hope to continue their toy line into 2010 . The first wave consists of 3 @.@ 75 " , 6 " and 12 " action figures , an Enterprise replica , prop toys and play sets. to recreate the whole bridge , one would have to buy more 3 @.@ 75 " figures , which come with chairs and consoles to add to the main set consisting of Kirk 's chair , the floor , the main console and the viewscreen . Master Replicas , Mattel , Hasbro and Fundex Games will promote the film via playing cards , Monopoly , UNO , Scrabble , Magic 8 @-@ Ball , Hot Wheels , Tyco R / C , 20Q , Scene It ? and Barbie lines . Some of these are based on previous Star Trek iterations rather than the film . CBS also created a merchandising line based around Star Trek caricatures named " Quogs " .
= = = Home release = = =
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on November 17 , 2009 in North America , November 16 in the United Kingdom and October 26 in Australia and New Zealand . In Sweden and Germany , it was released on November 4 . First week sales stood at 5 @.@ 7 million DVDs along with 1 @.@ 1 million Blu @-@ ray Discs , giving Paramount Pictures their third chart topping release in five weeks following Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen and G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Official screenings in the United States started at 7 pm on May 7 , 2009 , grossing $ 4 million on its opening day . By the end of the weekend , Star Trek had opened with $ 79 @,@ 204 @,@ 300 , as well as $ 35 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 from other countries . Adjusted and unadjusted for inflation , it beat Star Trek : First Contact for the largest American opening for a Star Trek film . The film made US $ 8 @.@ 5 million from its IMAX screenings , breaking The Dark Knight 's $ 6 @.@ 3 million IMAX opening record . The film is the highest @-@ grossing in the United States and Canada from the entire Star Trek film franchise , eclipsing The Voyage Home and Star Trek : The Motion Picture . Its opening weekend numbers alone outgross the entire individual runs of The Undiscovered Country , The Final Frontier , Insurrection and Nemesis . Star Trek ended its United States theatrical run on October 1 , 2009 , with a box office total of $ 257 @,@ 730 @,@ 019 , which places it as the seventh highest @-@ grossing film for 2009 behind The Hangover . The film grossed $ 127 @,@ 764 @,@ 536 in international markets , for a total worldwide gross of $ 385 @,@ 494 @,@ 555 . While foreign grosses represent only 31 % of the total box office receipts , executives of Paramount were happy with the international sales , as Star Trek historically was a movie franchise that never has been a big draw overseas .
= = = Critical response = = =
Star Trek was acclaimed by film critics . On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , it received 95 % approval with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 ( the highest scored Star Trek film ) , based on 333 reviews , with the consensus : " Star Trek reignites a classic franchise with action , humor , a strong story , and brilliant visuals , and will please traditional Trekkies and new fans alike . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score , gave the film an 83 out of 100 based on 37 reviews from critics .
Ty Burr of the Boston Globe gave the film a perfect four star rating , describing it as " ridiculously satisfying " , and the " best prequel ever " . Burr praised the character development in the film , opining that " emotionally , Star Trek hits every one of its marks , functioning as a family reunion that extends across decades , entertainment mediums , even blurring the line between audience and show . " He continued : " Trading on affections sustained over 40 years of popular culture , Star Trek does what a franchise reboot rarely does . It reminds us why we loved these characters in the first place . " Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly gave the film an ' A- ' grade , commenting that director Abrams " crafts an origin story that avoids any hint of the origin doldrums . " Similar sentiments were expressed by Rolling Stone journalist Peter Travers , who gave the film a 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars . He felt that the acting from the cast was the highlight of the filming , asserting that the performance of Pine radiated star quality . Likewise , Travers called Quinto 's performance " sharp " and " intuitive " , and felt that Quinto " gave the film a soul " . Manohla Dargis of the New York Times wrote , " Star Trek [ ... ] isn ’ t just a pleasurable rethink of your geek uncle 's favorite science @-@ fiction series . It 's also a testament to television 's power as mythmaker , as a source for some of the fundamental stories we tell about ourselves , who we are and where we came from . Slate 's Dana Stevens felt that the film was " a gift to those of us who loved the original series , that brainy , wonky , idealistic body of work that aired to almost no commercial success between 1966 – 69 and has since become a science fiction archetype and object of cult adoration . " Time Out London 's Tom Huddleston praised the aesthetic qualities of the film , such as the design of the Enterprise , and praised the performances of the cast . He wrote , " The cast are equally strong : Quinto brings wry charm to an otherwise calculating character , while Pine powers through his performance in bullish , if not quite Shatner @-@ esque fashion . "
The chemistry between Pine and Quinto was well received by critics . Gleiberman felt that as the film progressed to the conclusion , Pine and Quinto emulated the same connection as Kirk and Spock . Tim Robey of The Telegraph echoed similar attitudes ; " The movie charts their relationship [ ... ] in a nicely oblique way . " Robey resumed : " It 's the main event , dramatically speaking , but there 's always something more thumpingly urgent to command their attention , whether it 's a Vulcan distress signal or the continuing rampages of those pesky Romulans . " Burr opined that Abrams had an accurate understanding of the relationship between Kirk and Spock , and wrote , " Pine makes a fine , brash boy Kirk , but Quinto 's Spock is something special – an eerily calm figure freighted with a heavier sadness than Roddenberry 's original . The two ground each other and point toward all the stories yet to come . " Similarly , The Guardian writer Peter Bradshaw expressed : " The story of Kirk and Spock is brought thrillingly back to life by a new first generation : Chris Pine and Zachary Quinto , who give inspired , utterly unselfconscious and lovable performances , with power , passion and some cracking comic timing . "
Some film critics were polarized with Star Trek . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the film a ' B + ' grade , and asserted that it was " a reconsideration of what constitutes Star Trek , one that deemphasizes heady concepts and plainly stated humanist virtues in favor of breathless action punctuated by bursts of emotion . It might not even be immediately recognizable to veteran fans . " In concurrence , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times stated that " the Gene Roddenberry years , when stories might play with questions of science , ideals or philosophy , have been replaced by stories reduced to loud and colorful action . " Ebert ultimately gave it a 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars . Similarly , Marc Bain of Newsweek opined : " The latest film version of Star Trek [ ... ] is more brawn than brain , and it largely jettisons complicated ethical conundrums in favor of action sequences and special effects . Slate journalist Juliet Lapidos argued that the new film , with its " standard Hollywood torture scene " , failed to live up to the intellectual standard set by the 1992 Next Generation episode " Chain of Command " , whose treatment of the issue she found both more sophisticated and pertinent to the ongoing debate over the United States ' use of enhanced interrogation techniques .
= = = Accolades = = =
The film garnered numerous accolades after its release . In 2010 , it was nominated for four Academy Awards at the 82nd Academy Awards , for Best Sound Editing , Best Sound Mixing , Best Visual Effects , and Best Makeup . Star Trek won in the category for Best Makeup , making it the first Star Trek film to receive an Academy Award . The film was nominated for three Empire Awards , to which it won for Best Sci @-@ Fi / Fantasy . In October 2009 , Star Trek won the Hollywood Award for Best Movie , and attained six Scream Awards and the 2009 Scream Awards Ceremony . The film attained a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards .
Star Trek received several nominations . The film was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media , but was beaten out by Up , also composed by Michael Giacchino . At the 36th People 's Choice Awards , the film received four nominations : the film was a contender for Favorite Movie , Zoe Saldana was nominated for Favorite Breakout Movie Actress , and both Pine and Quinto were nominated for Favorite Breakout Movie Actor . On June 15 , 2009 , the film was nominated for five Teen Choice Awards . In addition , Star Trek was nominated for five Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards and was named one of the top @-@ ten films of 2009 by the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures .
= = Sequels = =
The film 's major cast members signed on for two sequels as part of their original deals . Abrams and Bryan Burk signed to produce and Abrams signed to direct the first sequel . The sequel , Star Trek Into Darkness , starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Khan Noonien Singh , was released on May 16 , 2013 .
The film was released on July 22 , 2016 , but Abrams will return only as producer ( due to him directing Star Wars : The Force Awakens ) and Kurtzman is no longer writing . On May 13 , 2014 , it was announced that Roberto Orci , the writer of the first and second film , would direct the third film , but in December 2014 , it was reported that Roberto Orci would no longer direct . Edgar Wright , Rupert Wyatt , Morten Tyldum , Justin Lin , Daniel Espinosa , and Duncan Jones were being looked at as a potential replacement , though Jones indicated that he would not be directing the film . A week later , it was announced that Lin will direct the film .
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= Elephant & Castle tube station =
Elephant & Castle is a London Underground station in the London Borough of Southwark in central London . It is on the Bank branch of the Northern line between Kennington and Borough stations , and is the southern terminus of the Bakerloo line , the next station being Lambeth North . The station is in both Travelcard Zones 1 and 2 . The Northern line station was opened in 1890 by the City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) while the Bakerloo line station was opened sixteen years later by the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) . There is out @-@ of @-@ station interchange with the nearby Elephant & Castle National Rail station .
A girl born at the station in 1924 was the first baby to be born on the Underground network . The Bakerloo line building remains much as originally constructed and is a typical Leslie Green structure . The Northern line building was designed by Thomas Phillips Figgis , and was rebuilt several times until the current structure opened in 2003 . Transport for London ( TfL ) is currently planning a major upgrade to the station . A Bakerloo line extension south to Camberwell was planned and approved in 1931 but construction never started . Similar proposals have been revived on several occasions ; in 2014 TfL ran a consultation on an extension to Hayes and Beckenham Junction , which is still under consideration .
= = The station today = =
= = = Geography = = =
Elephant & Castle is located in the Elephant and Castle area of Newington in the London Borough of Southwark in Central London . The station is in both Travelcard Zones 1 and 2 and is on the Bank branch of the Northern line between Kennington and Borough stations , and is the southern terminus of the Bakerloo line , the next station being Lambeth North . The station has two surface buildings , separated by a large traffic intersection . The northern building provides the most direct access to the Bakerloo line , while the southern one is linked more directly to the Northern line .
= = = Station building = = =
Access to the more northerly ( Bakerloo ) part of the station is via the original building , while the exit is via a new extension next to Skipton House . Between the entrance and two shops is the entrance to South London House , an office block above the station . The BS & WR station building remains much as originally constructed and is a typical Leslie Green structure . The main alteration is a modern glass @-@ sided and glass @-@ topped flat @-@ roofed extension abutting the original western elevation , giving access to three of the six arches . These arches , in a classic deep @-@ red faience style , formed the original perimeter : two are infilled with street @-@ facing shops . As the station also functions as a drivers ' depot , London Underground uses the offices above the station for administration and drivers ' accommodation .
The C & SLR station was designed by Thomas Phillips Figgis in a similar style to Kennington station . It was partially rebuilt in the 1920s when the C & SLR tunnels were modernised , and was rebuilt during the construction of the Elephant & Castle shopping centre and roundabout in the 1960s . It was rebuilt at the start of the 21st century , reopening on 12 December 2003 . Neither building has escalators . To get from either ticket hall to the platforms it is necessary to use the lifts or spiral stairs . The southern building has lifts from street level down to the level of the southbound Northern line platform , the only step @-@ free platform at the station . From inside the station , the northern exit is labelled " London South Bank University " and emerges at the southern tip of the triangular campus . The southern exit is labelled " Shopping Centre " and also leads to the National Rail station where there is an out @-@ of @-@ station interchange , allowing Oyster card and contactless payment card users to interchange while paying a single fare for their journey .
= = = Heritage feature and refurbishment = = =
The multi @-@ coloured platform tiles on the Northern line were reconstructed in the 1920s in conjunction with an extension to Morden station . The tiles were carefully replicated in 2006 to replace the originals , which were in poor condition . The original C & SLR tiles dating from 1890 remain on the tunnel roofs of the Northern line platforms , albeit now covered over by the new cable @-@ management system . The station was refurbished in 2007 . The original maroon and cream tiling on the Bakerloo line platforms has been covered over . Because of the arrangement of the lighting , cabling and public address loudspeakers , it was not possible to arrange the new roundels at alternate ‘ low ’ and ‘ high ’ positions , all being at the lower level .
= = Services and connections = =
= = = Bakerloo line = = =
The station is currently the southern terminus of the Bakerloo line , running north via Lambeth North and Waterloo towards Queen 's Park , Stonebridge Park or Harrow & Wealdstone . Train frequencies vary throughout the day , but generally trains operate every 4 – 9 minutes between 05 : 37 and 00 : 06 northbound ( as of 2015 ) , a little less frequently than the Northern line .
= = = Northern line = = =
On this line , the station is on the Bank branch ; the next stations are Borough to the north and Kennington to the south . The typical off @-@ peak service ( as of January 2015 ) in trains per hour ( tph ) is 10tph northbound to each of High Barnet and Edgware and 20tph southbound to Morden .
= = = Connections = = =
London Bus routes 1 , 12 , 35 , 40 , 45 , 53 , 63 , 68 , 100 , 133 , 136 , 148 , 155 , 168 , 171 , 172 , 176 , 188 , 196 , 333 , 343 , 344 , 360 , 363 , 415 , 453 , 468 , C10 and P5 , and night routes N1 , N35 , N63 , N68 , N89 , N133 , N155 , N171 and N343 serve the station . In addition , bus routes 12 , 53 , 148 , 176 , 188 , 344 and 453 provide a 24 @-@ hour bus service .
= = History = =
= = = Northern line = = =
Between 1883 – 86 , a route was planned by the City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) , then known as the City of London & Southwark Subway ( CL & SS ) , from King William Street via Elephant & Castle to Stockwell and Clapham Common . The entire route was approved on 25 July 1890 and the station opened on 18 December 1890 as part of the first deep @-@ level tube between King William Street and Stockwell .
In November 1891 , the C & SLR recognised the deficiencies of the section between Borough station and King William Street . A new route was chosen with a different pair of tunnels , avoiding this section . Near Borough , the new tunnels would branch off to London Bridge to form an interchange with the mainline station and then north through the City of London to Angel . The plan was approved on 24 August 1893 following a delay . The Act also incorporated another bill of 1893 to grant more time to build the southern extension to Clapham . The new route and the first section of the northern extension from Borough to Moorgate opened on 25 February 1900 , and the King William Street diversion was closed . The southern extension to Clapham Common opened on 3 June 1900 . Work continued on the rest of the northern extension and it opened on 17 November 1901 .
In 1912 , the C & SLR submitted another bill to increase its capacity by enlarging its tunnels to the larger diameter used for the tunnels of the more recently built railways to allow larger , more modern rolling stock to be used . Together , the works proposed in these bills would enable the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ( CCE & HR ) ' s trains to run over the C & SLR 's route and vice versa , effectively combining the two separate railways . Tunnel enlargement works only restarted after World War I when an extension of time was granted in February 1919 . The Moorgate to Clapham Common section reopened on 1 December 1924 , approximately eight months after the rest of the line .
= = = Bakerloo line = = =
In November 1891 , a private bill was presented to Parliament for the construction of the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) . The railway was planned to run entirely underground from Marylebone to Elephant & Castle via Baker Street and Waterloo and was approved in 1900 . Construction commenced in August 1898 under the direction of Sir Benjamin Baker , W.R. Galbraith and R.F. Church with building work by Perry & Company of Tredegar Works , Bow . Test trains began running in 1905 . The first section of the BS & WR was between Baker Street and Lambeth North . The BS & WR station opened on 5 August 1906 , almost five months after the rest of the line .
= = = Incidents = = =
On the morning of 27 November 1923 , a slight misjudgement at the end of the tunnel enlargement work left the tunnel unstable near Borough . A collapse on the same day , caused when a train hit temporary shoring near Elephant & Castle , filled the tunnel with wet gravel . Later a gas main exploded , causing a water main to break and leaving a water @-@ filled crater in the middle of the street . The line was briefly split in two , but was completely closed on 28 November 1923 .
A girl born at the station on 13 May 1924 was the first baby to be born on the Underground network . According to initial press reports , she had been named Thelma Ursula Beatrice Eleanor ( so that her initials would be T.U.B.E. ) but this later proved false : her actual name was Mary Ashfield Eleanor Hammond . Her second name Ashfield was from Lord Ashfield , chairman of the railway , who agreed to be the baby 's godfather , but said that , " it would not do to encourage this sort of thing as I am a busy man . "
= = Proposals for the future = =
= = = Station upgrade = = =
A major upgrade is being planned by Transport for London to bring improvements to the station ; these include a new Northern line ticket hall , three new escalators and additional lifts to provide step @-@ free access to the Northern line platforms . This will be done in conjunction with the major transformation in the Elephant & Castle area to create thousands of new homes and potential for new retail development to provide growth in the area .
= = = Bakerloo line extension to southeast London = = =
An extension to Camberwell from Elephant & Castle was planned and approved in 1931 . Elephant & Castle was also to be reconstructed with a third platform to provide the additional reversing capacity , along with a new ticket hall and escalators . Due to the need to prioritise the extension from Baker Street to Finchley Road , to relieve congestion on the Metropolitan line , as well as financial constraints and the outbreak of the Second World War , no work was carried out on the extension . In the 1950s there was a brief revival of the plan , in which it was proposed that Elephant & Castle would not be altered and the additional turn @-@ round capacity would be provided by making Camberwell a three @-@ platform terminus . The project was ultimately unaffordable owing to post @-@ war austerity , reduced demand , and the disproportionately high cost of the project with a three @-@ platform deep @-@ level terminus and the requirement for new trains and a depot .
During 2005 – 06 , a Bakerloo extension was proposed with three route options . The options were extensions to Hayes via Peckham Rye , Beckenham Junction via Camberwell , or Hayes via New Cross . In July 2011 , Network Rail recommended an extension of the Bakerloo line from Elephant & Castle to Lewisham , where it would take over the line to Hayes . In September 2014 , Transport for London ran a consultation on the Bakerloo extension to Hayes and Beckenham Junction with options via Lewisham and Camberwell or Old Kent Road , taking over Network Rail 's Hayes line . The cost of the extension is estimated at around £ 2 – 3 billion with construction expected to take place between the mid @-@ 2020s and early 2030s .
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= Breaking Point ( Keri Hilson song ) =
" Breaking Point " is a song performed by American recording artist Keri Hilson from her second studio album , No Boys Allowed ( 2010 ) . Mosley Music Group and Interscope Records released it as the album 's lead single on September 7 , 2010 . The song was written by Timbaland , Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , Hilson and Timothy " Attitude " Clayton , and produced by Timbaland with assistance from Harmon . According to Hilson , " Breaking Point " was inspired by women 's experiences of tolerating too much from their partner and enduring their lies . The song is about a breaking point when a woman is tired of being neglected and exploited by her partner , whose many excuses are no longer accepted .
" Breaking Point " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B ballad that incorporates elements of pop and soul music . It features guitar , kick drum , organ , percussion and piano instrumentation . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who commended its empowering message and Timbaland 's production . In the United States , " Breaking Point " peaked at number 44 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and bubbled under the Billboard Hot 100 at number 17 . Bryan Barber directed the ballad 's accompanying music video , which is primarily set at a beauty salon with Hilson and her girlfriends .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
" Breaking Point " was written by Timbaland , Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , Keri Hilson and Timothy " Attitude " Clayton . In an interview with Ian Drew of DailyFill , Hilson explained that inspiration for writing the song came from women 's experiences , including " being lied to and tolerating too much " from their partner . She elaborated on its theme during a radio interview , stating : " The song is about that breaking point that every woman gets to when the excuses given by boys are no longer accepted . If you 're not man enough to step to the plate , then keep it moving . " The song shares its theme with " The Way You Love Me " as both songs are about " women coming to terms with what they need from a relationship " . The " powerful " meaning of the two songs was personal to Hilson and she hoped that it would have the same effect on listeners . In an interview for WTAM , Hilson elaborated on " Breaking Point " and its theme :
I 'm a loyal woman , and a lot of girls are . That causes us sometimes to take [ bullshit ] a little more than we should . I think women needed to hear – obviously I 'm speaking from personal experience and that of my close friends as well – but I think other women needed to hear that you can only take so much . Eventually you 're gonna reach your breaking point .
Timbaland produced " Breaking Point " with assistance from Harmon . Chris Godbey mixed the track and recorded Hilson 's vocals together with Bryan " The Beard " Jones , with assistance from Ghazi Hourani ; both these tasks were done at The Record Plant in Hollywood , California . Hilson arranged the recorded vocals and produced them with Veronika " V " Bozeman , who also performed background vocals . Chris Gerhinger mastered the song at Sterling Sound in New York City .
= = Composition = =
" Breaking Point " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B ballad that features elements of pop and soul music . Instrumentation is provided by a guitar , kick drums , an organ , percussion and a piano . It is also backed by doo @-@ wop beats , finger snaps and cooing backup vocals . Lyrically , the song speaks of a woman 's breaking point and Hilson " voices the frustration " of women who are being neglected and exploited by men . In the chorus , she sings : " Every woman has a breaking point , y 'all / Hey , I know you know , some women can be lied to , cheated on and beat on / Somebody know , hey , every woman has a breaking point , y 'all . " According to Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio , Hilson vocally incorporates an " improvisational gospel style . MTV Buzzworthy writer Chris Ryan compared Hilson 's vocals with Mary J. Blige 's , particularly in Blige 's cover of " I 'm Going Down " ( 1995 ) . Halfway through " Breaking Point " , Hilson talks about " the need for each woman to reclaim her life " in a spoken @-@ word interlude , during which she mimics Blige , according to Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe . Hilson phrases : " Now ladies , we really should be mad at ourselves , cause see , some women just tolerate too damn much . Huh ! "
= = Release = =
" Breaking Point " premiered on August 18 , 2010 , on the urban radio station V @-@ 103 in Atlanta . It was selected as the album 's lead single to showcase Hilson sans featured acts . In an interview , Hilson elaborated on the decision : " Timbaland and Polow [ da Don ] knew that even though I 've been known for club records , guest features and collaborations , I am a true R & B lover ... [ We chose the song ] for many reasons ... We knew it wouldn 't grow as fast or even be as big a record as some of my past [ singles ] ... We wanted to showcase me by myself , feature @-@ less , and we wanted to reveal that I can sing , and really connect with my music and my message . We felt that was the best introduction to No Boys Allowed . " Mosley Music Group and Interscope Records released the single via digital distribution in the United States on September 7 , 2010 . It was later sent to urban adult contemporary radio on October 25 , 2010 , while the album 's second single , " Pretty Girl Rock " , was classified for contemporary hit radio the same week .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Breaking Point " received generally a positive response from music critics . Newsday 's Glenn Gamboa described it as a " gorgeous girl @-@ group @-@ influenced " song and commended Timbaland 's " remarkably non @-@ bleepy @-@ bloopy production " . Mariel Concepcion of Billboard observed that the song is a release for women who are " being mistreated and unappreciated " by their men , but are unable to " speak up for themselves " . She viewed the single as an " empowering wake @-@ up call [ that ] encourag [ es ] women to stop putting up with the abuse " . Concepcion likened the lyrics to Melanie Fiona 's " Give It to Me Right " ( 2009 ) and Beyoncé Knowles ' " Why Don 't You Love Me " ( 2010 ) . In his review of No Boys Allowed , Matthew Horton of BBC Music remarked that the slower songs " house some of the nicer touches " . Horton praised Timbaland 's production throughout the album , particularly on " Breaking Point " due to its " En Vogue @-@ y harmonies [ and ] oriental music box refrain " . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times regarded the song as " far better " than " Pretty Girl Rock " , and Los Angeles Times critic Margaret Wappler deemed it as " sticky and finessed " .
Lauren Carter of Boston Herald recommended " Breaking Point " as downloadable , and Neil Miller , Jr. of UR Chicago called it one of " the finest cuts of genuine R & B out there right now " . Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy called the song " beautiful " and wrote , " While the music has all the squiggly , burping and buzzing percussion sound effects of your typical [ Timbaland ] track , it also has a lovely Prince @-@ like melody . " The Guardian 's Caroline Sullivan regarded it as " deceptively sugary [ and ] trilling " and commented that it " does observe that some women ' tolerate too damn much ' , but it 's easily missed " . Karen Tye of The Advertiser was mixed and felt that Hilson " invokes " Knowles on " Breaking Point " , writing that she " needs to work on establishing her own distinct voice " . Negative reviews came from Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone , who named it as one of the album 's " failed attempts at pop crossover " , and IGN 's Chad Grischow , who viewed the ballad as " fed @-@ up " . Grischow criticized the production for " clumsily " attempting to mix Motown vocals with voice @-@ box guitars and organs .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , " Breaking Point " debuted at number 87 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart in the issue dated September 25 , 2010 . The following week , it rose 15 positions to number 72 , and ultimately peaked at number 44 in the issue dated November 20 , 2010 . The song remained on the chart for a total of 18 weeks ; its last appearance was in the issue dated January 22 , 2011 . " Breaking Point " did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 , but reached number 17 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart in the issue dated November 27 , 2010 .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Breaking Point " was directed by Bryan Barber and shot on location in Atlanta , Georgia , in early @-@ September 2010 . Some scenes were shot on Auburn Avenue , a street in Atlanta . Director Barber noted the " Southern harmony " of the song , which he wanted to capture in the video . According to Hilson , her character in the clip realizes that she has reached her breaking point and attempts to get over what happened the night before by spending the day with her girlfriends . An unofficial version of the video originally leaked online on September 23 , 2010 , before the official edit premiered on October 4 on BET 's 106 & Park . It was later made available for download on the iTunes Store on October 6 , 2010 , in the United States .
The video begins with Hilson lounging in her bed . Upset by her partner , she walks over to the closet and rips down all of his clothes . The video then cuts to Hilson sitting in a chair at a beauty salon , where she gets a new haircut and dyes her hair from black to blonde . She later begins a choreographed routine with her girlfriends , who appear to also have been mistreated by their men . The women then march down Auburn Avenue before they head home to throw their men 's clothes off the balcony . The video received mixed to positive reviews . Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy was positive and called it a " beautifully shot portrait of a woman on the edge of a nervous breakdown " , and The Fader writer Julianne Escobedo Shepherd regarded it as an accurate representation of how women act when they are " wronged by dudes " . On the other hand , Robbie Daw of Idolator deemed it tiresome , calling it a " visual snoozefest " . He wrote , " [ Hilson ] goes to a salon , orders up Rihanna 's Rated R haircut and sasses men who are wrongin ' the ladies . Hey , girls — her love has a limit ! But so does our patience for this [ video ] . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital single
" Breaking Point " – 4 : 15
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at The Record Plant , Hollywood , California
Personnel
Credits are adapted from the No Boys Allowed booklet .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Fortezza of Rethymno =
The Fortezza ( Greek : Φορτέτζα , from Italian for " fortress " ) is the citadel of the city of Rethymno in Crete , Greece . It was built by the Venetians in the 16th century , and was captured by the Ottomans in 1646 . By the early 20th century , many houses were built within the citadel . These were demolished after World War II , leaving only a few historic buildings within the Fortezza . Today , the citadel is in good condition and is open to the public .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The Fortezza is built on a hill called Paleokastro ( meaning " Old Castle " ) , which was the site of ancient Rhithymna 's acropolis . Between the 10th and 13th centuries , the Byzantines established a fortified settlement to the east of the hill . It was called Castrum Rethemi , and it had square towers and two gates . The fortifications were repaired by Enrico Pescatore in the beginning of the 13th century . After Crete fell to the Republic of Venice , the settlement became known as the Castel Vecchio or Antico Castello , which both mean " old castle . "
Under Venetian rule , a small harbour was built in Rethymno , which became the third most important city on Crete after Heraklion and Chania . On 8 April 1540 , a line of fortifications began to be built around the city . The walls were designed by the architect Michele Sanmicheli , and were completed in around 1570 . These fortifications were not strong enough to withstand a large assault , and when Uluç Ali Reis attacked in 1571 , the Ottomans captured and sacked the city .
= = = Construction and later Venetian rule = = =
Following the fall of Cyprus to the Ottomans in 1571 , Crete became the largest remaining Venetian overseas possession . Since Rethymno had been sacked , it was decided that new fortifications needed to be built to protect the city and its harbour . The new fortress , which was built on the Paleokastro hill , was designed by the military engineer Sforza Pallavicini according to the Italian bastioned system .
Construction began on 13 September 1573 , and it was complete by 1580 . The fortress was built under the master builder Giannis Skordilis , and a total of 107 @,@ 142 Cretans and 40 @,@ 205 animals took part in its construction .
Although the original plan had been to demolish the old fortifications of Rethymno and move the inhabitants into the Fortezza , it was too small to house the entire city . The walls along the landward approach to the city were left intact , and the Fortezza became a citadel housing the Venetian administration of the city . It was only to be used by the inhabitants of the city in the case of an Ottoman invasion . Over the years , a number of modifications were made to the fortress . Nonetheless , it was never truly secure as it lacked a ditch and outworks , and the ramparts were rather low .
= = = Ottoman rule and recent history = = =
On 29 September 1646 , during the Fifth Ottoman – Venetian War , an Ottoman force besieged Rethymno , and the city 's population took refuge in the Fortezza . Conditions within the citadel deteriorated , due to disease and a lack of food and ammunition . The Venetians surrendered under favourable terms on 13 November .
The Ottomans did not make any major changes to the Fortezza , except the construction of a ravelin outside the main gate . They also built some houses for the garrison and the city 's administration , and they converted the cathedral into a mosque . The fort remained in use until the early 20th century .
By the early 20th century , many residential buildings were located in the Fortezza . Following the end of World War II , the city began to expand and many of the inhabitants moved elsewhere in the city . Rethymno 's landward fortifications and many houses within the Fortezza were demolished at this point , but the walls of the Fortezza were left intact . At one point , the local prison was housed within the Fortezza .
Large @-@ scale restoration work has been under way since the early 1990s . The Fortezza is managed by the Ministry of Culture and Sports , and it is open to the public . The Ottoman ravelin now houses the Archaeological Museum of Rethymno .
= = Layout = =
The Fortezza of Rethymno has an irregular plan , and its walls have a total length of 1 @,@ 307 m ( 4 @,@ 288 ft ) . The walls contain the following demi @-@ bastions :
St Nicolas Bastion – the demi @-@ bastion at the east end of the fortress . It contains a Venetian @-@ era building which was possibly originally a storehouse or laboratory .
St Paul Bastion – the demi @-@ bastion at the southeast end of the fortress . It is also known as Santa Maria Bastion .
St Elias Bastion – the demi @-@ bastion at the south end of the fortress . It contains the Erofyli open @-@ air theatre , which was opened in 1993 .
St Lucas Bastion – the demi @-@ bastion at the southwest end of the fortress .
The fort 's main gate is located on the east side , between St Nicolas and St Paul Bastions . It is protected by an Ottoman @-@ era ravelin , which now serves as the Archaeological Museum of Rethymno . Two smaller gates are located in the west and north sides of the fortress .
A number of buildings are located within the Fortezza , including :
the Mosque of Sultan Ibrahim , which was formerly the Cathedral of St Nicolas .
a building near the mosque , which was possibly the Bishop 's residence .
the House of the Rector , which was the residence of the governor of the province of Rethymno . Only its prisons have survived .
the Council Building , which housed part of the Venetian administration of Rethymno .
the churches of St Theodore and St Catherine , which were both built in the late 19th century .
The fortress also contains an armoury , two gunpowder magazines , storage rooms and several cisterns .
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= Quién Dijo Ayer =
Quién Dijo Ayer ( English : Who Said Yesterday ) is a compilation album released by Guatemalan singer @-@ songwriter Ricardo Arjona on 21 August 2007 . Dan Warner and Lee Levin co @-@ produced the album with Arjona and Puerto Rican singer @-@ songwriter Tommy Torres . It was recorded in the United States , Mexico , Italy and Argentina , and is the last album Arjona released under the Sony Music Entertainment label before signing with Warner Music Group . It is Arjona 's first compilation to include new material in the form of re @-@ recorded versions of past hits in different musical genres from the original recordings , featuring guest artists such as Marc Anthony , Marta Sánchez and Mexican ska band Panteón Rococó , among others .
Critically and commercially successful , Quién Dijo Ayer topped the US Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart and reached number two on the Top Latin Albums chart . The album became a hit in Latin America , topping the Mexican albums chart and receiving gold and Platinum certifications in several countries including the United States . The album spawned two commercially successful singles , " Quién " , which reached number four on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , and " Quiero " , which reached number eight . Quién Dijo Ayer received in 2008 a nomination for the Latin Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Album and the Best Male Pop Vocal Album award at the Billboard Latin Music Awards .
= = Background = =
In a press conference , Arjona stated that " yesterday is the cumulus of this that put us here , which raised us and made us what we are , for good or bad . " He also said that Quién Dijo Ayer was more than a compilation , and that " it 's an album with all the features of the typical greatest hits disc . Several songs are the most popular , but others are the most important on other topics . We 've dressed them different . " Se Nos Muere El Amor " is now with piano and flauta , as an example . " He further stated that it was " an album that begun as an experiment , with a dose of informality , and suddenly , when I realized of what the producers were achieving with the songs I worked many years ago , the album finished as being very complicated . "
After spending the majority of his career signed to Sony , and later , Sony BMG , Arjona signed a long @-@ term recording deal with Warner Music Latina in September 2008 . Iñigo Zabala , chairman of Warner Music Latin America commented that " He 's an artist that fits perfectly with our company , " and that " We are a label that has a major catalog of songwriters and quality pop and rock from the likes of Maná , Alejandro Sanz , Laura Pausini , and now , Arjona . " This departure made Quien Dijo Ayer the last album the artist directly released on his former label , although Sony later released another album named Simplemente Lo Mejor .
= = Composition = =
For this compilation album , Arjona re @-@ recorded some of his older songs in a different style from the original versions , and remastered others . " Si El Norte Fuera El Sur " was transformed into a ska @-@ style song , which he performed with Panteón Rococó . Argentinian jazz musician Fernando Otero was featured on the new version of " Jesús , Verbo No Sustantivo " . " Historia De Taxi " was transformed into a salsa song , which Arjona performed with American singer Marc Anthony and pianist Sergio George ; George said , " It 's been interesting to work with two figures from different music worlds on the interest of making good music . " , and that " every time a reunion of this kind happens , it [ is ] a reason to celebrate . "
Arjona also re @-@ recorded " Realmente No Estoy Tan Solo " with singer Sandro ; it was last song recorded by Sandro , who died on 4 January 2010 . Arjona 's manager told Argentinian newspaper Clarín that " [ the singer ] had the idea of inviting Roberto [ Sandro ] for his album , he [ Sandro ] showed enthusiasm and manifested the same degree of appreciation to Arjona . It seemed to him that he [ Arjona ] was an artist who proclaims the same values he proclaimed . "
This album included three new songs . " Quién " was written by Arjona , who co @-@ produced it with Tommy Torres . It was released as the lead single from the album on 19 June 2007 . Arjona commented that " ' Quién ' is the world out of the window and the prison built by ourselves . It 's the freedom to choose the path or to prefer loneliness as an argument of nostalgia . ' Quién ' is a story with the hurry of the desperate , is the flashback of those who end up loving alone . " " Quiero " , also written by Arjona , was released as the second single in November 2007 . Website ADN Mundo called the song bohemian and hippie , and that it was " a love story that doesn 't speak about love , but instead about the recent events on the world we live [ in ] and finally comes to the search of an individual who challenges nostalgia finding entertainment on the impossible . " In 2009 , " Quiero " was awarded the Pop / Ballad Songs of the Year award by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers . The third new song on the album was " Espantapájaros " , which was written by Arjona and Miguel Luna .
= = Release and promotion = =
Quién Dijo Ayer was released in most markets as a two @-@ disc compilation album . The first disc contains sixteen songs , of which thirteen are new versions of Arjona 's past hits . On this disc appears the duets with Panteón Rococó on " Si El Norte Fuera El Sur " ; Marc Anthony on " Historia de Taxi " ; Marta Sanchez on " Tarde ( Sin Daños A Terceros ) " ; Eros Ramazzoti on " A Ti " and Sandro de América on " Realmente No Estoy Tan Solo " . This disc also contains the new songs " Quién " , " Quiero " and " Espantapájaros " . The second disc contains the same songs as the first disc but in their original versions , remastered . In Canada , Germany , Brazil and Mexico , a digital special edition was released that features only six songs on the second digital disc instead of 13 . The songs included on the second disc on this version were " Se Nos Muere El Amor " , " Dime Que No " , " Si El Norte Fuera El Sur " , " A Ti " , " Tu Reputación " and " Cuando " . This Brazilian version featured a different cover art . The album was also released as a single disc version with only the new versions and songs . Also , in Mexico , two physical single @-@ disc versions of the album were released . The first includes the first single from Quinto Piso , " Como Duele " as a bonus track . This version was also released in Spain . The second version does not include " Espantapájaros " or " Realmente No Estoy Tan Solo " ; it also includes " Como Duele " as a bonus track .
= = = Singles = = =
The first single released from the album was " Quién " , a Latin pop song written by Arjona and produced by Tommy Torres and Los Gringos . The song charted on the Billboard Latin Songs at number twenty @-@ one , and reached its peak the week ending 25 August 2007 . The song was more successful on the Latin Pop Songs chart , where it reached number four . The music video for " Quién " was filmed in Las Vegas , Nevada . The second single released was " Quiero " , which reached number twelve on the Billboard Latin Songs chart , and number eight on the Latin Pop Songs component chart . " Quiero " was very popular in Central American countries like Honduras , Nicaragua and Panamá . The music video for " Quiero " was filmed in the Dominican Republic and premiered in November 2007 .
= = Reception = =
Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic gave a positive review of the album , and commented that , " while only a couple of the new versions depart stylistically from the originals , the contemporary productions breathe new life into these songs , which should be well known by longtime fans . " Quién Dijo Ayer was Arjona 's second album after Galería Caribe to reach number one on the Latin Pop Albums chart ; it reached its peak in the week ending 8 September 2007 . On the Latin Albums chart , Quién Dijo Ayer debuted at number two . The album was commercially successful in Latin America , and was certified Gold in Venezuela , Uruguay , Colombia , Chile , and Peru ; and Platinum in Argentina , Mexico and the United States .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Digital Edition = = =
All songs written and composed by Ricardo Arjona .
= = = Standard Edition = = =
The standard physical release of the album contains 2 discs with the following tracklist .
= = = Special Edition = = =
The Special Edition does not include " La Novia Que Nunca Tuve " , which is at No.9 on the Digital Edition .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = Release history = =
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= Romances ( Luis Miguel album ) =
Romances is the twelfth studio album by Mexican singer Luis Miguel , released on 12 August 1997 , by Warner Music Latina . It is the third album of the Romance series , in which Miguel covers Latin songs from 1940 to 1978 . Aside from Miguel , the production also involved arranger Bebu Silvetti , and Armando Manzanero , who directed all of Miguel 's Romance albums . Romances consists of twelve cover versions and two new compositions by Manzanero and Silvetti . Recording took place in early 1997 at the Ocean Way recording studio in Los Angeles , California .
Romances has sold over 4 @.@ 5 million copies and received platinum certifications in several Latin American countries , the United States and Spain . Miguel promoted the album by touring the United States , Latin America and Spain . The album was generally well received by critics , who praised Miguel 's vocals as well as the song selection . The album earned Miguel several awards , including a Grammy Award in the United States . Six singles were released : " Por Debajo de la Mesa " , " El Reloj " , " Contigo ( Estar Contigo ) " , " De Quererte Así ( De T 'Avoir Aimee ) " , " Bésame Mucho " , and " Sabor a Mí " .
= = Background = =
In 1991 Miguel released Romance , a collection of classic Latin ballads , the oldest of which dates back to the 1940s . The album was produced by Armando Manzanero and arranged by Bebu Silvetti , and was credited for revitalizing the bolero genre . It also made history as the first Spanish @-@ language album to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in the United States . A follow @-@ up to Romance was released in 1994 under the title Segundo Romance ( Second Romance ) , which was produced by Miguel , Juan Carlos Calderón and Kiko Cibrian . Both albums received a platinum certification by the RIAA in the United States and also became successful in countries outside of Latin America and the United States , such as Finland and Saudi Arabia , selling over twelve million copies combined .
In December 1996 Miguel held a press conference in Buenos Aires , Argentina , where he announced his desire to record a third Romance album and mentioned the possibility of working with Manzanero and Juan Gabriel . He also expressed an interest in singing in Italian and Portuguese , although the album 's songs are originally all in Spanish . Two months later Manzanero confirmed that he was working with Miguel on another bolero @-@ inspired ballads album , under the tentative title Tercer Romance ( " Third Romance " ) . Miguel 's record label confirmed that fourteen tracks would be included on the album under the title Romances .
= = Recording and production = =
Miguel collaborated with Silvetti for the arrangement of Romances , while Manzanero was in charge of direction . Recording began on 18 March 1997 , at Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood and at The Hit Factory in New York City . During the recording of Romances , as in Romance , Silvetti employed his signature style of arrangements known as the " Silvetti Sound " , which Leila Cobo of Billboard describes as " anchored in sweeping melodies , lush string arrangements , acoustic instrumentation , and above all , unabashed romanticism " . Silvetti has stated that when he produces an album he does not simply copy his own arrangements , because he feels that would be " ridiculous " , and prefers to be creative within his own style . About the selection of songs for the album , Manzanero stated that " I give [ Miguel ] the songs , and he chooses what he wants to record . " Participants in the recording sessions included sixty @-@ one musicians from the Los Angeles Philharmonic .
Miguel covers twelve Latin ballads in Romances , including songs by José Antonio Méndez , Carlos Arturo Briz , Consuelo Velázquez Álvaro Carrillo , Roberto Cantoral , María Grever , Enrique Santos Discépolo , Agustín Lara , and Luiz Bonfá . The latter composer wrote the song " Manhã de Carnaval " ( " Morning of Carnival " ) in Portuguese , later translated into Spanish by Jesus Maria Arozamena Bersategui as " Canción de Orfeo " ( " Orpheus ' Song " ) . " De Quererte Así " ( " If I Love You Like This " ) is a French song ( " De T 'Avoir Aimée " ) , originally performed and written by Charles Aznavour , which was translated into Spanish by Alex Marcoriginates . Miguel had covered some of the aforementioned composers ' songs on his previous Romance albums . Miguel covers Manazero 's songs " Voy a Apagar la Luz / Contigo Aprendí " ( " I Am Going To Turn Off The Lights / With You I Learned " ) and " Amanecer " ( " To Be Awake " ) . The two original compositions were " Por Debajo de la Mesa " ( " Underneath the Table " ) by Manzanero and " Contigo ( Estar Contigo ) " ( " To Be With You " ) by Bebu Silvetti and Sylvia Riera Ibáñez .
= = Commercial reception = =
= = = Album = = =
The album was released on 12 August 1997 , in the United States and , by the week of 23 August 1997 , it debuted at number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart . A week later it became number one , which it has been for a total of eleven non @-@ consecutive weeks . Romances was even more successful in the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart , having been number one for 13 weeks . On the Billboard 200 chart it peaked at number fourteen , with sales of over 57 @,@ 000 units within the first week — a record at that time for a Spanish @-@ language album . It was also Miguel 's highest @-@ peaking album in the Billboard 200 until the release of Cómplices in 2008 , which peaked at number ten . It was the second best @-@ selling Latin album in the United States during 1997 , after Tango by Julio Iglesias . By October 1997 it had sold over a million copies in Mexico and was certified quadruple platinum in the country , as well as across Central America . A year after release it received a platinum certification in the United States by the RIAA . In Argentina it reached number one on the CAPIF albums chart and was the best @-@ selling album of 1997 in the country , with sales of approximately 781 @,@ 000 copies . In Spain the album reached number one on the PROMUSICAE chart and was certified octuple platinum , selling over 800 @,@ 000 copies . In South America the album was certified gold in Brazil , Platinum in Ecuador and Peru , double platinum in Colombia and Paraguay , sextuple platinum in Venezuela , octuple platinum in Chile , and diamond in Argentina . According to the Guinness World Records Romances was the best @-@ selling Spanish @-@ language album of 1997 . A DVD @-@ Audio for the album was released in 2001 . Over 4 @.@ 5 million copies of the album were sold , as of 1999 .
= = = Singles = = =
" Por Debajo de la Mesa " was released as the lead single from the album . The single was released for radio airplay on 15 July 1997 , and reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart two months later ; it would spend twenty @-@ six weeks on the chart . A music video was made for the song . The second single released , " El Reloj " ( " The Clock " ) , reached number two on the Hot Latin Songs chart , as did the third single , " Contigo ( Estar Contigo " ) . " De Quererte Así ( De T 'Avoir Aimee ) " peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the Hot Latin Songs chart , while " Sabor a Mí " ( " Taste From Me " ) peaked at number six after its release . " Bésame Mucho " ( " Kiss Me More " ) reached number one on the Mexican singles chart and was the among top ten best @-@ performing songs of 1998 in Venezuela according to Record Report .
= = Promotion = =
Miguel launched his Romances Tour , consisting of 84 concerts , in Las Vegas , Nevada , on 12 September 1997 . The performances featured Miguel performing dance @-@ pop and bolero arrangements for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours . Adam Sandler of Variety expressed a mixed reaction to the concert in the Universal Amphitheatre in Los Angeles . He noted that Miguel rarely acknowledged his audience or ventured out from center stage . Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times had a more positive reaction , which he described as a " marvelously designed and wonderfully executed blend of Latin music tradition " . Another Times contributor , Ernesto Lechner , wrote that Miguel 's bolero performance at the Arrowhead Pond arena in California " brought the house down " and stated that the experience at the concert was " pretty close " to Beatlemania . In New York City , Miguel performed five consecutive shows in the Radio City Music Hall . In Mexico City he performed seventeen consecutive concerts in the National Auditorium , where it was the highest @-@ grossing concert by a Latin artist that year . The tour also traveled to South America ; including Chile , and Argentina ; and continued until May 1998 , when Miguel performed throughout Spain . Miguel was the first Latin artist to be inducted to the Pollstar " Top 20 All @-@ Time Grossing Tours " for most tickets sold for consecutive concerts at one venue in 1997 .
= = Critical reception and awards = =
Romances was generally well received by critics , who praised Miguel 's tenor voice and the album 's selection of songs . Terry Jenkins of AllMusic praised the collaborative work of Silvetti and Manzanero and called Romances " a sensuous , enchanting album " . Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune called Miguel 's voice the album 's strong point and noted the " presence of electronic instruments and the darker , more somber mood " . On the other hand , she felt that Miguel was beginning " to slip " , citing the tracks " Jurame " and " Por Debajo de la Mesa " as examples . Los Angeles Times editor Ernesto Lecnher gave the album one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars and claimed that Romances " sinks under its own weight , delivering mostly bloated versions of timeless material " . Fellow Los Angeles Times contributor Ed Morales disagreed with his review and wrote that " Lechner needs to go into his music room , turn down the lights , snuggle up with his significant other and really listen to ' Romances . ' I give his review * and ' Romances ' * * * * " . Anne Valdespino of the Los Angeles Daily News praised the selection of songs and Miguel 's performance , calling the performer a " class act " .
At the 40th Grammy Awards , Miguel received the award for Best Latin Pop Performance . Miguel also received a Billboard Latin Music Award for " Male Pop Album of the Year " and a World Music Award for " Best Selling Latin Artist " . Miguel received a Premio Amigo and Premio Onda for " Best Latin Singer of the Year " in Spain , and the album was nominated for a Premio Amigo for " Best Latin Album " . Armando Manzanero received a Broadcast Music Incorporated award for his work on " Por Debajo de la Mesa " .
= = Legacy = =
Warner Music released a three @-@ disc compilation album titled Todos Los Romances ( " All The Romances " ) in 1998 , which contains all the tracks from Miguel 's Romance albums . The album peaked at number twelve in the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and at number six in the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart . It was certified gold in Argentina . Romances was followed by one more bolero album , Mis Romances ( 2001 ) which was produced by Miguel .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from AllMusic and from the Romances liner notes :
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Deddington Castle =
Deddington Castle was a medieval fortification in the village of Deddington , Oxfordshire . It was built on a wealthy former Anglo @-@ Saxon estate by Bishop Odo of Bayeux following the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . Odo constructed a large castle with two earthwork baileys and a central motte , intending that the castle administer his property in the region and provide a substantial military base in the event of an Anglo @-@ Saxon revolt . Odo 's estates in England were seized following a failed rebellion against William II in 1088 , and Deddington Castle was taken back into royal control . The Anglo @-@ Norman lord William de Chesney acquired the castle in the 12th century and rebuilt it in stone , raising a stone curtain wall around a new inner bailey , complete with a defensive tower , gatehouse and domestic buildings .
After de Chesney 's death , his descendants fought for control of the castle in the royal courts , and it was temporarily seized several times by King John at the start of the 13th century . Deddington Castle was confirmed in the ownership of the de Dive family , who held it for the next century and a half . In 1281 , the castle was stormed by a group of men who broke down the doors , and in 1312 the royal favourite Piers Gaveston may have been captured at the castle by his enemies , shortly before his execution . From the 13th century onward , Deddington Castle fell into disrepair , and contemporaries soon described it as " demolished " and " weak " . It was bought by the Canons of Windsor in 1364 , who began to sell off its stonework . The remains of the castle were reportedly used by both Royalist and Parliamentary forces during the English Civil War in the 17th century .
In the 19th century Deddington Castle was adapted for use as a sporting facility by the local gentry . It was sold to Deddington 's parish council , who attempted to build tennis courts in the inner bailey in 1947 . Following the discovery of medieval remains and a subsequent archaeological investigation , these plans were abandoned and the western half of the castle became a local park . In the 21st century , English Heritage manage the inner bailey , the eastern half remaining in use for farming , and the site as a whole is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument .
= = History = =
= = = 11th century = = =
Deddington Castle was built by Bishop Odo of Bayeux in the village of Deddington , shortly after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . Deddington was then one of the largest settlements in the county of Oxfordshire , and the site of the castle had been previously occupied by the Anglo @-@ Saxons , who may have used the location to administer one of their landed estates . Odo was the half @-@ brother of William the Conqueror , who granted the bishop vast lands in England after the invasion , spread across 22 different counties . Deddington was one of the richest of Odo 's new manors and was at the centre of his Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire estates . The castle was probably built to act as the caput , or administrative centre , of his lands in the region , and may have also been intended to quarter a large military force in the event of an Anglo @-@ Saxon revolt .
The castle was positioned on the east side of the main part of the settlement at the time , at the opposite end of the village to the church , on a spur overlooking a nearby stream . Odo erected earthworks to enclose two large baileys of around 3 @.@ 4 hectares ( 8 @.@ 4 acres ) each , with a large raised motte positioned in between . The western bailey was around 170 metres ( 560 ft ) by 240 metres ( 790 ft ) , protected by a bank of earth 5 metres ( 16 ft ) tall from the base of the 15 metres ( 49 ft ) wide ditch . The top of the earthworks formed a rampart 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) across . The western bailey had an entrance on the west side and in the north @-@ east corner . The eastern bailey stretched down the hill to the stream , and may have held two fishponds . Another fishpond called " the Fishers " , further along the stream to the south @-@ east of the castle , was also probably linked to the castle site . Around this time , an " L " -shaped stone hall was constructed near the motte , in the western bailey .
The castle 's layout was unusual for the region during this period , where the fortifications built by the Normans were typically smaller ringwork designs , and it highlighted both the strategic importance of the location and the power of its builder . In scale and design it was similar to the initial version of Rochester Castle , another major fortification built by Odo in England .
Odo unsuccessfully rebelled against William II in 1088 and in the aftermath was stripped of his lands . His manors across Oxfordshire were taken back into royal control and broken up to be granted to sub @-@ tenants , although it is unclear who was initially granted Deddington Castle ; it is possible that the powerful Anglo @-@ Norman baron Robert de Beaumont , the Earl of Leicester , controlled it in 1130 .
= = = 1100 – 1215 = = =
In the early 12th century , additional earthworks were thrown up to divide the western half of the castle into an outer bailey of around 3 hectares ( 7 @.@ 4 acres ) and an inner bailey on the east end , comprising around 0 @.@ 4 hectares ( 0 @.@ 99 acres ) . The earthworks pushed up against the older hall , and partially buried its western walls . It is uncertain exactly why the new earthworks were constructed , but it may have been to strengthen the fortification in response to either the threatened invasion of Duke Robert of Normandy in 1101 , or alternatively to the sinking of the White Ship and the subsequent dynastic crisis in 1120 .
By 1157 , the castle was owned by William de Chesney , an Anglo @-@ Norman lord who had supported King Stephen in the region during the civil war of the Anarchy , and then Henry II after the peace in 1154 . William rebuilt much of the castle , constructing a strong stone curtain wall around the inner bailey , 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) thick and made from mortared ironstone rubble . The wall was cut through the motte , the inner part of the mound being dug away to make room for the wall .
William also began to reconstruct the inside of the inner bailey , a programme of work that was continued by his descendants over the next few decades . The work included a chapel , a hall and solar , and various service buildings . An open @-@ backed square tower was built in stone along the wall on top of the motte ; this tower was later rebuilt , possibly because of pressure on it from the motte earthworks , and the top of the motte was relaid with flagstones to form pathways around the top . A stone gatehouse was built on the west side of the wall , leading from the outer bailey .
William died between 1172 and 1176 , and the castle was then granted the Crown to Ralph Murdac , William 's nephew and a favoured supporter of Henry II . Ralph was unpopular , however , with Henry 's successor , Richard I , and Ralph 's relatives Guy de Dive and Matilda de Chesney took the opportunity to sue him in the royal courts , each claiming a third of William 's estate . The lands around the castle were granted to Guy and , renamed the " Castle Manor " , remained in his family line until the mid @-@ 14th century . When King John took the throne , however , he seems to have seized Deddington . The manor was not returned to Guy until 1204 ; furthermore , Deddington Castle was excluded from this agreement and retained in royal control until the following year . On Guy 's death in 1214 , John again took the castle back into royal control , where it remained until the King 's own death the following year .
= = = 1215 – 18th century = = =
Both the village and the castle of Deddington fell into decline during the 13th century . Although the village had grown to become a borough , with new , planned streets spreading westwards away from the castle , it was eclipsed economically by the nearby , newer centre of Banbury . The castles in the Thames Valley region that lacked substantial defences were mostly abandoned during this period and Deddington Castle was no exception . By 1277 contemporaries described it as " an old demolished castle " . In 1281 , Robert of Aston and a group of men were able to break down the doors to the castle and enter it . The castle was considered to be " weak " in a report of 1310 and no further repairs were carried out on the property after this time .
In 1312 , the royal favourite Piers Gaveston , may have been captured at Deddington Castle . Gaveston was a close friend of Edward II but he had many enemies among the major barons , and had surrendered to them on the promise that he would be unharmed . He was taken south by Aymer de Valence , the Earl of Pembroke , who imprisoned Gaveston at Deddington on 9 June while he left to visit his wife . Gaveston is often stated to have been kept in Deddington Castle , although he may have alternatively been lodged in the rectory house in the village . Guy de Beauchamp , the Earl of Warwick , had a particular dislike of Gaveston and the next morning took the opportunity to seize him and take him back to Warwick Castle , where Gaveston was subsequently tried and killed by his enemies .
During the 14th century the interior of the castle continued to be inhabited , but in a manner that archaeologist Richard Ivens likens to " squatting " : the upper levels of the tower were abandoned and wood burnt along the inside of the walls in a crude fireplace . In 1364 , the Canons of Windsor bought the castle , park and former fishponds from Thomas de Dive ; the Canons rented the farmlands out , but retained the right to operate and profit from the castle 's manorial court . The tower was demolished around this time , possibly linked to the sale of stonework from the castle walls in 1377 to the Canons of Bicester . By the 16th century , the visiting antiquarian John Leland only noted that " there hath bene a castle at Dadintone " .
The village of Deddington was extensively involved in the English Civil War between 1641 and 1645 , owing to its location on the route between Banbury and Oxford . The late 19th @-@ century historian James Mackenzie recorded that the castle was used as a temporary fortress by both Royalist and Parliamentary forces during the conflict and that a Royalist garrison was besieged there by Parliamentary troops in 1644 . During the 17th and 18th centuries , the castle site was used for grazing animals and timber farming .
= = = 19th - 21st centuries = = =
In the 19th century , the castle site was used as club by the local gentry for recreation , including cricket and archery . A small lodge was built at the entrance to house a professional coach , and a " pavilion building " - a combination of a ballroom and a cafe - was built within the grounds . In 1886 , the ownership of the site passed from the Canons of Windsor to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners of the Church of England . The pavilion was demolished at the start of the 20th century . Stonework continued to be taken from the remains of the castle up until the 1940s , for use in local buildings .
The castle site was then sold by the Commissioners to Deddington 's parish council . The parish council intended to build tennis courts in the inner bailey of the castle in 1947 but , when work began , medieval pottery and roof tiles began to be unearthed by the builders . Construction work was halted and the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford sponsored an archaeological investigation by Edward Jope and Richard Threlfall that continued until 1953 . The plans for the tennis courts were dropped in light of the findings , and the site was instead used as a park . A further phase of archaeological investigation of the castle was carried out between 1977 and 1979 , sponsored by the Queen 's University Belfast and led by Richard Ivens .
In the 21st century , only the earthworks of the castle remain . The western bailey is managed by the parish council and the inner bailey by English Heritage , while the eastern bailey remains under cultivation . The site is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument .
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= 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was an infantry support unit of the all @-@ volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force that was raised for service overseas during the Second World War . Formed in mid @-@ 1940 in Sydney , from personnel drawn from the states of Queensland and New South Wales , the battalion was allocated to the Australian 9th Division . After completing training in Australia , the battalion operated in the Middle East between early 1941 and early 1943 , seeing action against German and Italian forces at the First and Second Battles of El Alamein , and undertaking garrison duties in Syria as part of the Allied garrison that was established there after the Syria – Lebanon campaign .
In early 1943 , the 2 / 2nd was brought back to Australia to fight several campaigns against the Japanese . The first of these came in September 1943 when the battalion landed east of Lae in New Guinea and then took part in the advance to secure the town , which fell within a fortnight . This was followed by fighting on the Huon Peninsula , which saw the battalion undertake an amphibious landing at Scarlet Beach and then take part in actions around Finschhafen , Sattelberg and Sio until it was withdrawn back to Australia in early 1944 . In mid @-@ 1945 , the machine gunners from the 2 / 2nd supported landings on Tarakan , Labuan and Brunei Bay as part of Allied efforts to recapture Borneo . After the war , the battalion was disbanded in February 1946 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and training = = =
The 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was one of four machine gun battalions that were raised as part of the all @-@ volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) for service overseas during the Second World War . Motorised infantry units , equipped with wheeled motor vehicles , motor cycles and sometimes tracked carriers , the machine gun battalions were formed to provide a greater level of support by fire than that which was organically available within ordinary infantry battalions .
Developed by the British Army , the concept within the Australian Army had its genesis during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 , when the machine guns assigned to the infantry battalions – initially two and then , later , four – had been grouped together and co @-@ ordinated at brigade level to help compensate for the lack of artillery support . Over the course of the war , on the Western Front the concept had evolved through the establishment of machine gun companies in 1916 and machine gun battalions in 1918 . Similar formations had also been established amongst the Australian Light Horse units serving in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . During the inter @-@ war years , the machine gun battalions had been deemed unnecessary . When the Army was reorganised in 1921 , they were not re @-@ raised , but in 1937 , as the Army looked to expand as fears of war in Europe loomed , four such units were raised within the part @-@ time Militia , by converting light horse units and motorising them . When the Second World War broke out , the decision was made to raise several machine gun battalions within the 2nd AIF , allocated at a rate of one per division .
The 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was formed on 2 May 1940 , in Sydney , New South Wales . Upon formation , the battalion was assigned to the 7th Division , the 2nd AIF 's second division – there were also five infantry divisions as part of the Militia at this time – and its personnel were recruited from two Australian states : Queensland and New South Wales , with many having served previously in the Militia with various light horse regiments and infantry battalions . The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel David Whitehead , who had previously commanded the 1st Light Horse ( Machine Gun ) Regiment ( Royal New South Wales Lancers ) . The nucleus of its trained personnel were also drawn from this regiment , as well as several Queensland @-@ based Militia units . The colours chosen for the battalion 's Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) were gold and black , in a triangular shape with a border of grey ; this was later changed , though , following the unit 's involvement in the fighting at Tobruk , when it adopted a ' T ' -shaped UCP .
Because of the geographic dislocation of its recruits , basic training was undertaken separately with Queenslanders completing their induction at Redbank in the Greater Brisbane area and New South Welshmen undertaking theirs at Ingleburn and then Cowra in the New South Wales Central Tablelands , before the battalion finally concentrated at Pyrmont in New South Wales , in late 1940 . At this point , the unit 's establishment was completed , as the battalion structure was finalised . It was structured along the same lines as the other 2nd AIF machine gun battalions , which consisted of between 800 and 900 personnel organised into a headquarters element consisting of three platoons – signals , anti @-@ aircraft and administration – and four machine gun companies , each equipped with 12 Vickers machine guns , to make a total of 48 across the entire battalion . Within the machine gun companies there were three platoons ; normally these were numbered sequentially starting from 1 to 3 in Headquarters Company through to 13 to 15 in ' D ' Company ; however , the 2 / 2nd differed from other Australian machine gun battalions , designating its platoons alphanumerically : A1 , A2 , A3 through to D1 , D2 , and D3 . A Light Aid Detachment of electrical and mechanical engineers was also attached . After a period of further training , the battalion was ready to deploy overseas , and in February 1941 , the unit embarked for the Middle East , departing from Sydney aboard the transport Aquitania .
= = = Service in the Middle East = = =
After arriving in the Middle East , the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion conducted more training in Palestine until April 1941 when it was transported to Mersa Matruh , where the battalion began a year @-@ long period serving in the garrison role . Towards the end of this period – January 1942 – the battalion was reassigned to the 9th Division and moved to Syria where it undertook further garrison duty as part of the Allied occupation force that had been established after the Syria – Lebanon campaign to defend against a possible German attack across the Caucasus Mountains . This came to an end in late June 1942 when the 9th was rushed to El Alamein to help establish a hasty defence line .
Throughout July , the battalion 's companies were detached to support individual Australian brigades during the First Battle of El Alamein as the Allied forces – which had , since the beginning of the year , been steadily pushed back by the German and Italian forces – fought desperately to stop the German advance east towards Cairo . Supporting the infantry battalions fighting around Tel el Eisa in early July , several of the battalion 's crews played significant roles in turning back attacks on the Australian positions , and in concert with divisional artillery were reported to have inflicted heavy casualties upon the German and Italian soldiers . Later , in the middle of the month , they supported an attack by the 2 / 32nd Infantry Battalion , now commanded by the 2 / 2nd 's old commander , Whitehead , around Makh Khad Ridge to the right of the Qattara Track . By the end of the month the offensive had come to a halt and during the lull that followed the battalion provided defensive fire from depth positions . In October , it joined the second Allied counter @-@ attack that was launched during the Second Battle of El Alamein . During these battles , the battalion was heavily engaged , with a company supporting a composite force under Whitehead , and another operating in support of the 24th Brigade . Its casualties amounted to 21 killed , 128 wounded and 26 captured .
At the conclusion of the El Alamein fighting , the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was withdrawn to Gaza in early December , remaining there with the rest of the 9th Division until embarking on the Queen Mary for Australia in late January 1943 , as part of the final withdrawal of Australian ground units from the Middle East to the Pacific to fight the Japanese .
= = = Fighting in New Guinea and Borneo = = =
Upon their return , a period of leave followed after which the battalion was re @-@ constituted on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland in April 1943 . The battalion was subsequently retrained , re @-@ equipped and reorganised to prepare it for the rigours of jungle warfare and throughout this time several drafts of reinforcements were received . These were mainly drawn from the states of South Australia and Western Australia , which changed the demographics of the battalion 's personnel . Some personnel were also drawn from Europeans who had been living in New Guinea . Finally , the battalion received orders to deploy to the territory of Papua , and in August 1943 the 2 / 2nd arrived at Milne Bay , which had been developed into a large Allied base after the fighting there the previous year . After a month of garrison duties and work parties , the battalion was committed to the final actions of the Salamaua – Lae campaign . In early September 1943 , it took part in the landing at Lae , as the 9th and 7th Divisions rushed to secure the town . During the 9th 's landing east of the town , the battalion suffered 29 casualties in a single Japanese air attack , but overall the battalion 's involvement in the advance resulted in only limited casualties as its personnel were mainly used to unload stores and equipment , as well providing local defence .
Lae fell sooner than anticipated and the Allies moved quickly to consolidate , dispatching the 9th Division to secure the Huon Peninsula in late September . During the initial landing at Scarlet Beach , only one company from the 2 / 2nd was deployed – ' C ' Company – in support of the 20th Brigade . Initially , the company was responsible for defending the beachhead around Scarlet Beach , but as the Australians fanned out and advanced south where Japanese resistance intensified , the machine gunners began patrolling operations further afield to the north and west . Once Finschhafen had been secured in early October , the Australians increased the size of their force ashore , landing the 24th Brigade , and along with it , the rest of the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion . After this , the battalion formed the main part of the divisional reserve , carrying out labouring tasks and maintaining a mobile reserve to counter @-@ attack if necessary . In November , as the 26th Brigade attacked Sattelberg , the machine guns of ' B ' Company were used in an offensive role for the first time during the campaign . Following the fall of Sattelberg , elements of the battalion supported the advance to Wareo before supporting the subsequent advance to Sio as the Australians followed up the retreating Japanese . During December , ' A ' Company was detached in support of the Militia 4th Brigade , before the 20th Brigade resumed the lead , marching on to Sio in mid @-@ January 1944 . The battalion remained in New Guinea until late February , unloading ships , before embarking upon the transport Seasnipe on 25 February as the 9th Division were relieved by the 5th and withdrawn to Australia for rest and reorganisation . After a short voyage , the 2 / 2nd disembarked in Brisbane in early March 1944 . Total casualties sustained by the battalion in New Guinea were 12 dead and 53 wounded .
A long period of relative inactivity subsequently followed as a result of inter @-@ Allied service politics which saw the US Army assume primacy of operations in the Pacific , and indecision about the future role of Australian forces in the Pacific campaign . During this time , the battalion was based around Ravenshoe in Queensland , and was virtually rebuilt , having fallen to a strength of just over 250 personnel due to the effects of tropical diseases and losses suffered during the previous campaign . The battalion was transferred to the " tropical war establishment " during this period as part of an Army @-@ wide reorganisation intended to optimise units for jungle warfare . As a result of this change , the battalion was no longer considered a motorised unit with its guns largely being carried across the battlefield by soldiers moving on foot . It was mostly a notional change as the battalion had lost the majority of its vehicles when the machine gunners had embarked from the Middle East earlier the previous year when the 9th Division had returned most of its equipment to the British . A small number of vehicles had been allocated to the battalion for its previous campaign in New Guinea , amounting to just six jeeps and two five @-@ tonne 6 x 6 GMC tractors . This had proven insufficient to maintain supplies , though , and so with the re @-@ organisation this was increased so that each company headquarters had two jeeps , with another four equipped with trailers being provided to each machine gun company for resupply . This represented a total of 19 jeeps and trailers across the whole battalion .
After over a year , the battalion was committed to its final campaign of the war , transiting through Morotai Island as it joined the fighting on Borneo . ' D ' Company supported the 26th Brigade during its assault on Tarakan Island in May , while the rest of the battalion supported the landings on Labuan Island and around Brunei Bay during the Battle of North Borneo . It was a short , but sharp campaign . During this time , in addition to their normal close support role , the machine gunners were often used as infantry , conducting extensive patrolling in search of Japanese stragglers which resulted in a number of clashes , as well as conducting defensive tasks against infiltrators and raiding parties . In North Borneo , a number of members of the battalion were also used to assist with the operation of a narrow gauge railway which had been brought back into service to maintain the Australian supply line . In early August , the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagaskai brought the war to an end . The battalion 's casualties during the campaign in Borneo totaled five dead and six wounded , while casualties on Tarakan amounted to five soldiers killed or wounded .
= = = Disbandment = = =
In late August the 2 / 2nd was concentrated on the island of Labuan where it was tasked with setting up and running a reception camp for released Allied prisoners of war and internees prior to their repatriation , doing so until late December when the camp was finally closed . Meanwhile , following the conclusion of hostilities , the battalion 's personnel were slowly transferred to other units or repatriated back to Australia for demobilisation . In January 1946 , the 2 / 2nd 's remaining personnel returned to Australia and the following month , on 26 February , the unit was disbanded . Throughout the course of the war , a total of 1 @,@ 824 personnel served within the unit . One member , the author Eric Lambert , based some of the content in his works , including The Twenty Thousand Thieves , on the events he witnessed while serving with the battalion . The battalion lost 67 men killed or died on active service , while a further 193 were wounded and 28 were captured . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : two Distinguished Service Orders , one Military Cross , one Distinguished Conduct Medal , five Military Medals and 20 Mentions in Despatches .
After the war , the Australian Army moved away from the machine gun battalion construct and consequently no similar units have been raised since , with the role being subsumed into the support companies of individual infantry battalions . The concept was arguably misunderstood by Australian commanders throughout the war , and this may have influenced the decision to move away from the concept . When the units had been established , the intent had been that the machine gun battalions would provide highly mobile fire support ; however , this was largely only applicable in theatres where principles of open warfare could be applied . Once the focus of Australian Army combat operations shifted to the Pacific , the machine gun battalions were largely misused , being employed in a static defensive capacity against short and medium range targets , or for menial tasks , rather than as offensive fire support weapons that could have been employed to provide long range fire support . The medium machine guns were also largely utilised in the same manner as light machine guns , such as the Bren . Other reasons identified for the concept 's limited use include distrust of overhead fire by some commanders , a preference for organic fire support over attached sub @-@ units , over @-@ estimating the difficulty of transporting Vickers guns in the jungle , and a tendency to ignore targets that could not be seen . The difficulties of target acquisition in dense jungle also contributed .
= = Commanding officers = =
The 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was commanded by the following officers :
Lieutenant Colonel David Whitehead ( 1940 – 42 )
Lieutenant Colonel Edward Macarthur @-@ Onslow ( 1942 – 45 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Searle ( 1945 ) .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was awarded the following battle honours :
North Africa 1941 – 42 ; Defence of Alamein Line ; Ruweisat Ridge ; Sanyet el Miteirya ; El Alamein ; South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 ; Lae – Nadzab ; Finschhafen ; Sattelberg ; Borneo ; Brunei and Labuan .
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= German submarine U @-@ 853 =
German submarine U @-@ 853 was a Type IXC / 40 U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . Her keel was laid down on 21 August 1942 by DeSchiMAG AG Weser of Bremen . She was commissioned on 25 June 1943 with Kapitänleutnant Helmut Sommer in command . U @-@ 853 saw action during the Battle of the Atlantic in World War II . She conducted three patrols , sinking two ships totalling 5 @,@ 783 tons .
On her final patrol , U @-@ 853 was sent to harass United States coastal shipping . She destroyed USS Eagle Boat 56 near Portland , Maine . Just days before Germany 's surrender , U @-@ 853 torpedoed and sank the collier Black Point during the Battle of Point Judith . American warships quickly found U @-@ 853 and sank her 7 nmi ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) east of Block Island , Rhode Island , resulting in the loss of her entire crew .
U @-@ 853 is a popular deep sea diving site . She rests in 121 feet ( 37 m ) of water . Holes in the hull permit access to the interior of the submarine , though it is a war grave with most of the 55 crew bodies remaining inside .
= = Design = =
German Type IXC / 40 submarines were slightly larger than the original Type IXCs . U @-@ 853 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 144 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 126 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 257 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 237 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 76 m ( 251 ft 10 in ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 86 m ( 22 ft 6 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 60 m ( 31 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 67 m ( 15 ft 4 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 1 @,@ 010 PS ; 750 kW ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 3 knots ( 33 @.@ 9 km / h ; 21 @.@ 1 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 3 knots ( 13 @.@ 5 km / h ; 8 @.@ 4 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 63 nautical miles ( 117 km ; 72 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 13 @,@ 850 nautical miles ( 25 @,@ 650 km ; 15 @,@ 940 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 853 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 853 was built by DeSchiMAG AG Weser of Bremen . Ordered on 5 June 1941 , her keel was laid on 21 August 1942 and she was commissioned on 25 June 1943 .
The Germans nicknamed the U @-@ boat der Seiltänzer ( " the Tightrope Walker " ) , and her crew painted an emblem of a yellow shield with a red horse on her sail .
= = First patrol = =
On her first patrol from May to June 1944 , U @-@ 853 was assigned to weather @-@ watching duty under the command of Kapitänleutnant Helmut Sommer . This was its first war patrol . German intelligence believed that weather conditions in the Atlantic could be used to help predict the timing of an Allied invasion of Europe . On 25 May 1944 U @-@ 853 spotted RMS Queen Mary , loaded with American troops and supplies . The U @-@ boat submerged to attack , but was outrun by the much larger and faster ship . As she surfaced in Queen Mary 's wake U @-@ 853 was attacked by Fairey Swordfish aircraft from British merchant aircraft carriers MV Ancylus and MV Empire MacKendrick . The U @-@ boat took no significant damage and returned fire , hitting all three aircraft . The planes were able to return to their carrier , but after recovery one was deemed a total loss and jettisoned .
The escort carrier USS Croatan ( CVE @-@ 14 ) had been hunting weather boats for nearly a month and had already sunk U @-@ 488 and U @-@ 490 . Intercepted radio transmissions led Croatan and six destroyers to search for U @-@ 853 . The U @-@ 853 proved so elusive that Croatan 's crew nicknamed their prey " Moby Dick . " After ten days of hunting , on 17 June Huff @-@ Duff ( HF / DF , high frequency direction finding ) picked up a weather report from U @-@ 853 only 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) away . Within minutes two FM @-@ 1 Wildcat fighters strafed the submarine , killing 2 men and wounding 12 others . Sommer suffered 28 shrapnel and bullet wounds yet still managed to give the order to submerge . In all likelihood Sommer saved his submarine from being destroyed by allied bombers .
Three weeks of pursuit from 25 May until 17 June placed an enormous strain on U @-@ 853 's crew . Twenty @-@ three @-@ year @-@ old Oberleutnant zur See Helmut Frömsdorf took command of the boat on 18 June ( his first command ) and returned to Lorient . Sommer and a large number of the crew was declared unfit for duty . On 10 July Sommer was formally relieved by Oberleutnant zur See Otto Wermuth .
= = Second patrol = =
The boat remained in port until 27 August . Decorated veteran Korvettenkapitän Günter Kuhnke , Commander of the 10th U @-@ boat Flotilla , took command for her second patrol . U @-@ 853 operated this time in the Western Approaches off the British Isles , but in a period of seven weeks scored no successes . On completion she did not return to Lorient , but continued to Flensburg , arriving 14 October . Kuhnke assumed command of the 33rd U @-@ boat Flotilla upon arriving at Flensburg . He relinquished command of U @-@ 853 back to Frömsdorf , who took the U @-@ boat on her third and final patrol . Before departure U @-@ 853 was fitted with a Schnorchel , a retractable air intake and exhaust that allowed the ship to remain submerged while running her diesel engines . The Schnorchel reduced the need to spend dangerous periods on the surface recharging batteries .
= = Last patrol = =
On 23 February 1945 Germany sent U @-@ 853 on her third war patrol to harass US coastal shipping . Under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Helmut Frömsdorf , U @-@ 853 did not sink any targets during the first weeks of her patrol . Her crossing of the Atlantic was slow because she used her Schnorchel to remain submerged to avoid being spotted by Allied aircraft . On 1 April 1945 U @-@ 853 was ordered to the Gulf of Maine . On 23 April she fatally torpedoed USS Eagle Boat 56 near Portland , Maine . The next day USS Muskegon made sonar contact and attacked U @-@ 853 , but failed to destroy her .
Eagle Boat 56 , a World War I @-@ era patrol boat , was towing targets for a United States Navy dive @-@ bomber training exercise 3 nautical miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ; 3 @.@ 5 mi ) off Cape Elizabeth when she exploded amidships and sank . Only 13 of the 67 crew survived . Although several survivors claimed to have seen a submarine sail with yellow and red insignia , a Navy inquiry attributed the sinking to a boiler explosion . The Navy reversed its findings in 2001 to acknowledge that the sinking was due to hostile fire and awarded Purple Hearts to the survivors and next @-@ of @-@ kin of the deceased .
= = Battle of Point Judith = =
On 5 May 1945 , President ( Reichspräsident ) of Nazi Germany Karl Dönitz ordered all U @-@ boats to cease offensive operations and return to their bases . U @-@ 853 was lying in wait off Point Judith , Rhode Island at the time . According to the US Coast Guard , U @-@ 853 did not receive that order , or less likely , ignored it . Soon after , her torpedo blew off the stern of SS Black Point , a 368 @-@ foot ( 112 m ) collier underway from New York to Boston . Within 15 minutes Black Point had sunk in 100 feet ( 30 m ) of water less than 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) south of Point Judith . She was the last US @-@ flagged merchant ship lost in World War II . Twelve men died , while 34 crew members were rescued . One of the rescuing ships , Yugoslav freighter SS Kamen , sent a report of the torpedoing to authorities . The US Navy organized a " hunter @-@ killer " group that included four American warships : Ericsson ( DD @-@ 440 ) , Amick ( DE @-@ 168 ) , Atherton ( DE @-@ 169 ) , and Moberly ( PF @-@ 63 ) .
The group discovered U @-@ 853 bottomed in 18 fathoms ( 108 ft ; 33 m ) , and dropped depth charges and hedgehogs during a 16 @-@ hour attack . At first the U @-@ boat attempted to flee , and then tried to hide by lying still . Both times it was found by sonar . The morning of 6 May 1945 two K @-@ Class blimps from Lakehurst , New Jersey , K @-@ 16 and K @-@ 58 , joined the attack , locating oil slicks and marking suspected locations with smoke and dye markers . K @-@ 16 also attacked with 7 @.@ 2 @-@ inch rocket bombs . Numerous depth charge and hedgehog attacks from Atherton and Moberly resulted in planking , life rafts , a chart tabletop , clothing , and an officer 's cap floating to the surface . With the loss of all 55 officers and men , U @-@ 853 was one of the last U @-@ boats sunk during World War II. and , with U @-@ 881 , the last to be sunk in US waters . Atherton and Moberly received credit for the kill .
= = Legacy = =
The body of one of U @-@ 853 's crewmembers was recovered in 1960 and was interred in the Island Cemetery Annex on Van Zandt Avenue in Newport , Rhode Island . The submarine 's two propellers were on display for many years at the Inn at Castle Hill in Newport and are now in the custody of the United States Naval War College Museum at the Newport Naval Station .
The USS Atherton was transferred to Japan and served as part of the Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force until 1975 when she was returned to the United States . She was given to the Philippines in 1978 and served with the Philippine Navy as recently as 2011 . Interest has been expressed in returning Atherton to the United States so she can be restored to her World War II appearance and be opened to the public .
= = Wreck = =
U @-@ 853 lies 7 nautical miles ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) east of Block Island in 130 feet ( 40 m ) of water . The US Coast Guard pinpoints the location of the wreck at 41 ° 13 ′ N 71 ° 27 ′ W. U @-@ 853 sits upright with her periscope rising to a depth of 100 feet ( 30 m ) . Most of the 55 crew member bodies remain within the hull , which is a war grave . It is one of the more popular dive sites in Southern New England . The hull has depth charge blast holes : one forward of the conning tower at the radio room and another in the starboard side of the engine room . Entering the wreck is dangerous due to debris , sharp metal edges , and confined spaces .
On 6 and 7 May 1945 , Navy divers attempted to enter the wreck to recover the captain 's safe and the papers within , but failed . Recreational divers first visited the site in 1953 . In 1960 a recreational diver brought up a body from the wreck . This provoked former navy admirals and clergy to petition the US government for restrictions on disturbing the dead . The German crewman was buried with full military honors in Newport , Rhode Island . At least two recreational divers have died from exploring the wreckage . Renowned deep sea diver Stephen Hardick perished in 2005 while filming the U @-@ boat . He surfaced unconscious and could not be revived . Hardick , age 60 , died as the result of saltwater drowning associated with poor health according to the Rhode Island Medical Examiner 's office .
An AP report on the Boston Globe news site cites diver Bill Palmer having retrieved numerous items from the wreck , as well as including accounts 853 from USS Atherton personnel Kenneth Homberger and the ship commander Lewis Iselin of the US naval action that led to sinking of U @-@ 853 from USS Atherton personnel Kenneth Homberger and the ship commander Lewis Iselin .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= = Armament = =
= = = FLAK weaponry = = =
U @-@ 853 was mounted with a single 3 @.@ 7 cm Flakzwilling M43U gun on the LM 42U mount . The LM 42U mount was the most common mount used with the 3 @.@ 7 cm Flak M42U . The 3 @.@ 7 cm Flak M42U was the marine version of the 3 @.@ 7 cm Flak used by the Kriegsmarine on Type VII and Type IX U @-@ boats . U @-@ 853 was mounted with two 2cm Flak C38 in a M 43U Zwilling mount with short folding shield on the upper Wintergarten . The M 43U mount was used on a number of U @-@ boats ( U @-@ 190 , U @-@ 249 , U @-@ 250 , U @-@ 278 , U @-@ 337 , U @-@ 475 , U @-@ 1058 , U @-@ 1109 , U @-@ 1023 , U @-@ 1105 , U @-@ 1165 and U @-@ 1306 ) .
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= Abu Ali Iyad =
Walid Ahmad Nimer al @-@ Naser ( Arabic : وليد أحمد نمر النصر ) ( 1934 – July 23 , 1971 ) better known by his nom de guerre Abu Ali Iyad ( Arabic : أبو علي إياد ) was a senior Palestinian field commander based in Syria and Jordan during the 1960s and early 1970s .
After a career of teaching in the West Bank , Iraq , Saudi Arabia and Algeria , Abu Ali Iyad was recruited into the paramilitary group , Fatah , by Khalil al @-@ Wazir in 1964 after graduating from an Algerian military training course . A year later , he became one of Fatah 's first leaders in Syria along with al @-@ Wazir and Yasser Arafat . During his time there , Abu Ali Iyad gained a position on the group 's top political body , supervised its main guerrilla training camp in Daraa and set up a military intelligence headquarters .
As a Fatah field commander , he fought Israeli forces at the Battle of Karameh , gaining a reputation as an unyielding commander . Abu Ali Iyad was also a leading organizer and participant in guerrilla raids against Israeli localities . He was one of the last Palestinian commanders to fight the Jordanian Army in the aftermath of the Black September conflict . He was killed in the countryside around Ajlun and Jerash by Jordanian forces in July 1971 . His partisans claimed that he was executed , and as retaliation , they assassinated Jordanian prime minister Wasfi al @-@ Tal four months after Abu Ali Iyad 's death .
= = Early life = =
In 1934 , Abu Ali Iyad was born in Qalqilyah in the modern @-@ day West Bank when Palestine was under the British Mandate . He was educated there , graduating from high school in 1953 and taught at schools in the city and nearby Azzun . A year later , he moved to Baquba , Iraq where he enrolled in a teacher training program . He left Iraq the same year , moving to Saudi Arabia to teach there afterward . In 1962 , he had a job as a teacher in Algeria . However , he soon sought and received training by the Algerian Army , graduating from its training course in the summer of 1964 .
= = Fatah command = =
While in Algeria , Abu Ali Iyad was recruited into the Palestinian nationalist paramilitary organization Fatah by the leader of its armed wing Khalil al @-@ Wazir . He adopted his nom de guerre after joining . Fatah at the time was divided politically with the more non @-@ violent leadership based in Kuwait and those supporting attacks against Israel based in Syria . Abu Ali Iyad , along with al @-@ Wazir , Yasser Arafat , and three others in the Syrian camp , formed the organization 's " emergency " field command in Damascus in 1965 .
A year later al @-@ Wazir , Arafat , and much of the Fatah military leadership were arrested by Syrian authorities loyal to Hafez al @-@ Assad ( who was Defense Minister at the time ) as suspects in the murder of a pro @-@ Assad paramilitary leader , Yusef Urabi . As a result , Abu Ali Iyad , al @-@ Wazir 's wife Intissar al @-@ Wazir and fellow Fatah commander Ahmad Attrush were put in charge of Fatah 's leadership in Syria . They formed a secret committee whose purpose was maintaining the military operations of Fatah 's armed wing , al @-@ Assifa , against Israel , launching attacks from Lebanon and Jordan and thus co @-@ opting al @-@ Assad 's efforts to circumvent their activity . Abu Ali Iyad himself was arrested later by the Syrian authorities . He was released along with Arafat and two other Fatah leaders in August . Abu Ali Iyad then met al @-@ Assad in person to sign an agreement on the terms of Fatah 's presence and activities in Syria .
Following the release of the rest of Fatah 's leadership , the Central Committee of Fatah — the organization 's highest decision @-@ making body , was reformed . Two of Arafat 's rivals lost their positions in the new central committee and were replaced by his allies , Abu Ali Iyad and Salah Khalaf , tilting the balance of power within Fatah towards Syria instead of Kuwait . Abu Ali Iyad 's position gave him responsibility for al @-@ Assifa 's operations against Israel from Syria and Lebanon . By the end of the year , he had personally led raids against a number of villages in northeastern Israel , including Kfar Giladi , Manara , Margaliot , and Beit Yosef . In the latter village , his unit was responsible for wounding two civilians and destroying three houses by explosives .
Also after his release , in 1966 , Abu Ali Iyad became the chief military instructor of a training camp for Fatah recruits in the city of Hama in central Syria . He modeled it based on the Algerian training camp he graduated from . Most of his pupils were university students who would soon form Fatah 's new guerrilla force . Abu Ali Iyad 's course was the only one of its kind run by Fatah itself ( often commanders would train in Algeria ) and it provided the bulk of commanders for the group 's guerrilla units for the next decade . These mostly young recruits became known as " Tiger Cubs . " Among their ranks , Abu Ali Iyad gained a reputation for enforcing strict discipline . According to British Middle East expert , Patrick Seale , he also had a " fierce appearance " that left his soldiers in " awe " ; after a malfunction while he was experimenting with explosives , he lost an eye and damaged one of his legs . In 1968 , Abu Ali Iyad set up a Fatah headquarters for military intelligence in Dera 'a , southern Syria . Its principal task was to penetrate the Jordanian Army and security agencies .
= = = Commander in Jordan = = =
He moved to Jordan in 1968 where he trained Fatah forces in Ajlun . Palestinian fedayeen activity persisted following the collective Arab defeat in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War and Israel sought to end guerrilla attacks on its territory by launching an offensive against the Palestinian Liberation Organization 's ( PLO ) bases in Jordan . A major confrontation ensued between the Israeli Army and Fatah which came to be known as the Battle of Karameh . Abu Ali Iyad was a senior commander during the battle , gaining prominence and respect among the Palestinians for his performance as an unyielding military officer . Although Fatah took heavy losses , Israel eventually withdrew after the Jordanian Army entered the fray on Fatah 's side . He continued to organize raids against Israeli army camps and towns in Israel and the West Bank while he was based in Jordan .
Relations between the PLO and King Hussein of Jordan began to deteriorate after Karameh , climaxing in September 1970 when armed conflict ensued between Palestinian and Jordanian forces . Prior to Jordanian military action , Abu Ali Iyad lobbied his colleagues in Fatah , who supported the forced ousting of the king , to withdraw from Amman and return to the countryside closer to the border with Israel . Palestinian factions did not heed his calls and their military bases in Amman were shelled by Jordanian forces . On September 17 , an emergency meeting of PLO factions was held with the majority of those attending favoring confrontation with King Hussein 's troops . Supporting al @-@ Wazir , who was one of the few delegates to have reservations , Abu Ali Iyad argued against confrontation and warned that expectations of Syrian intervention on the side of the Palestinians was improbable . The Jordanians succeeded in defeating PLO forces in Amman and about 2 @,@ 000 Palestinian guerrillas under al @-@ Wazir 's leadership evacuated the city northward to Ajlun .
Abu Ali Iyad was part of the field command there along with al @-@ Wazir . They headed a force of roughly 2 @,@ 500 guerrillas in the hilly terrain around Ajlun and Jerash . Their position was vulnerable due to the ineffectiveness of Palestinian guerrilla warfare against Jordanian armor in open areas versus urban warfare in the cities and Palestinian refugee camps . Most of the PLO leadership , including Arafat and al @-@ Wazir , and hundreds of guerrillas escaped Jordan in April 1971 following pressure from Arab states , confiscation of weapons by the Jordanian Army and the closing of PLO offices in Amman . Abu Ali Iyad refused to do so , however , and he and his Tiger Cubs stayed put in their Ajlun base where they continued to fight the Jordanian Army .
On July 12 , King Hussein ordered the evacuation of all guerrilla forces from the strategic mountain in the center of their stronghold in Ajlun . Hussein personally offered to allow Abu Ali Iyad to depart unharmed if he abandoned his fighters . He refused and Hussein ordered his troops to track down and kill him within the framework of routing out remaining PLO forces in northern Jordan . A Jordanian infantry division and armored brigade backed by 10 @,@ 000 Bedouin foot soldiers immediately launched an offensive afterward . By July 16 , Palestinian positions had been secured by the Jordanian Army . During the Jordanian offensive , 200 @-@ 250 guerrillas had been killed and 70 @-@ 100 of Abu Ali 's troops fled , crossing the Jordan River to the Israeli @-@ occupied West Bank .
= = Death and aftermath = =
In early July , prior to the offensive , Abu Ali sent letters to Fatah leaders chastising them for surrendering to King Hussein 's forces , stating in defiance " We will die on our feet rather than kneel . " On July 23 , he was reported killed by the Jordanian Army . According to Yezid Sayigh who documented the history of Palestinian guerrilla warfare , Abu Ali was " executed " during mop @-@ up operations by the Jordanian Army sometime on July 17 – 18 . Jordanian Bedouin troops tied his corpse to a tank and dragged it through several northern villages that had large Palestinian populations . The PLO claimed he was captured and tortured to death by Jordanian forces prior . Another version of events by Abu Ali 's partisans was that the Jordanian prime minister at the time , Wasfi al @-@ Tal , was personally responsible for his torture .
His partisans sought vengeance for his killing and a splinter group developed within Fatah consisting of men from the Tiger Cubs and other Fatah dissidents . It came to be known as the Black September Organization ( BSO ) and Abu Ali 's men provided its initial membership . On November 28 , one of his former Tiger Cubs , Munshir al @-@ Khalifa , assassinated al @-@ Tal in Cairo . According to Seale , this was the first attack carried out by the BSO .
Palestinian poet Mahmoud Darwish dedicated the poem " Returning to Jaffa " to Abu Ali Iyad .
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= Pilot ( Community ) =
The pilot episode of the NBC sitcom Community aired on Thursday , September 17 , 2009 . Written by Dan Harmon , the show 's creator , the episode was directed by Anthony Russo and Joe Russo . The episode introduces Jeff Winger ( Joel McHale ) , a debarred lawyer who is forced to attend community college to get his license back . He tries to exploit his friendship with one of the faculty members for easy credits , but fails , and is forced to join a Spanish study group . The members of this study group make up the main cast of the series , which includes Chevy Chase as retired entrepreneur Pierce Hawthorne .
The show takes place at the fictional Greendale Community College in Greendale , Colorado . Harmon based the show on his own experiences in community college , and partly modeled the character of Jeff Winger on himself . He emphasized the cast 's importance to the show , and also credited some of the actors for their improvisational skills . The episode attracted generally favorable reviews from critics , who praised both the actors and the comedy writing . The show received good viewership , and stood out in NBC 's Thursday lineup , where the network 's other shows suffered declines in ratings .
= = Plot = =
Jeff Winger , a disbarred lawyer , has enrolled at Greendale Community College as a condition for getting his license back . His plan is to use his friendship with Dr. Ian Duncan to obtain test answers . In the cafeteria Jeff meets the attractive Britta , and ( in an attempt to get closer to her ) convinces her to join his non @-@ existent Spanish study group . As the study group convenes , Jeff pretends the other members simply did not show up . Britta , however , has invited Abed to join them . Jeff unsuccessfully tries to make him leave , and then gets called to the football field by Dr. Duncan . The professor makes a futile attempt to appeal to Jeff 's conscience , and eventually agrees to provide the answers . Jeff returns to the study group , discovering that Abed has also invited Troy , Shirley , Pierce and Annie . Finding Britta smoking outside , he suggests the two study alone , but she persuades him to return .
Jeff , eager to get away , deliberately stirs a fight among the group , then leaves once more to get the test answers . Dr. Duncan hands him a sealed envelope , but only in return for Jeff 's Lexus . When Jeff returns , the group is in turmoil , and Britta promises to go out with him if he can restore order . He does this through an inspirational speech , but Britta sees through his vacuous rhetoric and asks him to leave . Jeff then comes clean about everything , adding that since he now has the test answers he does not need the study group . As the group turns against him he takes off .
Leaving the building , Jeff finds all the pages in the envelope to be blank . He returns to the office of Dr. Duncan who tells him that he wanted to teach him a lesson although Jeff gets his car keys back . As he is about to leave campus , Jeff runs into Pierce and Troy , and shows his ability to make people feel better about themselves through advice and encouragement . The others join , and Jeff admits to being a fraud . He says that he does not have the test answers , and that he will probably flunk next day 's test . The group has now taken a liking to him , and they invite him back in . The episode ends with a dedication to the recently deceased John Hughes , whose film The Breakfast Club has been repeatedly referenced throughout the episode .
= = Cast and characters = =
The pilot emphasizes character introduction , and a great deal of biographical information about the various main characters is revealed in the episode .
Joel McHale as Jeff Winger – Jeff is a smooth talking lawyer who was debarred once it was revealed that his college degree was " less than legitimate " . The condition of his reinstatement is that he finishes a college degree .
Chevy Chase as Pierce Hawthorne – Pierce is implicitly described by the college dean as one of the school 's " old people keeping their minds active as they circle the drains of eternity " . He is a retired entrepreneur who made a fortune on moist towelettes . He has been married seven times , and has now decided to go back to college .
Gillian Jacobs as Britta Perry – Britta dropped out of high school because she thought it would impress Radiohead . She then joined a group of anarchists who vandalized billboards . She has been in the Peace Corps , and done foot modeling before she enrolled at Greendale . She is strongly concerned with honesty , and does not take lightly to anyone lying to her .
Danny Pudi as Abed Nadir – Abed is a Palestinian / Polish boy who – according to Jeff – has Asperger syndrome . He proves helpful to Jeff with his ability to obtain quick and detailed knowledge of everyone he meets .
Yvette Nicole Brown as Shirley Bennett – Shirley is a " middle @-@ aged divorcee " who " has made some bad life choices " .
Alison Brie as Annie Edison – Annie got addicted to pills and had to drop out of high school .
Donald Glover as Troy Barnes – Troy was a high school football star who got injured and failed to get a scholarship .
John Oliver as Professor Ian Duncan , psychology teacher at Greendale . – Professor Duncan once faced a DUI charge , but was acquitted thanks to Jeff 's help .
Jim Rash as Dean Pelton – Dean Pelton is first introduced while giving his introductory speech to the new students , a speech that ends up being unintentionally offensive .
= = Casting = =
Harmon has emphasized the importance of the cast to making the premise of the comedy work . " Casting was 95 percent of putting the show together , " he said in an interview . He had worked with several of the cast members earlier ; Joel McHale , John Oliver and Chevy Chase all had cameo roles in episode 9 of Water and Power , the short film series produced by Harmon for Channel 101 . Actor Chevy Chase had long been a favorite of Harmon . Though principally not very partial to sitcoms , Chase was persuaded to take the job by the quality of the show 's writing . Harmon saw similarities between Chase and the character he plays on the show . Though Chase has often been ridiculed for his career choices , Harmon believed this role could be redeeming : " What makes Chevy and Pierce heroic is this refusal to stop . " Harmon had to warn Chase against playing a " wise @-@ ass " the way he often does in his roles , since the character of Pierce is a rather pathetic figure who is normally the butt of the joke himself .
McHale – known from the E ! comedy The Soup – was also , like Chase , impressed by Harmon 's writing . He commented that " after reading Dan 's script it was so head and shoulders above everything else that I was reading . " McHale appealed to Harmon because of his likable quality , which allowed the character to possess certain unsympathetic traits without turning the viewer against him . For the role of Annie , Harmon wanted someone who would resemble Tracy Flick , Reese Witherspoon 's character from the 1999 movie Election . Originally the producers were looking for a Latina or Asian Tracy Flick , for greater diversity , but could not find any . Instead they ended up casting Alison Brie , known from her role as Trudy Campbell on Mad Men .
= = Production = =
The premise of Community was based on Harmon 's real @-@ life experiences . In an attempt to save his relationship with his then @-@ girlfriend , he once enrolled in Glendale Community College , north of Los Angeles , where they would take Spanish together . Harmon got involved in a study group and – somewhat against his own instincts – became closely connected to the group of people with whom he had very little in common . " ... I was in this group with these knuckleheads and I started really liking them , " he explained , " even though they had nothing to do with the film industry and I had nothing to gain from them and nothing to offer them . " With this as the background , Harmon wrote the show with a main character largely based on himself . He had , like Jeff , been self @-@ centered and independent to the extreme before he realised the value of connecting with other people .
About the creative process behind the writing , Harmon says that he had to write the show as if it were a movie , not a sitcom . Essentially , he says , the process was no different from the earlier work he had done , except for the length and the target demographic . Filming the show involved a lot of improvisation , particularly from Chevy Chase . Harmon said about Chase that he " tends to come up with lines that you can actually end scenes with sometimes . " He also mentioned Joel McHale and Donald Glover , the actor who portrays Troy , as adept improvisers .
= = Reception = =
Premiering in the 9 : 30 pm time slot on September 17 , 2009 , the pilot episode had a viewership of 7 @.@ 680 million . In the 18 – 49 audience , it had a rating of 3 @.@ 7 . As such , it held 93 % of this audience from The Office , which had been in the previous time slot . The show was called the " bright spot for the night " for NBC , considering that The Office was down 18 % from the previous year 's premiere , while Parks and Recreation , in the preceding time slot , was down 30 % .
The pilot episode of Community received generally favorable reviews from critics . The aggregate review website Metacritic gives the show a score of 69 out of 100 , based on 23 reviews . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker called it " One of the new season 's best sitcoms " , and gave it a grade B + . Heather Havrilesky , writing for Salon.com , agreed with this assessment , and commended the " alarmingly smart writing " . Alan Sepinwall at The Star @-@ Ledger similarly called it " the best , and funniest , new show of the season " , and said he laughed just as much after seeing the pilot four times . Others were less impressed ; Variety 's Brian Lowry found the satire wanting , and did not much appreciate McHale 's performance . The Miami Herald 's Glenn Garvin found that , though particularly McHale was capable of generating " sporadic laughter " , the show was just not very amusing .
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= Hurst Castle =
Not to be confused with Hearst Castle , a resort built in the US by wealthy newspaper magnate , William Randolph Hearst .
Hurst Castle is an artillery fort established by Henry VIII on the Hurst Spit in Hampshire , between 1541 and 1544 . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the western entrance to the Solent waterway . The early castle had a central keep and three bastions , and in 1547 was equipped with 26 guns . It was expensive to operate due to its size , but it formed one of the most powerful forts along the coast . During the English Civil War of the 1640s , Hurst was held by Parliament and was used briefly to detain King Charles I before his execution in 1648 . It continued in use during the 18th century but fell into disrepair , the spit being frequented by smugglers .
Repairs were made during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars with France , and the castle was modernised to enable it hold 24 @-@ pounder ( 10 @.@ 8 kg ) guns . Fresh fears of invasion followed in the 1850s , leading to heavier , 32 @-@ pounder ( 14 @.@ 5 kg ) armament being installed and new gun batteries being laid out on both sides of the castle . Technological developments rapidly made these defences obsolete , however , and a fresh phase of work between 1861 and 1874 created sixty @-@ one gun positions in two long , granite @-@ faced batteries alongside the older castle . These held very heavy weapons , including massive 12 @.@ 5 inch , 38 ton ( 317 mm , 39 @,@ 000 kg ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . As the century progressed , these too became outdated and lighter , quick @-@ firing guns were installed at the castle to replace them .
The castle formed part of a network of defences around the entrance to the Solent during the First World War , and was re @-@ armed again during the Second World War . The military decommissioned the fort in 1956 and it passed into the control of the Ministry of Works . In the 21st century , it is run jointly by English Heritage and the Friends of Hurst Castle as a tourist attraction , receiving around 40 @,@ 000 visitors during 2015 . Coastal erosion has become a growing problem despite government intervention to protecting the spit . Four lighthouses have been built at Hurst from the 18th century onwards , one of which , a high lighthouse first opened in 1867 , remains in active service .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
Hurst Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences based around simple blockhouses and towers existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were limited in scale . Worsley 's Tower , for example , built opposite the future site of Hurst Castle in the 1520s , was too small to hold powerful artillery and considered by surveyors in 1539 to be " one of the worst devised things " they had seen .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III over the annulment of his long @-@ standing marriage to Catherine of Aragon . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , who took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
Hurst Castle was designed to protect the western entrance to the Solent , a body of water that led from the English Channel to the naval base at Portsmouth and , through Southampton Water , to the important port of Southampton . The castle was one of four fortifications that William Fitzwilliam , the Lord Admiral , and William Paulet recommended building to strengthen the defences along the Solent ; the others were at East and West Cowes , and Calshot . It was positioned on the Hurst Spit , a strip of shingle sheltering saltmarsh and mud flats , only 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) across the water from the Isle of Wight . Temporary earthwork fortifications were erected on the site and , after the other three castles had been completed , work then began on Hurst in 1541 under the direction of John Mille , the financial controller , and probably Thomas Bertie , a master mason . Bertie was appointed as the castle 's captain in 1542 and the work was completed by January 1544 , at a cost of over £ 3 @,@ 200 .
The result was a stone artillery fort with a central keep and three bastions , surrounded by a moat , capable of holding up to 71 guns . In 1547 , however , Hurst was equipped with 26 artillery pieces – four made of brass and the remainder iron – comprising a two sakers , a culverin , a demi @-@ cannon , a curtall cannon , two demi @-@ culverins , six portpieces , four slings , two quarter @-@ slings , and seven bases , three of them inoperable . A 1559 survey commented that Hurst Castle was essential for sending reinforcements from the mainland to the island , and noted that it was equipped with eleven brass and iron guns , with nine further broken guns , along with handguns , bows and arrows , pikes and bills . The survey observed that the castle was vulnerable to attack because it lacked flanking protection and had rounded walls , and that it was expensive to garrison because of its size , requiring a captain , his deputy , twelve gunners , nine soldiers and a porter . The historian John Kenyon notes , however , that its considerable armament made it one of the most powerful forts in the south , even if it was equipped with lighter guns than would have been ideal for its " ship @-@ killing " role .
Meanwhile , the invasion threat from France had passed and a lasting peace was made in 1558 ; government concerns shifted away from the south coast towards the Spanish threat to the south @-@ west of England . By 1569 , when Thomas Carew was serving as Hurst 's captain , there were less than ten guns but the same size of garrison to that seven years before . His son , Sir Thomas Gorges , became captain in turn , and in 1593 he reported that the castle 's gun platforms were in serious need of repair .
= = = 17th century = = =
In the early 1600s , England was at peace with France and Spain , and the country 's coastal defences received little attention . The Gorges family continued as captains at Hurst , with Sir Edward Gorges taking up the post in 1610 , but the castle was neglected . In 1628 , the castle was unable to prevent Flemish ships from passing along the Solent , as only four or five of the castle 's twenty @-@ seven guns were functional , and the fort had no ammunition or powder for them . The government replaced all the brass ordnance in the castle , which were preferred , particularly on ships , as they could fire faster and more safely , with iron guns in 1635 .
At the beginning of the English Civil War in 1642 between the supporters of Charles I and Parliament , the castle was occupied by Captain Richard Swanley , a supporter of Parliament . In December 1648 it was briefly used to detain the King before his trial and execution . During the interregum , it remained in use under the command of Colonel Thomas Eyre and was reinforced in 1650 to deal with the threat of a Royalist invasion .
After Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 , Eyre was dismissed and replaced by Edward Strange . The future of the castle was uncertain ; Charles gave orders to demobilise the garrison and briefly considered having the fortress demolished altogether . Instead of maintaining a regular garrison , in 1666 it was decided to staff the castle using soldiers deployed from the Isle of Wight instead , from a unit belonging to Sir Robert Holmes , the island 's governor . Hurst had meanwhile fallen into disrepair , delaying the plans to deploy Holmes ' men until 1671 . Repairs were carried out and , by 1675 , a conventional garrison and almost thirty guns were stationed at Hurst .
= = = 18th century = = =
Hurst Castle continued to be used as a military base in the 18th century , but was also used to hold a Franciscan confessor , Father Paul Atkinson . Amid concerns over the moral condition of England and a perceived threat to the established Church , an act for " further preventing the growth of popery " was passed in 1700 ; Hurst was chosen by the Privy Council to house any priests convicted under this law . Atkinson was probably the only person detained in this way , and he was held for 29 years from 1700 onwards , before finally dying at the castle .
There had been reported problems with smuggling around Hurst Castle since the 1670s , and these continued into the 18th century . In 1729 , the Revenue service hired the Hurst , a wide , heavy yacht , to assist in anti @-@ smuggling operations out of Southampton , arming its crew with muskets , pistols and swords . The problems persisted and , later in the century , the site was used as a rendezvous for smugglers led by a notorious criminal called John Streeter .
The castle fell into neglect , and reports from the 1770s through into the early 1790s noted extensive problems , complaining that the fort 's guns could no longer be mounted on the dilapidated bastions and that water was seeping through the decaying walls . By 1793 , the castle was considered to be " in the worst condition " of all the forts along the coast , and all its guns were unusable . Repairs were authorised , but little was actually done . The spit around the castle began to be used by civilians , including fishermen and gardeners ; a lighthouse , called the Hurst Tower , was built there in 1786 , and the Shipwright 's Arms inn was established alongside the castle .
The Revolutionary War with France broke out in 1793 , leading to the extensive modernisation of the castle . Repairs were carried out in 1794 at a cost of £ 647 , followed by a review of the defences the next year by the Master @-@ General of the Ordnance . The 16th @-@ century castle was still strongly fortified by the standards of the time , but it could not support the heavier guns or batteries of artillery required to tackle enemy warships . Instead , two new gun batteries , each armed with five 36 @-@ pounder ( 16 @.@ 3 kg ) guns , were built alongside the castle in 1795 , with a further eighteen 9 @-@ pounder ( 4 kg ) guns mounted in the old fort ; the guns concerned had all been captured from the French .
= = = 19th century = = =
= = = = 1800 – 58 = = = =
In 1803 , war with France appeared imminent once again . After some discussions , it was agreed to adapt the 16th @-@ century keep to enable it to hold six 24 @-@ pounder ( 10 @.@ 8 kg ) guns ; the roof was vaulted and a central stone pillar was installed to run up through the building , work estimated at the time to be likely to cost cost £ 4 @,@ 122 . The historian Andrew Saunders likens the resulting building to the various Martello towers being constructed along the south coast at this time . It was proposed to build two temporary gun batteries to replace the 1795 emplacements , which had suffered from the salt air and decayed , but the plan was turned down in order to focus attention on the redevelopment of the keep . The work was carried out by a mixture of soldiers and civilian contractors and was completed by the end of 1806 .
The remodelled castle did not play an active part in the Napoleonic Wars , although it was used in 1809 as a hospital for injured soldiers returning from the Peninsula Campaign in Spain . A second lighthouse , known as the High Lighthouse , was constructed alongside the castle in 1812 .
Official interest in Hurst Castle increased again in the 1840s , as the introduction of shell guns and steam ships created a new risk that the French might successfully attack along the south coast . Previously , sailing ships had been only able to pass the castle slowly when moving against the tide , making them vulnerable to its guns ; steam ships threatened to cruise past at speed . Military estimates and surveys in 1850 and 1851 suggested that the armament should therefore be significantly increased , to include more and much heavier guns .
Improvements were carried out between 1852 and 1856 at a cost of over £ 6 @,@ 725 . The keep was adapted to support 32 @-@ pounder ( 14 @.@ 5 kg ) guns , the seaward @-@ facing bastions and curtain walls were reinforced with brick casemates and new gun positions , and the moat was deepened to protect against any surprise attack . Two batteries were built to the west and east of the castle , protected by shingle and earth and linked to the old castle by covered passageways called caponiers ; a defensible barrack block was built beside the western battery , to provide further protection against any attack from the land . The result was that Hurst was re @-@ established as a powerful fortification , equipped with fourteen 32 @-@ pounder guns , fifteen 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) shell guns and two 32 @-@ pounder carronades ; in wartime , these required a team of 440 men , with a peacetime garrison of 105 soldiers . Fort Albert was built across the water on the Isle of Wight to provide supporting fire . The old inn was first reused as the garrison canteen and then demolished .
The 1852 , the Isle of Wight Electric Company laid a specially @-@ armoured telegraph cable to link the castle with Keyhaven on the mainland and Sconce Point on the island ; two years later , the Electric Telegraph Company linked the castle to Southampton . Hurst used flags to pass on telegraphic messages to and from shipping entering the Solent .
= = = = 1859 – 99 = = = =
Rapid advances in military technology made the new defences became obsolete before the end of the decade . The introduction of rifled breech @-@ loading guns , capable of firing explosive shells , and the construction of armour @-@ plated warships left Hurst 's guns and fortifications inadequate . Fears grew in 1859 that France might invade England , potentially in a surprise attack . A 1859 Royal Commission recommended that Hurst , as one of the key forts protecting Portsmouth , should be upgraded as a matter of priority .
Hurst was equipped with new heavy , RML guns in heavily protected casemated positions . These weapons were slow to reload , so to ensure that the castle would have a good chance of hitting enemy ships passing at speed , two long batteries of weapons were built onto either side of the old castle , a west wing with 37 gun positions and an east wing with 24 positions . These were built on top of the two gun batteries constructed there a few years before and also required the castle 's moat to be filled in . As work progressed , the decision was taken to reinforce the batteries with additional iron shields .
The work eventually cost £ 211 @,@ 000 ; it began in 1861 , with the majority of the work being completed by 1870 and the additional iron shielding by 1874 . In peacetime , the castle held around 131 officers and men but it would have needed to be substantially reinforced during wartime if all the weapons were to be manned . Although the fort never received its full complement of guns , by 1881 it had ten 12 @.@ 5 inch , 38 ton ( 317 mm , 39 @,@ 000 kg ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading ( RML ) guns , fifteen 10 inch , 18 ton ( 254 mm , 18 @,@ 000 kg ) RML guns , five 9 inch , 12 ton ( 228 mm , 12 @,@ 000 kg ) RML guns , and 3 64 @-@ pounders ( 29 kg ) , together forming a powerful arsenal .
Two new lighthouses were constructed in the 1860s . The first was the " Low Light " built into the rear wall of the west wing of the castle . The second lighthouse was the " High Light " – the free standing Hurst Point Lighthouse built on the end of Hurst Spit between 1865 and 1867 . A new public house , the Castle Inn , was established on the north end of the spit . A narrow @-@ gauge railway was constructed in the 1880s to move supplies into the castle .
By the 1880s and 1890s , both the power of naval artillery and the speed of warships had further increased , leading to further investment in the castle between 1888 and 1893 . The keep 's magazine , which could hold up to 2 @,@ 250 shells , was reinforced with concrete and the south bastion of the old castle was filled in with shingle and concrete for additional protection . New 6 @-@ pounder ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) quick @-@ firing guns were installed in a battery on the end of the east wing , supported by machine guns , to enable them to target fast moving vessels , particularly the new torpedo boats . Further emplacements for 12 @-@ pounder ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) guns followed , including one on the top of the keep .
= = = 20th @-@ 21st centuries = = =
By the First World War , the guns installed at Hurst Castle in the 1870s were obsolete . The castle retained seventeen of them , as historian Coad states , wired up together " like a collection of elderly blunderbusses " , but the fort depended on its newer quick @-@ firing weapons . During the war , Hurst 's armament was controlled from Needles Battery , where a Fire Command Post , equipped with telegraphy , had been established . After the war , the guns were removed from the 16th @-@ century part of the castle , which was passed into the national collection of the Ministry of Works in 1933 , although some modernisation of the rest of the fortification took place in the 1930s . The " low light " was replaced by a new iron lighthouse in 1911 .
During the Second World War , Hurst was re @-@ armed in 1940 with two 12 @-@ pounder ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) guns and a unit of the Isle of Wight Rifles was stationed there , controlled from the Fire Control Needles . Searchlights and two more 6 @-@ pounder ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) guns followed the next year , when the 37 @-@ strong detachment was retitled the 129 Coastal Battery Royal Artillery , followed by the installation of Bofors anti @-@ aircraft guns . A tower , called the Director Tower , was built along the west wing . As the war progressed , the weapons were stood down and the battery finally closed in July 1945 , with most of the weapons being removed after the war .
In 1956 the whole of Hurst Castle was transferred to the guardianship of the Ministry of Works . During the 1970s , the additional concrete protection added to the south bastion in the 1880s was removed . When the government agency English Heritage was formed in 1983 , it took over the control of the castle . In 1996 the Friends of Hurst Castle took on the day @-@ to @-@ day management of the castle , with English Heritage continuing to run other aspects of the site . As of 2015 , the castle received around 40 @,@ 000 visitors a year . The castle is protected under UK law as an ancient monument . The High Lighthouse built in 1867 continues in use , and is protected as a grade II listed building .
The spit is subject to coastal erosion which has gradually pushed the spit towards the shore , a process which has eaten away at the remnants of the 1852 west wing battery and barracks , and has exposed the foundations of the later fortress on occasions . This erosion has increased significantly since the 1940s , due to the construction of groyne barriers at nearby Bournemouth and Christchurch which prevented the natural renewing of the spit with pebbles washed from local cliffs . Erosion caused fresh damage to the eastern end of the castle in early 2013 , leading to renewed concerns . Government efforts began in the 1960s to try to stabilise the spit in its current position , both to protect the castle and neighbouring towns , with over 900 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 990 @,@ 000 tons ) of gravel being laid down in the 1990s , and is continuing in the 21st century . The spit and the adjoining coastline is protected as an SSSI .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Central castle = = =
The central castle was originally constructed in the 16th century , but heavily redeveloped in the early and middle years of the 19th century . It comprises a central tower with three bastions to its north @-@ west , north @-@ east and south , approximately 52 metres ( 171 ft ) across . A curtain wall with gun positions originally linked the three bastions , but this was substantially altered with the addition of walls and chambers to produce a deeper structure . The central castle forms the entrance to the rest of the fortification and is accessed through a gateway dating from 1873 . The 16th @-@ century moat that protected the castle was filled in during the 1860s .
The twelve @-@ sided central tower , or keep , is approximately 20 metres ( 66 ft ) across ; it has two storeys and a basement . The inside of the tower is circular , with a spiral staircase running up through a central pillar . The ground floor and first floor rooms would have originally been sub @-@ divided to form living quarters for the garrison , but are now open spaces . Both have eight embrasure windows , suitable for holding lighter weaponry ; the first floor room was sufficiently elevated to have potentially fired out over the external walls . The roof has the remains of gun positions dating from the 1850s , and was originally topped by a look @-@ out tower , removed in 1805 . When first built , the keep was linked by three bridges to the outer bastions .
The two @-@ storied north @-@ west bastion protected the castle against attack along the spit from the mainland , and housed the castle 's original portcullis as well as providing accommodation for the garrison . It had three levels of gun positions on its ground floor , first floor and roof , which were adapted in the 19th century to house heavier weapons and shelter riflemen . The bastion links to an external caponier , a covered walkway with rifle loops for close defence , built in 1852 . The north @-@ east and south @-@ east bastions are only one storey tall , originally holding two levels of gun positions on the ground floor and roofs , again both adapted to support heavier guns in the 19th century .
= = = West and East Wings = = =
The West and East Wing date from the 1860s and are built from brick and stone . They had a lines of gun positions , each designed to hold a heavy gun and a crew of up to 12 men . The positions were protected by granite @-@ fronted casemates and wrought @-@ iron shields , and , with removable window screens , doubled as living accommodation for the crews . Small magazines were positioned behind the lines of casemates .
The West Wing is approximately 215 metres ( 705 ft ) long , and has 37 heavy gun positions and two main magazines , along with various auxiliary buildings , including canteens , stores and detention facilities . It also has two of the castle 's lighthouses , an 1865 tower , now disused , and an iron , gas @-@ lit tower , still in use . The garden is a recreation of the garden in the Second World War . The late @-@ 19th century and early @-@ 20th guns at the castle were predominantly added to the West Wing , and it roof supports emplacements for 12- and 6 @-@ pounder ( 5 @.@ 4 and 2 @.@ 7 kg ) quick @-@ firing guns , a Bofors gun and associated directing positions . A small theatrical theatre , built by gunners in the Second World War , survives in one of the gun positions , along with various wall paintings , possibly used in performances .
The East Wing is relatively unaltered since its construction . It is approximately 150 metres ( 490 ft ) long , with 24 heavy gun positions and two main magazines ; on the roof is the original gun directing position and a Bofors gun position added during the Second World War . It is reached through a gateway in the north @-@ east bastion . Just beyond the East Wing are three 6 @-@ pounder quick @-@ firing gun emplacements from 1893 , which were fed ammunition from the wing through a hole in the outer wall .
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= Kepler @-@ 11c =
Kepler @-@ 11c is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the sun @-@ like star Kepler @-@ 11 by the Kepler spacecraft , a NASA telescope aiming to discover Earth @-@ like planets . It is the second planet from its star , and is most likely a water planet with a thin hydrogen – helium atmosphere . Kepler @-@ 11c orbits Kepler @-@ 11 every 10 days , and has an estimated density twice that of pure water . It is estimated to have a mass thirteen times that of Earth and a radius three times that of Earth . Kepler @-@ 11c and its five sister planets form the first discovered system with more than three transiting planets . The Kepler @-@ 11 system also holds the record of being the most compact and the flattest system discovered . Kepler @-@ 11c and the other Kepler @-@ 11 planets were announced to the public on February 2 , 2011 , and was published in Nature a day later .
= = Name and discovery = =
Kepler @-@ 11c 's name is divided into two parts : it is named for Kepler @-@ 11 , the star around which it orbits . As planets with discoveries that are announced at the same time are sorted by distance , Kepler @-@ 11c 's " c " is because it was the second closest planet from its host star at the time of discovery ( Kepler @-@ 11b is the closest ) . Kepler @-@ 11 , the host star , was named for the Kepler satellite , a NASA telescope that searches for terrestrial planets by measuring small fluctuations in the light of stars that occurs when celestial bodies transit , or cross in front of , the star with respect to Earth . Kepler @-@ 11 was flagged as home to a potential transit event by the satellite , and was given the designation KOI @-@ 157 . After further observations , Kepler @-@ 11c 's existence was confirmed by the observation of an orbital resonance effect between Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c . Along with the other five planets in orbit around Kepler @-@ 11 , Kepler @-@ 11c was announced on February 2 , 2011 at a press conference . Its findings were published on February 3 in the journal Nature . The Kepler @-@ 11 system is the first known to host more than three transiting planets .
Follow @-@ up observations were conducted by the Hale and the C. Donald Shane telescopes in California ; MMT , WIYN , and Tillinghast telescopes in Arizona ; the Keck I telescope in Hawaii ; the Hobby @-@ Eberly and Smith telescopes in Texas ; and the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 11c 's host star , Kepler @-@ 11 , is a G @-@ type star 2 @,@ 000 light years away in the Cygnus constellation . With a mass of .95 Msun , a radius of 1 @.@ 1 Rsun , a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = 0 , and an effective temperature of 5680 ( ± 100 ) K , Kepler @-@ 11 is almost identical to the Sun in terms of radius , mass , and temperature . However , Kepler @-@ 11 is much older than the Sun , with an estimated age of 8 ( ± 2 ) billion years ( the Sun is approximately 4 @.@ 6 billion years old ) . Along with Kepler @-@ 11c , Kepler @-@ 11 is host to the planets Kepler @-@ 11b , Kepler @-@ 11d , Kepler @-@ 11e , Kepler @-@ 11f , and Kepler @-@ 11g . The inner five planets ' orbits would fit within the orbit of planet Mercury , while Kepler @-@ 11g orbits Kepler @-@ 11 at a much further distance in comparison to the inner components .
With an apparent magnitude of 14 @.@ 2 , Kepler @-@ 11 cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 11c has a mass of 13 @.@ 5 ME and a radius of 3 @.@ 15 RE , making it over 13 @.@ 5 times the mass of earth , but approximately 3 @.@ 15 times its radius . Neptune , in comparison , has a radius approximately 3 @.@ 9 times that of Earth . With a density of 2 @.@ 3 grams / cm3 , Kepler @-@ 11c has a mass over double of that of pure water at 0 ° C ; it is also denser than all the Sun 's gas giants , but less dense than any of its rocky planets . Its density is closest to the dwarf planet Pluto . Due in part to its proximity to its star , the planet 's equilibrium temperature is 833 K , about three times hotter than Earth 's average temperature . It orbits Kepler @-@ 11 every 13 @.@ 02502 days at a distance of .106 AU ; it is Kepler @-@ 11 's second closest planet . Mercury , in comparison , orbits every 87 @.@ 97 days at a distance of .387 AU . The orbit 's inclination of Kepler @-@ 11c is 89 ° , and is thus almost edge @-@ on as seen from Earth .
The Kepler team has said that Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c are probably composed mostly of water with a thin hydrogen and helium atmosphere . In comparison to the outer planets of the system , which probably have large hydrogen and helium atmospheres , Kepler @-@ 11c 's proximity to its star has blown off most of its atmosphere . Kepler @-@ 11 and its six @-@ planet system form what NASA considers to be the most compact and flattest planetary system yet discovered . Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c orbit Kepler @-@ 11 with a phenomenon called orbital resonance , a gravitational tugging that keeps their orbit stable at a 5 @.@ 4 ratio .
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= Neutopia =
Neutopia ( ニュートピア , Nyūtopia ) is an overhead action @-@ adventure video game developed by Hudson Soft . It was released by Hudson for the PC Engine in Japan on November 17 , 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 11 @-@ 17 ) . It was then released by NEC for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 in North America in 1990 . It was re @-@ released for the Virtual Console service worldwide for the Wii in 2007 and in Japan for the Wii U on April 16 , 2014 ; it was re @-@ released for the PlayStation Network in Japan in 2010 and in North America in 2011 . The game takes place in the land of Neutopia , where the evil demon Dirth has captured Princess Aurora and has stolen the eight ancient medallions which contain the wisdom and power necessary to maintain peace and prosperity throughout the land . It is up to the protagonist Jazeta to retrieve the eight medallions , defeat Dirth , rescue Princess Aurora , and save the land and its people .
Neutopia is widely regarded as a clone of the popular Nintendo game The Legend of Zelda in nearly every aspect . Many reviewers have praised the game for making noticeable improvements over Zelda , but various shortcomings – which include long passwords , repetitive gameplay , and poor collision detection – prevent the game from being superior over the 1987 Nintendo title . But overall , reviewers have called Neutopia one of the better video games of its type and one of the better titles in the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 library .
= = Plot = =
Neutopia takes place in the distant past in the land of Neutopia – a prosperous and peaceful land in which the people worshipped at a Sacred Shrine and were watched over by Princess Aurora . The land was divided into four contiguous areas called spheres : land , subterrain , sea , and sky . The people lived in prosperity and happiness with the help of eight spiritual medallions which were controlled by the Princess and were used for good ; a " Climactic Castle " was built as a symbolization of their prosperity . Each of the medallions represented powers of an ancestor whom Neutopia 's nemesis , the evil demon Dirth , turned to stone but whose spirit remains .
Then , one night , Dirth appears and invades the land . He sends his army of demons to ravage the land , and he captures Princess Aurora and holds her captive in the Climactic Castle , where he would rule over the invading demons . He also steals the eight medallions , which he now controls for evil purposes ; he scatters the eight medallions across the four spheres and places them in crypts . A young warrior named Jazeta arrives at the Sacred Shine , where he is given a " charmed compass " which " has the force of the medallions " and can guide him to them . He is also told that he would inherit the wisdom of his ancestors and win the Princess ' love if victorious . Jazeta then ventures out to defeat Dirth and rescue Princess Aurora , so that she can free Dirth 's spell over the ancient ancestors ' spirits and use the medallions to restore peace to Neutopia .
= = Gameplay = =
Neutopia is an action adventure game which features a top @-@ down perspective and labyrinthine exploration similar to that of The Legend of Zelda . The player controls Jazeta as he sets out to rescue Princess Aurora from Dirth . The game has four levels called spheres which Jazeta must explore and recover the two medallions from each . The medallions are hidden in crypts , where each medallion is guarded by a boss . After collecting all eight of them , Jazeta gains access to the North Pole , where Dirth resides . The player controls Jazeta by moving in any direction with the control pad . Jazeta can also attack with his weapons or use items , scroll through messages , or access the " status screen " with the controller . Jazeta 's life meter , the weapons he is currently holding , and the amount of gold and bombs remaining are displayed during gameplay on the top of the screen . On the status screen , players can choose an item to use , see which direction they must travel as indicated by the charmed compass ( which also sounds an alarm when Jazeta is near a crypt or a medallion ) , and view the map of the crypt Jazeta is in , provided they have collected the Crystal Ball inside .
Throughout the game , players can collect information from other non @-@ player characters , many of whom are located in caves throughout the overworld , in which some can be uncovered only by burning objects with fire , blowing up walls with bombs , or by pushing certain rocks . While Jazeta 's main weapon is a sword , he can also use other items scattered throughout the game . The " fire rod " unleashes fireballs whose strength and range depend on Jazeta 's health level ; Other items include the " moonbeam moss " which can illuminate dark rooms ; the " rainbow drop " which allows Jazeta to cross small gaps ; " falcon shoes " which give him extra speed ; medicine which refills his life meter ; magic rings which can transform tough enemies into weaker ones ; hourglasses which temporarily stop enemies ; and wings which can warp him back to the place where he last received a password . Jazeta can also obtain sword , shield , and armor upgrades throughout the game which can increase attack power , increase defense against projectiles , and decrease enemy damage , respectively ; each type of sword , shield , and armor ranges from bronze to silver to " strongest " . Enemies in the game include spear @-@ throwing goblins , fireball @-@ throwing fish , fake rocks , ghosts , and charging knights .
Jazeta has a life meter , which increases by one unit every time the player collects a medallion or finds a monk throughout the spheres ; it decreases whenever he gets hit , and the game ends when it runs out . However , provided players have collected the " Book of Revival " , they can continue and restart the game wherever they have last obtained a password , even after the console has been shut off ; passwords also allow players to resume play at a later time . In addition , for users with a TurboGrafx @-@ CD or a TurboBooster @-@ Plus , they can save their progress in the systems ' RAM via a " File Cabinet " feature ; in the same places where passwords are distributed , players have the option to save the game in one of four available file slots , each of which can be overwritten at any time with a new file .
= = Development = =
Neutopia was developed by Hudson Soft and was released on November 17 , 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 11 @-@ 17 ) in Japan for the PC Engine and in 1990 in North America for NEC 's TurboGrafx @-@ 16 console . It received preview coverage in video game magazines Electronic Gaming Monthly and GamePro , which it was described in the latter as " a magic and monsters type role play " . The game received a brief description in GamePro 's May 1990 issue and a full walkthrough in the premiere issue of TurboPlay in June that year . It would later be released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service in Japan on May 1 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 05 @-@ 01 ) , in North America on August 20 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 08 @-@ 20 ) , and in Europe on August 24 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 08 @-@ 24 ) ; it was released alongside Super Metroid and Shinobi III : Return of the Ninja Master . It was released for the PlayStation Network along with a series of other TurboGrafx @-@ 16 titles that were published by Hudson Soft ; it was released in Japan on June 16 , 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 06 @-@ 16 ) , and in North America on April 19 , 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 04 @-@ 19 ) .
= = Reception = =
Since its release , people have widely regarded Neutopia as a clone of Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda . The PC Engine version of the game was reviewed in the February 1990 issue of German magazine Power Play , where reviewer Martin Gaksch called the game " Zelda on the PC @-@ Engine " and said that the " differences between Zelda and Neutopia must be found with an electron microscope " . They said that the graphics , music , and gameplay were good , and that the only thing that kept Neutopia from being superior to Zelda was the 24 @-@ character password system and that the text was in Japanese . There would eventually be a sequel to the game Neutopia II , in which Jazeta disappears and his son sets out to find him .
Neutopia received much coverage from various video gaming websites after its release on the Virtual Console , and each drew similar similarities to Zelda . Adam Romano from Defunct Games noted that Neutopia was released two years before The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past and said that Neutopia " kept pace with or were actually ahead of the Nintendo curve " . He said that gameplay and backgrounds remain varied and that " the fire rod weapon is especially fun to wield " , but he noted that the things that keep the game from being better than Zelda were repetitive and frustrating dungeon exploring , boring boss battles , long passwords ( for those who do not own a TurboGrafx @-@ CD ) , and several " head @-@ scratching moments " which include references to Judaism and Islam as well as quotes from Star Wars . Marcel van Duyn from Nintendo Life noted many similarities to Zelda , including the existence of 8 dungeons and medallions , the need to blow up walls or burn bushes to uncover secrets , the dungeon designs , and the need to push blocks to uncover staircases . However , he noted that what sets it apart from Zelda are the fire rod , the ability to warp with wings , and a lower difficulty level . He concluded that the game , while copying Zelda , might be better as it added additional features that set it apart . Destructoid 's Tony Ponce compared the game 's copying of Zelda to China Warrior 's copying of Kung @-@ Fu Master , and he pointed out what are also considered Zelda clones such as Crusader of Centy and Alundra for the Sega Genesis and PlayStation , respectively .
GameSpot 's Austin Shau reviewed Neutopia in November 2007 and said progression through the game was " quick and direct " but was also more linear , unlike with Zelda . He praised the game for its variety of environments , which he said " helps to combat monotony " , but he noted the lack of detail in the graphics itself . He also criticized the game 's sound , in which he said the background music was a series of " grating instrumentations " while also pointing out the low @-@ quality TurboGrafx @-@ 16 sound chip . IGN 's Lucas Thomas called Neutopia " one of the most shameless Legend of Zelda clones ever created " in nearly every aspect . He praised one of the differences in the presence of the fire rod , which he said " is unlike any weapon the 8 @-@ bit Link ever wielded " ; he also noted the clean , crisp graphics and a good quality soundtrack . However , he criticized another difference from Zelda , that Neutopia had poor collision detection , saying that it can lead to additional damage to Jazeta , which causes the power of the fire rod to decrease and lead to the annoying " beeping sound " just as in Zelda . In general , Thomas said that , despite its lack of originality , Neutopia is a good TurboGrafx @-@ 16 game which has deserved all the praise it has received .
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= Partenope @-@ class cruiser =
The Partenope class was a group of eight torpedo cruisers built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s and 1890s . The class comprised Partenope , Minerva , Euridice , Urania , Iride , Aretusa , Caprera , and Calatafimi . Based on the earlier cruiser Tripoli , the Partenope class represented a temporary embrace of the Jeune École , which emphasized the use of cheap torpedo @-@ armed vessels as a means to defeat the much more expensive ironclad battleships of the day . To fulfill their intended role , the vessels were armed with five or six 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .
The ships of the class primarily served in the main Italian fleet throughout their careers . Their time with the fleet was spent conducting training exercises , along with occasional travels to foreign countries . In late 1900s , Partenope and Minerva were converted into minelayers and Euridice and Calatafimi were sold for scrap . Several of the vessels saw action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , primarily conducting shore bombardments in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula . Three more vessels — Urania , Aretusa , and Caprera — were sold in the later stages of the war or shortly thereafter . Partenope laid minefields in the Adriatic Sea after Italy entered World War I in 1915 , and was later sunk by a German U @-@ boat in March 1918 . Minerva and Iride survived the war and were sold for scrap in 1921 and 1920 , respectively .
= = Design = =
The design for the Partenope class was prepared by Engineering Inspector Carlo Vigna , and was based on the earlier torpedo cruiser Tripoli , the first modern vessel of the type built by Italy . The development of torpedo cruisers in Italy in the mid @-@ 1880s represented a shift away from the emphasis on large capital ships that had been built for the previous decade and toward the ideas of the Jeune École , which emphasized small , fast , torpedo @-@ armed vessels that could damage or destroy the much larger battleships at a fraction of the cost . The Partenope class were followed by the Agordat class , the last class of torpedo cruisers built by Italy .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Partenope class were 70 meters ( 230 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 73 @.@ 1 m ( 239 ft 10 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 ft 0 in ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 ft 5 in ) . They displaced from 821 to 931 metric tons ( 808 to 916 long tons ; 905 to 1 @,@ 026 short tons ) normally . Their hulls were steel @-@ built . The ships had a crew of between 96 – 121 . They were initially fitted with a fore and aft sailing rig with two masts , but the rigging was later removed . The ships were protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; their conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .
Their propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller . Steam was supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers that were trunked into two widely spaced funnels . Specific figures for each ship 's engine performance have not survived , but the ships of the class had top speeds of 18 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 9 mph ) from 3 @,@ 884 to 4 @,@ 422 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 to 3 @,@ 297 kW ) . The ships had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Partenope and Minerva were reboilered in 1906 – 08 and 1909 – 10 , respectively , with new oil @-@ fired models . Partenope 's performance after the refit was 17 @.@ 05 knots ( 31 @.@ 58 km / h ; 19 @.@ 62 mph ) from 2 @,@ 481 ihp ( 1 @,@ 850 kW ) , while Minerva was faster , at 18 @.@ 28 knots ( 33 @.@ 85 km / h ; 21 @.@ 04 mph ) from 3 @,@ 524 ihp ( 2 @,@ 628 kW ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Partenope @-@ class cruisers , with the exception of Caprera , were armed with a main battery of one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) 40 @-@ caliber ( cal . ) gun and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 43 @-@ cal. guns mounted singly . They were also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 20 @-@ cal. guns in single mounts . Caprera instead had two 120 mm guns , four 57 mm guns , and two of the 37 mm weapons . The ships ' primary offensive weapon was their 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes ; Partenope and Caprera had five tubes , while the rest of the class had six .
During their refits in the late 1900s , Partenope and Minerva were converted into minelayers . Their armament was revised significantly , and now consisted of a pair of 3 in ( 76 mm ) guns , four 57 mm guns , and two 37 mm guns . Partenope was equipped to carry sixty naval mines , with a bank of thirty mines on a platform on each side of the ship ; the details of Minerva 's mine handling equipment and storage are unknown .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
For much of the ships ' careers , they were assigned to the main Italian fleet , where they were frequently occupied with conducting training exercises . These exercises frequently gamed attacks by the French fleet , such as the maneuvers conducted in 1893 , which simulated a French attack on Naples . In 1895 , Partenope joined a squadron that visited Great Britain , and later that year took part in an international naval demonstration off Crete in an attempt to defuse tensions between Greece and the Ottoman Empire . Euridice took part in a similar demonstration , again off Crete , in 1897 ; this was a reaction to the Greco @-@ Turkish War that had broken out that year . Between 1906 and 1908 , Partenope was converted into a minelayer , and Minerva underwent a similar conversion in 1909 – 1910 . Two ships , Calatafimi and Euridice , were discarded in early 1907 .
During the Italo @-@ Turkish War , Partenope operated off Libya , bombarding Ottoman troops and supporting Italian forces . Iride escorted a troopship convoy to North Africa and then conducted shore bombardments . Aretusa was stationed in the Red Sea at the outbreak of the war , and she briefly engaged the Ottoman cruiser ' . Aretusa , joined by Caprera in early 1912 , thereafter participated in bombardment and blockade operations against Ottoman ports in the area . Minerva was assigned to the 4th Division at the time , but did not see action during the war . Three more members of the class were sold for scrap after the end of the war , with Urania and Aretusa being stricken in 1912 and Caprera being discarded in early 1913 .
Partenope and Minerva laid a series of defensive minefields in the Adriatic Sea after Italy entered World War I in 1915 . They did not see action for much of the rest of the war , owing to the cautious strategies adopted by Italy and its enemy across the Adriatic , Austria @-@ Hungary . On 24 March 1918 , the German U @-@ boat UC @-@ 67 torpedoed and sank Partenope north of Bizerte , Tunisia . Iride and Minerva survived the war and were discarded in December 1920 and May 1921 , respectively .
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= House of Plantagenet =
The House of Plantagenet ( / plænˈtædʒənət / ) was a royal house which originated from the lands of Anjou in France . The name Plantagenet is used by modern historians to identify four distinct royal houses – the Angevins who were also Counts of Anjou , the main body of the Plantagenets following the loss of Anjou , and the houses of Lancaster and York , the Plantagenets ' two cadet branches . The family held the English throne from 1154 , with the accession of Henry II , until 1485 , when Richard III died .
Under the Plantagenets , England was transformed , although this was only partly intentional . The Plantagenet kings were often forced to negotiate compromises such as Magna Carta . These constrained royal power in return for financial and military support . The king was no longer just the most powerful man in the nation , holding the prerogative of judgement , feudal tribute and warfare . He now had defined duties to the realm , underpinned by a sophisticated justice system . A distinct national identity was shaped by conflict with the French , Scots , Welsh and Irish , and the establishment of English as the primary language .
In the 15th century , the Plantagenets were defeated in the Hundred Years ' War and beset with social , political and economic problems . Popular revolts were commonplace , triggered by the denial of numerous freedoms . English nobles raised private armies , engaged in private feuds and openly defied Henry VI .
The rivalry between the House of Plantagenet 's two cadet branches of York and Lancaster brought about the Wars of the Roses , a decades @-@ long fight for the English succession , culminating in the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 , when the reign of the Plantagenets and the English Middle Ages both met their end with the death of King Richard III . Henry VII , a Lancastrian , became king of England ; two years later , he married Elizabeth of York , thus ending the Wars of the Roses , and giving rise to the Tudor dynasty . The Tudors worked to centralise English royal power , which allowed them to avoid some of the problems that had plagued the last Plantagenet rulers . The resulting stability allowed for the English Renaissance , and the advent of early modern Britain .
= = Terminology = =
= = = Plantagenet = = =
Richard of York , 3rd Duke of York , adopted Plantagenet as his family name in the 15th century . " Plantegenest " ( or " Plante Genest " ) had been a 12th @-@ century nickname for his ancestor Geoffrey , count of Anjou and duke of Normandy . One of many popular theories suggests the common broom , planta genista in medieval Latin , as the source of the nickname . It is uncertain why Richard chose this specific name , although during the Wars of the Roses it emphasised Richard 's status as Geoffrey 's patrilineal descendant . The retrospective usage of the name for all of Geoffrey 's male descendants was popular during the subsequent Tudor dynasty , perhaps encouraged by the further legitimacy it gave to Richard 's great @-@ grandson , Henry VIII . It was only in the late 17th century that it passed into common usage among historians .
= = = Angevins = = =
The three Angevin kings ( French for " from Anjou " ) were Henry II , Richard I and John ; " Angevin " can also refer to the period of history in which they reigned . Many historians identify the Angevins as a distinct English royal house . " Angevin " is also used in reference to any sovereign or government derived from Anjou . As a noun , it refers to any native of Anjou or an Angevin ruler , and specifically to : other counts and dukes of Anjou , including the ancestors of the three kings that formed the English royal house ; their cousins , who held the crown of Jerusalem ; and to unrelated members of the French royal family who were later granted the titles and formed different dynasties , such as the Capetian House of Anjou and the Valois House of Anjou . Consequently , there is disagreement between those who consider Henry III to be the first Plantagenet monarch and those who do not distinguish between Angevins and Plantagenets and therefore consider the first Plantagenet to be Henry II .
The term " Angevin Empire " was coined by Kate Norgate in 1887 . There was no known contemporary collective name for the territories to which circumlocutions such as " our kingdom and everything subject to our rule whatever it may be " or " the whole of the kingdom which had belonged to his father " may have referred . The " Empire " portion of " Angevin Empire " has been controversial . In 1986 a convention of historians concluded that there had not been an Angevin state , and therefore no " Angevin Empire " , but that the term " espace Plantagenet " , Plantagenet space in English , was acceptable . Nonetheless , historians have continued to use " Angevin Empire " .
= = Origin = =
The later counts of Anjou , including the Plantagenets , descended from Geoffrey II , Count of Gâtinais , and his wife Ermengarde of Anjou . In 1060 the couple inherited the title via cognatic kinship from an Angevin family that was descended from a noble named Ingelger , whose recorded history dates from 870 .
During the 10th and 11th centuries , power struggles occurred between rulers in northern and western France including those of Anjou , Normandy , Brittany , Poitou , Blois , Maine , and the kings of France . In the early 12th century Geoffrey of Anjou married Empress Matilda , King Henry I 's only surviving legitimate child and heir to the English throne . As a result of this marriage , Geoffrey 's son Henry II inherited the English throne as well as Norman and Angevin titles , thus marking the beginning of the Angevin and Plantagenet dynasties .
The marriage was the third attempt of Geoffrey 's father , Fulk V , Count of Anjou , to build a political alliance with Normandy . He first espoused his daughter , Alice , to William Adelin , Henry I 's heir . After William drowned in the wreck of the White Ship Fulk married another of his daughters , Sibylla , to William Clito , son of Henry I 's older brother , Robert Curthose . Henry I had the marriage annulled to avoid strengthening William 's rival claim to Normandy . Finally Fulk achieved his goal through the marriage of Geoffrey and Matilda . Fulk then passed his titles to Geoffrey and became king of Jerusalem .
= = Angevin kings = =
= = = Arrival in England = = =
When Henry II was born in 1133 , his grandfather , Henry I , was reportedly delighted , saying that the boy was " the heir to the kingdom " . The birth reduced the risk that the King 's realm would pass to his son @-@ in @-@ law 's family , which might have occurred if the marriage of Matilda and Count Geoffrey had proved childless . The birth of a second son , also named Geoffrey , increased the likelihood that , in accordance with French custom , Henry would receive the English maternal inheritance and Geoffrey the Angevin paternal inheritance . This would separate the realms of England and Anjou . In order to secure an orderly succession , Geoffrey and Matilda sought more power from Henry I , but quarrelled with him after the King refused to give them power that might be used against him . When he died in November 1135 , the couple were in Anjou , allowing Matilda 's cousin Stephen to seize the crown of England . Stephen 's contested accession initiated the widespread civil unrest later called the Anarchy .
Count Geoffrey had little interest in England . Instead he commenced a ten @-@ year war for the duchy of Normandy , but it became clear that to bring this conflict to a successful conclusion Stephen would need to be challenged in England so in 1139 Matilda and her half @-@ brother , Robert invaded England . From the age of nine , Henry was repeatedly sent to England to be the male figurehead of the campaigns , since it became apparent that he would become king if England was conquered . In 1141 Stephen was captured at the Battle of Lincoln and later exchanged for Robert who had also been captured . Geoffrey continued the conquest of Normandy and in 1150 transferred the duchy to Henry while retaining the primary role in the duchy 's government .
Three events allowed the Angevins ' successful termination of the conflict :
Count Geoffrey died in 1151 before finalizing the division of his realm between Henry and Henry 's younger brother Geoffrey , who would have inherited Anjou . According to William of Newburgh , who wrote in the 1190s , Count Geoffrey decided that Henry would receive England and Anjou for as long as he needed the resources for the conflict against Stephen . Count Geoffrey instructed that his body should not be buried until Henry swore an oath that the young Geoffrey would receive Anjou when England and Normandy were secured . W. L. Warren cast doubt on this account on the grounds that it was written later based on a single contemporary source , it would be questionable that either Geoffrey or Henry would consider such an oath binding and it would break the inheritance practice of the time . The young Geoffrey died in 1158 , before receiving Anjou , but he had become count of Nantes when the citizens of Nantes rebelled against their ruler . Henry had supported the rebellion .
Louis VII of France was granted an annulment of his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine on 18 March 1152 , and she married Henry ( who would become Henry II ) on 18 May 1152 . Consequently , the Angevins acquired the Duchy of Aquitaine .
Stephen 's wife and elder son , Eustace , died in 1153 leading to the Treaty of Wallingford . The treaty agreed the peace offer that Matilda had rejected in 1142 , recognised Henry as Stephen 's heir , guaranteed Stephen 's second son William his father 's estates and allowed Stephen to be king for life . Stephen died soon afterwards , and Henry acceded to the throne in late 1154 .
= = = Angevin zenith = = =
Of Henry 's siblings , William and Geoffrey died unmarried and childless , but the tempestuous marriage of Henry and Eleanor , who already had two daughters ( Marie and Alix ) through her first marriage to King Louis , produced eight children in thirteen years :
William , Count of Poitiers ( 1153 – 1156 )
Henry the Young King ( 1155 – 1183 )
Matilda , Duchess of Saxony ( 1156 – 1189 ) — married Henry the Lion , Duke of Bavaria . The eldest amongst the couple 's children , Richenza , is probably the daughter English chroniclers call Matilda , who was left in Normandy with her grandparents in 1185 and married firstly to Geoffrey , count of Perche , and secondly to Enguerrand de Coucy . The eldest son , Henry , became duke of Saxony and count palatine of the Rhine . His brother Otto was nominated by his uncle Richard I as earl of York and count of Poitiers before being elected emperor in opposition to the Hohenstaufen candidate . Otto was crowned in Rome but he was later excommunicated and declared deposed . Childless , Otto lost power following the defeat of the Welf and Angevin forces at the Battle of Bouvines . The youngest child , William of Winchester married Helena daughter of Valdemar I of Denmark . Their only son , also called Otto , was the sole male heir of his uncle Henry . The ducal house of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg and the British royal house of Windsor both descend from him .
King Richard the Lionheart ( 1157 – 1199 ) . He had no legitimate offspring , but is thought to have had two illegitimate sons , of whom little is known , called Fulk and Phillip , Lord of Cognac .
Geoffrey , Duke of Brittany ( 1158 – 1186 ) — married Constance daughter of Duke Conan of Brittany and became duke of Brittany by right of his wife . The couple 's son Arthur was a competitor to John for the Angevin succession .
Eleanor , Queen of Castile ( 1161 – 1214 ) — married King Alfonso VIII of Castile . The couple 's children included King Henry of Castile and four queen consorts , Berengaria of Leon , Urraca of Portugal , Blanche of France and Eleanor of Aragon .
Joan , Queen of Sicily ( 1165 – 1199 ) — married firstly King William II of Sicily and secondly Count Raymond VI of Toulouse . Her children included Raymond VII of Toulouse .
King John Lackland ( 1166 – 1216 )
Henry also had illegitimate children with several mistresses , possibly as many as twelve . These children included Geoffrey , William , Peter and four children who died young by Alice , the daughter of Louis VII , while she was betrothed to his son Richard . William ’ s many competencies and importance as a royal bastard led to a long and illustrious career .
Henry reasserted and extended previous suzerainties to secure possession of his inherited realm . In 1162 he attempted to re @-@ establish what he saw as his authority over the English Church by appointing his friend Thomas Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury upon the death of the incumbent archbishop , Theobald . Becket 's defiance as Archbishop alienated the king and his counsellors . Henry and Becket had repeated disputes over issues such as church tenures , the marriage of Henry 's brother , and taxation . Henry reacted by getting Becket and other English bishops to recognise sixteen ancient customs in writing for the first time in the Constitutions of Clarendon , governing relations between the king , his courts and the church . When Becket tried to leave the country without permission , Henry tried to ruin him by filing legal cases relating to Becket 's previous tenure as chancellor . Becket fled and remained in exile for five years . Relations later improved , and Becket returned , but they declined again when Henry 's son was crowned as coregent by the Archbishop of York , which Becket perceived as a challenge to his authority . Becket later excommunicated those who had offended him . When he received this news , Henry said : " What miserable drones and traitors have I nurtured and promoted in my household who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low @-@ born clerk . " Four of Henry 's knights killed Becket in Canterbury Cathedral after Becket resisted a failed arrest attempt . Henry was widely considered complicit in Becket 's death throughout Christian Europe . This made Henry a pariah ; in penance , he walked barefoot into Canterbury Cathedral , where he was severely whipped by monks .
From 1155 Henry claimed that Pope Adrian IV had given him authorisation to reform the Irish church by assuming control of Ireland , but Professor Anne Duggan 's research indicates that the Laudabiliter is a falsification of an existing letter and that was not in fact Adrian 's intention . It originally allowed Henry 's brother William some territory . Henry did not personally act on this until 1171 by which time William was already dead . He invaded Ireland to assert his authority over knights who had accrued autonomous power after they recruited soldiers in England and Wales and colonised Ireland with his permission . Henry later gave Ireland to his youngest son , John . In 1172 Henry gave John the castles of Chinon , Loudun and Mirebeau as a wedding gift . This angered Henry 's eighteen @-@ year @-@ old son , Henry the Young King , who believed these were his . A rebellion by Henry II 's wife and three eldest sons ensued . Louis VII of France supported the rebellion . William the Lion , king of the Scots , and others joined the revolt . After eighteen months , Henry subdued the rebels .
In Le Mans in 1182 , Henry II gathered his children to plan a partible inheritance : his eldest surviving son , Henry , would inherit England , Normandy and Anjou ; Richard ( his mother 's favourite ) would inherit the Duchy of Aquitaine ; Geoffrey would inherit Brittany ; and John would inherit Ireland . This resulted in further conflict . The younger Henry rebelled again , but died of dysentery . Geoffrey died in 1186 after an accident in a tournament . In 1189 , Richard and Philip II of France reasserted their various claims exploiting the aging Henry 's failing health . Henry was forced to accept humiliating peace terms , including naming Richard his sole heir . The old King died two days later , defeated and miserable . French and English contemporary moralists viewed this fate as retribution for the murder of Becket ; even his favourite legitimate son , John , had rebelled although the constantly loyal illegitimate son Geoffrey remained with Henry until the end .
Following Richard 's coronation he quickly put the kingdom 's affairs in order and departed on a Crusade for the Middle East . Opinion of Richard has fluctuated . Although he was respected for his military leadership and courtly manners , he had rejected and humiliated the sister of the king of France , deposed the king of Cyprus and later sold the island , he made enemies on the Third Crusade such as Leopold V , Duke of Austria by showing disrespect to his banners as well as refusing to share the spoils of war , and was rumoured to have arranged the assassination of Conrad of Montferrat . His ruthlessness was demonstrated by his massacre of 2 @,@ 600 prisoners in Acre . He obtained victories during the Third Crusade , but failed to capture Jerusalem . According to Steven Runciman Richard was " a bad son , a bad husband and a bad king " . Jonathan Riley @-@ Smith described him as " vain ... devious and self @-@ centred " . In an alternate view John Gillingham points out that for centuries Richard was considered a model king .
Returning from the crusade with a small band of followers , Richard was captured by Leopold and was passed to Emperor Henry VI . Henry held Richard captive for eighteen months ( 1192 – 1194 ) for a ransom valued at 100 @,@ 000 marks . In Richard 's absence , Philip II overran large portions of Normandy and John acquired control of Richard 's English lands . After returning to England , Richard forgave John and re @-@ established his authority in England . He left again in 1194 and battled Philip for five years , attempting to regain the lands seized during his captivity . When close to complete victory , he was injured by an arrow during a siege and died ten days later .
= = = Decline and the loss of Anjou = = =
Richard 's failure to provide an heir caused a succession crisis and conflict between supporters of the claim of his nephew , Arthur , and John . Guillaume des Roches led the magnates of Anjou , Maine , and Touraine declaring for Arthur . Once again Philip II of France attempted to disturb the Plantagenet territories on the European mainland by supporting his vassal Arthur 's claim to the English crown . John won a significant victory while preventing Arthur 's forces from capturing his mother , seizing the entire rebel leadership at the Battle of Mirebeau . Foolishly John disregarded his allies ' opinions on the fate of the prisoners , many of them their neighbours and kinsmen . Instead ' he kept his prisoners so vilely and in such evil distress that it seemed shameful and ugly to all those who were with him and who saw this cruelty ' according to the L 'Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal . As a result of John 's behaviour the powerful Thouars , Lusignan , and des Roches families rebelled and John lost control of Anjou , Maine , Touraine , and northern Poitou . His son , King Henry III , maintained the claim to the Angevin territories until December 1259 when he formally surrendered them and in return was granted Gascony as duke of Aquitaine and a vassal of the king of France . John ’ s reputation was further damaged by the rumour , described in the Margam annals , that while drunk he himself had murdered Arthur and if not true it is almost certain John ordered the killing . There are two contrasting schools of thought explaining the sudden collapse of John 's position . Sir James Holt suggests this was the inevitable result of superior French resources . John Gillingham identifies diplomatic and military mismanagement and points out that Richard managed to hold the Angevin territory with comparable finances . Nick Barratt has calculated that Angevin resources available for use in the war were 22 per cent less than those of Phillip , putting the Angevins at a disadvantage .
By 1214 John had re @-@ established his authority in England and planned what Gillingham has called a grand strategy to recapture Normandy and Anjou . The plan was that John would draw the French from Paris , while another army , under his nephew Otto IV , the Holy Roman Emperor , and his half @-@ brother William attacked from the north . The plan failed when John 's allies were defeated at the Battle of Bouvines . Otto retreated and was soon overthrown , William was captured by the French and John agreed to a five @-@ year truce . John 's defeat weakened his authority in England , and his barons forced him to agree to the Magna Carta , which limited royal power . Both sides failed to abide by the terms of the Magna Carta , leading to the First Barons ' War , in which rebellious barons invited Prince Louis , the husband of Blanche , Henry II 's granddaughter , to invade England . Louis did so but in October 1216 , before the conflict was conclusively ended , John died . The official website of the British Monarchy presents John 's death as the end of the Angevin dynasty and the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty .
= = Main line = =
= = = Baronial conflict and the establishment of Parliament = = =
All subsequent English monarchs were descendants of the Angevin line via John , who had five legitimate children with Isabella :
Henry III – king of England for most of the 13th @-@ century
Richard – king of the Romans in the Holy Roman Empire
Joan – queen consort of Alexander II of Scotland
Isabella – wife of the Holy Roman Emperor , Frederick II
Eleanor – wife of William Marshal 's son ( also named William ) , and later the English rebel Simon de Montfort .
John also had illegitimate children with several mistresses . These children probably included nine sons called Richard , Oliver , Henry , Osbert Gifford , Geoffrey , John FitzJohn or Courcy , Odo or Eudes FitzRoy , Ivo , Henry , Richard the constable of Wallingford Castle and three daughters called Joan , Matilda the abbess of Barking and Isabella la Blanche . Joan was the best known of these , since she married Prince Llewelyn the Great of Wales .
William Marshal , 1st Earl of Pembroke , was appointed regent for the nine @-@ year @-@ old King Henry on King John 's death . Thereafter , support for Louis declined , and he renounced his claims in the Treaty of Lambeth after Marshal 's victories at the battles of Lincoln and Sandwich in 1217 . The Marshal regime issued an amended Magna Carta as a basis for future government . Despite the Treaty of Lambeth , hostilities continued and Henry was forced to compromise with the newly crowned Louis VIII of France and Henry 's stepfather , Hugh X of Lusignan . They both overran much of Henry 's remaining continental lands , further eroding the Angevins ' power on the continent . In his political struggles , Henry perceived many similarities between himself and England 's patron saint , Edward the Confessor . Consequently , he named his first son Edward and built the existing magnificent shrine for the Confessor .
In early 1225 a great council approved a tax of £ 40 @,@ 000 to dispatch an army , which quickly retook Gascony . During an assembly feudal prerogatives of the king were challenged by the barons , bishops and magnates who demanded that the King reissue the Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest in exchange for support . Henry declared that the charters were issued of his own " spontaneous and free will " and confirmed them with the royal seal , giving the new Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest of 1225 much more authority than any previous versions .
Henry III had nine children :
Edward ( 1239 – 1307 )
Margaret of England ( 1240 – 1275 ) . Her three children predeceased her husband , Alexander III of Scotland ; consequently , the crown of Scotland became vacant on the death of their only grandchild , Margaret , Maid of Norway in 1290 .
Beatrice , Countess of Richmond ( 1242 – 1275 ) . She initially married John de Montfort of Dreux , and later married John II , Duke of Brittany .
Edmund Crouchback ( 1245 – 1296 ) , who was granted the titles and estates of Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester and the earldom of Leicester after Henry defeated Montfort in the Second Barons ' War . Henry later granted Edmund the earldoms of Lancaster and Ferrers . From 1276 , through his wife , Edmund was Count of Champagne and Brie . Later Lancastrians would attempt to use Henry IV 's maternal descent from Edmund to legitimise his claim to the throne , spuriously claiming that Edmund was the eldest son of Henry III but had not become king due to deformity . Through his second marriage to Blanche , the widow of Henry I of Navarre , Edmund was at the centre of European aristocracy . Blanche 's daughter , Joan , was queen regnant of Navarre and queen consort of France through her marriage to Philip IV . Edmund 's son Thomas became the most powerful nobleman in England , adding to his inheritance the earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury through his marriage to the heiress of Henry de Lacy , 3rd Earl of Lincoln .
Four others who died as children : Richard ( 1247 – 1256 ) , John ( 1250 – 1256 ) , William ( c . 1251 / 1252 – 1256 ) , Katherine ( c . 1252 / 3 – 1257 ) and Henry ( no recorded dates ) .
Henry was bankrupted by his military expenditure and general extravagance . The pope offered Henry 's brother Richard the Kingdom of Sicily , but the military cost of displacing the incumbent Emperor Frederick was prohibitive . Matthew Paris wrote that Richard stated : " You might as well say , ' I make you a present of the moon — step up to the sky and take it down ' . " Instead , Henry purchased the kingdom for his son Edmund , which angered many powerful barons . The barons led by Henry 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Simon de Montfort forced him to agree to the Provisions of Oxford , under which his debts were paid in exchange for substantial reforms . In France , with the Treaty of Paris , Henry formally surrendered the territory of his Angevin ancestors to Louis IX of France , receiving in return the title duke of Aquitaine and the territory of Gascony as a vassal of the French king .
Disagreements between the barons and the king intensified . The barons , under Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester , captured most of southeast England in the Second Barons ' War . At the Battle of Lewes in 1264 , Henry and Prince Edward were defeated and taken prisoner . De Montfort assembled the Great Parliament , recognized as the first Parliament because it was the first time the cities and boroughs had sent representatives . Edward escaped , raised an army and defeated and killed de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265 . Savage retribution was inflicted upon the rebels , and authority restored to Henry . With the realm now peaceful , Edward left England to join Louis IX on the Ninth Crusade ; he was one of the last crusaders . Louis died before Edward 's arrival , but Edward decided to continue . The result was disappointing ; Edward 's small force only enabled him to capture Acre and launch a handful of raids . After surviving an assassination attempt , Edward left for Sicily later in the year , never to participate in a crusade again . When Henry III died , Edward acceded to the throne ; the barons swore allegiance to him even though he did not return for two years .
= = = Constitutional change and the reform of feudalism = = =
Edward married Eleanor of Castile , daughter of King Ferdinand of Castile , a great grandson of Henry II through his second daughter Eleanor in 1254 . Edward and Eleanor had sixteen children ; five daughters survived to adulthood , but only one son survived Edward :
Eleanor , Countess of Bar ( 1264 / 69 − 1298 )
Three daughters ( Joan , Alice , and Juliana / Katherine ) and two sons ( John and Henry ) born between 1265 and 1271 . They died between 1265 and 1274 with little historical trace .
Joan , Countess of Gloucester ( 1272 – 1307 )
Alphonso , Earl of Chester ( 1273 – 1284 )
Margaret , Duchess of Brabant ( 1275 – 1333 )
Mary of Woodstock ( 1278 – 1332 ) , who became a nun
Isabella ( 1279 – 1279 )
Elizabeth , firstly Countess of Holland and on widowhood , secondly Countess of Hereford ( 1282 – 1316 ) . Among her eleven children were the earls of Hereford , Essex , and Northampton , and the countesses of Ormond and Devon .
King Edward II
Two other daughters ( Beatrice and Blanche ) , who died as children .
Following Eleanor 's death in 1290 , Edward married Margaret of France , daughter of Philip III of France , in 1299 . Edward and Margaret had two sons , who both lived to adulthood , and a daughter who died as a child :
Thomas ( 1300 – 1338 ) , whose daughter Margaret inherited his estates . Margaret 's grandson , Thomas Mowbray , was the first duke of Norfolk , but Henry IV exiled him and stripped him of his titles .
Edmund , Earl of Kent ( 1301 to 1330 ) . Edmund 's loyalty to his half @-@ brother , Edward II , resulted in his execution by order of the rebel Mortimer and his lover , Edward 's queen , Isabella . His daughter , Joan , inherited his estates and married her own cousin , Edward the Black Prince ; together , they had Richard , who later became the English king .
Eleanor ( 1306 – 1311 ) .
Evidence for Edward 's involvement in legal reform is hard to find but his reign saw a major programme of legal change . Much of the drive and determination is likely to have come from the king and his experience of the baronial reform movement of the late 1250s and early 1260s . With the Statutes of Mortmain , Edward imposed his authority over the Church ; the statutes prohibited land donation to the Church , asserted the rights of the Crown at the expense of traditional feudal privileges , promoted the uniform administration of justice , raised income and codified the legal system . His military campaigns left him in heavy debt and when Philip IV of France confiscated the Duchy of Gascony in 1294 , Edward needed funds to wage war in France . When Edward summoned a precedent @-@ setting assembly in order to raise more taxes for military finance , he included lesser landowners and merchants . The resulting parliament included barons , clergy , knights , and burgesses for the first time .
= = = Expansion in Britain = = =
On his accession , Edward I sought to organise his realm , enforcing his claims to primacy in the British Isles . Llywelyn ap Gruffudd claimed to rule North Wales " entirely separate from " England but Edward viewed him to be " a rebel and disturber of the peace " . Edward 's determination , military experience and skilful naval manoeuvres ended what was to him rebellion . The invasion was executed by one of the largest armies ever assembled by an English king , comprising Anglo @-@ Norman cavalry and Welsh archers and laying the foundation for future victories in France . Llywelyn was driven into the mountains , later dying in battle . The Statute of Rhuddlan established England 's authority over Wales , and Edward 's son was proclaimed the first English Prince of Wales upon his birth . Edward spent vast sums on his two Welsh campaigns with a large portion of it spent on a network of castles .
Edward asserted that the king of Scotland owed him feudal allegiance , and intended to unite the two nations by marrying his son Edward to Margaret , the sole heir of King Alexander III . When Margaret died in 1290 , competition for the Scottish crown ensued . By invitation of Scottish magnates , Edward I resolved the dispute , ruling in favour of John Balliol , who duly swore loyalty to him and became king . Edward insisted that he was Scotland 's sovereign and possessed the right to hear appeals against Balliol 's judgements , undermining Balliol 's authority . Balliol allied with France in 1295 ; Edward invaded Scotland the following year , deposing and exiling Balliol .
Edward was less successful in Gascony , which was overrun by the French . With his resources depleting , Edward was forced to reconfirm the Charters , including Magna Carta , to obtain the necessary funds . In 1303 the French king restored Gascony to Edward by signing the Treaty of Paris . Meanwhile , William Wallace rose in Balliol 's name and recovered most of Scotland . Wallace was defeated at the Battle of Falkirk , after which Robert the Bruce rebelled and was crowned king of Scotland . Edward died while travelling to Scotland for another campaign .
King Edward II 's coronation oath on his succession in 1307 was the first to reflect the king 's responsibility to maintain the laws that the community " shall have chosen " ( " aura eslu " ) . He was not unpopular initially but faced three challenges : discontent over the financing of wars ; his household spending ; and the role of his favourite Piers Gaveston . When Parliament decided that Gaveston should be exiled the king was left with no choice but to comply . Edward engineered Gaveston 's return , but was forced to agree to the appointment of Ordainers , led by his cousin Thomas , 2nd Earl of Lancaster , to reform the royal household with Piers Gaveston exiled again . When Gaveston returned again to England , he was abducted and executed after a mock trial . The ramifications of this drove Thomas and his adherents from power . Edward 's humiliating defeat by Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn , confirming Bruce 's position as an independent king of Scots , leading to Lancaster being appointed head of the king 's council . Edward finally repealed the Ordinances after defeating and executing Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322 .
The French monarchy asserted its rights to encroach on Edward 's legal rights in Gascony . Resistance to one judgement in Saint @-@ Sardos resulted in Charles IV declaring the duchy forfeit . Charles 's sister , Queen Isabella , was sent to negotiate and agreed a treaty that required Edward to pay homage in France to Charles . Edward resigned Aquitaine and Ponthieu to his son Edward , who travelled to France to give homage in his stead . With the English heir in her power , Isabella refused to return to England unless Edward II dismissed his favourites , and she became the mistress of Roger Mortimer . The couple invaded England and , with Henry , 3rd Earl of Lancaster , captured the king . Edward II abdicated on condition that his son would inherit the throne rather than Mortimer . Although there is no historical record of the cause of death , he is popularly believed to have been murdered at Berkeley Castle by having a red @-@ hot poker thrust into his bowels . A coup by Edward III ended four years of control by Isabella and Mortimer . Mortimer was executed . Though removed from power , Isabella was treated well , and lived in luxury for the next 27 years .
= = = Conflict with the House of Valois = = =
In 1328 Charles IV of France died without a male heir . Queen Isabella made a claim to throne of France on behalf of her son Edward on the grounds that he was a matrilineal grandson of Philip IV of France . However , the precedents set by Philip V 's succession over his niece Joan II of Navarre and Charles IV 's succession over his nieces meant that the senior grandson of Philip III in the male line , Phillip of Valois , became king . Not yet in power , Edward paid homage to Phillip as Duke of Aquitaine .
In 1337 Phillip confiscated Aquitaine and Ponthieu from Edward alleging he was harbouring Phillip ’ s fugitive cousin and enemy , Robert of Artois . In response , Edward proclaimed himself king of France to encourage the Flemish to rise in open rebellion against the French king . The conflict , later known as the Hundred Years ' War , included a significant English naval victory at the Battle of Sluys , and a victory on land at Crécy , leaving Edward free to capture the important port of Calais . A subsequent victory against Scotland at the Battle of Neville 's Cross resulted in the capture of David II and reduced the threat from Scotland . The Black Death brought a halt to Edward 's campaigns by killing perhaps a third of his subjects . The only Plantagenet known to have died from the Black Death was Edward III 's daughter Joan in Bordeaux .
Edward , the Black Prince resumed the war with destructive chevauchées starting from Bordeaux . His army was caught by a much larger French force at Poitiers , but the ensuing battle was a decisive English victory resulting in the capture of John II of France . John agreed a treaty promising the French would pay a four million écus ransom . The subsequent Treaty of Brétigny was demonstrably popular in England , where it was both ratified in parliament and celebrated with great ceremony . To reach agreement , clauses were removed that would have had Edward renounce his claim to the French crown in return for territory in Aquitaine and the town of Calais . These were entered in another agreement to be effected only after the transfer of territory by November 1361 but both sides prevaricated over their commitments for the following nine years . Hostages from the Valois family were held in London while John returned to France to raise his ransom . Edward had restored the lands of the former Angevin Empire holding Normandy , Brittany , Anjou , Maine and the coastline from Flanders to Spain . When the hostages escaped back to France , John was horrified that his word had been broken and returned to England , where he eventually died .
Fighting in the Hundred Years ' War spilled from the French and Plantagenet lands into surrounding realms , including the dynastic conflict in Castile between Peter of Castile and Henry II of Castile . The Black Prince allied himself with Peter , defeating Henry at the Battle of Nájera . Edward and Peter fell out when Peter was unable to reimburse Edward ’ s military expenses leaving him bankrupt . The Plantagenets continued to interfere , and John of Gaunt , 1st Duke of Lancaster , the Black Prince 's brother , married Peter 's daughter Constance , claiming the Crown of Castile in her name . He invaded with an army of 5000 men . Fighting was inconclusive before Gaunt agreed a treaty with King Juan of Castile . Terms of the treaty included the marriage of John of Gaunt 's daughter Katherine to Juan 's son , Enrique .
Charles V of France maintained the terms of the treaty of Brétigny but encouraged others in Aquitaine to challenge the authority of the Plantagenets in Aquitaine . The prince , who had suffered a debilitating illness for nearly a decade which often restricted his movement to being carried in a litter , returned to England , where he soon died . John of Gaunt assumed leadership in France with limited success , and peace negotiations over several years were inconclusive .
= = = Descendants of Edward III = = =
The marriage of Edward III and Philippa of Hainault produced thirteen children and thirty @-@ two grandchildren :
Edward ( 1330 – 1376 ) — married his cousin Joan of Kent , a granddaughter of Edward I , with whom he had two sons :
Edward ( 1365 – 1371 / 2 )
Richard ( 1367 – 1400 )
Isabella ( 1332 – 1382 ) — married Enguerrand II , Lord of Coucy , and had two daughters :
Marie
Philippa
Joan ( 1335 – 1348 )
William ( 1334 / 6 – 1337 )
Lionel ( 1338 – 1368 ) — had one daughter with Elizabeth de Burgh :
Philippa ( 1355 – 1378 / 81 ) — through Philippa , the House of York , by cognatic kinship , asserted that its claim to the throne was superior to the House of Lancaster 's . Philippa 's granddaughter and heir , Anne Mortimer , married Richard of Conisburgh , 3rd Earl of Cambridge , the Duke of York 's heir . The earls of Northumberland and Clifford , significant supporters of the Lancasters during the Wars of the Roses , were descendants of Philippa through her other daughter , Elizabeth Mortimer .
John of Gaunt ( 1340 – 1399 ) — married Blanche of Lancaster , the heiress to the duchy of Lancaster and a direct descendent of Henry III , and had six children with her :
Philippa ( 1360 – 1415 ) — married John I of Portugal .
John ( c . 1362 / 1364 ) — died as an infant .
Elizabeth ( 1364 – 1426 ) — married John Hastings , 3rd Earl of Pembroke , John Holland , 1st Duke of Exeter , and John Cornwall , 1st Baron Fanhope , respectively .
Edward of Lancaster ( 1365 – 1365 )
John of Lancaster ( 1366 ) — died as an infant .
Henry ( 1367 – 1413 )
Isabella of Lancaster ( b . 1368 ) — died as a child .
After Blanche 's death in 1369 , John married Constance of Castile , trying unsuccessfully to obtain the throne of Castile . The marriage produced two children :
Catherine of Lancaster ( 1372 – 1418 ) — married Henry III of Castile , with whom she was a great @-@ grandmother of Catherine of Aragon , first wife of Henry VIII of England .
John ( 1374 – 1375 )
Constance died in 1394 , after which John married Katherine Swynford on 13 January 1396 . Their four children were born before they married . The pope legitimised them in 1396 , as did Richard II by charter , on the condition that their children could not ascend the throne :
John ( c . 1371 / 1372 – 1410 ) — grandfather of Margaret Beaufort , Henry VII 's mother .
Henry ( 1375 – 1447 )
Thomas ( 1377 – 1427 )
Joan ( 1379 – 1440 ) — Joan 's son , Richard Neville , 5th Earl of Salisbury , and her grandson , Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick , were leading supporters of the House of York .
Edmund ( 1341 – 1402 ) — founder of the House of York . He had three children with Isabella of Castile :
Edward ( 1373 – 1415 ) — killed at the Battle of Agincourt .
Constance ( 1374 – 1416 )
Richard — ( 1375 – 1415 )
Blanche ( 1342 ) — died as a child .
Mary of Waltham ( 1344 – 1362 ) — married John V , Duke of Brittany . No issue .
Margaret ( 1346 – 1361 ) — married John Hastings , 2nd Earl of Pembroke . No issue .
Joan ( b . 1351 )
Thomas ( 1355 – 1397 ) — murdered or executed for treason by order of Richard II ; his daughter , Anne , married Edmund Stafford .
Edward ’ s long reign had forged a new national identity , reinforced by Middle English beginning to establish itself as the spoken and written language of government . As a result he is considered by many historians in cultural respects the first ‘ English ’ post @-@ conquest ruler .
= = = Demise of the main line = = =
The Black Prince 's ten @-@ year @-@ old son succeeded as Richard II of England on the death of his grandfather , nominally exercising all the powers of kingship supported by various councils . His government levied poll taxes to finance military campaigns and combined with the poor state of the economy resulted in the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 , followed by brutal reprisals against the rebels .
The king 's uncle Thomas of Woodstock , 1st Duke of Gloucester , Richard FitzAlan , 11th Earl of Arundel , and Thomas de Beauchamp , 12th Earl of Warwick , became known as the Lords Appellant when they sought to impeach five of the king 's favourites and restrain what was increasingly seen as tyrannical and capricious rule . Later they were joined by Henry Bolingbroke , the son and heir of John of Gaunt , and Thomas de Mowbray , 1st Duke of Norfolk . Initially , they were successful in establishing a commission to govern England for one year , but they were forced to rebel against Richard , defeating an army under Robert de Vere , Earl of Oxford , at the skirmish of Radcot Bridge .
Richard was reduced to a figurehead with little power . As a result of the Merciless Parliament , de Vere and Michael de la Pole , 1st Earl of Suffolk , who had fled abroad , were sentenced to death in their absence . Alexander Neville , Archbishop of York , had all his possessions confiscated . Several of Richard 's council were executed . On John of Gaunt 's return from Spain , Richard was able to re @-@ establish his power , having Gloucester murdered in captivity in Calais . Warwick was stripped of his title . Bolingbroke and Mowbray were exiled .
When John of Gaunt died in 1399 , Richard disinherited John 's son , Henry , who invaded England in response with a small force that quickly grew in numbers . Meeting little resistance , Henry deposed Richard to have himself crowned Henry IV of England . Richard died in captivity early the next year , probably murdered , bringing an end to the main Plantagenet line . None of Henry 's heirs were free from challenge on the grounds of not being the true heir of Richard II and that the Lancastrian dynasty had gained the throne by an act of usurpation .
= = House of Lancaster = =
Henry married his Plantagenet cousin Mary de Bohun , who was paternally descended from Edward I and maternally from Edmund Crouchback . They had seven children :
Edward ( b . 1382 ; died as a child ) — buried at Monmouth Castle , Monmouth .
Henry ( 1386 – 1422 ) — had one son :
Henry ( 1421 – 1471 ) — also had one son :
Edward ( 1453 – 1471 )
Thomas ( 1387 – 1421 ) — killed at the Battle of Baugé . His marriage to Margaret Holland proved childless ; he had an illegitimate son named John , also known as the Bastard of Clarence .
John ( 1389 – 1435 ) — had two childless marriages : to Anne of Burgundy , daughter of John the Fearless , and Jacquetta of Luxembourg . John had an illegitimate son and daughter , named Richard and Mary , respectively .
Humphrey ( 1390 – 1447 ) — died under suspicious circumstances while imprisoned for treason against Henry VI ; his death may have been the result of a stroke .
Blanche ( 1392 – 1409 ) — married Louis III , Count Palatine of the Rhine , in 1402 .
Philippa ( 1394 – 1430 ) — married Eric of Pomerania , king of Denmark , Norway and Sweden , in 1406 .
Henry went to convoluted legal means to justify his succession . Many Lancastrians asserted that his mother had had legitimate rights through her descent from Edmund Crouchback , who it was claimed was the elder son of Henry III of England , set aside due to deformity . As the grandson of Lionel of Antwerp , 1st Duke of Clarence , Edmund Mortimer , Earl of March , was the heir presumptive to Richard II and Henry used multiple rationales stressing his Plantagenet descent , divine grace , powerful friends , and the Richard 's misgovernment . In fact Mortimer never showed interest in the throne . The later marriage of his granddaughter Anne to Richard 's son consolidated his descendants ' claim to the throne with that of the more junior House of York . Henry planned to resume war with France , but was plagued with financial problems , declining health and frequent rebellions . He defeated a Scottish invasion , a serious rebellion by Henry Percy , 1st Earl of Northumberland in the North and Owain Glyndŵr 's rebellion in Wales . Many saw it as a punishment from God when Henry was later struck down with unknown but chronic illnesses .
Henry IV died in 1413 . His son and successor , Henry V of England , aware that Charles VI of France 's mental illness had caused instability in France , invaded to assert the Plantagenet claims and won a near total victory over the French at the Battle of Agincourt . In subsequent years Henry recaptured much of Normandy and secured marriage to Catherine of Valois . The resulting Treaty of Troyes stated that Henry 's heirs would inherit the throne of France , but conflict continued with the Dauphin . When Henry died in 1422 , his nine @-@ month @-@ old son succeeded him as Henry VI of England . During the minority of Henry VI the war caused political division among his Plantagenet uncles , Bedford , Humphrey of Lancaster , 1st Duke of Gloucester , and Cardinal Beaufort . Humphrey 's wife was accused of treasonable necromancy after two astrologers in her employ unwisely , if honestly , predicted a serious illness would endanger Henry VI 's life , and Humphrey was later arrested and died in prison .
Depopulation stemming from the Black Death led to increased wages , static food costs and a resulting improvement in the standard of living for the peasantry . However , under Henry misgovernment and harvest failures depressed the English economy to a pitiful state known as the Great Slump . The economy was in ruins by 1450 , a consequence of the loss of France , piracy in the channel and poor trading relations with the Hanseatic League . The economic slowdown began in the 1430s in the north of the country , spreading south in the 1440s , with the economy not recovering until the 1480s . It was also driven by multiple harvest failures in the 1430s and disease amongst livestock , which drove up the price of food and damaged the wider economy . Certain groups were particularly badly affected : cloth exports fell by 35 per cent in just four years at the end of the 1440s , collapsing by up to 90 per cent in some parts of the South @-@ West . The Crown 's debts reached £ 372 @,@ 000 , Henry 's deficit was £ 20 @,@ 000 per annum , and tax revenues were half those of his father .
= = House of York = =
Edward III made his fourth son Edmund the first duke of York in 1362 . Edmund was married to Isabella , a daughter of King Peter of Castile and María de Padilla and the sister of Constance of Castile , who was the second wife of Edmund 's brother John of Gaunt . Both of Edmund 's sons were killed in 1415 . Richard became involved in the Southampton Plot , a conspiracy to depose Henry V in favour of Richard 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Edmund Mortimer . When Mortimer revealed the plot to the king , Richard was executed for treason . Richard 's childless older brother Edward was killed at the Battle of Agincourt later the same year . Constance of York was Edmund 's only daughter and was an ancestor of Queen Anne Neville . The increasingly interwoven Plantagenet relationships were demonstrated by Edmund 's second marriage to Joan Holland . Her sister Alianore Holland was mother to Richard 's wife , Anne Mortimer . Margaret Holland , another of Joan 's sisters , married John of Gaunt 's son . She later married Thomas of Lancaster , John of Gaunt 's grandson by King Henry IV . A third sister , Eleanor Holland , was mother @-@ in @-@ law to Richard Neville , 5th Earl of Salisbury — John 's grandson by his daughter Joan Beaufort , Countess of Westmorland . These sisters were all granddaughters of Joan of Kent , the mother of Richard II , and therefore Plantagenet descendants of Edward I.
Edmund 's son Richard was married to Anne Mortimer , the daughter of Roger Mortimer , 4th Earl of March and Eleanor Holland and great @-@ granddaughter of Edward III 's second surviving son Lionel . Anne died giving birth to their only son in September 1411 . Richard 's execution four years later left two orphans : Isabel , who married into the Bourchier family , and a son who was also called Richard . Although his earldom was forfeited , Richard ( the father ) was not attainted , and the four @-@ year @-@ old orphan Richard was his heir . Within months of his father 's death , Richard 's childless uncle , Edward Duke of York , was killed at Agincourt . Richard was allowed to inherit the title of Duke of York in 1426 . In 1432 he acquired the earldoms of March and Ulster on the death of his maternal uncle Edmund Mortimer , Earl of March , who had died campaigning with Henry V in France , and the earldom of Cambridge which had belonged to his father . Being descended from Edward III in both the maternal and the paternal line gave Richard a significant claim to the throne if the Lancastrian line should fail , and by cognatic primogeniture arguably a superior claim . He emphasised the point by being the first to assume the Plantagenet surname in 1448 . Having inherited the March and Ulster titles , he became the wealthiest and most powerful noble in England , second only to the king himself . Richard married Cecily Neville , a granddaughter of John of Gaunt , and had thirteen or possibly fifteen children :
Joan ( b . 1438 ; died as a child )
Anne of York ( 1439 – 1476 ) — Mitochondrial DNA taken from a descendant of her second daughter , Anne St Leger , Baroness de Ros , was used in the identification of the remains of Richard III , which were found in 2012 .
Henry ( b . 1441 ; died as a child )
Edward ( 1442 – 1483 )
Edmund ( 1443 – 1460 )
Elizabeth ( 1444 – 1503 ) — married John de la Pole , 2nd Duke of Suffolk ; she was the mother of several claimants to the throne .
Margaret ( 1446 – 1503 ) — married Charles the Bold , Duke of Burgundy .
William ( b . 1447 ; died as a child )
John ( b . 1448 ; died as a child )
George ( 1449 – 1478 )
Thomas ( b . 1450 / 51 ; died as a child )
Richard ( 1452 – 1485 )
Ursula ( b . 1455 ; died as a child )
In her will , Cecily stated that Katherine and Humphrey were her children , but they may have been her grandchildren through de la Pole .
When Henry VI had a mental breakdown , Richard was named regent , but the birth of a male heir resolved the question of succession . When Henry 's sanity returned , the court party reasserted its authority , but Richard of York and the Nevilles defeated them at a skirmish called the First Battle of St Albans . The ruling class was deeply shocked and reconciliation was attempted . York and the Nevilles fled abroad , but the Nevilles returned to win the Battle of Northampton , where they captured Henry . When Richard of York joined them he surprised Parliament by claiming the throne and forcing through the Act of Accord , which stated that Henry would remain as king for his lifetime , but would be succeeded by York . Margaret found this disregard for her son 's claims unacceptable , and so the conflict continued . York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield and his head set on display at Micklegate Bar along with those of Edmund , Earl of Rutland , and Richard Neville , Earl of Salisbury , who had been captured and beheaded . The Scottish queen Mary of Guelders provided Margaret with support but London welcomed York 's son Edward , Earl of March and Parliament confirmed that Edward should be made king . He was crowned after consolidating his position with victory at the Battle of Towton .
Edward 's preferment of the former Lancastrian @-@ supporting Woodville family , following his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville , led Warwick and Clarence to help Margaret depose Edward and return Henry to the throne . Edward and Richard , Duke of Gloucester , fled , but on their return , Clarence switched sides at the Battle of Barnet , leading to the death of the Neville brothers . The subsequent Battle of Tewkesbury brought the demise of the last of the male line of the Beauforts . The battlefield execution of Edward of Westminster , Prince of Wales , and the later probable murder of Henry VI extinguished the House of Lancaster .
By the mid @-@ 1470s , the victorious House of York looked safely established , with seven living male princes : Edward IV and his two sons , his brother George and George 's son , his brother Richard and Richard 's son . Edward and Elizabeth Woodville themselves had ten children , seven of whom survived him :
Elizabeth ( 1466 – 1503 ) — queen consort to Henry VII of England
Mary ( 1467 – 1482 )
Cecily ( 1469 – 1507 ) — initially married John Welles , 1st Viscount Welles , and later married Thomas Kyme ( or Keme ) following John 's death .
Edward ( 1470 – c . 1483 ) — briefly succeeded his father as King Edward V.
Margaret ( 1472 ; died that year )
Richard ( 1473 – c . 1483 )
Anne ( 1475 – 1511 ) — married Thomas Howard
George ( 1477 – 1479 )
Catherine of York ( 1479 – 1527 ) — married William Courtenay , 1st Earl of Devon .
Bridget of York ( 1480 – 1517 ) — became a nun — possibly had an illegitimate daughter called Agnes of Eltham
Dynastic infighting and misfortune quickly brought about the demise of the House of York . George Plantagenet , 1st Duke of Clarence , plotted against his brother and was executed . Following Edward 's premature death in 1483 , his brother Richard had Parliament declare Edward 's two sons illegitimate on the pretext of an alleged prior pre @-@ contract to Lady Eleanor Talbot , leaving Edward 's marriage invalid . Richard seized the throne , and the Princes in the Tower were never seen again . Richard 's son predeceased him and Richard was killed in 1485 after an invasion of foreign mercenaries led by Henry Tudor , who claimed the throne through his mother Margaret Beaufort . Tudor assumed the throne as Henry VII , founding the Tudor dynasty and bringing the Plantagenet line of kings to an end .
= = House of Tudor and other Plantagenet descendants = =
= = = Tudor = = =
When Henry Tudor seized the throne there were eighteen Plantagenet descendants who might today be thought to have a stronger hereditary claim , and by 1510 this number had been increased further by the birth of sixteen Yorkist children . Henry mitigated this situation with his marriage to Elizabeth of York . She was the eldest daughter of Edward IV , and all their children were his cognatic heirs . Indeed , Polydore Vergil noted Henry VIII 's pronounced resemblance to his grandfather Edward : " For just as Edward was the most warmly thought of by the English people amongst all English kings , so this successor of his , Henry , was very like him in general appearance , in greatness of mind and generosity and for that reason was the most acclaimed and approved of all . "
This did not deter Margaret of York , Duchess of Burgundy — Edward 's sister and Elizabeth 's aunt — and members of the de la Pole family — children of Edward 's sister and John de la Pole , 2nd Duke of Suffolk — from frequent attempts to destabilise Henry 's regime . Henry imprisoned Margaret 's nephew Edward , Earl of Warwick , the son of her brother George , in the Tower of London , but in 1487 Margaret financed a rebellion led by Lambert Simnel pretending to be Edward . John de la Pole , 1st Earl of Lincoln , joined the revolt , probably anticipating that it would further his own ambitions to the throne , but he was killed in the suppression of the uprising at the Battle of Stoke Field in 1487 . Warwick was implicated by two further failed invasions supported by Margaret using Perkin Warbeck pretending to be Edward IV 's son Richard of Shrewsbury , and Warbeck 's later planned escape for them both ; Warwick was executed in 1499 . Edward 's execution may simply have been a precondition for the marriage of Arthur , Prince of Wales to Katherine of Aragon in 1501 .
= = = De La Pole = = =
John de la Pole 's attainder meant that his brother Edmund inherited their father 's titles , but much of the wealth of the duchy of Suffolk was forfeit . Edmund did not possess sufficient finances to maintain his status as a duke , so as a compromise he accepted the title of earl of Suffolk . Financial difficulties led to frequent legal conflicts and Edmund 's indictment for murder in 1501 . He fled with his brother Richard , while their remaining brother , William , was imprisoned in the Tower — where he would remain until his death 37 years later — as part of a general suppression of Edmund 's associates Philip the Fair had been holding Edmund and in 1506 he returned him to Henry . Edmund was imprisoned in the Tower . In 1513 , he was executed after Richard de la Pole , whom Louis XII of France had recognised as king of England the previous year , claimed the kingship in his own right . Richard , known as the White Rose , plotted an invasion of England for years but was killed in 1525 at the Battle of Pavia while fighting as the captain of the French landsknechts during François I of France 's invasion of Italy .
= = = Pole = = =
Warwick 's sister , and therefore Edward IV 's niece , Margaret Pole , Countess of Salisbury , was executed by Henry VIII in 1541 . By then , the cause was more religious and political rather than dynastic . The attainder of her father , Clarence , was a legal bar to any claims to the throne by his children . Additionally her marriage , arranged by Henry VII , to Sir Richard Pole , his half @-@ cousin and trusted supporter , was not auspicious . Nevertheless , it did allow the couple to be closely involved in court affairs . Margaret 's fortunes improved under Henry VIII and in February 1512 she was restored to the earldom of Salisbury and all the Warwicks ' lands . This made her the first and , apart from Anne Boleyn , the only woman in 16th @-@ century England to hold a peerage title in her own right .
Her daughter Ursula married the son of Edward Stafford , 3rd Duke of Buckingham . Buckingham 's fall after arguments with the king over property , and Margaret 's open support for Catherine of Aragon and Princess Mary began the Poles ' estrangement from the king . Hope of reconciliation was dashed by De unitate , the letter that Margaret 's son Reginald Pole wrote to Henry VIII , in which Reginald declared his opposition to the royal supremacy . In 1538 evidence came to light that Pole family members in England had been in communication with Reginald . Margaret 's sons Geoffrey and Henry were arrested for treason along with several friends and associates , including Henry 's wife and brother @-@ in @-@ law — Edward Neville . Among those arrested was the king 's cousin Henry Courtenay , 1st Marquess of Exeter , his wife and 11 @-@ year @-@ old son . Courteney 's wife was released two years later , but their son spent 15 years in the Tower until Queen Mary released him . Except for the surviving Geoffrey Pole , all the others implicated were beheaded .
Margaret was attainted . The possibility of an invasion involving Reginald via her south coast estates and her embittered relationship with Henry VIII precluded any chance of pardon . However , the decision to execute her seems a spontaneous , rather than a premeditated , act . According to the Calendar of State Papers her execution was botched at the hands of " a wretched and blundering youth ... who literally hacked her head and shoulders to pieces in the most pitiful manner " . In 1886 she was beatified by Pope Leo XIII on the grounds she had laid down her life for the Holy See " and for the truth of the orthodox Faith " .
= = = Stafford = = =
Edward Stafford , Duke of Buckingham , combined multiple lines of Plantagenet descent : from Edward III by his son Thomas of Woodstock , from Edward III via two of his Beaufort children , and from Edward I from Joan of Kent and the Holland family . His father failed in his rebellion against Richard III in 1483 but was restored to his inheritance on the reversal of his father 's attainder late in 1485 . His mother married Henry VII 's uncle Jasper Tudor , and his wardship was entrusted to the king 's mother , Lady Margaret Beaufort . In 1502 , during Henry VII 's illness , there was debate as to whether Buckingham or Edmund de la Pole should act as regent for Henry VIII . There is no evidence of continuous hostility between Buckingham and Henry VIII , but there is little doubt of the duke 's dislike of Thomas Wolsey , whom he believed to be plotting to ruin the old nobility . Therefore , Henry VIII instructed Wolsey to watch Buckingham , his brother Henry Stafford , 1st Earl of Wiltshire , and three other peers . Neither Henry VIII nor his father planned to destroy Buckingham because of his lineage and Henry VIII even allowed Buckingham 's son and heir , Henry Stafford , 1st Baron Stafford , to marry Ursula Pole , giving the Staffords a further line of royal blood descent . Buckingham himself was arrested in April 1521 ; he was found guilty on 16 May and executed the next day . Evidence was provided that the duke had been listening to prophecies that he would be king and that the Tudor family lay under God 's curse for the execution of Warwick . This was said to explain Henry VIII 's failure to produce a male heir . Much of this evidence consisted of ill @-@ judged comments , speculation and bad temper , but it underlined the threat presented by Buckingham 's descent .
= = = Tudor succession = = =
As late as 1600 , with the Tudor succession in doubt , older Plantagenet lines remained as possible claimants to a disputed throne , and religious and dynastic factors gave rise to complications . Thomas Wilson wrote in his report The State of England , Anno Domini 1600 that there were 12 " competitors " for the succession . At the time of writing ( about 1601 ) , Wilson had been working on intelligence matters for Lord Buckhurst and Sir Robert Cecil . The alleged competitors included five descendants of Henry VII and Elizabeth , including the eventual successor James I of England , but also seven from older Plantagenet lines :
Henry Hastings , 3rd Earl of Huntingdon
George Hastings , 4th Earl of Huntingdon
Charles Neville , 6th Earl of Westmorland
Henry Percy , 9th Earl of Northumberland
António , Prior of Crato
Ranuccio I Farnese , Duke of Parma
Philip III of Spain and his infant daughter
Ranulph Crewe , Chief Justice of the King 's Bench , argued that by 1626 the House of Plantagenet could not be considered to remain in existence in a speech during the Oxford Peerage case , which was to rule on who should inherit the earldom of Oxford . It was referred by Charles I of England to the House of Lords , who called for judicial assistance . Crewe said :
I have labored to make a covenant with myself , that affection may not press upon judgment ; for I suppose there is no man that hath any apprehension of gentry or nobleness , but his affection stands to the continuance of a house so illustrious , and would take hold of a twig or twine @-@ thread to support it . And yet time hath his revolutions ; there must be a period and an end to all temporal things — finis rerum — an end of names and dignities , and whatsoever is terrene ; and why not of de Vere ? For where is Bohun ? Where is Mowbray ? Where is Mortimer ? Nay , which is more , and most of all , where is Plantagenet ? They are entombed in the urns and sepulchres of mortality ! yet let the name of de Vere stand so long as it pleaseth God .
= = Further information = =
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= Russian battleship Georgii Pobedonosets =
Georgii Pobedonosets ( Russian : Георгий Победоносец Saint George the Victorious ) was a battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy , the fourth and final ship of the Ekaterina II class . She was , however , only a half @-@ sister to the others as her armor scheme was different and she was built much later than the earlier ships . She participated in the pursuit of the mutinous battleship Potemkin in June 1905 , but her crew mutinied themselves . However , loyal crew members regained control of the ship the next day and they ran her aground when Potemkin threatened to fire on her if she left Odessa harbor . She was relegated to second @-@ line duties in 1908 . She fired on SMS Goeben during her bombardment of Sevastopol in 1914 , but spent most of the war serving as a headquarters ship in Sevastopol . She was captured by both sides during the Russian Civil War , but ended up being towed to Bizerte by the fleeing White Russians where she was eventually scrapped .
= = Design and development = =
Georgii Pobedonosets was originally intended as a version of Sinop rearmed with three 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) and four 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) guns , but this changed when the decision was made to provide her with three twin 12 @-@ inch turrets rather than the barbettes used by her sisters . The turrets were significantly heavier than the barbette mountings so the armour scheme was revised in compensation . However this revised design was still deemed overweight and rejected . The Naval Ministry held a competition for a replacement , but these were rejected by the Naval Technical Committee in turn . So a modified version of Sinop , with barbettes , was chosen again as the most readily available choice . The height of her armour was lowered to reduce the overweight condition of her half @-@ sisters . Other changes were made while building , but they came early in the process and did not seriously delay her completion past her contractual date of 13 September 1893 . These changes included smaller mountings for her main guns that eliminated the sponsons needed in her sisters for the forward barbettes , the substitution of 35 @-@ calibre guns for the older 30 @-@ calibre guns and steel armor imported from Schnider et Cie of France replaced the compound armour used in her half @-@ sisters .
Georgii Pobedonosets was 347 feet 6 inches ( 105 @.@ 9 m ) long at the waterline and 339 feet 4 inches ( 103 @.@ 4 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 68 feet 11 inches ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 27 feet 11 inches ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 032 long tons ( 11 @,@ 209 t ) at load , over 700 long tons ( 710 t ) more than her designed displacement of 10 @,@ 280 long tons ( 10 @,@ 440 t ) .
She had two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines driving screw propellers 16 feet 5 inches ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) in diameter . Sixteen cylindrical boilers provided steam to the engines . The engines and boilers were both imported from Maudslay and Sons of the United Kingdom and were 114 long tons ( 116 t ) overweight . The engines had a total designed output of 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) , but they only produced 9 @,@ 843 ihp ( 7 @,@ 340 kW ) on trials and gave a top speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) . At full load she carried 900 long tons ( 910 t ) of coal that provided her a range of 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 1 @,@ 367 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 532 km ; 1 @,@ 573 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) .
Her main armament consisted of three pairs of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Obukhov Model 1886 35 @-@ calibre guns mounted in two twin barbette mounts side by side forward and one aft of the superstructure . They had a maximum elevation of 15 ° and could depress to − 2 ° . Each of the forward mounts could traverse 30 ° across the bow and 35 ° abaft the beam , or a total of 155 ° . The rear mount could traverse 202 ° . Their rate of fire was one round every four minutes , fifty seconds , including training time . They fired a 731 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 090 ft / s ( 640 m / s ) to a range of 11 @,@ 600 yards ( 10 @,@ 600 m ) at maximum elevation . They also had a ' heavy ' shell available that weighed 1 @,@ 003 lb ( 455 kg ) that was fired at a velocity of 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 610 m / s ) although the range is not available .
The seven 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Model 1877 35 @-@ calibre guns were mounted on broadside pivot mounts in hull embrasures , except for one gun mounted in the stern in the hull . The eight 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) single @-@ barrelled Hotchkiss guns were mounted on the battery deck to defend the ship against torpedo boats . Ten 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns were mounted in the fighting top . She carried seven above @-@ water 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , three tubes on each broadside and a tube in the stern .
In contrast to her half @-@ sisters the armour used on Georgii Pobedonosets was steel . The belt armor had a maximum thickness of 16 inches ( 410 mm ) which reduced , in 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) steps , down to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) forward and down to 8 inches ( 200 mm ) aft . Its height was reduced by 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) in comparison to the other ships of the class to 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) to reduce weight . However this left only six inches of her belt above her load waterline as she was still overweight , a decrease of 7 inches ( 180 mm ) from her half @-@ sisters . The deck armour was 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 57 mm ) outside the citadel and reduced to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) over it .
= = Service history = =
Georgii Pobedonosets was named after Saint George the Victorious . She was built by the Russian Steam Navigation Company ( RoPIT ) at Sevastopol . She was laid down on 5 May 1891 , launched on 9 March 1892 , and completed in 1893 , although her trials lasted until mid @-@ 1895 . She spent her career in the Black Sea Fleet . She began her trials in September 1893 , but they were not completed until the middle of 1895 .
In 1905 , Georgii Pobedonosets briefly joined the Potemkin mutiny . On 29 June 1905 , the ship was one of eight vessels ( three battleships , a cruiser and four torpedo boats ) sent to capture the Potemkin in Odessa . The next day the fleet approached Potemkin , then suddenly retreated . She then followed them , deliberately goading the officers to order the sailors to fire on their comrades . The crew of Georgii Pobedonosets refused : " We won 't fire ! We won 't man the guns ! We refuse to engage the Potemkin . " Her sailors cheered the rebel sailors ' bravery . Dorofey Koshuba , a member of the revolutionary sailors ' organisation Tsentralka , broke into the armoury , ordered Captain Ilya Guzevich to halt the ship , pushing him away when he refused . The ship halted , Guzevich pleaded with the sailors to go to Sevastopol , even offering to let the 70 revolutionaries onto Potemkin . Afanasi Matushenko , the leader of Potemkin 's crew , arrived with several revolutionaries who made a speech that inspired the sailors to arrest the officers . This was enough to make his second @-@ in @-@ command , Lieutenant Grigorkov , blow his own brains out . Apart from this , the seizure was bloodless . The sailors elected a committee ( Koshuba and nine others ) , locked the officers in the stateroom and ripped off their epaulettes . The officers were put ashore in Odessa . It was decided that the petty officers should be put ashore too the next day . Senior Boatswain A. O. Kuzmenko became captain .
The next day , however , loyal crew members regained control of the ship and they ran her aground and surrendered to the authorities . In August 1905 , 75 mutineers were tried . Koshuba and two others were executed and 19 sailors got 185 years of hard labour .
In 1907 , the Naval General Staff made a proposal for a radical reconstruction that was similar to the proposals to reconstruct Chesma and Sinop made before the Russo @-@ Japanese War that involved cutting her down by one deck and replacing her armament with two twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ calibre guns and the compound armor replaced by Krupp armor . This new proposal differed from the older one in that eight 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns replaced the ten six @-@ inch guns originally planned . This was rejected as she still would have lacked the speed to stay with the main fleet and the hull protection required to withstand high @-@ explosive shell fire .
She became a training ship in 1908 and her 6 @-@ inch 35 @-@ calibre guns were replaced by modern 6 @-@ inch 45 @-@ calibre guns . She was modified as a harbour guard ship in 1911 and her 12 @-@ inch guns were removed . Six more six @-@ inch guns were added for a total of fourteen . She fired three rounds , missing each time , at the German battlecruiser Goeben during her bombardment of Sevastopol on 29 October 1914 , but spent the bulk of World War I as a static headquarters ship in Sevastopol . After the Russian Revolution , she joined the Red Black Sea Fleet in December 1917 . She was captured by the Germans in 1918 in Sevastopol and was handed over to the Allies in December 1918 . The British sabotaged her engines on 25 April 1919 . She was captured by both sides in the Russian Civil War , but eventually became part of Wrangel 's fleet and was towed to Bizerte in 1920 . She was sold for scrap between 1930 and 1936 .
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= Bolton =
Bolton ( / ˈbɒltən / or locally [ ˈbɜʏtn ̩ ] ) is a town in Greater Manchester in North West England . A former mill town , Bolton has been a production centre for textiles since Flemish weavers settled in the area in the 14th century , introducing a wool and cotton @-@ weaving tradition . The urbanisation and development of the town largely coincided with the introduction of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution . Bolton was a 19th @-@ century boomtown , and at its zenith in 1929 its 216 cotton mills and 26 bleaching and dyeing works made it one of the largest and most productive centres of cotton spinning in the world . The British cotton industry declined sharply after the First World War , and by the 1980s cotton manufacture had virtually ceased in Bolton .
Close to the West Pennine Moors , Bolton is 10 miles ( 16 km ) northwest of Manchester . It is surrounded by several smaller towns and villages that together form the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton , of which Bolton is the administrative centre . The town of Bolton has a population of 139 @,@ 403 , whilst the wider metropolitan borough has a population of 262 @,@ 400 . Historically part of Lancashire , Bolton originated as a small settlement in the moorland known as Bolton le Moors . In the English Civil War , the town was a Parliamentarian outpost in a staunchly Royalist region , and as a result was stormed by 3 @,@ 000 Royalist troops led by Prince Rupert of the Rhine in 1644 . In what became known as the Bolton Massacre , 1 @,@ 600 residents were killed and 700 were taken prisoner .
Football club Bolton Wanderers play home games at the Macron Stadium and the WBA World light @-@ welterweight champion Amir Khan was born in the town . Cultural interests include the Octagon Theatre and the Bolton Museum and Art Gallery , as well as one of the earliest public libraries established after the Public Libraries Act 1850 .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Bolton is a common Northern English name derived from the Old English bothl @-@ tun , meaning a settlement with a dwelling . The first recorded use of the name , in the form Boelton , dates from 1185 to describe Bolton le Moors , though this may not be in relation to a dwelling . It was recorded as Bothelton in 1212 , Botelton in 1257 , Boulton in 1288 , and Bolton after 1307 . Later forms of Botheltun were Bodeltown , Botheltun @-@ le @-@ Moors , Bowelton , Boltune , Bolton @-@ super @-@ Moras , Bolton @-@ in @-@ ye @-@ Moors , Bolton @-@ le @-@ Moors . The town 's motto of Supera Moras means " overcome difficulties " ( or " delays " ) , and is a pun on the Bolton @-@ super @-@ Moras version of the name meaning literally , " Bolton on the moors " .
= = = Early history to the Civil War = = =
There is evidence of human existence on the moors around Bolton since the early part of the Bronze Age , including a stone circle on Cheetham Close above Egerton , and Bronze Age burial mounds on Winter Hill . A Bronze Age mound was excavated in Victorian times outside Haulgh Hall . The Romans built roads from Manchester to Ribchester to the east and a road along what is now the A6 to the west . It is claimed that Agricola built a fort at Blackrod by clearing land above the forest . Evidence of a Saxon settlement exists in the form of religious objects found when the Victorian parish church was built .
In 1067 Great Bolton was the property of Roger de Poitou and after 1100 , of Roger de Meresheys . It became the property of the Pilkingtons who forfeited it in the Civil War and after that the Stanleys who became Earls of Derby . Great Bolton and Little Bolton were part of the Marsey fee , in 1212 Little Bolton was held by Roger de Bolton as plough @-@ land , by the service of the twelfth part of a knight 's fee to Randle de Marsey . The parish church in Bolton has an early foundation although the exact date is unknown ; it was given by the lord of the manor to the Gilbertine canons of Mattersey Priory in Nottinghamshire , founded by Roger de Marsey .
A charter to hold a market in Churchgate was granted on 14 December 1251 by King Henry III of England . Bolton became a market town and borough by a charter from the Earl of Derby , William de Ferrers , on 14 January 1253 , and a market was held until the 18th century . Burgage plots were laid out on Churchgate and Deansgate in the centre of the medieval town close to where Ye Olde Man & Scythe public house , dating from 1251 , is situated today . In 1337 Flemish weavers settled and introduced the manufacture of woollen cloth . More Flemish weavers , fleeing the Huguenot persecutions , settled here in the 17th century . The second wave of settlers wove fustian , a rough cloth made of linen and cotton . Digging sea coal was recorded in 1374 . There was an outbreak of the plague in the town in 1623 .
During the English Civil War , the people of Bolton were Puritans and supported the Parliamentarian cause . A parliamentary garrison in the town was attacked twice without success but on 28 May 1644 Prince Rupert 's Royalist army with troops under the command of the Earl of Derby attacked again . The attack became known as the Bolton Massacre in which 1 @,@ 500 died , 700 were taken prisoner and the town plundered . At the end of the Civil War Lord Derby was tried as a traitor at Chester and condemned to death . When his appeal for pardon to parliament was rejected he attempted to escape but was recaptured and executed for his part in the massacre outside Ye Olde Man & Scythe Inn at Bolton on 15 October 1651 .
= = = Industrial revolution onward = = =
A tradition of cottage spinning and weaving and improvements to spinning technology by local inventors , Richard Arkwright and Samuel Crompton , led to rapid growth of the textile industry in the 19th century . Crompton , whilst living at Hall i ' th ' Wood , invented the spinning mule in 1779 . Streams draining the surrounding moorland into the River Croal provided the water necessary for bleach works that were a feature of this area . Bleaching using chlorine was introduced in the 1790s by the Ainsworths at Halliwell Bleachworks . Bolton and the surrounding villages had more than thirty bleachworks including the Lever Bank Bleach Works in the Irwell Valley . The mule revolutionised cotton spinning by combining the roller drafting of Arkwright 's water frame with the carriage drafting and spindle tip twisting of James Hargreaves 's spinning jenny , producing a high quality yarn . Self @-@ acting mules were used in Bolton mills until the 1960s producing fine yarn . The earliest mills were situated by the streams and river as at Barrow Bridge , but steam power led to the construction of the large multi @-@ storey mills and their chimneys that dominated Bolton 's skyline , some of which survive today .
Growth of the textile industry was assisted by the availability of coal in the area . By 1896 John Fletcher had coal mines at Ladyshore in Little Lever ; The Earl of Bradford had a coal mine at Great Lever ; the Darcy Lever Coal Company had mines at Darcy Lever and there were also coal mines at Tonge , Breightmet , Deane and Doffcocker . Some of these pits were close to the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal providing the owners with markets in Bolton and Manchester . Coal mining declined in the 20th century .
Important transport links contributed to the growth of the town and the textile industry ; the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal constructed in 1791 , connected the town to Bury and Manchester providing transport for coal and other basic materials . The Bolton and Leigh Railway was the oldest in Lancashire , opening to goods traffic in 1828 and Great Moor Street station opened to passengers in 1831 . The railway initially connected Bolton to the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in Leigh , an important link with the port of Liverpool for the import of raw cotton from America , but was extended in 1829 to link up with the Manchester to Liverpool Line . Local firms built locomotives for the railway , in 1830 " Union " was built by Rothwell , Hick and Co. and two locomotives , " Salamander " and " Veteran " were built by Crook and Dean .
Bolton 's first Mayor , Charles James Darbishire was sympathetic to Chartism and a supporter of the Anti @-@ Corn Law League . In August 1839 Bolton was besieged by Chartist rioters and the Riot Act was read and special constables sworn in . The mayor accompanied soldiers called to rescue special constables at Little Bolton Town Hall , which was besieged by a mob , and the incident ended without bloodshed .
By 1900 Bolton was Lancashire 's third largest engineering centre after Manchester and Oldham . About 9 @,@ 000 men were employed in the industry , half of them working for Dobson and Barlow in Kay Street . The firm made textile machinery . Another engineering company Hick , Hargreaves & Co based at the Soho Foundry made Lancashire boilers and heavy machinery . Thomas Ryder and Son of Turner Bridge manufactured machine tools for the international motor industry . Wrought iron was produced for more than 100 years at Thomas Walmsley and Sons ' Atlas Forge .
By 1911 the textile industry in Bolton employed about 36 @,@ 000 people . The last mill to be constructed was Sir John Holden 's Mill in 1927 . The cotton industry declined from the 1920s . A brief upturn after the Second World War was not sustained , and the industry had virtually vanished by the end of the 20th century .
During the night of 26 September 1916 , Bolton was the target for an aerial offensive . L21 , a Zeppelin commanded by Oberleutnant Kurt Frankenburg of the Imperial German Navy , dropped twenty @-@ one bombs on the town , five of them on the working class area of Kirk Street , killing thirteen residents and destroying six houses . Further attacks followed on other parts of the town , including three incendaries dropped close to the Town Hall .
= = = Lord Leverhulme = = =
In 1899 William Lever , Lord Leverhulme , bought Hall i 'th ' Wood as a memorial to Samuel Crompton inventor of the spinning mule . Lever restored the dilapidated building and presented it to the town in 1902 , having turned it into a museum furnished with household goods typical of domestic family life in the 16th and 17th centuries . Lever re @-@ endowed Bolton Schools , giving land and his house on Chorley New Road . He presented the town with 67 acres ( 270 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land for a public park which the corporation named Leverhulme Park in 1914 . In 1902 he gave the people of Bolton Lever Park at Rivington . In 1911 , Lever consulted Thomas Mawson , landscape architect and lecturer in Landscape Design at the University of Liverpool , regarding town planning in Bolton . Mawson published " Bolton – a Study in Town Planning and Civic Art " and gave lectures entitled " Bolton Housing and Town Planning Society " which formed the basis of an illustrated book " Bolton – as it is and as it might be " . In 1924 , Leverhulme presented Bolton Council with an ambitious plan to rebuild the town centre based on Mawson 's designs funded partly by himself . The council declined in favour of extending the town hall and building the civic centre .
= = Governance = =
Lying within the county boundaries of Lancashire , until the early 19th century , Great Bolton and Little Bolton were two of the eighteen townships of the ecclesiastical parish of Bolton le Moors . These townships were separated by the River Croal , Little Bolton on the north bank and Great Bolton on the south . Bolton Poor Law Union was formed on 1 February 1837 . It continued using existing poorhouses at Fletcher Street and Turton but in 1856 started to build a new workhouse at Fishpool Farm in Farnworth . Townleys Hospital was built on the site which is now Royal Bolton Hospital .
In 1838 Great Bolton , most of Little Bolton and the Haulgh area of Tonge with Haulgh were incorporated under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 as a municipal borough , the second to be created in England . Further additions were made adding part of Rumworth in 1872 and part of Halliwell in 1877 . In 1889 Bolton was granted County Borough status and became self @-@ governing and independent from Lancashire County Council jurisdiction . In 1898 , the borough was extended further by adding the civil parishes of Breightmet , Darcy Lever , Great Lever , the rest of Halliwell , Heaton , Lostock , Middle Hulton , the rest of Rumworth which had been renamed Deane in 1894 , Smithills , and Tonge plus Astley Bridge Urban District , and part of Over Hulton civil parish . The County Borough of Bolton was abolished in 1974 and became a constituent part of the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton in Greater Manchester . Bolton unsuccessfully applied for city status in 2011 .
Bolton Metropolitan Borough Council is divided into twenty wards , each of which elects three councillors for a term of up to four years . As of 2014 there are forty Labour councillors , sixteen Conservatives and three Liberal Democrats , with one seat remaining vacant .
Under the Reform Act of 1832 , a Parliamentary Borough was established . The Bolton constituency was represented by two Members of Parliament . The Parliamentary Borough continued until 1950 when it was abolished and replaced with two parliamentary constituencies , Bolton East and Bolton West , each with one Member of Parliament . In 1983 Bolton East was abolished and two new constituencies were created , Bolton North East , and Bolton South East covering most of the former Farnworth constituency . At the same time major boundary changes also took place to Bolton West , which took over most of the former Westhoughton constituency . Under the town twinning scheme the local council have twinned Bolton with Le Mans in France , since 1967 , and Paderborn in Germany , since 1975 .
= = Geography = =
Bolton is a town in Greater Manchester , in the North West of England . Close to the West Pennine Moors , it is 10 miles ( 16 km ) northwest of the city of Manchester and surrounded by several smaller towns and villages which together form the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton , of which Bolton is the administrative centre .
The early name , Bolton le Moors , described the position of the town amid the low hills on the edge of the West Pennine Moors southeast of Rivington Pike ( 456 m ) . Bolton lies on relatively flat land on both sides of the clough or steep @-@ banked valley through which the River Croal flows in a southeasterly direction towards the River Irwell . The geological formation around Bolton consists of sandstones of the Carboniferous series and Coal Measures ; in the northern part of Bolton the lower Coal Measures are mixed with underlying Millstone Grit .
Climate in the Greater Manchester area is generally similar to the climate of England , although owing to protection from the mountains in North Wales it experiences slightly lower than average rainfall except during the summer months , when rainfall is higher than average . Bolton has mild differences between highs and lows , and there is adequate rainfall year round . The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is " Cfb " ( Marine West Coast Climate / Oceanic climate ) .
= = Demography = =
At the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , according to the Office for National Statistics , the Urban Subdivision of Bolton was part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area and had a total resident population of 139 @,@ 403 , of which 67 @,@ 823 ( 48 @.@ 7 % ) were male and 71 @,@ 580 ( 51 @.@ 3 % ) were female , living in 57 @,@ 827 households . The settlement occupied 4 @,@ 446 hectares ( 17 @.@ 17 sq mi ) , compared with 2 @,@ 992 hectares ( 11 @.@ 55 sq mi ) in the 1991 census , though it should be noted that the 2001 Urban census area contains a large rural area to the south of the town . Its population density was 31 @.@ 35 people per hectare compared with an average of 40 @.@ 20 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area . The median age of the population was 35 , compared with 36 within the Greater Manchester Urban Area and 37 across England and Wales .
The majority of the population of Bolton were born in England ( 87 @.@ 10 % ) ; 2 @.@ 05 % were born elsewhere within the United Kingdom , 1 @.@ 45 % within the rest of the European Union , and 9 @.@ 38 % elsewhere in the world .
Data on religious beliefs across the town in the 2001 census show that 67 @.@ 9 % declared themselves to be Christian , 12 @.@ 5 % stated that they were Muslim , 8 @.@ 6 % said they held no religion , and 3 @.@ 4 % reported themselves as Hindu .
= = = Population change = = =
= = Economy = =
At the time of the 2001 Census , there were 56 @,@ 390 people in employment who were resident within Bolton . Of these , 21 @.@ 13 % worked in the wholesale and retail trade , including repair of motor vehicles ; 18 @.@ 71 % worked within manufacturing industry ; 11 @.@ 00 % worked within the health and social work sector and 6 @.@ 81 % were employed in the transport , storage and communication industries .
In the last quarter of the 20th century heavy industry was replaced by service @-@ based activities including data processing , call centres , hi @-@ tech electronics and IT companies . The town retains some traditional industries employing people in paper @-@ manufacturing , packaging , textiles , transportation , steel foundries and building materials . Missiles were produced at the British Aerospace ( BAe ) factory in Lostock , now closed . The Reebok brand 's European headquarters are located at the Reebok Stadium . Bolton is also the home of the family bakery , Warburtons , established in 1876 on Blackburn Road . On 13 February 2003 , Bolton was granted Fairtrade Town status .
Bolton attracts visitors to its shopping centres , markets , public houses , restaurants and cafes in the town centre as well retail parks and leisure facilities close to the town centre and in the surrounding towns and suburbs . Tourism plays a part in the economy , visitor attractions include Hall i ' th ' Wood , Smithills Hall and Country Park , Last Drop Village , Barrow Bridge and the Bolton Steam Museum .
There are several regeneration projects planned for Bolton over the next ten years , including Church Wharf by Ask Developments and Bluemantle and Merchant 's Quarter by local developer Charles Topham group , which together will contribute 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) of business space . The Bolton Innovation Zone is a large £ 300 million development with the University of Bolton at its core .
= = Landmarks = =
Situated in the town centre on the site of a former market is the Grade II * listed town hall , an imposing neoclassical building designed by William Hill and opened in June 1873 by Albert Edward , Prince of Wales . In the 1930s the building was extended by Bradshaw Gass & Hope . Within the Town Hall are the Albert Halls and several function rooms . The original , single Albert Hall was destroyed by fire on 14 November 1981 . After rebuilding work , it was replaced by the present Albert Halls , which were opened in 1985 .
The Great Hall of Smithills Hall was built in the 14th century when William de Radcliffe received the Manor of Smithills from the Hultons , the chapel dates from the 16th century and was extended during the 19th . Smithills Hall was where , in 1555 , George Marsh was tried for heresy during the Marian Persecutions . After being " examined " at Smithills , according to local tradition , George Marsh stamped his foot so hard to re @-@ affirm his faith , that a footprint was left in the stone floor . It is a Grade I listed building and is now a museum .
Hall i ' th ' Wood , now a museum , is a late mediaeval yeoman farmer 's house built by Laurence Brownlow . Around 1637 it was owned by the Norris family , who added the stone west wing . In the 18th century it was divided up into tenements . Samuel Crompton lived and worked there . In the 19th century it deteriorated further until in 1895 it was bought by industrialist William Hesketh Lever , who restored it and presented it to Bolton Council in 1900 .
Bolton 's 26 conservation areas contain 700 listed buildings , many of which are in the town centre , and there is parkland including the Victorian Queen 's Park , Leverhulme Park and other open spaces in the surrounding area . These include Le Mans Crescent , Ye Olde Man & Scythe , Little Bolton Town Hall , the Market Place , Wood Street and Holy Trinity Church . The Market Hall of 1854 is a Grade II listed building . Outside the town centre can be found Mere Hall , Firwood Fold , Haulgh Hall , Park Cottage , St Mary 's Church , Deane , Lostock Hall Gatehouse and All Souls Church . Notable mills still overlooking parts of the town are Sir John Holden 's Mill and Swan Lane Mills .
Most views northwards are dominated by Rivington Pike and the Winter Hill TV Mast on the West Pennine Moors above the town .
= = Transport = =
Bolton is well served by the local road network and national routes . The A6 , a major north – south trunk road , passes to the west through Hunger Hill and Westhoughton . The A666 dual carriageway ( sometimes referred to as the Devil 's Highway because of its numeric designation ) , is a spur from the M61 / M60 motorway interchange through the town centre to Astley Bridge , Egerton , Darwen and Blackburn . The M61 has three dedicated junctions serving the borough .
A network of local buses coordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester serves the Bolton district and beyond ; bus operators include Arriva North West , First Greater Manchester , Diamond Bus North West and Maytree Travel . Bolton is also served by the National Express coach network . The bus station on Moor Lane is scheduled to be replaced by a new interchange in the town centre next to the railway station by the end of 2014 , at a cost of £ 48 million .
Bolton Interchange is located on the Manchester loop of the West Coast Mainline which was served by Virgin West Coast trains passing through Manchester Piccadilly station . Managed by Northern , the station is part of a town @-@ centre transport interchange with services to Manchester , Wigan , Southport , Blackburn and intermediate stations operated by TransPennine Express and Northern trains .
= = Education = =
Bolton School , an independent day school , was founded on a site next to the parish church in 1524 as a grammar school for boys ; it merged around 1656 with a free grammar school that had been founded shortly after 1641 . In 1898 , it moved to its present site in Chorley New Road , and in 1913 merged with Bolton Girls ' Day School . In 1855 the Bolton Church Institute was founded by Canon James Slade near to the parish church . The school became Canon Slade School , which has since relocated to Bradshaw . The town 's other secondary schools include Bolton St Catherine 's Academy , Ladybridge High School , Sharples School , Smithills School , Thornleigh Salesian College and UTC Bolton . Bolton College provides further education from sites throughout the borough . Bolton Sixth Form College comprises the Town Centre Campus and Farnworth Campus . The Bolton TIC ( Technical Innovation Centre ) , opened in 2006 , supports local schools by providing additional technical training . The University of Bolton , formerly the Bolton Institute of Higher Education , gained university status in 2005 .
= = Religion = =
There is evidence from Saxon times of Christian churches and at the time of the Civil War a Puritan and nonconformist presence in the town . The Unitarians were among the early dissenting congregations which eventually included Methodists , Baptists , Seventh Day Adventist and other denominations . More than forty churches were built during the Victorian era , but some have now been closed , demolished or converted to other uses .
Today , the parish of Bolton @-@ le @-@ Moors covers a small area in the town centre , but until the 19th century it covered a much larger area , divided into eighteen chapelries and townships . The neighbouring ancient parish of Deane centred around St Mary 's Church once covered a large area to the west and south of Bolton , and the township of Great Lever was part of the ancient parish of Middleton .
The Church of St Peter , commonly known as Bolton Parish Church , is an example of the gothic revival style . Built between 1866 and 1871 of Longridge stone to designs by Paley , the church is 67 ft ( 20 @.@ 4 m ) in width , 156 ft ( 47 @.@ 5 m ) in length , and 82 ft ( 25 @.@ 0 m ) in height . The tower is 180 ft ( 54 @.@ 9 m ) high with 13 bells . The first church on the same site was built in Anglo @-@ Saxon times . It was rebuilt in Norman times and again in the early 15th century . Little is known of the first two earlier churches , but the third building was a solid , squat building with a sturdy square tower at the west end . It was modified over the years until it fell into disrepair and was demolished in 1866 . Fragments of stone and other artefacts from these first three buildings are displayed in the museum corner of the present church .
St Mary 's Deane , once the only church in a parish of ten townships in the hundred of Salford , is a church established in Saxon times . The current building dates from 1250 with extensions and restoration in the 19th century and is a Grade II * listed building .
St George 's Church was built between 1794 and 1796 when Little Bolton was a separate township . Built by Peter Rothwell and paid for by the Ainsworth family. in 1975 it was leased to Bolton Council , and became a craft centre in 1994 . St Patrick 's Roman Catholic Church on Great Moor Street , was built in 1861 .
The New Zakaria Mosque , the first mosque in Bolton , served the Muslim community from Pakistan and India from the 1960s . The first place of worship for Hindus was in the former St Barnabus Church , converted into a Hindu temple .
= = Sport = =
Bolton Wanderers F.C. is an English Football League club which was formed in 1874 and for 102 years played at Burnden Park . The club moved to the Reebok Stadium in Horwich in 1997 . The club has won four FA Cups , the most recent in 1958 , and spent 73 seasons in the top division of the English league – more than any club never to have been league champions .
Bolton Hockey Club fields women 's men 's and junior teams and has more than 120 playing members . The town has two local cricket leagues , the Bolton Cricket League , and the Bolton Cricket Association . Bolton also has a rugby union club , Bolton RUFC formed in 1872 situated on Avenue Street . The club operates four senior teams , as well as women 's and junior sections . Bolton Robots of Doom is a baseball club started in 2003 , playing home games at Stapleton Avenue . In addition to the adult team there is a junior team , Bolton Bears . Baseball in Bolton dates back to 1938 with a team called Bolton Scarlets . An American football team , the Bolton Bulldogs , plays home games at Smithills School operating varsity and junior varsity teams . Speedway racing , known as Dirt Track Racing , was staged at Raikes Park in the pioneering days of 1928 , but the venue was short @-@ lived .
= = Culture and society = =
According to a survey of the British Association for the Advancement of Science Boltonians are the friendliest people in Britain . Humphrey Spender photographed Bolton calling it Worktown for the Mass @-@ Observation Project , a social research organisation which aimed to record everyday life in Britain . His photographs provide a record of ordinary people living and working in a British pre @-@ War industrial town .
Bolton has several theatres including the Octagon and independent groups such as Bolton Little Theatre and the Phoenix Theatre Company . Inside the Town Hall there is a theatre and conference complex , the Albert Halls . Le Mans Crescent , home to the central library , museum , art gallery , aquarium , magistrates ' court and town hall , is to be the centre of a new Cultural Quarter . The library and museum are to be extended into the area now occupied by the Magistrates Court . Bolton Museum and Art Gallery houses a collection of local and international art , including work by the Bolton @-@ born American artist Thomas Moran.Bolton Steam Museum houses a variety of preserved steam engines in part of the old Atlas Mill .
Bolton Central Library was one of the earliest public libraries established after the Public Libraries Act 1850 , opening in October 1853 in the Exchange Building on the old market square ( Victoria Square ) before moving to Le Mans Crescent in July 1938 . The Bolton Symphony Orchestra performs regular concerts at the Albert Halls and Victoria Hall in the town centre . The 2008 BBC Radio 3 Adult Choir of the Year and five times gold @-@ medal winning barbershop chorus The Cottontown Chorus is based in Bolton .
The town 's daily newspaper is The Bolton News , formerly the Bolton Evening News . There is a weekly free paper , the Bolton Journal and Bolton Council 's monthly newspaper , Bolton Scene . The town is part of the BBC North West and ITV Granada television regions , served by the Winter Hill transmitter near Belmont . Local radio is provided by Tower FM , which broadcasts across Bolton and Bury ; Bolton FM began broadcasting in 2009 .
The fictional village of Newbank in Benjamin Disraeli 's novel Coningsby was based in part on the industrial village of Barrow Bridge . Spring and Port Wine by playwright , Bill Naughton was filmed and set in Bolton and The Family Way based on Naughton 's play All in Good Time was also filmed and set in the town . Peter Kay filmed comedy TV series That Peter Kay Thing in the town .
Bolton buildings have stood in for other towns and cities . Le Mans Crescent has featured as a London street in the Jeremy Brett version of Sherlock Holmes and a Russian secret service building in the 1990s comedy series Sleepers . The 1990s BBC drama Between the Lines filmed an episode in Victoria Square .
In A grammar of the dialect of the Bolton area by linguist Graham Shorrocks , the local dialect is described as being distinct from those of nearby Salford and Manchester .
= = Public services = =
Bolton is policed by the Bolton Central Division of Greater Manchester Police , which covers the town centre , Rumworth and Halliwell . Great Lever and Little Lever are covered by Farnworth Police Station , Astley Bridge Police Station covers Tonge and The Haulgh , Breightmet and Crompton while Heaton and Lostock , and Smithills are covered by Horwich Police ( Middlebrook ) . The statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , from Bolton Central , Bolton North , Horwich and Farnworth Fire Stations . Hospital services are provided by the Royal Bolton Hospital NHS Foundation Trust , which provides Accident and Emergency and other services at Royal Bolton Hospital in Farnworth . Community health services , including GPs , district and community nurses , dentists and pharmacists , are co @-@ ordinated by the Bolton Primary Care Trust . Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . Bolton 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Electricity North West Ltd . United Utilities manage Bolton 's drinking and waste water .
See also Healthcare in Greater Manchester
= = Notable people = =
Among the notable people born in Bolton are the Protestant martyr George Marsh , 1515 – 55 , the inventor of the spinning mule that revolutionised the textile industry , Samuel Crompton , 1753 – 1827 , and industrialist Lord Leverhulme of Bolton @-@ le @-@ Moors , 1851 – 1925 .
More recently , people born and raised in Bolton include Fred Dibnah , a steeplejack who became a popular television historian of Britain 's industrial past ; world champion boxer Amir Khan , who became the WBA World light @-@ welterweight champion on 18 July 2009 at the age of 22 , making him Britain 's third @-@ youngest world champion boxer ; comedian Peter Kay ; and President of the International Paralympic Committee Philip Craven . Playwright and author Bill Naughton was born in Ireland but brought up in Bolton from an early age .
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= Black bean aphid =
The black bean aphid ( Aphis fabae ) is a small black insect in the Aphis genus , with a broad , soft body , a member of the order Hemiptera . Other common names include blackfly , bean aphid and beet leaf aphid . In the warmer months of the year it is found in large numbers on the undersides of leaves and on the growing tips of host plants , including various agricultural crops and many wild and ornamental plants . Both winged and wingless forms exist and at this time of year , they are all females . They suck sap from stems and leaves and cause distortion of the shoots , stunted plants , reduced yield and spoiled crops . This aphid also acts as a vector for viruses that cause plant disease and the honeydew it secretes may encourage the growth of sooty mould . It breeds profusely by live birth but its numbers are kept in check , especially in the later part of the summer , by various predatory and parasitic insects . Ants feed on the honeydew it produces and take active steps to remove the aphid 's enemies . It is a widely distributed pest of agricultural crops and can be controlled by chemical or biological means . In the autumn , winged forms move to different host plants where both males and females are produced . These mate and the females lay eggs which overwinter .
= = Taxonomy = =
The specific name of the black bean aphid , " fabae " comes from the Latin faba meaning a " bean " , a plant on which this aphid often feeds . Aphis fabae is in the superfamily Aphidoidea and the subgenus Aphis .
Fauna Europaea lists six subspecies :
A. f. cirsiiacanthoidis
A. f. eryngii
A. f. evonymi
A. f. fabae
A. f. mordvilkoi
A. f. solanella
= = Description = =
The black bean aphid is a small , soft @-@ bodied insect that has specialised piercing and sucking mouthparts which are used to suck the juice from plants . This aphid is usually seen in large numbers and is a tiny , plump insect about two millimetres long with a small head and bulbous abdomen . The body is blackish or dark green in colour . Many adults are devoid of wings , a state known as aptery . Winged forms , known as alates , are longer and more slender than aptates and have shiny black heads and thoraxes . The membranous wings of the alates are held angled over the body . The antennae are less than two @-@ thirds of the length of the body and both they and the legs are pale yellow in colour with black tips . The tibiae of the hind legs are swollen in egg @-@ laying females . Near the rear of the abdomen are a pair of slender , elongated tubes known as cornicles or siphunculi . Their function is the production of a defensive waxy secretion . They are twice as long as the finger @-@ like tail and both are brownish @-@ black .
= = Lifecycle = =
The black bean aphid has both sexual and asexual generations in its life cycle . It also alternates hosts at different times of year . The primary host plants are woody shrubs , and eggs are laid on these by winged females in the autumn . The adults then die and the eggs overwinter . The aphids that hatch from these eggs in the spring are wingless females known as stem mothers . These are able to reproduce asexually , giving birth to live offspring , nymphs , through parthenogenesis . The lifespan of a parthenogenetic female is about 50 days and during this period , each can produce as many as 30 young . The offspring are also females and able to reproduce without mating , but further generations are usually winged forms . These migrate to their secondary host plants , completely different species that are typically herbaceous plants with soft , young growth .
Further parthenogenesis takes place on these new hosts on the undersides of leaves and on the growing tips . All the offspring are female at this time of year and large populations of aphids develop rapidly with both winged and wingless forms produced throughout the summer . Winged individuals develop as a response to overcrowding and they disperse to new host plants and other crops . By midsummer , the number of predators and parasites has built up and aphid populations cease to expand . As autumn approaches , the winged forms migrate back to the primary host plants . Here , both males and sexual females are produced parthogenetically , mating takes place , and these females lay eggs in crevices and under lichens to complete the lifecycle . Each female can lay six to ten black eggs which can survive temperatures as low as − 32 ° C ( − 26 ° F ) . More than 40 % of the eggs probably survive the winter but some are eaten by birds or flower bugs , and others fail to hatch in the spring .
= = Host plants = =
The black bean aphid can feed on a wide variety of host plants . Its primary hosts on which the eggs overwinter are shrubs such as the spindle tree ( Euonymus europaeus ) , Viburnum species , or the mock @-@ orange ( Philadelphus species ) . Its secondary hosts , on which it spends the summer , include a number of crops including sugar beets , spinach , beans , runner beans , celery , potatoes , sunflowers , carrots , artichokes , tobacco , and tomatoes . It colonises more than two hundred different species of cultivated and wild plants . Among the latter , it shows a preference for poppies ( Papaver species ) , burdock ( Arctium tomentonum ) , fat @-@ hen ( Chenopodium album ) , saltbush ( Atriplex rosea ) , chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla ) , thistles ( Cirsium arvense ) , and docks ( Rumex spp . ) .
Two conflicting factors are involved in host preferences , the species and the age of the leaf . Offered spindle and beet leaves on growing plants throughout the year , winged aphids moved from one to the other depending on the active growth state of each and the senescence of each host plant . Thus in late summer and autumn , the beet leaves were old and unattractive to the aphids in comparison with the leaves of the spindle , whereas in spring , the young unfolding leaves of the beet were more attractive than those of the spindle .
= = Damage = =
The black bean aphid is a major pest of sugar beet , bean and celery crops with large numbers of aphids cause stunting of the plants . Beans suffer damage to flowers and pods which may not develop properly . Early @-@ sown crops may avoid significant damage if they have already flowered before the number of aphids builds up in the spring . Celery can be heavily infested . The plants are stunted by the removal of sap , the stems are distorted , harmful viruses are transmitted , and aphid residues may contaminate the crop . As a result of infestation by this aphid , leaves of sugar beet become swollen , roll , and cease developing . The roots grow poorly and the sugar content is reduced . In some other plants the leaves do not become distorted but growth is affected and flowers abort due to the action of the toxic saliva injected by the aphid to improve the flow of sap .
To obtain enough protein , aphids need to suck large volumes of sap . The excess sugary fluid , honeydew , is secreted by the aphids . It adheres to plants where it promotes growth of sooty molds . These are unsightly , reduce the surface area of the plant available for photosynthesis and may reduce the value of the crop . These aphids are also the vectors of about thirty plant viruses , mostly of the nonpersistent variety . The aphids may not be the original source of infection but are instrumental in spreading the virus through the crop . Various chemical treatments are available to kill the aphids and organic growers can use a solution of soft soap .
= = Ecology = =
Natural predators of black bean aphids include both adults and larvae of ladybirds and lacewings and the larvae of hoverflies . Certain species of tiny parasitic wasps lay their eggs inside aphids and the developing wasp larvae devour their hosts from inside . Members of the wasp genera Diaeretiella and Lysiphlebus behave in this way and may provide a measure of control of the aphids .
Ants climb the host plants and feed on the honeydew secreted by the aphids . Many species of ants have developed behaviours to enable them to protect and encourage their aphids . Black garden ants ( Lasius niger ) , for example , remove predators such as ladybirds from the vicinity of aphids , thus keeping their " milch cows " safe . On a test plot of field beans ( Vicia faba ) , plants without black bean aphids yielded an average of 56 seeds per plant , those with aphids and no ants yielded 17 seeds , and those with both ants and aphids averaged eight seeds per plant .
= = Distribution = =
The black bean aphid may have originated in Europe and Asia but it is now one of the most widely distributed species of aphids . It is found throughout temperate areas of Western Europe , Asia and North America and in the cooler parts of Africa , the Middle East and South America . In the warmer parts of its range , apterous individuals can survive the winter and they may continue to reproduce asexually all year round .
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= Chika Ideal =
" Chika Ideal " ( English : " Ideal Girl " ) is a song by Puerto Rican recording artist Ivy Queen from her fourth studio album Real ( 2004 ) . It was written by Martha Ivelisse Pesante , produced by Rafi Mercenario and released as the lead single from the album in May 2004 on Universal Music Latino and Perfect Image .
Lyrically , the song follows the protagonist talking to her lover , assuring him that she is going to be with him . Queen performed the song for the first time on Don Francisco Presenta . Furthermore , the video for the song reached the top of the music video countdown hosted by Terra Networks .
= = Background = =
Queen 's 2003 third studio recording , Diva , was a factor in reggaetón 's mainstream exposure in 2004 ( with Daddy Yankee 's Barrio Fino and Tego Calderon 's El Enemy de los Guasíbiri ) , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . Queen released a platinum edition of the album with extra tracks , including " Papi Te Quiero " and " Tu No Puedes " , and began recording her next album . Her fourth studio album was originally planned to be Queen 's debut full @-@ length English language album after she received recording contract offerings from multiple record labels including Sony . She said it was a good opportunity to reach and take over the competitive market of English hip hop music after becoming popular in Latin American countries . Queen signed a deal to record an English @-@ language album after Sony contacted her and notified her that her albums from when she was with the label six years prior are now being heard in cities like London . This was because of the success of Diva . Despite her concerns over her poor English pronunciation , she continued with the project . She recorded songs with many of hip hop 's biggest MCs including American rapper Fat Joe , who recorded a song in English for her debut English album in support of her . The song was later turned into " Quítate Two " and included on Real , while American hip hop producer Swizz Beatz handled production of " Soldados " showcasing her crossover appeal .
= = Composition and recording = =
According to an editor for Rolling Stone , the album contains " raspy braggadocio and sexy rhymes " which complement Queen 's raspy vocals . Queen said " I really think this album is for people to really just sit down and listen to it " . She explained that " there are times that the songs will make you want to dance " but their lyrical content was more meaningful . Queen wanted the overall feeling of the album to express that she is a well – rounded artist . Furthermore , describing the album : " [ the songs ] are always going to be real because they are feelings that people have , " she asserts . " The hits that I have now , the girls love them because they are real . If I am feeling hurt and need to curse to express that , then I will . I am going to be real all the way because that 's what made Ivy Queen . " This is prominent on " Chika Ideal " , where she assures the protagonists ' lover that she wants to be with him and fulfill his fantasies .
Ivy Queen appeared on " Don Francisco Presenta " where she performed " Chika Ideal " in promotion of the album . Queen performed on the " Reggaeton Tour 2004 " which also featured other artist including Aldo Ranks and La Factoria in various South American countries including Ecuador where she performed songs such as " Papi Te Quiero " and " Chika Ideal " , promoting both Diva and Real . At the end of the month , Queen appeared on a special network television news segment detailing her career and struggle for respect within the genre of reggaetón . This occurred during studio recording sessions for the album . In February 2005 , she performed " Chika Ideal " , among other songs , at the " Festival of Puerto Rican Stars " , which was a historic achievement for reggaetón , as no other performer from the genre was invited to attend the event . In June 2005 , she appeared on the " Invasion Del Reggaetón Tour " with Daddy Yankee , which grossed $ 817 @,@ 220 for the week of June 18 . She also attended and performed at the Billboard Bash ! , the night before the 2005 Billboard Latin Music Awards .
= = Reception = =
While reviewing the reggaetón compilation album , Jamz TV Hits , Vol . 3 , an editor for Allmusic listed " Chika Ideal " as an selected " Allmusic Pick " . The song was also selected as one of the hits from " The Golden Era of Reggaetón " which lasted from 2003 until 2007 by Jesus Trivino of Latina magazine . Terra Networks named the music video for " Chika Ideal " as one of the hottest of the summer and claimed the song to show " why she is the queen of reggaetón " .
Despite not charting in Billboard magazine , the video reached the Top 10 for four consecutive weeks on Terra Networks ' Top Music Video countdown . In the music video for the song , Queen is video taped showing sensual scenes by several cameras from different angles . Scenes alternate between a dance in a darkened room and Queen is a record studio and the cameras . She is surrounded by multiple computers and flat screen television sets which display the feeds from the cameras .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from album 's liner notes .
Executive Production – Goguito " Willy " Guadalupe , Omar Navarro
Co @-@ Executive Production – " La Diva " Ivy Queen
Audio Production – Rafi Mercenario
Musical Production – Rafi Mercenario
Mastering – Esteban Piñero
Mixing – Dennis Nieves
Engineer – Dennis Nieves
Arranging – Dennis Nieves
Vocals – Ivy Queen , Noriega
Recording – Marroneo Studios in Bayamón , Puerto Rico
Record Label – Universal Music Latino
Representation – Goguito " Willy " Guadalupe
Publishing – Perfect Image Music Publishing / EMI 2004
Photography – Dr. Mannix Guillaera
Footwear – Steve Maden from Plaza Las Américas in San Juan , Puerto Rico
Graphic Art – MusicDesign
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= Tasmanian devil =
The Tasmanian devil ( Sarcophilus harrisii ) is a carnivorous marsupial of the family Dasyuridae , now found in the wild only on the Australian island state of Tasmania . The size of a small dog , it became the largest carnivorous marsupial in the world following the extinction of the thylacine in 1936 . It is characterised by its stocky and muscular build , black fur , pungent odour , extremely loud and disturbing screech , keen sense of smell , and ferocity when feeding . The Tasmanian devil 's large head and neck allow it to generate among the strongest bite per unit body mass of any extant mammal land predator , and it hunts prey and scavenges carrion as well as eating household products if humans are living nearby . Although it usually is solitary , it sometimes eats with other devils and defecates in a communal location . Unlike most other dasyurids , the devil thermoregulates effectively and is active during the middle of the day without overheating . Despite its rotund appearance , the devil is capable of surprising speed and endurance , and can climb trees and swim across rivers .
It is believed that ancient marsupials migrated from what is now South America to Australia tens of millions of years ago during the time of Gondwana , and that they evolved as Australia became more arid . Fossils of species similar to modern devils have been found , but it is not known whether they were ancestors of the contemporary species , or whether the current devils co @-@ existed with these species . The date that the Tasmanian devil became locally extinct from the Australian mainland is unclear ; most evidence suggests they had contracted to three relict populations around 3000 years ago . A tooth found in Augusta , Western Australia has been dated to 430 years ago , but archaeologist Oliver Brown disputes this and considers the devil 's mainland extinction to have occurred around 3000 years ago . This disappearance is usually blamed on dingoes , which are absent from Tasmania . Because they were seen as a threat to livestock and animals that humans hunted for fur in Tasmania , devils were hunted and became endangered . In 1941 , the devils , which were originally seen as implacably vicious , became officially protected . Since then , scientists have contended that earlier concerns that the devils were the most significant threat to livestock were overestimated and misplaced .
Devils are not monogamous , and their reproductive process is very robust and competitive . Males fight one another for the females , and then guard their partners to prevent female infidelity . Females can ovulate three times in as many weeks during the mating season , and 80 % of two @-@ year @-@ old females are seen to be pregnant during the annual mating season . Females average four breeding seasons in their life and give birth to 20 – 30 live young after three weeks ' gestation . The newborn are pink , lack fur , have indistinct facial features and weigh around 0 @.@ 20 g ( 0 @.@ 0071 oz ) at birth . As there are only four nipples in the pouch , competition is fierce and few newborns survive . The young grow rapidly and are ejected from the pouch after around 100 days , weighing roughly 200 g ( 7 @.@ 1 oz ) . The young become independent after around nine months , so the female spends most of her year in activities related to birth and rearing .
Since the late 1990s , devil facial tumour disease has drastically reduced the devil population and now threatens the survival of the species , which in 2008 was declared to be endangered . Programs are currently being undertaken by the Government of Tasmania to reduce the impact of the disease , including an initiative to build up a group of healthy devils in captivity , isolated from the disease . While the thylacine was extant it preyed on the devil , which targeted young and unattended thylacine cubs in their dens . Localised populations of devils have also been severely reduced by collisions with motor vehicles , particularly when they are eating roadkill .
The devil is an iconic symbol of Tasmania and many organisations , groups and products associated with the state use the animal in their logos . It is seen as an important attractor of tourists to Tasmania and has come to worldwide attention through the Looney Tunes character of the same name . Starting in 2013 , Tasmanian devils are again being sent to zoos around the world as part of the Australian government 's Save the Tasmanian Devil Program .
= = Taxonomy = =
Believing it to be a type of opossum , naturalist George Harris wrote the first published description of the Tasmanian devil in 1807 , naming it Didelphis ursina , due to its bearlike characteristics such as the round ear . He had earlier made a presentation on the topic at the Zoological Society of London . However , that particular binomial name had been given to the common wombat ( later reclassified as Vombatus ursinus ) by George Shaw in 1800 , and was hence unavailable . In 1838 a specimen was named Dasyurus laniarius by Richard Owen , but by 1877 he had relegated it to Sarcophilus . The modern Tasmanian devil was named Sarcophilus harrisii ( " Harris 's meat @-@ lover " ) by French naturalist Pierre Boitard in 1841 . A later revision of the devil 's taxonomy , published in 1987 , attempted to change the species name to Sarcophilus laniarius based on mainland fossil records of only a few animals . However , this was not accepted by the taxonomic community at large ; the name S. harrisii has been retained and S. laniarius relegated to a fossil species . " Beelzebub 's pup " was an early vernacular name given to it by the explorers of Tasmania , in reference to a religious figure who is a prince of hell and an assistant of Satan ; the explorers first encountered the animal by hearing its far @-@ reaching vocalisations at night . Related names that were used in the 19th century were Sarcophilus satanicus ( " Satanic meatlover " ) and Diabolus ursinus ( " bear devil " ) , all due to early misconceptions of the devil as implacably vicious .
The Tasmanian devil ( Sarcophilus harrisii ) belongs to the family Dasyuridae . The genus Sarcophilus contains two other species , known only from Pleistocene fossils : S. laniarius and S. moomaensis . The relationships between the three species are not clear . Phylogenetic analysis shows that the devil is most closely related to quolls .
The roots of Australian marsupials are thought to trace back tens of millions of years to when much of the current Southern Hemisphere was part of the supercontinent of Gondwana ; marsupials are believed to have originated in what is now South America and migrated across Antarctica , which had a temperate climate at the time . As soil degradation took hold , it is believed that the marsupials adapted to the more basic flora of Australia . According to Pemberton , the possible ancestors of the devil may have needed to climb trees to acquire food , leading to a growth in size and the hopping gait of many marsupials . He speculated that these adaptations may have caused the contemporary devil 's peculiar gait . The specific lineage of the Tasmanian devil is theorised to have emerged during the Miocene , molecular evidence suggesting a split from the ancestors of quolls between 10 and 15 million years ago , when severe climate change came to bear in Australia , transforming the climate from warm and moist to an arid , dry ice age , resulting in mass extinctions . As most of their prey died of the cold , only a few carnivores survived , including the ancestors of the quoll and thylacine . It is speculated that the devil lineage may have arisen at this time to fill a niche in the ecosystem , as a scavenger that disposed of carrion left behind by the selective @-@ eating thylacine . The extinct Glaucodon ballaratensis of the Pliocene age has been dubbed an intermediate species between the quoll and devil .
Fossil deposits in limestone caves at Naracoorte , South Australia , dating to the Miocene include specimens of S. laniarius , which were around 15 % larger and 50 % heavier than modern devils . Older specimens believed to be 50 – 70 @,@ 000 years old were found in Darling Downs in Queensland and in Western Australia . It is not clear whether the modern devil evolved from S. laniarius , or whether they coexisted at the time . Richard Owen argued for the latter hypothesis in the 19th century , based on fossils found in 1877 in New South Wales . Large bones attributed to S. moornaensis have been found in New South Wales , and it has been conjectured that these two extinct larger species may have hunted and scavenged . It is known that there were several genera of thylacine millions of years ago , and that they ranged in size , the smaller being more reliant on foraging . As the devil and thylacine are similar , the extinction of the co @-@ existing thylacine genera has been cited as evidence for an analogous history for the devils . It has been speculated that the smaller size of S. laniarius and S. moornaensis allowed them to adapt to the changing conditions more effectively and survive longer than the corresponding thylacines . As the extinction of these two species came at a similar time to human habitation of Australia , hunting by humans and land clearance have been mooted as possible causes . Critics of this theory point out that as indigenous Australians only developed boomerangs and spears for hunting around 10 @,@ 000 years ago , a critical fall in numbers due to systematic hunting is unlikely . They also point out that caves inhabited by Aborigines have a low proportion of bones and rock paintings of devils , and suggest that this is an indication that it was not a large part of indigenous lifestyle . A scientific report in 1910 claimed that Aborigines preferred the meat of herbivores rather than carnivores . The other main theory for the extinction was that it was due to the climate change brought on by the most recent ice age .
While dingoes are seen as the main reason for the disappearance of devils from the mainland , another theory is that the increasing aridity of the mainland caused it , while the population in Tasmania has been largely unaffected as the climate remains cool and moist . According to this theory , the dingo was only a secondary cause .
As the devil is the thylacine 's closest relative , there has been speculation that the thylacine could be revived by combining DNA from museum samples of thylacines with ova of the devil .
= = = Genetics = = =
The Tasmanian devil 's genome was sequenced in 2010 by the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute . Like all dasyurids , the devil has 14 chromosomes . Devils have a low genetic diversity compared to other Australian marsupials and placental carnivores ; this is consistent with a founder effect as allelic size ranges were low and nearly continuous throughout all subpopulations measured . Allelic diversity was measured at 2 @.@ 7 – 3 @.@ 3 in the subpopulations sampled , and heterozygosity was in the range 0 @.@ 386 – 0 @.@ 467 . According to a study by Menna Jones , " gene flow appears extensive up to 50 km ( 31 mi ) " , meaning a high assignment rate to source or close neighbour populations " in agreement with movement data . At larger scales ( 150 – 250 km or 90 – 200 mi ) , gene flow is reduced but there is no evidence for isolation by distance " . Island effects may also have contributed to their low genetic diversity . Periods of low population density may also have created moderate population bottlenecks , reducing genetic diversity . Low genetic diversity is thought to have been a feature in the Tasmanian devil population since the mid @-@ Holocene . Outbreaks of devil facial tumour disease ( DFTD ) cause an increase in inbreeding . A sub @-@ population of devils in the north @-@ west of the state is genetically distinct from other devils , but there is some exchange between the two groups .
One strand conformation polymorphism analysis ( OSCP ) on the major histocompatibility complex ( MHC ) class I domain taken from various locations across Tasmania showed 25 different types , and showed a different pattern of MHC types in north @-@ western Tasmania to eastern Tasmania . Those devils in the east of the state have less MHC diversity ; 30 % are of the same type as the tumour ( type 1 ) , and 24 % are of type A. Seven of every ten devils in the east are of type A , D , G or 1 , which are linked to DFTD ; whereas only 55 % of the western devils fall into these MHC categories . Of the 25 MHC types , 40 % are exclusive to the western devils . Although the north @-@ west population is less genetically diverse overall , it has higher MHC gene diversity , which allows them to mount an immune response to DFTD . According to this research , mixing the devils may increase the chance of disease . Of the fifteen different regions in Tasmania surveyed in this research , six were in the eastern half of the island . In the eastern half , Epping Forest had only two different types , 75 % being type O. In the Buckland @-@ Nugent area , only three types were present , and there were an average of 5 @.@ 33 different types per location . In contrast , in the west , Cape Sorell yielded three types , and Togari North @-@ Christmas Hills yielded six , but the other seven sites all had at least eight MHC types , and West Pencil Pine had 15 types . There was an average of 10 @.@ 11 MHC types per site in the west .
= = Description = =
The Tasmanian devil is the largest surviving carnivorous marsupial . It has a squat , thick build , with a large head and a tail which is about half its body length . Unusually for a marsupial , its forelegs are slightly longer than its hind legs , and devils can run up to 13 km / h ( 8 @.@ 1 mph ) for short distances . The fur is usually black , often with irregular white patches on the chest and rump ( although approximately 16 % of wild devils do not have white patches ) . These markings suggest that the devil is most active at dawn and dusk , and they are thought to draw biting attacks toward less important areas of the body , as fighting between devils often leads to a concentration of scars in that region . Males are usually larger than females , having an average head and body length of 652 mm ( 25 @.@ 7 in ) , a 258 mm ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) tail and an average weight of 8 kg ( 18 lb ) . Females have an average head and body length of 570 mm ( 22 in ) , a 244 mm ( 9 @.@ 6 in ) tail and an average weight of 6 kg ( 13 lb ) , although devils in western Tasmania tend to be smaller . Devils have five long toes on their forefeet , four pointing to the front and one coming out from the side , which gives the devil the ability to hold food . The hind feet have four toes , and the devils have non @-@ retractable claws . The stocky devils have a relatively low centre of mass .
Devils are fully grown at two years of age , and few devils live longer than five years in the wild . Possibly the longest @-@ lived Tasmanian devil recorded was Coolah , a male devil which lived in captivity for more than seven years . Born in January 1997 at the Cincinnati Zoo , Coolah died in May 2004 at the Fort Wayne Children 's Zoo .
The devil stores body fat in its tail , and healthy devils have fat tails . The tail is largely non @-@ prehensile and is important to its physiology , social behaviour and locomotion . It acts as a counterbalance to aid stability when the devil is moving quickly . An ano @-@ genital scent gland at the base of its tail is used to mark the ground behind the animal with its strong , pungent scent .
The male has external testes in a pouch @-@ like structure formed by lateral ventrocrural folds of the abdomen , which partially hides and protects them . The testes are subovoid in shape and the mean dimensions of 30 testes of adult males was 3 @.@ 17 cm × 2 @.@ 57 cm ( 1 @.@ 25 in × 1 @.@ 01 in ) . The female 's pouch opens backwards , and is present throughout its life , unlike some other dasyurids .
The Tasmanian devil has an exceptionally strong bite for its size , generating a force of over 553 N ( 124 lbf ) . The jaw can open to 75 – 80 degrees , allowing the devil to generate the large amount of power to tear meat and crush bones — sufficient force to allow it to bite through thick metal wire . The power of the jaws is in part due to its comparatively large head . The teeth and jaws of Tasmanian devils resemble those of hyenas , an example of convergent evolution . Dasyurid teeth resemble those of primitive marsupials . Like all dasyurids , the devil has prominent canines and cheek teeth . It has three pairs of lower incisors and four pairs of upper incisors . These are located at the top of the front of the devil 's mouth . Like dogs , it has 42 teeth , however , unlike dogs , its teeth are not replaced after birth but grow continuously throughout life at a slow rate . It has a " highly carnivorous dentition and trophic adaptations for bone consumption " . The devil has long claws that allow it to dig burrows and seek subterranean food easily and grip prey or mates strongly . The teeth and claw strength allow the devil to attack wombats up to 30 kg ( 66 lb ) in weight . The large neck and forebody that give the devil its strength also cause this strength to be biased towards the front half of the body ; the lopsided , awkward , shuffling gait of the devil is attributed to this .
The devil has long whiskers on its face and in clumps on the top of the head . These help the devil locate prey when foraging in the dark , and aid in detecting when other devils are close during feeding . The whiskers can extend from the tip of the chin to the rear of the jaw and can cover the span of its shoulder . Hearing is its dominant sense , and it also has an excellent sense of smell , which has a range of 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) . The devil , unlike other marsupials , has a " well @-@ defined , saddle @-@ shaped ectotympanic " . Since devils hunt at night , their vision seems to be strongest in black and white . In these conditions they can detect moving objects readily , but have difficulty seeing stationary objects .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Devils are found in all habitats on the island of Tasmania , including the outskirts of urban areas , and are distributed throughout the Tasmanian mainland and on Robbins Island ( which is connected to mainland Tasmania at low tide ) . The north @-@ western population is located west of the Forth River and as far south as Macquarie Heads . Previously , they were present on Bruny Island from the 19th century , but there have been no records of them after 1900 , and they were introduced to Badger Island in the mid @-@ 1990s but are thought to have died out by 2005 . A study has modelled the reintroduction of DFTD @-@ free Tasmanian devils to the mainland in areas where dingoes are sparse . It is proposed that devils would have fewer impacts on both livestock and native fauna than dingoes , and that the mainland population could act as an additional insurance population . In September 2015 , 20 immunised captive @-@ bred devils were released into Narawntapu National Park , Tasmania . Two later died from being hit by cars .
The " core habitat " of the devils is considered to be within the " low to moderate annual rainfall zone of eastern and north @-@ western Tasmania " . Tasmanian devils particularly like dry sclerophyll forests and coastal woodlands . Although they are not found at the highest altitudes of Tasmania , and their population density is low in the button grass plains in the south @-@ west of the state , their population is high in dry or mixed sclerophyll forests and coastal heaths . Devils prefer open forest to tall forest , and dry rather than wet forests . They are also found near roads where roadkill is prevalent , although the devils themselves are often killed by vehicles while retrieving the carrion . According to the Threatened Species Scientific Committee , their versatility means that habitat modification from destruction is not seen as a major threat to the species .
The devil is directly linked to the Dasyurotaenia robusta , a tapeworm which is classified as Rare under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 . This tapeworm is found only in devils .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The Tasmanian devil is a nocturnal and crepuscular hunter , spending the days in dense bush or in a hole . It has been speculated that nocturnalism may have been adopted to avoid predation by eagles and humans . Young devils are predominantly crepuscular . There is no evidence of torpor .
Young devils can climb trees , but this becomes more difficult as they grow larger . Devils can scale trees of trunk diameter larger than 40 cm ( 16 in ) , which tend to have no small side branches to hand onto , up to a height of around 2 @.@ 5 – 3 m ( 8 @.@ 2 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Devils that are yet to reach maturity can climb shrubs to a height of 4 metres ( 13 @.@ 1 ft ) , and can climb a tree to 7 m ( 23 ft ) if it is not vertical . Adult devils may eat young devils if they are very hungry , so this climbing behaviour may be an adaptation to allow young devils to escape . Devils can also swim and have been observed crossing rivers that are 50 metres ( 160 ft ) in width , including icy cold waterways , apparently enthusiastically .
Tasmanian devils do not form packs , but rather spend most of their time alone once weaned . Classically considered as solitary animals , their social interactions were poorly understood . However , a field study published in 2009 shed some light on this . Tasmanian devils in Narawntapu National Park were fitted with proximity sensing radio collars which recorded their interactions with other devils over several months from February to June 2006 . This revealed that all devils were part of a single huge contact network , characterised by male @-@ female interactions during mating season , while female @-@ female interactions were the most common at other times , although frequency and patterns of contact did not vary markedly between seasons . Previously thought to fight over food , males only rarely interacted with other males . Hence , all devils in a region are part of a single social network . They are considered to be non @-@ territorial in general , but females are territorial around their dens . This allows a higher total mass of devils to occupy a given area than territorial animals , without conflict . Tasmanian devils instead occupy a home range . In a period of between two and four weeks , devils ' home ranges are estimated to vary between 4 and 27 km2 ( 990 and 6 @,@ 670 acres ) , with an average of 13 km2 ( 3 @,@ 200 acres ) . The location and geometry of these areas depend on the distribution of food , particularly wallabies and pademelons nearby .
Devils use three or four dens regularly . Dens formerly owned by wombats are especially prized as maternity dens because of their security . Dense vegetation near creeks , thick grass tussocks , and caves are also used as dens . Adult devils use the same dens for life . It is believed that , as a secure den is highly prized , some may have been used for several centuries by generations of animals . Studies have suggested that food security is less important than den security , as habitat destruction that impacts the latter has had more effect on mortality rates . Young pups remain in one den with their mother , and other devils are mobile , changing dens every 1 – 3 days and travelling a mean distance of 8 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) every night . However , there are also reports that an upper bound can be 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) per night . They choose to travel through lowlands , saddles and along the banks of creeks , particularly preferring carved @-@ out tracks and livestock paths and eschewing steep slopes and rocky terrain . The amount of movement is believed to be similar throughout the year , except for mothers who have given birth recently . The similarity in travel distances for males and females is unusual for sexually dimorphic , solitary carnivores . As a male needs more food , he will spend more time eating than travelling . Devils typically make circuits of their home range during their hunts . In areas near human habitation , they are known to steal clothes , blankets and pillows and take them for use in dens in wooden buildings .
While the dasyurids have similar diet and anatomy , differing body sizes affect thermoregulation and thus behaviour . In ambient temperatures between 5 and 30 ° C ( 41 and 86 ° F ) , the devil was able to maintain a body temperature between 37 @.@ 4 and 38 ° C ( 99 @.@ 3 and 100 @.@ 4 ° F ) . When the temperature was raised to 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) , and the humidity to 50 % , the devil 's body temperature spiked upwards by 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) within 60 minutes , but then steadily decreased back to the starting temperature after a further two hours , and remained there for two more hours . During this time , the devil drank water and showed no visible signs of discomfort , leading scientists to believe that sweating and evaporative cooling is its primary means of heat dissipation . A later study found that devils pant but do not sweat to release heat . In contrast , many other marsupials were unable to keep their body temperatures down . As the smaller animals have to live in hotter and more arid conditions to which they are less well @-@ adapted , they take up a nocturnal lifestyle and drop their body temperatures during the day , whereas the devil is active in the day and its body temperature varies by 1 @.@ 8 ° C ( 35 @.@ 2 ° F ) from its minimum at night to the maximum in the middle of the day .
The standard metabolic rate of a Tasmanian devil is 141 kJ / kg ( 15 @.@ 3 kcal / lb ) per day , many times lower than smaller marsupials . A 5 @-@ kilogram ( 11 lb ) devil uses 712 kilojoules ( 170 kcal ) per day . The field metabolic rate is 407 kJ / kg ( 44 @.@ 1 kcal / lb ) . Along with quolls , Tasmanian devils have a metabolic rate comparable to non @-@ carnivorous marsupials of a similar size . This differs from placental carnivores , which have comparatively high basal metabolic rates . A study of devils showed a loss of weight from 7 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 1 kilograms ( 17 to 16 lb ) from summer to winter , but in the same time , daily energy consumption increased from 2 @,@ 591 to 2 @,@ 890 kilojoules ( 619 to 691 kcal ) . This is equivalent to an increase in food consumption from 518 to 578 grams ( 18 @.@ 3 to 20 @.@ 4 oz ) . The diet is protein @-@ based with 70 % water content . For every 1 gram ( 0 @.@ 035 oz ) of insects consumed , 3 @.@ 5 kilojoules ( 0 @.@ 84 kcal ) of energy are produced , while a corresponding amount of wallaby meat generated 5 @.@ 0 kilojoules ( 1 @.@ 2 kcal ) . In terms of its body mass , the devil eats only a quarter of the eastern quoll 's intake , allowing it to survive longer during food shortages .
The devil is a keystone species in the ecosystem of Tasmania .
= = = Feeding = = =
Tasmanian devils can take prey up to the size of a small kangaroo , but in practice they are opportunistic and eat carrion more often than they hunt live prey . Although the devil favours wombats because of the ease of predation and high fat content , it will eat all small native mammals such as bettong and potoroos , domestic mammals ( including sheep ) , birds , fish , fruit , vegetable matter , insects , tadpoles , frogs and reptiles . Their diet is widely varied and depends on the food available . Before the extinction of the thylacine , the Tasmanian devil ate thylacine cubs left alone in dens when their parents were away . This may have helped to hasten the extinction of the thylacine , which also ate devils . They are known to hunt water rats by the sea and forage on dead fish that have been washed ashore . Near human habitation , they can also steal shoes and chew on them , and eat the legs of otherwise robust sheep when they have slipped in wooden shearing sheds , leaving their legs dangling below . Other unusual matter observed in devil scats includes collars and tags of devoured animals , intact echidna spines , pencil , plastic and jeans . Although devils can bite through metal traps , they tend to reserve their strong jaws for escaping captivity rather than breaking into food storage . Due to their relative lack of speed , they can not run down a wallaby or a rabbit , but they can attack animals that have become slow due to illness . They survey flocks of sheep by sniffing them from 10 – 15 m away and attack if the prey is ill . The sheep stamp their feet in a show of strength .
Despite their lack of extreme speed , there have been reports that devils can run at 25 km / h for 1 @.@ 5 km , and it has been conjectured that , before European immigration and the introduction of livestock , vehicles and roadkill , they would have had to chase other native animals at a reasonable pace to find food . Pemberton has reported that they can average 10 km / h for " extended periods " on several nights per week , and that they run for long distances before sitting still for up to half an hour , something that has been interpreted as evidence of ambush predation .
Devils can dig to forage corpses , in one case digging down to eat the corpse of a buried horse that had died due to illness . They are known to eat animal cadavers by first ripping out the digestive system , which is the softest part of the anatomy , and they often reside in the resulting cavity while they are eating .
On average , devils eat about 15 % of their body weight each day , although they can eat up to 40 % of their body weight in 30 minutes if the opportunity arises . This means they can become very heavy and lethargic after a large meal ; in this state they tend to waddle away slowly and lie down , becoming easy to approach . This has led to a belief that such eating habits became possible due to the lack of a predator to attack such bloated individuals .
Tasmanian devils can eliminate all traces of a carcass of a smaller animal , devouring the bones and fur if desired . In this respect , devils have earned the gratitude of Tasmanian farmers , as the speed at which they clean a carcass helps prevent the spread of insects that might otherwise harm livestock . Some of these dead animals are disposed of when the devils haul off the excess feed back to their residence to continue eating at a later time .
The diet of a devil can vary substantially for males and females , and seasonally , according to studies at Cradle Mountain . In winter , males prefer medium mammals over larger ones , with a ratio of 4 : 5 , but in summer , they prefer larger prey in a 7 : 2 ratio . These two categories accounted for more than 95 % of the diet . Females are less inclined to target large prey , but have the same seasonal bias . In winter , large and medium mammals account for 25 % and 58 % each , with 7 % small mammals and 10 % birds . In summer , the first two categories account for 61 % and 37 % respectively .
Juvenile devils are sometimes known to climb trees ; in addition to small vertebrates and invertebrates , juveniles climb trees to eat grubs and birds ' eggs . Juveniles have also been observed climbing into nests and capturing birds . Throughout the year , adult devils derive 16 @.@ 2 % of their biomass intake from arboreal species , almost all of which is possum meat , just 1 @.@ 0 % being large birds . From February to July , subadult devils derive 35 @.@ 8 % of their biomass intake from arboreal life , 12 @.@ 2 % being small birds and 23 @.@ 2 % being possums . Female devils in winter source 40 @.@ 0 % of their intake from arboreal species , including 26 @.@ 7 % from possums and 8 @.@ 9 % from various birds . Not all of these animals were caught while they were in trees , but this high figure for females , which is higher than for male spotted @-@ tailed quolls during the same season , is unusual , as the devil has inferior tree climbing skills .
Although they hunt alone , there have been unsubstantiated claims of communal hunting , where one devil drives prey out of its habitat and an accomplice attacks . Eating is a social event for the Tasmanian devil . This combination of a solitary animal that eats communally makes the devil unique among carnivores . Much of the noise attributed to the animal is a result of raucous communal eating , at which up to 12 individuals can gather , although groups of two to five are common ; it can often be heard several kilometres away . This has been interpreted as notifications to colleagues to share in the meal , so that food is not wasted by rot and energy is saved . The amount of noise is correlated to the size of the carcass . The devils eat in accordance with a system . Juveniles are active at dusk , so they tend to reach the source before the adults . Typically , the dominant animal eats until it is satiated and leaves , fighting off any challengers in the meantime . Defeated animals run into the bush with their hair and tail erect , their conqueror in pursuit and biting their victim 's rear where possible . Disputes are less common as the food source increases as the motive appears to be getting sufficient food rather than oppressing other devils . When quolls are eating a carcass , devils will tend to chase them away . This is a substantial problem for spotted @-@ tailed quolls , as they kill relatively large possums and cannot finish their meal before devils arrive . In contrast , the smaller eastern quolls predate much smaller victims , and can complete feeding before devils turn up . This is seen as a possible reason for the relatively small population of spotted @-@ tailed quolls .
A study of feeding devils identified twenty physical postures , including their characteristic vicious yawn , and eleven different vocal sounds that devils use to communicate as they feed . They usually establish dominance by sound and physical posturing , although fighting does occur . The white patches on the devil are visible to the night @-@ vision of its colleagues . Chemical gestures are also used . Adult males are the most aggressive , and scarring is common . They can also stand on their hind legs and push each other 's shoulders with their front legs and heads , similar to sumo wrestling . Torn flesh around the mouth and teeth , as well as punctures in the rump , can sometimes be observed , although these can also be inflicted during breeding fights .
Digestion is very fast in dasyurids and , for the Tasmanian devil , the few hours taken for food to pass through the small gut is a long period in comparison to some other dasyuridae . Devils are known to return to the same places to defecate , and to do so at a communal location , called a devil latrine . It is believed that the communal defecation may be a means of communication that is not well understood . Devil scats are very large compared to body size ; they are on average 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long , but there have been samples that are 25 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) in length . They are characteristically grey in colour due to digested bones , or have bone fragments included .
Owen and Pemberton believe that the relationship between Tasmanian devils and thylacines was " close and complex " , as they competed directly for prey and probably also for shelter . The thylacines preyed on the devils , the devils scavenged from the thylacine 's kills , and the devils ate thylacine young . Menna Jones hypothesises that the two species shared the role of apex predator in Tasmania . Wedge @-@ tailed eagles have a similar carrion @-@ based diet to the devils and are regarded as competitors . Quolls and devils are also seen as being in direct competition in Tasmania . Jones believed that the quoll has evolved into its current state in just 100 – 200 generations of around two years as determined by the equal spacing effect on the devil , the largest species , the spotted @-@ tail quoll , and the smallest species , the eastern quoll . Both the Tasmanian devil and the quolls appears to have evolved up to 50 times faster than the average evolutionary rate amongst mammals .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Females start to breed when they reach sexual maturity , typically in their second year . At this point , they become fertile once a year , producing multiple ova while in heat . As prey is most abundant in spring and early summer , the devil 's reproductive cycle starts in March or April so that the end of the weaning period coincides with the maximisation of food supplies in the wild for the newly roaming young devils . Occurring in March , mating takes places in sheltered locations during both day and night . Males fight over females in the breeding season , and female devils will mate with the dominant male . Females can ovulate up to three times in a 21 @-@ day period , and copulation can take five days ; one instance of a couple being in the mating den for eight days has been recorded . Devils are not monogamous , and females will mate with several males if not guarded after mating ; males also reproduce with several females during a season . Females have been shown to be selective in an attempt to ensure the best genetic offspring , for example , fighting off the advances of smaller males . Males often keep their mates in custody in the den , or take them along if they need to drink , lest they engage in infidelity . Males can produce up to 16 offspring over their lifetime , while females average four mating seasons and 12 offspring . Theoretically this means that a devil population can double on an annual basis and make the species insulated against high mortality . The pregnancy rate is high ; 80 % of two @-@ year @-@ old females were observed with newborns in their pouches during the mating season . More recent studies of breeding place the mating season between February and June , as opposed to between February and March .
Gestation lasts 21 days , and devils give birth to 20 – 30 young standing up , each weighing approximately 0 @.@ 18 – 0 @.@ 24 grams ( 0 @.@ 0063 – 0 @.@ 0085 oz ) . At birth , the front limb has well @-@ developed digits with claws ; unlike many marsupials , the claws of baby devils are not deciduous . As with most other marsupials , the forelimb is longer ( 0 @.@ 26 – 0 @.@ 43 cm or 0 @.@ 10 – 0 @.@ 17 in ) than the rear limb ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 28 cm or 0 @.@ 079 – 0 @.@ 110 in ) , the eyes are spots , and the body is pink . There are no external ears or openings . Unusually , the gender can be determined at birth , with an external scrotum present .
Tasmanian devil young are variously called " pups " , " joeys " , or " imps " . When the young are born , competition is fierce as they move from the vagina in a sticky flow of mucus to the pouch . Once inside the pouch , they each remain attached to a nipple for the next 100 days . The female Tasmanian devil 's pouch , like that of the wombat , opens to the rear , so it is physically difficult for the female to interact with young inside the pouch . Despite the large litter at birth , the female has only four nipples , so there are never more than four babies nursing in the pouch , and the older a female devil gets , the smaller her litters will become . Once the young have made contact with the nipple , it expands , resulting in the oversized nipple being firmly clamped inside the newborn and ensuring that the newborn does not fall out of the pouch . On average , more females survive than males , and up to 60 % of young do not survive to maturity .
Milk replacements are often used for devils that have been bred in captivity , for orphaned devils or young who are born to diseased mothers . Little is known about the composition of the devil 's milk compared to other marsupials .
Inside the pouch , the nourished young develop quickly . In the second week , the rhinarium becomes distinctive and heavily pigmented . At 15 days , the external parts of the ear are visible , although these are attached to the head and do not open out until the devil is around 10 weeks old . The ear begins blackening after around 40 days , when it is less than 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long , and by the time the ear becomes erect , it is between 1 @.@ 2 and 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 47 and 0 @.@ 63 in ) . Eyelids are apparent at 16 days , whiskers at 17 days , and the lips at 20 days . The devils can make squeaking noises after eight weeks , and after around 10 – 11 weeks , the lips can open . Despite the formation of eyelids , they do not open for three months , although eyelashes form at around 50 days . The young — up to this point they are pink — start to grow fur at 49 days and have a full coat by 90 days . The fur growing process starts at the snout and proceeds back through the body , although the tail attains fur before the rump , which is the last part of the body to become covered . Just before the start of the furring process , the colour of the bare devil 's skin will darken and become black or dark grey in the tail .
The devils have a complete set of facial vibrissae and ulnar carpels , although it is devoid of anconeal vibrissae . During the third week , the mystacials and ulnarcarpals are the first to form . Subsequently , the infraorbital , interramal , supraorbital and submental vibrissae form . The last four typically occur between the 26th and 39th day .
Their eyes open shortly after their fur coat develops — between 87 and 93 days — and their mouths can relax their hold of the nipple at 100 days . They leave the pouch 105 days after birth , appearing as small copies of the parent and weighing around 200 grams ( 7 @.@ 1 oz ) . Zoologist Eric Guiler recorded its size at this time as follows : a crown @-@ snout length of 5 @.@ 87 cm ( 2 @.@ 31 in ) , tail length of 5 @.@ 78 cm ( 2 @.@ 28 in ) , pes length 2 @.@ 94 cm ( 1 @.@ 16 in ) , manus 2 @.@ 30 cm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) , shank 4 @.@ 16 cm ( 1 @.@ 64 in ) , forearm 4 @.@ 34 cm ( 1 @.@ 71 in ) and crown @-@ rump length is 11 @.@ 9 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . During this period , the devils lengthen at a roughly linear rate .
After being ejected , the devils stay outside the pouch , but they remain in the den for around another three months , first venturing outside the den between October and December before becoming independent in January . During this transitional phase out of the pouch , the young devils are relatively safe from predation as they are generally accompanied . When the mother is hunting they can stay inside a shelter or come along , often riding on their mother 's back . During this time they continue to drink their mother 's milk . Female devils are occupied with raising their young for all but approximately six weeks of the year . The milk contains a higher amount of iron than the milk of placental mammals . In Guiler 's 1970 study , no females died while rearing their offspring in the pouch . After leaving the pouch , the devils grow by around 0 @.@ 5 kg ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) a month until they are six months old . While most pups will survive to be weaned , Guiler reported that up to three fifths of devils do not reach maturity . As juveniles are more crepuscular than adults , their appearance in the open during summer gives the impression to humans of a population boom . A study into the success of translocated devils that were orphaned and raised in captivity found that young devils who had consistently engaged with new experiences while they were in captivity survived better than young who had not .
Embryonic diapause does not occur .
Guiler has reported that consecutive hermaphroditism ( sex change ) has occurred in captured devils , while Pemberton and Mooney recorded in 2004 the case of an animal with a scrotum and a non @-@ functional pouch .
In an apparent response to reduced competition caused by devil facial tumour disease , female devils in regions with the disease are now more likely to begin breeding at the age of one year . The disease has also led to the reproductive season being less well @-@ defined , with births more spread out throughout the year . Litters born to mothers with DFTD have more female pups than male pups .
A slow @-@ release hormonal contraceptive implant for female devils is being developed and tested in a joint program between the Save the Tasmanian Devil program , the Zoo and Aquarium Association , the Taronga Conservation Society and the University of Sydney . This wildlife contraceptive program is aimed to help the devils continue with their wild behaviour by mating freely , but without certain females contributing too much to the next generation , which " can have long @-@ term genetic consequences for the insurance population " . Contraceptive trials in male devils showed that their testosterone increased , instead of decreasing as other male mammals ' testosterone does . Early studies suggest that the female contraception has been successful , and the female contraceptive implants will be tested in the Maria Island insurance population .
= = Conservation status = =
Widespread across Australia in the Pleistocene , the Tasmanian devil had declined and become restricted to three relict populations during the mid @-@ Holocene period around 3 @,@ 000 years ago . Rock art and a single fossil near Darwin point to a northern population , and remains in the southeast signify a southeastern population ranging from the mouth of the Murray River eastwards to the vicinity of Port Phillip in Victoria . This population had contracted from northern Victoria and New South Wales . The rising sea levels in the Holocene also cut it off from Tasmanian populations . The third population was from southwest Western Australia . Fossil evidence from this last location has proven controversial . As with many native animals , ancient devils were larger than their contemporary descendants . In 1972 , Mike Archer and Alex Baynes found a devil tooth at the foot of a cliff near Augusta in Western Australia and dated it to 430 ± 160 years of age , a figure widely circulated and cited . Australian archaeologist Oliver Brown has disputed this , stating that the authors ' uncertainty about the origins of the tooth casts doubts on its age , especially as other remains all date to around 3 @,@ 000 years ago .
The cause of their disappearance from the mainland is unclear , but their decline seems to coincide with the expansion across the mainland of indigenous Australians and dingoes . However , whether it was direct hunting by people , competition with dingoes , changes brought about by the increasing human population , who by 3000 years ago were using all habitat types across the continent , or a combination of all three , is unknown ; devils had coexisted with dingoes on the mainland for around 3000 years . Brown has also proposed that the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) grew stronger during the Holocene , and that the devil , as a scavenger with a short life span , was highly sensitive to this . In dingo @-@ free Tasmania , carnivorous marsupials were still active when Europeans arrived . The extermination of the thylacine after the arrival of the Europeans is well known , but the Tasmanian devil was threatened as well .
Thylacines preyed on devils , and devils attacked thylacine young ; devils may have hastened the thylacine 's extinction . While the thylacine was extant , apart from hunting devils , it may also have put pressure on the devil for survival , by competing for scarce food and dens ; both animals sought caves and burrows . It has been speculated that devils may have become more predacious and presided over larger home ranges to fill in the vacancy left by the thylacine .
Habitat disruption can expose dens where mothers raise their young . This increases mortality , as the mother leaves the disturbed den with her pups clinging to her back , making them more vulnerable .
Cancer in general is a common cause of death in devils . In 2008 , high levels of potentially carcinogenic flame retardant chemicals were found in Tasmanian devils . Preliminary results of tests ordered by the Tasmanian government on chemicals found in fat tissue from 16 devils have revealed high levels of hexabromobiphenyl ( BB153 ) and " reasonably high " levels of decabromodiphenyl ether ( BDE209 ) . The Save the Tasmanian Devil Appeal is the official fundraising entity for the Save the Tasmanian Devil Program . The priority is to ensure the survival of the Tasmanian devil in the wild . For more information www.tassiedevil.com.au
Since 1999 , all devils caught in the field have had ear biopsies taken , providing samples of DNA . As of September 2010 , there are 5 @,@ 642 samples in this collection .
= = = Population declines = = =
At least two major population declines , possibly due to disease epidemics , have occurred in recorded history : in 1909 and 1950 . The devil was also reported as scarce in the 1850s . It is difficult to estimate the size of the devil population . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the population was estimated at 130 @,@ 000 – 150 @,@ 000 animals , but this is likely to have been an overestimate . The Tasmanian devil 's population has been calculated in 2008 by Tasmania 's Department of Primary Industries and Water as being in the range of 10 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 individuals , with 20 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 mature individuals being likely . Experts estimate that the devil has suffered a more than 80 % decline in its population since the mid @-@ 1990s and that only around 10 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 remain in the wild as of 2008 .
The species was listed as vulnerable under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 in 2005 and the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 in 2006 , which means that it is at risk of extinction in the " medium term " . The IUCN classified the Tasmanian devil in the lower risk / least concern category in 1996 , but in 2009 they reclassified it as endangered .
= = = Culling = = =
The first Tasmanian settlers ate Tasmanian devil , which they described as tasting like veal . As it was believed devils would hunt and kill livestock , possibly due to strong imagery of packs of devils eating weak sheep , a bounty scheme to remove the devil from rural properties was introduced as early as 1830 . However , Guiler 's research contended that the real cause of livestock losses was poor land management policies and feral dogs . In areas where the devil is now absent , poultry has continued to be killed by quolls . In earlier times , hunting possums and wallabies for fur was a big business — more than 900 @,@ 000 animals were hunted in 1923 — and this resulted in a continuation of bounty hunting of devils as they were thought to be a major threat to the fur industry , even though quolls were more adept at hunting the animals in question . Over the next 100 years , trapping and poisoning brought them to the brink of extinction .
After the death of the last thylacine in 1936 , the Tasmanian devil was protected by law in June 1941 and the population slowly recovered . In the 1950s , with reports of increasing numbers , some permits to capture devils were granted after complaints of livestock damage . In 1966 , poisoning permits were issued although attempts to have the animal unprotected failed . During this time environmentalists also became more outspoken , particularly as scientific studies provided new data suggesting the threat of devils to livestock had been vastly exaggerated . Numbers may have peaked in the early 1970s after a population boom ; in 1975 they were reported to be lighter , possibly due to overpopulation and consequent lack of food . Another report of overpopulation and livestock damage was reported in 1987 . The following year , Trichinella spiralis , a parasite which kills animals and can infect humans , was found in devils and minor panic broke out before scientists assured the public that 30 % of devils had it but that they could not transmit it to other species . Control permits were ended in the 1990s , but illegal killing continues to a limited extent , albeit " locally intense " . This is not considered a substantial problem for the survival of the devil . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 devils were killed per year in the mid @-@ 1990s . A selective culling program has taken place to remove individuals affected with DFTD , and has been shown to not slow the rate of disease progression or reduced the amount of animals dying . A model has been tested to find out whether culling devils infected with DFTD would assist in the survival of the species , and it has found that culling would not be a suitable strategy to employ .
= = = Foxes = = =
The decline in devil numbers is also seen as an ecological problem , since its presence in the Tasmanian forest ecosystem is believed to have prevented the establishment of the red fox , illegally introduced to Tasmania around the turn of the 21st century , and has limited the number of foxes , feral cats and dogs because devils eat carrion that would otherwise feed these creatures , as well as killing adult foxes and young foxes in dens . Foxes are a problematic invasive species in all other Australian states and , if established in Tasmania , they would both hinder the recovery of the Tasmanian devil and prey on many other vertebrate species . It is believed that Tasmanian devil young would be vulnerable to red fox predation and that devils and foxes would directly compete for habitat and dens . One common means of trying to stop the foxes is to use meat baits laced with sodium fluoroacetate . As devils and other native animals can also be attracted to the poisoned meat , which is placed inside an M @-@ 44 ejector device , adaptations have been made to the geometry of the device so that the force and jaw geometry needed to open it fits those of the fox but not the native species . Foxes are not yet sufficiently established in Tasmania to pose a threat to the Tasmanian devil .
= = = Road mortality = = =
Motor vehicles are a threat to localised populations of non @-@ abundant Tasmanian mammals , and a 2010 study showed that devils were particularly vulnerable . A study of nine species , mostly marsupials of a similar size , showed that devils were more difficult for drivers to detect and thus avoid . At high beam , devils had the lowest detection distance , 40 % closer than the median . This requires a 20 % reduction in speed for a motorist to avoid the devil . For low beam , the devils are the seventh worst in terms of detection distance , 16 % below the median . For avoidance of roadkill to be feasible , motorists would have to drive at around half the current speed limit in rural areas . A study in the 1990s on a localised population of devils in a national park in Tasmania recorded a halving of the population after a hitherto gravel access road was upgraded , surfaced with bitumen and widened . At the same time , there was a large increase in deaths caused by vehicles along the new road ; there had been none in the preceding six months . The vast majority of deaths occurred in the sealed portion of the road , believed to be due to an increase in speeds . It was also conjectured that the animals were harder to see against the dark bitumen instead of the light gravel . The devil and quoll are especially vulnerable as they often try to retrieve roadkill for food and travel along the road . To alleviate the problem , traffic slowing measures , man @-@ made pathways that offer alternative routes for devils , education campaigns , and the installation of light reflectors to indicate oncoming vehicles have been implemented . They are credited with decreases in roadkill . Devils have often been victims of roadkill when they are retrieving other roadkill . Work by scientist Menna Jones and a group of conservation volunteers to remove dead animals from the road resulted in a significant reduction in devil traffic deaths . It was estimated that 3 @,@ 392 devils , or between 3 @.@ 8 and 5 @.@ 7 % of the population , were being killed annually by vehicles in 2001 – 04 . In 2009 , the Save the Tasmanian Devil group launched the " Roadkill Project " , which allowed members of the public to report sightings of devils which had been killed on the road . On 25 September 2015 , 20 immunised devils were microchipped and released in Narawntapu National Park . By 5 October , 4 had been hit by cars , prompting Samantha Fox , leader of Save the Tasmanian Devil , to describe roadkill as being the biggest threat to the Tasmanian devil after DFTD . A series of solar @-@ powered alarms have been trialled that make noises and flash lights when cars are approaching , warning the animals . The trial ran for 18 months and the trial area had two @-@ thirds less deaths than the control .
= = = Devil facial tumour disease = = =
First seen in 1996 in Mount William in northeastern Tasmania , devil facial tumour disease ( DFTD ) has ravaged Tasmania 's wild devils , and estimates of the impact range from 20 % to as much as an 80 % decline in the devil population , with over 65 % of the state affected . The state 's west coast area and far north @-@ west are the only places where devils are tumour free . Individual devils die within months of infection .
The disease is an example of a transmissible cancer , which means that it is contagious and passed from one animal to another . Short of a cure , scientists are removing the sick animals and quarantining healthy devils in case the wild population dies out . Because Tasmanian devils have extremely low levels of genetic diversity and a chromosomal mutation unique among carnivorous mammals , they are more prone to the infectious cancer .
Wild Tasmanian devil populations are being monitored to track the spread of the disease and to identify changes in disease prevalence . Field monitoring involves trapping devils within a defined area to check for the presence of the disease and determine the number of affected animals . The same area is visited repeatedly to characterise the spread of the disease over time . So far , it has been established that the short @-@ term effects of the disease in an area can be severe . Long @-@ term monitoring at replicated sites will be essential to assess whether these effects remain , or whether populations can recover . Field workers are also testing the effectiveness of disease suppression by trapping and removing diseased devils . It is hoped that the removal of diseased devils from wild populations should decrease disease prevalence and allow more devils to survive beyond their juvenile years and breed .
Research published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences on 27 June 2011 , suggests picking a genetically diverse breeding stock , defined by the genome sequence , for conservation efforts . In 2011 , it was estimated that it would cost $ 11 million to preserve the Tasmanian devil species .
Research by Professor Greg Woods from the University of Tasmania 's Menzies Institute for Medical Research has shown encouraging evidence for the potential development of a vaccine using dead devil facial tumour disease cells to trigger an immune response in healthy devils . Field testing of the vaccine is being undertaken as a collaborative project between the Menzies Institute for Medical Research and the Save the Tasmanian Devil Program under the Wild Devil Recovery program , and aims to test the immunization protocol as a tool in ensuring the devil 's long term survival in the wild .
= = Relationship with humans = =
At Lake Nitchie in western New South Wales in 1970 , a male human skeleton wearing a necklace of 178 teeth from 49 different devils was found . The skeleton is estimated to be 7000 years old , and the necklace is believed to be much older than the skeleton . Archeologist Josephine Flood believes the devil was hunted for its teeth and that this contributed to its extinction on mainland Australia . Owen and Pemberton note that few such necklaces have been found . Middens that contain devil bones are rare — two notable examples are Devil 's Lair in the south @-@ western part of Western Australia and Tower Hill in Victoria .
In Tasmania , local Aborigines and devils sheltered in the same caves . Tasmanian Aboriginal names for the devil recorded by Europeans include " tarrabah " , " poirinnah " , and " par @-@ loo @-@ mer @-@ rer " . According to Fritz Noetling , the Secretary of the Royal Society of Tasmania in 1910 , there was no evidence that Tasmanian Aborigines ate any carnivorous animals . Owen and Pemberton feel this may have contributed to the devil 's survival prior to European settlement . Convicts at the time when Hobart was being settled in made a meal of Tasmanian devils and it was claimed to be not unlike veal .
It is a common belief that devils will eat humans . While they are known to eat the bodies of murder victims or people who have committed suicide , there are prevalent myths that they eat living humans who wander into the bush . Despite outdated beliefs and exaggerations regarding their disposition , many , although not all , devils will remain still when in the presence of a human ; some will also shake nervously . They can bite and scratch out of fear when held by a human , but a firm grip will cause them to remain still . Although they can be tamed , they are asocial and are not considered appropriate as pets ; they have an unpleasant odour and neither demonstrate nor respond to affection .
Until recently , the devil was not studied much by academics and naturalists . At the start of the 20th century , Hobart zoo operator Mary Roberts , who was not a trained scientist , was credited for changing people 's attitudes and encouraging scientific interest in native animals such as the devil that were seen as fearsome and abhorrent , and the human perception of the animal changed . Theodore Thomson Flynn was the first professor of biology in Tasmania and carried out some research during the period around World War I. In the mid @-@ 1960s Professor Guiler assembled a team of researchers and started a decade of systematic fieldwork on the devil . This is seen as the start of modern scientific study of it . However , the devil was still negatively depicted , including in tourism material . The first doctorate awarded for research into the devil came in 1991 .
= = = In captivity = = =
Early attempts to breed Tasmanian devils in captivity had limited success . The animal activist Mary Roberts , who was known for her work in presenting a less hostile image of the devil to the public and wrote about it in academic journals , bred a pair at Beaumaris Zoo which she named Billy and Truganini in 1913 . However , although advised to remove Billy , Roberts found Truganini too distressed by his absence , and returned him . The first litter was presumed eaten by Billy , but a second litter in 1914 survived after Billy was removed . Roberts wrote an article on keeping and breeding the devils for the London Zoological Society . Even by 1934 , successful breeding of the devil was rare . In a study on the growth of young devils in captivity , some developmental stages were very different from those reported by Guiler . The pinnae were free on day 36 , and eyes opened later , on days 115 – 121 .
In general , females tend to retain more stress after being taken into captivity than males .
A plan to create " insurance populations " of disease @-@ free devils has been ongoing since 2005 . As of June 2012 , the insurance population has reached a combined total of 500 animals and representing over 98 % of the genetic diversity of this species . Most of these devils are living in Australian zoos and wildlife reserves . Beginning in November 2012 however , in an effort to create a population that is both wild and disease @-@ free , Tasmanian devils have been relocated to Maria Island , a mountainous island off the east coast of Tasmania . The Maria Island population has grown from a starting population of twenty @-@ eight to 90 and experts will soon begin transferring healthy devils back to the mainland population .
Tasmanian devils were displayed in various zoos around the world from the 1850s onwards . In the 1950s several animals were given to European zoos . In October 2005 the Tasmanian government sent four devils , two male and two female , to the Copenhagen Zoo , following the birth of the first son of Frederik , Crown Prince of Denmark and his Tasmanian @-@ born wife Mary . Due to restrictions on their export by the Australian government , at the time these were the only devils known to be living outside Australia . In June 2013 , due to the successes of the insurance population program , it was planned to send devils to other zoos around the world in a pilot program . San Diego Zoo Global and Albuquerque Biopark were selected to participate in the program , and Wellington Zoo and Auckland Zoo soon followed . In the United States , four additional zoos have since been selected as part of the Australian government 's Save the Tasmanian Devil program , the zoos selected were : the Fort Wayne Children 's Zoo , the Los Angeles Zoo , the Saint Louis Zoo , and the Toledo Zoo . Captive devils are usually forced to stay awake during the day to cater to visitors , rather than following their natural nocturnal style .
There have been reports and suspicions of illegal trading in the past . In 1997 , a devil turned up in Western Australia ; it had not escaped from any licensed keeper . During the 1990s there were internet sites in the US that were advertising devil sales , and rumours that some US Navy personnel had tried to buy them illegally during a visit to Tasmania .
= = = Cultural references = = =
The devil is an iconic animal within Australia , particularly Tasmania ; it is the symbol of the Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Service , and the former Tasmanian Australian rules football team which played in the Victorian Football League was known as the Devils . The Hobart Devils were once part of the National Basketball League . The devil has appeared on several commemorative coins in Australia over the years . Cascade Brewery in Tasmania sells a ginger beer with a Tasmanian devil on the label . In 2015 , the Tasmanian devil was chosen as Tasmania 's state emblem .
Tasmanian devils are popular with tourists , and the director of the Tasmanian Devil Conservation Park has described their possible extinction as " a really significant blow for Australian and Tasmanian tourism " . There has also been a multimillion @-@ dollar proposal to build a giant 19 m @-@ high , 35 m @-@ long devil in Launceston in northern Tasmania as a tourist attraction . Devils began to be used in tourism from the 1970s , when studies showed that the animals were often the only things known about Tasmania overseas and suggested that they should therefore be the centrepiece of marketing efforts , resulting in some devils being taken on promotional tours .
With their unique personality , the Tasmanian devil has been the subject of numerous documentaries , fiction and non @-@ fiction children 's books . Royalties from Margaret Wild 's Ruby Roars , about a Tasmanian devil , are going to research into DFTD . A 2005 Australian documentary on the Tasmanian devil , Terrors of Tasmania , directed and produced by David Parer and Elizabeth Parer @-@ Cook , follows a female devil called Manganinnie through breeding season and the birth and rearing of her young . The documentary also looks at the effect of devil facial tumour disease and the conservation measures being taken to ensure survival of the Tasmanian devil . It has screened on television in Australia and in the United States on the National Geographic Channel .
The Tasmanian devil is probably best known internationally as the inspiration for the Looney Tunes cartoon character the Tasmanian Devil , or " Taz " in 1954 . Little known at the time , the loud hyperactive cartoon character has little in common with the real life animal . After a few shorts between 1957 and 1964 , the character was retired until the 1990s , when he gained his own show , Taz @-@ Mania , and again became popular . In 1997 , a newspaper report noted that Warner Bros. had " trademarked the character and registered the name Tasmanian Devil " , and that this trademark " was policed " , including an eight @-@ year legal case to allow a Tasmanian company to call a fishing lure " Tasmanian Devil " . Debate followed , and a delegation from the Tasmanian government met with Warner Bros. Ray Groom , the Tourism Minister , later announced that a " verbal agreement " had been reached . An annual fee would be paid to Warner Bros. in return for the Government of Tasmania being able to use the image of Taz for " marketing purposes " . This agreement later disappeared . In 2006 , Warner Bros. permitted the Government of Tasmania to sell stuffed toys of Taz with profits funnelled into research on DFTD .
There is a DC Comics superhero called Tasmanian Devil who is a member of the Global Guardians team . Snarl , a character in the Transformers Beast Wars storyline , had the alternate form of a Tasmanian devil . Tasmanian Kid from Beast Wars II could also transform into a Tasmanian devil .
Researchers have named a genetic @-@ mutant mouse " the Tasmanian Devil " . It is defective in the development of sensory @-@ hair cells of the ear , leading it to abnormal behaviours including head @-@ tossing and circling , more like the cartoon " Taz " than the actual Tasmanian devil .
For the 2 @.@ 6 @.@ 29 release of the Linux kernel , Linus Torvalds temporarily replaced the Tux mascot with a Tasmanian devil named " Tuz " , in support of the Save the Tasmanian Devil Campaign .
A catamaran , called the Devil Cat , was named for , and based on , the Tasmanian devil . Operating on the world 's longest distance high speed ferry service , the catamaran crossed Bass Strait between George Town in Tasmania , and Station Pier , at Port Phillip , Port Melbourne in Victoria , during 1997 – 2002 .
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= Clam dip =
Clam dip is a dipping sauce and condiment prepared with clams , sour cream or cream cheese , and seasonings as primary ingredients . Various additional ingredients can be used . It is usually served chilled , although it is sometimes served hot or at room temperature . It is used as a dip for potato chips , crackers , bread , and crudités . After a recipe for the dip was presented during a popular U.S. radio show , canned clams in New York City sold out in 24 hours . Commercial varieties of clam dip are mass @-@ produced by some companies and marketed to consumers in grocery stores and supermarkets .
= = History = =
In the early 1950s in the United States , the first televised recipe for clam dip appeared on the Kraft Music Hall show , a well @-@ known and popular radio and television variety program that ran from 1933 to 1971 . After the recipe segment aired , canned clams in New York City sold out within 24 hours . The ingredients used in this recipe were minced , canned clams , cream cheese , lemon juice , Worcestershire sauce , garlic , salt and pepper . Clam dip remained popular throughout the 1960s in the U.S. , at which time prepared manufactured clam dips were available in U.S. supermarkets . As salsa became more popular among American consumers , the popularity of clam dip declined .
= = Preparation = =
Clam dip is typically prepared using chopped or minced clams , sour cream or cream cheese , and various seasonings , and usually served chilled . It is used as a dip for potato chips , bread , crackers , and crudités . It has a creamy texture and mouthfeel . Canned , cooked , and frozen or fresh clams may be used , the latter of which can be cooked by steaming or pan cooking . Canned clams may be drained , or the liquid may be retained and used as an ingredient . After refrigeration , the dip may thicken , and the liquid from canned clams can be used to thin the dip . Milk is also sometimes used to thin clam dip . When refrigerated and left to sit overnight , the flavors of the ingredients intermingle more greatly , resulting in a more flavorful dip . Smoked clams are sometimes used , which imbues a distinct smoky flavor to the dish . The clams may be smoked in the shell and then minced afterward .
Additional ingredients can be used , such as lemon juice , Worcestershire sauce , onion , scallions , shallots , chives , garlic , and hot sauce . The ingredients can be mixed using a food processor . It is sometimes served as a hot dip , which may be kept warm using a chafing dish , and melted cheese may be used as an ingredient in hot versions . It is also sometimes served at room temperature . Clam dip can be served in a hollowed @-@ out loaf of bread , such as sourdough . It can be garnished with ingredients such as parsley , scallions and paprika . Crudites to accompany the dish can include red peppers , carrots , radishes , and cauliflower , among others . Prepared clam dip can be preserved by storing it in a freezer .
= = Commercial varieties = =
Some companies mass @-@ produce commercial varieties of prepared clam dip and market them to consumers in grocery stores and supermarkets . Commercial varieties are typically packaged in plastic tubs . Prepared clam dip mixes have also been commercially manufactured and marketed to consumers . One such product comes packaged with dried sour cream that is reconstituted using water .
= = Nutrition information = =
A one @-@ tablespoon serving of clam dip using the recipe that aired in the early 1950s on the Kraft Music Hall show contains 71 calories , 1 g carbohydrate , 5 g protein , 5 g total fat ( with 3 g saturated fat ) , 25 mg cholesterol and 136 mg sodium .
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= Christmas Tree ( Lady Gaga song ) =
" Christmas Tree " is a song by American singer Lady Gaga . It was released on December 16 , 2008 for digital download . It was written and produced by Gaga , Martin Kierszenbaum , and Space Cowboy , who also provides guest vocals . Musically , " Christmas Tree " is a Christmas song with dance @-@ pop and synthpop influences . It samples the classic Christmas song " Deck the Halls " , as well as briefly using the lyrics " Rum pum pum pum " from the Christmas song " The Little Drummer Boy " in its intro . Lyrically , the song uses sexual innuendos .
The song received mixed reviews from music critics , with some commending its creativity and individuality from other Christmas songs and others criticizing its sexual innuendos and deeming it " not for the family " . Due to strong digital sells , it reached number 79 on the Canadian Hot 100 in January 2009 . It also reached number 18 on the Japanese RIAJ Digital Track Chart and number 23 on the Billboard Holiday / Seasonal Digital Songs chart in late 2010 . In December 2009 , it was available for free download on Amazon as a part of their " 25 Days of Free " promotion . It has been included in several Christmas compilation albums , including Now That 's What I Call Christmas ! 4 .
= = Background = =
" Christmas Tree " is a Christmas music @-@ themed song , featuring vocals from Gaga and Space Cowboy . It was written and produced by Gaga , Space Cowboy and Martin Kierszenbaum . Space Cowboy , whose real name is Nick Dresti , and Gaga were introduced in Los Angeles by Martin Kierszenbaum , the head of Gaga 's label , Cherrytree Records , an imprint of Interscope Records . Kierszenbaum recommended a collaboration between them after hearing Space Cowboy 's single " My Egyptian Lover " , released in January 2007 and featuring vocalist Nadia Oh . Kierszenbaum contacted Space Cowboy during December 2007 and Space Cowboy first spoke to Gaga by phone on New Year 's Eve , " [ getting ] along so well right away " talking about sequins , disco balls , Prince , David Bowie and body paint . The pair worked together in Los Angeles to create " Christmas Tree " and " Starstruck " , a song from some editions of Lady Gaga 's then @-@ current album The Fame . Space Cowboy commented of working with Lady Gaga :
We figured out that we shared pretty much the same experiences ; we ’ d been doing similar things on opposite sides of the Atlantic . Then I got invited to the studio to write some songs with Lady Gaga ; we did “ Starstruck ” , we did a song called “ Christmas Tree ” She ’ s super @-@ creative , she ’ s amazing — the best writer I ’ d ever seen , and best performer .
= = Composition = =
" Christmas Tree " is a version of the traditional Christmas song " Deck the Halls " , with the same melody but with lyrics changed to be sexually suggestive , with many sexual innuendos and metaphors . Lyrically , the song is " lewdly celebratory " with lines such as " Light me up put me on top / Let 's fa @-@ la @-@ la @-@ la @-@ la- , la @-@ la , la , la " . In an analysis by Stelios Phili of the Washington Square News , Phili jokes that the meaning of the song is closer to the original version of " Deck the Halls " , a Welsh folk song called " Nos Galan " ( Welsh for " New Year 's Eve " ) traditionally sung at New Year 's Eve , than the English Christmas version . He cites the original first line , " Cold is the man who can 't love " , and says that Gaga " seeks not to warn against becoming a cold , loveless man , but to prevent that fate by way of some hot lovin ' " .
The Christmas song contains dance @-@ pop and synthpop music with synthesizers and a " pounding , grind @-@ worthy beat " . Space Cowboy described the song as " futuristic " . Referenced in the song lyrics is producer Kierszenbaum 's nickname of " Cherry Cherry Boom Boom " . Describing the song in episode 25 of her YouTube broadcast series Gaga @-@ vision , Gaga said : " " Christmas Tree " is about the spirit of celebrating the most joyous holiday and I 'll tell you why : because Christmas is the holiday that most makes boys and girls feel randy . "
= = Release = =
" Christmas Tree " was released as a digital download @-@ only single on December 16 , 2008 on Interscope Records while Gaga 's first single " Just Dance " , was charting . It was made available as an MP3 from Amazon.com and iTunes Store . The song was not included in Gaga 's album The Fame . One year later , in December 2009 , it was one of the songs free to download from Amazon.com as part of its " 25 Days of Free " offer , whereby for the first twenty @-@ five days in December a Christmas @-@ themed song is made free to download from the website . " Christmas Tree " was made available on December 6 . The song was included on several compilation albums : Canadian compilation album NOW ! Christmas 4 , Taiwanese compilation album Christmas 101 and the seasonal compilation album It 's Christmas Time , all released for Christmas 2009 . It was also included in the compilation albums Merry Xmas ! and Now That 's What I Call Christmas ! 4 , part of the Now That 's What I Call Music series of compilation albums , both released for Christmas 2010 . " Christmas Tree " was also included on The Singles , a box set of CD singles released exclusively in Japan in December 2010 . It is on the ninth and last CD , which also includes the three live tracks from The Cherrytree Sessions .
= = Critical reception = =
" Christmas Tree " received mixed reviews from critics . Alex Rawls of OffBeat gave a positive review as part of the " 25 Days of Free " offer from Amazon.com. Joking that the artists of the more religious songs must be " praying " for Lady Gaga , Rawls described the song as " not so po @-@ faced " as the five songs released before it was made available on December 6 , 2009 . Estrella Adeyeri , the music editor of Nouse , gave the song a positive review , complimenting its " synth beats and numerous yuletide innuendos " . Ryan Brockington of the New York Post praised the song , describing it as a " favorite holiday jam " and a " subliminal lady parts pine @-@ tree jingle " . A reviewer from gay.com described the song as " merry " and a " naughty choice " , praising its " dark decadence " . Gino dela Paz of The Philippine Star described the song as going from " zero to crazy " and Diana Nabiruma of The Weekly Observer called the song " plain naughty and wacky " . Jason Lewis for Fast Forward Weekly called the song " charmingly ludicrous " and called it among " the best “ new ” holiday music out there " . Chad Bullock of MTV included " Christmas Tree " in a list of " excellent " new Christmas music , describing it as " non @-@ traditional and vaguely sexual " .
Molly Gamble of Marquette Tribune gave " Christmas Tree " a negative review , criticising the song 's " poorly veiled metaphor " for sex and calling the song " shameless " . She commented that " Christmas Tree " is not a song one can listen to in the presence of family and that it " makes Christmas feel dirty " . Katie Hasty and Melinda Newman of HitFix gave the song a very negative review , calling it " stupendously stupid and awful " and the " most terrible Christmas song ever in the whole wide world ever " , criticising its obvious sexual metaphors . Cassaundra Baber of Observer @-@ Dispatch listed the song on list of " Horrible holiday hits " , criticising it for being " sexualized " and calling it " not for the kids " .
The song was described as " porn @-@ tastic " in a review for Now ! Christmas 4 by Eye Weekly reviewer Chris Bilton , quoting the lyric " My Christmas tree is delicious " . Bilton also called it one of few tracks on the album that make it a " worthy stocking stuffer " . Also in a review for Now ! Christmas 4 , Charlottetown Guardian reviewer Doug Gallant called " Christmas Tree " a " dreadful offering " . Beverley Lunney , a reviewer for Winnipeg Free Press , gave the song a negative review , commenting that listeners would be " offended " by the song 's " truly unfestive metaphors " and called it one of a " sea of unbearable original tunes " on Now ! Christmas 4 . Darryl Sterdan of the Ottawa Sun called the song " the only reason to buy " Now ! Christmas 4 and recommended downloading it . In a review of Now ! Christmas 4 , John Lucas of The Georgia Straight described the song as a " filthy electro banger " and " so blatantly about [ sex ] that you have to wonder how in the hell it got past the usually vigilant Now ! gatekeepers " , calling it the " single exception " to an otherwise bland album . In a review for It 's Christmas Time , Chester Chronicle reviewer Polly Weeks called the song something that " will keep teenagers happy " . In a review for Now That 's What I Call Christmas ! 4 , J Matthew Cobb of HiFi Magazine called " Christmas Tree " part of a " good list " of new material and described it as " naughty , but nice " .
= = Chart performance = =
Due to high digital downloads , " Christmas Tree " entered the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number seventy @-@ nine in the first week of January 2009 , remaining on the chart for one week . In November 2010 , " Christmas Tree " charted on the RIAJ Digital Track Chart of Japan , entering at position eighteen , its peak . The song then dropped to positions 51 , 74 , 81 and 100 before leaving the chart . Also in November 2010 , " Christmas Tree " charted on the Billboard Holiday / Seasonal Digital Songs chart in the US , peaking at position 23 . In December 2010 , it was also ranked at number 23 on the " Hot 100 Holiday Christmas Songs " by Billboard , based on sales and airplay over the winter period as calculated by Nielsen SoundScan and Nielson BDS .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Christmas Tree " ( featuring Space Cowboy ) – 2 : 22
= = Charts = =
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= Ayane ( Dead or Alive ) =
Ayane ( Japanese : あやね ) ( sometimes written 綾音 ) is a video game character in the Dead or Alive and Ninja Gaiden series by Team Ninja and Koei Tecmo . She debuted as a hidden character in the PlayStation version of the fighting game Dead or Alive in 1998 , and has appeared in all of its sequels and spin @-@ offs so far , including an appearance as the protagonist of Dead or Alive 3 . In the games , Ayane is a teenage master of ninjutsu and is characterised by her complex relationship with her half @-@ sister Kasumi , the lead character of the Dead or Alive series .
Ayane is also prominently featured as a recurring supporting character in the Ninja Gaiden series since its revival in 2004 and has made multiple guest appearances in other games , in particular in the extended Dynasty Warriors franchise . She is one of the most popular Tecmo characters and is one of Koei Tecmo 's mascots , but has been a subject of controversies regarding her age and sexualization .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
In the Dead or Alive back story , Ayane was conceived and born as a result of the evil ninja Raidou 's rape of Ayame , Kasumi 's mother and wife of Shiden , leader of the Mugen Tenshin ( 霧幻天神流 , Mugen Tenshin @-@ ryū , lit . " Mist Phantom Heavenly Deity Style " ) ninja clan . Ayane is overshadowed by her half @-@ sister Kasumi and bears jealousy and hatred towards her and her privileged upbringing . The Mugen Tenshin villagers allowed Ayane to stay , but disliked and looked down on her . Since they were children , Ayane has secretly admired her half @-@ brother Hayate as a way of increasing her self @-@ esteem . Hayate is portrayed as fond of her in return . Besides on Kasumi , Ayame 's ire focusses on Raidou who both created and ruined her life . Ayane 's envy towards Kasumi is similar to the hatred Raidou had towards Shiden , Kasumi 's father .
Depicted as quiet and reserved , Ayane has honed her skills in an attempt to make others see her as more than a " child of evil " . With the death of her former master Genra ( Omega ) at the end of DOA3 , Ayane becomes the strongest ninja of the Hajin Mon ( 覇神門 , lit . " Divine Conqueror Sect " ) , the dark side of the Mugen Tenshin clan , and pledges her existence to assist in Hayate 's task of destroying the Dead or Alive Tournament Executive Committee ( DOATEC ) . Through most of the series , Ayane was a deadly rival to Kasumi . She has a tsundere type personality , is fiercely loyal to Hayate , and admires Ryu Hayabusa , the protagonist of the Ninja Gaiden series . Her deadly fighting style has given her the nickname " Female Tengu " .
= = = = Dead or Alive = = = =
Ayane was originally introduced as an unnamed training dummy in the Sega Saturn version of Dead or Alive , before she became a player character in the 1998 PlayStation port , in which she is an opponent character in the practice and tournament modes ( Ayane was later included in the Dead or Alive + + arcade edition ) as well as an unlockable secret character . In the original DOA , Ayane has had neither a written background nor in @-@ game plot @-@ line ( according to the later canon , Ayane was sent to secretly follow Kasumi ) .
In Dead or Alive 2 ( 1999 ) , Ayane joins in the Dead or Alive World Combat Championship as an assassin in pursuit of her half @-@ sister Kasumi , a runaway shinobi who has left the Mugen Tenshin behind and been branded a " traitor " to their clan . Ayane encounters and rescues an amnesiac Hayate , who goes by the name " Ein " . When confronting Helena , Ayane is accused of murdering Helena 's mother Maria , but the assassin is later revealed to be Christie .
In Dead or Alive 3 ( 2001 ) , the leader of the Mugen Tenshin 's Hajin Mon sect ( also written as Hajinmon ) and Ayane 's former teacher and beloved foster parent , Genra , has disappeared . Ayane , now the most powerful member and de facto leader of Hajin Mon , learns that Genra has been turned into a puppet by the DOATEC and its sinister Omega Project and realises that fate commands her to put Genra out of his misery . Achieving this , she emerges as official winner of the third DOA championship . Itagaki also described her as the game 's protagonist character . The introductory sequence to Dead or Alive Ultimate , accompanied by Aerosmith 's " Dream On " , was the first to hint at the origins of Ayane and Kasumi 's enmity .
In Dead or Alive 4 ( 2005 ) , Ayane has pledged her life to her half @-@ brother and Mugen Tenshin clan leader Hayate , in his cause to destroy the DOATEC for the suffering the company has caused the ninja clans . Ayane has a threefold stake in this plot : she wants revenge for Raidou being changed into a monster , for Hayate being brainwashed in their attempt to realize Project Epsilon , and for the manipulation and death of Genra . At the end of the game , Ayane uses her ninpo ( " ninja arts " ) spell to blow up the DOATEC Tri @-@ Tower .
She returns as a playable character in Dead or Alive 5 , set two years after the events of Dead or Alive 4 . Ayane follows Kasumi upon Hayate 's orders , and later discovers that she is in fact really an Alpha clone . Ayane and Hayate learn from Helena that Victor Donovan and his new organization , MIST , plan to sell his Alpha clones as super soldiers to various countries around the world . They infiltrate the oil rig platform where Helena believes MIST 's secret laboratory is hidden . After Ayane and Hayate kill Kasumi 's clone , they breach into the lab , but Hayate is captured by Rig and Ayane is forced to flee . After Ryu summons the real Kasumi to battle and Hayate is rescued , they destroy the laboratory and Alpha @-@ 152 .
Besides the main DOA series , Ayane appears as one of the player characters in the beach volleyball spin @-@ off games Dead or Alive Xtreme Beach Volleyball ( 2003 ) , Dead or Alive Xtreme 2 ( 2006 ) and Dead or Alive Paradise ( 2010 ) , pursuing Kasumi . Dead or Alive : Cronus , the series ' prequel project which was intended to tell the story of Kasumi 's and Ayane 's childhoods and explore " the innocence and cruelty of children , " was officially cancelled in 2010 after Itagaki left Team Ninja and Tecmo . Ayane is going to be one of the nine playable female characters in Dead or Alive Xtreme 3 .
= = = = Ninja Gaiden = = = =
In Ninja Gaiden ( 2004 ) , a younger Ayane ( aged 14 ; she is 16 @-@ year @-@ old in the DOA series ) plays a minor role as a non @-@ player character , serving Murai and the Shadow Clan as a stealthy infiltrator and courier assisting Ryu Hayabusa during his bloody vengeance . In the 2005 Ninja Gaiden Black edition , Ayane stars in the " Ninja Dog " easy mode , where she treats the disgraced Ryu as her pet and leaves him various items through the game . Ayane can be killed by the player when Ryu finds her wounded in Murasma 's shop , but this results in a game over .
In Ninja Gaiden II ( 2008 ) , Ayane appears only in a cutscene near the end of the game to give the Eye of the Dragon jewel to Ryu , turning his Dragon Sword into the more powerful True Dragon Sword . Ninja Gaiden Σ 2 , the enhanced port of NGII for the PlayStation 3 , features Ayane as a single player mode 's playable character in one level , which shows how she obtained the Eye of the Dragon and defeated the remnants of the Black Spider Clan . She is also available as one of three new alternative player characters for the game in a cooperative multiplayer mode , and appears in the game 's prologue digital comic , The Vampire War . An unlockable costume for Ayane in Sigma 2 is her outfit from Ninja Gaiden Sigma .
In the original edition of Ninja Gaiden 3 ( 2012 ) , Ayane only appears in one cutscene , in which she loans Hayate 's sword to Ryu . Ninja Gaiden 3 : Razor 's Edge , an expanded version of the game , features Ayane as a playable character with her own new missions : a campaign involving the returning Black Spider Clan , as well as being available to fight alongside Ryu — like in Σ 2 — in an online cooperative multiplayer mode . A new Chapter Challenge mode also allows the player to attempt any part of the game using Ayane .
Ayane also makes a brief cameo appearance in the comic book tie @-@ in prequel of Ninja Gaiden : Dragon Sword ( 2008 ) . She is featured in Zen Pinball : Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 , a 2009 pinball game for the PlayStation Network , and in the 2013 smart phone action card game Hyakuman @-@ nin no Ninja Gaiden ( " Ninja Gaiden 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 People " ) .
= = = = Other games = = = =
Ayane made her debut in Koei 's Dynasty Warriors franchise in 2009 with a non @-@ player character guest appearance in Dynasty Warriors : Strikeforce , where her Fuma Kodachi swords are also available as the player 's optional weapons . Ayane appears as a player character in the series ' 2011 spin @-@ off game Warriors Orochi 3 in her design and primary costume from Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 . In this game , set after DOA4 , Ayane enters another world , named Orochi . Ayane stars in the Siege of Hasedō @-@ themed stage and joins Yoshitsune Minamoto 's party to find a way back home , then follows Sima Zhao 's army and helps them to locate and rescue the prisoners at Xuchang . She returns — together with Ryu — as a playable character in the 2012 's Shin Sangoku Musou VS ( which was abortively planned to be released in English as Dynasty Warriors Vs. or Dynasty Warriors 3DS ) , as a free downloadable content ( DLC ) character , once again wearing her Sigma 2 costume .
Ayane 's classic dress outfit is included in the Director 's Cut version of the survival horror game Fatal Frame II : Crimson Butterfly as an alternate costume for Mayu , one of this game 's two protagonist sisters ( the other one , Mio , may wear Kasumi 's costume ) . It is also an unlockable costume for the character Kooh in Super Swing Golf : Season 2 . Ayane herself is featured as a bonus playable character in her own side @-@ mission in Koei Tecmo 's survival horror game Fatal Frame : Maiden of Black Water , where she has been requested to find a missing girl named Tsumugi Katashina . In 2015 , a cartoonish version of Ayane was added to Marvelous Entertainment 's fighting game Senran Kagura : Estival Versus for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita as a playable paid DLC crossover character , along with bonus costumes for additional price .
= = = = Design = = = =
Ayane is the youngest female to appear as a playable character in the Dead or Alive series , having been introduced at the age of only 16 . She stands at 5 ' 2 " and weighs 104 lbs , with a bust size of 93 cm ( 37 " ) , and has one of the most distinctive appearances out of DOA girls due to her unusually colored purple hair and red eyes . Her face changed slightly between Ninja Gaiden II and Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 . As in the case of other Dead or Alive 5 characters , her face and general aesthetics are noticeably different in this game , due to DOA5 's more realistic design style in comparison to a more cartoonish style of the previous DOA games . Team Ninja leader Yosuke Hayashi said " Ayane and Hitomi retain their signature spirits while complimented by a new look that reflects amazing beauty , grace , and a strong sense of presence . " Ayane 's Japanese voice actress has been consistently Wakana Yamazaki , dubbed into English by Gina DeVettori , Janice Kawaye , Janna Levenstein , Wendee Lee and Brittney Harvey .
IGN 's Hilary Goldstein wrote in 2004 that visually the character " is most notable for her anime purple hair and jigglin ' jumblies , " but her appearance of a " sweet girl " is misleading and hides her " devious nature " . Ayane wears a variety of mostly purple and black female ninja suits and other attires ( including a schoolgirl uniform and a Carnival of Venice @-@ style costume ) , often coming with a miniskirt or tunic and often featuring a butterfly motif ( later even on her weapons ) . Among about 20 Ayane 's outfits in the 2004 compilation game Dead or Alive Ultimate , one was inspired by the character Millennia from Kagero : Deception 2 . One of her alternative costumes in Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 also pays homage to Sun Shangxiang ( Lady Sun ) from Koei 's Dynasty Warriors series . Her wardrobe in Last Round also includes a destructible green dress designed by Tamiki Wakaki and downloadable costumes of the Clockwork Princess Millennia from Tecmo Koei 's Deception IV : The Nightmare Princess , Fie Claussell from Nihon Falcom 's The Legend of Heroes : Trails of Cold Steel II , Satoka Sumihara from Square Enix 's School Girl Strikers , and Cocona from Tatsunoko 's Nurse Witch Komugi .
Ayane 's fighting style is very different from Kasumi 's Tenjin Mon style . Her signature weapons are a pair of twin short swords named Fuma Kodachi ( 風舞小太刀 , Wind Dancer Short Swords ) . According to Kung Fu Cult Masters by Leon Hunt , Ayane 's " pirrouetting slaps are harder to imagine in a film , but draw from a spinning / twisting dynamics of martial arts choreography . " Kasumi 's clone Phase 4 uses some of Ayane 's fighting style . Team Ninja founder Tomonobu Itagaki described Ayane 's character and personality as much " harder " than Kasumi 's , making her fit better in the " very hard @-@ edged " universe of the Ninja Gaiden series . His successor Yosuke Hayashi said the image of Ayane covered in her enemies ' blood can symbolise the intensity of Ninja Gaiden . Hayashi later requested a special appearance by Ayane in the Fatal Frame series , wherein the developers " spent a lot of time adjusting things like the wobble of her chest . Team Ninja gave them lots of advice . " The game 's director Toru Osawa said adding Ayane as a guest character was first suggested by Nintendo .
= = = = Gameplay = = = =
Ayane is often regarded as a top @-@ tier character in many of the games she is playable in , especially in the DOA fighting games where she was noted for being very unpredictable and confusing for the opponent as well as fast and hard to counter . Previewing the original Dead or Alive for the PlayStation , Computer & Video Games opined she " has an unusual floaty kind of fighting style , but has some great moves . Her quick punches make stringing combos together easy , and her throws are great for hitting people into the Danger Zone " ( an interactive feature within some arenas ) . In Prima Games ' official guide for Dead or Alive Ultimate ( a remake version of Dead or Alive and Dead or Alive 2 ) , Eric Mylonas declared Ayane the " tougher of the two siblings " as she " brings strings of blindingly fast combos into play and has devastating holds and throws . " Mylonas wrote Ayane has a major weakness in that she can not stop moving without becoming " an easy prey , " and she may not be favored by those who prefer " huge , over @-@ the @-@ top moves , " but for a " more patient sort , there 's probably no better character in the game . " According to GameSpy 's guide to Ultimate by Andrew Alfonso , Ayane 's key moves include her high kick — which is " a lot " better than Kasumi 's — with another move so powerful " it 's almost unfair to use it . " He also noted how she can be actually more effective with her back turned towards her opponent , despite the fact that the characters cannot block when facing away from an enemy . In his guide to Dead or Alive 3 , Alfonso wrote Ayane is a very unpredictable and quick attacker , even more than in the previous games in the series , and should be played primarily for her backwards position , hers being the best such stance of all the characters in the game . Ayane 's speed and deceiving attacks make her a " pretty good " partner for slower fighters for tag team battles , but her primary partners are other ninja characters .
In Prima Games ' official guide to Dead or Alive 4 , Bryan Dawson wrote that while in the previous games Ayane has been " one of the easiest characters to use and was very difficult to fight against , " in this game she " now requires much more skill in high @-@ level players , as her best attack as nowhere as dominant as they were in the past . " She was rated overall 7 / 10 . On the other hand , for Daniel Wilks from Hyper Ayane in DOA4 seemed " to have the edge in nearly every battle due to their staggering speed and ability to put together easy multi @-@ leveled combos . " According to GameSpot 's guide by Matthew Rorie , Ayane is " one of the more devious characters " of the game , " capable of devastating speed and some ingenious little fake @-@ out animations , " but she requires " a lot more practice than is apparent at first glance . " In GameSpy 's guide , David McCutcheon wrote that " widely regarded as the [ Street Fighter characters ] Ken / Ryu of the Dead or Alive series , Ayane can be both incredibly cheap and remarkably skilled , " as " rolling and spinning will work wonders " for the player 's countering effects and one " can juggle enemies to endless amounts of pain . " Ayane 's move set in an early version of Dead or Alive 5 seems almost identical to this in DOA4 , but she gained some new moves . In an official description of the character , Koei Tecmo wrote that " her mastery of ever @-@ changing moves means her opponents never know what is coming . "
Ayane 's gameplay abilities in other games were regarded more variably . In the DOA Xtreme and Paradise beach volleyball games , Ayane has excellent technique and jump abilities , at the cost of poor defence , power and speed . According to Official Xbox Magazine , Ayane is " not exactly who you want to spike at the net or try to blow past blocks , but she 's excellent at long spikes , digging , and soft dinks . " As such , Ayane is most effective as a support , but she should not be paired with Kasumi due to their rivalry ; to partner with each other , Ayane and Kasumi need convincing by gift @-@ giving . In Ninja Gaiden Σ 2 , Ayane 's attacks ( many of her Fuma Kodachi combos resemble her combos from Dead or Alive ) and finishing moves are far faster than these of Ryu , but the player has to learn to dodge much more as she has worse blocking abilities . The official guide to this game by Prima 's Bryan Dawson states that Ayane 's short range and limited attack power " make her the worst choice of the three new characters for almost every mission " and " her only saving graces " are a powerful ninpo spell and deadly Flash Kunai projectiles . In addition , if controlled by the console in the co @-@ op mode , the character " doesn 't seem to know what to do in any situation . " Mitch Dyer of IGN opined that a vastly improved Ayane from Ninja Gaiden 3 : Razor 's Edge is " a damn fine addition " to the game , where she is " just as capable as Ryu Hayabusa " with her " quick and vicious " melee attacks and explosive kunai projectiles , adding that she is " functionally similar to Hayabusa in terms of combos and skills , complete with a screen @-@ clearing special move . " Similarly , Retro Gamer described her simply as " a nimbler version of Ryu . " David Lynch of X360 wrote all the " girls " of Razor 's Edge ( Ayane , Kasumi and Momiji ) became " just as deadly " in it as Ryu Hayabusa has been through the Ninja Gaiden series . In Fatal Frame , unlike the protagonists of the game , Ayane can not permanently defeat ghosts and her strategy relies on evasion .
= = = In film = = =
In the live @-@ action film DOA : Dead or Alive , Ayane is a ninja assassin and Kasumi 's former servant who is dedicated to seeking out and killing her , as Kasumi is considered an outcast to the clan . Ayane first confronts Kasumi before she flees the temple , then several times on the island . She has romantic feelings towards Hayate ( she is not his half @-@ sister in the movie , and neither she is Kasumi 's ) , and initially believes him to be dead . Ayane fails to kill Kasumi but finds Hayate and aids him against DOATEC . During the film 's finale , she saves him from a potentially fatal fall .
Ayane was controversially portrayed by Natassia Malthe , a half @-@ Norwegian half @-@ Filipina actress who was also much older than Ayane is portrayed in the games . Malthe 's Ayane uses a Japanese long sword and also wields two longs swords in the various promotional images in and out of character . Malthe said she has undergone " weeks of martial arts training in China " for the film . Tomonobu Itagaki later said he " wanted to have Japanese actresses portray Kasumi and Ayane " but the film 's director Corey Yuen " believed strongly in his casting choices . " Itagaki said he would have chosen Aya Ueto to play Ayane . The film 's producer Mark A. Altman said that he " was such a fan " of Malthe being " threatening and enigmatic as Ayane " that he cast her in Dead and Deader .
= = Merchandise and promotion = =
Licensed merchandise items featuring Ayane include a variety of statuettes and action figures for the Dead or Alive and Ninja Gaiden series , including the figures by Kotobukiya , Mr Big , Sega , Shunya Yamashita , and Volks . Other merchandise include " 3D " coffee mugs for Banpresto 's arcade redemption games , posters , swimwear for women , 3D mousepads and body towels , wall scrolls , arcade sticks by Hori decorated with a graphic of Ayane and Kasumi ( released in two versions , for the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 ) , credit cards , and Dead or Alive talking clock that was bundled with another figure of either Ayane or Kasumi . More Ayane @-@ themed 3D mousepads were released as merchandise for DOA5 , along with dakimakura pillow cases , and for the Senran Kagura collaboration . She was also featured in a special edition of Playboy magazine in 2004 .
A high @-@ quality statuette of Ayane came with the limited edition Japanese release of Ninja Gaiden . Dead or Alive 4 pre @-@ order bonuses in Japan included " the most beautiful slipcase in the world " and " the most beautiful poster in the world " , the slipcase having an almost @-@ naked Kasumi on one side and Ayane in her standard fighting outfit on the other . In 2011 , Ayane 's Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 costume parts were made available as exclusive DLC for Dynasty Warriors Online during the game 's first anniversary promotion campaign . The first batch of the unreleased Dynasty Warriors Vs. was supposed to contain DLC codes for Ayane 's judo and volleyball outfit costumes . Free downloadable costumes for Ayane were offered as pre @-@ order bonuses for 2013 's Dead or Alive 5 Ultimate at Amazon . First @-@ print copies of Koei Tecmo 's Musou Orochi 2 Ultimate ( Japanese version of Warriors Orochi 3 Ultimate ) were bundled with DLC codes for blond haired Ayane 's special “ Orochi ” themed costume in DOA5 . Dead or Alive 5 Last Round pre @-@ order bonuses included Ayane 's special " Ninja 2015 " masked outfit at Amazon , Best Buy and GameStop , with an additional skimpy " Aloha " costume available at GameStop only .
A demo version of Dead or Alive 5 featuring Ayane and Hayate as playable characters was added as a downloadable bonus to the pre @-@ order version of Ninja Gaiden 3 for the PlayStation 3 , as well as the collector 's edition release for both the PS3 and Xbox 360 . A demo version of Ninja Gaiden 3 : Razor 's Edge available at the New York Comic Con 2012 featured Ayane fighting against an endless stream of enemies inside a closed room ; a different playable demo , also featuring Ayane , was shown at Tecmo Koei press event in Tokyo . She is one of the four playable characters available from the start in the free @-@ to @-@ play game Dead or Alive 5 Ultimate : Core Fighters .
= = Reception = =
= = = Praise and popularity = = =
Since her introduction , Ayane has remained a popular face of the series alongside her older half @-@ sister . Ayane was described as a fan @-@ favourite by GMR in 2003 , and was called " everyone 's favorite purple haired ninja " by GameAxis in 2006 . In 2012 , Angelo M. D 'Argenio of Cheat Code Central , listing Ayane among the top ten hidden characters in fighting games , noted that she " is now one of the poster characters for both series , and it seems she becomes more popular by the day . " Regarding the preferences of Dead or Alive online multiplayer players , Official Xbox Magazine wrote in 2005 : " Of all the stats and figures , one of the most unusual is a rating for the most popular characters in America , Asia and the rest of the world . At the moment , Ayane is the most popular character to use by a long way . " In QMI Agency 's 2012 poll for the title of the Ultimate Fighting Game Champion , Ayane wqas the only DOA character to make the second round , as she defeated Morrigan Aensland before losing to Scorpion , the winner of the title . She was voted the DOA series ' third most popular female character in Japan in the publisher Koei Tecmo 's own poll in 2014 , also placing fourth in another popular vote in 2015 .
Ayane become a popular character among audience of both genders for various reasons . Model and actress Jaime Bergman chose the " quick and bold " Ayane as a Dead or Alive 2 character she would partner with . While awarding the Annual GameSpy E3 Award to Dead or Alive Ultimate in 2004 , Raymond ' Psylancer ' Padilla wrote , " Ayane should be my new girlfriend . " He later elaborated : " To be honest , I always thought Ayane was an uptight bitch with a massive chip on her shoulder . I always rooted for Kasumi in their feud . Then a funny thing happened when I saw the trailer for Dead or Alive Ultimate during E3 2004 -- I started to care about Ayane . Learning more about her story , her upbringing , and the root of her feud with Kasumi made me change sides . " Kotaku 's Mike Fahey also described himself as " more of an Ayane sort of guy . " In 2005 , she was described as his favourite Dead or Alive character by James Mielke from 1UP.com. Featuring Ayane as a " videogame babe of the day " in 2009 , IGN 's Chris Carle commented : " After that awkward goth stage in high school , not many people continue to rock the violet locks , but Ayane is different … she 's hot enough to get away with it . " " Kayane " , pseudonym of the professional gamer Marie @-@ Laure Norindr comes from a mix of " Kasumi " and " Ayane " . Kayane said : " She has a lot of charisma and is pretty . She ’ s full of anger but has a sweet heart in fact . I think she has the most interesting story and personality in the game . "
Ayane was ranked as the seventh top fictional ninja in a 2009 list by Fandomania . In 2010 , Mikel Reparaz of GamesRadar ranked hers , Ryu 's and Momiji 's guest appearance in Strikeforce as the 49th " most awesome " character cameo in gaming history . In 2012 , Gelo Gonzales of FHM listed Ayane among the nine " sexiest ninja babes in games " , commenting that she is " like Kasumi , only moodier ... about as punk as ninjas get , and carries a get @-@ the @-@ fuck @-@ outta @-@ my @-@ way @-@ or @-@ I @-@ snap @-@ your @-@ arm @-@ in @-@ two @-@ places attitude , " comparing her to Ellen Adarna . In 2013 , Jon Ledford of Sushi Arcade included her among the ten best video game " ninjas " in all her roles , " whether she ’ s playing volleyball , fighting her sister or helping Ryu Hayabusa save the world . " In a 2015 article " The Truth About Ninjas " , Kotaku 's Matthew Burns included Kasumi , Ayane , and Mai Shiranui from The King of Fighters among " the ' fan favourite ' lady ninjas " .
Numerous publications commented noted Ayane 's sex appeal , often including her among the most attractive female characters in video games . Spanish magazine PlanetStation put Dead or Alive 2 among the five sexiest PlayStation games for any fight between Ayane and Kasumi . In 2000 , Geman magazine Video Games featured Ayane in their " Console Pageant " article , rating her " VG Sexy Factor " at 85 % . In 2003 , Bryan ' Sir Crossforge ' Johnson collectively placed her with the other Dead or Alive girls at second spot on GameSpy 's list of " top babes in games " . The Polish edition of GameStar included her as one of 20 candidates in a poll for the title of Miss of the Video Game World ( Miss Świata Gier ) 2006 . In 2011 , Complex ranked her as the 14th best looking " sideline chick " of video games , stating , " Kasumi 's cool and all , but we definitely prefer Ayane 's cold and killer demeanor . " That same year , Jeremy Render of Cheat Code Central featured her among the top ten sexiest female video game characters , where Ayane shared number six spot with Hitomi . Together with Hitomi as well as Kasumi and Leifang , Ayane also placed tenth on the list " video game hotties " by the Spanish edition of IGN . In 2012 , Kristie Bertucci of Gadget Review ranked this " underage ninja that can kick ass while wearing skimpy clothing " as the 19th " hottest " female video game character . Also in 2012 , Ayane and the other DOA girls were collectively placed at number ten spot on the list of the " hottest women in video games " by Complex . That same year in Poland , Ayane was included among the 20 " sexiest girls in games " by Wirtualna Polska , as well as among the " sexiest game heroines " of the year by Interia.pl. Austin Wood of Cheat Code Central declared this " one awesome female ninja with an unique fighting style " as number one sexiest game character of 2012 for her appearance in Razor 's Edge , noting her as a " remarkably interesting character given the somewhat shallow plot of the Ninja Gaiden games . "
In 2009 , Gelo Gonzales of FHM listed her among the nine " sexiest bad girls of videogame land " , commenting that " with her cute suplada looks , this deadly ninja soon became a mainstay of the series . Dead or Alive is one of the pioneers of boob @-@ bouncing technology , and thankfully , Ayane has the curves to take full advantage of that . " Some also commented on her breasts specifically , such as when Gavin Mackenzie of PLAY joked them to be two of the top ten best things one could expect to see in Dead or Alive 5 . Ayane and Rachel shared the seventh place on the 2011 list of " most incredible chests " by Joystick Division . In 2012 , ZoominGames rated Ayane 's bosom in Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 as number one in gaming .
= = = Criticism , controversies and fan content = = =
Official PlayStation Magazine ( Australia ) criticized Janice Kawaye 's English voice acting in Ninja Gaiden Sigma , stating " she whimpers away like an eight @-@ year @-@ old brat at show and tell . " Az Elias of Cubed3 expressed disappointment regarding Ayane 's limited role in Warriors Orochi 3 . Ayane 's portrayal by Natassia Malthe in the film DOA : Dead or Alive was panned by many fans and critics alike ( even as , prior to the premiere , IGN stated that " DOA is HOT ... and Nastassia Malthe proves it " ) . Mikel Reparaz of GamesRadar dubbed the motion picture version of Ayane as " White Girl Who is Somehow Also Japanese " , Roger Moore wrote in Orlando Sentinel that Malthe 's purple hair " makes her look even less Japanese than [ Kasumi 's actress ] Aoki " , and UGO.com wrote about Malthe 's role as Ayane : " Defining Moment : Zzzzzzzz . "
Some criticised the visual allure of the character , up to allegations of sexual objectification . Mentioning " the subject of unlockable gym slips for Ayane " in 2002 , Edge magazine stated that while it " remains opposed to videogame censorship , the Dead or Alive franchise has certainly challenged the boundaries of taste in games . " In 2009 , Joe Newman of GamesRadar ranked the series of Team Ninja 's controversial Sigma 2 commercials , designed to draw attention to the fact that the " notoriously big @-@ breasted " Ayane was a playable character ( one of which was called by Destructoid " the best and worst thing to have ever been created " ) , as the fourth most blatantly sexist game advertisement ever , adding : " God forbid a moment goes by where any part of her body might be covered up . " Team Ninja 's post @-@ Itagaki head Yosuke Hayashi dismissed the criticism , stating in 2012 : " With the representation of female characters in the Dead or Alive franchise , we 've always wanted to make the girls look as attractive as possible , and that 's something that 's not going to change for us at all . " Hayashi explained : " We are a Japanese developer , and we 're making the female characters with our common sense and our creative sense . When you take that to countries outside of Japan , it tends to be very misinterpreted in some cases , people considering it sexist or derogatory , etc . " The issue was also dismissed in 2015 by Team Ninja creative director Tom Lee , who said they as well as most of their " fans around the world don ’ t share the same sentiments " as their critics .
As with Kasumi 's , Ayane 's age has not been listed in the Western versions of the games to avoid backlash regarding characters portrayed as underage ; according to Itagaki , Ayane 's age in Ninja Gaiden would " cause problems with the ESRB . " Nevertheless , some outlets raised this issue and questioned the extent of adolescent Ayane 's sexualization in the games ( in Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 players were even given control over the movement of her breasts through use of the Sixaxis game controller ) . Destructoid 's Jim Sterling has voiced concern about how a supposedly 14 @-@ year @-@ old character ( Ayane 's Sigma 2 age ) has such " huge busters " , as well as joking he was " worried that this now means I 'm a pedophile . " In 2011 , Nintendo of Europe decided to not distribute Dead or Alive : Dimensions in Sweden ( this also meant the game would not be released in Norway and Denmark ) , apparently because of a local child pornography law encompassing drawn and animated characters ( and despite the age of consent in Sweden being only 15 ) . ABC News mistakenly used GamesRadar 's joke image of Ayane " with the newly attached pterodactyl head and wings of Metroid boss Ridley " as an illustration for their article while reporting on this story . Reacting to the Nordic ban , Sterling ( writing for GameFront ) called her a " big @-@ eyed lump of grade @-@ A jailbait " and added : " Would it murder the fantasy of the fanbase if the girl was canonically 21 , despite still looking like an eleven @-@ year @-@ old hormone pill addict ? Instead , 21 @-@ year @-@ olds are designated as ' old ' women in Japanese games , usually playing a villainous , antagonistic role compared to the sweet , innocent , sexually desirable teenager . " He further wrote that his proposed practice of " bumping up the age be part of the localization process , " besides helping to avoid " silly controversies like we ’ ve seen in Sweden , " would have " the added benefit of narratives that are far more sensible — having Ayane as an accomplished ninja at sixteen just doesn ’ t make much sense . " Ayane became canonically 18 @-@ year @-@ old in Dead or Alive 5 . Regarding the other changes in DOA5 , according to Kotaku , director Yohei Shimbori received a lot of " fan backlash from Ayane 's breast reduction . " Previously , one of her new costumes for Dimensions also severely upset some fans when the game was announced in 2010 .
Despite a warning from Team Ninja that no more DOA games would be released for the PC if the modding community released DOA5 mods that are not designed for " good and moral " play , nude models of Ayane were quickly created by members of the forum Lustful Illumination . Ayane was featured through Monty Oum 's computer @-@ animated fan series Dead Fantasy from the start . A fan mod also brought Ayane to Ultra Street Fighter IV , mapping her over Ibuki , and another removes Ayane 's makeup in DOA5 to make her look more like she did in DOA2 .
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= Swim Good =
" Swim Good " is a song by American recording artist Frank Ocean , released as the second single from his mixtape Nostalgia , Ultra ( 2011 ) . The song was written by Nick Cobey & Ocean and produced by Midi Mafia . It features additional vocals by fellow Odd Future member Tyler , The Creator . The song explores the topic of romantic baggage , guilt and utilizes several metaphors . Lyrically , the song expresses a narrative about a man who , burdened with many failed relationships , ends his life by driving into the ocean . The track explores tropes of the tragic love story and suicide . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised Ocean 's vocals and the song 's dark subject matter .
When Nostalgia , Ultra was expected to be released as an EP by Def Jam , " Swim Good " was released as the second single , though the EP release was later cancelled . The song peaked at number 70 on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The song received a music video directed by Australian director Nabil Elderkin . The anime @-@ inspired music video features Ocean driving down remote roads in a Samurai costume and eventually setting his car on fire . Ocean performed the track during his seven show tour through North America and Europe in November 2011 and other notable concerts such as Coachella . On July 31 , 2012 , the music video was nominated for three MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Background = =
" Swim Good " was written by Frank Ocean , Waynne Nugent and Kevin Risto of the duo Midi Mafia , who also produced the track . The song appears on his debut mixtape Nostalgia , Ultra , which was released on February 18 , 2011 . When asked by The Quietus about his own interpretation of the character in the song it was noted that Ocean " politely withdrew , saying he 'd enjoy that discussion but he doesn 't want to spoil his audience 's experience of his songs " . He further commented " but you have fun with the imagery , and for me the whole concept that everything has to be ... Like , nobody gets upset with a director when a director 's film isn 't about his life . People think that with a recording artist that shit has to be like a fucking play by play of their whole life , but it 's not . It 's imagery , and a little bit of satire . " The track was released as the second single from Nostalgia , Ultra digitally on October 18 , 2011 by Def Jam Recordings .
= = Composition = =
" Swim Good " tells the story of a murder suicide through extended metaphors and a first @-@ person debate about killing yourself " . The track has been called an " astonishing suicide song " and that " Ocean finds himself dressed in black ( ' Like I 'm ready for a funeral ' ) , tormented by heartbreak and on the verge of driving his car into the sea . " The song is a " grim escape fantasy " describing a murder suicide , which " has the singer driving his car to the shore , his trunk “ bleeding ” with “ broken hearts ” . The hook of the song ends with the refrain of " I feel like a ghost , no Swayze , ever since I lost my baby . " Pitchfork Media described the singing as " heart @-@ battered . " The Quietus states that the song " makes you realise the ocean means a lot more to this songwriter than the reference to Ocean 's Eleven that he 's cited in interviews , he is mysterious and tragic . " Yahoo ! Music stated that " in his calm , ultra controlled tone , Ocean sings about feeling like he 's on his way to a funeral as he drives around town in a black suit , and a body in the trunk . "
= = Reception = =
" Swim Good " received positive reviews from music critics and was widely considered to be one of the best tracks off Nostalgia Ultra . Sam Hockley @-@ Smith of The Fader commented that " Swim Good " was one of the " highs off of record " , as did Anthony Osei of Complex magazine . Pitchfork Media commented that the track was a " brooding highlight " off the record . In addition , Yahoo ! Music 's Billy Jounhson described it as a " breakout " song " . AbsolutePunk stated the song was " hard @-@ hitting " and " proved that Ocean 's voice is as great as his knack for writing thoughtful pop songs . " NPR 's Andrew Noz commented that " in the standout " Swim Good , " he sings of putting broken hearts in the trunk of a Lincoln Town Car and driving to the ocean as they bleed through . " Several critics noted the song for its dark subject matter . On the week of September 10 , 2011 the song debuted at number eighty @-@ one on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and peaked at position number seventy .
On July 31 , 2012 , the music video was nominated for three MTV Video Music Awards : Best Direction and Best Male Video , with Ocean being nominated for Best New Artist for his work with the video .
= = Promotion = =
Ocean released a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video promoting a music video for the track . It was filmed by his cousin , and released on Ocean 's tumblr on August 11 , 2011 . The video , directed by Nabil Elderkin , was officially released on September 16 , 2011 . The video was released on Frank Ocean 's Vevo on September 23 , 2011 and was available for purchase on iTunes September 24 , 2011 . The Fader commented that " Elderkin serves up a fairly literal interpretation of “ Swim Good , ” Nostalgia , Ultra ‘ s most heart @-@ wrenching metaphor . It does however feature an explosion , a panda mask and the second appearance of Ninja Frank Ocean . " The video features " Frank Ocean and his samurai sword star " and it " blends Asian and aquatic vibes with impressive cinematography . " Rap @-@ Up reported " tanquility turns traumatic in Frank Ocean ’ s suspenseful video . "
The clip opens with a dazed Ocean " going through the motions of eating popcorn though he 's wearing an Odd Future mask that does not have a mouth opening . " It features a " ' 70s orange and black Lincoln limousine " and Ocean in an orange samurai robe " mysteriously driving along the coastline and deep into the forest . " He then whips out his sword and " draws blood from his unsuspecting female victim . He sets fire to the vehicle and watches it burn on the cliff during the explosive conclusion . " In the closing moments , " viewers are lead [ sic ] to believe that the mystery woman was also the passenger of the rear compartment " and the video ends when the " camera zooms in on Ocean 's blood @-@ stained sword . " The video " adds color to the already chilling , and unusual storyline for alternative R & B song " according to Yahoo .
Ocean embarked on a solo tour through North America and Europe to promote both the mixtape and his other musical projects . The set lists to the various shows varied , though " Swim Good " was performed at all shows . The track was included during Ocean 's setlist at the April 2012 Coachella Musical Festival . Complex magazine stated the audience " sang every word of ULTRA ’ s suicidal serenade “ Swim Good , ” which closed with the same seagull chirps it does on the tape . "
= = Chart performance = =
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= Music of the Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles series =
The Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles video game series consists of Crystal Chronicles , a spin @-@ off of the main Final Fantasy series , its sequels My Life as a King and My Life as a Darklord , and their spin @-@ offs , Ring of Fates , Echoes of Time and The Crystal Bearers . Crystal Chronicles , Ring of Fates , and Echoes of Time have had released soundtrack albums to date , and Crystal Chronicles and Ring of Fates each have an associated single . Kumi Tanioka is the main composer for the series , having composed the three released soundtracks as well as the music for My Life as a King and My Life as a Darklord . Hidenori Iwasaki is filling that role for The Crystal Bearers . Nobuo Uematsu , the main composer for the regular Final Fantasy series , contributed one track to the Ring of Fates soundtrack . Yae and Donna Burke sang the Japanese and English versions of the theme song for Crystal Chronicles , respectively , while Aiko sang the theme song for Ring of Fates .
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles Original Soundtrack was released by Pony Canyon in 2003 , as was its single , " Kaze no Ne " , and a promotional album Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles - A Musical Journey . Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Ring of Fates Original Soundtrack and the double A @-@ side " Hoshi no Nai Sekai " / " Yokogao " were released by Pony Canyon in 2007 . The latest release is that of Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Echoes of Time Original Soundtrack by Square Enix in 2009 . All the albums and the singles received generally positive reviews , although the Crystal Chronicles album was the most universally appreciated of the three soundtracks . Unlike the soundtracks to the numbered Final Fantasy games , no compositions from the Crystal Chronicles soundtracks have appeared in any compilation albums produced by Square Enix or any official Final Fantasy concerts . " Morning Sky " , the opening theme for Crystal Chronicles , was played in the first Games in Concert performance in Utrecht , Netherlands on November 26 , 2006 .
= = Creation and influence = =
Kumi Tanioka has described the musical style for the soundtrack to Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles as being based on " ancient instruments " . She says that the idea came to her while looking at illustrations of the game world , which gave her the idea of making " world music " , where the tracks would " not [ be ] limited to a single country or culture " . She also credits Hidenori Iwasaki , the synthesizer operator for the game , with doing " fantastic technical work " that brought her vision to life . For the soundtrack to Ring of Fates , Tanioka purposefully did not focus on " world music " , instead focusing on " creating a new landscape containing the same atmosphere " . The piano performances in the Ring of Fates soundtrack were done by Kumi Tanioka . She did the performances herself rather than use an outside performer as most Final Fantasy soundtracks have done primarily because she " likes to play piano " , and were done without any sheet music , as she preferred instead to improvise . She took extensive piano lessons as a child , and lists piano and choral music as the biggest influences on her musical style . She also claims to have been influenced by music from a wide variety of cultures , such as Indonesian , Irish and Balinese music . She will not be composing the soundtrack for The Crystal Bearers ; this role will be performed by Hidenori Iwasaki .
Tanioka has said that in composing the soundtrack for Echoes of Time she tried to " paint the world in an ethnic manner once again " . She has said that she tried throughout the soundtracks of the first four Crystal Chronicles games to " maintain a common atmosphere between each installment , [ but ] always introduce a new concept " . With Echoes of Time Tanioka wanted to go back to the " tribal " concept of the original Crystal Chronicles . She has said in regards to the soundtrack that " instead of the traditional sound endemic to the specific areas , I wanted to use them as one flavor and blend many colors just like Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles " and that many of the tracks she created would be " actually impossible to perform " in real life .
= = Albums = =
= = = Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack album of Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles , containing the majority of the musical tracks from the game , and was composed by Kumi Tanioka . It was released on the Pony Canyon label on August 20 , 2003 . The album did not include the English versions of the opening song , " Sound of the Wind " and the ending theme , " Moonless Starry Night " , all sung by Donna Burke . The style of the music on this album is not defined , but was described by Kumi Tanioka as being based on " ancient instruments " . The soundtrack has extensive use of many medieval and Renaissance musical instruments such as the recorder , the crumhorn and the lute , creating a distinctively rustic feel , and also follows the practices and styles of medieval music . The soundtrack spans 52 tracks over 2 discs , covering a duration of 2 : 11 : 38 , and has the catalog number PCCG @-@ 00613 .
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : A Musical Journey was a European promotional album which was given alongside the game on March 11 , 2004 if the game had been pre @-@ ordered . It contains six tracks from the soundtrack , including " Kaze no Ne " in both Japanese and English , the only time the English version has been released . It was published by Nintendo of Europe , and covers a duration of 17 : 37 .
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles Original Soundtrack was well received ; Daniel Space of RPGFan praised it , saying that " the music is fun , extremely well written and interesting to hear " . He enjoyed the alternative instruments used in the tunes , calling them " successful in providing imagery of renaissance times " , although he felt that much more of them would have begun to drag the soundtrack down . Chris of Square Enix Music Online also enjoyed the soundtrack , although he noted that it was " not for everyone " . He did , however , feel that the constant use of Renaissance @-@ themed music resulted in a " lack of diversity of styles " that made several of the tracks " bland and indistinctive " . Jared of Square Enix Music Online was more enthusiastic about the soundtrack , terming it " a stunning soundtrack full of feeling and emotion " and praising its " unique " style . As a promotional album , Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles - A Musical Journey was not as noted by critics . Jared felt that it was " a decent look into the soundtrack of Crystal Chronicles " , but not as good of a sampler disc as it could have been due to the track selection .
Track listing
= = = Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Ring of Fates Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Ring of Fates Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack album of Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Ring of Fates , containing all of the musical tracks from the game , and was composed and produced by Kumi Tanioka . The ending theme song for the game , " A World Without Stars " ( 星のない世界 , Hoshi no Nai Sekai ) , was sung by Aiko , though it was not included in the album , and Nobuo Uematsu contributed one track to the soundtrack . The soundtrack continues the musical theme of " ancient instruments " prevalent in the Crystal Chronicles soundtrack , but additionally incorporates more modern orchestral instruments such as string and horn pieces . The tracks on the album cover a wide range of emotional themes , from " joyful and whimsical tracks " to " lugubrious emotional tracks " to " bombastic battle tracks " . In keeping with the lighthearted nature of the game , any darker @-@ themed tracks are exaggerated to make them less serious . The soundtrack spans 57 tracks , covering a duration of 1 : 16 : 06 . It was released on September 19 , 2007 in Japan by Square Enix bearing the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10101 .
Ring of Fates was well received by reviewers ; Neal Chandran of RPGFan , although finding the original soundtrack to be " bland " , felt that the Crystal Chronicles soundtrack was " quite varied , exciting , and dare I say really freaking good " and praised the variety of styles and moods of the tracks . Chris was also enthusiastic about the soundtrack , praising it as " one of the finest accompaniments to a Final Fantasy game ever produced " . He noted , however , that the soundtrack works best as a " flowing " work or accompaniment to the game , with a lack of individual tracks that stood out as memorable . Don of Square Enix Music Online was much harsher towards the soundtrack , terming it an " extremely underwhelming album " . He disapproved of the change from the medieval instrumentation to a more orchestral score , and felt that the pieces had much less emotional intensity than the Crystal Chronicles soundtrack .
= = = Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Echoes of Time Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Echoes of Time Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack album of Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Echoes of Time , containing the majority of the musical tracks from the game , and was composed by Kumi Tanioka . It was released by Square Enix on February 18 , 2009 . Like previous Crystal Chronicles soundtracks , Echoes incorporates a variety of instruments , including oboes , xylophones , marimbas and Latin guitars . Unlike the previous Crystal Chronicles soundtracks , the Echoes does not include a theme song . The soundtrack spans 51 tracks over 2 discs , covering a duration of 2 : 07 : 30 , and has the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10137 ~ 8 .
Track listing
= = = Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Crystal Bearers Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Crystal Bearers Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack album of Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Crystal Bearers , containing the majority of the musical tracks from the game , composed by Hidenori Iwasaki and Ryo Yamazaki , with the vocal talent of Donna Burke . The soundtrack spans 70 tracks over 2 discs .
Track listing
= = Singles = =
= = = Kaze no Ne = = =
" Sound of the Wind " ( カゼノネ , Kaze no Ne ) is the opening song of Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles , composed by Kumi Tanioka and performed by Yae . It was released as a single by Pony Canyon , featuring the " Kaze No Ne " song , an arranged version , and two other songs by Yae from her album Blue Line , " Carol ( scat ) " and " Flower of Love " ( 恋の花 , Koin no Hana ) . The single was released on July 30 , 2003 , has a length of 14 : 12 , and has a catalog number of PCCA @-@ 01915 . While " Kaze No Ne " follows the medieval theme of the rest of the Crystal Chronicles soundtrack , the arranged version is a more " produced " techno @-@ sounding track . The two unrelated tracks are vocal and instrumental pieces , with " Carol " as a scat song , and " Flower of Love " more of a slower " ethnic / world " piece .
Patrick Gann of RPGFan called " Kaze no Ne " one of the few singles he had purchased that was " worth holding onto " . He described all of the tracks as " beautiful " , and felt that the arranged version of " Sound of the Wind " was " charming and enigmatic " . Dave of Square Enix Music Online concurred , calling the single " a potentially excellent addition to anyone 's discography " . He described Yae 's voice as " angelic " " mature " and " fresh " and summed up the album as " a definitive Yae experience accessible to game music fans " .
= = = Hoshi no Nai Sekai / Yokogao = = =
" Hoshi no Nai Sekai " / " Yokogao " is double A @-@ side containing the theme song to Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : Ring of Fates " A World Without Stars " ( 星のない世界 , Hoshi no Nai Sekai ) , as well as two original tracks , " Profile " ( 横顔 , Yokogao ) and " Love " ( 恋愛 , Renai ) , and instrumental versions of " A World Without Stars " and " Profile " . The single is performed by Aiko . All of the songs are primarily focused on the vocals along with piano and electric guitar accompaniments . " A World Without Stars " is a primarily piano @-@ based song with lyrics in Japanese , while " Profile " and " Love " are mid @-@ tempo pop songs . The album was released on August 22 , 2007 by Pony Canyon , covers a duration of 24 : 40 , and has the catalog number PCCA @-@ 02546 .
Neal Chandran approved of " Hoshi no Nai Sekai " / " Yokogao " , finding it to be enjoyable despite its short length . He felt that " A World Without Stars " was a " terrific piece , and that the other two songs , while " not as strong " , were " still decent tracks that were easy on the ears " , and approved of the instrumental versions included in the single . Don also appreciated the soundtrack , calling it " a nice choice " and saying that it " complements a rather weak original soundtrack " . He felt that the balance in the songs between the piano and electric guitar was well done .
= = Legacy = =
Unlike the soundtracks to the numbered Final Fantasy games , no songs from the Crystal Chronicles soundtracks have appeared in any compilation albums produced by Square Enix . Songs from the series have also not appeared in any of the official Final Fantasy music concerts , although " Morning Sky " from the Crystal Chronicles soundtrack was played in the first Games in Concert performance in Utrecht , Netherlands on November 26 , 2006 . It was performed by Floor Jansen of the band After Forever and the Metropole Orchestra .
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= Battle of the Miljevci Plateau =
The Battle of the Miljevci Plateau was a clash of the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska - HV ) and forces of the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , fought on 21 – 23 June 1992 , during the Croatian War of Independence . The battle represented the culmination of a series of skirmishes between the HV and the RSK forces in Northern Dalmatia , after the implementation of the Vance plan and deployment of the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) began . The skirmishes occurred in the pink zones — areas under control of the RSK , but outside the UN Protected Areas established by the Vance plan .
Elements of two HV brigades advanced several kilometres north of Šibenik and captured the Miljevci Plateau , encompassing 108 square kilometres ( 42 square miles ) of territory and seven villages . After the battle , the UNPROFOR requested the HV to pull back to its positions prior to 21 June , and the request was followed by the United Nations Security Council Resolution 762 urging Croatia to withdraw from the plateau , but the HV remained in place . In the immediate aftermath , Croatian authorities claimed the offensive was not ordered by the General Staff and that the advance was made in response to a series of provocations . After the battle , some bodies of the killed RSK soldiers were thrown into a karst pit and were not retrieved until August , when the released prisoners of war informed the UNPROFOR of the location of the bodies .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence Force 's ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt by Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina regions and eastern Croatia .
Following the Pakrac clash between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March 1991 , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . The JNA stepped in , increasingly supporting the Croatian Serb insurgents . In early April , the leaders of the Croatian Serb revolt declared their intention to integrate the area under their control , known as SAO Krajina , with Serbia . In May , the Croatian government responded by forming the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) , but its development was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo introduced in September .
On 8 October , Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia , and a month later the ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) . Late 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war , as the 1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia culminated in the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar . In November , Croatia , Serbia and the JNA agreed upon the Vance plan , contained in the Geneva Accord . The plan entailed a ceasefire , protection of civilians in specific areas designated as United Nations Protected Areas and UN peacekeepers in Croatia . The ceasefire came into effect on 3 January 1992 . In December 1991 , the European Community announced its decision to grant a diplomatic recognition to Croatia on 15 January 1992 . SAO Krajina renamed itself the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) on 19 December 1991 .
Despite the Geneva Accord requiring an immediate withdrawal of JNA personnel and equipment from Croatia , the JNA stayed behind for up to eight months in some areas . When its troops eventually pulled out , JNA left their equipment to the RSK . As a consequence of organisational problems and breaches of ceasefire , the UN peacekeepers , named the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) , did not start to deploy until 8 March . The UNPROFOR took two months to fully assemble in the UN Protected Areas ( UNPAs ) . Furthermore , the RSK forces remained in areas outside designated UNPAs which were under RSK control at the time of the signing of the Implementation Agreement ceasefire of 3 January 1992 . Those areas , later better known as the pink zones , were supposed to be restored to Croatian control from the outset of the plan implementation . Failure of this aspect of the implementation of the Vance plan made the pink zones a major source of contention for Croatia and the RSK .
= = Prelude = =
Before the UNPROFOR fully deployed , the HV clashed with an armed force of the RSK in the village of Nos Kalik , located in a pink zone near Šibenik , and captured the village at 4 : 45 p.m. on 2 March 1992 . The JNA formed a battlegroup to counterattack the next day . The JNA battlegroup , augmented by elements of the 9th Military Police Battalion , deployed at 5 : 50 a.m. and clashed with the HV force in Nos Kalik . However , the JNA counterattack failed . The HV captured 21 RSK troops in Nos Kalik , intent on exchanging the prisoners for Croats held under arrest in Knin . Following negotiations , the HV agreed to pull back on 11 April , but later declined to do so , claiming deteriorating security at the battlefield in general prevented the withdrawal . Several Serb @-@ owned houses in Nos Kalik were torched after the HV captured the village .
The HV clashed with units subordinated to the 180th Motorised Brigade of the JNA in a pink zone near Zadar on 17 – 22 May . While the JNA repelled attacks in most areas around Zadar and Stankovci , the HV managed to cut a JNA base at the Križ Hill away from the rest of the force on 17 May . The JNA outpost occupied high ground overlooking the surrounding area , including Zadar . It housed radar equipment and was used as an artillery observer post . The JNA attempted to relieve the besieged garrison in the next few days , however the attempts failed and the base surrendered to the HV on 22 May . The attack and capture of the Križ Hill , codenamed Operation Jaguar , was carried out by the 2nd Battalion of the 159th Infantry Brigade of the HV , supported by artillery of the 112th Infantry Brigade .
= = Timeline = =
On 21 June , the HV attacked RSK positions at the Miljevci Plateau , located in the pink zone north of Šibenik . The TO forces in the area were subordinated to the 1st Brigade of the TO , and Lieutenant Colonel General Milan Torbica . The HV deployed 250 troops , elements of the 113th and 142nd Infantry Brigades , commanded by Brigadier Kruno Mazalin . The HV had infiltrated the pink zone along three routes — via Nos Kalik , across the Čikola river and by boat sailing upstream along the Krka River , during the night of 20 / 21 June . The fighting began at 5 a.m. as the HV force , deployed in 26 squads , captured six out of seven villages on the plateau by the end of the morning . At 8 : 00 p.m. , the HV captured the village of Ključ , and all of the plateau . The advance created a HV @-@ held salient south of Knin , several kilometres deep . It also led the RSK artillery to bombard Šibenik and HV bombardment of Knin in response , both on 22 June .
The artillery fire progressively intensified until 23 June , while the RSK mobilised and counterattacked against the HV positions at the Miljevci Plateau . However , the mobilisation yielded only 227 additional troops , and the counterattack failed . An UNPROFOR assessment concluded the situation might deteriorate further and engulf all of the pink zones . To address the situation , UNPROFOR military commander Lieutenant General Satish Nambiar met with Deputy Prime Minister of Croatia Milan Ramljak and Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia General Anton Tus in Zagreb the same day , in order to discuss the developments on the Miljevci Plateau . Skirmishes continued on 24 June , accompanied by some artillery fire . Morale of the RSK troops plummeted though , causing a TO garrison based in nearby Trbounj to abandon its barracks .
= = Aftermath = =
According to Croatian sources , the HV lost seven or eight troops killed in the battle . Serb sources cite 40 killed RSK troops , in the battle or its immediate aftermath , while the HV took seventeen prisoners . The prisoners were taken to the Kuline barracks in Šibenik . On 23 June , a total of 29 RSK soldiers killed at the Miljevci Plateau on the first day of the battle were thrown into the Bačića Pit , contrary to orders given by Brigadier Ivan Bačić , commanding officer of the 113th Infantry Brigade . Bačić ordered burial of the killed RSK troops at a local Serbian Orthodox cemetery . The same day , one prisoner , Miroslav Subotić , was shot in Nos Kalik by HV personnel . He was one of a group of prisoners tasked with clearance of the area after the fighting . The HV also destroyed ten tanks and armoured personnel carriers , and captured six howitzers and a considerable stockpile of other weapons and ammunition in the battle . The offensive brought seven villages and 108 square kilometres ( 42 square miles ) to HV control .
During their meeting with Nambiar , Ramljak and Tus claimed that the offensive was neither planned nor ordered by authorities in Zagreb . They stated that the advance was made in response to a series of provocations made by the RSK armed forces . Bačić claimed that while no specific order to attack was received , Tus did instruct him to respond aggressively and capture as much territory as possible in cases of grave breaches of ceasefire by the RSK forces . Nevertheless , Bačić was reprimanded by the President of Croatia Franjo Tuđman because of the offensive . In the RSK , Torbica was forced to resign his post and was replaced by Major General Mile Novaković .
UNPROFOR and the European Community Monitor Mission ( ECMM ) requested the HV to withdraw to positions held before the offensive , but the HV declined the request . However , Croatia agreed that UNPROFOR and ECMM monitors would continue to be present in the pink zones when Croatia assumed control over them . The move was planned as a way to reassure the Serb population that the pink zones could provide them safety . In the aftermath of the offensive , the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) adopted the UNSC Resolution 762 , urging cessation of hostilities in or near the UNPAs , and urging the HV to pull back to positions held before 21 June . The 113th Brigade of the HV remained at the plateau regardless . The resolution authorised the UNPROFOR to perform monitoring of the pink zones . It also recommended establishment of a joint commission chaired by an UNPROFOR representative , and including representatives of the Government of Croatia , local authorities and the ECMM to oversee restoration of Croatian control in the pink zones .
The prisoners taken by the HV were released in August , and they informed the UNPROFOR about the bodies in the Bačića Pit and the death of Subotić . The bodies were retrieved by Croatian authorities in the presence of UNPROFOR and other international organisations . Two Croatian military police members were charged with Subotić 's murder in 2011 . As of 2013 the trial is ongoing .
In 2012 , twenty years after the battle , President Ivo Josipović presented the Charter of the Republic of Croatia to the commanders and units involved in the battle , commending their military achievements . That was the first such move in twenty years , and a reversal of the official stance towards the offensive which had originally declared it as an unauthorised deployment of the HV .
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= California State Route 177 =
State Route 177 ( SR 177 ) is a short state highway in the U.S. state of California in Riverside County . The route links Interstate 10 ( I @-@ 10 ) midway between the Coachella Valley and Blythe on the California – Arizona border , to SR 62 near Rice . SR 177 travels along the eastern portion of the Joshua Tree National Park ; like the eastern 100 miles ( 160 km ) of SR 62 , it passes through some of the most desolate areas of the Mojave Desert . The southernmost portion of SR 177 near I @-@ 10 runs concurrently with County Route R2 ( CR R2 ) .
= = Route description = =
SR 177 begins at I @-@ 10 near Desert Center and briefly travels north , intersecting with CR R2 . At this intersection , SR 177 turns northeast and travels across the Mojave Desert , through the Chuckwalla Valley . It passes near the Desert Center Airport and comes near Palen Lake , a dry lake . The highway passes along the southeastern boundary of Joshua Tree National Park before turning due north and crossing the desert for several miles . SR 177 briefly turns northeast again before intersecting with SR 62 and defaulting onto SR 62 eastbound .
The route is two lanes wide for its entire length . SR 177 is not part of the National Highway System , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2013 , SR 177 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 1 @,@ 200 at the northern terminus with SR 62 , and 3 @,@ 700 at the southern terminus with I @-@ 10 , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
The Metropolitan Water District built a road from Desert Center that ran north before turning east to Earp along with portions of the California Aqueduct from February 20 to August 4 in 1933 . This was part of a road system that was built in order to support the construction of the aqueduct by connecting the camps that construction workers resided in during the project . This road cost $ 389 @,@ 600 ( about $ 48 million in 2015 dollars ) to construct ; the roads in the system were paved . SR 177 was added to the state highway system in 1972 by the California State Legislature . As of 1998 , Caltrans had no plans to expand the highway , considering it to be " maintain only " through 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was when the route was established , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Riverside County .
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= Monetary Policy Committee =
The Monetary Policy Committee ( MPC ) is a committee of the Bank of England , which meets for three and a half days twelve times a year to decide the official interest rate in the United Kingdom ( the Bank of England Base Rate ) . It is also responsible for directing other aspects of the government 's monetary policy framework , such as quantitative easing and forward guidance . The Committee comprises eight members , along with the Governor of the Bank of England ( from 2013 Mark Carney ) , and is responsible primarily for keeping the Consumer Price Index ( CPI ) measure of inflation close to a target set by the government ( 2 % as of 2016 ) . Its secondary aim – to support growth and employment – was reinforced in March 2013 .
Announced on 6 May 1997 , only five days after that year 's General Election , and officially given operational responsibility for setting interest rates in the Bank of England Act 1998 , the Committee was designed to be independent of political interference and thus to add credibility to interest rate decisions . Each member has one vote , for which they are held to account : full minutes of each meeting are published alongside the Committee 's monetary policy decisions , and members are regularly called before the Treasury Select Committee , as well as speaking to wider audiences at events during the year .
= = Purpose = =
The Committee is responsible for formulating the United Kingdom 's monetary policy , most commonly via the setting of the rate at it which it lends to banks ( officially the Bank of England Base Rate or BOEBR for short ) . As laid out in law , decisions are made with a primary aim of price stability , defined by the government 's inflation target ( 2 % on the Consumer Price Index as of 2011 ) . The target takes the form of a " point " , rather than the " band " used by the Treasury prior to 1997 . The secondary aim of the Committee is to support the government 's economic policies , and help it meet its targets for growth and employment . That secondary aim was reinforced by then Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne in his March 2013 budget , with the MPC given more discretion to more openly " trade off " above @-@ rate inflation in the medium run to boost other economic indicators . The MPC is not responsible for fiscal policy , which is handled by the Treasury itself , but is briefed by the Treasury about fiscal policy developments at meetings .
Under the Bank of England Act 1998 the Bank 's Governor must write an open letter of explanation to the Chancellor of the Exchequer if inflation exceeds the target by more than one percentage point in either direction , and once every three months thereafter until prices are back within the allowed range . It should also set out what plans the Bank has for rectifying the problem , and how long it is expected to remain at those levels in the meantime .
In January 2009 the Chancellor announced an Asset Purchase Facility ( APF ) , to be administered by the MPC , aimed at ensuring greater liquidity in financial markets . The committee had already started to cut rates the previous autumn , but the effect of such changes can take up to two years and rates cannot go below zero . By March 2009 , faced with very low levels on inflation and interest rates already at 0 @.@ 5 % , the MPC voted to start the process of quantitative easing ( QE ) – the injection of money directly into the economy – via the APF . It had the Bank buy government bonds ( gilts ) , along with a smaller amount of high @-@ quality debt issued by private companies . Although non @-@ gilts initially made up a non @-@ negligible part of the APF portfolio , as of May 2015 the entirety of the APF was held as gilts . On 7 August 2013 , Governor Mark Carney issued the committee 's first forward guidance as a third tool for controlling future inflation .
Criticism of the MPC has centred on its predominant focus on inflation to the detriment of growth and employment , although that criticism may have been mitigated by the March 2013 revisions to the committee 's remit . There have also been complaints about the reluctance of lenders to pass on rate changes , and about the extent to which the introduction and management of QE have risked politicising the committee .
= = History = =
Traditionally , the Treasury set interest rates . After reforms in 1992 , officials held regular meetings and published minutes , but were not independent of government . The result was a feeling that political factors were clouding what should be purely economic judgements on monetary policy .
On 6 May 1997 , operational responsibility to set interest rates was granted to the independent Bank of England by the Chancellor of the Exchequer , Gordon Brown . Guidelines for the creation of a new " Monetary Policy Committee " were laid out in the Bank of England Act 1998 . The Act also set out the responsibilities of the MPC : it would meet monthly ; its membership comprise the Governor , two Deputy Governors , two of the Bank 's Executive Directors and four members appointed by the Chancellor . It should publish minutes of all meetings within six weeks ( in October 1998 the committee announced plans to publish far more quickly , after only one ) . The Act gave the government responsibility for specifying its price stability target and growth and employment objectives at least annually . The government reserved the right to instruct the Bank on what rate to set in times of emergency .
The years 1998 to 2006 witnessed an unprecedented period of price stability – during which inflation stayed within a percentage point of the target – despite earlier predictions that it could sit outside the range forty or more percent of the time . A 2007 report produced for the Treasury Committee noted that the MPC 's independence of government " has reduced the scope for short @-@ term political considerations to enter into the determination of interest rates " . The creation of the MPC , it said , brought with it " an immediate credibility gain " .
The original inflation target for the MPC was 2 @.@ 5 % on the RPI @-@ X measure of inflation , but in 2003 this was changed to 2 % on CPI . Under the Bank of England Act , on 16 April 2007 , the governor ( then Mervyn King ) , was obliged to write the first MPC open letter to the chancellor ( then Gordon Brown ) , explaining why the inflation had deviated from the target of 2 % and reached 3 @.@ 1 % . With prices more unstable since 2007 , by February 2013 , he had had to write 14 such letters to chancellors . Having taken over in August 2013 , Governor Mark Carney wrote his first open letter in February 2015 to explain why inflation had fallen below 1 % for the first time in the MPC 's history . This was followed by deflation of 0 @.@ 1 % in April 2015 , the first month of negative CPI growth since the 1960s , and triggering a second letter . As of February 2015 , Carney has written five such letters .
In its first ten years , the MPC kept interest rates relatively stable between 3 @.@ 5 % and 7 @.@ 5 % . Between October 2008 and March the following year , however , the base rate was cut six times to an all @-@ time low of 0 @.@ 5 % in order to avoid deflation and spur growth . In March 2009 , the MPC launched a programme of quantitative easing , initially injecting £ 75 billion into the economy . By March 2010 , it had also increased the amount of money set aside for quantitative easing to £ 200 billion , a figure later increased by a further £ 75 billion in the months following October 2011 . The MPC announced two further £ 50bn rounds of quantitative easing in February and July 2012 , bringing the total to £ 375 billion whilst simultaneously keeping the base rate at 0 @.@ 5 % . As of February 2016 , there have been no further changes to either policy instrument , with further gilt purchases keeping the stock of gilts at £ 375bn . In March 2013 , the Chancellor of the Exchequer , George Osborne , called on the MPC to follow its American counterpart ( the Federal Reserve Board ) in committing itself to keeping interest rates low for a prolonged period of time via appropriate forward guidance , which it did on 7 August .
In December 2014 , the Bank adopted the recommendations of a report prepared by Kevin Warsh aimed at improving the transparency of the Committee 's decision making processes .
= = Composition = =
Following a reshuffle in April 2014 , the Committee currently comprises :
The Governor of the Bank
The three Deputy Governors for Monetary Policy , Financial Stability and Markets and Banking
The Bank 's Chief Economist
Four external members , appointed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer for a renewable three @-@ year term
Each member has one vote of equal weight , for which they can be held publicly accountable . The Governor chairs the meeting and is the last to cast his vote , acting as a casting vote in event of a tie . Representatives from the Treasury may attend the meeting , but only as non @-@ voting observers .
= = Meetings = =
The MPC meets twelve times a year : eight meetings spread throughout the year , plus four joint meetings with the Financial Policy Committee . After a half @-@ day " pre @-@ MPC meeting " , usually the Wednesday before , meetings are held over three days , typically a Thursday , Monday and Wednesday . Prior to the implementation of the reforms recommended by Kevin Warsh , meetings were generally held monthly on the Wednesday and Thursday following the first Monday of the month , although this was sometimes deviated from . In 2010 , for example , the meeting was postponed from the 5 / 6 to the 7 / 10 May in order to avoid conflicting with the general election schedule for the 6th . The May 2015 meeting was similarly delayed .
On the first day of the three , the Committee studies data relating to the UK economy , as well as the worldwide economy , presented by the Bank 's economists and regional representatives , and topics for discussion are identified and addressed . The second day consists of a main policy discussion during which MPC members explain their personal views . The Governor chooses the policy most likely to command a majority and , on the third day of the meeting , a vote is taken ; each member gets one vote . Those in the minority are asked to give the action they would have preferred . The Committee 's decisions are announced at noon the day after the meeting has concluded . Following a procedural change in 2015 , minutes of each meeting ( including the policy preference of each member ) are published on the Bank 's website at the same time as any decision is announced , resulting in a " Super Thursday " effect . Prior to August 2015 , the Committee 's decisions were published at noon on the final day of the meeting , but there was a two @-@ week delay before any minutes were published . Starting with the March 2015 meeting , full transcripts of meetings will also be published , albeit after an eight @-@ year delay .
Outside of meetings , members of the MPC can be called upon by Parliament to answer questions regarding their decisions , via parliamentary committee meetings , often those of the Treasury Committee . MPC members also speak to audiences throughout the country , with the same aim . Their views and expectations for inflation are also republished in the Bank 's quarterly inflation report .
= = Membership = =
To date , 32 men and 6 women have served on the MPC . As of February 2016 , the current Committee comprises ( by status ) :
Other , former members of the Committee ( by date of appointment ) are :
The dates listed show when their current terms of appointment are due to , or did , end .
As of January 2008 , Mervyn King , the Bank of England 's then Governor , was the only MPC member to have taken part in every meeting since 1997 . As a result , after the MPC meeting in July 2013 , the first after King retired , no single member had attended every meeting . As of 2016 , Kate Barker is the only external member to date to have been appointed for three terms , each lasting three years . As of February 2016 , none of the current committee members were present when the base rate was last changed .
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= Prick Up Your Ears ( Family Guy ) =
" Prick Up Your Ears " is the sixth episode of season five of Family Guy . The episode was originally broadcast on November 19 , 2006 . In this episode Lois discovers that Chris ’ school has removed the sex education program due to budget cuts and decides to bring the class back by becoming the teacher . Unfortunately , she gets fired a short time later for teaching the students about safe sex rather than abstinence . Meanwhile , Stewie attempts to find and kill the Tooth Fairy after being told horror stories by Brian .
The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by James Purdum . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 3 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Drew Barrymore , Mindy Cohn , Gary Cole , Taylor Cole , Lauren Conrad , David Cross , Margaret Easley , Lauren Hooser , Kim Parks , Kevin Michael Richardson , André Sogliuzzo and Crawford Wilson , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
As Lois finds Chris and his friends watching a pornographic film , she becomes convinced a proper sex @-@ ed class should be taught at his school . Since the sex @-@ ed class at her children 's school was removed , Lois decides to become the school 's newest sex @-@ ed teacher . In class , she attempts to teach students about safe sex , but her efforts are ruined by a botched attempt of Peter , who wishes to distribute his views on sex as well . Soon after the first sex @-@ ed class , parental protests arise as Lois taught kids about safe ways to perform premarital sex , rather than abstinence . Lois is subsequently fired . She is replaced by a reverend who promotes both premarital and marital abstinence , explaining fictional consequences of intercourse with various questionable examples . The idea appeals to most students , including Meg , who starts a relationship with a fellow student named Doug . In a subplot , Stewie loses a tooth and is told about the tooth fairy . Frightened by the fairy tale , Stewie develops a plan to capture the fairy , not knowing she does not exist . He borrows Herbert 's false teeth and provokes Brian 's girlfriend Jillian to throw up , as she has bulimia nervosa , in order to collect her teeth as well . Brian , overseeing Stewie 's increasing obsession with the fairy , reveals to Stewie that she does not exist , but another scene shows a man named T. Fairy , having an apparent tooth fetish , stealing teeth to roll around in them .
Peter , truly believing the anti @-@ sex propaganda Meg brings home , starts wearing a chastity belt and refuses to have sex with Lois . In her place , Lois grows tired of the whole ordeal , forcefully convinces Peter to change his mind by raping him . Meanwhile , Lois catches Meg and Doug engaging in " ear sex " ( which has become a fad at the school ) . Meg explains they did it so that it would not count as sex " in the eyes of the Lord . " This prompts Lois and Peter to collaborate into sneaking into the school after being banned . Lois tells the kids that while they should not have sex until they are ready , everyone has urges and it is okay to have premarital sex , but only as long as it is practiced safely and encourages them to use condoms . Following this revelation , Meg 's boyfriend breaks up with her after discovering Meg 's naked appearance . Humiliated , Meg blames Lois for ruining her relationship and runs away to her room , sobbing . As Peter , Brian , and Lois wrap things up , an announcer tells viewers to text which ending should end the episode : Lois retelling her speech ( FAMGUY1 ) , Meg talking about her day ( FAMGUY2 ) , or Cleveland giving his line ( FAMGUY 3 ) . In the end , the viewers choose FAMGUY 3 , and the episode ends with Cleveland poking out the window and saying the line " Hey Y 'all ! Sock it to me ! " .
= = Production and censorship = =
Many scenes from the original episode were seen as vulgar and were removed from the television broadcast . One of the scenes removed was from the beginning of the episode when Stewie , Chris , and his friends were watching Genital Hospital , a reference to the television show General Hospital . The original scene had included the doctor on the film undoing his zipper after discussing the patient ’ s health problems . The edited version cut away before the doctor could undo his zipper , but the sound can still be heard when it cuts back to Chris and his friends watching the porno . Another scene edited was a naked Peter shown crouched on top of Lois 's head ( attempting ear sex ) ( even though it was shown on Adult Swim every time the episode repeats ) . On the TV version , Peter is still naked , but it is implied ( through sound effects ) that Lois forcibly pushed him to the floor and she has a hand on her ear ( impling Peter attempted ear sex ) In this scene Peter refers to the Grimace as Ronald McDonald 's autistic friend , which was originally penned as " retarded friend " ( which is included in the uncut version ) . A scene in which Brian , wearing a robe , informs Lois of the weird tasting Smuckers jelly in the fridge leads Peter to reveal that the Smuckers was on his penis was edited on TV so that way he states that the jelly was on his crotch . In a scene added later to the episode , Mel Gibson apologizes to the Jewish community after being offensive while continuing to offend them . The scene was added after the episode had been made but prior to broadcasting . When Peter joins Meg in her quest to be abstinent , the TV version has a gag where Peter keeps mispronouncing the word , Meg corrects him , and Peter punishes her by sending her to her room . The Adult Swim and DVD version replaces that scene with one that was edited for being insensitive to Asian people in which Peter tells Meg that now that he is abstinent , he will be as untouched as the turn signal on an Asian woman 's car , followed by a cutaway of an Asian lady causing an accident on an eight @-@ lane highway . In the scene involving Stewie entering Herbert 's house , a picture of Chris with the body of a model was in the animatic , but not shown on TV . The original ending of this episode ( with the " choose your own ending " text message contest ) was supposed to have Lois and Peter throw Brian out the window instead of giving Cleveland his one and only appearance in the episode . This deleted scene is featured in the episode animatic on the season five DVD set .
In addition to the regular cast , actors Drew Barrymore , Mindy Cohn , Gary Cole , Taylor Cole , Lauren Conrad , David Cross , Margaret Easley , Lauren Hooser , Kim Parks , Kevin Michael Richardson , André Sogliuzzo and Crawford Wilson guest star in the episode . Recurring guest voices include Lori Alan , Alex Breckenridge , Steve Callaghan , Chris Cox , Ralph Garman , Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin , John Viener , and Adam West , who has a role of an exaggerated version of himself .
= = Cultural references = =
As Lois is informed the sex education classes will be terminated , she exclaims " Oh , no ! " , a cut @-@ a @-@ way scene then begins of a sports car driving along the road with music playing in the background , this is a reference to Knight Rider . When Stewie is using his toys in order to capture and kill the tooth fairy , the toys are SpongeBob from SpongeBob SquarePants , Starscream ( from The Transformers ) and Man @-@ E @-@ Faces , all of which are fictional characters for television programs . When Peter is watching television , he is watching Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County ; the women shown on the episode are actually cartoon animations of the real actors for the show . When Lois catches Chris and his friends watching a pornographic film , she tells them that without sex education , they can easily become sexually confused . The scene cuts to Michael Jackson in his childhood form eating a bowl of Frosted Mini @-@ Wheats , saying that he likes the frosted side , while the grown @-@ up in him likes his younger self . When Lois teaches a sex education class , Peter uses a bust of William Shakespeare and a Rainbow Brite doll to demonstrate sexual intercourse . In the scene where Stewie loses a tooth , everybody comes in and tells him to calm down , then it shows a long line of characters , mimicking a scene from the movie Airplane ! . While doing a news story on ear sex , Diane tells Tom that CSI is on Thursdays . When Brian talks about Jillian 's bulimia , he mentions the death of singer Karen Carpenter , who died from anorexia in 1983 .
= = Reception = =
In a slight improvement over the previous week , the episode was viewed in 9 @.@ 3 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 3 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , tying with The Simpsons , while still winning over American Dad ! .
Although the episode received little positive reception , it was given a positive review by IGN 's Dan Iverson who noted that its plot had “ great satire of the issue of sex education vs. abstinence . ” He also stated that “ the random flashback jokes are often what are most memorable about each episode . ” He gave the episode a rating of 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 . In his review of Family Guy , volume 5 , Francis Rizzo III of DVD Talk called the episode " a smart jab at the conservative Christian approach to sex education , " and stated that " the effect it has on Meg , as well as Peter , is great " .
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= Quietly Confident Quartet =
The Quietly Confident Quartet was the self @-@ given name of the Australian men 's 4 × 100 metres medley relay swimming team that won the gold medal at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow . The United States boycotted the Moscow Olympics in protest against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and , as of 2015 , the Australian victory remains the only occasion the United States has not won the event at Olympic level since its inception in 1960 . The quartet consisted of backstroker Mark Kerry , breaststroker Peter Evans , butterflyer Mark Tonelli and freestyler Neil Brooks . The team was nominally led by its oldest member Tonelli , who was 23 and was also a spokesperson for the Australian athletes ' campaign for their right to compete at the Olympics against the wishes of the Fraser Government . The team was seen as an unlikely prospect to win ; all four of the swimmers had clashed with swimming authorities over disciplinary issues and three experienced suspension or expulsion from the Australian team during their careers .
Australia had previously won medals in the event , but was not regarded as one of the favourites for the gold , as the Soviet Union , Great Britain , and Sweden all fielded more decorated swimmers over the component legs of the relay . After the backstroke leg , Australia was in fourth place and more than a second in arrears of the Soviet leaders . However , Evans was the fastest among the breaststrokers and moved the team into second position at the halfway point in the race ; and Tonelli , a makeshift butterflyer , completed his leg in a time much faster than his previous best , allowing Australia to keep the Soviet lead reasonable . Australia 's anchor swimmer Brooks overtook his more credentialled Soviet counterpart Sergey Kopliakov in the latter half of the final leg to secure a narrow victory . The quartet disbanded after the Olympics due to Tonelli 's retirement , although some of the members continued to be present in the relay team at various times alongside new swimmers . By 1986 , all four members of the 1980 team had retired from international competition .
= = Personnel = =
The Australian team for the event was a young and inexperienced foursome . Mark Tonelli was the oldest at the age of 23 , followed by Mark Kerry , who turned 21 a month after the Olympics . Both were attending their second Olympics , while Peter Evans and Neil Brooks were 18 and 17 respectively and had never represented Australia at the Commonwealth , World Championship or Olympic level . Evans and Brooks were from Western Australia , a state that had never been prominent in Australian swimming . The team members had some contact prior to their Olympic selection ; Brooks ' family had billeted Tonelli in 1976 when the Australian Olympic team held a training camp in Perth . Brooks cited his experience with Tonelli as a motivating factor in his career .
The quartet was also marked by rebellious and anti @-@ establishment tendencies . Tonelli and Kerry were expelled from the 1978 Commonwealth Games team by the Australian Swimming Union for violating a curfew during a training camp in Hawaii before the team 's trip to Edmonton , Canada for the competition ; Tonelli had been out drinking and admitted to smoking marijuana , which was not illegal in Hawaii , while Kerry had been courting a female . In 1980 , during the lead @-@ up to the selection of the Olympic team , Brooks walked out of a training camp , alleging that the coaches were neglecting him , while Evans once stopped during a training session and refused to do extra mileage , emphatically proclaiming that " work is a poor substitute for talent " . Later in their careers , Evans and Brooks continued to have their clashes with swimming officialdom ; Evans over his coaches ' demands for more training mileage and Brooks over swimmers ' human rights . Brooks was later suspended twice in his career for his clashes with swimming authorities , and expelled from the Australian Institute of Sport for indiscipline .
The rebel qualities of the group were on show in the lead up to the Olympics . An obstacle arose with the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , which resulted in a boycott of the Games by a large part of the Western world , led by the United States . The Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser was also the patron of the Australian Olympic Committee , and he and sections of the public put significant political pressure on the athletes to join the boycott . Tonelli realised that only the sportspeople would suffer from a boycott and that trade relations would continue unabated . He took a leadership role among the athletes , fighting for their right to compete and publicising their cause to the Australian community . Evans was fully supportive of Tonelli 's campaign , reflecting that " We were political tools , and the only ones to suffer would be us . " He rhetorically asked : " Do you really think that if we didn 't go someone would come up to us after the Games and pat us on the back for not going ? "
Kerry was equally adamant that he was going to compete , unlike some swimmers who decided to make personal boycotts . He received offers from Australian officials to not compete in return for financial payments . He said
I felt the biggest statement we could make was to go to Moscow and show the world . If there was a total boycott , fine , but trade was still going on . It was disgusting . Why should the athletes be made to suffer ?
According to women 's swimming captain Lisa Forrest , Tonelli adopted populist tactics in championing the athletes ' cause . He said that Fraser was sending " wheat to feed the Russian army , wool to clothe the army and Australian metal to make Russian guns " , claiming that this contradicted the proposed protest against the invasion and Russian military aggression . Tonelli 's anti @-@ authoritarian and individualistic style manifested itself during media appearances , including a news interview in which he debated with Reverend Lance Shilton , who had called the athletes traitors . Shilton expressed sympathy for the athletes , which Tonelli interpreted as condescension . He responded by rolling his eyes and twirling his finger , a gaffe that was shown on national television ; Tonelli mistakenly thought that only his voice was being broadcast at the time and that the images were showing something else . Forrest said that " the damage was done — one of our most prominent anti @-@ boycott lobbyists ... looked like a smart alec " .
= = Event history and expectations = =
The United States had always won the 4 × 100 m medley relay since the event 's inception at the Olympics in 1960 with comfortable margins . The closest winning buffer was 2 @.@ 6 seconds and in 1972 and 1976 they had won by 4 @.@ 10 and 3 @.@ 72 s respectively ; their boycott opened up the field in the event . In the five previous times the event had been contested , Australia 's best result had come in the inaugural race in Rome , where the team of David Theile , Terry Gathercole , Neville Hayes and Geoff Shipton out @-@ touched Japan to claim silver . The only other time that Australia had won a medal was in Tokyo in 1964 , when Peter Reynolds , Ian O 'Brien , Kevin Berry and David Dickson finished behind the United States and Germany . The following two Games saw a fourth placing and an elimination in the heats . The previous outing in 1976 in Montreal had seen Australia come sixth . Kerry was the only veteran of the 1976 relay team who returned to the Olympics in Moscow .
Australia was regarded by swimming analysts as a medal chance , but were not seen as the main threats — Sweden , Great Britain and the Soviet Union were the most heavily fancied teams . The hosts had the silver medallists in the 100 m backstroke and breaststroke , Viktor Kuznetsov and Arsens Miskarovs respectively , and their butterflyer Yevgeny Seredin had come fifth in his 100 m event . Their freestyler Sergey Kopliakov later came fourth in the corresponding 100 m event . The British boasted Duncan Goodhew , the 100 m breaststroke gold medallist , and Gary Abraham , who had placed fifth in the 100 m backstroke . Sweden 's butterflyer Pär Arvidsson and backstroker Bengt Baron had won their respective 100 m events and their freestyle swimmer Per Holmertz would win silver in the 100 m a few days later . Their weakest swimmer was the breaststroker Peter Berggren , who came ninth in the 100 m . On paper , Australia 's team paled in comparison . Brooks later came seventh in his 100 m freestyle semifinal and 14th overall after having an asthma attack , and Evans was Australia 's only medallist in the corresponding individual event , winning bronze in the breaststroke . Kerry had been eliminated in the 100 m backstroke semifinals , while Tonelli was the Australian champion in the 100 m freestyle and backstroke but was swimming as a makeshift butterflyer ; the nation did not have an entrant in the 100 m butterfly . Adding to the pressure was Australia 's failure to win any gold medals in any sport at the 1976 Olympics . This meant that the public were still awaiting their first gold since the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich . Coming into the Olympics , Australia was ranked seventh out of the thirteen competing countries .
= = Race = =
The medley relay was scheduled for Thursday , 24 July , the fifth day of swimming competition , with heats in the morning and the final in the evening . Australia 's prospects improved when Sweden was disqualified in the first heat . Australia and the Soviet Union swam in the second heat . With their superior depth , the home team was able to rest their entire first @-@ choice quartet in the heats . On the other hand , Australia was only willing to rest Kerry — Glenn Patching swam the backstroke leg in his place . The hosts led the Australians from the start and extended their margin over each of the first three legs . Brooks reclaimed 1 @.@ 34 s on the freestyle leg , but the Australians fell 0 @.@ 13 s short to come second in their heat . Nevertheless , the Australians still qualified in second place overall , as they and the Soviets were more than 1 @.@ 5 s faster than the third @-@ placed Hungarians . In any case , despite resting all of their first @-@ choice quartet , the home team were still faster than the Australians , who had fielded all but one of their full @-@ strength team .
Evans brashly took the opportunity to attempt to regain the psychological ascendancy from Goodhew , confronting him privately and stating that " we will win it " , later reporting that the Briton was astounded by his posturing . The eldest swimmer in the quartet at the age of 23 , Tonelli convened the team as its de facto leader . He asked his compatriots to commit to swimming their legs in a certain time ; Kerry vowed to swim the backstroke in 57 s , Evans the breaststroke in 63 s flat , Tonelli the butterfly in 54 s and Brooks promised to anchor the team in 49 @.@ 8 s , even though he had never gone faster than 51 s . Tonelli named the foursome the " Quietly Confident Quartet " because they exhibited a reserved self @-@ belief as they lined up for the race . Whereas most of the other teams were " psyching up " in the marshalling area , the Australians were remaining light @-@ hearted and placid , confident that they could perform in the water .
Patching was one of several backstrokers who had slipped on the starting area earlier in the meet , so Kerry decided to rub a sticky red substance onto the soles of his feet . The Soviet organisers had provided a carpet following the incidents , resulting in Kerry leaving red footprints in the stadium . Kerry led off in a time faster than his effort in the individual event , but it was still two seconds slower than his personal best . He finished his leg in 57 @.@ 87 s , leaving Australia in fourth place . Kuznetsov gave the Soviets the lead after posting a time of 56 @.@ 81 s , with Hungary and Great Britain in second and third place . France was the last to reach the 100 m mark , recording a time of 58 @.@ 84 s . Evans then swam a personal best of 63 @.@ 01 s , the fastest split among the breaststrokers by 0 @.@ 63 s . His leg moved Australia into second place at the halfway mark , just 0 @.@ 45 s behind the hosts and roughly half a second ahead of the British and the Hungarians . The four leading teams had broken away , leaving a two @-@ second gap back to the fifth @-@ placed East Germans .
Tonelli then swam his leg in 54 @.@ 94 s , almost two seconds faster than his previous best over the distance . He began to lose ground in the last 50 m and was a bodylength behind Seredin until a late surge brought him to within a metre by the time the swimmers touched the wall . If Tonelli had replicated his relay leg in the individual event , he would have claimed the silver medal . Although he lost 0 @.@ 36 s to Seredin , he had minimised his loss and Australia were within 0 @.@ 81 s going into the final leg . Furthermore , the Australians were now more than a second clear of the third placed Great Britain .
Brooks then executed a powerful , well @-@ timed dive and surfaced almost even with his Soviet counterpart Kopliakov . He had drawn level halfway through his leg and made a superior turn to take the lead as they headed home . The Soviet freestyler pulled level with 25 m to go before Brooks again pulled away to seal an Australian victory by 0 @.@ 22 s . He did not breathe in the last ten metres , and claimed to be laughing for the final five metres , confident that his opponent could not pass him . Brooks had finished his leg in 49 @.@ 86 s as he had vowed to his team mates . In doing so , he recorded the swiftest freestyle split in the relay , faster than that of the individual 100 m freestyle gold medallist , Jörg Woithe of East Germany .
The time of 3 m 45 @.@ 70 s sealed Australia 's first win in a medley relay at the Olympics , for men or women . It remains the only time that the United States has not won the men 's event . The team made a celebratory dive into the water and did a poolside interview . Tonelli remarked that " I was totally stunned . After all the hassle , and my being the athletes ' mouthpiece , we 'd come through and done it " . Forrest hailed the win as " a gold medal that should never have been " .
Sportscaster Norman May 's dramatic call of the race on the 2UE radio network , ending with " Gold , gold for Australia , gold ! " , became one of Australia 's best @-@ known and most iconic sports commentaries .
= = Government reaction = =
Relations between the Olympians and the Australian Government remained tense after months of political struggle regarding the boycott . A prime minister would customarily send a congratulatory message to Olympic medallists . However , the Australian Olympic chef de mission Phil Coles confirmed at the following day 's press conference that the quartet had not received a message from Fraser . Australian journalists soon bombarded Fraser 's office with phone calls asking why he had not applauded the athletes . Various members of the government recommended that Fraser congratulate the swimmers , but the prime minister baulked . When questioned in a radio interview , he said " I hope that circumstances do not arise over the next few years which will cause them to have very great regrets about the fact that they 've gone " . Fraser relented and late in the night , his office sent a telegram . However , he would not send his message directly to the Olympic village , so the telegram was sent to the Australian Embassy in Moscow . Fraser had ordered the Australian diplomatic mission to close its doors to the Olympians , so the embassy staff had to pass the envelopes containing the message through the fence to Australian Olympic officials . Fraser 's telegram said :
You know I did not and do not approve of Australia being represented at these Olympic Games . I do want to say however that your performance in the relay was a truly great sporting achievement . My personal congratulations .
Coles reported that the relay squad tore up the prime minister 's message .
= = Aftermath = =
The quartet never competed as a unit after the Moscow Olympics . Tonelli retired immediately after the Games , while Kerry took an extended break . The backstroker attempted a comeback in the leadup to the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane , but his abbreviated preparation before the selection trials was not enough and he was defeated by other swimmers . This left Evans and Brooks as the only members of the 1980 team to participate in Australia 's medley relay victory at the Commonwealth Games . In 1984 , Kerry secured a recall to the team as Australia 's preferred backstroker , while Brooks was surpassed by Mark Stockwell as the leading freestyler . Australia came third in the 1984 Summer Olympics in the medley relay as the Americans returned to the Olympic fold ; Evans and Kerry swam in the final , while Brooks did the freestyle leg in the heats . Evans and Kerry retired after the Olympics , and Brooks was not the first @-@ choice swimmer in 1986 , meaning that a totally different quartet competed in the medley relay at the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh . Brooks was suspended for drunken behaviour on the flight back to Australia , and then retired , and all four members of the Quietly Confident Quartet had departed the Australian swimming scene .
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= Long @-@ term potentiation =
In neuroscience , long @-@ term potentiation ( LTP ) is a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity . These are patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long @-@ lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons . The opposite of LTP is long @-@ term depression , which produces a long @-@ lasting decrease in synaptic strength .
It is one of several phenomena underlying synaptic plasticity , the ability of chemical synapses to change their strength . As memories are thought to be encoded by modification of synaptic strength , LTP is widely considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory .
LTP was discovered in the rabbit hippocampus by Terje Lømo in 1966 and has remained a popular subject of research since . Many modern LTP studies seek to better understand its basic biology , while others aim to draw a causal link between LTP and behavioral learning . Still others try to develop methods , pharmacologic or otherwise , of enhancing LTP to improve learning and memory . LTP is also a subject of clinical research , for example , in the areas of Alzheimer 's disease and addiction medicine .
= = History = =
= = = Early theories of learning = = =
At the end of the 19th century , scientists generally recognized that the number of neurons in the adult brain ( roughly 100 billion ) did not increase significantly with age , giving neurobiologists good reason to believe that memories were generally not the result of new neuron production . With this realization came the need to explain how memories could form in the absence of new neurons .
The Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal was among the first to suggest a mechanism of learning that did not require the formation of new neurons . In his 1894 Croonian Lecture , he proposed that memories might instead be formed by strengthening the connections between existing neurons to improve the effectiveness of their communication . Hebbian theory , introduced by Donald Hebb in 1949 , echoed Ramón y Cajal 's ideas , further proposing that cells may grow new connections or undergo metabolic changes that enhance their ability to communicate :
Let us assume that the persistence or repetition of a reverberatory activity ( or " trace " ) tends to induce lasting cellular changes that add to its stability .... When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it , some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A 's efficiency , as one of the cells firing B , is increased .
Though these theories of memory formation are now well established , they were farsighted for their time : late 19th and early 20th century neuroscientists and psychologists were not equipped with the neurophysiological techniques necessary for elucidating the biological underpinnings of learning in animals . These skills would not come until the later half of the 20th century , at about the same time as the discovery of long @-@ term potentiation .
= = = Discovery = = =
LTP was first observed by Terje Lømo in 1966 in the Oslo , Norway , laboratory of Per Andersen . There , Lømo conducted a series of neurophysiological experiments on anesthetized rabbits to explore the role of the hippocampus in short @-@ term memory .
Lømo 's experiments focused on connections , or synapses , from the perforant pathway to the dentate gyrus . These experiments were carried out by stimulating presynaptic fibers of the perforant pathway and recording responses from a collection of postsynaptic cells of the dentate gyrus . As expected , a single pulse of electrical stimulation to fibers of the perforant pathway caused excitatory postsynaptic potentials ( EPSPs ) in cells of the dentate gyrus . What Lømo unexpectedly observed was that the postsynaptic cells ' response to these single @-@ pulse stimuli could be enhanced for a long period of time if he first delivered a high @-@ frequency train of stimuli to the presynaptic fibers . When such a train of stimuli was applied , subsequent single @-@ pulse stimuli elicited stronger , prolonged EPSPs in the postsynaptic cell population . This phenomenon , whereby a high @-@ frequency stimulus could produce a long @-@ lived enhancement in the postsynaptic cells ' response to subsequent single @-@ pulse stimuli , was initially called " long @-@ lasting potentiation " .
Timothy Bliss , who joined the Andersen laboratory in 1968 , collaborated with Lømo and in 1973 the two published the first characterization of long @-@ lasting potentiation in the rabbit hippocampus . Bliss and Tony Gardner @-@ Medwin published a similar report of long @-@ lasting potentiation in the awake animal which appeared in the same issue as the Bliss and Lømo report . In 1975 , Douglas and Goddard proposed " long @-@ term potentiation " as a new name for the phenomenon of long @-@ lasting potentiation . Andersen suggested that the authors chose " long @-@ term potentiation " perhaps because of its easily pronounced acronym , " LTP " .
= = = Models and theory = = =
The physical and biological mechanism of LTP is still not understood , but some successful models have been developed . [ 1 ] Studies of dendritic spines , protruding structures on dendrites that physically grow and retract over the course of minutes or hours , have suggested a relationship between the electrical resistance of the spine and the effective synapse strength , due to their relationship with intracellular calcium transients . Mathematical models such as BCM Theory , which depends also on intracellular calcium in relation to NMDA receptor voltage gates , have been developed since the 1980s and modify the traditional a priori Hebbian learning model with both biological and experimental justification . Still others have proposed re @-@ arranging or synchronizing the relationship between receptor regulation , LTP , and synaptic strength .
= = Types = =
Since its original discovery in the rabbit hippocampus , LTP has been observed in a variety of other neural structures , including the cerebral cortex , cerebellum , amygdala , and many others . Robert Malenka , a prominent LTP researcher , has suggested that LTP may even occur at all excitatory synapses in the mammalian brain .
Different areas of the brain exhibit different forms of LTP . The specific type of LTP exhibited between neurons depends on a number of factors . One such factor is the age of the organism when LTP is observed . For example , the molecular mechanisms of LTP in the immature hippocampus differ from those mechanisms that underlie LTP of the adult hippocampus . The signalling pathways used by a particular cell also contribute to the specific type of LTP present . For example , some types of hippocampal LTP depend on the NMDA receptor , others may depend upon the metabotropic glutamate receptor ( mGluR ) , while still others depend upon another molecule altogether . The variety of signaling pathways that contribute to LTP and the wide distribution of these various pathways in the brain are reasons that the type of LTP exhibited between neurons depends in part upon the anatomic location in which LTP is observed . For example , LTP in the Schaffer collateral pathway of the hippocampus is NMDA receptor @-@ dependent , whereas LTP in the mossy fiber pathway is NMDA receptor @-@ independent .
The pre- and postsynaptic activity required to induce LTP are other criteria by which LTP is classified . Broadly , this allows classification of LTP into Hebbian , non @-@ Hebbian , and anti @-@ Hebbian mechanisms . Borrowing its name from Hebb 's postulate , summarized by the maxim that " cells that fire together wire together , " Hebbian LTP requires simultaneous pre- and postsynaptic depolarization for its induction . Non @-@ Hebbian LTP is a type of LTP that does not require such simultaneous depolarization of pre- and postsynaptic cells ; an example of this occurs in the mossy fiber hippocampal pathway . A special case of non @-@ Hebbian LTP , anti @-@ Hebbian LTP explicitly requires simultaneous presynaptic depolarization and relative postsynaptic hyperpolarization for its induction .
Owing to its predictable organization and readily inducible LTP , the CA1 hippocampus has become the prototypical site of mammalian LTP study . In particular , NMDA receptor @-@ dependent LTP in the adult CA1 hippocampus is the most widely studied type of LTP , and is therefore the focus of this article .
= = Properties = =
NMDA receptor @-@ dependent LTP exhibits several properties , including input specificity , associativity , cooperativity , and persistence .
Input specificity
Once induced , LTP at one synapse does not spread to other synapses ; rather LTP is input specific . Long @-@ term potentiation is only propagated to those synapses according to the rules of associativity and cooperativity . However , the input specificity of LTP may be incomplete at short distances . One model to explain the input specificity of LTP was presented by Frey and Morris in 1997 and is called the synaptic tagging and capture hypothesis .
Associativity
Associativity refers to the observation that when weak stimulation of a single pathway is insufficient for the induction of LTP , simultaneous strong stimulation of another pathway will induce LTP at both pathways .
Cooperativity
LTP can be induced either by strong tetanic stimulation of a single pathway to a synapse , or cooperatively via the weaker stimulation of many . When one pathway into a synapse is stimulated weakly , it produces insufficient postsynaptic depolarization to induce LTP . In contrast , when weak stimuli are applied to many pathways that converge on a single patch of postsynaptic membrane , the individual postsynaptic depolarizations generated may collectively depolarize the postsynaptic cell enough to induce LTP cooperatively . Synaptic tagging , discussed later , may be a common mechanism underlying associativity and cooperativity . Bruce McNaughton argues that any difference between associativity and cooperativity is strictly semantic .
Persistence
LTP is persistent , lasting from several minutes to many months , and it is this persistence that separates LTP from other forms of synaptic plasticity .
= = = Early phase = = =
= = = = Maintenance = = = =
While induction entails the transient activation of CaMKII and PKC , maintenance of E @-@ LTP ( early @-@ form LTP ) is characterized by their persistent activation . During this stage , PKMz ( Protein kinase Mζ ) which does not have dependence on calcium , become autonomously active . Consequently , they are able to carry out the phosphorylation events that underlie E @-@ LTP expression .
= = = = Expression = = = =
Phosphorylation is a chemical reaction in which a small phosphate group is added to another molecule to change that molecule 's activity . Autonomously active CaMKII and PKC use phosphorylation to carry out the two major mechanisms underlying the expression of E @-@ LTP . First , and most importantly , they phosphorylate existing AMPA receptors to increase their activity . Second , they mediate or modulate the insertion of additional AMPA receptors into the postsynaptic membrane . Importantly , the delivery of AMPA receptors to the synapse during E @-@ LTP is independent of protein synthesis . This is achieved by having a nonsynaptic pool of AMPA receptors adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane . When the appropriate LTP @-@ inducing stimulus arrives , nonsynaptic AMPA receptors are rapidly trafficked into the postsynaptic membrane under the influence of protein kinases . As mentioned previously , AMPA receptors are the brain 's most abundant glutamate receptors and mediate the majority of its excitatory activity . By increasing the efficiency and number of AMPA receptors at the synapse , future excitatory stimuli generate larger postsynaptic responses .
While the above model of E @-@ LTP describes entirely postsynaptic mechanisms for induction , maintenance , and expression , an additional component of expression may occur presynaptically . One hypothesis of this presynaptic facilitation is that persistent CaMKII activity in the postsynaptic cell during E @-@ LTP may lead to the synthesis of a " retrograde messenger " , discussed later . According to this hypothesis , the newly synthesized messenger travels across the synaptic cleft from the postsynaptic to the presynaptic cell , leading to a chain of events that facilitate the presynaptic response to subsequent stimuli . Such events may include an increase in neurotransmitter vesicle number , probability of vesicle release , or both . In addition to the retrograde messenger underlying presynaptic expression in early LTP , the retrograde messenger may also play a role in the expression of late LTP .
= = = Late phase = = =
Late LTP ( L @-@ LTP ) is the natural extension of E @-@ LTP . Unlike E @-@ LTP , which is independent of protein synthesis , L @-@ LTP requires gene transcription and protein synthesis in the postsynaptic cell . Two phases of L @-@ LTP exist : the first depends upon protein synthesis , while the second depends upon both gene transcription and protein synthesis . These phases are occasionally called LTP2 and LTP3 , respectively , with E @-@ LTP referred to as LTP1 under this nomenclature .
= = = = Induction = = = =
Late LTP is induced by changes in gene expression and protein synthesis brought about by the persistent activation of protein kinases activated during E @-@ LTP , such as MAPK . In fact , MAPK — specifically the extracellular signal @-@ regulated kinase ( ERK ) subfamily of MAPKs — may be the molecular link between E @-@ LTP and L @-@ LTP , since many signaling cascades involved in E @-@ LTP , including CaMKII and PKC , can converge on ERK . Recent research has shown that the induction of L @-@ LTP can depend on coincident molecular events , namely PKA activation and calcium influx , that converge on CRTC1 ( TORC1 ) , a potent transcriptional coactivator for cAMP response element binding protein ( CREB ) . This requirement for a molecular coincidence accounts perfectly for the associative nature of LTP , and , presumably , for that of learning .
= = = = Maintenance = = = =
Upon activation , ERK may phosphorylate a number of cytoplasmic and nuclear molecules that ultimately result in the protein synthesis and morphological changes observed in L @-@ LTP . These cytoplasmic and nuclear molecules may include transcription factors such as CREB . ERK @-@ mediated changes in transcription factor activity may trigger the synthesis of proteins that underlie the maintenance of L @-@ LTP . One such molecule may be protein kinase Mζ ( PKMζ ) , a persistently active kinase whose synthesis increases following LTP induction . PKMζ is an atypical isoform of PKC that lacks a regulatory subunit and thus remains constitutively active . Unlike other kinases that mediate LTP , PKMζ is active not just in the first 30 minutes following LTP induction ; rather , PKMζ becomes a requirement for LTP maintenance only during the late phase of LTP . PKMζ thus appears important for the persistence of memory and would be expected to be important in the maintenance of long @-@ term memory . Indeed , administration of a PKMζ inhibitor into the hippocampus of the rat results in retrograde amnesia with intact short @-@ term memory ; PKMζ does not play a role in the establishment of short @-@ term memory . PKMζ has recently been shown to underlie L @-@ LTP maintenance by directing the trafficking and reorganization of proteins in the synaptic scaffolding that underlie the expression of L @-@ LTP . Even more recently , transgenic mice lacking PKMζ demonstrate normal LTP , questioning the necessity of PKMζ
The long @-@ term stabilization of synaptic changes is also determined by a parallel increase of pre- and postsynaptic structures such as axonal bouton , dendritic spine and postsynaptic density . On the molecular level , an increase of the postsynaptic scaffolding proteins PSD @-@ 95 and Homer1c has been shown to correlate with the stabilization of synaptic enlargement .
= = = = Expression = = = =
The identities of only a few proteins synthesized during L @-@ LTP are known . Regardless of their identities , it is thought that they contribute to the increase in dendritic spine number , surface area , and postsynaptic sensitivity to neurotransmitter associated with L @-@ LTP expression . The latter may be brought about in part by the enhanced synthesis of AMPA receptors during L @-@ LTP . Late LTP is also associated with the presynaptic synthesis of synaptotagmin and an increase in synaptic vesicle number , suggesting that L @-@ LTP induces protein synthesis not only in postsynaptic cells , but in presynaptic cells as well . As mentioned previously , for postsynaptic LTP induction to result in presynaptic protein synthesis , there must be communication from the postsynaptic to the presynaptic cell . This may occur via the synthesis of a retrograde messenger , discussed later .
Even in studies restricted to postsynaptic events , investigators have not determined the location of the protein synthesis that underlies L @-@ LTP . Specifically , it is unclear whether protein synthesis takes place in the postsynaptic cell body or in its dendrites . Despite having observed ribosomes ( the major components of the protein synthesis machinery ) in dendrites as early as the 1960s , prevailing wisdom was that the cell body was the predominant site of protein synthesis in neurons . This reasoning was not seriously challenged until the 1980s , when investigators reported observing protein synthesis in dendrites whose connection to their cell body had been severed . More recently , investigators have demonstrated that this type of local protein synthesis is necessary for some types of LTP .
One reason for the popularity of the local protein synthesis hypothesis is that it provides a possible mechanism for the specificity associated with LTP . Specifically , if indeed local protein synthesis underlies L @-@ LTP , only dendritic spines receiving LTP @-@ inducing stimuli will undergo LTP ; the potentiation will not be propagated to adjacent synapses . By contrast , global protein synthesis that occurs in the cell body requires that proteins be shipped out to every area of the cell , including synapses that have not received LTP @-@ inducing stimuli . Whereas local protein synthesis provides a mechanism for specificity , global protein synthesis would seem to directly compromise it . However , as discussed later , the synaptic tagging hypothesis successfully reconciles global protein synthesis , synapse specificity , and associativity .
= = = Retrograde signaling = = =
Retrograde signaling is a hypothesis that attempts to explain that , while LTP is induced and expressed postsynaptically , some evidence suggests that it is expressed presynaptically as well . The hypothesis gets its name because normal synaptic transmission is directional and proceeds from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cell . For induction to occur postsynaptically and be partially expressed presynaptically , a message must travel from the postsynaptic cell to the presynaptic cell in a retrograde ( reverse ) direction . Once there , the message presumably initiates a cascade of events that leads to a presynaptic component of expression , such as the increased probability of neurotransmitter vesicle release .
Retrograde signaling is currently a contentious subject as some investigators do not believe the presynaptic cell contributes at all to the expression of LTP . Even among proponents of the hypothesis there is controversy over the identity of the messenger . Early thoughts focused on nitric oxide , while most recent evidence points to cell adhesion proteins .
= = = Synaptic tagging = = =
Before the local protein synthesis hypothesis gained significant support , there was general agreement that the protein synthesis underlying L @-@ LTP occurred in the cell body . Further , there was thought that the products of this synthesis were shipped cell @-@ wide in a nonspecific manner . It thus became necessary to explain how protein synthesis could occur in the cell body without compromising LTP 's input specificity . The synaptic tagging hypothesis attempts to solve the cell 's difficult problem of synthesizing proteins in the cell body but ensuring they only reach synapses that have received LTP @-@ inducing stimuli .
The synaptic tagging hypothesis proposes that a " synaptic tag " is synthesized at synapses that have received LTP @-@ inducing stimuli , and that this synaptic tag may serve to capture plasticity @-@ related proteins shipped cell @-@ wide from the cell body . Studies of LTP in the marine snail Aplysia californica have implicated synaptic tagging as a mechanism for the input @-@ specificity of LTP . There is some evidence that given two widely separated synapses , an LTP @-@ inducing stimulus at one synapse drives several signaling cascades ( described previously ) that initiates gene expression in the cell nucleus . At the same synapse ( but not the unstimulated synapse ) , local protein synthesis creates a short @-@ lived ( less than three hours ) synaptic tag . The products of gene expression are shipped globally throughout the cell , but are only captured by synapses that express the synaptic tag . Thus only the synapse receiving LTP @-@ inducing stimuli is potentiated , demonstrating LTP 's input specificity .
The synaptic tag hypothesis may also account for LTP 's associativity and cooperativity . Associativity ( see Properties ) is observed when one synapse is excited with LTP @-@ inducing stimulation while a separate synapse is only weakly stimulated . Whereas one might expect only the strongly stimulated synapse to undergo LTP ( since weak stimulation alone is insufficient to induce LTP at either synapse ) , both synapses will in fact undergo LTP . While weak stimuli are unable to induce protein synthesis in the cell body , they may prompt the synthesis of a synaptic tag . Simultaneous strong stimulation of a separate pathway , capable of inducing cell body protein synthesis , then may prompt the production of plasticity @-@ related proteins , which are shipped cell @-@ wide . With both synapses expressing the synaptic tag , both would capture the protein products resulting in the expression of LTP in both the strongly stimulated and weakly stimulated pathways .
Cooperativity is observed when two synapses are activated by weak stimuli incapable of inducing LTP when stimulated individually . But upon simultaneous weak stimulation , both synapses undergo LTP in a cooperative fashion . Synaptic tagging does not explain how multiple weak stimuli can result in a collective stimulus sufficient to induce LTP ( this is explained by the postsynaptic summation of EPSPs described previously ) . Rather , synaptic tagging explains the ability of weakly stimulated synapses , none of which are capable of independently generating LTP , to receive the products of protein synthesis initiated collectively . As before , this may be accomplished through the synthesis of a local synaptic tag following weak synaptic stimulation .
= = = Modulation = = =
As described previously , the molecules that underlie LTP can be classified as mediators or modulators . A mediator of LTP is a molecule , such as the NMDA receptor or calcium , whose presence and activity is necessary for generating LTP under nearly all conditions . By contrast , a modulator is a molecule that can alter LTP but is not essential for its generation or expression .
In addition to the signaling pathways described above , hippocampal LTP may be altered by a variety of modulators . For example , the steroid hormone estradiol may enhance LTP by driving CREB phosphorylation and subsequent dendritic spine growth . Additionally , β @-@ adrenergic receptor agonists such as norepinephrine may alter the protein synthesis @-@ dependent late phase of LTP . Nitric oxide synthase activity may also result in the subsequent activation of guanylyl cyclase and PKG . Similarly , activation of dopamine receptors may enhance LTP through the cAMP / PKA signaling pathway .
= = Relationship to behavioral memory = =
While the long @-@ term potentiation of synapses in cell culture seems to provide an elegant substrate for learning and memory , the contribution of LTP to behavioral learning — that is , learning at the level of the whole organism — cannot simply be extrapolated from in vitro studies . For this reason , considerable effort has been dedicated to establishing whether LTP is a requirement for learning and memory in living animals . Because of this , LTP also plays a crucial role in fear processing .
= = = Spatial memory = = =
In 1986 , Richard Morris provided some of the first evidence that LTP was indeed required for the formation of memories in vivo . He tested the spatial memory of rats by pharmacologically modifying their hippocampus , a brain structure whose role in spatial learning is well established . Rats were trained on the Morris water maze , a spatial memory task in which rats swim in a pool of murky water until they locate the platform hidden beneath its surface . During this exercise , normal rats are expected to associate the location of the hidden platform with salient cues placed at specific positions around the circumference of the maze . After training , one group of rats had their hippocampi bathed in the NMDA receptor blocker APV , while the other group served as the control . Both groups were then subjected to the water maze spatial memory task . Rats in the control group were able to locate the platform and escape from the pool , while the performance of APV @-@ treated rats was significantly impaired . Moreover , when slices of the hippocampus were taken from both groups , LTP was easily induced in controls , but could not be induced in the brains of APV @-@ treated rats . This provided early evidence that the NMDA receptor — and by extension , LTP — was required for at least some types of learning and memory .
Similarly , Susumu Tonegawa demonstrated in 1996 that the CA1 area of the hippocampus is crucial to the formation of spatial memories in living mice . So @-@ called place cells located in this region become active only when the rat is in a particular location — called a place field — in the environment . Since these place fields are distributed throughout the environment , one interpretation is that groups of place cells form maps in the hippocampus . The accuracy of these maps determines how well a rat learns about its environment and thus how well it can navigate it . Tonegawa found that by impairing the NMDA receptor , specifically by genetically removing the NR1 subunit in the CA1 region , the place fields generated were substantially less specific than those of controls . That is , mice produced faulty spatial maps when their NMDA receptors were impaired . As expected , these mice performed very poorly on spatial tasks compared to controls , further supporting the role of LTP in spatial learning .
= = = Inhibitory avoidance = = =
In 2006 , Jonathan Whitlock and colleagues reported on a series of experiments that provided perhaps the strongest evidence of LTP 's role in behavioral memory , arguing that to conclude that LTP underlies behavioral learning , the two processes must both mimic and occlude one another . Employing an inhibitory avoidance learning paradigm , researchers trained rats in a two @-@ chambered apparatus with light and dark chambers , the latter being fitted with a device that delivered a foot shock to the rat upon entry . An analysis of CA1 hippocampal synapses revealed that inhibitory avoidance training induced in vivo AMPA receptor phosphorylation of the same type as that seen in LTP in vitro ; that is , inhibitory avoidance training mimicked LTP . In addition , synapses potentiated during training could not be further potentiated by experimental manipulations that would have otherwise induced LTP ; that is , inhibitory avoidance training occluded LTP . In a response to the article , Timothy Bliss and colleagues remarked that these and related experiments " substantially advance the case for LTP as a neural mechanism for memory . "
= = Clinical significance = =
The role of LTP in disease is less clear than its role in basic mechanisms of synaptic plasticity . However , alterations in LTP may contribute to a number of neurological diseases , including depression , Parkinson 's disease , epilepsy , and neuropathic pain . Impaired LTP may also have a role in Alzheimer 's disease and drug addiction .
= = = Alzheimer 's disease = = =
LTP has received much attention among those who study Alzheimer 's disease ( AD ) , a neurodegenerative disease that causes marked cognitive decline and dementia . Much of this deterioration occurs in association with degenerative changes in the hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe structures . Because of the hippocampus ' well established role in LTP , some have suggested that the cognitive decline seen in individuals with AD may result from impaired LTP .
In a 2003 review of the literature , Rowan et al. proposed one model for how LTP might be affected in AD . AD appears to result , at least in part , from misprocessing of amyloid precursor protein ( APP ) . The result of this abnormal processing is the accumulation of fragments of this protein , called amyloid β ( Aβ ) . Aβ exists in both soluble and fibrillar forms . Misprocessing of APP results in the accumulation of soluble Aβ that , according to Rowan 's hypothesis , impairs hippocampal LTP and may lead to the cognitive decline seen early in AD .
AD may also impair LTP through mechanisms distinct from Aβ . For example , one study demonstrated that the enzyme PKMζ accumulates in neurofibrillary tangles , which are a pathologic marker of AD . PKMζ is an enzyme with critical importance in the maintenance of late LTP .
= = = Drug addiction = = =
Research in the field of addiction medicine has also recently turned its focus to LTP , owing to the hypothesis that drug addiction represents a powerful form of learning and memory . Addiction is a complex neurobehavioral phenomenon involving various parts of the brain , such as the ventral tegmental area ( VTA ) and nucleus accumbens ( NAc ) . Studies have demonstrated that VTA and NAc synapses are capable of undergoing LTP and that this LTP may be responsible for the behaviors that characterize addiction .
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= The War for Late Night =
The War for Late Night : When Leno Went Early and Television Went Crazy is a 2010 non @-@ fiction book written by The New York Times media reporter Bill Carter . It chronicles the 2010 conflict surrounding the American late @-@ night talk show The Tonight Show involving Conan O 'Brien and Jay Leno . It is a sequel to Carter 's 1994 book The Late Shift , which detailed the struggle for the hosting spot on The Tonight Show between David Letterman and Jay Leno in the early 1990s following the retirement of Johnny Carson . It was first published on November 4 , 2010 , by Viking Press .
The book received a generally favorable reception from reviewers including the Associated Press , BusinessWeek , The Buffalo News , New York Magazine , Star Tribune , The Hollywood Reporter , The Washington Post , Entertainment Weekly , the New York Post , the Los Angeles Times , Time magazine , and ABC News . The Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal said , " The War for Late Night ... offers an exhaustive , eye @-@ opening , how @-@ could @-@ he @-@ possibly @-@ know @-@ that look at the late @-@ night feud that ultimately was a muddled victory for Leno : He won back ' The Tonight Show , ' but his ratings have fallen below O 'Brien 's . "
= = Background = =
Author Bill Carter previously wrote The Late Shift , a book about the 1992 conflict between Jay Leno and David Letterman to decide who would succeed Johnny Carson as host of The Tonight Show . The book was well received by critics from publications including The New York Times Book Review , and The Christian Science Monitor . A film adaptation of the book , which won several industry awards , was produced in 1996 by HBO .
= = Research = =
Carter researched for the book during 2010 . He had secured a publishing deal for the book by January of that year . Carter confirmed to Gillian Reagan of Business Insider that in his research , he tried to gather information from multiple viewpoints . He said , " I 'm reaching out to everyone I possibly can to get every side of the story . " Carter said that he was remaining neutral about the 2010 Tonight Show conflict . " I obviously have to reach out to all sides " , he said . " For the longest time , I personally tried to watch as many episodes of all the shows as I could to get sense of each show , and what each guy does . I don 't just pick one and stick with that guy . " Carter researched the impact of financial decision @-@ making on the controversy . He said he had known Leno for a long time , and O 'Brien since he began working for NBC , and that these connections gave him the benefit of familiarity .
= = Contents = =
The War for Late Night chronicles the 2010 conflict surrounding the American late @-@ night talk show The Tonight Show involving Conan O 'Brien and Jay Leno . Carter gives biographical description of other late @-@ night television personalities , including David Letterman , Jimmy Fallon , Jimmy Kimmel , Craig Ferguson , Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert . As host of Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , O 'Brien decided to remain with NBC after attempts by ABC and Fox to attract him to their networks — as NBC executives had told O 'Brien that he would become host of The Tonight Show after Leno 's retirement . While hosting The Tonight Show and analyzing ratings results , O 'Brien told his manager Gavin Polone that he feared that Leno might be moved back to the program . Carter 's book contains details of O 'Brien 's and Leno 's contracts , and describes O 'Brien 's emotional state during the 2010 conflict . According to Carter , Leno had an advantage during negotiations because of a stronger contract agreement with NBC , which gave Leno the option to sue NBC if his program was canceled .
NBC executives tried to solve the problem so that both Leno and O 'Brien would keep their jobs . Jeff Gaspin , the chairman of NBC Universal Television , instructed both parties that he did not wish to make a difficult decision but that the most appropriate solution was to move Leno back to his previous timeslot and push O 'Brien to 12 : 05 . Carter details a heated exchange between NBC executive Jeff Zucker and O 'Brien 's agent Rick Rosen during which Zucker told O 'Brien 's representatives he could enforce O 'Brien 's contract and " ice him for two years " , after details of the conflict were leaked to the media . The author cites O 'Brien 's disappointment with the perceived unfairness of the situation , and quotes O 'Brien 's comments at a meeting with NBC Entertainment and Universal Media Studios chairman Marc Graboff and Jeff Gaspin , " I know how hard I worked for this . It was promised to me . I had a shitty lead @-@ in . " Carter recounts how affiliates of NBC complained to the network about the poor ratings performance of Leno 's program The Jay Leno Show . O 'Brien asked the two NBC executives , " What does Jay have on you ? What does this guy have on you people ? What the hell is it about Jay ? "
Carter writes about how the " Team Coco " movement and fans impacted O 'Brien following the controversy , " The outpouring of support made Conan feel as if he was starring in his own version of the movie It 's a Wonderful Life , both because he was allowed to see a ' Tonight Show ' where he never existed and because the support made him realize he really was ' the richest man in town . ' " O 'Brien was hurt by the fact that Leno did not communicate directly with him during the fiasco . Carter also says that compared to the eventual payout to O 'Brien of $ 45 million , NBC would have suffered a financial loss of $ 235 million if O 'Brien had left the company in 2004 to host a talk show for another network . O 'Brien moved from NBC to host his own late night program on TBS . Carter 's work concludes with an interview from comic Jerry Seinfeld , who favored Leno ; Seinfeld argues that O 'Brien should have remained at NBC .
= = Reception = =
Writing for the New York Post , Larry Getlen wrote , " Veteran journalist Bill Carter details the vicious recent battle over ' The Tonight Show , ' showing how Leno was hardly the devious schemer he was made out to be , and how O ’ Brien was not always the angelic innocent the media portrayed , as he and his team aggressively pursued the show at every opportunity . " Jon Bershad of Mediaite commented , " It ’ s as tense and exciting as expected . " Writing for TV Squad , Joel Keller analyzed Carter 's comparison of Leno 's legal contract with O 'Brien 's , and wrote that the author " paints a picture of Leno and his producer , Debbie Vickers , as pragmatists and Conan as a cockeyed idealist " . Joe Flint of the Los Angeles Times commented about changes in the media industry since Carter 's prior book The Late Shift , " The only difference is that the media world has changed a lot then , and while " The Late Shift " had a lot of inside dirt and drama that was news to everyone but the most hardcore industry insiders , this time around the soap opera played out on TV and in the media . " James Poniewozik of Time magazine wrote , " There are lots of juicy bits , but the big takeaway : the guy with the best contract , wins " , and called the book , " Bill Carter 's Jaypocalypse dirt @-@ disher " . Writing for ABC News , journalist Sheila Marikar commented , " Bill Carter 's new book , ' The War for Late Night , ' reveals what happened behind the scenes , the expletives that were hurled during closed @-@ door discussions , the roller coaster that O 'Brien , Leno , and their cohorts rode during that tumultuous time . "
Frazier Moore of Associated Press wrote , " He plays this latest late @-@ night conflagration right down the middle . He keeps the story moving almost cinematically , crosscutting from one personality to another , deftly and revealingly presenting different points of view . " Writing for BusinessWeek , Jim Windolf gave the book a rating of three stars out of a possible five , and commented , " Bill Carter has become the Bob Woodward of the 11 : 35 time slot . " Paula Duffy of HULIQ News described the book as " a juicy tell @-@ all " . Dylan Stableford of TheWrap called the book " a must @-@ read " for fans of Conan O 'Brien . Jeff Simon of The Buffalo News called the book a " definitive history " of the 2010 Tonight Show conflict . Willa Paskin wrote for New York Magazine that Carter , " spoke with enough people involved in the situation to provide an account so detailed , it even includes re @-@ created conversations and dialogue " . Neal Justin of Star Tribune commented on the author 's neutrality in his writing style , " The next time network TV executives stumble into an ugly behind @-@ the @-@ scenes battle , they should consider hiring Bill Carter to negotiate . The veteran New York Times media reporter has a way of sharing juicy stories without painting anyone as a complete saint or sinner , a feat he pulls off again in his latest book , ' The War for Late Night : When Leno Went Early and Television Went Crazy ' " .
Nate Jones wrote for Time magazine , " There are no landmark surprises — Jay Leno comes off as affably opportunistic , Conan O 'Brien as a tragic self @-@ dramatist with a little bit of a martyrdom complex — but it 's a worthwhile look at the procedural negotiations that led to last winter 's messy divorce . " The Hollywood Reporter said , " Bill Carter 's book reveals explosive new details about the Jay Leno @-@ O 'Brien debacle . " Kyle Anderson of MTV.com wrote , " the story takes an amazingly candid look at the conversations and arguments that went on behind the scenes . It even takes you to the moment when O 'Brien decides that he has to walk away from ' The Tonight Show . ' " Paul Schwartzman of The Washington Post wrote that it " is a great read and an example of narrative journalism 's power when practiced by a reporter steeped in his subject matter . " Lynette Rice of Entertainment Weekly gave Carter 's book a rating of B- , and wrote , " In the end , Carter presents a pretty compelling argument that while the fourth @-@ place network lost the public relations war , it probably won the late @-@ night battle . " Speaking on his program The Howard Stern Show , host Howard Stern said of Carter 's writing style , " It is just endlessly fascinating the way he paints this picture . "
= = Film adaptation = =
On January 19 , 2010 , during O 'Brien 's last week of shows , guest Quentin Tarantino jokingly suggested that he direct a sequel to The Late Shift , cast O 'Brien as himself and make it a revenge movie in the style of his film Kill Bill with the title Late Shift 2 : The Rolling Thunder of Revenge . The Toronto Star reported in February 2010 that a sequel to The Late Shift film was in planning stages . In the final episode of The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien , O 'Brien said he wished that actress Tilda Swinton could portray him in a film version about The Tonight Show conflict . Swinton subsequently expressed interest in being cast as O 'Brien in a sequel to The Late Shift .
When asked in a June 2010 interview with Movieline whether there would be film adaptation of the book , Carter said that plans were not serious at that point , and , " Not really . Nothing serious . Let 's put it this way : There have always been people kicking it around because they think it 's funny ... Letterman made a ... joke saying that Max von Sydow should play him . So , you know , people are just kicking it around like that . " Actor Bob Balaban , who portrayed NBC executive Warren Littlefield in The Late Shift said he would like to portray Jeff Zucker , and said Jason Alexander would also be a good choice to play Zucker . Andy Richter jokingly told Movieline that he would want Justin Bieber to portray him in a film adaptation of the book .
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= Jack Russell Terrier =
The Jack Russell Terrier is a small terrier that has its origins in fox hunting . It is principally white @-@ bodied and smooth , rough or broken @-@ coated .
The Jack Russell is frequently confused with the Parson Russell terrier ( see the American Kennel Club ) and the Russell terrier , which is a shorter @-@ legged , stockier variety . ( Within the Fédération Cynologique Internationale , the " Russell terrier " is also known as " Jack Russell terrier " . ) The term " Jack Russell " is also commonly misapplied to other small white terriers . The Jack Russell is a broad type , with a size range of 10 – 15 inches ( 25 – 38 cm ) . The Parson Russell is limited only to a middle range with a standard size of 12 – 14 inches ( 30 – 36 cm ) , while the Russell terrier is smaller at 8 – 12 inches ( 20 – 30 cm ) . Each breed has different physical proportions according to the standards of their breed clubs .
Jack Russells are an energetic breed that rely on a high level of exercise and stimulation , and are relatively free from serious health complaints . Originating from dogs bred and used by Reverend John Russell in the early 19th century , from whom the breed takes its name , the Jack Russell has similar origins to the modern Fox terrier . It has gone through several changes over the years , corresponding to different use and breed standards set by kennel clubs . Recognition by kennel clubs for the Jack Russell breed has been opposed by the breed 's parent societies – which resulted in the breeding and recognition of the Parson Russell terrier . Jack Russells have appeared many times in film , television and print - with several historical dogs of note .
= = History = =
= = = Sporting parson = = =
The small white @-@ fox working terriers we know today were first bred by the Reverend Jack Russell , a parson and hunting enthusiast born in 1795 , and they can trace their origin to the now extinct English White terrier . Difficulty in differentiating the dog from the creature it was pursuing brought about the need for a mostly white dog , and so in 1819 during his last year of university at Exeter College , Oxford , he purchased a small white and tan terrier female named Trump from a local milkman in the nearby small hamlet of Elsfield or Marston ) . Trump epitomised his ideal Fox terrier , which , at the time , was a term used for any terrier which was used to bolt foxes out of their burrows . Her colouring was described as " ... white , with just a patch of dark tan over each eye and ear ; whilst a similar dot , not larger than a penny piece , marks the root of the tail . " Davies , a friend of Russell 's , wrote " Trump was such an animal as Russell had only seen in his dreams " . She was the basis for a breeding program to develop a terrier with high stamina for the hunt as well as the courage and formation to chase out foxes that had gone to ground . By the 1850s , these dogs were recognised as a distinct breed .
An important attribute in this dog was a tempered aggressiveness that would provide the necessary drive to pursue and bolt the fox , without resulting in physical harm to the quarry and effectively ending the chase , which was considered unsporting . Russell was said to have prided himself that his terriers never tasted blood . This line of terriers developed by John Russell was well respected for those qualities , and his dogs were often taken on by hunt enthusiasts . It is unlikely , however , that any dogs alive today can be proven to be descendants from Trump , as Russell was forced to sell all his dogs on more than one occasion because of financial difficulty , and had only four aged ( and non @-@ breeding ) terriers left when he died in 1883 .
The Fox terrier and Jack Russell terrier type dogs of today are all descended from dogs of that period , although documented pedigrees earlier than 1862 have not been found , although several records remain of documented breeding by John Russell between the 1860s and 1880s . The Fox Terrier Club was formed in 1875 with Russell as one of the founder members ; its breed standard was aspiration , and not a description of how the breed appeared then . By the start of the 20th century , the Fox terrier had altered more towards the modern breed , but in some parts of the country the old style of John Russell 's terriers remained , and it is from those dogs that the modern Jack Russell type has descended .
Many breeds can claim heritage to the early Fox terrier of this period , including the Brazilian terrier , Japanese terrier , Miniature Fox terrier , Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz , Rat terrier , and Tenterfield terrier .
= = = After John Russell = = =
Following Russell 's death , the only people who made serious efforts to continue those strains were two men , one in Chislehurst with the surname of East , and another in Cornwall named Archer . East , at one point , had several couples , all of which were descended from one of Russell 's dogs . The type aimed for were not as big as the show Fox terrier and were usually less than 15 pounds ( 6 @.@ 8 kg ) .
Arthur Blake Heinemann created the first breed standard and , in 1894 , he founded the Devon and Somerset Badger Club , the aims of which were to promote badger digging rather than fox hunting , and the breeding of terriers suitable for this purpose . Terriers were acquired from Nicholas Snow of Oare , and they were likely descended from Russell 's original dogs , as Russell would probably have hunted at some point with Snow 's hunting club and is likely to have provided at least some of their original terriers . By the turn of the 20th century , Russell 's name had become associated with this breed of dog .
The club was later renamed the Parson Jack Russell Terrier Club . Badger digging required a different type of dog than fox hunting , and it is likely that Bull terrier stock was introduced to strengthen the breed , which may have caused the creation of a shorter legged variety of Jack Russell terrier that started to appear around this period . At the same time that a split was appearing between show and working Fox terriers , a further split was occurring between two different types of white terrier , both carrying Jack Russell 's name . Heinemann was invited to judge classes for working terriers at Crufts with an aim to bring working terriers back into the show ring and influence those that disregard working qualities in dogs . These classes were continued for several years by various judges , but Charles Cruft dropped the attempt as the classes were never heavily competed . Following Heinemann 's death in 1930 , the kennel and leadership of the club passed to Annie Harris , but the club itself folded shortly before World War II .
= = = Post World War II = = =
Following World War II , the requirement for hunting dogs drastically declined , and with it the numbers of Jack Russell terriers . The dogs were increasingly used as family and companion dogs . Further cross breeding occurred , with Welsh corgis , Chihuahuas , and other smaller breeds of terrier . The offspring of these crosses became known as " Puddin ' Dogs " , " Shortie Jacks " , or " Russell Terriers " .
The Jack Russell Terrier Club of America was formed in 1976 by Ailsa Crawford , one of the first Jack Russell terrier breeders in the United States . Size ranges for dogs were kept broad , with the ability of working dogs awarded higher than those in conformation shows . An open registry was maintained , with restricted line breeding . Registration for the club is made at adulthood for Jack Russells , rather than at birth , to ensure the breed 's qualities remain , given the open registry .
Several breed clubs appeared in the United Kingdom during the 1970s to promote the breed , including the Jack Russell Club of Great Britain ( JRTCGB ) and the South East Jack Russell Terrier Club ( SEJRTC ) . The JRTCGB promoted the range of sizes that remain in its standards today , whereas the SEJRTC set a minimum height for dogs at 13 inches ( 33 cm ) . While the JRTCGB sought to ensure that the breed 's working ability remained through non @-@ recognition with other breed registries , the SEJRTC activity sought recognition with the UK Kennel Club . In 1983 , the Parson Jack Russell Club of Great Britain ( PJRTCGB ) was resurrected to seek Kennel Club recognition for the breed . Although the application was initially rejected , a new standard was created for the PJRTCGB based on the standard of the SEJRTC , and under that standard the breed was recognised by the Kennel Club in 1990 as the Parson Jack Russell terrier . Jack was dropped from the official name in 1999 , and the recognised name of the breed became the Parson Russell terrier .
In the late 1990s , the American Kennel Club explored the possibility of recognising the Jack Russell terrier . This move was opposed by the Jack Russell Terrier Club of America as they did not want the breed to lose its essential working characteristics . The Jack Russell Terrier Breeders Association was formed , and petitioned the AKC with the breed 's admission granted in 2001 . Under the AKC recognised standard , the size of the breed was narrowed from the previous club 's standard , and the name of the AKC recognised Jack Russell terrier was changed to Parson Russell terrier , with the Jack Russell Terrier Breeders Association renamed to the Parson Russell Terrier Association of America .
The Australian National Kennel Council ( ANKC ) and the New Zealand Kennel Club ( NZCK ) are the some of national kennel associations which registers both the Jack Russell terrier and the Parson Russell terrier , however the size requirements for the Jack Russell terrier under both those standards would classify a dog as a Russell terrier in the United States . In 2009 , there were 1073 Jack Russells registered with the ANKC , compared to 18 for the Parson Russell terrier . Other modern breeds are often mistaken for modern Jack Russell terriers , including their cousin the Parson Russell terrier , the Tenterfield terrier , and the Rat Terrier . Several other modern breeds exist that descended from the early Fox Terrier breed , including the Brazilian Terrier , Japanese Terrier , Miniature Fox Terrier , Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz , Rat Terrier and Tenterfield Terrier .
= = Description = =
Due to their working nature , Jack Russell terriers remain much as they were some 200 years ago . They are sturdy , tough , and tenacious , measuring between 10 – 15 inches ( 25 – 38 cm ) at the withers , and weigh 14 – 18 pounds ( 6 @.@ 4 – 8 @.@ 2 kg ) . The body length must be in proportion to the height , and the dog should present a compact , balanced image . Predominantly white in coloration ( more than 51 % ) with black and / or tan markings , they exhibit either a smooth , rough or a combination of both which is known as a broken coat . A broken @-@ coated dog may have longer hair on the tail or face than that which is seen on a smooth @-@ coated dog . The skin can sometimes show a pattern of small black or brown spots , referred to as " ticking " that do not carry through to the outer coat . All coat types should be dense double coats that are neither silky ( in the case of smooth coats ) nor woolly ( in the case of rough coats ) .
The head should be of moderate width at the ears , narrowing to the eyes , and slightly flat between the ears . There should be a defined but not overpronounced stop at the end of the muzzle where it meets the head , and a black nose . The jaw should be powerful and well boned with a scissor bite and straight teeth . The eyes are almond shaped and dark coloured , and should be full of life and intelligence . Small V @-@ shaped ears of moderate thickness are carried forward on the head . When the dog is alert , the tip of the V should not extend past the outer corner of the eyes . The tail is set high and in the past was docked to approximately five inches in order to provide a sufficient hand @-@ hold for gripping the terrier .
The Jack Russell should always appear balanced and alert . As it is primarily a working terrier , its most important physical characteristic is its chest size , which must not be so large that it prevents the dog from entering and working in burrows . The red fox is the traditional quarry of the Jack Russell terrier , so the working Jack Russell must be small enough to pursue it . Red foxes vary in size , but across the world they average from 13 – 17 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 7 kg ) in weight and have an average chest size of 12 – 14 inches ( 30 – 36 cm ) at the widest part .
= = = Differences with related breeds = = =
The Jack Russell terrier and Parson Russell terrier breeds are similar , sharing a common origin , but have several marked differences — the most notable being the range of acceptable heights . Other differences in the Parson can include a longer head and larger chest as well as overall a larger body size . The height of a Parson Russell at the withers according to the breed standard is 12 – 14 inches ( 30 – 36 cm ) which places it within the range of the Jack Russell Terrier Club of America 's standard size for a Jack Russell of 10 – 15 inches ( 25 – 38 cm ) . However the Parson Russell is a conformation show standard whereas the Jack Russell standard is a more general working standard .
The Russell terrier , which is also sometimes called the English Jack Russell terrier or the Short Jack Russell terrier is a generally smaller related breed . Both the breed standards of the American Russell Terrier Club and the English Jack Russell Terrier Club Alliance states that at the withers it should be an ideal height of 8 – 12 inches ( 20 – 30 cm ) . Although sometimes called the English or Irish Jack Russell terrier , this is not the recognised height of Jack Russells in the United Kingdom . According to the Jack Russell Club of Great Britain 's breed standard , it is the same size as the standard for Jack Russells in the United States , 10 – 15 inches ( 25 – 38 cm ) . Compared to the Parson , the Russell terrier should always be longer than tall at the withers , whereas the Parson 's points should be of equal distance . The Fédération Cynologique Internationale standard for the Jack Russell terrier has this smaller size listed as a requirement . Terrierman Eddie Chapman , who has hunted in Devon for more than 30 years , the same area that John Russell himself hunted , notes that , " I can state categorically that if given the choice , ninety @-@ nine percent of hunt terrier men would buy an under 12 " worker , if it was available , over a 14 " one . "
= = Temperament = =
Jack Russells are first and foremost a working terrier . Originally bred to bolt fox from their dens during hunts , they are used on numerous ground @-@ dwelling quarry such as groundhog , badger , and red and grey fox . The working JRT is required to locate quarry in the earth , and then either bolt it or hold it in place until they are dug to . To accomplish this , the dog will not bark but will expect attention to the quarry continuously . Because the preservation of this working ability is of highest importance to most registered JRTCA / JRTCGB breeders , Jack Russells tend to be extremely intelligent , athletic , fearless , and vocal dogs . It is not uncommon for these dogs to become moody or destructive if not properly stimulated and exercised , as they have a tendency to bore easily and will often create their own fun when left alone to entertain themselves .
Their high energy and drive make these dogs ideally suited to a number of different dog sports such as flyball or agility . Obedience classes are also recommended to potential owners , as Jack Russells can be stubborn at times and aggressive towards other animals and humans if not properly socialized . Despite their small size , these dogs are not recommended for the condominium or apartment dweller unless the owner is ready to take on the daunting task of providing the dog with the necessary amount of exercise and stimulation . They have a tremendous amount of energy for their size , a fact which can sometimes lead to trouble involving larger animals . They may seem never to tire and will still be energetic after their owner has called it a day . While socialised members of the breed are friendly towards children , they will not tolerate abuse even if it is unintentional .
= = Health = =
The breed has a reputation for being healthy with a long lifespan . Breeders have protected the gene pool , and direct in @-@ line breeding has been prevented . Jack Russells can live from 13 to 16 years given proper care . However certain lines have been noted for having specific health concerns , and therefore could occur in any line or generation because of recessive genes . These issues can include hereditary cataracts , ectopia lentis , congenital deafness , patellar luxation , ataxia , myasthenia gravis , Legg – Calvé – Perthes syndrome and von Willebrand disease .
Being a hunt @-@ driven dog , the Jack Russell will usually pursue most creatures that it encounters . This includes the skunk , and the breed is prone to skunk toxic shock syndrome . The chemical in the skunk spray is absorbed by the dog and causes the red blood cells to undergo haemolysis , which can occasionally lead to fatal anaemia and kidney failure . If sprayed underground , it can also cause chemical burning of the cornea . Treatments are available to flush the toxin out of the dog 's system .
= = = Eye disorders = = =
Lens luxation , also known as ectopia lentis is the most common hereditary disorder in Jack Russell terriers . Even so , this condition is not a common occurrence in the breed . Most frequently appearing in dogs between the ages of 3 and 8 years old , it is where the lens in one or both eyes becomes displaced . There are two types , posterior luxation ( where the lens slips to the back of the eye ) and anterior luxation ( where the lens slips forward ) . Posterior luxation is the less severe of the two types , as the eye can appear normal although the dog 's eyesight will be affected . In anterior luxation , the lens can slip forward and rub against the cornea , damaging it . Anterior luxation also has a high probability of causing glaucoma which can lead to partial or complete blindness . Treatment is available and may include both medical and surgical options . Secondary lens luxation is caused by trauma to the eye , and is not hereditary . The condition appears in a number of terrier breeds as well as the Border collie , Brittany and Cardigan Welsh corgi .
Cataracts can affect any breed of dog , and is the same condition as seen in humans . Here the lens of the eye hardens and is characterised by cloudiness in the eye . Cataracts will blur the dog 's vision and can lead to permanent blindness if left untreated . While considered mainly a hereditary disease , it can also be caused by diabetes , old age , radiation , eye injury or exposure to high temperatures .
= = = Musculoskeletal conditions = = =
Patellar luxation , also known as luxating patella , is a hereditary disorder affecting the knees . It is where the kneecap slips off the groove on which it normally sits . The effects can be temporary with the dog running while holding its hind leg in the air before running on it again once the kneecap slipped back into place as if nothing has happened . Dogs can have a problem with both rear knees , and complications can include arthritis or torn knee ligaments . Severe cases can require surgery . Some are prone to dislocation of the kneecaps , inherited eye diseases , deafness and Legg Perthes — a disease of the hip joints of small dog breeds . Prone to mast cell tumors . Legg – Calvé – Perthes syndrome , also called Avascular Necrosis of the Femoral Head , is where the ball section of the femur in the hip joint deteriorates following interruption of the blood flow and is the same condition as in humans . In dogs , this causes lameness of the hind @-@ legs , the thigh muscles to atrophy and pain in the joint . It usually occurs between 6 – 12 months of age and has been documented in a variety of other terrier breeds including the Border terrier , Lakeland terrier and Wheaten terrier .
= = Well @-@ known Jack Russell terriers = =
Nipper was a dog born in 1884 who was thought to be a dog of the Jack Russell terrier type . He was the inspiration for the painting Dog looking at and listening to a Phonograph , later renamed to His Master 's Voice . The painting was used by a variety of music related companies including The Gramophone Company , EMI , and RCA . Today it remains in use incorporated into the logo for HMV in UK and Europe .
A Jack Russell named Bothy made history in 1982 as part of the Transglobe Expedition . Owned by explorers Ranulph and Ginny Fiennes , he became the first dog to travel to both the north and south poles . This feat is unlikely to be repeated , as all dogs have been banned from Antarctica by the Antarctic Treaty nations since 1994 , due to fears that they could transmit diseases to the native seal population . Ranulph Fiennes and Charles Burton actually made the trip to the north pole by powered sledges before signalling to the base camp that they had arrived . To celebrate their achievement , a plane was sent out to take the two men champagne , along with Bothy .
On 29 April 2007 , a Jack Russell named George saved five children at a carnival in New Zealand from an attack by two pit bulls . He was reported to have charged at them and held them at bay long enough for the children to get away . Killed by the pit bulls , he was posthumously awarded the PDSA Gold Medal in 2009 , the animal equivalent of the George Cross . A statue has been erected in Manaia , New Zealand in his memory . A former US Marine also donated to George 's owner a Purple Heart award he had received for service in Vietnam .
= = = On screen and in literature = = =
In the UK , one of the more recognisable canine stars was restaurateur and chef Rick Stein 's irrepressible terrier Chalky , who frequently upstaged his owner on his various cookery series . He was unique in having his own line of merchandise , including plushes , tea towels , art prints , art paw prints and two real ales – Chalky 's Bite and Chalky 's Bark , which won gold in the Quality Drink Awards 2009 . Chalky was given a BBC obituary when he died in 2007 .
Father Moose and son Enzo played the role of Eddie on the long @-@ running TV sitcom Frasier . Eddie belonged to lead character Frasier 's father Martin Crane , and constantly " stole the show " with his deadpan antics , receiving more fan mail than any other Frasier character . Moose and Enzo also starred as Skip in the 2000 film My Dog Skip .
Wishbone , from the television show of the same name which aired from 1995 to 2001 in the United States , was a Jack Russell terrier . Wishbone 's real name was Willowall Soccer , and was chosen from over a hundred other dogs vying for the part .
Actor Gene Hackman 's pet in the 1995 movie Crimson Tide was a smooth @-@ coated Jack Russell terrier named " Bear " . Max , a Jack Russell terrier , played the role of Milo who is one of Stanley Ipkiss 's only friends in the 1994 U.S film The Mask starring Jim Carrey . Max also played the female dog Audrey in the 2000 film Mr. Accident . In the 2009 movie Hotel for Dogs , Friday , one of the main characters is a Jack Russell , played by the dog actor Cosmo . Cosmo went on to appear in the films Paul Blart : Mall Cop and Beginners .
Jack Russell : Dog Detective is a series of children 's books by authors Darrell and Sally Odgers , and published by Scholastic . It is about the adventures of a Jack Russell terrier named Jack Russell and his gang of friends including Jill Russell , Lord " Red " Setter and Foxie Terrier .
Uggie ( 2002 @-@ 2015 ) was an animal actor , appearing in commercials starting in 2005 and most notably cast in Water for Elephants and The Artist , both in 2011 . In the same year , based on interest following The Artist , the " Consider Uggie " campaign was launched , which attempted to gain the dog a nomination for an Academy Award . In 2012 Uggie was named Nintendo 's first @-@ ever spokesdog .
Patrick McDonnell 's comic strip Mutts features a Jack Russell terrier named Earl who is a main character in the comic strip .
= = = Clubs and associations = = =
American Working Terrier Association
Jack Russell Terrier Club of America
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= Fracture ( Fringe ) =
" Fracture " is the third episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode followed the Fringe team 's investigation into a man who mysteriously hardens and then explodes , killing those around him . The case leads them to a secret government project and an AWOL colonel .
The episode was written by David Wilcox , and was directed by Bryan Spicer . " Fracture " was the third of a four episode plot arc called the " gun arc " , which focused on Olivia 's physical and mental recovery from the season premiere . It featured guest actors Kevin Corrigan and Stephen McHattie . " Fracture " first broadcast in the United States on October 1 , 2009 on the Fox network to an estimated 6 @.@ 21 million viewers . It received generally mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
In Philadelphia , an on @-@ duty cop gets a call from a man he calls " Colonel " to pick up a briefcase at Suburban Station . As he does so , a nearby pulse causes electronics to gain static , and his body becomes hardened . He explodes , killing eleven people and injuring others with his hardened body parts . Initially thinking the explosion was caused by a bomb , the Fringe team arrives to investigate , and discover that instead of a bomb , the cop 's body parts killed the others . A further autopsy reveals needle marks between the cop 's toes , and they realize he was injecting some type of drug every day for at least a year .
While Peter and Olivia interview his wife , Olivia gets sick with flashes of crossing to the parallel universe , and accidentally discovers the drugs the cop was injecting . The cop had served in Iraq a year previously , and was involved in a secret military experiment called " Project Tin Man " . Peter tells them they can find the project 's doctors , and he and Olivia travel to Iraq . Peter learns from an old acquaintance the identity of one of the Iraqi doctors ; he tells them the project was meant to cure soldiers exposed to a fatal chemical , but it failed to work , instead turning remaining survivors into human bombs . An AWOL colonel , Raymond Gordon , was opposed to ending the project ; Peter and Olivia suspect he is behind the cop 's explosion , and caused the deaths by emitting a radio signal . They find a list of names from the experiment , the victim in the train station being one of them . They return to find the surviving members , and are able to prevent the next subject , Diane Burgess , from exploding after she is contacted by Gordon to take a briefcase at a train station . Peter and Olivia find Gordon ( Stephen McHattie ) at the station , and bring him into custody ; the man suggests the bombs were intended to eliminate agents working for the Observer .
In a side plot , Olivia and Sam Weiss continue to meet at the bowling alley , where he subjects her to seemingly menial tasks like tying her shoes and keeping score during games . Although initially finding their conversations useless , he cures Olivia 's inability to walk without a cane by the end of the episode .
= = Production = =
Co @-@ executive producer David Wilcox wrote the episode , and filmmaker Bryan Spicer directed it . According to producers Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz , " Fracture " was the third episode in the " gun arc " , which involved Olivia gradually recovering from the wounds sustained in the premiere enough to be able to wield a gun and fight the shapeshifters .
Sound editor Bruce Tanis explained the production of sound that went into the episode in an interview with Designing Sound :
" In ' Fracture ' , the villain has created a serum which several characters inject because of a type of post @-@ hypnotic suggestion . He has invented a frequency generator which causes these people to crystallize and then explode . In one of the best scenes all season , Walter and Astrid are in the lab and , using a watermelon for their experiments , are able to determine the exact frequency that the villain ’ s generator operates on . It was something like 68 @.@ 7 megacycles ( I don ’ t recall exactly ) , so I used the signal generator plugin and created some tones that started out as 68 @.@ 7 megacycles . They were simply low @-@ frequency tones on their own so I processed them so that they warbled and chorused and were a bit more mysterious than the straight tone . It ended up being pretty subtle for television , but when Walter identifies the tone as a certain frequency , that ’ s what ’ s actually playing . "
Actor John Noble noted that in the episode , " We see [ Olivia ] broken down . And it 's kind of frightening to see our heroine who 's carried the series basically ... Suddenly she can 't move , she can 't even load her gun " . " Fracture " marked the first and only guest appearance by actor Stephen McHattie as Colonel Raymond Gordon , as well as another appearance by previous guest actor Kevin Corrigan as Sam Weiss .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode featured the song " The Air That I Breathe " by The Hollies , as well as music from Roy Orbison , Les Paul , and The Marshall Tucker Band . Olivia makes a reference to Star Wars when she says , " Cut the Yoda crap and tell me what 's happening to me " . Peter mentions that his father taught him human reproduction using a jigsaw puzzle of " Ms. July " , a reference to a glamour photography shot of an unknown Playboy model used in calendars to differentiate each month of the year .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode was initially watched by an estimated 6 @.@ 21 million viewers in the United States , and scored a 2 @.@ 3 / 6 rating share among viewers 18 – 49 and 3 @.@ 7 / 6 for all households . After time shifted viewing was taken into account , Fringe was among the shows with the biggest increase , as its 18 – 49 rating rose 30 percent to score 3 @.@ 9 .
= = = Reviews = = =
Reviews of the episode tended to be mixed . Noel Murray from The Onion 's A.V. Club graded the episode with a D + , writing that " Unlike the previous two weeks ’ episodes , which juggled a number of storylines and locations and generated a real sense of Fringe ’ s expanding milieu , ' Fracture ' is so curtailed that it almost feels like it was made for the Fox accountants . The cast is small , the sets are few , and not much happens . The plot ’ s practically twist @-@ free , until the very end . Large chunks of the episode are given over to Peter talking to Walter about finding a new place for them to live , and Walter trying to learn more about Astrid — and really not discovering much , except that she doesn ’ t like it when he experiments on fruit . So Astrid ’ s underused yet again , even in an episode where she gets a lot of lines ... The story 's too simple and the acting too broad , and yet the episode still felt choppy , as though the Fringe creative team had to scramble to fix ' Fracture ' in post . "
Conversely , IGN 's Ramsey Isler viewed the episode more positively , and rated it 7 @.@ 9 / 10 . He explained it " deserves praise for doing a lot of things well , " and lauded the actors ' performances , the props , the direction , and cinematography . Despite however finding Walter less entertaining than the previous season , and believing the first half of the episode moved too slowly and resembled " an ordinary procedural crime show , " Isler enjoyed the ending for " [ bringing ] it all together and [ making ] the previous 90 % worthwhile " . After watching the episode , MTV columnist Josh Wigler " declared [ his ] fondness " for Joshua Jackson , stating the actor had " won [ him ] over thanks to Peter 's central role in these first few episodes of Fringe 's " second season " . Wigler continued that it was " an excellent mystery @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week episode to be sure , though I 'm really itching for more details on the alternate reality . Luckily , that 's supposed to come next week with the return of Nimoy 's William Bell , which makes tonight 's less mythology @-@ oriented outing easier to swallow . Plus , the end reveal with the Observer was pretty spicy , to say the least . "
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= William George Malone =
Lieutenant Colonel William George Malone ( 24 January 1859 – 8 August 1915 ) was an officer in the New Zealand Military Forces who served in the First World War . He commanded the Wellington Infantry Battalion during the Gallipoli Campaign , and was killed in action during the Battle of Chunuk Bair .
Born in England , Malone emigrated to New Zealand in 1880 and joined the New Zealand Armed Constabulary . After two years service in the Taranaki region , he worked at Opunake and later took up farming on land he bought with his brother near Stratford . He studied to become a lawyer and worked in New Plymouth in partnership with other lawyers but later set up his own practice in Stratford .
A volunteer in New Zealand 's militia , he helped raised the Stratford Rifle Volunteers . When the militia was abolished and replaced with the Territorial Force , he was made commander of 11th Regiment ( Taranaki Rifles ) . Following the outbreak of the First World War , he volunteered for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force and was appointed commander of the Wellington Infantry Battalion . He led the battalion through training in Egypt and during the Gallipoli Campaign until his death at Chunuk Bair in Gallipoli .
= = Early life = =
William George Malone was born in Lewisham , a village in Kent , England , the second of five children of Louisa and Thomas Malone . His father was a chemist who worked in London for the photography pioneer Henry Fox Talbot . Thomas Malone died in 1867 at the age of 44 , which placed his family in reduced financial circumstances .
William Malone was initially educated at St. Joseph 's College in Clapham , London before receiving further schooling at Marist boarding schools in both England and France , and becoming fluent in French . After completing his education in 1876 , he became an office worker in London . His military career began with his enlistment with the City of Westminster Rifle Volunteers , and he also served for a time in the Royal Artillery Volunteers .
= = Life in New Zealand = =
Malone immigrated to New Zealand in January 1880 . His older brother , Austin , had previously moved to New Zealand and was serving in the New Zealand Armed Constabulary . A month after his arrival , Malone joined his brother in service with the Armed Constabulary . Both brothers were based at Opunake , in the Taranaki region . Malone took part in the storming of the village of Parihaka on 5 November 1881 .
Malone left the Armed Constabulary after two years service and became involved in surfboats which unloaded cargo at Opunake . With his brother , who had left the Armed Constabulary in November 1880 , he eventually bought a large block of bush country near Stratford and took up farming . Within a few years , his land had been converted into productive farmland . By this time , his mother and two sisters had also immigrated to New Zealand to join them in Stratford . He was also involved in the local militia , the Stratford Rifles .
In 1886 , Malone married Elinor Lucy ( née Penn ) . The couple would eventually have five children , a daughter and four sons . As well as supporting his young family he found time to take an active role in the Stratford community . He was a member of the Hawera County Council as well as the Taranaki Hospital and Charitable Aid Board . From 1890 , in addition to his farming , Malone also worked as a land agent . Later , he helped found the Stratford County Council and served as its first clerk and treasurer from 1891 to 1900 .
Malone took up the study of law , becoming a solicitor in 1894 and a barrister five years later . In 1903 , the same year that he and his family moved to New Plymouth , he formed a partnership dealing mostly with land transactions with James McVeagh and W. D. Anderson . The partners would open several law offices around the Taranaki region .
On 18 June 1904 , Malone suffered the loss of his wife Elinor in childbirth . Their baby son also died . The following year , Malone married Ida Katharine Withers , and would go on to have three more children . Ida had been a friend of Elinor 's and had also tutored the Malone children .
Malone became politically active and unsuccessfully stood as an Independent Liberal in a by @-@ election for the Taranaki electorate in 1907 ; of the three candidates , he came last . The following year , Joseph Ward , the leader of the Liberal Party , invited Malone to be the party 's candidate in the 1908 general election . He declined ; Malone had views that in some respects were incompatible with those of the Liberal Party , and he instead stood as an independent . Although unsuccessful , he gained nearly 30 % of the electorate vote . In both 1907 and 1908 , he was defeated by the conservative politician Henry Okey , who was to hold the Taranaki electorate until his death in 1918 .
In 1911 , after selling his share of the law practice , Malone returned to Stratford . He started his own law firm in partnership with another practitioner . With a reduced work load , he began focus on his other interests , which included the military . Malone participated in New Zealand 's militia , the Volunteer Force . In 1900 , he helped raise the Stratford Rifle Volunteers , one of many units formed in the enthusiasm for the military during the Second Boer War , with himself as its captain . When he moved to New Plymouth in 1903 , he relinquished his command . As a result of a request by his Volunteer Force battalion commander , Malone was made adjutant of the 4th Battalion of the Wellington ( Taranaki ) Rifle Volunteers . In 1905 he was second @-@ in @-@ command and by 1910 , and now a lieutenant @-@ colonel , he was the commander of the battalion .
The following year , the Volunteer Force was abolished and replaced with the Territorial Force . Malone was placed in command of a new Territorial unit , the 11th Regiment ( Taranaki Rifles ) . It was during this time that he introduced the use of the " lemon squeezer " hat to the Territorial Force . By having his troops push out its crown and indenting its sides , the hat mirrored the outline of Mount Taranaki , thereby providing a link for the regiment to its parent region , and , more practically , allowed rain to easily run off the hat . In later years , the lemon squeezer hat was formally adopted by the New Zealand Military Forces .
= = First World War = =
Malone had been convinced for some time that war was on the horizon and prepared himself accordingly . He studied military history and practices intensively , and underwent a physical fitness and conditioning programme in preparation for military service . This reputedly included his sleeping on a military camp bed . Upon the outbreak of the First World War , he volunteered for service either in New Zealand or overseas . Well regarded by his superiors in the Territorial Force , he was made commander of the Wellington Infantry Battalion of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) .
The battalion embarked from Wellington in October 1914 for Egypt , and upon arrival , was primarily engaged in training before it was deployed along the Suez Canal late in January 1915 to support Indian troops stationed to guard against a rumoured Turkish attack . Three weeks of sentry duty ensued for the battalion before it returned to Cairo .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
By this time , the New Zealand and Australian Division , under the command of Major General Alexander Godley , was being formed for operations in the Dardanelles , and the battalion was attached to the New Zealand Infantry Brigade , one of the two infantry brigades ( the other was the Australian 4th brigade ) that formed the bulk of the division . In April , the division , now part of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) embarked for Gallipoli . The Wellington Battalion was landed at Anzac Cove on the afternoon of 25 April , and made its way up to Plugge 's Plateau .
On 27 April , the battalion was called upon to reinforce positions held by the Australian 2nd Battalion along a feature that would later be known as Walker 's Ridge . A Turkish counterattack had been launched , threatening the flank of the ANZAC position . By nightfall , Malone had established a new defensive line along the ridge although he was frustrated by the poor decisions by the commander of 2nd Battalion , Colonel George Braund . Malone believed Braund 's actions had wasted the lives of his men . He consequently made a request to the acting commander of the New Zealand Infantry Brigade , Brigadier General Harold Walker that the Wellington Battalion take sole charge of the position , a request which was approved . In the following days , Malone worked his men hard to improve the defensive positions and ensure the stability of the Walker 's Ridge positions .
In early May , the ANZAC positions had sufficiently stabilised such that the New Zealand Infantry Brigade was transferred to Cape Helles for operations there . Malone led his battalion during the Second Battle of Krithia , during which he came into conflict with his brigade commander , Colonel Francis Johnston , who had taken over command of the brigade from Walker . Johnston ordered a bayonet charge by the Wellington Battalion although Malone pointed out to Johnston the lack of flanking support for such a charge . Johnston was a British Army officer seconded to the NZEF , and in his private correspondence , Malone was beginning to express frustration at the inflexibility of such officers in the face of a fluid battlefield situation . Malone was later mentioned in dispatches for his work at Cape Helles .
By late May , the brigade was back at ANZAC Cove and in reserve . On 1 June , the Wellington Battalion moved into the front lines , taking over Courtney 's Post , previously held by the Australian 4th Brigade . Malone was post commander , and it was planned that he would stay in command at Courtney 's Post while his battalion rotated with the Otago Infantry Battalion in eight @-@ day spells . He immediately set about improving the position , which overlooked the Turkish lines . As well as rectifying the position 's neglected field works , he established a squad of snipers and this proved instrumental in gaining ascendency over the Turks in no @-@ man 's land .
Malone had impressed his senior commanders with his efforts at Courtney 's Post and on 9 June the Wellington Battalion was tasked with holding Quinn 's Post , previously held by the Auckland and Canterbury Infantry Battalions , both of which were exhausted from offensive operations . Quinn 's was a more exposed position than Courtney 's and had been neglected defensively . With the Turkish trenches often only 10 metres ( 33 ft ) away , Quinn 's Post was a weak spot in the ANZAC lines . Malone immediately set about rectifying this . Terraces and dugouts were built and extensive sandbagging protecting the previously exposed areas of the position were erected . He implemented measures to dominate the no @-@ man 's land between the opposing forces at Quinn 's , ordering construction of machine gun posts and loops to try and increase his men 's ability to direct firepower onto the enemy . Although he placed high demands on his men , he was well respected for he also showed concern and interest in their welfare . His efforts at Quinn 's Post did not go unrecognised . The commander of the ANZAC Corps , General William Birdwood complimented Malone on his work .
= = = Battle of Chunuk Bair = = =
In August , plans were in place for the Allied forces to break out of the ANZAC foothold . Key to this was seizing the Sari Bair Range . On 7 August , the New Zealand Infantry Brigade commenced its assault on Chunuk Bair , the crest of the range , along what was known as Rhododendron Ridge . However , delays in getting the infantry battalions to their starting positions meant that the attack was launched in daylight rather than in the planned night time attack . As a result , heavy losses were incurred amongst the Auckland Infantry Battalion . Johnston , still in command of the brigade despite being clearly unfit for it , ordered Malone to take his battalion forward . Malone refused , arguing that his battalion could take Chunuk Bair that night . His refusal to advance in daylight meant that by the end of the day , his battalion was the only intact battalion in the brigade .
In the early hours of 8 August , supported by the 7th Battalion of the Gloucesters and by extensive artillery and naval fire , the Wellington Battalion succeeded in capturing Chunuk Bair with relatively little resistance . Malone set about securing the crest of Chunuk Bair , but it proved difficult to deepen the relatively shallow Turkish trenches that had been captured by his men , and the work was made even more difficult as the sun rose , allowing the Turks on neighbouring Hill Q to focus their gunfire on the positions occupied by the Wellingtons . The Gloucesters , also on the crest , were forced to retreat to the reverse slope . The Turkish gunfire caused heavy casualties amongst the infantry holding Chunuk Bair , but crucially also prevented substantive reinforcements from reaching the crest in daylight . Instead , those soldiers that made it up Chunuk Bair tended to be positioned on its rearward slopes and thus had difficulty observing any approaches made by the Turks . Malone continued to co @-@ ordinate the defences but a portion of the crest was lost . He remained in constant action , and led bayonet charges to counter numerous Turkish attacks . The trenches on the crest became filled with the bodies of dead , further reducing what little cover was available .
In the early evening , at around 5 pm , Malone was killed in his headquarters trench by friendly fire , either from supporting artillery or possibly naval gunfire . Reinforcements , in the form of the Otago Battalion and two squadrons of the Wellington Mounted Rifles arrived later that evening , and the remnants of Malone 's battalion withdrew , having suffered 690 men killed or wounded of its original complement of 760 . Malone , along with 300 of his men , has no known grave . Two days later , Chunuk Bair , now held by British units , was lost to the Turks . With the battalion out of the line , a memorial service for Malone was held on 21 August . The service was attended by nearly all of the surviving men of the battalion . Malone was also mentioned in despatches for his leadership during the August offensive .
Malone was survived by his wife Ida and his eight children . Although initially well provided with income from his farming estate , the depression of the 1920s impacted on the earnings of the farmland and Ida struggled financially . She eventually moved to England with her three children and a daughter from Malone 's previous marriage and died there in 1946 . His four oldest sons all served in the NZEF , and one , Maurice , was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . Another son , Edmond , received the Military Cross while serving with the Wellington Regiment on the Western Front . He died on 6 April 1918 , a few days after being wounded .
= = Legacy = =
After the Battle of Chunuk Bair , while his bravery was not questioned , Malone initially came in for criticism of his handling of the defences , particularly the placement of his defence trenches . In the planning for the battle , and earlier in the Gallipoli Campaign , he had clashed with Major Arthur Temperley , Johnston 's brigade major . Temperley , a British Army officer like Johnston , was one of the foremost critics of Malone 's defensive arrangements and may have unduly influenced the subsequent official reports on the battle . However , recent studies have demonstrated that this criticism was misplaced and there were a number of crucial failures higher up in the chain of command . In particular , Johnston 's delay in getting reinforcements to Chunuk Bair once it was captured likely led to the failure to hold the gains made by Malone 's battalion .
In New Zealand , Malone 's death was widely reported and keenly felt , particularly in the Taranaki region . The soldiers of the Wellington Regiment held their former commander in high regard and paid for the construction of the Malone Memorial Gate , white marble gates at the entrance to King Edward Park in Stratford . The gate , one of New Zealand 's largest war memorials that commemorates an individual soldier , was officially opened on 8 August 1923 in front of a large crowd . The gate is the scene of an annual ceremony held on 8 August to commemorate the memory of Malone . A fictionalised colonel based on Malone was a major character in a 1982 play written by Maurice Shadbolt , Once on Chunuk Bair , which told the story of the Wellington Battalion 's battle of 8 August . In 1992 , the play was filmed as Chunuk Bair . A plaque in his honour was unveiled in the New Zealand Parliament 's Grand Hall in 2005 .
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= Trans Polar =
Trans Polar A / S was a Norwegian charter airline which operated between June 1970 and May 1971 . The airline operated a fleet of three Boeing 720s and had a close cooperation with Aer Lingus for maintenance . Trans Polar was established by Thor Tjøntveit , although he never held any management positions . The airline was headquartered in Oslo , although most of the flights operated out of Copenhagen , Denmark , which was the base of Spies Rejser , Trans Polar 's largest customer . The airline held operating permission from Norway and Denmark , but not Sweden ; nevertheless , they operated several illegal flights out of Stockholm .
Trans Polar ceased operations on 16 May 1971 when Boeing Commercial Airplanes seized one of their aircraft for failing to pay installments . After the company 's bankruptcy on 23 June , the police undertook a seven @-@ year investigation of the company . The airline had operated eight months with insolvency ; with a debt of 33 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) it was at the time the largest bankruptcy case in Norwegian history . Tjøntveit was acquitted of charges of deceit in 1978 .
= = Establishment = =
Trans Polar was a continuation of Tjøntveit 's United States @-@ based Trans Polar International , a retailer of general aviation aircraft . Born in Grimstad , Tjøntviet emigrated to the US in 1961 after receiving his pilot 's license and became an American citizen in 1965 . Trans Polar International agreed on 25 November 1969 to purchase two Boeing aircraft from Eastern Air Lines . The original plans called for transporting new general aviation aircraft to customers around the world . Tjøntveit stated that the first aircraft would be delivered in May 1970 and followed by a second in December , and that Erik Sandberg would start working as vice president in May . The airline planned to hire ten pilots and had signed an agreement with Pan Am for ground handling services . Trans Polar International stated they had made agreements to operate the aircraft transport flights for at least five years .
The plans changed dramatically and Trans Polar was instead incorporated in Norway . It took delivery of the Boeing 720s from Eastern Air Lines with registration on 4 June 1970 . The airline received an operating license on 11 June to fly both cargo and passenger charter services from Norway . The original plans called for passenger flights in and around the weekends to the Mediterranean and freight and maintenance the other days , including transporting strawberries from Belgium to Norway . A maintenance contract was signed with Aer Lingus of Ireland .
= = Fleet = =
The airline operated a fleet of three Boeing 720s . The first aircraft was registered on 16 June 1970 and the last two on 16 October . They were named for famous aviators ; the first aircraft was named Richard Evelyn Byrd and the last two Roald Amundsen and Hjalmar Riiser @-@ Larsen . The aircraft had a seating capacity of 156 or 149 .
= = Operations = =
= = = Securing contracts = = =
Trans Polar made a demonstration trip to Stockholm on 13 June 1970 — legal because it was without paying customers . The airline applied for permission to operate out of Sweden , but this was rejected by the Swedish Civil Aviation Administration ( CAA ) and appeals were rejected by the Ministry of Enterprise , Energy and Communications . The reason was that it lacked a permanent organization , did not have sufficient experience in large @-@ scale charter operations and could not document that its charter operations would be based on their own resources . Despite the lack of permission , Trans Polar sub @-@ chartered a round trip from Stockholm to London on 28 June . It then operated four flights from Stockholm to Rhodes , Palma de Mallorca and London between 4 and 6 July . Trans Polar claimed that they were flying courtesy trips and that the passengers had agreed to be compensated the part of the package trip which would have been paid to Trans Polar . The arguments were rejected by the CAA , who stated that this was a typical post @-@ excuse and that in case of a courtesy trip the airline should not be collecting the fare in the first place . The incident was investigated by both Norwegian and Swedish police .
The airline started negotiating a charter contract agreement with the Danish tour operator Spies Rejser in July 1970 . Trans Polar offered the operator the use of two Boeing 720s for 55 million Danish krone ( DKK ) , 10 million lower than the incumbent Scanair was bidding , which would allow Spies to transport 140 @,@ 000 of their annual 250 @,@ 000 passengers . As the first aircraft was bound to existing operations , Trans Polar would have to procure two additional aircraft for the contract , as well as receive operating permission in Denmark . Trans Polar and Spies signed a contract in mid @-@ August for one weekly service from Copenhagen to Gran Canaria , while another weekly contract was awarded to Maersk Air . Negotiations for the main contract started on 5 September ; Scanair had stated a minimum price it could accept , largely based on the fact that Spies did not have an alternative operator . The successful negotiations with Trans Polar also included an agreement with Spantax , who each could offer Spies 70 @,@ 000 seats for the season . The contract brought annual revenue of DKK 25 million to Trans Polar . To fly the operations , two ex @-@ Aer Lingus Boeing 720s were registered on 16 October . The company later signed agreements with the Danish tour operators Karavan @-@ rejser and Danmarks Internasjonale Studentkomite ( DIS ) .
Trans Polar issued new shares worth NOK 825 @,@ 000 on 25 November 1970 . At the same time , the airline 's shareholders issued guarantees to the bank for NOK 1 @.@ 2 million . This was increased by NOK 300 @,@ 000 in December . The company was insolvent at this time , but the creditors chose to instate a lawyer as chairman and continue operations . The airline met with its largest creditors on 25 February in an unsuccessful attempt to refinance the company 's debt .
= = = Demise = = =
Simon Spies , owner of Spies Rejser , speculated in February 1971 that he might merge his airline Conair of Scandinavia with Trans Polar , although he also stated that once his airline received new aircraft it would no longer necessarily need to charter aircraft from other airlines . Trans Polar was subject to a lawsuit by a laid @-@ off pilot which the airline owed NOK 26 @,@ 600 in pay and compensation for him paying his own connection flights to reach Trans Polar charters . The company had issued several cheques and bills of exchange that had bounced and the pilot threatened to bankrupt the airline unless he was paid . The company responded that he would have a very difficult time bankrupting them and the press should instead write about the airline 's future , which they regarded as very bright .
The airline also owed NOK 15 million in installments to Boeing Commercial Airplanes for the first Boeing 720 aircraft . Representatives from Boeing met up at Copenhagen Airport on the evening of 17 May 1971 and removed the altimeter from the aircraft and informed the airport police that they had seized the aircraft by making it not airworthy . The 170 passengers who had bought trips through Spies were only marginally delayed because Conair was able to ready one of their own aircraft in three hours . The preparedness was due to Spies ' concern of the Norwegian airline 's inability to perform . Trans Polar 's managing director Knut Borgen called Boeing 's seizure " a misunderstanding , " but nevertheless Boeing took over formal ownership of the aircraft two days later , and the aircraft was re @-@ registered on 24 May . The other two aircraft were at the time stationed at Dublin Airport where they were undergoing maintenance and could not be used as reserves .
Spies canceled their contract with Trans Polar on 21 May 1971 . Simon Spies stated that they had been " endlessly generous " towards the Norwegian airline , and that they had suffered numerous delays ultimately caused by the airline 's financial shortcomings . Conair had taken delivery of five equivalent aircraft and the company was therefore able to operate its own flights . Trans Polar had plans to quickly return to operations : the two remaining aircraft would be returned to Aer Lingus and three new aircraft would be purchased . This would be financed through conversion of debt to share capital and new investments from various shipping companies . Borgen emphasized that the market price for leasing aircraft had fallen and that the airline therefore could operate at a lower cost with new leasing contract . Once the airline was back on its feet , he believed Spies would return as a customer . Trans Polar informed its remaining customers on 22 May that it would terminate its flights .
The airline unsuccessfully scrambled to continue operations . A contract with Drammen @-@ based Hercules and its Hamburg , West Germany @-@ based subsidiary secured Trans Polar new operations , this time flying guest workers between West Germany and Turkey four times per week . Tjøntveit claimed on 2 June 1971 that he had secured new financing from British investors , who along with Norwegian shipping companies would purchase newly issued shares in the company . He also confirmed that the two Boeing 720s would return to Aer Lingus and plans for two new Boeing 707 aircraft to be purchased in time for planned operations to commence on 2 July .
= = Bankruptcy = =
Boeing issued a petition for bankruptcy 22 June 1971 , which was carried out by Oslo District Court the following day . The two remaining Boeing aircraft were re @-@ registered with Aer Lingus on 10 June . By late August the debt in the company had been assessed to NOK 30 million , making it the largest bankruptcy till then in Norwegian history . The largest creditor was Boeing , which was owed NOK 7 million . The creditors and shareholders lost all of their investments in the company because the airline 's limited assets were used to pay outstanding wages . Tjøntveit stated on 8 September that he intended to sue Boeing for damages from the seizure of the aircraft , but by October no writ of summons had been received by the manufacturer .
A police investigation was initiated in October 1971 to uncover any criminal action taken by the company . Tjøntveit announced in December 1971 that he had established a new airline — Norwegian Overseas Airways ( NOA ) — which intended to operate freight routes using the Lockheed L @-@ 100 Hercules . The police investigation quickly established that there were shortcomings in Trans Polar 's bookkeeping and that there were several violations of aviation regulations . However , they police had difficulty establishing who was responsible in the company . As Tjøntveit was no longer a Norwegian citizen , he was prohibited from holding management and board positions in the airline . Still , it was obvious that he had been calling the shots . Because NOA could not obtain Scandinavian operating permits , it moved its operations to Bangladesh — hindering the police from interviewing Tjøntveit and other central managers in Trans Polar who had joined the new airline . The police also stated that the investigation took too long because they had too few investigators with expertise in financial crime .
The long investigation time span was causing problems for the prosecutors as an increasing number of the counts were meeting their statutes of limitations . The police announced in September 1973 that they were working on indictments towards Tjøntveit and two of the creditors who placed their representatives on the board after the company was insolvent . The police investigation was concluded in May 1975 . By then , the statutes of limitations for the accounting issues had passed , and the police focused on the more serious charge of debt manipulation . Tjøntveit and two board members were indicted in 1976 . The managing committee for the winding @-@ up released its report in November 1977 ; the report concluded that although the company 's books showed assets of NOK 8 @.@ 6 million , in reality it only had fifty Norwegian krone . The committee further criticized the company for having too low a share capital , lack of qualified management and insufficient competence in operation and management of large aircraft .
The indictment against the two board members was dropped in 1977 , and only a single issue , regarding the disappearance of NOK 1 @.@ 8 million from the books though a cheque swindle , was retained against Tjøntveit . The long waiting time caused Verdens Gang to describe the case as a " justice scandal . " The court case started at Oslo District Court on 13 November 1978 . Only two of the seven counts were related to Trans Polar ; the others regarded other business transaction undertaken by Tjøntveit , such as selling aircraft he did not own . During the court proceedings , the prosecutor withdrew all counts related to Trans Polar . Tjøntveit was acquitted on 30 November , but the court stated that the police had good reason to investigate the airline and had understanding of the long time frame , pointing to the fact that there were practically no accounts and difficulties interviewing the involved parties . The court also took into consideration that Tjøntveit was an aviator and had no education in management . Tjøntveit followed up by suing the state for NOK 2 @.@ 8 million in damages , but the case was dismissed by Oslo District Court in September 1979 .
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= Sinclair C5 =
The Sinclair C5 is a small one @-@ person battery electric vehicle , technically an " electrically assisted pedal cycle " . ( Although widely described as an " electric car " , Sinclair characterised it as a " vehicle , not a car " . ) It was the culmination of Sir Clive Sinclair 's long @-@ running interest in electric vehicles . Sinclair had become one of the UK 's best @-@ known millionaires and earned a knighthood on the back of the highly successful Sinclair Research range of home computers in the early 1980s . He now hoped to repeat his success in the electric vehicle market , which he saw as ripe for a new approach . The C5 emerged from an earlier project to produce a Renault Twizy @-@ style electric car called the C1 . After a change in the law prompted by lobbying from bicycle manufacturers , Sinclair developed the C5 as an electrically powered tricycle with a polypropylene body and a chassis designed by Lotus Cars . It was intended to be the first in a series of increasingly ambitious electric vehicles , but in the event the planned development of the followup C10 and C15 electric cars never got further than the drawing board .
On 10 January 1985 , the C5 was unveiled at a glitzy launch event but it received a less than enthusiastic reception from the British media . Its sales prospects were blighted by poor reviews and safety concerns expressed by consumer and motoring organisations . The vehicle 's limitations – a short range , a maximum speed of only 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) , a battery that ran down quickly and a lack of weatherproofing – made it impractical for most people 's needs . It was marketed as an alternative to cars and bicycles , but ended up appealing to neither group of owners , and it was not available in shops until several months after its launch . Within three months of the launch , production had been slashed by 90 % . Sales never picked up despite Sinclair 's optimistic forecasts and production ceased entirely by August 1985 . Out of 14 @,@ 000 C5s made , only 5 @,@ 000 were sold before its manufacturer , Sinclair Vehicles , went into receivership .
The C5 became known as " one of the great marketing bombs of postwar British industry " and a " notorious ... example of failure " . Despite its commercial failure , the C5 went on to become a cult item for collectors . Thousands of unsold C5s were purchased by investors and sold for hugely inflated prices – as much as £ 5 @,@ 000 , compared to the original retail value of £ 399 . Enthusiasts have established owners ' clubs and some have modified their vehicles substantially , adding monster wheels , jet engines , and high @-@ powered electric motors to propel their C5s at speeds of up to 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) .
= = Design = =
The C5 is made predominately of polypropylene , measuring 174 @.@ 4 cm ( 68 @.@ 7 in ) long , 74 @.@ 4 cm ( 29 @.@ 3 in ) wide , and 79 @.@ 5 cm ( 31 @.@ 3 in ) high . It weighs approximately 30 kg ( 66 lb ) without a battery and 45 kg ( 99 lb ) with one . The chassis consists of a single Y @-@ shaped steel component with a cross @-@ section of about 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) by 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) The vehicle has three wheels , one of 317 mm ( 12 @.@ 5 in ) diameter at the front and two of 406 mm ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) at the rear .
The driver sits in a recumbent position in an open cockpit , steering via a handlebar that is located under the knees . A power switch and front and rear brake levers are positioned on the handlebar . As a supplement to or replacement for electric power , the C5 can also be propelled via bicycle @-@ style pedals located at the front of the cockpit . The maximum speed of an unmodified C5 is 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) . At the rear of the vehicle is a small luggage compartment with a capacity of 28 litres ( 1 cu ft ) . As the C5 does not have a reverse gear , reversing direction is done by getting out , picking up the front end and turning it around by hand .
The C5 is powered by a 12 @-@ volt lead @-@ acid electric battery which drives a motor with a continuous rating of 250 watts and a maximum speed of 4 @,@ 100 revolutions per minute . It is coupled with a two @-@ stage gear @-@ drive that increases torque by a factor of 13 , without which the motor would not be able to move the vehicle when a person is on board . However , the motor is vulnerable to overheating . The torque increases as the load on the vehicle increases , for instance by going up too steep a gradient . Sinclair 's tests showed that it could cope under power with a maximum slope of 1 in 12 ( 8 % ) and could manage a 1 in 7 ( 14 % ) slope using the pedals . As the speed of the motor reduces , the current flow through its windings increases , drawing up to 140 amps at stall speed . This would very quickly burn the motor out if sustained , so the motor 's load is constantly monitored by the C5 's electronics . If it stalls under full load the electronics disable the motor after 4 seconds , while if it is under heavy load ( around 80 or 90 amps ) it trips after two or three minutes . A heat @-@ sensitive resistor inside the motor warns the driver if the vehicle is beginning to overheat and disconnects the motor after a short time , and a third line of defence is provided by a metallic strip mounted on the motor . If an excessive temperature is reached the strip distorts and the power is disconnected .
Although it was usually billed as an electric vehicle , the C5 also depends significantly on pedal power . The vehicle 's battery is designed to provide 35 amps per hour when fully charged or half that for two hours , giving the C5 a claimed range of 20 miles ( 32 km ) . A display in the cockpit uses green , amber , and red LEDs to display the state of the battery charge . The segments are extinguished one after the other to indicate how much driving time is left . The last light indicates that only ten minutes of power are left , after which the motor is switched off and the driver is left to rely on the pedals . Another display indicates via green , amber , and red LEDs how much current is being used . The C5 is in its most economical running mode when a low amount of current , indicated by the green LEDs , is being used . When the lights are red , the motor is under a high load and the driver needs to use pedal power to avoid overheating and shutdown .
The C5 was initially sold at a cost of £ 399 , but to keep the cost under the £ 400 mark a number of components were sold as optional accessories . These included indicator lights , mirrors , mud flaps , a horn , and a " High @-@ Vis Mast " consisting of a reflective strip on a pole , designed to make the C5 more visible in traffic . Sinclair 's C5 accessories brochure noted that " the British climate isn 't always ideal for wind @-@ in @-@ the @-@ hair driving " and offered a range of waterproofs to keep C5 drivers dry in the vehicle 's open cockpit . Other accessories included seat cushions and spare batteries .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Sir Clive Sinclair 's interest in the possibilities of electric vehicles originated in the late 1950s during a holiday job for the electronics company Solatron . Fifteen years later , in the early 1970s , he was the head of his own successful electronics company , Sinclair Radionics , based in St Ives in Cambridgeshire . He tasked one of his employees , Chris Curry – later a co @-@ founder of Acorn Computers – to carry out some preliminary research into electric vehicle design .
Sinclair took the view that an electric vehicle needed to be designed from the ground up , completely rethinking the principles of automotive design rather than simply dropping electric components into an established model . He believed that the motor was the key to the design . Sinclair and Curry developed a wafer @-@ thin motor that was mounted on a child 's scooter , with a button on the handlebars to activate it . The research got no further , however , as Sinclair 's development of the first " slimline " pocket calculator – the Sinclair Executive and its successors – took precedence . No further work on electric vehicles took place for most of the rest of the 1970s .
= = = Early development : the C1 = = =
It was not until late 1979 that Sinclair returned to electric vehicle development . Around Christmas that year , he approached Tony Wood Rogers , an ex @-@ Radionics employee , to carry out consultancy work on " a preliminary investigation into a personal electric vehicle . " The brief was to assess the options for producing a one @-@ person vehicle which would be a replacement for a moped and would have a maximum speed of 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) . Although Wood Rogers was initially reluctant , he was intrigued by the idea of an electric vehicle and agreed to help Sinclair . The vehicle was dubbed the C1 ( the C standing for Clive ) . He built a number of prototypes to demonstrate various design principles and clarify the final specifications .
A specification of the C1 emerged by the end of the year . It would address short @-@ distance transportation needs , with a minimum range of 30 miles ( 48 km ) on a fully charged battery . This reflected official figures showing that the average daily car journey was only 13 miles ( 21 km ) , while the average moped or pedal cycle journey was just 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) . The users were envisaged as being housewives , urban commuters , and young people , who might otherwise use cycles or mopeds to travel . The electric vehicle would be safer , more weather @-@ proof , and would offer space to carry items . It would be easy to drive and park and for the driver to enter or exit , and it would require minimum maintenance . The vehicle would be engineered for simplicity using injection @-@ moulded plastic components and a polypropylene body . It would also be much cheaper than a car , costing £ 500 ( now £ 1400 ) at the most .
One area of development that Sinclair purposefully avoided was battery technology . Electric vehicles powered by lead @-@ acid batteries had once actually outnumbered internal combustion engine vehicles ; in 1912 nearly 34 @,@ 000 electric cars were registered in the U.S. However , the efficiency of internal combustion engines greatly improved while battery technology advanced much more slowly , leading to petrol and diesel @-@ driven vehicles dominating the market . By 1978 , out of 17 @.@ 6 million registered vehicles on Britain 's roads , only 45 @,@ 000 were electric vehicles in day @-@ to @-@ day use and of those , 90 % were milkfloats . Sinclair chose to rely on existing lead @-@ acid battery technology , avoiding the great expense of developing a more efficient type . His rationale was that if the electric vehicle market took off , battery manufacturers would step up to develop better batteries . Wood Rogers recalls :
We were stuck with the standard technology of the time . A car battery was out of the question because it couldn 't stand constant charge / discharge cycles , a traction battery , similar to the kind used in milk floats , could be recharged from flat and a semi @-@ traction battery , often used by caravanners , offered a good compromise . Sadly , though , we had very little freedom of choice .
The development programme moved to the University of Exeter in 1982 , where the C1 chassis was fitted with fibreglass shells and tested in a wind tunnel . It was recognised at an early stage that the vehicle would have to be aerodynamic ; although it was only ever intended to be small and relatively slow , reducing wind resistance was seen as essential for the vehicle 's efficiency . By March 1982 the basic design of the C1 had been established . Sinclair then turned to an established motor design company , Ogle Design of Letchworth , to provide professional styling assistance and production engineering . However , Ogle 's approach was not to Sinclair 's liking ; they tackled the project as one of car design and focused more ( and expensively ) on the aerodynamics rather than the cycle technology around which the C1 was based . The weight of the vehicle increased to over 150 kilograms ( 330 lb ) , far more than Sinclair 's desired specification . By March 1983 , Sinclair and Wood Rogers had decided to stop the C1 programme . Wood Rogers comments that Ogle were convinced that the C1 would be a flop , telling Sinclair that it would not be fast enough , that its drivers would get wet when it rained and that the battery was not good enough .
To meet the steadily escalating development costs of the vehicle , Sinclair decided to raise capital by selling some of his own shares in Sinclair Research to fund a separate company that would focus on electric vehicles . A £ 12 million deal was reached in March 1983 , of which £ 8 @.@ 3 million was used to fund the establishment of the new Sinclair Vehicles company . Sinclair recruited Barrie Wills , a veteran former employee of the DeLorean Motor Company , to lead Sinclair Vehicles as its managing director . Although Wills initially expressed scepticism about the viability of an electric vehicle – his twenty @-@ five years in the motor industry had convinced him that an electric car was never going to happen – Sinclair managed to convince him that the project would work . In 1984 , Sinclair Vehicles ' new head office was established in Warwick in the West Midlands , an area with a long @-@ established link with the motor industry .
The project 's prospects were boosted by changes in the British government 's approach to electric vehicles . In March 1980 , it had abolished Vehicle Excise Duty for electric vehicles and by the start of 1983 , the Department of Transport was working on legislation that would introduce a new category of vehicle – the " electrically assisted pedal cycle " . This had a number of significant advantages from Sinclair 's point of view . Such a vehicle would be exempt from insurance and vehicle tax , and the user would not need a driving licence or a helmet , all of which were required for mopeds . The legislation , which was passed in August 1983 , was prompted by a lobbying campaign by manufacturers such as Raleigh who wanted to sell electric bicycles .
Sinclair realised that his electric vehicle design could easily be adapted to meet the new legislation . As the " electrically assisted pedal cycle " category was so new , there were no existing vehicles on the market that would meet the standards prescribed by the new legislation . However , it imposed a number of restrictions that limited the performance of any vehicle that would qualify under the new standards . The maximum legal speed of the vehicle would be limited to only 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) ; it could not weigh any more than 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) , including the battery ; and its motor could not be rated at any more than 250 watts .
Despite these limitations , the vehicle was seen as only the first step in a series of increasingly ambitious electrical cars . Sinclair intended it to prove the viability of electric personal transport ; the hope was that , just as Sinclair had found with home computers like the hugely successful ZX81 and ZX Spectrum , an affordable electric vehicle could unleash pent @-@ up demand for a market that did not previously exist . However , Sinclair performed no market research to ascertain whether there was actually a market for his electric vehicle ; as the director of the Primary Contact advertising agency commented in January 1985 , the project continued all the way to the prototype stage " purely on the convictions of Sir Clive . "
= = = Development and design of the C5 = = =
With Sinclair 's new specifications in hand , Ogle worked on a three @-@ wheeled design dubbed the C5 , which bore similarities with the earlier three @-@ wheeled Bond Bug – another Ogle design . The vehicle 's handlebar steering was the brainchild of Wood Rogers , who decided at the outset that a steering wheel would not be practicable as it would make it impossible for a driver to get in and out easily – a serious safety disadvantage . He comments that " putting the bars at the driver 's sides made it easy to steer and felt very natural . " A prototype was presented to 63 families in the A , B , C1 and C2 demographic groups in suburban and town environments to determine that the controls were correctly positioned ; this was the only external research carried out on the C5 . In the autumn of 1983 , Wills brought in Lotus Cars to finish the vehicle 's detailing , build prototypes and test rigs , carry out testing and take forward the programme to production . The development of the C5 took place over 19 months in conditions of great secrecy , with testing carried out at the Motor Industry Research Association 's proving ground in Leicestershire .
Further aerodynamic refinements were carried out in Exeter with the development of new body shells which produced further reductions in the vehicle 's drag . However , it was felt that something was lacking in the design and a 23 @-@ year @-@ old industrial designer , Gus Desbarats , was brought in to refine the shell 's appearance . He had won a Sinclair @-@ sponsored electric vehicle design competition at the Royal College of Art and was hired on his graduation to set up an in @-@ house car design studio at Sinclair 's Metalab in Cambridge , of which he became the first employee . It was not only Desbarats ' first project but , as he later said , " day one of my working life " , when he turned up at Sinclair 's premises . He was taken aback when he saw the C5 for the first time , as he had been expecting a " proper " electric car . He said later that he thought " the concept looked futuristic but was short on practicality . There were no instruments , nowhere to put anything and no security features . " Desbarats told Sinclair that the design would have to be redone from scratch , " asking what we were doing about visibility , rear view mirrors , range indications ... " . It was far too late for this , however ; all the key design decisions had already been made . Desbarats told Sinclair that he would need four months to revisit the design and was given eight weeks instead . He created the styling that was used for the final production model of the C5 , with wheel trims and a small luggage compartment being added subsequently . Desbarats was also responsible for the creation of the High @-@ Vis Mast accessory , as he felt uncomfortable being so close to the ground with other drivers potentially not being able to see him . He later described his contribution as " convert [ ing ] an ugly pointless device into a prettier , safer , and more usable pointless device . "
The chassis of the C5 consists of two identical metal pressings which are joined at top and bottom with a closing plate at the rear . It lacks a separate suspension system , instead relying on the chassis structure having enough torsional flex . Its motor was produced in Italy by Polymotor , a subsidiary of the Dutch company Philips . Although it was later famously said that the C5 was powered by a washing machine motor , the motor was in fact developed from a design produced to drive a truck cooling fan . Lotus provided the gearbox and a rear axle based on a design for car steering columns . The C5 's electronics were produced by MetaLab , a Sinclair spin @-@ off . The wheels were assembled from tyres made in Taiwan and wheels from Italy . Oldham Batteries provided a lead @-@ acid battery developed for Sinclair that could manage more than the 300 charge @-@ discharge cycles that had originally been specified .
The bodywork was made from two injection @-@ moulded polypropylene shells supplied by three manufacturers ; J.J. Harvey of Manchester made the moulds , Linpac provided the shells , and ICI supplied the raw material . According to Rodney Dale , the upper shell mould was " one of the largest – if not the largest – injection mouldings of its type in the UK : possibly even in the world . " The manufacturing process reflected Sinclair 's ambition for the C5 production line . A single mould set was capable of producing up to 4 @,@ 000 parts every week . The two parts of the shell were joined together by wrapping a tape around the joint , aligning them on a jig , pressing them together and passing an electric current through the tape to heat and melt it . The same process was used to make the front and rear bumper assemblies of the Austin Maestro and only took about 70 seconds to complete . Although Sinclair had considered producing the C5 at the DeLorean plant at Dunmurry in Northern Ireland , which had one of Europe 's most advanced automated plastic body manufacturing facilities , this was not to be , as the DeLorean Motor Company failed in a controversial bankruptcy which resulted in the plant 's closure .
Instead , the work of assembling the C5 was given to The Hoover Company in the spring of 1983 . The Welsh Development Agency ( WDA ) approached Hoover to ask them if they would be interested becoming the principal subcontractor for Sinclair , " who are working on an electric car , and as a by @-@ product of the research have designed an electrically assisted bicycle . They are looking for a subcontractor to whom they can entrust the assembly . " The proposal suited all sides . The WDA was keen to support the Hoover washing machine factory at Merthyr Tydfil , situated in the economically depressed South Wales Valleys . Hoover was enticed by Sinclair 's projections of sales of 200 @,@ 000 units a year , increasing to 500 @,@ 000 . Sinclair saw Hoover 's plant and expertise as a good match for their fabrication techniques . A contract was signed within a few months .
= = = Production , distribution and support = = =
The C5 was produced in great secrecy in a separate part of the Hoover factory with its own duplicate facilities . At first the work was carried out by a small team of people in a sealed room , but as production ramped up Hoover installed two production lines in building MP7 , connected to the main factory by an underground tunnel . A rolling testing stand was located at the end of the production line to test each completed C5 for faults . A mechanical arm simulated the weight of a person weighing 12 stone ( 170 lb ; 76 kg ) and the vehicle 's brakes were tested under load . At the end of the process the C5s which had passed testing were rolled into cardboard boxes and loaded straight onto distribution lorries in stacks . Around £ 100 @,@ 000 was spent to set up the factory .
Distribution centres were set up in Hayes in Middlesex , Preston in Lancashire and Oxford to handle the C5s . Hoover arranged for 19 of its service offices around the UK – responsible for maintaining customers ' vacuum cleaners and washing machines – to also maintain C5s and provide spare parts . The C5 's major consumable item , the battery , was to be supported by 300 branches of Comet and Woolworths .
Hoover trained its engineers to produce C5s and tested its manufacturing processes by assembling , dismantling and re @-@ assembling 100 C5s . Full production began in November 1984 and by early January 1985 over 2 @,@ 500 C5s had been manufactured . Each production line could produce 50 vehicles an hour and Hoover had the capability of producing up to 8 @,@ 000 C5s per week .
= = = Launch = = =
The news of Sinclair 's C5 project came as a surprise when it became public and attracted considerable interest , as well as scepticism . The Economist reported in June 1983 that carmakers were " startled " but cautious about Sinclair 's prospects ; as one competitor put it , " If it were anyone but Sinclair , we 'd say he was bonkers " . The Economist asked , " Can a man who has made a fortune out of calculators and computers , and could double it on flatscreen televisions , be that crazy ? " and wondered whether he was " making a ghastly mistake " , a prediction that industry insiders thought was likely .
The C5 was launched on 10 January 1985 at Alexandra Palace in North London . The event was staged in Sinclair 's usual glitzy style , with girls handing out press packs and a variety of promotional giveaways : magazines , hats , pullovers , T @-@ shirts , key rings , sun visors , badges , mugs , bags , and even a C5 video game . The vehicle was given a dramatic unveiling ; six C5s driven by girls dressed in grey and yellow burst out of six cardboard boxes , drove around the arena , and lined up side by side . Sinclair announced the launch of a £ 3 million , three @-@ month @-@ long advertising print and television advertising campaign . The C5 would be available initially by mail order at a cost of £ 399 and would subsequently be sold via high street stores .
Sinclair issued a glossy sales brochure which characterised the vehicle as a part of an ongoing exercise in " cutting giants down to size , turning impersonal tyrants into personal servants . " The brochure highlighted Sinclair 's achievements in producing affordable pocket calculators , home computers , and pocket televisions and declared , " with the C5 , Sinclair Vehicles puts personal , private transport back where it belongs – in the hands of the individual . " The photographs accompanying the text showed housewives and teenagers driving the C5 to shops , railway stations , and sports fields – in the words of technology writers Ian Adamson and Richard Kennedy , " a blue @-@ sky suburbia exclusively populated by electric trikes and their drivers . "
The press was given an opportunity to try out the C5 but this proved to be , as Adamson and Kennedy put it , " an unqualified disaster " . A large number of the demonstration machines did not work , as the assembled journalists soon discovered . The Sunday Times called the C5 a " Formula One bath @-@ chair " ; its reporter " had travelled five yards outdoors when everything when phut and this motorised , plastic , lozenge rolled to a halt with all the stationary decisiveness of a mule . " The Guardian 's reporter had a flat battery after only seven minutes , while Your Computer found that the C5 could not cope with the slopes at Alexandra Palace : " The 250 watt electric motor which drives one of the back wheels proved incapable of powering the C5 up even the gentlest slopes without using pedal power . The tricycle was soon making a plaintive " peep , peep " noise signalling that the engine had overheated . " Even the distinguished former racing driver Stirling Moss ran into problems when he tried out the C5 on the roads around Alexandra Palace . The Canadian newspaper The Globe and Mail reported that while he had started out well , " a jaunty smile on [ his ] face as he braved some of the worst exhaust fumes in the world spluttering almost directly into his face from trucks he could almost drive underneath " , he ran into problems when he reached a hill : " It was at this point that he realised the battery had gone dead . On a cold and foggy London day , the great man was visibly sweating . "
The timing and location of the launch event – in the middle of winter , on the top of a snow- and ice @-@ covered hill – later prompted criticism even from Sinclair executives , who admitted off the record that spring conditions might have been better for a vehicle with so little protection from the British climate . The Financial Times called it " the worst possible timing to launch what was proclaimed to be a serious , road @-@ going vehicle " . Sinclair 's biographer Rodney Dale describes it as " a calculated ( or miscalculated ) risk " , pointing out that production was already underway , details were beginning to leak out to the press and " the launch could hardly have been held up until the possibility of a bright spring day . " He justified the choice of January as being necessitated by a need to release the C5 " as soon as possible lest the erroneous speculation should have done more harm than good . " Rob Gray offers an alternative explanation , that the launch date had been brought forward because Sinclair 's development funds were running low .
= = = Reviews = = =
It soon became apparent that the C5 faced more serious problems with public perception than merely a botched launch event . Media reactions to the C5 were generally negative when the first reviews appeared over the following days . As the Financial Times observed , " the few hardy journalists who ventured out on the roads returned shivering and dubious about the C5 's abilities in such harsh conditions . "
A common concern was that it was simply too vulnerable in traffic . Your Computer commented that " a periscope would be handy if you intended driving the C5 on busy roads since your head is only at bonnet level . " The Guardian 's motoring correspondent wrote of her " grave misgivings about its use in congested traffic ... On a sharp turn it too easily lifts a rear wheel , is hazardously silent , and low down . It disappears below a car driver 's sight @-@ line when pulling up alongside . The prospect of these vehicles merging into heavy traffic , dwarfed by heavy lorries , buses , and cars , is worrying . Their low speed risks turning them into mobile chicanes for other traffic . " Another Guardian writer wrote that he " would not want to drive [ the ] C5 in any traffic at all . My head was on a level with the top of a juggernaut 's tyres , the exhaust fumes blasted into my face . Even with the minuscule front and rear lights on , I could not feel confident that a lorry driver so high above the ground would see me . " Sinclair issued a publicity photograph showing the C5 's industrial designer , Gus Desbarats , in a C5 alongside a cardboard cutout of an Austin Mini to illustrate that the C5 driver 's seated position was actually higher than that of a Mini driver .
As teenagers were among the target audiences for the C5 , some commentators also raised the prospect of ( in Adamson and Kennedy 's words ) " packs of 14 @-@ year @-@ olds terrorising the neighbourhood in their customised C5s " . The secretary of the Cyclists Touring Club raised the prospect of " kids us [ ing ] them in a pretty wild way . They may run them over paths and pavements and knock people down . " Sinclair dismissed such concerns – " I have qualms about seven @-@ year @-@ olds riding bicycles on the open road , but I have far fewer qualms about a 14 @-@ year @-@ old driving one of these " . Teenagers interviewed by The Guardian were doubtful about whether they would want a C5 , commenting that while it was fun to drive they felt insecure in it and preferred their bicycles .
Sinclair 's claims to have revolutionised the electric vehicle were dismissed by many reviewers ; Your Computer called the C5 " more of a toy than the ' ideal solution for all types of local journey ' which the brochure claims . " The Guardian 's motoring correspondent also characterised it as " a delightful toy " The Daily Telegraph described it as " a cleverly @-@ designed ' fun ' machine that can hardly be regarded as serious , everyday all @-@ weather transport " , while The Engineer viewed it as " a smashing big boy 's toy , tough enough to take teenage thrashing and possibly a serious vehicle for fit adults to nip out in for the Sunday papers . "
On the plus side , the C5 's handling characteristics were praised by reviewers . The Guardian called it " very easy to master once you have become familiar with the under @-@ thigh handlebar steering and the semi @-@ recumbent driving position with feet on bicycle @-@ type pedals . " The Daily Mirror described the arrangement as " surprisingly easy " to master , although it cautioned that " on full speed and on full lock it 's very easy to tip it onto two wheels . " The Daily Express motoring correspondent wrote that he found the C5 " stable , comfortable and easy to handle . "
The verdict from motoring organisations , road safety groups , and consumer watchdogs was decidedly negative and probably sealed the C5 's fate . The British Safety Council ( BSC ) tested the C5 at Sinclair Vehicles ' headquarters in Warwick and issued a highly critical report to its 32 @,@ 000 members . Sinclair was furious and announced that he would sue the BSC and its chairman , James Tye , for defamation after Tye told the press : " I am shattered that within a few days 14 @-@ year @-@ old children will be allowed to drive on the road in this Doodle Bug without a licence ... without insurance and without any form of training . " Several years later , Tye was happy to take responsibility for the C5 's failure , describing himself as " the man entirely to blame for the failure of the Sinclair C5 . "
= = = Sales history = = =
Despite the problems of the press launch day , a more positive response was expected from the 20 @,@ 000 members of the public who attended the remaining two days of the launch event to try out the C5 on the Alexandra Palace test track . Sinclair reported the day after the event that its switchboard had been overwhelmed by enquirers , and it expected that all 2 @,@ 700 units from the first production run would be sold by the following Monday . Setting a pattern that would be repeated throughout the C5 's short commercial life , this prediction was wildly optimistic ; less than 200 were sold during the Alexandra Palace event . However , sales picked up as mail order forms – which had been sent to all of Sinclair 's computer customers – were returned with fresh orders . Within four weeks of launch , 5 @,@ 000 C5s had been sold .
The C5 's users were an eclectic group . They included holiday camps who wanted C5s to rent to campers ; the British Royal Family – Princes William and Harry each had one to drive around Kensington Palace before they were old enough to drive ; Sir Elton John , who had two ; the magician Paul Daniels , who bought a demonstration model he saw being driven around the BBC Television Centre car park ; Sir Arthur C. Clarke , who had two shipped out to his home at Colombo in Sri Lanka ; and the Mayor of Scarborough , Michael Pitts , who swapped his official Daimler for a C5 . However , as The Times reported , some of the early buyers were disappointed by the vehicle 's limitations , citing its slowness , its limited range and its inability to cope with steep hills , which led some people to return their C5s and ask for a refund .
Although the C5 reached retail stores at the start of March 1985 , sales had tailed off . Sinclair resorted to hiring teams of teenagers to drive around London in C5s to promote the vehicle , at a cost to the company of £ 20 a day . Similar teams were established in Manchester , Birmingham , and Leeds . The company denied that it was a marketing campaign ; a spokesman told The Times that " we haven 't done ... tests on inner city roads . That is what the team is doing . Marketing is not the prime function but will undoubtedly be a spin @-@ off . " Sinclair was reported to be surprised at the lack of demand and blamed the press for " a lack of foresight and pessimistic reporting . " Matters did not improve . The retail chain Comet acquired 1 @,@ 600 C5s but nine months later most were still unsold .
Adding to Sinclair 's problems , production of the C5 had to be halted for three weeks after numerous customers reported that the plastic moulding attached to the gearbox was impairing the performance of their vehicles . 100 Hoover workers were shifted from the C5 production line to work on replacing the faulty mouldings on returned vehicles . Barrie Wills admitted that Sinclair was also taking the opportunity to " adjust stocks " in the light of the C5 's poor sales . When production resumed a month later it was at only 10 % of the previous level , with 90 of the workers being transferred back to the washing machine production lines . Only 100 C5s were now being produced a week , down from the original 1 @,@ 000 . Over 3 @,@ 000 unsold C5s were piled up in storage at the Hoover factory , with additional unsold stock in 500 retail outlets nationwide .
Sinclair tried to put a brave face on it , admitting that " sales have not been entirely up to expectations " but claiming to be " confident of a high level of demand for the vehicle . " A spokesman told the media that " we expect a rapid rise in sales now that the weather is improving " . Possible sales opportunities were explored in mainland Europe , Asia , and the United States , with Sinclair claiming that he had found " very big " levels of interest . Hoover were sufficiently persuaded to allow Sinclair to divert 10 of their employees to modify C5s for overseas export . The bid to sell the C5 abroad failed ; the Dutch National Transport Service told Sinclair that the C5 was not suitable for Dutch roads without improvements to its braking system , the addition of more reflectors , and the inclusion of the High @-@ Vis Mast as part of the basic package . Most of the other ten countries that Sinclair inquired of demanded similar changes .
The C5 's reputation received a further battering when major consumer organisations published sceptical evaluations . The Automobile Association questioned many of Sinclair 's claims in a report published at the start of May . It found that the range of the vehicle was typically only about 10 miles ( 16 km ) rather than the 20 miles ( 32 km ) promised by Sinclair , and reported that the C5 's battery ran flat after only 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) on a cold day . The C5 's running speed was more usually around 12 @.@ 5 miles per hour ( 20 @.@ 1 km / h ) than the claimed 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) , while its running costs compared unfavourably to that of a petrol @-@ driven Honda PX50 moped . The stability , general roadworthiness , and especially the safety of the C5 were questioned , and the AA suggested that the High @-@ Vis Mast should be included as part of the standard package . It concluded :
The C5 looks more comfortable and convenient than it really is – older cyclists looking for less pedal effort will be disappointed by the agility its layout demands . Although it is delightfully quiet , performance , range , and comfort do not compare with the better mopeds and costs are much closer than one might think when one allows for the inevitable battery replacement .
The Consumers ' Association published a critical report on the C5 in the June issue of its magazine Which , concluding that the vehicle was of only limited use and represented poor value for money . All three of the C5s that it tested broke down with a " major gearbox fault " and their High @-@ Vis Masts snapped . The longest run between battery charges was only 14 @.@ 2 miles ( 22 @.@ 9 km ) , and a more realistic achievable range was 5 – 10 miles ( 8 – 16 km ) . It also echoed the AA 's concerns about the C5 's safety and the omission of the High @-@ Vis Mast from the standard package . The magazine also called the C5 " too easy to steal " , hardly surprising considering that while a security lock could be used to prevent it being driven away , the C5 was light enough that a would @-@ be thief could simply pick it up and carry it off .
As the summer of 1985 continued , sales of the C5 remained far below Sinclair 's predictions ; only 8 @,@ 000 had been sold by July . In the middle of that month , the Advertising Standards Authority ordered Sinclair to amend or withdraw its advertisements for the C5 after finding that the company 's claims about the safety and speed of the C5 either could not be proved or were not justified . Retailers attempted to deal with unsold stocks of C5s by drastically cutting the vehicle 's price . Comet first reduced the price to £ 259 @.@ 90 but by the end of the year was selling C5s with a complete set of accessories for only £ 139 @.@ 99 , 65 % less than the launch price .
Production was terminated in August 1985 , by which time 14 @,@ 000 C5s had been assembled . Cashflow problems caused by the paucity of sales caused relations to break down between Sinclair Vehicles and Hoover . In June 1985 Hoover obtained a writ against Sinclair for unpaid debts of over £ 1 @.@ 5 million , relating to work carried out over the previous eight months . It did not actually serve the writ but entered negotiations with Sinclair . In mid @-@ August , it publicly announced that it was ceasing production of the C5 . A Sinclair spokesman told the media that the halt in production was " due to a shortage of certain components which are unable to be re @-@ ordered while a financial settlement is pending . Once this has been concluded production is envisaged to recommence . "
= = = Demise of Sinclair Vehicles = = =
Production did not recommence and the Hoover production line remained closed permanently . On 19 September , Sinclair Vehicles changed its name to TPD Limited , with a direct subsidiary named Sinclair Vehicles Sales Limited continuing to sell C5s . TPD only lasted until 15 October , when it was placed into receivership . The receivers announced that 4 @,@ 500 C5s had been sold by Sinclair Vehicles , with another 4 @,@ 500 remaining in the company 's hands . £ 7 @.@ 75 million was reportedly owed to creditors , of which £ 7 million was owed to Sir Clive Sinclair himself in reflection of his personal investment in the project . Hoover was not among the creditors , as Sinclair had managed to settle the dispute on terms that neither company would reveal .
On 5 November , TPD was formally liquidated at a creditors ' meeting . It was revealed , to the anger of the creditors , that Sinclair had taken out a £ 5 million debenture to cover the money that he had put into the company . Ordinary creditors faced little prospect of recovering the £ 1 million left outstanding . Primary Contact , the marketing agency used by Sinclair to promote the C5 , was left with the biggest unpaid bill , of nearly £ 500 @,@ 000 . The last of the unsold C5s were bought for £ 75 each by Ellar ( Surplus Goods ) Ltd of Liverpool , which planned to sell 1 @,@ 000 of them to an Egyptian businessman for use on a university campus while another 1 @,@ 500 were intended to be sold in the UK .
Many reasons have been suggested for the failure of Sinclair Vehicles and what Dale calls " the jigsaw of the C5 's disappointment " . One of the receivers of Sinclair Vehicles , John Sapte , suggested that Sinclair had taken the wrong tack with its marketing of the C5 : " It was presented as a serious transport , when perhaps it should have been presented as a luxury product , an up @-@ market plaything . " Ellar 's director Maurice Levensohn took exactly this tack when he purchased Sinclair Vehicles ' remaining stock , saying that his company would market them as " a sophisticated toy " : " If you were a little boy , wouldn 't you want your parents to get you one this Christmas ? " His strategy was notably successful ; Ellar sold nearly 7 @,@ 000 C5s at up to £ 700 each , far more ( and at a higher price ) than Sinclair had ever managed .
Some commentators attributed the C5 's failure to problems with Sinclair 's marketing strategy ; only a year after the demise of Sinclair Vehicles , the Globe and Mail newspaper called it " one of the great marketing bombs of postwar British industry " . Andrew P. Marks of Paisley College of Technology criticises Sinclair 's marketing strategy as confused ; the C5 promotional brochure depicts it as a leisure vehicle , showing boys in C5s at a football pitch , women in C5s on a suburban road , and so on , while the text suggests that the C5 is a serious substitute for a car . He concludes that the C5 was poorly defined , appearing to be " trying to grasp at two different markets " but was unable to appeal to either , and so failed to take off . The fact that it was initially only available via mail order was also a mistake , in Marks ' view , as it meant that no physical inspection of the product could be made before purchasing it . This was a serious deterrent to consumers as it made the C5 a much more risky purchase .
The design researcher and academic Nigel Cross calls the C5 a " notorious ... example of failure " and describes its basic concept as " wrong " . He points out that the marketing research for the C5 was carried out after the vehicle 's concept had already been decided ; he notes that it appears to have been intended " mainly to aid promotion " rather than to guide development . Gus Desbarats , the C5 's industrial designer , attributes the vehicle 's flawed concept to Sinclair operating in a " bubble " and believes that Sinclair " failed to understand the difference between a new market , computing , and a mature one , transport , where there were more benchmarks to compare against . " He comments that the experience of working on the C5 convinced him of the need for industrial designers such as himself to get " involved early in the innovation process , shaping basic configurations , never again [ being ] satisfied to simply decorate a fundamentally bad idea " .
Sinclair himself said in 2005 that the C5 " was early for what it was . People reacted negatively and the press didn 't help . It was too low down and people felt insecure , hence it got bad press . " Sam Dawson of Classic and Sport Car Magazine described the C5 as " incredibly fun to drive " , suggesting that the safety concerns could have been addressed if it wasn 't for the fact that it was already doomed as a national joke . " He noted the disconnect between the media 's expectations of a serious electric car and the reality of the C5 , which he called " just a fun way of getting around . " Professor Stuart Cole of the University of South Wales comments that the C5 suffered from the design of the roads and the attitudes of the time , which were not geared towards pedal or electric vehicles : " In the days before unleaded petrol , your face would have been at the height of every exhaust pipe , and drivers weren 't used to having to consider slower @-@ moving cyclists . But with more cycle lanes , better education , and workplaces providing showers , etc . , the world now is much more geared up for people looking for alternatives to the car , and hopefully will become even more so in the future . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Sinclair 's other electric vehicles = = =
Sinclair envisaged producing follow @-@ up vehicles such as the C10 , a two @-@ seater city car , and the C15 , a four @-@ seater capable of travelling at 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) . As Wills put it at the launch event , " We 're developing a family of traffic @-@ compatible , quiet , economic and pollution @-@ free vehicles for the end of the ' 80s . " The C5 was described as " the baby of the family " . The C10 was intended to be a city car , capable of carrying two passengers at up to 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) in a roofed but open @-@ sided compartment with two wheels at the front and one at the back . Wood Rogers intended it to effectively be an updated version of the Isetta , a 1960s Italian microcar . Sinclair built a full @-@ scale mock @-@ up of it ; according to Wood Rogers , " it looked great . I specified open sides to keep the cost down and having no doors meant it escaped a lot of regulations too . " The design is strikingly similar to the modern Renault Twizy electric vehicle ; Wood Rogers comments that " you could put the C10 into production today and it would still look contemporary . "
Sinclair described the C15 as having " a futuristic design with an elongated ' tear @-@ drop ' shape , a lightweight body made of self @-@ coloured polypropylene and a single , possibly ' roller ' type rear wheel . " It would have been launched at the 1988 International Motor Show in Birmingham following a development programme costed at £ 2 million . Unlike the relatively conventional technology used in the C5 , Sinclair intended to use sodium sulphur batteries with four times the power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of lead @-@ acid batteries to give the C15 much greater speed and range – over 180 miles ( 290 km ) on a single charge . It would have had approximately the same dimensions as a conventional small car , measuring 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) long , 1 @.@ 35 metres ( 4 ft 5 in ) high , and 1 @.@ 35 metres ( 4 ft 5 in ) wide . However , it could only have worked if sodium sulphur batteries had realised their promise . In the event they did not , due to thermal problems . Neither the C10 nor the C15 ever left the drawing board .
Although Sinclair went on to produce more ( but much smaller ) electric vehicles , the C5 debacle did lasting damage to the reputation of subsequent EVs in the UK , which the media routinely compared to the C5 . It was not until a highly regarded manufacturer , Toyota , launched a serious and well @-@ received vehicle in the 1990s , the Prius , that the C5 " jinx " was finally laid to rest .
= = = From flop to cult = = =
Despite its lack of commercial success when it was first released , the C5 gained an unexpected degree of cult status in the later years . Collectors began purchasing them as investment items , reselling them for considerably more than their original retail price . One such investor , Adam Harper , bought 600 C5s from a film company as a speculative investment in 1987 . He sold all but four within two years , selling them to customers who wanted a novel or more environmentally friendly form of transportation . He also found willing customers among drivers who had been banned from the road , as the C5 did not need a driving licence or vehicle tax . According to Harper , C5s could be resold for as much as £ 2 @,@ 500 – more than six times the original retail price . By 1996 , a Special Edition C5 in its original box was reported to be worth more than £ 5 @,@ 000 to collectors .
C5 owners began modifying their vehicles to achieve levels of performance far beyond anything envisaged by Sinclair . Adam Harper used one C5 as a stunt vehicle , driving it through a 70 ft ( 21 m ) tunnel of fire , and adapted another to run at 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) , aiming to break a world land speed record for a three @-@ wheeled electric vehicle and the British record for any type of electric vehicle . He said later : " Up to 100 mph it 's like you 're running on rails , it 's really stable . Then at about 110 to 120 mph it starts getting tricky . At that point if a tyre blew up or something happened you would be surely dead . "
As quoted in the 1987 Guinness Book of Records under battery powered vehicle ; ' John W. Owen and Roy Harvey travelled 919 miles 1479 km from John O 'Groats to Land 's End in a Sinclair C5 in 103 hr 15 min on 30 Apr @-@ 4 May 1985 . ' ( 8 @.@ 9 mph avg . )
Chris Crosskey , an engineer from Abingdon , set a record for the longest journey completed on a C5 on a trip to Glastonbury – 103 miles ( 166 km ) miles away ( " I nearly died of exhaustion " ) – and tried three times to drive one from Land 's End to John o ' Groats , a distance of 874 miles ( 1 @,@ 407 km ) . Another engineer , Adrian Bennett , fitted a jet engine to his C5 , while plumber Colin Furze turned one into a 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) -high " monster trike " with 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) wheels and a petrol engine capable of propelling it at 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) .
= = = Videos = = =
" Sir Clive Sinclair on the C5 " – BBC News report from the January 1985 launch of the C5
" Sinclair C5 electric car ' ahead of its time ' " – BBC News report from January 1985 showing reporter Elfyn Thomas driving a C5 in Cardiff city centre
= = = Owners ' clubs = = =
C5 Alive – includes info about the C5 , spare parts shop and forum
C5 Owners – includes C5 history , documentation and forum
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= Hart Lake ( Oregon ) =
Hart Lake is a shallow lake in the Warner Valley of eastern Lake County , Oregon , United States . The lake covers 7 @,@ 324 acres ( 29 @.@ 64 km2 ) and has the most stable water level within the valley 's Warner Lakes chain . The lake is named for the heart @-@ shaped brand used by the pioneer Wilson and Alexander cattle ranch established near the lake . Much of the land around Hart Lake is administered by the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service ( FWS ) . The lake and the surrounding wetlands support a wide variety of birds and other wildlife . Recreational opportunities on and near Hart Lake include hunting , fishing , bird watching , and boating .
= = Geography and geology = =
Hart Lake is located in the Warner Valley in south @-@ central Oregon . It is a natural lake that covers 7 @,@ 324 acres ( 29 @.@ 64 km2 ) and is approximately 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) long and 2 miles ( 3 km ) wide . Annual precipitation in the Hart Lake basin averages from 15 to 25 inches ( 380 to 640 mm ) . The valley is approximately 60 miles ( 97 km ) long and 8 miles ( 13 km ) wide . Most of the valley is in Lake County ; however , the north end extends about 10 miles ( 16 km ) into Harney County . It is an alluvial basin containing numerous lakes , remnants of a single lake that covered the valley floor up to 200 feet ( 61 m ) deep during the Pleistocene epoch . Today , steep cliffs rise above a chain of endorheic lakes , such as Hart Lake , known collectively as the Warner Lakes . The valley has two regions commonly referred to as the South Warner Valley and the North Warner Valley . The two areas transition between Crump Lake and Hart Lake at a point where the valley narrows to about 5 miles ( 8 km ) in width .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The entire lake has an average depth of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and a maximum depth of 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) at a normal water level . The deepest part of the lake is at its north end , while the south half is comparatively shallow . Hart Lake not only gets the overflow from Crump Lake , but also receives a steady flow of fresh water from Honey Creek . As a result , Hart Lake has the most stable water level within the Warner Lakes chain . Any outflow during high water drains into Anderson Lake , just north of Hart Lake .
The water in Hart Lake is quite murky due to suspended particles stirred up from the shallow bottom by wave action . However , water clarity is not a good indicator of the lake 's trophic state . The amount of nutrients in the lake is very high ; nitrate and phosphorus levels indicate a hypereutrophic condition . This is counterbalanced by the chlorophyll level and related phytoplankton growth , which are typical of a mesotrophic lake . This is due to the reduced light level in the lake 's cloudy waters , so overall , the lake is classified as eutrophic , with very high turbidity .
= = Ecology = =
In addition to the lake 's fish population , Hart Lake provides a unique habitat for plants and animals along the shore . The west @-@ facing slope of Hart Mountain runs along the eastern shore of the lake . This area is typical high desert scrubland dominated by big sagebrush and desert grasses . The areas to the north , south , and west of the lake are mostly meadows and marshland , where marsh grasses are common along lake shores . In addition , willow , cottonwood , choke cherry , and wild roses are found near the lake . Local wildlife includes common high desert mammals , resident birds , and migrant waterfowl .
Hart Lake 's native fish species include the Warner sucker , tui chub , and Great Basin redband trout . The redband trout and small populations of the other species are also found in Honey Creek . These stream @-@ dwelling populations have likely been the source for re @-@ colonizing Hart Lake after extended drought killed the lake populations . In addition to the native fish , rainbow trout , crappie , smallmouth bass , and bullhead catfish have been introduced into the lake . These non @-@ native species have put significant pressure on some of the native fish , which is why the Warner sucker is classified as threatened species . A 1996 fish survey estimated the total population of adult Warner suckers resident in Hart Lake at only 493 individuals . To help preserve and restore the lake 's threatened fish populations , the Fish and Wildlife Service developed a species recovery plan in 1998 .
There are 42 mammal species that live in the areas around Hart Lake . Mammals common in the Hart Lake shoreline and marshes include raccoons , striped skunks , and muskrats .
There are 264 species of birds that inhabit the area around Hart Lake or stop at the lake during migration . Species that nest near the lake include sandhill cranes , American white pelicans , double @-@ crested cormorants , willets , Wilson 's phalaropes , gadwalls , northern shovelers , American coots , western grebes , Clark 's grebes , black @-@ crowned night herons , Canada geese , mallards , and numerous other varieties of ducks and terns . In addition , white @-@ faced ibis , great white egrets , great blue herons , and American avocets are found in the marshes and along the lake shores . Just north of Hart Lake , at the Warner Wetlands Interpretive Site , there are bird observation blinds maintained by the Bureau of Land Management where American bitterns , black @-@ necked stilts , cinnamon teal , tundra swans , Brewer 's blackbirds , western meadowlarks , nighthawks , and several swallow varieties are commonly observed .
In the meadows and marshes around Hart Lake , dusky flycatchers , yellow warblers , orange @-@ crowned warblers , house wrens , and spotted towhees are common in the summer months . The larger birds common to the Hart Lake area include great horned owls , long @-@ eared owls , turkey vultures , prairie falcons , red @-@ tailed hawks , marsh hawks , golden eagles , and bald eagles .
= = History = =
Native Americans used the Warner Valley 's lakes and wetlands for thousands of years before the first white explorers arrived . The natives made petroglyphs along the eastern shore of Hart Lake , some of which are dated to 12 @,@ 000 years ago . The Greaser Petroglyph Site , approximately 3 miles ( 5 km ) southeast of Hart Lake , is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
In December 1843 , Captain John C. Fremont led a party of explorers through the Warner Valley . Fremont and his party spent Christmas Day camped near Hart Lake . In honor of the date , Fremont named it " Christmas Valley " and the lake " Christmas Lake " . However , early mapmakers mistakenly plotted Christmas Valley 60 miles ( 97 km ) northwest of its actual location , leaving the valley and its lakes unnamed on early maps .
In 1867 , General George Crook decided to build a fort in the Warner Valley to prevent Indian raiding parties from passing through the area . To get his wagons across the wetlands , he had a bridge built across a narrow , marshy channel between Hart Lake and Crump Lake . Known as the Stone Bridge , the structure is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
Hart Lake is named for the heart @-@ shaped brand used by the pioneer Wilson and Alexander cattle ranch . The ranch was established in the Warner Valley near Hart Lake prior to 1878 by Henry C. Wilson and his son @-@ in @-@ law C.G. Alexander . Later in the 19th century , much of the private land near Hart Lake was acquired by physician Bernard Daly and became part of his " 7T Ranch " . By 1916 , the 7T Ranch encompassed more than 7 @,@ 000 acres ( 28 km2 ) north and west of Hart Lake .
Beginning with the earliest pioneer ranchers , water from Honey Creek was diverted for irrigation . By the 1930s , irrigation canals had significantly reduced the flow of water into Hart Lake . In most years , the diversions did not stop the flow into the lake . However , during periods of drought , the entire flow of fresh water was diverted , visibly lowering the water level in Hart Lake . The canal structures also impeded fish migration between the lake and Honey Creek 's habitat . In 1950 , a dike was constructed at the north end of the lake to increase its water holding capacity .
In the late 1980s and early 1990s , the Warner Valley experienced an extended drought , reducing the water in Hart Lake to a dangerously low level . In 1992 , the lake dried up completely . Before the lake water had disappeared , the Fish and Wildlife Service captured a number of Warner suckers for temporary relocation . Upon the end of the drought , the fish were reintroduced in the lake . In 1998 , the FWS published a recovery plan for threatened fish species in the Warner Lakes system .
= = Recreation = =
Most of the land to the south and east of Hart Lake is privately owned . However , the Bureau of Land Management administers the 52 @,@ 033 @-@ acre ( 210 @.@ 57 km2 ) Warner Wetlands north of the lake . In addition , the land along the east shore is part of the Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge , which is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service . These public lands offer numerous recreational opportunities such as hunting , fishing , bird watching , boating , and camping . However , some of these activities are dependent on the water levels of the Warner Lakes , which can fluctuate dramatically .
Due to Hart Lake 's stable water level , it is usually available for fishing and boating . There are no developed campgrounds near Hart Lake , although dispersed camping is allowed on BLM @-@ administered lands adjacent to the lake . There is a day @-@ use recreation site at the north end of Hart Lake at Hart Bar . There are also public restrooms , sheltered picnic tables , and hiking trails at the Warner Wetlands Interpretive Site , north of Hart Lake .
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= Bill Johnston with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Bill Johnston was a key member of Donald Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team , which toured England in 1948 . The Australians went undefeated in their 34 matches during the English summer ; this unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned them the sobriquet The Invincibles .
Johnston was a left @-@ arm bowler who engaged in fast bowling when the ball was new and conducive to pacemen , before reverting to orthodox spin when the ball became old . He was Australia 's third fast bowler in the Tests , reinforcing the new ball attack of Keith Miller and Ray Lindwall , who were regarded as one of the finest pace pairings of all time . Bradman typically used Miller and Lindwall in short bursts against the English batsmen with the new ball . The hosts had agreed to make a new ball available every 55 overs , more frequently than usual . This allowed the Australian pacemen more frequent use of a shiny ball that swung at high pace . Johnston typically delivered pace after the Lindwall and Miller had first use of the new ball , before resorting to spin later in the innings . In order to keep Lindwall and Miller fresh , Bradman had Johnston deliver the most overs by any bowler .
Johnston was the equal @-@ leading wicket @-@ taker in the Tests ( 27 along with Lindwall ) and Australia 's most prolific wicket @-@ taker in the first @-@ class matches with 102 . The latter feat made him the last Australian to take a century of wickets on an Ashes tour . In recognition of his achievements , Johnston was chosen as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year . Wisden said " no Australian made a greater personal contribution to the playing success of the 1948 side " .
= = Background = =
During the Australian summer of 1947 – 48 , Johnston played in four of the five Tests against the touring Indian cricket team . He was a major part in Australia 's 4 – 0 series win ; the second highest wicket @-@ taker with 16 scalps , Johnston had the best bowling average of 11 @.@ 37 . Ray Lindwall led the wicket @-@ takers with 18 . As a result , Johnston was selected for the 1948 tour of England . During the trip , Johnston roomed with Doug Ring who was a team @-@ mate in the Richmond and Victorian cricket teams . As Ring was a leg spinner , he and Johnston were in direct competition for a place in the playing XI .
= = Early tour = =
Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice team in the tour opener , which was customarily against Worcestershire . When Johnston was omitted for the opening match , it appeared he would not be in Bradman 's Test plans . Australia went on to win by an innings , setting the tone for their tour .
Bradman brought Johnston into the team for the second tour match against Leicestershire . He made 12 runs and was the last man out as Australia ended on 448 . After a lower order collapse of 5 / 38 against the local spin attack , Johnston came in and put on 37 in partnership with Keith Miller , allowing his colleague to reach his double century . Johnston bowled six wicketless overs for 15 as the hosts fell for 130 . Made to follow on , Leicestershire made 147 to lose by an innings . Johnston took his first wicket of the tour , trapping Jack Walsh leg before wicket ( lbw ) to end with 1 / 42 from 27 overs . Johnston played a leading role in Australia 's victory in the next match , against Yorkshire , on a damp pitch favourable to slower bowling . In this match , Johnston resorted to bowling left arm orthodox spin . The hosts elected to bat and he bowled almost unchanged , sending down 26 of the 54 @.@ 3 overs , 14 of which were maidens . He took 4 / 18 as Yorkshire were bowled out in difficult batting conditions for 71 . His wickets included batsmen Alec Coxon and Willie Watson , who went on to become England Test cricketers . The match remained finely balanced after Australia made 101 , with Johnston unbeaten on five . He was again miserly in the second innings , bowling 15 @.@ 2 overs with seven maidens and taking 6 / 18 . His victims included leading English batsman Len Hutton , and Coxon and Watson for the second time as the hosts were bowled out for 89 . Johnston had ended the match with 10 / 40 . After collapsing to 6 / 31 — effectively seven wickets down as Sam Loxton was injured and unable to bat — Australia scraped home by four wickets . It was the closest Australia would come to defeat for the whole tour .
The tourists travelled to London to play Surrey at The Oval , and they amassed 632 after batting first . Johnston bowled without success in the first innings . In the second innings he claimed both openers to reduce the hosts to 2 / 11 after Bradman had forced them to follow on . He returned later in the innings to remove Alec Bedser and Jim Laker , ending with 4 / 40 as Surrey were defeated by an innings . Johnston was rested for the following match against Cambridge University , which Australia won by an innings .
Johnston returned as Australia crushed Essex by an innings and 451 runs , their largest winning margin for the summer . After setting a world record for the most number of first @-@ class runs in one day ’ s play ( 721 ) , of which Johnston contributed nine , Bradman ’ s men bowled Essex out for 83 and 187 after enforcing the follow on . Johnston managed a match total of only 1 / 36 . This was followed by another innings victory , this time over Oxford University . After scoring 13 in Australia 's 431 , Johnston bowled the most overs by an Australian in the match , taking 2 / 40 and 2 / 44 across a total of 42 overs .
Johnston was the left out for the next fixture , which was against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and were basically a full strength Test team , while Australia fielded their first @-@ choice team , with Johnston omitted . It was a chance for the Australian bowlers to gain a psychological advantage , with Len Hutton , Denis Compton and Bill Edrich — three of England 's first four batsmen — all playing . Australia won by an innings to give an indication of their strength .
Four county matches remained before the Tests , giving the players more chances to press their claims for selection . Johnston was recalled for Australia 'a first non @-@ victory of the tour , which was against Lancashire . After the first day was washed out , Johnston made 24 in a 25 @-@ run ninth @-@ wicket partnership with wicket @-@ keeper Ron Saggers , which took Australia from 8 / 170 to 9 / 195 . The tourists were eventually bowled out for 204 . During his innings , Johnston swung lustily and hit three sixes . In reply , Lancashire reached 4 / 144 before Johnston took five of the last six wickets to help dismiss the home side for 182 , securing a slender lead for the tourists . Johnston ended with 5 / 49 from 29 overs , the most by any of the Australians , and was not required to bat in the second innings .
Johnston was rested for the subsequent match against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge , which was drawn . He returned against Hampshire and played a major role in Australia 's eight @-@ wicket win . The home team were put into bat on a drying pitch by vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett — Bradman had rested himself for the match . Johnston bowled for almost the whole innings , sending down 38 @.@ 4 of 85 @.@ 4 overs . He took wickets at regular intervals to end with 6 / 74 as Hampshire were bowled out for 195 . Johnston was unbeaten on two as Australia lost 8 / 47 and collapsed to 117 all out , trailing by 78 runs . It was the first time that the tourists had conceded a first innings lead for the season . In the second innings , Johnston bowled unchanged at his end for the entire innings , providing steady breakthroughs to end with 5 / 43 as Hampshire were bowled out for 103 . This left Australia a target of 182 , and they batted fluently in their second innings to win by eight wickets . Johnston ended with match figures of 11 / 117 . He was rested in the innings win over Sussex , in the last fixture before the First Test .
= = First Test = =
Johnston was not in Bradman 's planned Test team . However , the Australian skipper changed his mind on the morning of the First Test in Trent Bridge when rain was forecast . Johnston was played in the hope of exploiting a wet wicket . Johnston had taken 10 / 40 against Yorkshire and 11 / 117 against Hampshire on similar surfaces . He showed his credentials by taking a match total of 9 / 183 from 84 overs to help Australia to grind out a victory by eight wickets . England elected to bat first and after strike bowler Ray Lindwall broke down on the first day , the burden on Johnston grew .
England had reached 2 / 46 when Johnston was brought into the attack for his first over . He bowled Bill Edrich , knocking out the off stump while the batsman was on the front foot . Two balls later , Johnston removed Joe Hardstaff junior without scoring , caught by Miller in slips after attempting a cut shot ; the catch was described by Wisden as " dazzling " . Miller dived and balanced himself on his spine before catching the ball to leave England at 4 / 46 . Journalist and former Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly said : " Johnston had trimmed and embroidered the efforts of his opening bowlers and had swung the fortunes of the game completely in Australia 's favour " .
Johnston then knocked over Charlie Barnett 's stumps as the batsman leaned onto the front foot and inside edged the ball into his stumps for eight ; this brought Godfrey Evans — who was given two lives — to the crease at 6 / 60 . Evans hit Johnston hard in the air to cover , where the ball went through Bradman for a boundary . The second catching opportunity went in the same direction before traveling through Bradman 's hand and striking him in the abdomen . However , Johnston eventually snared Evans , who hit a ball strongly , but straight to short leg where Arthur Morris took the catch close in , as England reached 8 / 74 .
However , a rearguard action took England to a total of 165 , before Johnston removed Alec Bedser to end the innings . Johnston finished with 5 / 36 , in a display characterised by his accuracy and variations in pace and swing . When Australia batted , Johnston and Ernie Toshack wagged a last @-@ wicket partnership of 33 runs in only 18 minutes . They played in a free @-@ wheeling manner before Bedser trapped Toshack lbw to end the home team ’ s innings on 509 , leaving the tourists with a 344 @-@ run lead and Johnston unbeaten on 17 .
Johnston took the new ball with Miller and delivered 59 overs in the second innings to take 4 / 147 in Lindwall 's absence . Johnston bowled without success in the first half of the innings ; the closest he came to a wicket on the third afternoon when Len Hutton and Denis Compton were putting on a century partnership was when Compton aimed an uppish square drive from Johnston that flew in the air wide of cover point . On the fourth day , England continued to make steady progress and Johnston was unsuccessful although he was able to make the ball move sideways in the morning under cloudy conditions . He was then attacked by Hardstaff , who drove several fours through the off side and forced Bradman to remove Johnston . He returned to remove Barnett and English captain Norman Yardley late on the fourth day as the hosts ’ neared 300 . Barnett was caught by Miller in the slips and Johnston took a return catch to remove the English skipper . Johnston bowled 30 overs , the most of any bowler for the day , as England reached the penultimate evening on 345 / 6 , a lead of one run . The next morning , Johnston removed Evans and bowled Jack Young to end England 's innings at 441 on the final day . Johnston bowled the most overs of any player and was the leading wicket @-@ taker for the match as Australia took a 1 – 0 lead — the Australian batsmen reached the target of 98 with eight wickets in hand .
After the First Test , Johnston was the leading wicket @-@ taker as Australia completed an innings victory over Northamptonshire . He took 3 / 25 in the first innings , before dismissing the home side 's top four batsmen in the second innings to reduce them to 4 / 108 ; they were eventually bowled out for 169 . Johnston ended with 4 / 49 . This was followed by a drawn match against Yorkshire , in which Johnston scored an unbeaten 15 , before bowling almost unchanged in the home side 's first innings . Johnston bowled 41 @.@ 1 out of 90 @.@ 1 overs and ended with 3 / 101 , including the wickets of Test players Alec Coxon and Watson . The match ended in a draw . Johnston bowled three overs for 15 in the second innings ; Bradman chose not to push for a win and declared late in the second innings so that his bowlers would not have to exert themselves to any significant extent before the next Test .
= = Second Test = =
In the Second Test at Lord 's , Australia batted first and Johnston scored his Test career best of 29 in another tail @-@ wagging performance in the first innings . After coming to the crease with the score at 8 / 275 on the second morning , Johnston added 45 runs with wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon before the latter fell to Bedser . He was joined by last man Toshack and they put on 30 before Johnston was stumped — having overbalanced while leaning onto the front foot and trying to hit a ball for six — from the bowling of Doug Wright to end Australia 's innings at 350 . Both Johnston and Toshack threw the bat at the ball , which often went in vastly different directions compared to where they had aimed their shots . Both men — not known for their batting ability — played without inhibitions , joyfully revelling in their luck . One sequence of two overs from Edrich was taken for 28 runs , with many balls being unintentionally spooned over the slips or the covers .
With Keith Miller injured and playing purely as a batsman , Johnston took the new ball , sharing it with Lindwall . He was unable to take a wicket initially , but the English openers were uncomfortable when he and Lindwall were taking the new ball . Following the tea break , he returned with the second new ball after Compton and Yardley had put on an 87 @-@ run partnership to stabilise the middle @-@ order . Johnston took Compton 's outside edge and Miller completed the catch in slips . The left armer then claimed Evans , caught by a diving Miller after the Englishman had taken a swing of the bat wide outside off stump ; this left the hosts at 7 / 145 . Johnston ended with 2 / 43 from 22 overs as England were bowled for at 215 early on the third morning . After Australia declared at 7 / 460 on the fourth afternoon to leave the home side a target of 596 , Johnston troubled the English openers with the new ball , but did not take a wicket .
Lindwall and Johnston extracted steep bounce with the new ball , troubling the English batsmen . Fielding in the slips , Lindwall dropped Hutton from Johnston 's bowling before the English batsman had scored . Johnston usually moved the ball into the right @-@ handed batsmen , but on this occasion the ball went straight on and took the outside of the edge of Hutton 's bat . Hutton had trouble with both Australian pacemen , and played and missed multiple times in the deteriorating light . In a fidgety display , he played loosely outside the off stump and missed four times in one Johnston over , before Lindwall dismissed him .
Yardley ’ s men resumed at 3 / 106 on the final day . On the second ball of the final morning , bowled by Johnston , Compton aimed a square drive , but the delivery was Johnston 's variation ball , which went away instead of into the batsman . The ball flew off the outside edge to a diving Miller , who knocked the ball up before falling on his back and completing the catch as the ball came down . Compton stood his ground and waited for the umpire to confirm whether Miller had caught the ball cleanly , and was duly given out by the unhesitating official . O 'Reilly described Miller 's effort as " perhaps the very best slips catch of the whole series and … a real match @-@ winner . " Johnston then removed Bedser for nine to end with 2 / 62 as Australia won by 409 runs and took a 2 – 0 series lead .
After 16 days of cricket in 20 days , from the First to the Second Test , Johnston was rested from the next two matches against Surrey and Gloucestershire , which Australia won by ten wickets and an innings respectively .
= = Third Test = =
Johnston returned for the Third Test at Old Trafford , where the home team elected to bat first . In an effective containing performance , Johnston took 3 / 67 from 45 @.@ 5 overs in the first innings . England had looked assured in the first hour , before Johnston — again taking the new ball with Lindwall — bowled Cyril Washbrook with a yorker to leave England at 1 / 22 . Johnston had been bowling from over the wicket , and his left @-@ arm deliveries had generally been swinging back into the right @-@ handed Washbrook . However , the opening batsman did not detect Johnston ’ s variation ball , which was released from wide of the crease and angled across more sharply without curling back in . Washbrook played inside the line of the ball , which hit his stumps . Australia nearly had two wickets in the same over as the new batsman Edrich struggled . He played loosely outside the off stump to the first ball from Johnston but did not get an edge , and on the third delivery , Edrich survived again . Receiving a ball on middle and leg stump , he tried to defend it straight back down the pitch , rather than the conventional stroke to the leg side , and managed to edge the ball past the slips for four . Johnston repeatedly hurried Edrich with his pace , forcing the batsman to make many last @-@ moment movements to either hit the ball or withdraw from a shot during the formative stage of his innings .
Johnston returned with the second new ball after lunch to remove Tom Dollery with another yorker , leaving England at 4 / 97 . This dismissal mirrored that of Washbrook ’ s in that Dollery failed to detect Johnston ’ s variation ball , and thus played for swing when there was none . Late in the day , Johnston took the catch as Lindwall removed Evans , who had taken a wild slash to leave England at 7 / 216 . In the final minutes of play , Johnston extracted an edge from Compton on 64 , but Tallon dropped the catch . On the second morning , Tallon dropped Compton — then on 73 — for the third time , off the bowling of Johnston , who eventually ended the England innings on 363 by removing Young . Compton had added a further 81 after being dropped from Johnston 's bowling to end unbeaten on 145 . Johnston had bowled the most overs of the Australians and been the most economical .
In reply , Australia were in trouble at 7 / 208 when Johnston came to the crease to join Lindwall , with five more runs needed to avoid the follow on . As Sid Barnes was unable to bat due to injury , Australia were effectively eight wickets down . Johnston helped Lindwall advance Australia beyond the follow @-@ on before Bedser removed both . Johnston was reprieved in his brief innings when he edged a delivery from Dick Pollard in the direction of Edrich at first slip , but Evans dived across , trying to catch the ball at full stretch in his right hand . The wicket @-@ keeper could not hold onto the ball , and the resulting deflection further to the right wrong @-@ footed Edrich , who was moving the other way , and it went past him . From second slip , Jack Crapp dived left behind Edrich but the ball landed a few centimetres beyond his fingers . However , in the next over Bedser , Johnston edged the ball in the same manner and Crapp caught the ball easily . Johnston was out for three as Australia ended with 221 to narrowly avoid the follow on by eight runs . He was wicketless in the second innings , taking 0 / 34 as England declared at 3 / 174 and set Australia 317 for victory on the last day after the fourth day was completely washed out by rain . The match ended in a draw with Australia at 1 / 92 , after many rain interruptions .
Johnston played in Australia 's only match before the Fourth Test , which was against Middlesex . He dismissed Jack Robertson , Edrich and John Dewes to leave the hosts at 4 / 92 and ended with 3 / 43 as they were bowled out for 203 . In the second innings , he took two early wicket — including Compton — to reduce the hosts to 3 / 27 before ending with 2 / 28 as Australia bowled Middlesex out for 135 . Bradman ’ s men went on to win by ten wickets .
= = Fourth Test = =
In the Fourth Test at Headingley , England batted first on a pitch regarded as being ideal for strokeplay , and Australia 's bowlers had little success on the first day . Early in the day , Johnston appeared to be having back problems . He had bowled the most overs of any bowler on the tour and his loss would have meant a heavy workload for his remaining colleagues . His apparent discomfort led onlookers to opine that he should have been given more rest in the county matches . After an opening partnership of 143 , England consolidated to reach 1 / 268 in the last over of the day before Johnston removed Washbrook for 143 . Johnston did not taste further success in the first innings and ended with 1 / 86 from 38 overs as the home team ended on 496 , their highest score of the series .
In reply , Australia were still more than 100 runs behind when Johnston joined Lindwall with the score at 8 / 355 , late on the third day . Lindwall hit out , scoring 77 in an innings marked by powerful driving and pulling , dominating the stand of 48 with Johnston , who made only 13 . Johnston accompanied Lindwall for 80 minutes , before the injured Ernie Toshack survived the last 50 minutes until stumps , with Johnston running for him . Despite Toshack and Johnston ’ s lack of familiarity with having and acting as a runner respectively , and the resulting disorders in running between the wickets , Lindwall was able to manipulate the strike so he faced most of the balls . Johnston able to survive against the English pacemen with relative ease when he was batting , leading O ’ Reilly to lament the absence of leg spinner Doug Wright , whose guile and flight was held in high regard by the Australians . Lindwall was the last man out on the fourth morning with the total on 458 , leaving Australia 38 runs in arrears on the first innings .
Australia lost the services of Toshack after he broke down with a knee injury in the first innings , increasing the burden on the remaining bowlers as England sought to extend their lead on the fourth day . For the second time in the match , Washbrook and Hutton put on a century opening partnership . After reaching 50 , Washbrook hooked a short ball from Johnston and top edged it , but Bradman failed to take the catch . However , Washbrook soon repeated the shot from the bowling of Johnston with fatal results . The ball again went in the air , and Neil Harvey quickly ran across the ground and bent over to catch it at feet height while on the run , removing the opener for 65 . Fingleton said that Harvey ’ s effort " was the catch of the season — or , indeed , would have been had Harvey not turned on several magnificent aerial performances down at The Oval [ in the match against Surrey ] " . O ’ Reilly doubted " whether any other player on either side could have made the distance to get to the ball , let alone make a neat catch of it " . He further said the " hook was a beauty and the catch was a classic " .
England moved to 4 / 277 when a mini @-@ collapse occurred . Yardley made seven before he was removed by Johnston , caught by a leaping Harvey while attempting a big shot . Johnston then removed Ken Cranston , caught behind for a duck to leave England at 6 / 278 . When Johnston removed Compton for 66 , caught by Miller at cover , the hosts were 7 / 293 with no recognised batsmen remaining , having lost 4 / 33 . England recovered to reach 8 / 362 at the close of the fourth day . The next day , Yardley declared at 8 / 365 , leaving Johnston with the pick of the bowling figures , 4 / 95 from 29 overs . This left the tourists a target of 404 from 345 minutes . Australia went on to break the world record Test run @-@ chase record by scoring 3 / 404 to take a 3 – 0 lead with 15 minutes to spare .
Johnston went on to play in the match against Derbyshire immediately after the Headingley Test , taking 3 / 41 and 1 / 35 as Australia enforced the follow on and won by an innings . He was rested for the next game against Glamorgan , which ended in a rain @-@ affected draw without reaching the second innings . Johnston returned and took 2 / 41 in the first innings against Warwickshire , before taking 4 / 32 in the second innings , including three of the last five wickets , as the hosts fell from 5 / 118 to 155 all out . The left armer bowled almost unchanged during the second innings , sending down 39 of the 85 @.@ 5 overs , including 16 maidens . His wickets included New Zealand Test batsman Martin Donnelly and Indian and Pakistani dual international Abdul Hafeez Kardar , as Australia went on to win by nine wickets . Johnston was then rested from two consecutive matches , against Lancashire and Durham , both of which were rain @-@ affected draws .
= = Fifth Test = =
Johnston rounded off his Ashes series with the Fifth Test at The Oval . English skipper Norman Yardley elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch , a decision many regarded as surprising . Precipitation in the past week rendered play before midday impossible . Former Australian Test batsman and leading commentator Jack Fingleton speculated that the tourists would have bowled if they had won the toss .
The damp conditions meant required a large amount of sawdust to be laid down to help the players keep their grip . Along with the rain , the humid conditions assisted the Australian bowlers , who were able to make the ball bounce at variable heights .
After Miller removed John Dewes with the score at 1 / 2 , Bradman made an early bowling change and introduced Johnston . Edrich joined Hutton and they played cautiously until the former attempted to hook a short ball from Johnston . He failed to get the ball in the middle of the bat and it looped up and travelled around 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . Lindsay Hassett caught the ball just behind square leg , after diving sideways and getting both hands to the ball . This left England at 2 / 10 . After the lunch break , Johnston dismissed debutant Allan Watkins without scoring after the batsman played across the line to be trapped lbw , leaving England at 6 / 42 . Johnston ended with 2 / 20 from 16 overs as England were skittled for 52 . After being unbeaten without scoring in Australia 's innings of 389 , Johnston was again among the wickets when England 's second innings late on the second day .
England started their second innings with a deficit of 337 runs and reached 1 / 54 by the premature end of the second day due to bad light . The following morning , they made slow and steady progress as Johnston bowled his finger spin from around the wicket with a well @-@ protected off side . The four men in the off side ring had much work to do as Hutton hit the ball there repeatedly . The English batsmen progressed and Johnston had one confident appeal for lbw against Compton , but there were few scares .
They reached 2 / 125 after lunch , when Compton — who was on 39 — aimed a hard cut shot from Johnston 's bowling , which flew off the edge into Lindwall 's left hand at second slip for a " freak slip catch " . This triggered a collapse late in the afternoon , which saw the hosts lose 4 / 25 to end the third day at 7 / 178 . England resumed on the fourth morning with only three wickets in hand , still needing 159 runs to make Bradman ’ s men bat again . Johnston quickly removed the last three wickets , Alec Bedser , Yardley and Eric Hollies to seal an Australian victory by an innings and 149 runs . Only ten runs were added in the brief morning session ; Hollies fell for a golden duck after skying a ball to Morris , immediately after Yardley became the ninth man to fall . Johnston ended with 4 / 40 from 27 @.@ 3 overs and he was the most economical of the bowlers . Given the time lost to inclement weather on the first day , Australia had won the match in less than three days of playing time . Overall , Johnston finished with 27 Test wickets at an average of 23 @.@ 33 , equal to Lindwall but at a higher average .
= = Later tour matches = =
Seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat . Australia batted first against Kent and made 361 . Johnston then took three wickets with the new ball to help reduce the hosts to 5 / 16 , before ending with 3 / 10 from six overs . Forced to follow on after being bowled out for 51 in 23 overs , Kent were reduced to 4 / 37 by three early Lindwall wickets . Johnston ended with 1 / 28 as the home team capitulated for 124 and lost by an innings . The victory over Kent was followed by a match against the Gentlemen of England . Johnston was rested as Australia completed another innings victory . He returned for the match against Somerset , which resulted in a third consecutive innings win . After Australia had declared at 5 / 560 , Johnston took the opening wicket of Harold Gimblett before returning to take the last two scalps of the first innings from consecutive balls , bowling his finger spin . He ended with 3 / 34 as Somerset fell for 115 and were forced to follow on . Johnston bowled the second over of the second innings . As Johnston had taken wickets with his last two balls in the first innings , his first delivery was the hat @-@ trick ball . Gimblett negotiated the first ball safely , before being trapped lbw for a duck on the next . Johnston had thus taken three wickets in four balls . He bowled unchanged throughout the innings to end with 5 / 34 from 17 @.@ 4 overs as Somerset were bowled out for 71 . Johnston took the final wicket to fall — Horace Hazell — trapped for a duck , which brought up his 100th first @-@ class wicket for the tour .
In the match against the South of England , Johnston took 1 / 63 — Edrich being his only wicket — after Australia declared at 7 / 522 . Bradman ’ s men dismissed the hosts for 298 and rain ended the match before the second innings could start .
Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI . During the last tour in 1938 , this team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but this time Bradman insisted that only six current England Test players be allowed to represent the hosts . After his opponents had finalised their players , Bradman named a full @-@ strength team . In a rain @-@ interrupted match , Johnston bowled Edrich for 15 . He ended with 1 / 20 as the hosts folded for 177 . Johnston made an unbeaten 26 in a partnership of 30 with Lindsay Hassett as Australia replied with 8 / 489 declared . Time ran out with the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI at 0 / 75 in the second innings .
The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland . In the first , Australia scored 236 before Johnston took 6 / 15 from 12 @.@ 5 overs . He took the last four wickets as the home team fell from 6 / 81 to be all out for 85 . Johnston bowled four wicketless overs in the second innings as Australia completed victory without needing to bat for a second time . In the second match , he signed off on his tour in a low key manner , taking a wicket in each innings to end with a match total of 2 / 48 as Australia completed another innings triumph .
= = Role = =
Johnston played as a left @-@ arm fast bowler when the ball was new and conducive to pace bowling , before reverting to finger spin when it became old and lost its shine . He was Australia 's third fast bowler in the Tests , reinforcing the new ball pairing of Keith Miller and Ray Lindwall , who were regarded as one of the finest pace duos of all time . Bradman typically used Miller and Lindwall in short and sharp new ball bursts against the local batsmen . England had agreed that a new ball would be available every 55 overs , a milestone that usually came more frequently than the old regulation of 200 runs for every ball . This allowed Australia — who had the superior pace attack — more frequent use of a shiny ball , which swung at high pace . Johnston typically bowled pace after the first @-@ choice pair had finished their new ball spell , before reverting to spin when the ball was worn . He took 27 wickets at 23 @.@ 33 in the Tests , making him the equal @-@ leading wicket @-@ taker along with Lindwall , who averaged 19 @.@ 62 . The Australian pacemen ’ s tally was substantially more than the next best , recorded by England 's Alec Bedser , who took 18 wickets at 38 @.@ 22 .
In both the Test and county matches during the 1948 tour , Johnston carried the heaviest workload , bowling nearly 200 overs more than any other squad member . He was the leading wicket @-@ taker in all first @-@ class matches with 102 wickets at 16 @.@ 42 , and the last Australian to take a century of wickets on a tour of England . His average was only slightly inferior to that of Lindwall , who took 86 wickets at 15 @.@ 68 . The roles Johnston fulfilled are borne out in his economy rate and strike rate . He was more economical than Miller and Lindwall , who took wickets more frequently .
Johnston 's performances prompted Bradman to call him " Australia 's greatest left @-@ hand bowler " . As a result of his ability to bowl spin and pace , teammate Neil Harvey thought the team effectively had 13 players , saying " we reckoned Bradman was worth two [ batsmen ] and Bill Johnston was worth two [ bowlers ] " . Harvey rated Johnston the best team man in the squad , and Bill Brown praised Johnston 's work ethic in bowling for long periods after Lindwall and Miller had been given the best opportunities with the new ball . Spin bowling teammate Ian Johnson described him as " the finest team man and tourist " in cricket and valued his personality , while Miller described him as " the most popular man in cricket " . Johnston sometimes amused his colleagues by demonstrating his double jointedness , wrapping his feet around the back of his neck . He was reputed to have nearly drowned when he attempted this in the communal bath at Lord 's .
After carrying a heavy workload in the early stages of the tour , Johnston was used more sparingly in the latter stages . As the tour progressed , Johnston improved his control and restrained England 's batsmen between the new ball bursts of Lindwall and Miller . Johnston was chosen as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year . Wisden said " no Australian made a greater personal contribution to the playing success of the 1948 side " . Fingleton wrote that Australia had never sent a greater left @-@ hander to England .
During the tour , Johnston had few opportunities with the bat , invariably batting at either No. 10 and No. 11 alongside Toshack , another tail @-@ ender with little batting ability.N- Neither player ever passed 30 in their first @-@ class career , and they were the only two Australians who failed to pass 50 during the tour . As Australia 's other frontline bowlers were Miller , Lindwall , Colin McCool , Ian Johnson and Doug Ring , all of whom scored centuries and more than 20 fifties each during their first @-@ class career , Toshack and Johnston were rooted at the bottom of the batting order . As Australia often won by an innings , and declared in the first innings many time due to their batting strength , Johnston only had 18 innings in his 21 first @-@ class fixtures and scored 188 runs at 18 @.@ 80 , the third lowest average and aggregate . He scored 62 runs in the Tests at 20 @.@ 66 , including his highest first @-@ class score of 29 in the Second Test at Lord ’ s .
= = = Statistical note = = =
= = = General notes = = =
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= George M. Stratton =
George Malcolm Stratton ( September 26 , 1865 – October 8 , 1957 ) was a psychologist who pioneered the study of perception in vision by wearing special glasses which inverted images up and down and left and right . He studied under one of the founders of modern psychology , Wilhelm Wundt , and started one of the first experimental psychology labs in America , at the University of California , Berkeley . Stratton 's studies on binocular vision inspired many later studies on the subject . He was one of the initial members of the philosophy department at Berkeley , and the first chair of its psychology department . He also worked on sociology , focusing on international relations and peace . Stratton presided over the American Psychological Association in 1908 , and was a member of the National Academy of Sciences . He wrote a book on experimental psychology and its methods and scope ; published articles on the studies at his labs on perception , and on reviews of studies in the field ; served on several psychological committees during and after World War I ; and served as advisor to doctoral students who would go on to head psychology departments .
Stratton was born and brought up in the Oakland area of California , in a family with deep roots in America , and spent much of his career at Berkeley . He received his undergraduate degree from the University of California , an M.A. from Yale University , and a PhD from the University of Leipzig . He returned to the philosophy department at Berkeley , teaching psychology , and was promoted to associate professor . Stratton left for Johns Hopkins University in the early 1900s and spent a few years as faculty at the psychology department before returning to Berkeley . During this period , he focused on studies on sensation and perception and the psychological effects of inverting sensory stimuli in different ways . He was involved in establishing some of the early regional associations devoted to the field of psychology .
Stratton served in the Army during World War I , developing psychological tests to select airmen for Army aviation . Exposure to the war effort prompted his interest in international relations and causes of wars . He was an anti @-@ war believer who held psychology should aim to assist humanity 's quest to avert future wars . He was optimistic that people and ethnicities , making up nations , could be taught to live in peace , though the races were not equal in inborn mental capacity , a belief he held as scientific . In the later part of his career he wrote books looking at international relations , war , and the differences between races on emotions . He was also a scholar of the classics and translated Greek philosophers .
Of Stratton 's many contributions , his studies on perception and visual illusions would continue to influence the field of psychology well after his death . Of the nine books he wrote , the first was a scholarly look at the methodology and scope of experimental psychology . The remaining , including one unfinished at his death , were on sociology , international relations and the issues of war and how findings from psychology could be used to eradicate conflict between nations . Stratton considered these issues more salient to the application of psychology in the real world , though his ideas on this front did not produce a lasting impact in the field because of their subjective and non @-@ experimental nature .
= = Early life and education = =
George Stratton was born on September 26 , 1865 to James Thompson Stratton , originally from Ossining , New York , and Cornelia A. Smith . His parents had met and married in New York in 1854 , and settled back in Clinton , now East Oakland , California . James Stratton had been to California once before during the gold rush of 1850 , sailing around North America and crossing by land the Panama stretch , but finding little gold . The senior Stratton traced his ancestry to the early settlers of the British settlements of America , and Cornelia Smith had Dutch and English forebears . James Stratton would live the rest of his life in California , pursuing a civil engineering career as County Surveyor for Alameda County in 1858 – 59 and later as the U.S. Surveyor @-@ General of the state , and finally as Chief Deputy State Surveyor . An expert on the big Mexican land grants , he split up several of the Spanish deeds . One of his sons , Frederick , went to the University of California , today 's Berkeley , and became a lawyer , state senator , and Collector of the Port of San Francisco , before killing himself on November 30 , 1915 . Another , Robert Thomas , became a doctor in Oakland and died after a long illness on May 6 , 1924 . The couple also had a daughter , Jeanne , the later Mrs. Walter Good . George was their youngest child who lived past toddlerhood .
Stratton 's early education was at the Oakland public schools and undergraduate education at the University of California . At the university he was a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity . He was also the editor of the student news publication , The Berkeleyan in 1886 . Stratton graduated in 1888 with an A.B. degree from the University of California , in a total graduating class of 34 students . He learned Latin and English and taught in Buenaventura High School in 1888 – 89 , and was its principal in 1889 – 90 . At the school he met and courted San Francisco @-@ born Alice Elenore Miller .
Stratton then obtained an A.M. degree from Yale in 1890 . He was a fellow in the philosophy department at Berkeley from 1891 to 1893 . The chair of the philosophy department , George Holmes Howison , whom he met as an undergraduate , would become a significant influence on his life . He taught two philosophy courses , both with Howison . On March 14 , 1893 he was appointed an instructor in the department of philosophy . As an instructor , he began teaching psychology and logic courses , in addition to a philosophy course .
Howison obtained a fellowship from the University of California for his protege to study at the University of Leipzig . On May 17 , 1894 , Stratton married Alice Miller at the Methodist Episcopal Church in Berkeley , while being an instructor in the philosophy department . Immediately after , the couple left for the East on their way to Europe , with Stratton taking a leave of absence from Berkeley . He then spent two years at Wundt 's Institute for Experimental Psychology at Leipzig , from where he received an M.A. and a PhD in 1896 . He received his degree summa cum laude , with a thesis submitted to Wundt 's publication , Philosophische Studien .
= = Work years = =
Stratton spent his working years primarily at Berkeley . He founded the department of psychology at the university . He left once for Johns Hopkins and once to join the Army during World War I , serving in San Francisco , San Diego and New York .
= = = Early Berkeley = = =
Returning to America in 1896 , Stratton rejoined the University of California as an instructor . In 1897 he was promoted to assistant professor . By 1898 he no longer taught philosophy but several psychology courses . Two years later , he would influence the Philosophical Union into dedicating a year to investigating contemporary psychology . He himself presented a well @-@ attended lecture series at the Union , with lively debates at the end , on psychological experiments . Over this time he also published three papers on his study with inverting lenses and how people adapt over time to such a view of the world : " Upright vision and the retinal image " , " Vision without inversion of the retinal image " , and " A mirror pseudoscope and the limit of visible depth " , all in Psychological Review . He also presented a report of experiments with inverted vision to the Science Association of the university .
Stratton also became a member of the APA . One of Stratton 's psychology students in the Philosophy department was Knight Dunlap , a later chair at Johns Hopkins and University of California , Los Angeles . Stratton became a director of the newly established psychology lab , in the philosophy department , in 1899 . By 1900 he was an associate professor in the philosophy department , then headed by Howison . He contributed a paper to the Festschrift honoring Wundt 's seventieth birthday in 1902 : " Eye movements and the aesthetics of the visual form " . He also taught a series of twenty lectures on philosophy and psychology at the Pacific Theological Seminary in Berkeley . His first daughter , Elenore , was born in 1900 , and son James Malcolm around 1903 .
= = = Johns Hopkins and return to Berkeley = = =
Stratton left Berkeley at end of June , 1904 , and moved east to Johns Hopkins University as a professor of experimental psychology in October . At this time , philosophers and psychologists at Baltimore formed the Southern Society for Philosophy and Psychology ( SSFY ) and Stratton was one of the first 36 charter members . At its first meeting , he presented results of an experiment on fidelity of the senses .
While Stratton was at Johns Hopkins , the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 struck destroying large swaths of the city . He had specific suggestions on how to rebuild the city to resist earthquakes and fires even with the water supply cut off . He urged the city be split into districts with avenues or boulevauds as firebreaks between the divisions .
Stratton 's second daughter , Florence , was born in Baltimore on May 24 , 1907 . He left Johns Hopkins in October 1909 , and was replaced there as professor of experimental psychology by John Broadus Watson .
= = = The army = = =
During World War I , Stratton served in army aviation developing psychological recruitment tests for aviators . He worked at San Francisco , Rockwell Field , San Diego , and at Hazelhurst Field , Mineola , New York . Joining as a captain , he was promoted to major in 1918 along with a transfer to Mineola . Stratton presided over the Army Aviation Examining Board in San Francisco in 1917 , chaired the subcommittee of the National Research Council of the APA : " Psychological Problems of Aviation , including Examination of Aviation Recruits " in the summer of 1917 , and headed the psychological section of the Medical Research Lab of the Army Medical Research Board at Hazelhurst Field , a wing of the Army 's Sanitary Corps , in 1918 . As a member of the psychological division , his research focused on developing psychological recruiting tests for would @-@ be aviators . The tests he designed tested for reaction times , ability to imagine completions of curves presented visually , and the ability to sense a gradual tilting of one 's own body . Edward L. Thorndike pooled Stratton 's results with other studies to statistically analyze and correlate weak performance to a poor flying record . Part of this research was carried out in the spring of 1918 with Captain Henmon at Kelly Field , and the army thought enough of the results to allow the tests for checking recruits in four new units .
= = = Berkeley again = = =
After the war , Stratton returned to Berkeley in January 1919 . Stratton also taught at Berkeley 's extension school , lecturing on " Psychology and health " in San Francisco to people from the medical profession in 1918 – 19 , and in Oakland in 1919 – 20 . By this time the introductory course on psychology was so in demand among the students , it was split into two , with Stratton and Warner Brown teaching it concurrently . His wife was the editor of the Semicentenary of the University of California , a volume issued by the University Press at Berkeley in 1920 .
In 1921 his daughter , Elenore Stratton , graduated from Berkeley . That August she married Harvard graduate Edward Russell Dewey of New York at her father 's house , and moved to the city , where she had done social settlement work following graduation . The same year his son attended Berkeley . The Berkeley department of psychology officially split from the department of philosophy , with Stratton as its first chair , on July 1 , 1922 . His second daughter , Florence , graduated from Berkeley with a B.A. in 1929 .
= = = Retirement and death = = =
Stratton retired in 1935 , but remained at the university , and died on October 8 , 1957 at the age of 92 , a year after his wife 's death . He kept coming to the university till just before the end . When he died he was working on a book , The Divisive and Unifying Forces of the Community of Nations though his eyesight was by then poor . During his retirement , he had lectured at universities across America , Europe and Asia . He was survived by his son , Malcolm Stratton , a physician at Berkeley ; two daughters : Elenore , divorced and then married to Robert Fliess of New York , and Florence , married to Albert R. Reinke of Berkeley ; nine grandchildren and one great @-@ grandchild .
= = Personal life = =
Stratton had several hobbies , brick @-@ laying the most important one . He built the brick walls and paths in the garden of his house , a house he himself helped design . His daughter , Elenore , would recall decades later living in the house , with a view of the San Francisco bay and the Golden Gate on one side and the Marin county hills beyond . Annual camping in summer in the Sierras was another pastime , and he carried his love of books over there as well , writing in the shade of a tree in the mornings . Elenore also recalled his night @-@ time reading of Homer to his children , mixing with fascinating guests for weekend suppers prepared by her mother , and the family camping out with Latin professor " Uncle " Leon Richardson .
= = Work = =
Stratton began his career working in a philosophy department , teaching philosophy courses , but branched into experimentation soon after . He tackled problems of sociology and international relations later in his career .
= = = Wundt 's lab and the inverted @-@ glasses experiments = = =
Stratton went on to become a first @-@ generation experimentalist in psychology . Wundt 's lab in Leipzig , with experimental programs bringing together the fields of evolutionary biology , sensory physiology and nervous @-@ system studies , was a part of the career of most of the first generation . It was the exposure there , added to the graduate work at Yale , that influenced Stratton into becoming a psychologist . It was there that he started his binocular vision experiments as well . In these experiments , he found himself adapting to the new perception of the environment over a few days , after inverting the images his eyes saw on a regular basis . For this , he wore a set of glasses inverting images both upside @-@ down and left @-@ right . Stratton wore these glasses over his right eye and covered the left with a patch during the day , and slept blindfolded at night . Initial movement was clumsy , but adjusting to the new environment took only a few days .
Stratton tried variations of the experiment over the next few years . First he wore the glasses for eight days , back at Berkeley . The first day he was nauseated and the inverted landscape felt unreal , but by the second day just his own body position seemed strange , and by day seven , things felt normal . A sense of strangeness returned when the glasses were taken out though the world looked straight side up , and he found himself reaching out with the right hand when he should have used the left , and the other way around . Then he tried the experiment outdoors . He also tried another experiment disrupting the mental link between touch and sight . There he wore a set of mirrors attached to a harness as shown in the figure allowing , and forcing , him to see his body from above . He found the senses adapted in a similar way over three days . His interpretation was that we build up an association between sight and touch by associational learning over a period of time . During certain periods , the disconnect between vision and touch made him feel as if his body was not where his touch and proprioceptive feeling told him it was . This out @-@ of @-@ body experience , caused by an altered but normal sensory perception , vanished when he attended to the issue critically , focusing on the disconnect .
= = = Berkeley psychology department = = =
Back at Berkeley from Johns Hopkins , Stratton stayed in the philosophy department as its second faculty member and first psychology specialist until the psychology department broke off in 1922 . The new department started with four people : Stratton as chair ; Edward Chace Tolman , with a Harvard degree , and an initiator of rodent experiments soiling the rooms of the philosophy department and hastening the split of the psychology division ; Brown , Stratton 's earlier student and Berkeley faculty member from 1908 onward ; and Olga Bridgman , the first Berkeley psychology PhD awardee , albeit from the philosophy department . Before the split Stratton had set up Berkeley 's first psychology lab in the philosophy department and taught psychology courses with Brown . The courses included sensation , perception , emotion , memory , and applications of psychology to professions such as law , medicine , schooling and clerical work by priests .
Stratton continued his experiments on perception , branching into studies on pseudoscopic vision , stereoscopic acuity , eye movements , symmetry and visual illusions , how people perceive depth seeing surroundings either one @-@ eyed or two @-@ eyed , acuity and limits of peripheral vision , apparent motion , afterimages impressed on the eye when a person stares at an object for long and then looks away , and problems with sight in half the visual field ( hemianopsia ) . He both reviewed earlier studies on motion and conducted two of his own , concluding perceiving movement was more than the sum of seeing successive sequential images . He also surveyed and reported in reviews in the Psychological Bulletin experiments at various labs , including those in Europe , on matters related to sensation and perception .
= = = = List of special lectures = = = =
= = = Philosophical and educational psychology and sociology = = =
Stratton was exposed to multiple influences through his life . As an undergraduate student of Howison , he learned about philosophy and religion . At Yale and later at Wundt 's lab , he switched to experimental psychology and studied perception , memory and emotion . His exposure to World War I , serving in the Army then , focused his mind on issues of war and peace and international relations . Stratton 's later work reflected these elements of his experience . He was also a scholar of the classics and translated some Greek philosophers .
Stratton saw humans not as machines to be analyzed mechanistically , but also as seating will , emotion and drives , all of which had to analyzed as scientifically as the traditional psychological concepts of sensation , perception and memory . He also believed in a supreme actuality behind the world registered by our senses . This was the theme of his last published book , Man @-@ Creator or Destroyer , completed in 1952 when he was eighty @-@ seven years old . His book Developing Mental Power was a foray into educational psychology , addressing the question of general versus specific training in terms teachers could understand and use . Stratton aimed at this goal via a simple and generally applicable look at the basic workings of mental life . John F. Dashiell , writing in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology , found this a failure . Dashiell saw the path from the psychological concepts — emotion , intelligence , and will — to teaching methodology , not clearly described in the book . Stratton also applied psychological concepts to figure out how to avert war . He was optimistic it was possible to harness the creative and destructive facets of individuals to get nations to coexist peacefully . He saw nations as consisting of ethnicities and races which had to coexist in harmony . In line with the prevailing view in his field , he did not see the races as inherently equally intelligent .
= = = Psychology of religion and emotions = = =
Stratton also contributed to the psychological study of religion . Along with other founders of the psychology of religion , he saw religion as including both personal faith and historical traditions . He used religious texts as supporting data . In The Psychology of the Religious Life he explored the epics and sacred texts of a large set of ethnicities to understand the traditions and rituals symbolizing the concrete parts of faiths to understand the goals and concept of religion as a whole . His psychology sought to explain how our need to grasp , accept and live with conceptual opposites such as the sublime and the devilish , the humble and the proud , and the docile and the energetic , led us in the direction of religion . He also tied human emotions , especially anger and pugnacity , to religious faith . To understand the linkage , Stratton collected data on religious writings and the rites and traditions of civilizations then considered not as advanced . In Anger : Its Religious and Moral Significance he listed exhaustively and studied the major religions of the world and classified them into three categories . The combative religions , such as Islam , per him , glorified anger , while those such as Buddhism were " unangry " . Christianity he saw as an example of an anger @-@ supported @-@ love based religion . He concluded Western civilization was trending toward denying rage as good and accepting love and goodwill as desirable , but cautioned anger was at times needed to fight evil .
As a professor at Berkeley , Stratton visited Philippines , China , Japan , and Hawaii , coordinating with the University of the Philippines to study the psychology of both races and oriental religions . He also explored anger and emotions in animals . He was one of the scientists who were invited to attend , and confirmed attendance , at a conference to discuss human emotions and feelings . The conference , scheduled for October 21 – 23 , 1927 at Wittenberg College , Springfield , Ohio also was to focus on the experimental psychology of religion .
Stratton articulated his own beliefs about religion as well . He did not subscribe to the view religious feeling was primarily a social need , believing it to be a need for seeing a cause and logic to the world along with a harmony to things . A believer in dualism , he held the theory of a separate biological psyche and something beyond it . To him the most important aspects of the psyche lay beyond objective science , at least in his time . He sought to explore those boundaries where the methods of science had to stop and declare what was beyond as unknown , limited by the tools of the times . In The Psychology of the Religious Life he laid out his definition of religion as an appreciative feeling toward an unseen entity marked the best or the greatest .
Stratton suggested music had healing powers . In an address on the " Nature and training of the emotions " delivered to a group of nurses at the Baltimore hospitals , he predicted music would be used to treat the sick in the future , and held that nurses had to know how to sing to patients under their care .
= = Books = =
Stratton wrote eight books , and contributed to collections honoring his mentors , writing an obituary on Wundt and a biography of Howison . His PhD thesis , Uber die Wahrnehmung von Druckiinderungen bei verschiedenen Geschwindigkeiten , was in German and published in Leipzig in Wundt 's Philosophische Studien , XII Band , IV Heft . His first book . Experimental Psychology and its Bearing upon Culture covered the scope and practice of experimental psychology , and later books turned more toward sociology and international relations .
= = = Experimental Psychology and its Bearing upon Culture = = =
Stratton wrote Experimental Psychology and its Bearing upon Culture to explain both typical psychological experiment methodology and how the results obtained answered philosophical problems . The book covered experimental results in psychology and how they influenced overall social behavior and the everyday cultural life of people . It did so by looking at the history of experimental psychology , and then surveying experimental methods covering both their applications and limits . Stratton pointed out how psychological experiments differed from the ones in physiology . The survey of experiments also included studies on mental perception , including among the blind . Stratton noted that the blind did have a sense of space . He also described how measurements of mental phenomena were both possible and being done in practice , though he did believe the results had to be interpreted on a psychic scale different from the usual physical ones used for measures such as lengths and weights . He rejected the argument the mind was unitary and could not be studied by splitting it into parts , by drawing on the analogy of studying a tree by looking at its constituent parts , themselves not functionally trees . He presumed sensations were akin to trees in how they could be split up into parts .
The book had chapters on memory , imitation and suggestion , perceptual illusions , and esthetics . In these he refuted the idea that experience was just the external environment acting on and molding a mind working as a passive recipient . Stratton saw the sensation of time as being multidimensional , in analogy with perception of space . That we could simultaneously hear separately , without synthesizing , multiple mixed tones meant our experiences did not necessarily come in single file temporally . To Stratton this meant time had multiple dimensions , since simultaneous events could not be distinguished on the one past @-@ present @-@ future dimension of time alone . He did not address how the other dimensions could be in temporal @-@ space if the events were indistinguishable temporally to begin with . He also analyzed poetic measure as mathematically connected to the waxing and waning span of attention , tying the arts to psychology . This last was rebutted by Charles Samuel Myers , writing in Nature , who saw poetry and its rhythm as too complex a subject to be reduced to the arithmetic of attention spans .
In later chapters , Stratton covered the topics of the unconscious mind , the mind – body connection , and spiritual aspects of psychology . He attacked the standard dualist view of a separate homuncular entity driving the biology of mental processes . Still he concluded , from observations that people were not always aware of how their own perception differed from sensory reality , that a diluted form of the dualist theory was tenable . In his final chapter , the author posited experimental psychology neither needed nor ruled out the idea of a soul . Myers critiqued the book 's treatment of illusions , memory , and relationship of psychology to body and soul , as not addressing the broader aspect of " culture " . Myers saw the work as appealing more to the educated reader than the specialist , the many deviations from experimental topics into subjective arenas a distraction .
= = = Social Psychology for International Conduct = = =
Stratton wrote Social Psychology for International Conduct for social science teachers who wanted to use psychology to analyze international affairs . The book 's first part evaluated races . Stratton concluded the Caucasoid and Mongoloid races were innately more intelligent enabling them to build strong cultures . He also stated the prejudice of other people was from the social and political advantages it brought . Stratton saw nations as made up of individuals and possessing a national character similar to what individuals had . Reviewing the book in the American Journal of Sociology , Ellsworth Faris objected to the author concluding the Northern and Central Europeans were more intelligent than Southern and Eastern Europeans , noting intelligence measures correlated also with length of stay in America .
In the chapter on " Taking national profits out of war " the author hypothesized nations often went to war because it paid , bringing both national rewards and helping achieve policy goals . He suggested nations be blocked from enjoying any fruits of war , and instead be penalized for waging it . In a review in the Political Science Quarterly , Walter Sandelius concluded enforcing such a position meant an international enforcement force with judicial and police powers , the formation of which would need an appeal to both reason and desire on the part of the international community . Sandelius also saw Stratton as pushing more for re @-@ educating the mind rather than training people to control emotions and passions in the efforts to avert war .
= = = What Starts Wars : Intentional Delusions = = =
In What Starts Wars : Intentional Delusions Stratton presented nations , themselves collections of people , as triggering war from several delusions . Three of those delusions held by citizens were that their own country was a paragon of peace , that its arms were only to defend the land , and that when it fought , it fought only for what was right . Blaming the enemy rounded out this list justifying war . Stratton believed and stated people could be freed of these delusions and that there was no will to war integral to human nature . He saw both the need for and the ways to eliminate war in individuals and in their ways , and not in abstract or innate traits . Florence Finch Kelly , reviewing the book for the New York Times , saw Stratton 's placing of both the blame and the responsibility on persons , of identifying the roots of war in the psyches of the men and women his readers , as an action likely to discomfit those readers .
= = Legacy = =
Stratton became a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1928 , president of the American Psychological Association in 1908 , chair of its division on anthropology and psychology in 1925- – 1926 , was a member of its National Research Council , an honorary member of the National Institute of Psychology , and a corresponding member of the American Institute of Czechoslovakia . He published eight full @-@ length books , and 125 papers . He was an honorary lecturer at Yale , delivering the Nathaniel W. Taylor Lectures at the Yale School of Religion beginning April 19 , 1920 .
Stratton 's earlier work on sensation and perception and the book based on them stayed influential among researchers in psychology . Many of his other books and articles which dealt with philosophical and sociological issues either beyond , or treated via perspectives beyond , exact and objective investigation had lost appeal to psychology researchers by the time of his death .
Of the various fields Stratton studied , it is his experimentation in binocular vision and perception that has had the most impact . Whether during the inversion experiment people really see an upside @-@ down world as being normal , or whether they adapt to it only behaviorally , has been debated for a long time . Neuroimaging studies done a century after the original experiment have shown no difference in early levels of visual processing , which indicates the perceptual world stays inverted at that level of cognition . The research has been put to use in both practical and esthetic ways . The mirror @-@ experiment experience of disconnect between vision and feeling has parallels in , and applications for researching , phantom limb syndrome . The art exhibit Upside @-@ down Mushroom Room by Belgian artist Carsten Höller , a tunnel installation with an inverted environment , builds on Stratton 's work .
Stratton provided encouragement to both his students and his children . Early at Berkeley , he encouraged young students to pursue graduate study in psychology , writing personal letters to students who scored an A grade in his introductory psychology course . The stamp of Stratton 's legacy can be seen in his doctoral students . Knight Dunlap was one of his earliest students at Berkeley and he became the twenty @-@ second president of the American Psychological Association . Dunlap was one of those who saw Stratton as a guide and mentor . Another of his early students , Warner Brown , would be the chair of the psychology department at Berkeley for sixteen years . A third , Olga Bridgman , would serve on the faculty at University of California — Berkeley and San Francisco — for over forty years .
= = Committees = =
Standing Committees of the Academic Council for Scholarships , University of California , 1902 – 1903
Standing Committees of the Graduate Council : University of California , 1902 – 1903
One of the first group of members of the Southern Society for Philosophy and Psychology ( SSFY ) , 1904
President of the American Psychological Association , 1908
Committee of Arrangements for Administering the Beale Prizes instituted by Regent Truxtun Beale , 1911
Chair of Board of Research , University of California , 1920 – 1921
Chair of the University of California Meeting , October 7 , 1921
Standing Committee of the Academic Senate , Administrative Committee on International Relations , 1921 – 1922
Elected member of the National Academy of Sciences , 1928 . Stratton served in various capacities with the NAS :
Member of the National Research Council , 1925 – 1926
Chair of Division of Anthropology and Psychology , National Research Council , 1926
Member of the Board for administering the Rockefeller Foundation fellowships in the biological sciences , 19245 – 1926
Representative on Editorial board of PNAS , 1926
Advisory board of the Bureau of Public Personnel Administration of the Institute for Government Research , 1926
Committee on Tactual Interpretation of Oral Speech and Vocal control by the Deaf , 1926
Committee on National fellowships in Child Development , 1927
= = List of books = =
Experimental Psychology and its Bearing upon Culture . New York , NY : MacMillan . 1903 @.@ p . 331 .
Psychology of the Religious Life . New York , New York : Macmillan . 1911 @.@ p . 376 .
Double Standard with Regard to Fighting . New York , New York : American Association for International Conciliation . 1912 @.@ p . 14 .
Control of the Fighting Instinct . New York , New York : American Association for International Conciliation . 1913 @.@ p . 13 .
Theophrastus and the Greek Physiological Psychology before Aristotle . New York , New York : Macmillan ; London , Allen and Unwin . 1917 @.@ p . 227 .
Developing Mental Power . Boston , MA : Houghton . 1922 @.@ p . 77 .
Anger : Its Religious and Moral Significance . New York , New York : Macmillan . 1923 @.@ p . 277 .
Social Psychology of International Conduct . New York , New York : D. Appleton and Company . 1929 @.@ p . 387 .
What Starts Wars : International Delusions . New York , New York : Houghton Mifflin company . 1936 @.@ p . 221 .
Man , Creator or Destroyer . London : Allen and Unwin . 1952 @.@ p . 170 .
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= Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc =
Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc [ 1994 ] 1 All ER 53 is a case in English tort law that established the principle that claims under nuisance and Rylands v Fletcher must include a requirement that the damage be foreseeable ; it also suggested that Rylands was a sub @-@ set of nuisance rather than an independent tort , a debate eventually laid to rest in Transco plc v Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council .
The Cambridge Water Company were a company responsible for providing potable water to the inhabitants of Cambridge and the surrounding areas . In 1976 , they purchased a borehole outside Sawston to deal with rising demand . In 1980 , a European Directive was issued requiring nations of the European Community to establish standards on the presence of perchloroethene ( PCE ) in water , which the United Kingdom did in 1982 . It was found that the Sawston borehole was contaminated with PCE that had originated in a tannery owned by Eastern Counties Leather . Prior to 1980 , there was no knowledge that PCE should be avoided or that it could cause harm , but the Cambridge Water Company brought a case against Eastern Counties Leather anyway .
The case first went to the High Court of Justice , where Kennedy J dismissed claims under nuisance , negligence and Rylands v Fletcher because the harm was not foreseeable . His decision was reversed by the Court of Appeal of England and Wales , who cited an " obscure decision " to justify doing so . The case then went to the House of Lords , where a decision was read by Lord Goff on 9 December 1993 . Goff first countered the Court of Appeal decision , restoring Kennedy 's dismissal of the case , before moving on to the deeper legal points . Based on the original decision in Rylands , Goff argued that it had always been intended for foreseeability of harm to be a factor , something not previously put into law by the English judiciary . He then stated that Rylands was arguably a sub @-@ set of nuisance , not an independent tort , and as such the factors which led him to including a test of foreseeability of harm in Rylands cases also imposed such a test on all nuisance cases .
The decision in Cambridge Water Co made an immediate change to the law , for the first time requiring foreseeability of harm to be considered in cases brought under Rylands v Fletcher and the general tort of nuisance . It was also significant in implying that Rylands was not an independent tort , something later concluded in the Transco case . Goff 's judgment has been criticised on several points by academics , who highlight flaws in wording which leave parts of the judgment ambiguous and a selective assessment of Rylands that ignores outside influences .
= = Facts = =
The Cambridge Water Company Ltd was established by a private Act of Parliament in 1853 to provide water to the residents of Cambridge and the surrounding area ; by 1976 , the population served had risen to approximately 275 @,@ 000 . With the rising demand , the company purchased a borehole outside Sawston , constructing pumping equipment and integrating the water from that borehole into their system in 1979 . Tests undertaken both before the purchase , and in 1979 , had demonstrated that the water was safe for public consumption . During the late 1970s , concerns were expressed about the presence of perchloroethene ( PCE ) in water , and as a result a European Directive was issued in 1980 requiring nations of the European Community to establish maximum acceptable levels of PCE in water ; the United Kingdom did this in 1982 . PCE was discovered in the borehole ; it was not tested for earlier because there was no need to regulate the levels . As a result , the Cambridge Water Company was forced to cease pumping the water , and instead find a new borehole elsewhere .
An investigation immediately ensued . The investigators concluded that the PCE had come from Eastern Counties Leather plc , a leather tannery in Sawston . The tannery used PCE as a degreasing agent , beginning in the 1960s ; by 1976 , 100 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 380 @,@ 000 L ) of this chemical were used by the tannery each year , with up to 25 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 95 @,@ 000 L ) on the premises at any one time . PCE was leaking out of the drums it was carried in , first by being spilt when it was tipped into the degreasing machines and second by leaking from near @-@ empty drums . Although these spills were individually small , it was estimated around 3 @,@ 200 US gallons ( 12 @,@ 000 L ) of PCE were spilled each year . These spills collected in the chalk underlying Sawston until groundwater swept them into the Cambridge Water Company 's borehole .
= = Judgment = =
= = = High Court and Court of Appeal = = =
The Cambridge Water Company brought a case against Eastern Counties Leather in the High Court of Justice , wanting £ 1 million in damages for the cost of finding a new borehole and an unsuccessful attempt to decontaminate the original one , and an injunction to prevent any more use of PCE . They argued that Eastern Counties Leather were liable in three ways ; first , in negligence , second , in nuisance , and third , under the rule developed in Rylands v Fletcher . The case came before Kennedy J , who dismissed all three of the Company 's claims . On the matter of negligence , he held that the damage had to be reasonably foreseeable , as was required under Overseas Tankship ( UK ) Ltd v Morts Dock and Engineering Co Ltd ; he applied this same test to the claim under nuisance . Applying the case of Hughes v Lord Advocate , Kennedy found that the harm was not reasonably foreseeable , and both actions under nuisance and negligence must fail .
Rylands v Fletcher contained the principle that " the person who for his own purposes brings on his lands and collects and keeps there anything likely to do mischief if it escapes , must keep it at his peril , and , if he does not do so , is prima facie answerable for all the damage which is the natural consequence of its escape " , with a requirement that this use of land be " non @-@ natural " . On the Cambridge Water Company 's third claim , Kennedy was forced to consider the meaning of " non @-@ natural " in this setting . He held that the use of industrial chemicals was not " non @-@ natural " , given that it was on an industrial site , and that for a claim to succeed under Rylands the use must be " some special use bringing increased danger to others , and must not merely be the ordinary use of the land or such a use as is proper for the general benefit of the community " ; Eastern Counties Leather created jobs in Sawston , and was thus providing a benefit for the community . As such , the Company 's claim under Rylands was not valid . Kennedy also chose to consider foreseeability of harm a factor in cases brought under Rylands , and stated the fact that harm was not foreseeable was a factor in his decision .
The Cambridge Water Company then appealed to the Court of Appeal of England and Wales , but only on the claim under Rylands v Fletcher . The court , composed of Nolan LJ , Mann LJ and Sir Stephen Brown , reversed Kennedy 's decision . Despite a lack of comment by the appellants on the claim under nuisance , the court addressed this ground , relying on the " obscure decision " found in Ballard v Tomlinson , concluding that " where the nuisance is an interference with a natural right incident to ownership then the liability is a strict one " . As such , Kennedy should have applied Ballard , and it was unnecessary to consider Rylands because the claim under nuisance was valid .
= = = House of Lords = = =
The case was again appealed , this time to the House of Lords , where it was heard by Lord Templeman , Lord Goff , Lord Jauncey , Lord Lowry and Lord Woolf . The judgment was given by Lord Goff on 9 December 1993 , and reinstated the decision of Kennedy J in the High Court of Justice ; unlike the Court of Appeal decision , it directly addressed the issue of Rylands v Fletcher . Goff first addressed the Court of Appeal 's use of Ballard v Tomlinson , stating that the decision there as based on the facts of the case , and did not establish either a rule that there was a right to clear water , nor that there was strict liability attached to that right .
Goff looked at the relationship between nuisance and Rylands v Fletcher , particularly how they treat strict liability . In nuisance , liability is strict in that the defendant can be liable even if he has taken reasonable care , but this is kept " under control " by the principle that a defendant is not liable for actions a reasonable user takes on his land . He took into consideration an article published by F.H. Newark in 1949 , in which Newark called the decision in Rylands " a simple case of nuisance " rather than a revolutionary doctrine that established strict liability outside nuisance . Goff also found similarities between the principle of " non @-@ natural use " under Rylands and that of the " reasonable user " requirement in nuisance , concluding that " [ I ] t would lead to a more coherent body of common law principles if the rule [ in Rylands ] were to be regarded essentially as an extension of the law of nuisance " .
Lord Goff 's judgment was primarily based on whether or not foreseeability of damage should be a factor in Rylands cases , and was that the matter was " open for consideration " , saying that the need for foreseeability of damage to be a criterion was " a matter of principle " . He considered the case of Overseas Tankship ( UK ) Ltd v The Miller Steamship Co , in which the Privy Council concluded that foreseeability of damage was an essential part of determining liability in nuisance . The Council stated that " It could not be right to discriminate between different cases of nuisance so as to make foreseeability a necessary element in determining damages in those cases where it is a necessary element in determining liability , but not in others " . If , as Goff was stating , Rylands was an element of nuisance , this decision should apply to it . In the original judgment in Rylands , the judge had stated that it covered " anything likely to do mischief if it escapes " , and that liability should be to " answer for the natural and anticipated consequences " ; this wording implies that he intended for " knowledge to be a prerequisite for liability " .
= = Significance = =
Goff 's judgment made several significant and immediate changes to the law . First , it was the first decision which imposed a requirement of foreseeability of harm to cases brought under Rylands v Fletcher ; " it must be shown that the defendant has done something which he recognised , or judged by the standards appropriate at the relevant place or time , or ought reasonably to have recognised , as giving rise to an exceptionally high risk of danger or mischief if there should be an escape , however unlikely an escape may have been thought to be " . Secondly , it was the first decision to state that Rylands may be a sub @-@ set of nuisance , and as such applied the same requirement of foreseeability of harm to nuisance , where previously such a requirement had not existed .
Academic Tom Clearwater criticises some of the language Lord Goff picked out of Rylands v Fletcher for his judgment . In particular , Goff 's use of " anything likely to do mischief if it escapes " and " answer for the natural and anticipated consequences " to justify his argument that Rylands had always intended foreseeability to be a factor suggests Goff " [ overstepped ] an appropriate reach of interpretation in drawing his conclusion ... most cases gloss silently over the [ wording ] ... three cases imply that foreseeability of damage is not a relevant consideration at all " . The reliance on Newark 's article was also criticised , since " Neither he nor Goff attempted to justify their opinion with reference to anything external to [ the Rylands ] judgment " . Clearwater points out that the original judgment in Rylands required modification " the price paid for which was legal uncertainty " to make it socially acceptable , which he sees as evidence that Rylands was , despite what Newark says , a significant change to the law .
Peter Kutner , a professor of law at the University of Oklahoma , argues that there is a significant ambiguity in Goff 's judgment . Cases brought under Rylands v Fletcher now have a requirement that the harm was foreseeable , but it was not defined whether or not it was sufficient that it be foreseeable that harm could occur , or that it be foreseeable that the use of land is " non @-@ natural " , that the substance be capable of doing " mischief " , and all the other requirements of Rylands . He also states that the decision did not explain precisely whether Rylands should be treated as a development within the law of nuisance , or something which sprung from nuisance and retains a separate existence . He interpreted the Cambridge Water Company decision as not being sufficient to completely write out Rylands as a distinct doctrine ; this was later done by the House of Lords in Transco plc v Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council .
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= United Abominations =
United Abominations is the eleventh studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth . Released on May 8 , 2007 , United Abominations is the first Megadeth release distributed through Roadrunner Records , and with the exception of the band 's frontman Dave Mustaine , was recorded with an all @-@ new line @-@ up . While touring to promote the album , guitarist Glen Drover left the band for personal reasons and was replaced by Chris Broderick , leaving this as the only Megadeth studio album to which he contributed .
United Abominations was well received by critics and debuted at number eight on the Billboard 200 , the highest chart position for the band since 1994 's Youthanasia until it was succeeded by 2013 's Super Collider . Greg Prato of AllMusic stated Megadeth " sound reborn " on United Abominations . The lyrics of the album deal with politics and the state the world is in , with Ed Thompson of IGN stating the album is the band 's most politically charged . The album was named the number one metal album of 2007 by Guitar World .
= = Background = =
Prior to the release of United Abominations , Megadeth signed a recording contract with Roadrunner Records . The band had troubles with music rights involving two former labels that carried Megadeth , Capitol and Sanctuary Records . This is the first Megadeth album since the 2004 album The System Has Failed , which was released through Sanctuary . While on tour to support The System Has Failed , Megadeth frontman , guitarist , and vocalist Dave Mustaine contemplated breaking up Megadeth to record as a solo artist . At a sold @-@ out concert in Buenos Aires , Mustaine stated the band would stay together . The show in Buenos Aires , at which this information was announced , was recorded and released on CD and DVD as That One Night : Live in Buenos Aires .
Megadeth had a new band lineup , aside from Mustaine , comprising Glen Drover ( guitar ) , James LoMenzo ( bass guitar ) , and Shawn Drover ( drums ) . Mustaine chose these people for full @-@ time members rather than session musicians . He stated that he liked the Drovers ' " sibling chemistry " and that LoMenzo was a " legend " .
= = Writing and recording = =
Mustaine stated he did not " go into making this record with any pre @-@ conceived notions " . He said some of the lyrics on United Abominations were written about his frustration with his past record labels , stating " a lot of that translated into the intensity on the record . " Mustaine wrote the songs for the album in an attempt to " stir something in the minds of the listener " . The lyrics of the album were mostly about choices the American government were making at the time , which Mustaine found to be foolish . Mustaine stated recording the new songs was " super fun " , despite having troubles with some of the complex music and vocal arrangements . All of the lyrics and music , with the exception of one song , were written by Mustaine . " Never Walk Alone ... A Call to Arms " was co @-@ written by Mustaine and guitarist Glen Drover . When bassist James LoMenzo was asked about the lyrics of the album , he said to " talk to Dave about that " . Although most of the band had no writing credits on the album , they stated that they were excited about recording the music .
United Abominations was recorded in 2006 at SARM Hook End Studios , London , England ; the Steakhouse , Studio City , California ; Big Fish Encinitas , California and Backstage Productions . Additional overdubs were recorded at S.I.R. rehearsal studio , Hollywood , California and Mustaine Music , Fallbrook , California . Most of the record was tracked in England because Mustaine admired the fact that his favorite band , Led Zeppelin , previously recorded there many times . Mustaine produced the album , with additional production handled by Jeff Balding and Andy Sneap .
" À Tout le Monde ( Set Me Free ) " , is a remake of " A Tout le Monde " which originally appeared on the 1994 album Youthanasia . The song is a more uptempo version of the original song , and features Lacuna Coil vocalist Cristina Scabbia singing backing vocals . Scabbia stated she was " really surprised about it because ' A Tout le Monde ' is a song that I 've always loved . It was a big surprise for me to get this invitation — I was really honored to be part of it . " Mustaine chose Scabbia over three other choices because of her " reign in the heavy metal business " . Mustaine later stated that he originally intended for the song to be a B @-@ side for Japan , but the president of Roadrunner Records ( Megadeth 's label for this release ) wanted " À Tout le Monde ( Set Me Free ) " released as the album 's first single .
The song " Gears of War " is featured on the soundtrack to the video game of the same name . Initially , the song had no lyrics ; however , Microsoft approached Megadeth , asking to use the song in Gears of War . The band accepted the offer and wrote lyrics for the song , but it was too late to use the lyrics in the version for the video game , as the game was near completion .
= = = Album artwork = = =
All artwork for the album was selected from a contest held by DeviantArt . The contestants were asked to design a new version of Vic Rattlehead , the band mascot which appears on nearly every Megadeth album cover . Mustaine chose from the top 11 finalists to be included in the CD booklet . The cover was unveiled in August 2006 , of which the image depicts the United Nations headquarters in flames and being destroyed by flying oil barrels . Vic Rattlehead ( the Megadeth mascot ) and the ' Angel of Deth ' are pictured in the foreground . Although the cover of the CD was not the winner of the contest , Mustaine chose it as his favorite picture , and wanted it for the cover . No photographs of the band were taken for the CD booklet , leaving the entire design as fan @-@ made artwork .
= = Release and promotion = =
United Abominations was originally set for an October 2006 release , but with the scheduled release date rapidly approaching , Mustaine told Billboard magazine in August 2006 , " We 're putting the finishing touches on it . We 've got a little more work before it 's finished , but it should be out some time next year . " The completed album was leaked on to the internet in April 2007 and the first official pressing of the album was released exclusively in Japan on May 8 and contained a cover of the 1970 Led Zeppelin song " Out on the Tiles " . The album was released internationally on May 15 , and a day later in the United States . The album had sold nearly 60 @,@ 000 copies in the US in its first week and debuted at number eight on the Billboard 200 , 10 places higher than the band 's previous album , 2004s The System Has Failed . The album debuted at number two in Finland , five in Canada , and the top 30 in seven other countries . As of August 19 , 2007 , the album had managed to sell about 122 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
Megadeth started touring in March 2007 in support of the album in Canada opening for Heaven & Hell and Down , followed by a North American tour opening for Heaven and Hell and touring with Machine Head . On this tour , which lasted until May , the band debuted the songs " Gears Of War " , " Washington Is Next ! " and " Sleepwalker " . After the Heaven and Hell tour , Megadeth started the worldwide Tour of Duty , which lasted until March 2008 . Megadeth also toured in Australia on Gigantour with Static @-@ X , DevilDriver , Lacuna Coil , and Bring Me the Horizon as supporting acts . At one concert in Australia and in Italy ( Milan ) , Cristina Scabbia performed on stage with Megadeth for " À Tout le Monde ( Set Me Free ) " .
= = Critical reception = =
United Abominations received generally positive reviews , and was thought of as a return to form for Megadeth by critics . Don Kaye of Blabbermouth.net said the album " is an unabashedly guitar @-@ driven album , stuffed with riffs and leads coming from all directions . The sense of explosive instrumentation under precise control that was a hallmark of early Megadeth efforts is back , which means that Megadeth , in many ways , is back too . " About.com reviewer Chad Bowar stated the album " is the best Megadeth album in at least a decade . " Greg Prato of AllMusic praised the album , stating " Megadeth 's crunchy , venomous thrash has remained intact . Megadeth were never afraid to show off their prog @-@ worthy chops , and the 2007 lineup appears custom @-@ made for tackling ' tricky bits ' . Mustaine and company certainly sound reborn . " Rolling Stone reviewer Evan Serpick noted a downside to the album , stating it sounded too much like all of the band 's previous albums . Ed Thompson of IGN praised the album and its political lyrics , saying it " cranks out so much attitude , so much opinion , and so much firebranded speech that the album could be mistaken for a political rally . " Commenting on the Megadeth 's new lineup , Jon Weiderhorn from MTV said " Once again , the system is fully operational . " In a less enthusiastic review , BBC Music 's Eamonn Stack wrote that even though the thrash musicianship is evident , the edge has been " sacrificed for the sake of speed and technical playing " . United Abominations was voted the best metal album of 2007 by the reader 's poll in the June 2008 issue of Guitar World and the Brave Pick of 2007 by Brave Words & Bloody Knuckles .
On July 10 , 2007 , a rebuttal was posted by Mark Leon Goldberg on the United Nations affairs blog against the accusations made in the title track of the album , " United Abominations " . Goldberg reviewed the song verse @-@ by @-@ verse , pointing out what he believed were false accusations . The blog stated that " we at UN Dispatch refuse to let Megadeth 's witless screed go unchallenged . We listened [ to the song ] so you don 't have to " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Chart performance = =
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= Huginn and Muninn =
In Norse mythology , Huginn ( from Old Norse " thought " ) and Muninn ( Old Norse " memory " or " mind " ) are a pair of ravens that fly all over the world , Midgard , and bring information to the god Odin . Huginn and Muninn are attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources : the Prose Edda and Heimskringla , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ; in the Third Grammatical Treatise , compiled in the 13th century by Óláfr Þórðarson ; and in the poetry of skalds . The names of the ravens are sometimes modernly anglicized as Hugin and Munin .
In the Poetic Edda , a disguised Odin expresses that he fears that they may not return from their daily flights . The Prose Edda explains that Odin is referred to as " raven @-@ god " due to his association with Huginn and Muninn . In the Prose Edda and the Third Grammatical Treatise , the two ravens are described as perching on Odin 's shoulders . Heimskringla details that Odin gave Huginn and Muninn the ability to speak .
Migration Period golden bracteates , Vendel era helmet plates , a pair of identical Germanic Iron Age bird @-@ shaped brooches , Viking Age objects depicting a moustached man wearing a helmet , and a portion of the 10th or 11th century Thorwald 's Cross may depict Odin with one of the ravens . Huginn and Muninn 's role as Odin 's messengers has been linked to shamanic practices , the Norse raven banner , general raven symbolism among the Germanic peoples , and the Norse concepts of the fylgja and the hamingja .
= = Attestations = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , the god Odin ( disguised as Grímnir ) provides the young Agnarr with information about Odin 's companions . He tells the prince about Odin 's wolves Geri and Freki , and , in the next stanza of the poem , states that Huginn and Muninn fly daily across the entire world , Midgard . Grímnir says that he worries Huginn may not come back , yet more does he fear for Muninn :
In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning ( chapter 38 ) , the enthroned figure of High tells Gangleri ( king Gylfi in disguise ) that two ravens named Huginn and Muninn sit on Odin 's shoulders . The ravens tell Odin everything they see and hear . Odin sends Huginn and Muninn out at dawn , and the birds fly all over the world before returning at dinner @-@ time . As a result , Odin is kept informed of many events . High adds that it is from this association that Odin is referred to as " raven @-@ god " . The above @-@ mentioned stanza from Grímnismál is then quoted .
In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál ( chapter 60 ) , Huginn and Muninn appear in a list of poetic names for ravens . In the same chapter , excerpts from a work by the skald Einarr Skúlason are provided . In these excerpts Muninn is referenced in a common noun for ' raven ' and Huginn is referenced in a kenning for ' carrion ' .
In the Heimskringla book Ynglinga saga , an euhemerized account of the life of Odin is provided . Chapter 7 describes that Odin had two ravens , and upon these ravens he bestowed the gift of speech . These ravens flew all over the land and brought him information , causing Odin to become " very wise in his lore . "
In the Third Grammatical Treatise an anonymous verse is recorded that mentions the ravens flying from Odin 's shoulders ; Huginn seeking hanged men , and Muninn slain bodies . The verse reads :
Two ravens flew from Hnikar ’ s [ Óðinn ’ s ]
shoulders ; Huginn to the hanged and
Muninn to the slain [ lit. corpses ] .
= = Archaeological record = =
Migration Period ( 5th and 6th centuries AD ) gold bracteates ( types A , B , and C ) feature a depiction of a human figure above a horse , holding a spear and flanked by one or more often two birds . The presence of the birds has led to the iconographic identification of the human figure as the god Odin , flanked by Huginn and Muninn . Like Snorri 's Prose Edda description of the ravens , a bird is sometimes depicted at the ear of the human , or at the ear of the horse . Bracteates have been found in Denmark , Sweden , Norway and , in smaller numbers , England and areas south of Denmark . Austrian Germanist Rudolf Simek states that these bracteates may depict Odin and his ravens healing a horse and may indicate that the birds were originally not simply his battlefield companions but also " Odin 's helpers in his veterinary function . "
Vendel era helmet plates ( from the 6th or 7th century ) found in grave in Sweden depict a helmeted figure holding a spear and a shield while riding a horse , flanked by two birds . The plate has been interpreted as Odin accompanied by two birds : his ravens .
A pair of identical Germanic Iron Age bird @-@ shaped brooches from Bejsebakke in northern Denmark may be depictions of Huginn and Muninn . The back of each bird features a mask motif , and the feet of the birds are shaped like the heads of animals . The feathers of the birds are also composed of animal heads . Together , the animal heads on the feathers form a mask on the back of the bird . The birds have powerful beaks and fan @-@ shaped tails , indicating that they are ravens . The brooches were intended to be worn on each shoulder , after Germanic Iron Age fashion . Archaeologist Peter Vang Petersen comments that while the symbolism of the brooches is open to debate , the shape of the beaks and tail feathers confirm that the brooch depictions are ravens . Petersen notes that " raven @-@ shaped ornaments worn as a pair , after the fashion of the day , one on each shoulder , makes one 's thoughts turn towards Odin 's ravens and the cult of Odin in the Germanic Iron Age . " Petersen says that Odin is associated with disguise and that the masks on the ravens may be portraits of Odin .
The Oseberg tapestry fragments , discovered within the Viking Age Oseberg ship burial in Norway , feature a scene containing two black birds hovering over a horse , possibly originally leading a wagon ( as a part of a procession of horse @-@ led wagons on the tapestry ) . In her examination of the tapestry , scholar Anne Stine Ingstad interprets these birds as Huginn and Muninn flying over a covered cart containing an image of Odin , drawing comparison with the images of Nerthus attested by Tacitus in 1 CE .
Excavations in Ribe in Denmark have recovered a Viking Age lead metal @-@ caster 's mould and 11 identical casting @-@ moulds . These objects depict a moustached man wearing a helmet that features two head @-@ ornaments . Archaeologist Stig Jensen proposes that these ornaments should be interpreted as Huginn and Muninn , and the wearer as Odin . He notes that " similar depictions occur everywhere the Vikings went — from eastern England to Russia and naturally also in the rest of Scandinavia . "
A portion of Thorwald 's Cross ( a partly surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man ) depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf , his right foot in its mouth , and a large bird on his shoulder . Andy Orchard comments that this bird may be either Huginn or Muninn . Rundata dates the cross to 940 , while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century . This depiction has been interpreted as Odin , with a raven or eagle at his shoulder , being consumed by the monstrous wolf Fenrir during the events of Ragnarök .
In November 2009 , the Roskilde Museum announced the discovery and subsequent display of a niello @-@ inlaid silver figurine found in Lejre , Denmark , which they dubbed " Odin from Lejre " . The silver object depicts a person sitting on a throne . The throne features the heads of animals and is flanked by two birds . The Roskilde Museum identifies the figure as Odin sitting on his throne Hliðskjálf , flanked by the ravens Huginn and Muninn .
= = Theories = =
The Heliand , an Old Saxon adaptation of the New Testament from the 9th century , differs from the New Testament in that an explicit reference is made to a dove sitting on the shoulder of Christ . Regarding this , G. Ronald Murphy says " In placing the powerful white dove not just above Christ , but right on his shoulder , the Heliand author has portrayed Christ , not only as the Son of the All @-@ Ruler , but also as a new Woden . This deliberate image of Christ triumphantly astride the land with the magnificent bird on his shoulders ( the author is perhaps a bit embarrassed that the bird is an unwarlike dove ! ) is an image intended to calm the fears and longings of those who mourn the loss of Woden and who want to return to the old religion 's symbols and ways . With this image , Christ becomes a Germanic god , one into whose ears the Spirit of the Almighty whispers " .
Scholars have linked Odin 's relation to Huginn and Muninn to shamanic practice . John Lindow relates Odin 's ability to send his " thought " ( Huginn ) and " mind " ( Muninn ) to the trance @-@ state journey of shamans . Lindow says the Grímnismál stanza where Odin worries about the return of Huginn and Muninn " would be consistent with the danger that the shaman faces on the trance @-@ state journey . "
Rudolf Simek is critical of the approach , stating that " attempts have been made to interpret Odin 's ravens as a personification of the god 's intellectual powers , but this can only be assumed from the names Huginn and Muninn themselves which were unlikely to have been invented much before the 9th or 10th centuries " yet that the two ravens , as Odin 's companions , appear to derive from much earlier times . Instead , Simek connects Huginn and Muninn with wider raven symbolism in the Germanic world , including the raven banner ( described in English chronicles and Scandinavian sagas ) , a banner which was woven in a method that allowed it , when fluttering in the wind , to appear as if the raven depicted upon it was beating its wings .
Anthony Winterbourne connects Huginn and Muninn to the Norse concepts of the fylgja — a concept with three characteristics ; shape @-@ shifting abilities , good fortune , and the guardian spirit — and the hamingja — the ghostly double of a person that may appear in the form of an animal . Winterbourne states that " The shaman 's journey through the different parts of the cosmos is symbolized by the hamingja concept of the shape @-@ shifting soul , and gains another symbolic dimension for the Norse soul in the account of Oðin 's ravens , Huginn and Muninn . " In response to Simek 's criticism of attempts to interpret the ravens " philosophically " , Winterbourne says that " such speculations [ ... ] simply strengthen the conceptual significance made plausible by other features of the mythology " and that the names Huginn and Muninn " demand more explanation than is usually provided . "
Bernd Heinrich theorizes that Huginn and Muninn , along with Odin and his wolves Geri and Freki , reflect a symbiosis observed in the natural world among ravens , wolves , and humans on the hunt :
In a biological symbiosis one organism typically shores up some weakness or deficiency of the other ( s ) . As in such a symbiosis , Odin the father of all humans and gods , though in human form was imperfect by himself . As a separate entity he lacked depth perception ( being one @-@ eyed ) and he was apparently also uninformed and forgetful . But his weaknesses were compensated by his ravens , Hugin ( mind ) and Munin ( memory ) who were part of him . They perched on his shoulders and reconnoitered to the ends of the earth each day to return in the evening and tell him the news . He also had two wolves at his side , and the man / god @-@ raven @-@ wolf association was like one single organism in which the ravens were the eyes , mind , and memory , and the wolves the providers of meat and nourishment . As god , Odin was the ethereal part — he only drank wine and spoke only in poetry . I wondered if the Odin myth was a metaphor that playfully and poetically encapsulates ancient knowledge of our prehistoric past as hunters in association with two allies to produce a powerful hunting alliance . It would reflect a past that we have long forgotten and whose meaning has been obscured and badly frayed as we abandoned our hunting cultures to become herders and agriculturists , to whom ravens act as competitors .
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= Military service of Ian Smith =
The future Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith served in the British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) during the Second World War , interrupting his studies at Rhodes University in South Africa to join up in 1941 . Following a year 's pilot instruction in Rhodesia under the Empire Air Training Scheme , he was posted to No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , then stationed in the Middle East , in late 1942 . Smith received six weeks ' operational training in the Levant , then entered active service as a pilot officer in Iran and Iraq . No. 237 Squadron , which had operated in the Western Desert from 1941 to early 1942 , returned to that front in March 1943 . Smith flew in the Western Desert until October that year , when a crash during a night takeoff resulted in a number of serious injuries , including facial disfigurements and a broken jaw . Following reconstructive plastic surgery to his face , other operations and five months ' convalescence , Smith rejoined No. 237 Squadron in Corsica in May 1944 . While there , he attained his highest rank , flight lieutenant .
In late June 1944 , during a strafing attack on a railway yard in the Po Valley in northern Italy , Smith was shot down by flak . Parachuting from his aircraft , he landed without serious injury in the Ligurian Alps , in an area that was behind German lines , but largely under the control of anti @-@ German Italian partisans . Smith spent three months working with the local resistance movement before trekking westwards , across the Maritime Alps , with three other Allied personnel , hoping to join up with the Allied forces that had just invaded southern France . After 23 days ' hiking , he and his companions were recovered by American troops and repatriated .
Smith was briefly stationed in Britain before he was posted to No. 130 ( Punjab ) Squadron in western Germany in April 1945 . He flew combat missions there until Germany surrendered in May . He remained with No. 130 Squadron for the rest of his service , and returned home at the end of 1945 . After completing his studies at Rhodes , he was elected Member of Parliament for his birthplace , Selukwe , in 1948 . Becoming Prime Minister in 1964 amid his country 's dispute with Britain regarding the terms for independence , he was influenced as a politician by his wartime experiences . Rhodesia 's military record on the mother country 's behalf became central to his sense of betrayal by post @-@ war British governments , which partly motivated his administration 's Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965 . His status as a Second World War RAF veteran thereafter helped him win support , both domestically and internationally .
= = Background = =
Ian Smith was born in 1919 , the son of British settlers in Selukwe , Southern Rhodesia . He attended Chaplin School in Gwelo , where he was head prefect , recipient of the Victor Ludorum in athletics , captain of the school teams in cricket , rugby and tennis , and successful academically . After graduating in 1937 , he attended Rhodes University College , in Grahamstown , South Africa , which was often attended by Rhodesian students , partly because Rhodesia then had no university of its own . Enrolling at the start of 1938 , Smith read for a Bachelor of Commerce degree . He was about halfway through his course when the Second World War broke out in September 1939 .
= = Enlisting and training in Rhodesia = =
Smith was fascinated by the idea of being a fighter pilot , and particularly excited by the prospect of flying a Spitfire . He wanted to leave Rhodes immediately to join the Southern Rhodesian Air Force , but did not because military recruiters in the colony had been told not to accept university students until after they graduated . As in the First World War , white Rhodesians in general were very keen to enlist ; because it was feared that the absence of these men might adversely affect the strategically important mines , manpower controls were introduced to keep certain whites out of the military and in their civilian occupations . One of Southern Rhodesia 's main contributions to the Allied war effort proved to be its participation , from 1940 , in the Empire Air Training Scheme . The Southern Rhodesian Air Force was absorbed into the British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in April 1940 , becoming No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron RAF . Two more RAF squadrons , No. 44 and No. 266 , were subsequently also designated " Rhodesian " formations .
Remaining at Rhodes during the 1940 academic year , Smith secretly made plans to leave for military service in spite of his instructions to finish studying . In June 1940 , during the mid @-@ year break from studies , he quietly travelled to the Southern Rhodesian capital , Salisbury , to tell the colony 's director of manpower , William Addison , that he wanted to join the air force ; to avoid being barred from enlistment , Smith did not mention his university attendance , and gave his Selukwe address . During his Christmas vacation at the end of 1940 , Smith went to Salisbury again , and was successful in a second interview with an air force official and a physical examination . Early in 1941 , having received his pilot course call @-@ up papers , Smith underwent a final interview , during which it emerged that he was a university student ; the interviewer briefly demurred , but accepted Smith when he insisted that he wanted to sign up .
In September 1941 Smith formally enlisted in the Royal Air Force . He began his instruction with Initial Training Wing in Bulawayo , Southern Rhodesia 's second city , and after six weeks there transferred to Elementary Flying Training School at Guinea Fowl , just outside Gwelo . The majority of the men he trained alongside were Australians , and many others were British . Smith was glad to find himself in a course that would ultimately lead to flying fighters as opposed to bombers — at Guinea Fowl , he learned to pilot Tiger Moths , then Harvards — and was also pleased to have been posted only a half @-@ hour car ride from Selukwe . Late in the course he was picked out to undergo instruction as an officer cadet , which meant he was transferred to Thornhill , another Gwelo airbase . He passed out in September 1942 with the rank of pilot officer ; his training in Southern Rhodesia had taken a year in all .
= = Service = =
= = = Middle East and North Africa = = =
Smith hoped to be posted to Britain at the end of his training , and was initially told that this was going to happen , but he was ultimately sent to the Middle East . He was despatched to Idku , a small RAF base near Cairo , in late 1942 , from where he was posted to an operational training unit based at Baalbek , in Lebanon . He spent six weeks there , flying over much of the Levant in a Hawker Hurricane fighter , before being posted to No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron to begin active service , again piloting Hurricanes . The squadron was stationed near the Iranian capital of Tehran when Smith joined it , but it almost immediately transferred to Kirkuk , in Iraq , to help guard the oil wells and pipelines there . In March 1943 , it was again committed to the Western Desert Campaign in North Africa , having previously served there during 1941 – 1942 , and Smith proceeded to serve on this front as a Hurricane pilot . He was promoted to flying officer on 25 March 1943 .
On 4 October 1943 , Smith took off from Idku at dawn in a Hurricane Mk IIC to escort a shipping convoy . Light was extremely poor , and Smith 's throttle malfunctioned ; he failed to take off quickly enough to clear a blast wall at the end of the runway . The undercarriage of the aircraft scraped against some sandbags on the wall , causing Smith to lose control of the plane and crash . The shoulder straps on his harness , built to withstand stress of up to 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) , snapped , and his face was smashed against the Hurricane 's gyrosight . Smith suffered serious facial injuries , and broke his jaw , a leg and a shoulder . Doctors thought at first that his back had also been broken , but it had actually only been buckled .
A team of doctors and surgeons at the Fifteenth Scottish Hospital in Cairo worked extensively on Smith , putting his jaw back together with a complicated assembly of bandage , plaster , nuts , bolts and wire , and rebuilt his face through skin grafts and other plastic surgery . In March 1944 , after about five months ' convalescence , he was passed fit for flying . He turned down the offer of a posting home to Southern Rhodesia as an instructor and , after a refresher course in Egypt , travelled to Corsica to rejoin No. 237 Squadron , which was by now flying Spitfire Mk IXs .
= = = Italy = = =
Smith reported for duty with No. 237 Squadron in Corsica on 10 May 1944 , and resumed operational flying two days later . Soon after , he was promoted in the field to flight lieutenant . At this time the unit was attached to an American bomber group , and assigned to cover it during attacks on northern Italian cities such as Genoa . The fighters also embarked on strafing raids into the Po Valley , attacking railway traffic and heavy vehicles . Smith flew ten sorties with the squadron over the next month , and during the last of these , on 22 June , led a strafing raid against a large railway yard . Having destroyed a number of engines and fuel tanks , Smith went back for a second run , and his aircraft was hit by flak . He shouted over the radio to the other pilots , telling them not to attempt a second pass on the railway yard , and turned towards the coast , hoping to ditch in the sea . Smith 's wingman , Alan Douglas , then told him by radio first that black smoke was emanating from the aircraft , then that the engine was ablaze . Realising his fighter would explode if the fire reached the fuel tanks , Smith decided to bail out . He had never parachuted before , but had been often been through relevant drills . He turned his Spitfire upside down , thrust the stick forward , released the cockpit 's canopy , fell out of the plane and opened his parachute . He landed without serious injuries on the side of a mountain .
According to Smith 's account , he initially hid in a large bush , but soon decided this was too obvious , and so moved to a smaller piece of foliage . A German patrol came to the area after about an hour , examined the bush in which Smith had originally hidden , and attacked it with bursts of automatic gunfire before leaving . " Somebody was keeping an eye on me when I thought I 'd better get out of that bush ... " he later told biographer Phillippa Berlyn . Luckily for Smith , the area in which he had landed was predominantly anti @-@ German , and largely under the control of pro @-@ Allied Italian partisans ; one of these saw the Rhodesian 's descent and retrieved his parachute to stop the Germans from finding it . Smith hid for a while longer before coming out to greet a boy of about 12 who had passed by his hiding place with some livestock . The boy , whose name was Leo , knew no English ; using sign language , he told Smith to sit and wait , then went off and shortly returned with his elder brother , Lorenzo . Again using sign language , Lorenzo proposed that Smith come to their home to eat . The Rhodesian gratefully accepted . The boys ' parents , peasant farmers named Zunino , happily took Smith in , but decided it was too risky to keep him at the house so soon after the crash , and so hid him in a cave on the mountain . The next day , the Germans came to the Zunino house , looking for Smith . After about a week , the danger had subsided , and the Zuninos gave Smith a room in the house .
Smith worked on the Zuninos ' farm and began rigorously studying the Italian language , which he realised he would need to learn if he was to travel through enemy territory to the Allied lines . After a month , the local partisan commander , Antonio Bozzano ( nicknamed " Barbetta " because of his beard ) , came to the house to meet him , and asked him to join his ranks . Smith said he would more than happy to , and went with Barbetta to his headquarters , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) away in a village called Piancastagna . When Barbetta asked the Rhodesian his rank , Smith , deciding it would be too complicated to explain the air force ranks , said he was a captain . " Oh well , " Barbetta replied , tapping the Rhodesian on the shoulder ; " you are now a major . I make you a major . " It quickly became clear to Smith that Barbetta had given him this " promotion " in the hope of elevating his own reputation in the resistance movement — " none of the other regiments in the area could boast an Inglesi pilote and a majore to boot " , he explained in his memoirs . The pilot got on well with Barbetta , and took part in his partisans ' sabotage operations for about three months during late 1944 . Meanwhile , he became proficient in Italian . After the Germans pulled out of their local garrison at Sassello in October 1944 , Smith told Barbetta that he was going to attempt to return to the Allied lines . The partisans tried to talk him out of it , telling him it was too risky , but when Smith insisted , they gave him letters to take with him , endorsing him to other Italian partisan groups he might encounter on his way . A British Army corporal known to Smith as " Bill " , who had been hiding in a nearby village , asked if he could come as well , and the Rhodesian agreed .
Smith resolved to head west , across the Ligurian Alps , towards southern France , which he knew had just been invaded by Allied troops , principally Americans , Free French and British . He and Bill were assisted along the way by Italian partisan groups and other friendly locals . After ten days on the road , three other Allied personnel — a Frenchman , an Austrian and a Pole — joined the trek , having met Smith and Bill at a partisan camp . The lingua franca of the group having changed to Italian , the five men hiked to the border , where they were taken in by an old farmer , Jean Batiste Chambrin , who gave them instructions on how to pass the German sentries guarding the border with France . The soldiers decided that because it would be too risky to try to cross all together , Smith and Bill would go first , with the Frenchman , Austrian and Pole following the next day .
Chambrin did not speak English , and so summoned his brother , an anglophone hotelier from across the border , to ascertain that Smith and Bill were really British , and not Germans testing his sympathies . At Bill 's suggestion , Smith produced his RAF rank insignia as proof of his identity . Smith and Bill duly made their way to the border crossing , guided by Chambrin , who told them that his brother would meet them on the other side of the border . There was only one way over : a bridge , manned by German sentries , who occasionally stopped people for interrogation . The pilot observed the checkpoint for a while from behind cover , and noticed that pedestrians crossing alone or in pairs were rarely stopped , while larger groups generally were . Smith decided that it might be possible for them to simply walk across , and told Bill to " just look straight ahead and walk quietly on " . Fortunately for them , they were not challenged , and they met up with Chambrin 's brother a few miles away . The Austrian and Frenchman joined them the next day ; the Polish soldier , who had appeared to Smith to be underage , had lost his nerve on seeing the Germans and had gone back .
They had now crossed the border into France , but there was still the matter of finding friendly troops . They decided that to do so without being discovered they would have to bypass the German positions by crossing the Maritime Alps . They found a local guide , and crossed the mountains , doing so over the course of two days . They were without the proper equipment and clothing for mountaineering . Shivering in the snow during the night , Smith took off his shoes , and found in the morning that they had frozen and that he could not put them on . He continued in his socks , which soon wore through , forcing him to finish the journey walking barefoot on the ice and snow . As they made their way downhill , they saw a group of soldiers in American uniforms . It had been 23 days since Smith and Bill set off from Piancastagna . They called to the soldiers and , once the Americans had been satisfied that they were who they claimed , Smith and his comrades were taken to a local base camp , where they were split up and sent back to their respective forces . The Americans took Smith to Marseille , from where he was flown to the RAF transit camp at Naples . On arriving in late November 1944 , Smith sent a brief telegram home to Selukwe : " Alive and well . Love to you all — Ian . "
= = = Late war and demobilisation = = =
It was well known to British servicemen that spending three months or more missing behind enemy lines resulted in an automatic posting back home , which Smith did not want ; he was therefore wary as he entered his interview at the Naples transit base . When passage back to Rhodesia via Egypt was offered , Smith successfully requested permission to go to Britain instead , saying that he had many relatives there and considered it a second home . He thereupon travelled to England , where he was posted to a six @-@ week refresher course in Shropshire , flying Spitfires . Smith performed very strongly in the exercises and , at his own request , was posted back to active service after only three weeks in the course . He was attached to No. 130 ( Punjab ) Squadron , part of No. 125 Wing , which was commanded by Group Captain ( later Air Vice Marshal ) Johnnie Johnson , one of the most successful RAF flying aces of the war . Reporting for duty with No. 130 Squadron at Celle , in western Germany , on 23 April 1945 , he flew combat missions there , " [ having ] a little bit of fun shooting up odd things " , he recalled , until the European war ended on 7 May with Germany 's surrender .
Smith remained with No. 130 Squadron for the rest of his service , flying with it to Copenhagen , and then , via Britain , to Norway . The Rhodesian spent around five months in Norway as part of the post @-@ war occupation forces , but did not learn Norwegian , later telling Berlyn that it seemed much harder to him than Italian , " and they all spoke English , you see " . After No. 130 Squadron returned to Britain in November 1945 , Smith was demobilised and sent home . He was met at RAF Kumalo in Bulawayo by his family , with whom he drove back to Selukwe .
= = War wounds = =
The plastic surgery used to reconstruct Smith 's face following his crash in the Western Desert in 1943 left his face somewhat lopsided , with partial paralysis . In her 1978 biography of Smith , Berlyn writes that the grafted skin on his face " almost hides the injuries even today , though it has left him with a slightly blank expression " . This was often commented on by observers , and when Smith died in 2007 , it was prominent in many of his obituaries . " It was Ian Smith 's war @-@ damaged left eye that drew people 's attention first , " began the report printed in the London Times : " wide open , heavy @-@ lidded and impassive from experimental plastic surgery , it hinted at a dull , characterless nature . The other was narrow , slanting and slightly hooded . Being watched by it was an uncomfortable experience . Each eye could have belonged to a different person . " The Daily Telegraph took a similar line , reporting that the operation to reconstruct Smith 's face had " left him with a somewhat menacing stare " .
Smith 's injuries also made him permanently unable to sit for long periods without pain , so when he attended conferences as a politician , he would briefly rise from his seat from time to time . During his talks with British Prime Minister Harold Wilson aboard HMS Tiger in 1966 , Smith regularly got up and looked out of a porthole ; the British incorrectly interpreted this as Smith feeling intimidated by Wilson , or seasick .
= = Influence on political career = =
Smith completed his studies at Rhodes during 1946 , and entered politics in 1948 , when he successfully contested the Selukwe seat on behalf of the Liberal Party , becoming his home town 's Member of Parliament at the age of 29 . He rose through the political ranks with the United Federal Party during the 1950s , and in 1962 helped to form the Rhodesian Front , a right @-@ wing party whose avowed goal was full independence from Britain without an immediate transfer to black majority rule . He became Deputy Prime Minister in December that year when the new party , led by Winston Field , surprised most observers by winning that month 's election . After the Cabinet forced Field to resign in April 1964 , following his failure to gain independence from Britain , they chose Smith as the new Prime Minister .
Smith , Southern Rhodesia 's first native @-@ born head of government , was strongly influenced as premier by his wartime experiences . Southern Rhodesia 's military contributions during the two World Wars , the Malayan Emergency and other conflicts , combined with memories of his own travails for Britain with the Royal Air Force — " undoubtedly the central experience of his life " , R W Johnson wrote — caused Smith to feel profoundly betrayed when the British government proved one of his main adversaries as Prime Minister . The UK government 's objection to continued white minority rule , based on moral and geopolitical factors , clashed with Smith 's refusal to establish a set timetable for the progressive introduction of majority rule in Southern Rhodesia . After talks repeatedly broke down , Smith 's government unilaterally declared independence on 11 November 1965 . In 1970 , following the results of a referendum , he declared Rhodesia a republic . He argued that Britain was to blame for all of this — " Rhodesia did not want to seize independence from Britain . It was forced upon us , " he said .
For many in Britain during this time , attitudes towards the breakaway colony were complicated by the fact that " Plucky Little Rhodesia " , often described as " more British than the British " , had given so much for the mother country in its fight against Nazi Germany . Smith 's own military service and reputation for bravery gave rise to similar sentiments regarding him personally . White Rhodesians widely hailed him a war hero , as did many overseas commentators . In 1966 , Smith supporters in Britain sent him a painting " on behalf of many British people who remained true despite the misguidance of government " , depicting two Spitfires taking off for a dawn raid . Smith retained his affection for the Spitfire for the rest of his life ; in his memoirs he described the fighter as " the most beautiful aircraft ever made . " He also remained some proficiency in the Italian language , though according to one Italian visitor his accent was " atrocious " .
Smith 's years as an RAF pilot were often alluded to in political rhetoric and popular culture . In the phrase of Martin Francis , " no white Rhodesian kitchen in the 1960s and 1970s was complete without an illustrated dishcloth featuring ' Good Old Smithy ' and his trusty Spitfire " . The Rhodesian Front 's election strategy of emphasising Smith 's reputation as a war hero was criticised by the journalist Peter Niesewand , who was deported from Rhodesia in 1973 ; according to Niesewand , Smith 's contribution to the Allied war effort had been " to crash two perfectly good Hurricane planes [ sic ] for the loss of no Germans " . Smith won decisive election victories in 1970 , 1974 and 1977 , and remained in office until the country was reconstituted under majority rule as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 . He continued to wear his RAF Spitfire pilot 's tie well into old age , including on the final day before Zimbabwe Rhodesia 's formal establishment on 1 June 1979 — " a final gesture of defiance " , Bill Schwarz writes , " symbolising an entire lost world . "
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= Jiggs Parrott =
Walter Edward " Jiggs " Parrott ( July 14 , 1871 – April 14 , 1898 ) was a professional baseball player whose career spanned eight seasons , four of which were spent with the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Chicago Colts ( 1892 – 95 ) . Parrott , an infielder , compiled a career batting average of .235 with 174 runs scored , 309 hits , 35 doubles , 23 triples , six home runs and 152 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 317 games played . Although the majority of his career was spent in the major leagues , Parrott also played in minor league baseball . He got his start playing amateur baseball with the East Portland Willamettes . His professional baseball debut came in 1890 as a member of the Portland Webfeet . Parrott was the first MLB player from Oregon . He stood at 5 feet 11 inches ( 180 cm ) and weighed 160 pounds ( 73 kg ) . His brother , Tom Parrott , was also an MLB player and a teammate of his on the Chicago Colts .
= = Early life = =
Walter Edward " Jiggs " Parrott was born on the east side of Portland , Oregon on July 14 , 1871 to Thomas H. Parrott and the former Eliza Ann Rhodes . Thomas H. Parrott was born in England , but moved outside of Sherwood , Oregon in 1857 which used to be a part of Yamhill County , Oregon . Although he was training to be a shoemaker in England , when Thomas H. Parrott moved to Portland , he opened a music business . He organized the East Portland Brass Band . Jiggs Parrott had seven siblings : six brothers and one sister . Several of his siblings went on to play professional baseball and worked in music . Parrott played sandlot ball in Portland during his youth . He would also play with his classmates while attending Portland Public Schools . Eventually , Parrott and his brothers , Dode and Tom , signed with the East Portland Willamettes , an amateur baseball team .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Early minor league career ( 1890 – 92 ) = = =
In 1890 , Parrott began his professional baseball career with the Portland Webfeet of the Pacific Northwest League . His brother , Tom Parrott , was his teammate on the Portland club . On the season , Jiggs Parrott batted .268 with 71 runs scored , 104 hits , 24 doubles , six triples , five home runs , and 26 stolen bases in 94 games played . He was second in the league in home runs , third in hits and fourth in doubles . Defensively that season , he played third base . Parrott continued to play with the Portland club in 1891 , who were now renamed the Gladiators . During the season , the Spokane Daily Chronicle stated that , " ' Jiggs ' [ Parrott ] was as much at home at third [ base ] as ever , and his throws to first [ base ] continue to excite the admiration of all the bleachers . " At the start of the 1892 season , Parrott joined the Minneapolis Minnies of the Class @-@ A Western League . Before the start of the season , The Sporting News said that Parrott " has the build of a successful third baseman . He is tall and spare in flesh . He has been in a gymnasium all winter . " With Minneapolis that season , he batted .317 with 31 runs scored , 53 hits , 13 doubles , and six home runs in 41 games played . He was tied for second in the league with James Graham , Joseph Katz and Billy O 'Brien in home runs .
= = = Chicago Colts ( 1892 – 95 ) = = =
During the 1892 season , Cap Anson , the manager of the Chicago Colts , offered Parrott a Major League Baseball ( MLB ) contract to play with his club . Parrott made his MLB debut on July 11 , 1892 . During that game , he stuck out twice and made two errors . He was the first player from the State of Oregon to appear in an MLB game . Parrott hit second in the Colts ' batting order for most of the season . In his first MLB season , Parrott batted .201 with 38 runs scored , 67 hits , eight doubles , five triples , two home runs , 22 runs batted in ( RBIs ) , and seven stolen bases in 78 games played . He finished the season third in fielding percentage amongst National League third basemen ( .891 ) , behind Billy Nash and George Davis . Before the start of the 1893 season , The Sporting Life wrote that Parrott " is somewhat of an erratic player . There are times when he plays good ball , but just when good steady play is necessary , he is very liable to get a case of ' rattles . ' " However , in June , The Sporting Life changed its tune and called Parrott 's work at third base a " little less than brilliant " . It was reported that Anson was impressed by Parrott as a person , calling him a " well @-@ behaved young man " despite some criticism he was getting from the media and fans . During the 1893 season , the Colts signed pitcher Tom Parrott , Jiggs Parrott 's brother . The Washington Post reported that Tom Parrott bought out his contract with his former team so he could play with his brother in Chicago . The two Parrott brothers were the only two players from Oregon to play in the MLB during the 19th century . Jiggs Parrott was moved to seventh in Chicago 's batting order during the year . In his second season , Parrott batted .244 with 54 runs scored , 111 hits , 10 doubles , nine triples , one home run , 65 RBIs , and 25 stolen bases in 110 games played . His fielding percentage at third base was the fifth highest in the National League ( .904 ) , behind Jack Crooks , Denny Lyons , George Pinkney and Billy Nash .
At the start of the 1894 season , Parrott was converted to a second baseman , making way for Charlie Irwin at third base . Manager Cap Anson was criticized by The Sporting Life for continuing to play Parrott . The publication stated , " It is true that [ Anson ] holds Parrot in high esteem and insists that ' Jiggs ' is a great infielder , hence a suffering public may confidently expect to witness still further attempts of ' Jiggs ' to hold down the second base bag . " On the season , Parrott batted .248 with 82 runs scored , 130 hits , 17 doubles , nine triples , three home runs , 65 RBIs , and 30 stolen bases in 126 games played . In 1895 , Anson signed a new second baseman , Ace Stewart from Sioux City , Iowa , which demoted Parrott to the role of utility player . Anson responded to the criticism he had been taking for keeping Parrott by stating , " I realize that ' Jiggs ' is not popular with the Chicago crowds , so we will play him in games abroad only . " However , The Sporting Life responded by saying , " The local scribes and fans thought we had buried the lanky ' Jigglets , ' so far as Chicago was concerned , but he bobs up serenely . " Parrott 's final MLB game came on June 6 , 1895 . He played just three games with Chicago that season . In those games , he batted .250 with one hit in four at @-@ bats . He was released early in the season .
= = = Later career ( 1895 – 97 ) = = =
After being released by the MLB Chicago Colts , Parrott returned to the minor leagues with the Class @-@ B Rockford Forest Citys / Reds of the Western Association . On the season with Rockford , he batted .351 with 18 runs scored , 40 hits , five doubles and two triples in 26 games played . In 1896 , he started the season with the Grand Rapids Rippers / Gold Bugs of the Class @-@ A Western League as their starting third baseman . On June 22 , he was released by the Grand Rapids club . Parrott then signed with the Columbus Buckeyes / Senators , also of the Western League . Combined between the two clubs that year , he batted .306 in 86 games played . In 1897 , he re @-@ signed with the Columbus Senators . As a member of the Columbus club , The Milwaukee Journal noted in September that Parrott had " been playing a great fielding game " . However , he appeared in just one game with the Senators , getting one hit in four at @-@ bats . He then signed with the Dubuque , Iowa club of the Class @-@ B Western Association . In 15 games , he batted .213 with six runs scored and 13 hits .
= = Death = =
After the 1897 baseball season , he returned to his home in Portland , Oregon with his health deteriorating . In December , Parrott traveled to New Mexico in hopes of re @-@ gaining his health . When in New Mexico , he reported that the weather was too cold and that he was planning to move to Arizona where the climate is more mild . On April 14 , 1898 , while in a hospital in Phoenix , Arizona , Parrott died of tuberculosis . Earlier that day , Parrott had telegraphed his father , Thomas H. Parrott , back in Portland alerting him that it was not likely he would live two more days . Upon receiving the telegram , Thomas H. Parrott sent his son , Archie Parrott , on a train to Arizona to be with the dying Jiggs Parrott . However , after the train left the station in Portland , the Parrott family got word that Jiggs Parrott had died . Archie Parrott continued to Arizona to retrieve his brother 's remains . His remains were returned on April 23 . Parrott 's funeral was held on April 25 , at his home in East Portland . His pall @-@ bearers were several former teammates from the Portland Willamettes : Joseph Beveridge , Charles Neale , Frank Buchtel , William Kern , Fred Bailey , and John Rankin . According to The Oregonian hundreds attended his funeral and 500 people attended his burial at Lone Fir Cemetery in Portland .
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= 1964 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1964 Atlantic hurricane season featured the highest number of U.S.-landfalling hurricanes since 1933 . The season officially began on June 15 , and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The season was slightly above average , with twelve total storms and six hurricanes . All of the hurricanes strengthened into major hurricanes , an event that had not occurred since 1930 . The first system , an unnamed tropical storm , developed on June 2 , almost two weeks before the official start of the season . Striking Florida on June 6 , the storm brought localized flooding to portions of Cuba and the Southeastern United States , leaving about $ 1 million in damage . The next storm , also unnamed , developed near the end of July ; it did not impact land .
The effects of Hurricanes Cleo , Dora , and Isbell combined were devastating to Florida . Cleo also brought destruction to portions of the Caribbean , especially Guadeloupe and Haiti . After moving inland , Cleo brought flooding to states such as Virginia . Overall , the storm caused 219 deaths and about $ 187 @.@ 5 million in damage . Dora lashed much of North Florida and southeastern Georgia with hurricane @-@ force winds , leaving five fatalities and around $ 280 million in damage . In October , Isbell brought strong winds and several tornadoes to Florida , as well as flooding to Cuba and The Carolinas . Isbell killed seven people and left approximately $ 30 million in damage .
The strongest tropical cyclone of the season was Hurricane Hilda , a powerful Category 4 hurricane that devastated portions of the Gulf Coast of the United States , especially Mississippi and Louisiana . Upon striking the latter as a Category 3 , Hilda brought heavy rainfall , strong winds , tornadoes , and coastal flooding . Many other areas of the Southern United States experienced flooding from Hilda and its remnants . Overall , Hilda caused 38 deaths and about $ 126 million in damage . The names Cleo , Dora , and Hilda were retired following the season . Collectively , the tropical cyclones resulted in 270 fatalities and approximately $ 609 @.@ 5 million in damage .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1964 . It was a slightly above average season in which twelve tropical storms formed , compared with the 1950 – 2000 average of 9 @.@ 6 named storms . Six of these reached hurricane status , which is near the 1950 – 2000 average of 5 @.@ 9 . All six of the hurricanes reached major hurricane status – well above the 1950 – 2000 mean of 2 @.@ 3 per season . Prior to the season , National Hurricane Center Director Gordon Dunn noted that the probability of a hurricane striking the United States was " astronomical . " Four hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season , causing at least 270 deaths and $ 609 @.@ 5 million in damage . Tropical Storm Brenda and Hurricane Gladys also caused damage and fatalities , but neither struck land . The season officially ended on November 30 , 1964 .
The first system , an unnamed tropical storm , developed on June 2 , 13 days before the start of the season . It struck Florida as a tropical depression and then strengthened into a tropical storm while out at sea . The storm ceased to exist on June 11 . Thereafter , the season went dormant for nearly seven weeks , as the next cyclone , another unnamed storm , did not form until July 28 . Tropical cyclogenesis increased in August , which had four tropical cyclones , Abby , Brenda , Cleo , and Dora . Four additional storms originated in September , including Ethel , Florence , Gladys , and Hilda . The strongest storm of the season , Hilda , peaked with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 941 mbar ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Hurricane Isbell was the sole tropical cyclone to form in the month of October . The final system , another unnamed storm , existed developed on November 5 and dissipated on November 10 , about 20 days before the end of the season .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 170 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
A disturbance that moved out of the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) developed into a tropical depression to the east of British Honduras ( modern day Belize ) on June 2 . Moving slowly northward to north @-@ northeastward across the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico , the depression failed to intensify significantly . Between 12 : 00 UTC and 18 : 00 UTC on June 6 , it made landfall near Cedar Key , Florida , with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Early the following day , the depression emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Jacksonville and began to strengthen and move northeastward . While located offshore South Carolina on June 7 , the system became a tropical storm . Further deepening occurred slowly , with the storm peaking with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on June 9 . By June 11 , it was absorbed by an extratropical low while located about 365 mi ( 585 km ) south @-@ southeast of Sable Island in Nova Scotia .
The storm brought local flooding to portions of western Cuba and the Southeastern United States . Some areas in North Florida experienced considerable damage from strong winds and hail associated with thunderstorm , particularly in Cross City . Damage in the Jacksonville area alone was over $ 300 @,@ 000 . A few gale warnings were issued between Myrtle Beach , South Carolina , and Nags Head , North Carolina . More than 8 in ( 200 mm ) of rain in the former resulted in inundated streets and overflowing streams . Additionally , about 20 in ( 510 mm ) of water covered streets in downtown Conway , South Carolina . Overall , the storm caused about $ 1 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
Television Infrared Observation Satellite ( TIROS ) indicated an area of disturbed weather with a weak surface circulation in the vicinity of Cape Verde on July 25 . Reports from a reconnaissance aircraft indicate that a tropical depression developed at 06 : 00 UTC on July 28 , while located about halfway between the Leeward Islands and the northernmost islands of Cape Verde . Initially the depression moved rapidly west @-@ northwestward , which likely caused the minimal intensification . By July 30 , a north @-@ northwest to south @-@ southeast oriented trough forced the depression to re @-@ curve north @-@ northwestward .
While situated about 300 mi ( 480 km ) east of Bermuda on July 31 , it began heading northeastward . Later that day , the depression finally organized further and developed a well @-@ defined rainband . The Atlantic hurricane database indicates that the depression strengthened into a tropical storm at 18 : 00 UTC on July 31 , due to ships reports of winds reaching 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . Around that time , maximum sustained winds peaked at 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm continued moving rapidly northeastward and began to interact with a cold front . It transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on August 2 , while located about 525 mi ( 845 km ) east of Cape Race , Newfoundland .
= = = Tropical Storm Abby = = =
A weak trough developed into a tropical depression on August 5 while located about 225 mi ( 360 km ) south of Dauphin Island , Alabama . The depression moved westward and initially remained disorganized . At 12 : 00 UTC on August 7 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Abby . It was a small tropical cyclone , spanning a diameter of less than 100 mi ( 160 km ) . The storm quickly intensified further to peak with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) late on August 7 . A few hours later , Abby made landfall near Matagorda , Texas at the same intensity . It weakened to a tropical depression early on August 8 , before dissipating later that day .
Overall , impact from this system was minor . In Texas , precipitation peaked at 6 @.@ 14 in ( 156 mm ) at the Victoria Regional Airport . However , only localized flooding occurred and rainfall was mostly beneficial . In the city of Victoria , several streets were temporarily inundated with water . A fishing company in Matagorda lost a portion of its roof . Abby resulted in an estimated $ 750 @,@ 000 in losses , with $ 150 @,@ 000 in damage to property and $ 600 @,@ 000 to crops . The impacts from the storm were most severe in Jackson and Victoria counties , where damage to crops were estimated at $ 275 @,@ 000 and $ 250 @,@ 000 , respectively .
= = = Tropical Storm Brenda = = =
A minor trough of low pressure was situated west of Bermuda in early August . An airline crew member observed a low @-@ level circular cloud forming at 32 @.@ 0 ° N , 69 @.@ 0 ° W at 18 : 00 UTC on August 7 . Around that time , a tropical depression developed about 245 mi ( 395 km ) west of Bermuda . It moved just north of due east and strengthened into Tropical Storm Brenda on August 8 . Shortly thereafter , the storm struck Bermuda . Sustained winds on the island reached 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , while gusts up to 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) were reported . A tornado damaged several aircraft , most of which were privately owned . Losses reached approximately $ 275 @,@ 000 .
Shortly after moving across Bermuda on August 8 , spiral bands appeared on the island 's radar . Advisories on Brenda were not initiated until 18 : 00 UTC on August 8 , due to sparsity of data , making it difficult to confirm a tropical cyclone . A cold front caused the storm to re @-@ curve northeastward on August 9 . Later that day , Brenda attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Brenda then began weakening and dissipated late on the following day , while located about 585 mi ( 940 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Cleo = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression while located about 890 mi ( 1 @,@ 430 km ) east of Barbados late on August 20 . Early the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cleo . It continued west @-@ northwestward , quickly deepening into a hurricane later on August 21 . Cleo rapidly deepened and reached Category 3 early on August 22 . Several hours later , Cleo struck Guadeloupe with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The storm then intensified into a Category 4 hurricane and entered the Caribbean Sea . While located south of Dominican Republic around 18 : 00 UTC on August 23 , Cleo attained its peak intensity with of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) . Cleo weakened slightly before making landfall near Les Cayes , Haiti , on August 25 , with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . The storm re @-@ emerged into the Caribbean hours later , but rapidly weakened , falling to Category 3 hurricane at 12 : 00 UTC and to Category 1 hurricane only six hours later . Around 12 : 00 UTC on August 25 , the hurricane briefly moved ashore near Cape Cruz , Cuba , while winds were at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
Cleo emerged into the Gulf of Guacanayabo , before striking Sancti Spíritus Province as a minimal hurricane early on August 26 . Several hours later , the hurricane emerged into the Atlantic Ocean and began re @-@ strengthening while moving northward , becoming a Category 2 hurricane early the next day . Around 06 : 00 UTC on August 27 , Cleo made landfall on Key Biscayne , Florida , with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The system quickly weakened inland , falling to tropical storm intensity early the following day . However , Cleo did not deteriorate to a tropical depression until on August 29 . Thereafter , the cyclone meandered slowly across The Carolinas and Virginia , but did not dissipate . Cleo instead re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm while re @-@ entering the Atlantic near Norfolk , Virginia , on September 1 . It moved east @-@ northeastward and became a hurricane again about 24 hours later . By early on September 4 , the cyclone accelerated and curved north @-@ northeastward . Cleo weakened to a tropical storm on September 5 and soon became extratropical while located about 370 mi ( 600 km ) east @-@ northeast of Cartwright , Newfoundland and Labrador .
In Guadeloupe , the storm destroyed 1 @,@ 000 homes and caused extensive damage to roofs , roads , and power lines . Additionally , the banana crop was ruined . Overall , there were 14 deaths and about $ 50 million in damage . Cleo caused seven fatalities and at least $ 2 million in damage in Dominican Republic . Strong winds in Haiti caused severe damage . On Île @-@ à @-@ Vache , 50 houses either had the roof caved in or the walls knocked over . In Les Cayes , 70 % of houses were destroyed , as was the sugar mill . In rural areas outside of the city , 90 % to 95 % of dwellings were demolished . About half of the houses in Camp @-@ Perrin were leveled . Near Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Sud , many sugarcane crops , particularly on the west side of the city , were ruined . The storm left 192 fatalities and $ 5 million in damage in Haiti . Impact in Cuba was minor , with one death and $ 2 million in damage . In Florida , Cleo left damage along much of the east coast . Winds left about 620 @,@ 000 people without electricity in South Florida alone . Throughout the state , the storm damaged almost 19 @,@ 000 homes and destroyed 4 others , while 2 @,@ 187 mobile homes were flattened or suffered severe impact . Additionally , 605 small businesses were damaged or destroyed . There were three deaths and about $ 125 million in damage , including agriculture . Cleo brought flooding to a few other states , especially Virginia . In the Hampton Roads area , many streets were inundated and blocked . Hundreds of dwellings were flooded , forcing several areas to evacuate . Two deaths and about $ 3 million in damage occurred in Virginia . Overall , the storm caused 219 fatalities and about $ 187 @.@ 5 million in damage .
= = = Hurricane Dora = = =
A tropical depression developed from a low pressure on August 28 , shortly after moving offshore the west coast of Africa near Dakar , Senegal . The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dora on September 1 . It then curved northeastward and continued to strengthen , reaching hurricane status by early on September 3 . Intensification slowed somewhat , though Dora became a Category 3 major hurricane on September 5 . Deepening further , the peaked as a Category 4 with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 942 mbar ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) early the following day . At 18 : 00 UTC on September 16 , Dora weakened to a Category 3 hurricane , then a Category 2 hurricane while curving westward early the following day . However , later on September 17 , the system re @-@ strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane .
Approaching the east coast of Florida , Dora 's motion became erratic , making a few cyclonic loops . Around 04 : 00 UTC on September 10 , the hurricane made landfall near St. Augustine , Florida , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Two hours later , Dora weakened to a Category 2 hurricane . However , deterioration then slowed , with the hurricane falling to tropical storm intensity on September 11 . Dora then briefly drifted over southwestern Georgia , until turned east @-@ northeastward late the next day . Early on September 14 , the storm re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , and became extratropical several hours later . The remnants of Dora moved rapidly northeastward and dissipated offshore Newfoundland early on September 16 .
Hurricane Dora was the only hurricane in the twentieth century to make landfall in the First Coast region of Florida . Along the coast , tides reached up to 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above mean sea level . Strong winds lashed North Florida , with sustained wind of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) observed in St. Augustine . In Jacksonville , approximately 156 @,@ 000 customers were left without electricity , while about 19 % of phones in Duval County were out of service . Much of the damage in the Jacksonville area occurred to older buildings and those located in coastal areas . Additionally , sections of the city experienced wind @-@ induced river flooding in the vicinity of the St. Johns River . Three homes were destroyed and 3 @,@ 992 suffered damage , while 5 mobile homes were demolished and 25 experienced impact , overall in Duval County . Heavy rainfall damaged many unharvested crops and inundated numerous of roads and bridges , isolated some communities for several days . Throughout Florida , 74 dwellings were flattened and 9 @,@ 374 received damage , while 14 mobile homes were destroyed and 218 others suffered severe impact . About 50 farm buildings and 423 small businesses were severely damaged or demolished . Three deaths and at least $ 230 million in damage occurred . In Georgia , the storm damaged about 1 @,@ 135 homes and obliterated five others . Additionally , 18 trailers suffered major impact , while 43 small businesses were destroyed or experienced severe damage . There was one death in the state and at least $ 9 million in damage . A few other states were affected by the storm , though impact there was much lesser . One death occurred in Virginia . Overall , Dora caused $ 280 million in damage and five deaths .
= = = Hurricane Ethel = = =
TIROS observed a large cloud mass near 18 ° N , 37 ° W on September 4 . Later that day , it developed into a tropical depression while located about 665 mi ( 1 @,@ 070 km ) east of Cape Verde . The depression moved west @-@ northwestward and intensified into Tropical Storm Ethel at 12 : 00 UTC on September 4 . Initially , it was suggested that Hurricane Dora could absorb Ethel , as the storms were located 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) apart . On September 7 , Ethel strengthened into a hurricane . By early on the following day , it curved westward and continued to slowly deepen . Late on September 9 , the storm peaked as a Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) .
Thereafter , the storm weakened back to a Category 2 hurricane early on September 10 . It further deteriorated to a Category 1 on the following day . Early on September 12 , Ethel re @-@ strengthened to a Category 2 hurricane . Later that day , the storm passed to the northwest of Bermuda on September 12 , bringing 4 @.@ 05 in ( 103 mm ) of and wind gusts up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Throughout the island , low @-@ lying areas were flooded and trees were felled . At St. George 's Island , residents were briefly left without electricity and telephones and the causeway linking St. George 's Island to the main island was inundated . Next , it resumed weakened and was downgraded to a Category 1 late on September 13 . Ethel accelerated northeastward and became extratropical late on September 15 , while located about 540 mi ( 870 km ) northwest of Corvo Island in the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Florence = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 5 . The wave quickly developed into a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on September 5 , while located about 180 mi ( 290 km ) northwest of Dakar , Senegal . Shortly later , the depression produced squally weather in Cape Verde . Despite having sustained winds of only 25 mph ( 35 km / h ) , the system 's minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 002 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) was recorded early on September 6 . The depression then re @-@ curved northwestward and began to intensify . Early on September 8 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Florence . Six hours later , the storm attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Florence curved north @-@ northeastward on September 8 and slowly weakened . A reconnaissance aircraft reported that Florence degenerated into an area of squalls to the south of the Azores at 0600 UTC on September 10 .
= = = Hurricane Gladys = = =
A emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 8 . Tracking westward , it developed into a tropical depression while centered about midway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde on September 13 . Shortly thereafter , it strengthened Tropical Storm Gladys . On September 14 , Gladys abruptly strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane , with winds increasing from 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) to 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) in just six hours . However , early on the following day , Gladys weakened slightly to a Category 1 hurricane . Between late on September 16 and late on September 17 , the storm rapidly intensified and peaked as a 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane later that day . Gladys began weakening on the following day and re @-@ curved northward on September 19 .
The storm turned northwestward on September 22 and briefly threatened the East Coast of the United States . However , it veered northeastward on September 23 and moved rapidly toward Atlantic Canada . By 00 : 00 UTC on September 25 , Gladys became extratropical while centered between Sable Island and the Nova Scotia mainland . Along the East Coast of the United States , Gladys produced light rainfall , gusty winds , and storm surge . Coastal flooding was reported in North Carolina and Virginia . In the former , high tides inundated homes and buildings with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water in two small villages on the Outer Banks and flooded a highway to Manteo . In the state of Virginia , one death occurred when a man was fatally struck in the throat by debris . Abnormally high tides also affected the Mid @-@ Atlantic , New England , and Atlantic Canada , with tides ranging from 2 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) higher than average in Virginia .
= = = Hurricane Hilda = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression at 12 : 00 UTC on September 28 , while located about 40 mi ( 65 km ) south of Trinidad , Cuba . The depression tracked west @-@ northwestward and struck Isla de la Juventud , Cuba early on September 29 . After briefly re @-@ emerging into the northwestern Caribbean Sea later that day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Hilda at 1200 UTC on September 29 . Around that time , Hilda made landfall near Sandino , Cuba with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . By late on September 29 , it emerged into the Gulf of Mexico near Cape San Antonio . The storm continued to intensify , reaching hurricane status on September 30 . During the following 30 hours , Hilda strengthened significantly and peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) late on October 1 . It re @-@ curved northward and began weakening due to unfavorable conditions . Around 00 : 00 UTC on October 4 , the storm made landfall near Franklin , Louisiana with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . It rapidly weakened inland and became extratropical over southern Mississippi by 1200 UTC that day .
In Cuba , the storm caused minor impact , with damage totaling about $ 1 million . Offshore the United States in the Gulf of Mexico , 13 oil platforms were destroyed and 5 others were damaged beyond repair . Losses to the oil industry reached $ 100 million . In Louisiana , sustained winds of 100 to 120 mph to ( 155 to 195 km / h ) lashed the Abbeville @-@ Morgan City @-@ New Iberia area . Additionally , several tornadoes in the New Orleans area resulted in significant damage . There were 37 fatalities and an estimated 5 @,@ 000 injuries . Approximately 19 @,@ 000 homes were damaged in the state , 2 @,@ 600 of which were severely impacted . Outside of Louisiana , damage was primarily caused by flooding in the Southeastern United States . Impacted worst by flooding was North Carolina , where 2000 homes and buildings suffered water damage and one death was reported . Throughout the United States , the storm caused 38 fatalities and $ 125 million in losses .
= = = Hurricane Isbell = = =
A diffused frontal trough developed into a tropical depression in the southwestern Caribbean on October 8 . The depression initially remained disorganized as it track northwestward , but strengthened into Tropical Storm Isbell on October 13 . Re @-@ curving northeastward , Isbell quickly strengthened further and reached hurricane status by later that day . Late on October 13 , Isbell made landfall in the Pinar del Río Province of Cuba . Despite land interaction , the storm continued strengthening and peaked as a Category 3 hurricane winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) on the following day . Isbell moved northeastward and made landfall near Everglades , Florida , at the same intensity late on October 14 . After reaching the Atlantic on the following day , the storm began to weaken and fell Category 1 hurricane . Isbell turned northward and continued weakening , before transitioning to an extratropical cyclone while located just offshore of eastern North Carolina on October 16 .
The storm produced strong winds throughout western Cuba . Hundreds of homes were destroyed , as were several tobacco warehouses . There were four deaths in Cuba , three of them caused by collapsing houses in the Guane area . Several tornadoes in Florida caused significant damage overall . Throughout the state , 1 house was destroyed , 33 severely damage , and 631 suffered minor impact . Additionally , 66 trailers were destroyed and 88 were inflicted with major damage . Three deaths occurred in the state , one due to a heart attack and two from drowning in Florida Keys when their shrimp boat sank . Because the storm weakened considerably , impact in North Carolina was generally minor . The storm also spawned at least six tornadoes in the state , which demolished trailers and unroofed homes and other buildings in several communities . Damage throughout the United States totaled $ 10 million .
= = = Tropical Storm Twelve = = =
An area of disturbed weather within the ITCZ developed into a tropical depression early on November 5 , while located about 135 mi ( 220 km ) north @-@ northwest of Colón , Panama . The depression strengthened slowly , reaching tropical storm status on November 6 . Thereafter , it curved westward and headed for Central America . Early on November 7 , the storm made landfall near Puerto Cabezas , Nicaragua , with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Several hours later , it weakened to a tropical depression , shortly before re @-@ emerging into the Caribbean Sea . The storm failed to re @-@ intensify and made landfall in Belize on November 9 . It dissipated early on the following day .
In Nicaragua , winds and heavy rainfall caused significant crop damage , especially to bananas . Many residents living near the Caratasca Lagoon evacuated . The entire town of Caukira was flooded , with five small houses completely destroyed . Tides were as high as 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) above @-@ normal . In Puerto Castilla , large amounts of precipitation caused flooding and destroyed a bridge , leaving part of the population out of communication . Another bridge collapsed in the town of Rus @-@ Rus . Strong winds and heavy rainfall also resulted in " considerable damage " on the Bay Islands . Overall , the storm resulted in about $ 5 million in damage .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the twelve tropical storms , there were three depressions monitored throughout the season . On July 25 , a tropical depression developed east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . Winds of 35 – 45 mph ( 55 – 75 km / h ) occurred in squalls associated with the system as it moved northeast . It was last noted on July 27 as it moved over Nova Scotia . TIROS VII depicted two tropical depressions , one on July 15 and the other on September 19 at 20 ° N 25 ° W / 20 ; -25 and 15 ° N 27 ° W / 15 ; -27 , respectively . Due to the sparsity of data in the region and lack of complete satellite coverage , no further information on these systems is available .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 1964 . This is the same list used in the 1960 season with the exception of Dora , which replaced Donna . A storm was named Isbell for the first time in 1964 . The names Cleo , Dora , and Hilda were later retired and replaced with Candy , Dolly , and Hannah , respectively , in the 1968 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
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= Flicker ( song ) =
" Flicker " is a song recorded by American electronic music producer Porter Robinson . It was released on July 28 , 2014 as the fourth single from his debut studio album Worlds ( 2014 ) . Robinson wrote , produced , and performed the track . Musically , the song contains elements of disco and hip @-@ hop , as well as sampling of soul music . Vocally , the song contains a text @-@ to @-@ speech voice incorrectly translating " never seen " Japanese song titles that have been chopped and screwed in a rap @-@ like style .
An official music video for the single premiered on August 14 , 2014 , and involves footage of Japan filtered with effects including those of 8 @-@ bit video games . The song was well @-@ received from critics , and was a hit on the American Dance / Electronic Songs chart .
= = Composition = =
With " Flicker " , one of Porter Robinson 's favorite songs of his debut studio album Worlds ( 2014 ) , he wanted to experiment with samples of soul music , which he became a fan of ever since he listened to his favorite album , Daft Punk 's second studio record Discovery ( 2001 ) . The result was a hip @-@ hop @-@ style instrumental that he felt was " incomplete " with only drums and the phased samples . He didn 't initially plan " Flicker " to be a track on Worlds until some time later when he was using a translation website to translate " song titles that would never be seen " incorrectly into Japanese , and then put the Japanese text into a text @-@ to @-@ speech program for it to be converted into a WAV file for him to " cut it into a rap " which he called a " charming little thing " . Finally , he composed the lead melody and chord progression .
Robinson described " Flicker " as more of a " journey " than a pop song , saying that it goes " to a lot of different places " structure @-@ wise . The text @-@ to @-@ speech speaker on the song saids " Watashi wa choudo nani ga juuyou ka mitsukeyou toshite iru , ” translating to “ I ’ m just trying to find what is important to me , ” which Robinson said was " nice , because it could have come out as something completely random . " The song also contains influences of disco , opening with a " summer @-@ y disco guitar " before moving into " hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air synth blasts " as a critic for Vice magazine described. and that the pitch shifting of the samples was influenced by the works of Jay Dilla . The song 's composition and arrangement was compared by Spin magazine 's Garrett Kamps to the works of Boards of Canada , while other listeners compared the track 's use of soul samples to that of " The Glory , " a track from Kanye West 's third album Graduation ( 2007 ) .
= = Release and promotion = =
" Flicker " premiered on July 28 , 2014 by Vogue magazine for streaming as World ' ' s fourth and final single . The song was initially planned to be the album 's second single after " Sea of Voices , " but Robinson replaced it with " Sad Machine " three days before its release . Robinson wanted Flicker to be the LP 's last single , given that it presented the record 's " cuter " aspect . Upon its release , it debuted at number 37 on the Billboard Dance / Electronic Songs chart in the United States on the issue week of August 16 , 2014 , later re @-@ appearing at its peak of number 34 on the week of August 30 .
A remix by Robinson 's friend Mat Zo , which he said was “ One of the best remixes I 've ever gotten in my life ” , was first heard at his performance at the Monstercat label showcase , and was released on September 9 , 2015 as a single off the official remix album for Worlds . The re @-@ cut was ranked number seven on Billboard 's " The 15 Best Dance / Electronic Remixes of 2015 , " Matt Medved writing that " What Mat Zo 's meandering revision of the Worlds fan @-@ favorite lacks in cohesion , it more than makes up in imagination . " An official animated music video for " Flicker " premiered on August 14 , 2014 . Lucas Villa described the video as " like seeing Japan on a train ride , " where " scenes of the area fly by with an abounding amount of digital alterations . " Footage of Japan in the video is filtered with " stunning visuals " and 8 @-@ bit video game effects . The video was well received , with Villa calling it " as awe @-@ inspiring as the track itself . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Flicker " was very well @-@ received by critics . Elissa Stolman praised Robinson on the track for not being " overwhelmed by his influences , which seem to extend farther back into history than most producers in his field " , while joking that " it 's just a bit of a shame that disco is one of them . " In his mixed review of Worlds , Derek Staples of Consequence of Sound praised “ Flicker ” and “ Goodbye to a World ” for highlighting " Robinson ’ s more intricate big room capabilities " in an album where " Robinson hides his former bass @-@ fueled self behind the album ’ s sheen . " Allmusic journalist Andy Kellman said in his review of the album that " Flicker " , along with " Lionhearted " and " Years of War " " have sections muscular and bold enough to move large crowds " , while Las Vegas Weekly critic Mike Prevatt described the track 's hook as having an " emotional payoff . "
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Philosophy of science =
Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations , methods , and implications of science . The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science , the reliability of scientific theories , and the ultimate purpose of science . This discipline overlaps with metaphysics , ontology , and epistemology , for example , when it explores the relationship between science and truth .
There is no consensus among philosophers about many of the central problems concerned with the philosophy of science , including whether science can reveal the truth about unobservable things and whether scientific reasoning can be justified at all . In addition to these general questions about science as a whole , philosophers of science consider problems that apply to particular sciences ( such as biology or physics ) . Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about philosophy itself .
While philosophical thought pertaining to science dates back at least to the time of Aristotle , philosophy of science emerged as a distinct discipline only in the middle of the 20th century in the wake of the logical positivism movement , which aimed to formulate criteria for ensuring all philosophical statements ' meaningfulness and objectively assessing them . Thomas Kuhn 's landmark 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was also formative , challenging the view of scientific progress as steady , cumulative acquisition of knowledge based on a fixed method of systematic experimentation and instead arguing that any progress is relative to a " paradigm , " the set of questions , concepts , and practices that define a scientific discipline in a particular historical period .
Subsequently , the coherentist approach to science , in which a theory is validated if it makes sense of observations as part of a coherent whole , became prominent due to W. V. Quine and others . Some thinkers such as Stephen Jay Gould seek to ground science in axiomatic assumptions , such as the uniformity of nature . A vocal minority of philosophers , and Paul Feyerabend ( 1924 – 1994 ) in particular , argue that there is no such thing as the " scientific method " , so all approaches to science should be allowed , including explicitly supernatural ones . Another approach to thinking about science involves studying how knowledge is created from a sociological perspective , an approach represented by scholars like David Bloor and Barry Barnes . Finally , a tradition in continental philosophy approaches science from the perspective of a rigorous analysis of human experience .
Philosophies of the particular sciences range from questions about the nature of time raised by Einstein 's general relativity , to the implications of economics for public policy . A central theme is whether one scientific discipline can be reduced to the terms of another . That is , can chemistry be reduced to physics , or can sociology be reduced to individual psychology ? The general questions of philosophy of science also arise with greater specificity in some particular sciences . For instance , the question of the validity of scientific reasoning is seen in a different guise in the foundations of statistics . The question of what counts as science and what should be excluded arises as a life @-@ or @-@ death matter in the philosophy of medicine . Additionally , the philosophies of biology , of psychology , and of the social sciences explore whether the scientific studies of human nature can achieve objectivity or are inevitably shaped by values and by social relations .
= = Introduction = =
= = = Defining science = = =
Distinguishing between science and non @-@ science is referred to as the demarcation problem . For example , should psychoanalysis be considered science ? How about so @-@ called creation science , the inflationary multiverse hypothesis , or macroeconomics ? Karl Popper called this the central question in the philosophy of science . However , no unified account of the problem has won acceptance among philosophers , and some regard the problem as unsolvable or uninteresting . Martin Gardner has argued for the use of a Potter Stewart standard ( " I know it when I see it " ) for recognizing pseudoscience .
Early attempts by the logical positivists grounded science in observation while non @-@ science was non @-@ observational and hence meaningless . Popper argued that the central property of science is falsifiability . That is , every genuinely scientific claim is capable of being proven false , at least in principle .
An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is referred to as pseudoscience , fringe science , or junk science . Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term " cargo cult science " for cases in which researchers believe they are doing science because their activities have the outward appearance of it but actually lack the " kind of utter honesty " that allows their results to be rigorously evaluated .
= = = Scientific explanation = = =
A closely related question is what counts as a good scientific explanation . In addition to providing predictions about future events , society often takes scientific theories to provide explanations for events that occur regularly or have already occurred . Philosophers have investigated the criteria by which a scientific theory can be said to have successfully explained a phenomenon , as well as what it means to say a scientific theory has explanatory power .
One early and influential theory of scientific explanation is the deductive @-@ nomological model . It says that a successful scientific explanation must deduce the occurrence of the phenomena in question from a scientific law . This view has been subjected to substantial criticism , resulting in several widely acknowledged counterexamples to the theory . It is especially challenging to characterize what is meant by an explanation when the thing to be explained cannot be deduced from any law because it is a matter of chance , or otherwise cannot be perfectly predicted from what is known . Wesley Salmon developed a model in which a good scientific explanation must be statistically relevant to the outcome to be explained . Others have argued that the key to a good explanation is unifying disparate phenomena or providing a causal mechanism .
= = = Justifying science = = =
Although it is often taken for granted , it is not at all clear how one can infer the validity of a general statement from a number of specific instances or infer the truth of a theory from a series of successful tests . For example , a chicken observes that each morning the farmer comes and gives it food , for hundreds of days in a row . The chicken may therefore use inductive reasoning to infer that the farmer will bring food every morning . However , one morning , the farmer comes and kills the chicken . How is scientific reasoning more trustworthy than the chicken 's reasoning ?
One approach is to acknowledge that induction cannot achieve certainty , but observing more instances of a general statement can at least make the general statement more probable . So the chicken would be right to conclude from all those mornings that it is likely the farmer will come with food again the next morning , even if it cannot be certain . However , there remain difficult questions about what precise probability any given evidence justifies putting on the general statement . One way out of these particular difficulties is to declare that all beliefs about scientific theories are subjective , or personal , and correct reasoning is merely about how evidence should change one 's subjective beliefs over time .
Some argue that what scientists do is not inductive reasoning at all but rather abductive reasoning , or inference to the best explanation . In this account , science is not about generalizing specific instances but rather about hypothesizing explanations for what is observed . As discussed in the previous section , it is not always clear what is meant by the " best explanation . " Ockham 's razor , which counsels choosing the simplest available explanation , thus plays an important role in some versions of this approach . To return to the example of the chicken , would it be simpler to suppose that the farmer cares about it and will continue taking care of it indefinitely or that the farmer is fattening it up for slaughter ? Philosophers have tried to make this heuristic principle more precise in terms of theoretical parsimony or other measures . Yet , although various measures of simplicity have been brought forward as potential candidates , it is generally accepted that there is no such thing as a theory @-@ independent measure of simplicity . In other words , there appear to be as many different measures of simplicity as there are theories themselves , and the task of choosing between measures of simplicity appears to be every bit as problematic as the job of choosing between theories .
= = = Observation inseparable from theory = = =
When making observations , scientists look through telescopes , study images on electronic screens , record meter readings , and so on . Generally , on a basic level , they can agree on what they see , e.g. , the thermometer shows 37 @.@ 9 degrees C. But , if these scientists have different ideas about the theories that have been developed to explain these basic observations , they may disagree about what they are observing . For example , before Albert Einstein 's general theory of relativity , observers would have likely interpreted the image at left as five different objects in space . In light of that theory , however , astronomers will tell you that is actually only two objects , one in the center and four different images of the same object around the sides . Alternatively , if other scientists suspect that something is wrong with the telescope and only one object is actually being observed , they are operating under yet another theory . Observations that cannot be separated from theoretical interpretation are said to be theory @-@ laden .
All observation involves both perception and cognition . That is , one does not make an observation passively , but rather is actively engaged in distinguishing the phenomenon being observed from surrounding sensory data . Therefore , observations are affected by one 's underlying understanding of the way in which the world functions , and that understanding may influence what is perceived , noticed , or deemed worthy of consideration . In this sense , it can be argued that all observation is theory @-@ laden .
= = = The purpose of science = = =
Should science aim to determine ultimate truth , or are there questions that science cannot answer ? Scientific realists claim that science aims at truth and that one ought to regard scientific theories as true , approximately true , or likely true . Conversely , scientific anti @-@ realists argue that science does not aim ( or at least does not succeed ) at truth , especially truth about unobservables like electrons or other universes . Instrumentalists argue that scientific theories should only be evaluated on whether they are useful . In their view , whether theories are true or not is beside the point , because the purpose of science is to make predictions and enable effective technology .
Realists often point to the success of recent scientific theories as evidence for the truth ( or near truth ) of current theories . Antirealists point to either the many false theories in the history of science , epistemic morals , the success of false modeling assumptions , or widely termed postmodern criticisms of objectivity as evidence against scientific realism . Antirealists attempt to explain the success of scientific theories without reference to truth . Some antirealists claim that scientific theories aim at being accurate only about observable objects and argue that their success is primarily judged by that criterion .
= = = Values and science = = =
Values intersect with science in different ways . There are epistemic values that mainly guide the scientific research . The scientific enterprise is embedded in particular culture and values through individual practitioners . Values emerge from science , both as product and process and can be distributed among several cultures in the society .
If it is unclear what counts as science , how the process of confirming theories works , and what the purpose of science is , there is considerable scope for values and other social influences to shape science . Indeed , values can play a role ranging from determining which research gets funded to influencing which theories achieve scientific consensus . For example , in the 19th century , cultural values held by scientists about race shaped research on evolution , and values concerning social class influenced debates on phrenology ( considered scientific at the time ) . Feminist philosophers of science , sociologists of science , and others explore how social values affect science .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ modern = = =
The origins of philosophy of science trace back to Plato and Aristotle who distinguished the forms of approximate and exact reasoning , set out the threefold scheme of abductive , deductive , and inductive inference , and also analyzed reasoning by analogy . The eleventh century Arab polymath Ibn al @-@ Haytham ( known in Latin as Alhazen ) conducted his research in optics by way of controlled experimental testing and applied geometry , especially in his investigations into the images resulting from the reflection and refraction of light . Roger Bacon ( 1214 – 1294 ) , an English thinker and experimenter heavily influenced by al @-@ Haytham , is recognized by many to be the father of modern scientific method . His view that mathematics was essential to a correct understanding of natural philosophy was considered to be 400 years ahead of its time .
= = = Modern = = =
Francis Bacon ( no direct relation to Roger , who lived 300 years earlier ) was a seminal figure in philosophy of science at the time of the Scientific Revolution . In his work Novum Organum ( 1620 ) – a reference to Aristotle 's Organon – Bacon outlined a new system of logic to improve upon the old philosophical process of syllogism . Bacon 's method relied on experimental histories to eliminate alternative theories . In 1637 , René Descartes established a new framework for grounding scientific knowledge in his treatise , Discourse on Method , advocating the central role of reason as opposed to sensory experience . By contrast , in 1713 , the 2nd edition of Isaac Newton 's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica argued that " ... hypotheses ... have no place in experimental philosophy . In this philosophy [ , ] propositions are deduced from the phenomena and rendered general by induction . " This passage influenced a " later generation of philosophically @-@ inclined readers to pronounce a ban on causal hypotheses in natural philosophy . " In particular , later in the 18th century , David Hume would famously articulate skepticism about the ability of science to determine causality and gave a definitive formulation of the problem of induction . The 19th century writings of John Stuart Mill are also considered important in the formation of current conceptions of the scientific method , as well as anticipating later accounts of scientific explanation .
= = = Logical positivism = = =
Instrumentalism became popular among physicists around the turn of the 20th century , after which logical positivism defined the field for several decades . Logical positivism accepts only testable statements as meaningful , rejects metaphysical interpretations , and embraces verificationism ( a set of theories of knowledge that combines logicism , empiricism , and linguistics to ground philosophy on a basis consistent with examples from the empirical sciences ) . Seeking to overhaul all of philosophy and convert it to a new scientific philosophy , the Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism in the late 1920s .
Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein 's early philosophy of language , logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness . From Bertrand Russell 's logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic . They also embraced Russell 's logical atomism , Ernst Mach 's phenomenalism — whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience , which is the content of all sciences , whether physics or psychology — and Percy Bridgman 's operationalism . Thereby , only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful , whereas the unverifiable was unscientific , cognitively meaningless " pseudostatements " — metaphysical , emotive , or such — not worthy of further review by philosophers , who were newly tasked to organize knowledge rather than develop new knowledge .
Logical positivism is commonly portrayed as taking the extreme position that scientific language should never refer to anything unobservable — even the seemingly core notions of causality , mechanism , and principles — but that is an exaggeration . Talk of such unobservables could be allowed as metaphorical — direct observations viewed in the abstract — or at worst metaphysical or emotional . Theoretical laws would be reduced to empirical laws , while theoretical terms would garner meaning from observational terms via correspondence rules . Mathematics in physics would reduce to symbolic logic via logicism , while rational reconstruction would convert ordinary language into standardized equivalents , all networked and united by a logical syntax . A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification , whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth .
In the late 1930s , logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and America . By then , many had replaced Mach 's phenomenalism with Otto Neurath 's physicalism , and Rudolf Carnap had sought to replace verification with simply confirmation . With World War II 's close in 1945 , logical positivism became milder , logical empiricism , led largely by Carl Hempel , in America , who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation as a way of identifying the logical form of explanations without any reference to the suspect notion of " causation " . The logical positivist movement became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy , and dominated Anglosphere philosophy , including philosophy of science , while influencing sciences , into the 1960s . Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems , and its doctrines were increasingly assaulted . Nevertheless , it brought about the establishment of philosophy of science as a distinct subdiscipline of philosophy , with Carl Hempel playing a key role .
= = = Thomas Kuhn = = =
In his landmark 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions , Thomas Kuhn crystallized the reaction against logical positivism . He argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm . By paradigm he meant a logically consistent " portrait " of the world that is consistent with observations made from its point of view . A paradigm also encompasses the set of questions and practices that define a scientific discipline . He characterized normal science as the process of observation and " puzzle solving " which takes place within a paradigm , whereas revolutionary science occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a paradigm shift .
Kuhn denied that it is ever possible to isolate the hypothesis being tested from the influence of the theory in which the observations are grounded , and he argued that it is not possible to evaluate competing paradigms independently . More than one logically consistent construct can paint a usable likeness of the world , but there is no common ground from which to pit two against each other , theory against theory . Each paradigm has its own distinct questions , aims , and interpretations . Neither provides a standard by which the other can be judged , so there is no clear way to measure scientific progress across paradigms .
For Kuhn , the choice of paradigm was sustained by rational processes , but not ultimately determined by them . The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more " portraits " against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising . For Kuhn , acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process . Kuhn 's position , however , is not one of relativism . According to Kuhn , a paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them . That is , the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations , even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm .
= = Current approaches = =
= = = Axiomatic assumptions = = =
Some thinkers seek to articulate axiomatic assumptions on which science may be based , a form of foundationalism . This is typically the implicit philosophy of working scientists , that the following basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method : ( 1 ) that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers ; ( 2 ) that this objective reality is governed by natural laws ; ( 3 ) that these laws can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation . Proponents argue that these assumptions are reasonable and necessary for practicing science . For instance , Hugh Gauch argues that science presupposes that " the physical world is orderly and comprehensible . " Likewise , biologist Stephen Jay Gould cites the constancy of nature 's laws as an assumption which a scientist should assume before proceeding to do geology . In this view , the uniformity of scientific laws is an unprovable postulate which enables scientists to extrapolate into the unobservable past . In other words , the constancy of natural laws must be assumed in order to meaningfully study the past .
= = = Coherentism = = =
In contrast to the view that science rests on foundational assumptions , coherentism asserts that statements are justified by being a part of a coherent system . Or , rather , individual statements cannot be validated on their own : only coherent systems can be justified . A prediction of a transit of Venus is justified by its being coherent with broader beliefs about celestial mechanics and earlier observations . As explained above , observation is a cognitive act . That is , it relies on a pre @-@ existing understanding , a systematic set of beliefs . An observation of a transit of Venus requires a huge range of auxiliary beliefs , such as those that describe the optics of telescopes , the mechanics of the telescope mount , and an understanding of celestial mechanics . If the prediction fails and a transit is not observed , that is likely to occasion an adjustment in the system , a change in some auxiliary assumption , rather than a rejection of the theoretical system .
In fact , according to the Duhem – Quine thesis , after Pierre Duhem and W. V. Quine , it is impossible to test a theory in isolation . One must always add auxiliary hypotheses in order to make testable predictions . For example , to test Newton 's Law of Gravitation in the solar system , one needs information about the masses and positions of the Sun and all the planets . Famously , the failure to predict the orbit of Uranus in the 19th century led not to the rejection of Newton 's Law but rather to the rejection of the hypothesis that the solar system comprises only seven planets . The investigations that followed led to the discovery of an eighth planet , Neptune . If a test fails , something is wrong . But there is a problem in figuring out what that something is : a missing planet , badly calibrated test equipment , an unsuspected curvature of space , or something else .
One consequence of the Duhem – Quine thesis is that one can make any theory compatible with any empirical observation by the addition of a sufficient number of suitable ad hoc hypotheses . Karl Popper accepted this thesis , leading him to reject naïve falsification . Instead , he favored a " survival of the fittest " view in which the most falsifiable scientific theories are to be preferred .
= = = Anything goes = = =
Austrian philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend ( 1924 – 1994 ) argued that no description of scientific method could possibly be broad enough to encompass all the approaches and methods used by scientists . He claimed there are no useful and exception @-@ free methodological rules governing the progress of science . Feyerabend objected to prescriptive scientific method on the grounds that any such method would stifle and cramp scientific progress . Feyerabend claimed that " the only principle that does not inhibit progress is : anything goes " .
Feyerabend felt that science started as a liberating movement , but that over time it had become increasingly dogmatic and rigid , and therefore had become increasingly an ideology , and , despite its successes , science had started to attain some oppressive features . He argued it was not possible to come up with an unambiguous way to distinguish science from religion , magic , or mythology . He saw the exclusive dominance of science as a means of directing society as authoritarian and ungrounded . Promulgation of this epistemological anarchism earned Feyerabend the title of " the worst enemy of science " from his detractors .
= = = Sociology of scientific knowledge = = =
According to Kuhn , science is an inherently communal activity which can only be done as part of a community . For him , the fundamental difference between science and other disciplines is the way in which the communities function . Others , especially Feyerabend and some post @-@ modernist thinkers , have argued that there is insufficient difference between social practices in science and other disciplines to maintain this distinction . For them , social factors play an important and direct role in scientific method , but they do not serve to differentiate science from other disciplines . On this account , science is socially constructed , though this does not necessarily imply the more radical notion that reality itself is a social construct .
However , some such as Quine do maintain that scientific reality is a social construct :
Physical objects are conceptually imported into the situation as convenient intermediaries not by definition in terms of experience , but simply as irreducible posits comparable , epistemologically , to the gods of Homer ... For my part I do , qua lay physicist , believe in physical objects and not in Homer 's gods ; and I consider it a scientific error to believe otherwise . But in point of epistemological footing , the physical objects and the gods differ only in degree and not in kind . Both sorts of entities enter our conceptions only as cultural posits .
The public backlash of scientists against such views , particularly in the 1990s , came to be known as the science wars .
A major development in recent decades has been the study of the formation , structure , and evolution of scientific communities by sociologists and anthropologists including David Bloor , Harry Collins , Bruno Latour , and Anselm Strauss . Concepts and methods ( such as rational choice , social choice or game theory ) from economics have also been applied for understanding the efficiency of scientific communities in the production of knowledge . This interdisciplinary field has come to be known as science and technology studies . Here the approach to the philosophy of science is to study how scientific communities actually operate .
= = = Continental philosophy = = =
Philosophers in the continental philosophical tradition are not traditionally categorized as philosophers of science . However , they have much to say about science , some of which has anticipated themes in the analytical tradition . For example , Nietzsche advanced the thesis in his " The Genealogy of Morals " that the motive for search of truth in sciences is a kind of ascetic ideal .
In general , science in continental philosophy is viewed from a world @-@ historical perspective . One of the first philosophers who supported this view was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel . Philosophers such as Pierre Duhem and Gaston Bachelard also wrote their works with this world @-@ historical approach to science , predating Kuhn by a generation or more . All of these approaches involve a historical and sociological turn to science , with a priority on lived experience ( a kind of Husserlian " life @-@ world " ) , rather than a progress @-@ based or anti @-@ historical approach as done in the analytic tradition . This emphasis can be traced through Edmund Husserl 's phenomenology , the late works of Merleau @-@ Ponty ( Nature : Course Notes from the Collège de France , 1956 – 1960 ) , and Martin Heidegger 's hermeneutics .
The largest effect on the continental tradition with respect to science was Martin Heidegger 's critique of the theoretical attitude in general which of course includes the scientific attitude . For this reason the continental tradition has remained much more skeptical of the importance of science in human life and philosophical inquiry . Nonetheless , there have been a number of important works : especially a Kuhnian precursor , Alexandre Koyré . Another important development was that of Foucault 's analysis of the historical and scientific thought in The Order of Things and his study of power and corruption within the " science " of madness . Post @-@ Heideggerian authors contributing to the continental philosophy of science in the second half of the 20th century include Jürgen Habermas ( e.g. , " Truth and Justification " , 1998 ) , Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker ( " The Unity of Nature " , 1980 ) , and Wolfgang Stegmüller ( " Probleme und Resultate der Wissenschafttheorie und Analytischen Philosophie " , 1973 – 1986 ) .
= = Other topics = =
= = = Reductionism = = =
Analysis is the activity of breaking an observation or theory down into simpler concepts in order to understand it . Reductionism can refer to one of several philosophical positions related to this approach . One type of reductionism is the belief that all fields of study are ultimately amenable to scientific explanation . Perhaps a historical event might be explained in sociological and psychological terms , which in turn might be described in terms of human physiology , which in turn might be described in terms of chemistry and physics . Daniel Dennett distinguishes legitimate reductionism from what he calls greedy reductionism , which denies real complexities and leaps too quickly to sweeping generalizations .
= = = Social accountability = = =
A broad issue affecting the neutrality of science concerns the areas which science chooses to explore , that is , what part of the world and man is studied by science . Philip Kitcher in his " Science , Truth , and Democracy " argues that scientific studies that attempt to show one segment of the population as being less intelligent , successful or emotionally backward compared to others have a political feedback effect which further excludes such groups from access to science . Thus such studies undermine the broad consensus required for good science by excluding certain people , and so proving themselves in the end to be unscientific .
= = Philosophy of particular sciences = =
There is no such thing as philosophy @-@ free science ; there is only science whose philosophical baggage is taken on board without examination .
In addition to addressing the general questions regarding science and induction , many philosophers of science are occupied by investigating foundational problems in particular sciences . They also examine the implications of particular sciences for broader philosophical questions . The late 20th and early 21st century has seen a rise in the number of practitioners of philosophy of a particular science .
= = = Philosophy of statistics = = =
The problem of induction discussed above is seen in another form in debates over the foundations of statistics . The standard approach to statistical hypothesis testing avoids claims about whether evidence supports a hypothesis or makes it more probable . Instead , the typical test yields a p @-@ value , which is the probability of the evidence being such as it is , under the assumption that the hypothesis being tested is true . If the p @-@ value is too low , the hypothesis is rejected , in a way analogous to falsification . In contrast , Bayesian inference seeks to assign probabilities to hypotheses . Related topics in philosophy of statistics include probability interpretations , overfitting , and the difference between correlation and causation .
= = = Philosophy of mathematics = = =
Philosophy of mathematics is concerned with the philosophical foundations and implications of mathematics . The central questions are whether numbers , triangles , and other mathematical entities exist independently of the human mind and what is the nature of mathematical propositions . Is asking whether " 1 + 1 = 2 " is true fundamentally different from asking whether a ball is red ? Was calculus invented or discovered ? A related question is whether learning mathematics requires experience or reason alone . What does it mean to prove a mathematical theorem and how does one know whether a mathematical proof is correct ? Philosophers of mathematics also aim to clarify the relationships between mathematics and logic , human capabilities such as intuition , and the material universe .
= = = Philosophy of physics = = =
Philosophy of physics is the study of the fundamental , philosophical questions underlying modern physics , the study of matter and energy and how they interact . The main questions concern the nature of space and time , atoms and atomism . Also included are the predictions of cosmology , the interpretation of quantum mechanics , the foundations of statistical mechanics , causality , determinism , and the nature of physical laws . Classically , several of these questions were studied as part of metaphysics ( for example , those about causality , determinism , and space and time ) .
= = = Philosophy of chemistry = = =
Philosophy of chemistry is the philosophical study of the methodology and content of the science of chemistry . It is explored by philosophers , chemists , and philosopher @-@ chemist teams . It includes research on general philosophy of science issues as applied to chemistry . For example , can all chemical phenomena be explained by quantum mechanics or is it not possible to reduce chemistry to physics ? For another example , chemists have discussed the philosophy of how theories are confirmed in the context of confirming reaction mechanisms . Determining reaction mechanisms is difficult because they cannot be observed directly . Chemists can use a number of indirect measures as evidence to rule out certain mechanisms , but they are often unsure if the remaining mechanism is correct because there are many other possible mechanisms that they have not tested or even thought of . Philosophers have also sought to clarify the meaning of chemical concepts which do not refer to specific physical entities , such as chemical bonds .
= = = Philosophy of biology = = =
Philosophy of biology deals with epistemological , metaphysical , and ethical issues in the biological and biomedical sciences . Although philosophers of science and philosophers generally have long been interested in biology ( e.g. , Aristotle , Descartes , Leibniz and even Kant ) , philosophy of biology only emerged as an independent field of philosophy in the 1960s and 1970s . Philosophers of science began to pay increasing attention to developments in biology , from the rise of the modern synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s to the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) in 1953 to more recent advances in genetic engineering . Other key ideas such as the reduction of all life processes to biochemical reactions as well as the incorporation of psychology into a broader neuroscience are also addressed . Research in current philosophy of biology includes investigation of the foundations of evolutionary theory , and the role of viruses as persistent symbionts in host genomes . As a consequence the evolution of genetic content order is seen as the result of competent genome editors in contrast to former narratives in which error replication events ( mutations ) dominated .
= = = Philosophy of medicine = = =
Beyond medical ethics and bioethics , the philosophy of medicine is a branch of philosophy that includes the epistemology and ontology / metaphysics of medicine . Within the epistemology of medicine , evidence @-@ based medicine ( EBM ) ( or evidence @-@ based practice ( EBP ) ) has attracted attention , most notably the roles of randomisation , blinding and placebo controls . Related to these areas of investigation , ontologies of specific interest to the philosophy of medicine include Cartesian dualism , the monogenetic conception of disease and the conceptualization of ' placebos ' and ' placebo effects ' . There is also a growing interest in the metaphysics of medicine , particularly the idea of causation . Philosophers of medicine might not only be interested in how medical knowledge is generated , but also in the nature of such phenomena . Causation is of interest because the purpose of much medical research is to establish causal relationships , e.g. what causes disease , or what causes people to get better .
= = = Philosophy of psychology = = =
Philosophy of psychology refers to issues at the theoretical foundations of modern psychology . Some of these issues are epistemological concerns about the methodology of psychological investigation . For example , is the best method for studying psychology to focus only on the response of behavior to external stimuli or should psychologists focus on mental perception and thought processes ? If the latter , an important question is how the internal experiences of others can be measured . Self @-@ reports of feelings and beliefs may not be reliable because , even in cases in which there is no apparent incentive for subjects to intentionally deceive in their answers , self @-@ deception or selective memory may affect their responses . Then even in the case of accurate self @-@ reports , how can responses be compared across individuals ? Even if two individuals respond with the same answer on a Likert scale , they may be experiencing very different things .
Other issues in philosophy of psychology are philosophical questions about the nature of mind , brain , and cognition , and are perhaps more commonly thought of as part of cognitive science , or philosophy of mind . For example , are humans rational creatures ? Is there any sense in which they have free will , and how does that relate to the experience of making choices ? Philosophy of psychology also closely monitors contemporary work conducted in cognitive neuroscience , evolutionary psychology , and artificial intelligence , questioning what they can and cannot explain in psychology .
Philosophy of psychology is a relatively young field , because psychology only became a discipline of its own in the late 1800s . In particular , neurophilosophy has just recently become its own field with the works of Paul Churchland and Patricia Churchland . Philosophy of mind , by contrast , has been a well @-@ established discipline since before psychology was a field of study at all . It is concerned with questions about the very nature of mind , the qualities of experience , and particular issues like the debate between dualism and monism . Another related field is philosophy of language .
= = = Philosophy of economics = = =
Philosophy of economics is the branch of philosophy which studies philosophical issues relating to economics . It can also be defined as the branch of economics which studies its own foundations and morality . It can be categorized into three central topics . The first concerns the definition and scope of economics and by what methods it should be studied and whether these methods rise to the level of epistemic reliability associated with the other special sciences . For example , is it possible to research economics in such a way that it is value @-@ free , establishing facts that are independent of the normative views of the researcher ? The second topic is the meaning and implications of rationality . For example , can buying lottery tickets ( increasing the riskiness of your income ) at the same time as buying insurance ( decreasing the riskiness of your income ) be rational ? The third topic is the normative evaluation of economic policies and outcomes . What criteria should be used to determine whether a given public policy is beneficial for society ?
= = = Philosophy of social science = = =
The philosophy of social science is the study of the logic and method of the social sciences , such as sociology , anthropology , and political science . Philosophers of social science are concerned with the differences and similarities between the social and the natural sciences , causal relationships between social phenomena , the possible existence of social laws , and the ontological significance of structure and agency .
The French philosopher , Auguste Comte ( 1798 – 1857 ) , established the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in Positivist Philosophy , a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842 . The first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the physical sciences already in existence ( mathematics , astronomy , physics , chemistry , biology ) , whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science : " sociologie " . For Comte , the physical sciences had necessarily to arrive first , before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex " Queen science " of human society itself . Comte offers an evolutionary system proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general ' law of three stages ' . These are ( 1 ) the theological , ( 2 ) the metaphysical , and ( 3 ) the positive .
Comte 's positivism established the initial philosophical foundations for formal sociology and social research . Durkheim , Marx , and Weber are more typically cited as the fathers of contemporary social science . In psychology , a positivistic approach has historically been favoured in behaviourism . Positivism has also been espoused by ' technocrats ' who believe in the inevitability of social progress through science and technology .
The positivist perspective has been associated with ' scientism ' ; the view that the methods of the natural sciences may be applied to all areas of investigation , be it philosophical , social scientific , or otherwise . Among most social scientists and historians , orthodox positivism has long since lost popular support . Today , practitioners of both social and physical sciences instead take into account the distorting effect of observer bias and structural limitations . This scepticism has been facilitated by a general weakening of deductivist accounts of science by philosophers such as Thomas Kuhn , and new philosophical movements such as critical realism and neopragmatism . The philosopher @-@ sociologist Jürgen Habermas has critiqued pure instrumental rationality as meaning that scientific @-@ thinking becomes something akin to ideology itself .
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= John Beilein =
John Patrick Beilein ( pronounced bee @-@ line ; born February 5 , 1953 ) is an American college basketball coach and current men 's basketball head coach at the University of Michigan . He is the 16th head coach of the Michigan Wolverines . The 2015 – 16 season is his ninth at Michigan . Beilein has won 665 career games at four @-@ year universities ( including games that were not at the Division I level ) and 732 games altogether , including those at the junior @-@ college level . He has previously coached the West Virginia Mountaineers ( 2002 – 2007 ) , Richmond Spiders ( 1997 – 2002 ) , Canisius College Golden Griffins ( 1992 – 1997 ) in Division I as well as Le Moyne College ( 1983 – 1992 ) , Nazareth College ( 1982 – 1983 ) and Erie Community College ( 1978 – 1982 ) .
Beilein is the only active collegiate coach to have achieved 20 @-@ win seasons at four different levels — junior college , NCAA Division III , NCAA Division II and NCAA Division I. Beilein is one of only six active Division I coaches with 700 or more career wins . He has been recognized as conference coach of the year five times : in 1981 at Erie Community College , in 1988 at LeMoyne , in 1994 at Canisius , in 1998 at Richmond , and in 2014 at Michigan . In addition , Beilein was the seventh of only ten coaches to have taken four different schools to the NCAA Division I Tournament .
Beilein 's first Division I head coaching position was at Canisius , a hometown school of which he had been a fan . He turned around the school 's losing program and helped it earn two National Invitation Tournament ( NIT ) and one NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Tournament invitation in five years . Then at Richmond he reached the NIT twice in five years . In five years at West Virginia , his teams twice advanced several rounds in the NCAA tournament and twice went to the NIT , including one championship . At Michigan , the school reached the NCAA tournament for the first time in over a decade and five times in his first seven seasons as coach . He has a 17 – 10 record in the NCAA tournament , with one Final Four appearance , and a 13 – 6 record in the NIT .
= = Education = =
Beilein was raised in Burt , New York . He is the eighth of nine children of a millworker and an apple farmer . His mother 's cousins were the inspiration for Saving Private Ryan , and two of his uncles ( Tom and Joe Niland ) were lifelong basketball coaches in the Western New York area . Beilein attended DeSales High School in Lockport , New York . He went on to attend Wheeling College ( now Wheeling Jesuit University ) where he competed on the school 's basketball team from 1971 to 1975 and served as team captain during the 1974 – 75 season . He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in history in 1975 . After graduating , Beilein returned to Western New York where he began his coaching career at Newfane High School in 1975 . He remained there for three years . Beilein went on to earn a Master of Science degree in education from Niagara University in 1981 .
= = Early college coaching career = =
Beilein has never served as an assistant coach ; he has held head @-@ coaching positions throughout his career . He served as the coach of Erie Community College from 1978 to 1982 , Western New York 's Division III Nazareth College in Rochester , New York for the 1982 – 1983 school year , and Le Moyne College from 1983 to 1992 . Le Moyne was a Division II contestant in the Mideast Collegiate Conference ( MCC ) . Beilein first applied to coach Division I basketball at Canisius in 1987 , but he was not hired . During his time at Le Moyne , he held annual coaching clinics that welcomed coaches and athletes . Beilein was named the 1988 MCC Coach of the Year , when his team finished as Co @-@ League Champions with a 21 – 5 regular season record and number 14 national ranking . The team tied with Gannon University with an 8 – 2 conference record . Although it was Beilein 's third 20 @-@ win team at Le Moyne , they had never gone to the NCAA tournament before . The team captured the conference post @-@ season tournament after receiving a first round bye . As the number three seed , they faced the number one seeded California University of Pennsylvania in the NCAA Division II Eastern Regionals . They lost their first round game to fall to a 23 – 6 record , but won the consolation game against Kutztown University of Pennsylvania .
The MCC disbanded following the 1990 – 1991 season . In Beilein 's final season at Le Moyne , the team was an independent team unaffiliated with a conference . The team was scheduled to join the New England Collegiate Conference for the 1992 – 1993 season . After his first application for the job at Canisius , Beilein had tried to land other Division I jobs at schools such as Colgate University , where he had been a finalist in 1989 . In 1992 , he was finally hired to a Division I post at Canisius .
= = NCAA Division I coaching career = =
= = = Canisius = = =
During the 1991 – 92 season , Canisius compiled an 8 – 22 record prior to Beilein 's arrival . In 1992 , Beilein arrived at Canisius College as head coach for the 1992 – 93 season , and was able for the first time to hire assistant coaches . A Western New York native , he had grown up a Canisius basketball fan because his uncle , Joe Niland , had been a former player and coach there . At Canisius — his first Division I coaching position — Beilein reached the NCAA Tournament once and the NIT twice in his five seasons .
In his first two seasons at Canisius , Beilein turned a last place 1991 – 92 squad into a 1993 – 94 team that recorded the first undefeated home schedule ( 15 – 0 ) in the school 's modern era . The team entered the 1994 MAAC Tournament on a 15 @-@ game winning streak , and Beilein earned Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference Coach of the Year . Beilein 's number one seeded Canisius team lost in the second round semi @-@ final contest against Loyola University and thus failed to make the 1994 NCAA Tournament . Although Canisius failed to be invited to participate in the NCAA tournament , Canisius was invited , along with two other schools from the MAAC , to the NIT tournament , and it was matched up against a taller , more experienced Villanova team . The eventual 1994 NIT champion Villanova prevailed in a 103 – 79 victory over Canisius in the first round .
During the 1994 – 95 season , the Golden Griffins were led by the team 's first MAAC Player of the Year , senior Craig Wise . In the first round of the MAAC tournament , a pair of future Michigan Wolverine coaches opposed each other when Canisius met Loyola , coached by Brian Ellerbe . Canisius won and reached the MAAC semi @-@ final for the fifth time in six years . The team lost in the semis for the third straight season , and it continued its record of never having won the conference tournament . Canisius earned the team 's first post @-@ season victory in 32 years against Seton Hall . A pair of subsequent wins enabled Canisius to earn a trip to the semifinals of the 1995 NIT at Madison Square Garden . Canisius lost in the semifinals against Virginia Tech by a 71 – 59 despite a school postseason record 32 points from Wise . Canisius lost the consolation game against Penn State . The three wins and two losses enabled Beilein to even up his NIT career record at 3 – 3 .
In 1995 – 96 , the team also was led by a MAAC Player of the Year , Darrell Barley . Beilein coached the 16 – 10 ( 7 – 7 MAAC ) team to the conference tournament championship to earn a birth in the 1996 NCAA Tournament despite the absence of the injured Barley for the tournament . Canisius earned a thirteen seed and matchup against the fourth @-@ seeded Utah Utes in the team 's first NCAA Tournament appearance since 1957 . Utah defeated Canisius in the game , 72 – 43 .
In Beilein 's final season coaching Canisius , the Golden Griffins were the top defensive team in the MAAC . The team 's season ended in the conference tournament finals . After the 1996 – 97 season , Beilein interviewed with the University of Richmond .
= = = Richmond = = =
In 1997 , Beilein moved to become the coach of the Richmond Spiders . There , he compiled a 100 – 53 record in five seasons , recording a winning record each season , and again reached the NCAA tournament once , where his 14th @-@ seeded team upset third @-@ seeded and nationally ranked South Carolina . His teams also reached the NIT twice .
During the 1997 – 98 season , A third Beilein player was named conference player of the year in six seasons when Jarod Stevenson was named Colonial Athletic Association ( CAA ) Player of the Year . The 1997 – 98 Spiders posted its first winning season since 1993 . The Spiders entered the 1998 CAA tournament as the third seed in the nine @-@ team conference . The team won the tournament , earning the school a 1998 NCAA Tournament selection , its first NCAA tournament berth since 1991 . Beilein won his fourth Coach of the Year award that season . This one was for the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch Virginia Coach of the Year . Beilein was selected for the award over Charlie Woollum of William and Mary who beat Beilein for the CAA coach of the year award . During the NCAA Tournament , Richmond , which was seeded 14th upset the South Carolina team in the first round of the tournament . The Spiders lost their second game in the tournament to the Washington Huskies team . Beilein 's career NCAA tournament record was 1 – 2 .
Beilein relied on a nucleus that included two freshmen and two sophomores after two returning starters were removed from the team for disciplinary reason during the 1998 – 99 season . The team finished third in the CAA with a 15 – 11 ( 10 – 6 CAA ) record . However , they were upset in the 1999 CAA conference tournament by sixth @-@ seeded cross @-@ town rival Virginia Commonwealth .
Richmond again earned the third seed in the conference tournament over the course of the 1999 – 2000 season . In the 2000 CAA Conference tournament they ousted number @-@ six Old Dominion and number @-@ two James Madison . Then with the CAA conference 's automatic bid to the 2000 NCAA Tournament at stake , Richmond lost to fourth seeded UNC Wilmington in the championship game .
During the 2000 – 01 season , Richmond finished the regular season with a 21 – 6 record , finishing first in the CAA with a 12 – 4 record . The Spiders won ten of their final eleven games . However , since Richmond was going to change its athletic affiliation from the CAA to the Atlantic 10 the following season , it was ineligible for the 2001 CAA conference tournament . Only one team from the CAA had ever earned an at large bid to the NCAA tournament . The Spiders wound up playing in the 2001 NIT , where they defeated West Virginia before losing to Dayton . With one win and one loss Beilein stayed at .500 in the NIT , at 4 – 4 . At the end of the season , Beilein declined an offer to coach at Rutgers . The victory over West Virginia is credited with being a large part of why Beilein was eventually hired at West Virginia .
The following year during the 2001 – 02 season , Richmond finished in second place of the West Division of the 12 @-@ team Atlantic 10 Conference to earn a first @-@ round bye in the 2002 Atlantic 10 Tournament . In the tournament Richmond won its first two games to advance to the finals where it lost to Xavier . During the 2002 NIT , Richmond defeated Wagner , Montana State , and Minnesota before losing to Syracuse in the quarterfinals . This improved Beilein 's record to 7 – 5 in the NIT .
= = = West Virginia = = =
Dan Dakich was hired at West Virginia ( WVU ) of the Big East Conference and then quit 8 days later . In April 2002 , Beilein accepted the head coaching position at WVU . At WVU he posted a 104 – 60 record over five seasons . In the 2004 – 05 season , WVU went 24 – 11 and reached the " Elite Eight " ( fourth round ) of the NCAA tournament . The following year , WVU went 22 – 11 and reached the " Sweet Sixteen " ( third round ) . In 2006 – 07 , Beilein 's Mountaineers , despite losing about 80 % of their scoring from the previous season , went 27 – 9 and won the NIT championship .
Prior to 2009 , the Big East Tournament only included the top 12 teams . During the 2002 – 03 season , West Virginia qualified for the tournament in their final conference game of the season by beating Virginia Tech team to secure 6th place in the western division . The team had improved from 8 – 20 to finish the regular season at 14 – 14 ( 5 – 11 Big East ) under Beilein . The team lost in the first round of the 2003 Big East Tournament to Providence by a 73 – 50 margin to end their season .
Following the 2003 – 04 regular season , West Virginia qualified for the 2004 Big East Tournament as the number 10 seed . The team lost its first round match against Notre Dame team by a 65 – 64 margin on a three @-@ point shot with 15 seconds remaining . The team 's 15 – 13 record earned it an invitation to the 2004 NIT . In the first round of the tournament , the team traveled to play a 22 – 8 Kent State . Despite early foul trouble the team won 65 – 54 to advance to the second round . West Virginia defeated Rhode Island in the second game of the tournament by a 79 – 72 margin . The season ended with a 74 – 53 loss to Rutgers in the following game . Beilein 's career record in the NIT tournament was 8 – 6 after this tournament .
In 2004 – 05 , Beilein 's team entered the 2005 Big East Tournament with an 18 – 9 record as the eighth seed and as a team on the bubble for the 2005 NCAA Tournament . The team won its opening @-@ round game against number nine seed Providence 82 – 59 , its second @-@ round game against number one seed Boston College 78 – 72 , and its third @-@ round game against number four Villanova 78 – 72 . West Virginia lost the conference tournament finals to Syracuse 68 – 59 , but it earned a seven seed in the NCAA tournament against number ten seed Creighton of the Missouri Valley Conference . The loss gave Beilein his fifth loss in as many games against his mentor Syracuse coach Jim Boeheim , who had helped him acquire each of his first three Division I coaching positions . In the NCAA tournament , West Virginia beat Creighton 63 – 61 with a defensive stop and fast break dunk in the final five seconds . West Virginia then defeated the number two seed Wake Forest team led by Chris Paul in double overtime 111 – 105 . In the Sweet Sixteen round , West Virginia defeated Bobby Knight 's number six seeded Texas Tech 65 – 60 . In the elite eight round , they lost in overtime to Rick Pitino 's number four seeded Louisville , who were led by Taquan Dean and Larry O 'Bannon 93 – 85 @.@ with the three wins Beilein raised his career NCAA record to 4 – 3 .
During the 2005 – 06 season , West Virginia won its first eight Big East conference games and entered the top ten in the 2005 – 06 national rankings in February . It was the first time West Virginia had ranked in the top ten in the Coaches ' Poll which had been created in 1993 . They were the final unbeaten team in conference play . After the good start , the team lost four of its next five games to fall to 9 – 4 in conference play . They won their next two games to clinch a first @-@ round bye in the 2006 Big East Tournament . With seemingly little to play for , they lost their regular season finale to finish with a 20 – 9 ( 11 – 5 Big East ) regular season record . West Virginia lost its quarterfinal round game in the conference tournament to Pitt , and it earned a number six seed in the 2006 NCAA Tournament . West Virginia won its opening weekend games against number eleven seed Southern Illinois team and the number fourteen seed Northwestern State Demons basketball team by 64 – 46 and 67 – 54 margins , respectively . The team then West Virginia lost in the Sweet Sixteen round to the number two seed Texas Longhorns in a wild finish that saw West Virginia erase a five @-@ point deficit in the final fourteen seconds only to lose the game on a buzzerbeater . The two wins helped Beilein raise his NCAA tournament record to 6 – 4 .
During the 2006 – 07 season , WVU finished the regular season with a 21 – 8 ( 9 – 7 Big East ) record to earn the number seven seed in the 2007 Big East Tournament . In the first round of the tournament , they defeated the number ten seed Providence 92 – 79 making a Big East Tournament record 17 three @-@ point shots . They lost to the second @-@ seeded Louisville Cardinals , 82 – 71 , in double overtime . Their 22 – 9 record earned them a top seed in the 32 @-@ team 2007 NIT . As the number one seed , West Virginia was able to play its first three games at home where it defeated the Delaware State Hornets 74 – 50 , UMass team 90 – 77 , and NC State 71 – 60 . Before West Virginia started play in the semifinals in New York , rumors started that Beilein would take the Michigan job after the season ended . In the semifinal contest against Mississippi State , they won 63 – 62 on a last @-@ minute shot by Darris Nichols after recovering from a 14 @-@ point second @-@ half deficit . The day before the championship game , Beilein was announced as one of three finalists ( along with Kevin Stallings and Chris Lowery ) for the Michigan Wolverines ' head coaching job . In the championship game , WVU defeated Clemson 78 – 73 . The five wins raised Beilein 's NIT career record to 13 – 6 .
= = = Michigan = = =
On April 3 , 2007 , the University of Michigan announced that it had hired Beilein to fill its coaching vacancy . He replaced Tommy Amaker , who was fired after failing to reach the NCAA Tournament in his six seasons . Beilein inherited a Big Ten Conference team that was in the final year of a scholarship reduction due to the involvement of former players in the Ed Martin scandal , in which NCAA rules had been violated . The team struggled to a 10 – 22 ( 5 – 13 ) record during the 2007 – 08 season .
During the 2008 – 09 season , Beilein 's second at Michigan , the 2008 – 09 Wolverines enjoyed several important victories . On November 20 , the unranked Wolverines upset # 4 @-@ ranked UCLA , recording their first win over a top @-@ five team in eleven years . On December 6 , Michigan posted its second win of the season over a top @-@ five opponent in a rematch against # 4 ranked Duke . The Wolverines reached the top 25 in the national rankings on December 22 , its first appearance since the February 6 , 2006 . On February 26 , Michigan defeated the # 16 @-@ ranked Purdue team 87 – 78 , raising its record to 3 – 4 against ranked opponents on the season . At the conclusion of the 2008 – 09 Big Ten season , Michigan was given a seven seed in the 2009 Big Ten Tournament . A win over Iowa in the Big Ten Tournament on March 12 was the Wolverines ' twentieth of the season . With that win , Beilein had achieved a 20 @-@ win season at seven different schools , including four at the Division I level ( Canisius , Richmond , West Virginia , Michigan ) . Three days later , Beilein 's Wolverines earned a bid to the 2009 NCAA Tournament , the school 's first appearance in 11 years . There , tenth @-@ seeded Michigan defeated the seventh @-@ seeded Clemson Tigers 62 – 59 in the first round of the South Regional on March 19 . In the second round , Michigan lost to the Oklahoma Sooners 73 – 63 .
During the 2009 – 10 season , Michigan earned its first win against a ranked non @-@ conference opponent and its second consecutive win against a ranked opponent on January 17 when it defeated # 15 Connecticut . Beilein signed a contract extension in January , extending his original contract to 2016 . Michigan finished 15 – 17 and did not appear in the postseason .
The 2010 – 11 team , which did not have a senior on the roster , was not expected to be very successful , projected by the Detroit News to finish 10th in the 11 @-@ team conference . After starting the conference schedule with a 1 – 6 record the team won eight of its last 11 games , including two games against Michigan State ( its first season sweep against them in 14 years ) , to finish tied for fourth in the conference with a 9 – 9 record . The victory at Michigan State was Michigan 's first since 1997 . In the Big Ten Tournament , Michigan 's win over Illinois gave Beilein his second 20 @-@ win season at Michigan , in his 1,000th game as a head coach . As a # 8 seed in the 2011 NCAA Tournament , Michigan defeated Tennessee 75 – 45 , establishing two NCAA Tournament records : the largest victory margin by an eight seed , and becoming the first team to ever win a tournament game without making a free throw . Michigan won by its third @-@ largest margin in its NCAA tournament history ( second @-@ most if vacated games are excluded ) , and the game marked the ninth straight time that John Beilein led a team victory in its first game of a postseason tournament ( 5 NCAA and 4 NIT ) . In the next round the Wolverines lost to # 1 @-@ seeded Duke , 73 – 71 , missing a potential game @-@ tying shot in the final seconds .
The 2011 – 12 Wolverines began the season ranked in the top 25 , and remained there all season . The team recorded a win over 9th @-@ ranked Michigan State on Jan. 17 , 60 – 59 . It was Beilein 's third consecutive win over the Spartans and came nine days after Beilein recorded his first victory over Wisconsin , 59 – 41 . On February 18 , the Wolverines defeated another top @-@ 10 opponent , edging 6th @-@ ranked Ohio State , 56 – 51 . The win clinched Beilein 's first winning record in Big Ten play . On March 1 , Michigan won at Illinois for the first time since 1995 , ending a 13 @-@ game losing streak in Champaign . The Wolverines finished 24 – 10 overall and 13 – 5 in Big Ten play , winning a share of the regular @-@ season Big Ten championship for the first time since the 1985 – 86 team .
By helming the 2012 – 13 Wolverines , Beilein reached his sixth season with the same team for the first time . Beilein achieved several milestones with the 2012 – 13 Wolverines : 650th win as a college basketball head coach ( December 4 vs. Western Michigan ) , 100th win as head coach at Michigan ( December 8 vs. Arkansas ) , 400th Division I win as a head coach ( January 9 vs. Nebraska ) and his best career start ( December 15 vs. West Virginia ) . The 400th win came on a night when Michigan achieved its 16th straight victory which tied the school record for best start . Michigan went on to record its first 19 – 1 start to a season in school history . On January 28 , Michigan was ranked number one in the AP Poll with 51 of the 65 first place votes . It marked the first time Michigan ranked atop the AP Poll since the 1992 – 93 team did so on December 5 , 1992 . John Beilein was selected as an assistant coach for the 2013 World University Games . In the 2013 NCAA Tournament , fourth @-@ seeded Michigan defeated South Dakota State , 71 – 56 @.@ in its South Regional opening game , and in so doing the team matched Beilein 's career high with 27 wins . Michigan then surpassed this record , and continued to advance , by defeating fifth @-@ seeded Virginia Commonwealth , 78 – 53 and top @-@ seeded Kansas , 87 – 85 before beating third @-@ seeded Florida 79 – 59 to send Michigan to the Final Four for the first time since 1993 . In the 2013 Final Four , the Wolverines defeated East region champion Syracuse , 61 – 56 , to advance to the national championship game against Louisville , which they lost , 82 – 76 . During the following offseason , Bleacher Report named Beilein the most creative coach in college basketball . During the offseason , Beilein signed a second contract extension through the 2018 – 19 season .
The 2013 – 14 team was ranked in the top 10 to start the season , but lost four non @-@ conference games to fall out of the polls for the first time in over two seasons . Then , the team won three in a row against top @-@ 10 ranked conference opponents including a road victory over 3rd @-@ ranked Wisconsin en route to a 10 @-@ game winning streak . Beilein led Michigan to a 15 @-@ 3 conference record and won Michigan 's first outright regular season Big Ten championship since 1986 . The Wolverines earned a # 2 seed in the NCAA Tournament , where they lost in the Elite Eight to eventual runner @-@ up Kentucky . Beilein was one of ten finalists for the USBWA 's Henry Iba Award for Coach of the Year . He clinched his fourth career conference championship and second at Michigan on March 1 against Minnesota , and won the title outright three days later at Illinois . Following the regular season , Beilein was named Big Ten Coach of the Year by the media . On March 11 Beilein was named District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Coach of the Year by the United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) . Beilein was named one of five finalists for the Naismith College Coach of the Year and one of fifteen finalists for the Jim Phelan Award . On March 22 in Michigan 's second game of the 2014 NCAA Tournament , against Texas , Beilein earned his 700th career win to advance to the Sweet 16 of the NCAA tournament for the second consecutive season . Beilein led Michigan on to beat the # 11 seed University of Tennessee before falling to # 8 seed Kentucky 75 @-@ 72 in the Elite Eight .
The 2014 – 15 team entered the season ranked number 23 in the Coaches ' Poll and number 24 in the AP Poll . The team struggled in the preconference schedule , losing four games in a row in December . In January , the team lost Caris LeVert and Derrick Walton to injuries in January and after a 6 – 3 conference start finished 8 – 10 in conference and 16 – 16 overall ( going 5 – 9 in games without LeVert and Walton ) . Prior to the 2015 – 16 season , Michigan extended Beilein 's contract through the 2020 – 21 season .
= = Coaching style = =
Beilein is known for his offensive system , which emphasizes constant motion , passing , disciplined teamwork , and precision shooting . The offense usually starts out with four players outside the three @-@ point arc , and one player at the top of the key ( though at times a post player may operate closer to the basket ) . From this formation , Beilein 's teams not only try to open up space for players to cut to the basket , but also are known for their high number of three @-@ point attempts . On defense , Beilein has become known for employing the 1 – 3 – 1 halfcourt zone defense , which is considered to be an unconventional zone defense – though he also regularly employs man @-@ to @-@ man and 2 @-@ 3 zone defenses .
= = Personal life = =
Beilein married the former Kathleen Griffin in 1978 . The Beileins have three sons ( Patrick , who played for his father at WVU and is the current head basketball coach at Le Moyne College ; Mark , a former football player at Richmond and WVU grad who currently works for Alro Steel ; and Andrew , a Michigan grad who currently works for the Business Roundtable in Washington , D.C. ) and a daughter ( Seana Hendricks ) . Patrick , who was the 2002 Virginia Independent Schools Division I Player of the Year , had intended to play at Richmond with his father , and instead went to West Virginia when his father moved there . Patrick was a 2008 – 2009 season graduate assistant coach at University of Michigan . He has since held posts as assistant coach at Dartmouth , Director of Men 's Basketball Operations at Bradley University , and head coach of West Virginia Wesleyan College before his current role at Le Moyne .
When Patrick was a highly recruited high school basketball player , John was restricted by NCAA rules from some normal behaviors regarding his son , such as giving his son 's teammates a ride home from practice , talking with his son at a basketball camp or discussing his son 's abilities with news media , because the interactions of college coaches with recruits are restricted . The relevant NCAA rules for recruiting ( Bylaw article 13 ) are quite extensive . Beilein had to follow recruiting rules when visiting his son at a basketball camp . According to rule 13 @.@ 12 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 coaches wishing to attend a camp as observers must comply with appropriate recruiting contact and evaluation periods . According to 13 @.@ 02 @.@ 3 , a contact includes any face @-@ to @-@ face encounter between a prospective student @-@ athlete . . . and an institutional staff member or athletics representative during which any dialogue occurs in excess of an exchange of a greeting . In short , talking to coaches not employed by a camp is not allowed during the camp , which left Beilein unable to offer his son milk money .
= = Coaching tree = =
These former players and assistant coaches of Beilein later became head coaches at the collegiate or professional levels .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = Junior college = = =
= = = College = = =
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= Falkner Island Light =
Falkner Island Light , also known as the Faulkner Island Lighthouse , is a lighthouse in Connecticut , United States , on Falkner Island which is off Guilford Harbor on Long Island Sound . The lighthouse was constructed in 1802 and commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson . The lighthouse has had three keeper 's houses : the original house of 1802 was rebuilt in 1851 and then again in 1871 . The 1871 keeper 's house survived to 1976 , when it was destroyed by fire ; the Coast Guard repaired and automated the lighthouse two years later . A volunteer group , the Faulkner 's Light Brigade , has undertaken the restoration and preservation of the lighthouse since 1991 , completing the last major restoration work in March 2011 . Access to Falkner Island and the light is restricted during the nesting season of the roseate terns from May to August yearly . The Falkner Island Lighthouse , as the second oldest extant lighthouse in Connecticut , is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Falkner Island = =
Falker Island is a crescent @-@ shaped island located three and a half miles offshore of Guilford , Connecticut . The island has had several owners including Andrew Leete in the 1600s . In 1715 , Caleb and Ebenezer Stone purchased the island , which remained in the Stone family until 1801 . In 1800 , Noah Stone sold it to a distant relative , Medad Stone , for $ 158 @.@ 34 . On May 12 , 1801 , Medad Stone sold the island to the government for $ 325 . Joel Henderson , a historian , notes that Medad Stone and the government were likely openly communicating about the island . The United States Congress had appropriated $ 6000 in March 1801 for the lighthouse , prior to the government 's acquisition of the property .
= = Construction = =
The Falkner Island Lighthouse was commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson in 1802 . It was constructed and completed by Abisha Woodward in 1802 . Woodward also built New London Harbor Light in 1801 and the Black Rock Harbor Light in 1808 . Falkner Island Lighthouse cost $ 5977 @.@ 62 to build , according to the United States government . The 46 ft ( 14 m ) octagonal tower was made of brownstone lined with brick , and it originally had a spiral wooden staircase that led outside to the lantern room . This staircase was an unusual and distinguishing characteristic of the Falkner Island Light . The original fixed light used twelve lamps and reflectors on two stacked tables . It was replaced in 1840 , at a cost of $ 2842 @.@ 00 , with a lantern that used nine lamps and sixteen @-@ inch reflectors . A 33 ft ( 10 m ) cast iron spiral staircase was installed in a major renovation in 1871 .
Originally , the keeper 's house had eight rooms , but it deteriorated and was rebuilt in 1858 . When rebuilt it was one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stories high and had three bedrooms , a kitchen , dining and sitting rooms . Construction quality was poor , allowing snow to enter the house during the winter through gaps in the walls and roof . In 1871 , it was rebuilt by the United States Coast Guard as a three @-@ story house , which remained until it was destroyed by fire on March 15 , 1976 . The fire also scorched the adjacent lighthouse . In the Spring 2002 edition of The Octagon , the keeper 's house was said to be a two @-@ story house with eleven rooms .
= = Service = =
During the War of 1812 , the British forces landed on the island and told the keeper 's wife , Thankful Stone , that they had nothing to fear as long as they kept the light burning . Later , the keeper , Solomon Stone , had to put the light out per order of the New London customs inspector . The British threatened to blow up the lighthouse , and Stone got an order to relight the lighthouse . In 1856 , the light was upgraded from the twelve lamps to a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens . The light 's new characteristic was a fixed light with a flash every two seconds . Around 1976 , a GE 1000 @-@ watt bulb was used . When the lighthouse was repaired after the fire and automated in 1978 , a modern optic replaced the Fresnel lens . The lighthouse currently uses a VRB @-@ 25 lens . The lighthouse switched to solar power in 1988 . The light 's characteristic is a flash of white light every ten seconds . It continues to operate as a navigational aid to the nearby Intracoastal Waterway .
Falkner Island Light was chosen for fog @-@ signal experiments in 1865 and in 1902 . In 1865 , Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution , the Chairman of the Lighthouse Board , set up bells and whistles and tested the distances they could be heard . In 1879 , a steam fog whistle was installed at the cost of $ 5000 . In 1902 , a air siren was installed and powered by two 16 ½ horsepower engines and used in an experiment in sound penetration . In 1934 , a Leslie @-@ Tyfon trumpet was installed .
= = Restoration = =
After the fire in 1976 , vandals caused additional damage that resulted in the windows being bricked up and a steel door installed . Restoration and preservation of the light is done through the volunteer " Faulkner 's Light Brigade " , which formed in 1991 . In 1997 , Walter Sedovic was selected by a Lighthouse Restoration Committee to perform the restoration of the lighthouse . Completed in 1999 , the restorations included painting the interior and exterior , replacing the door and a new entry deck made of Pau Lope wood .
The lighthouse has been threatened by erosion for decades . In the 1930s , as a response to the erosion , a breakwater was constructed to protect the boat landing area . In 1996 , the Connecticut Trust for Historic Preservation and the National Trust for Historic Preservation assisted the task of obtaining funding for a $ 4 @.@ 5 million erosion @-@ control project . The funds were approved in 1998 with the help of Connecticut Senators , Joseph Lieberman and Christopher Dodd and New Haven 's Congressional Representative Rosa DeLauro . In 2001 , the construction of a stone wall and creation of a buffer zone was completed . The second phase of the project calls for protective revetment on the south side of the island .
The 33 @-@ foot cast iron spiral staircase from 1871 was repaired and restored for the cost of $ 15 @,@ 724 . The work was done by Conservation Services and they uncovered and preserved the numbering of the stairs . In October 2010 , a major restoration project repainted the tower and lantern , installed ventilated steel doors , restored the original weathervane and repaired the 12 @-@ pane casement window on the west wall of the lighthouse . The work was completed in March 2011 after it was suspended due to poor weather in December 2010 ; the total cost was $ 121 @,@ 000 .
= = Importance = =
Falkner Island Light is the second oldest extant lighthouse in Connecticut and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29 , 1990 . The Town of Guilford proclaimed that September 7 , 2002 , would be " Faulkner 's Island Light Day " to honor the 200th birthday of the lighthouse . Falkner Island Light is home to one of the world 's largest breeding colonies of the endangered roseate tern ; the nesting season is May through August . Access to Falkner Island and the light is restricted during the nesting season of the roseate terns .
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= New York State Route 64 =
New York State Route 64 ( NY 64 ) is a north – south state highway in the Finger Lakes region of New York in the United States . Its southern terminus is at an intersection with NY 21 in the hamlet of Bristol Springs within the town of South Bristol , Ontario County . The northern terminus is at a junction with NY 96 and NY 252 in the village of Pittsford , Monroe County . NY 64 is a mostly two @-@ lane highway that primarily serves as a connector between the southeastern suburbs of the city of Rochester and the Canandaigua Lake area , home to Bristol Mountain Ski Resort . Near the midpoint of the route , NY 64 has an overlap with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 that takes the route through the village of Bloomfield .
The majority of what is now NY 64 was originally designated as part of Route 14 , an unsigned legislative route , by the New York State Legislature in 1908 . In the vicinity of Bloomfield , however , Route 14 initially followed what later became NY 20C in order to access Holcomb . The alignment of Route 14 through Bloomfield was modified in 1921 to use modern NY 64 instead . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of Route 14 between Mendon and Pittsford became part of NY 15 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 15 was realigned to follow a new routing to the east while the Mendon – Pittsford segment of its former routing became the basis for NY 64 , a new route that extended southward over the post @-@ 1921 routing of legislative Route 14 to South Bristol .
= = Route description = =
NY 64 begins at an intersection with NY 21 on a ridge overlooking Canandaigua Lake in Bristol Springs , a hamlet of South Bristol . The route heads to the northwest as a two @-@ lane highway , running in the base of the Bristol Valley , a lowland created by a pair of imposing mountain ranges to the east and west that is home to the Bristol Mountain Ski Resort . At the hamlet of Bristol Center ( in the town of Bristol ) , roughly 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) from Bristol Springs , the western mountains give way to flat farmland while the eastern range continues on , although to a lesser extent and a lower elevation than before . The elevation of NY 64 remains virtually unchanged , however , as it progresses northward . 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from Bristol Center , the route meets US 20A .
US 20A joins NY 64 here , following the latter for about 4 miles ( 6 km ) , allowing US 20A to terminate at its parent , US 20 , here concurrent with NY 5 , at an intersection in East Bloomfield . At this point , NY 64 turns west onto US 20 and NY 5 . The three routes head westward across mostly open fields , meeting the southern terminus of NY 444 south of the former village of Holcomb . Past the junction , which once served as the eastern terminus of NY 20C , US 20 , NY 5 , and NY 64 continue into the village of Bloomfield before NY 64 breaks from NY 5 and US 20 and turns northward toward Rochester once again .
A mere 50 yards ( 46 m ) north of US 20 and NY 5 , NY 64 meets the west end of Bloomfield 's West Main Street at a rural intersection that was the western terminus of NY 20C . North of West Main Street , the highway curves to the northwest as it exits East Bloomfield and enters the adjacent town of West Bloomfield . In the northeast corner of the town , NY 64 passes through the hamlet of Ionia . Northwest of the community , the route breaks to the north , taking a due north alignment as it passes into Monroe County and becomes Mendon – Ionia Road . The road stays on a relatively straight path northward as it heads through the rural southern portion of the town of Mendon to the hamlet of Mendon , where NY 64 meets NY 251 in the center of the community .
On the opposite side of NY 251 , NY 64 becomes Pittsford – Mendon Road . Outside of the hamlet , the highway maintains a consistent northerly alignment as it runs through slightly more populated areas of the town of Mendon and passes over the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) . The route enters the town of Pittsford a short distance north of the Thruway , at which time NY 64 becomes Mendon Road . Within Pittsford , NY 64 passes through increasingly more populated areas as it approaches the village of Pittsford . Directly south of the village , the highway enters an intersection with South Main Street , Stone Road and Mendon Center Road at a sharp angle . NY 253 once entered this junction on Mendon Center Road and followed NY 64 into Pittsford ; however , today , NY 64 continues alone onto South Main Street . The route ends just under 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later at the junction of South Main Street and Jefferson Road , where it meets NY 96 and NY 252 .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 14 , an unsigned legislative route that extended from Corning to Rochester via South Bristol and Pittsford . The majority of Route 14 south of Pittsford was routed on what is now NY 64 ; however , in the vicinity of Bloomfield , Route 14 broke from modern NY 64 and used what later became NY 20C to access Holcomb . At the same time , the portion of current NY 64 that overlaps with US 20 and NY 5 was included in Route 6 , a cross @-@ state highway connecting Albany to Buffalo . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 14 was altered to bypass Holcomb to the south on what is now NY 64 .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of legislative Route 14 between Mendon and Pittsford became part of NY 15 , a route that mostly followed the current alignment of NY 96 from Owego to Rochester . Between Victor and Pittsford , however , NY 15 strayed from the modern routing of NY 96 and followed what is now NY 251 to Mendon . At the same time , the segment of legislative Route 6 in East Bloomfield became part of both NY 5 and NY 5A . The NY 5A designation was replaced along this stretch with NY 7 by 1926 , which in turn was replaced by US 20 in 1927 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 15 was realigned to bypass Mendon to the northeast by way of the current alignment of NY 96 between Victor and Pittsford . The former alignment of NY 15 from Pittsford to Mendon became part of NY 64 , a new route that extended south to South Bristol over the post @-@ 1921 routing of legislative Route 14 . The 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) portion of NY 64 between Vincent and South Bloomfield became part of US 20A c . 1939 , allowing the route to reconnect to US 20 at South Bloomfield .
NY 64 briefly extended north of the village of Pittsford during the 1950s and 1960s . In the mid @-@ 1950s , NY 96 was realigned onto the new Eastern Expressway from Bushnell 's Basin to NY 31F near East Rochester . From there , NY 96 followed modern NY 31F west to East Avenue , where it rejoined its original alignment . The portion of NY 96 's original surface routing between the village of Pittsford and what is now NY 31F became part of an extended NY 64 . A northwest extension of the freeway to what is now the Can of Worms was completed c . 1957 as a realignment of NY 96 , resulting in another extension of NY 64 along East Avenue to the eastern edge of Rochester . NY 64 and NY 96 were restored to their pre @-@ 1950s alignments c . 1961 when the Eastern Expressway was designated as I @-@ 490 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Rock N Roll McDonald 's =
The Rock N Roll McDonald 's ( formerly The Original Rock ' N Roll McDonald 's ) is a flagship McDonald 's restaurant located in Chicago , Illinois . It is one of the most famous McDonald 's locations in the world and was once the busiest in the United States . The restaurant / museum , located in the River North section of the Near North Side community area ( neighborhood ) of Chicago , a few city blocks west of the Magnificent Mile , has been a tourist attraction since it opened in 1983 . Its present building opened in 2005 . The restaurant has a maximum occupancy of 300 , which is about three times the standard patron seating capacity . The site has a rock and roll exhibit in a building adjacent to the restaurant and a small upstairs McDonald 's museum display . The building features the first two @-@ lane McDonald 's drive @-@ through , relatively luxurious decor , a café , flat screen televisions and a green roof .
= = Restaurant = =
The franchise has had a restaurant at the 600 N. Clark Street address since 1983 , but the new building was redeveloped and reopened on April 15 , 2005 as a bilevel flagship restaurant / museum with a two lane drive through . This is the first McDonald 's location with a two @-@ lane drive @-@ through . The reopening coincided with the 50th anniversary of the Des Plaines , Illinois restaurant which was opened by Ray Kroc on April 15 , 1955 . Rock N Roll McDonald 's is the location where the corporation kicked off its celebration of the 50th anniversary of the franchise . Among the celebrities in attendance were Colin Powell and Elton John . At the time of the 2004 demolition , the location was the 3rd busiest in the United States and 12th in the world . In the early 90s , it had been the busiest in the United States . It was expected to increase its sales revenue rankings from 3rd in the United States and 12th in the world with the renovation and redevelopment .
The restaurant is priced higher than other Chicago @-@ area McDonald 's , in order to subsidize the interior decor which includes numerous plasma display flat screen televisions and expensive Italian lighting . Its second floor includes a coffee bar serving lattes , gelato and biscotti and lounges that pay homage via museum display , music , and decor to every decade the chain has been in business . The 2nd floor McCafe is designed to compete with Starbucks by serving cappuccino , espresso , gelato and Italian pastries . The building features a pair of 60 foot arches and two stories worth of windows that weigh 800 pounds apiece . It has 10 cash register stations to complement its 300 patron capacity , which is about 3 times the normal McDonald 's capacity . The restaurant has three front walls of glass .
Franchisee Marilyn Wright and her husband Ralph Wright have operated 10 McDonald 's locations for the past 12 years . In addition to a perimeter of trees , the building has two green roof gardens on two levels . The lower one is visible from inside . However , the upper roof is only visible from surrounding high @-@ rise buildings . Neither accommodates customer access . The trash cans in this tourist mecca say thank you in ten languages . The restaurant has separate preparation lines for white meat and red meat in the giant kitchen . The demolished building faced Ohio Street , but the new building is rotated 180 degrees to face the Ontario Street tourist pedestrian strip .
The restaurant was sung about by the cult Chicago musician Wesley Willis in a song entitled " Rock N Roll McDonald 's " . The song was featured in the movie Super Size Me .
= = = Museum = = =
The south ( rear ) half of the upstairs portion has a series of displays of early McDonald 's photos , multimedia , and paraphernalia including the fast food giant 's striped polyester uniforms from the 60 's . Much of it is arranged by decade going back to the mid @-@ 1950s when McDonald 's first opened and is accompanied by pop culture artifacts such as pet rocks , early cell phones , and 8 @-@ track tape players . Downstairs there is a section on the first floor entitled " Chicago Firsts , " featuring events and organizations that originated in Chicago .
= = Neighborhood = =
The restaurant / museum , its rock and roll exhibit and its parking lot occupy the entire block bounded by West Ontario Street to the north , West Ohio Street to the south , North LaSalle Street to the west and North Clark Street to the east in the River North neighborhood of the Near North Side community area . The building is situated near several other theme restaurants . It is across the street ( Clark Street ) from the Hard Rock Cafe and the Rainforest Cafe .
= = Rock and roll exhibit = =
There is display of rock and roll memorabilia focusing mainly on Elvis Presley in an exhibit in a separate structure on the same lot . The exhibit includes a set of The Beatles statues reminiscent of their Abbey Road album cover .
= = Gallery = =
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= Adlertag =
Adlertag ( " Eagle Day " ) was the first day of Unternehmen Adlerangriff ( " Operation Eagle Attack " ) , which was the codename of a military operation by Nazi Germany 's Luftwaffe ( German air force ) to destroy the British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . By June 1940 , the Allies had been defeated in Western Europe and Scandinavia . Rather than come to terms with Germany , Britain rejected all overtures for a negotiated peace .
During the Battle of Britain , Hitler gave the German armed forces ( Wehrmacht ) a directive ( Directive No. 16 ) that ordered provisional preparations for invasion of Britain . This operation was codenamed Operation Sea Lion ( Unternehmen Seelöwe ) . Before this could be carried out , air superiority or air supremacy was required . The Luftwaffe was to destroy the RAF in order to prevent it from attacking the invasion fleet or providing protection for the Royal Navy 's Home Fleet which might attempt to prevent a landing by sea . On 1 August Hitler gave the Luftwaffe 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Reichsmarschall ( Empire Marshal ) Hermann Göring and the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( High Command of the Air Force ) a ( Directive No. 17 ) to launch the air assault .
The essential target was RAF Fighter Command . The service 's destruction would deny the British their air superiority asset . Throughout July and early August , the Germans made preparations for Adlertag . The date of the assault was postponed several times because of bad weather . Eventually , it was carried out on 13 August 1940 . The German attacks on 13 August inflicted significant damage and casualties on the ground , but , marred by poor intelligence and communication , they did not make a significant impression on Fighter Command 's ability to defend British air space .
Göring had promised Hitler that Adlertag and Adlerangriff would achieve the results required within days , or at worst weeks . It had meant to be the beginning of the end of RAF Fighter Command , but Adlertag and the following operations failed to destroy the RAF , or gain the necessary local air superiority . As a result , Operation Sea Lion was postponed indefinitely .
= = Background = =
= = = Strategic overview = = =
After the declaration of war on Nazi Germany by Britain and France in the aftermath of the German invasion of Poland , nine months of stalemate took place along the Western Front . After the Polish Campaign , in October 1939 , the planners of the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( Luftwaffe High Command ) and the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( Supreme Command of the Armed Forces ) turned their attentions to Western Europe .
The German offensive — named Unternehmen Gelb ( Operation Yellow ) , and also known as the Manstein Plan — began in the West on 10 May 1940 . The central campaign — the Battle of France — ended in Allied defeat and the destruction of the main French Army forces . The British Expeditionary Force escaped during the Battle of Dunkirk , but the Wehrmacht captured Paris on 14 June and overran ⅔ of France . The French surrendered on 25 June 1940 .
With Western Europe neutralised , the OKL and OKW turned their attention to Britain , which was now home to the Allied base of operations in Europe . Hitler hoped Britain would negotiate for an armistice , for which he was prepared to offer generous terms . The tentative offers made by Hitler were rejected by the Churchill coalition government . Hitler now ordered the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine to prepare for an amphibious assault of Britain , codenamed Operation Sealion . The Luftwaffe was to eliminate enemy air power and the Kriegsmarine was ordered to make all the necessary preparations for transporting the Heer ( Army ) across the English Channel . The Luftwaffe 's task came first . Once the RAF had been rendered impotent , Göring and Hitler hoped that an invasion would be unnecessary . If this proved not to be the case , the Luftwaffe would then support the army and prevent the Royal Navy interdicting German sea traffic . Göring named the offensive against the RAF as Operation Eagle Attack ( Adlerangriff ) .
= = = Background : early battles = = =
The losses of the spring campaign had weakened the Luftwaffe before the Battle of Britain . The service was forced to wait until it had reached acceptable levels before a main assault against the RAF could be made . Therefore , the first phase of the German air offensive took place over the English Channel . It rarely involved attacks against RAF airfields inland , but encouraged RAF units to engage in battle by attacking British Channel convoys . These operations would last from 10 July @-@ 8 August 1940 . The attacks against shipping were not successful ; only 24 @,@ 500 long tons ( 24 @,@ 900 t ) was sunk . Mine laying from aircraft had proved more profitable , sinking 38 @,@ 000 long tons ( 39 @,@ 000 t ) . The impact on Fighter Command was minimal . It had lost 74 fighter pilots killed or missing and 48 wounded in July , and its strength rose to 1 @,@ 429 by 3 August . By that date , it was only short of 124 pilots .
In the second phase of attacks , shipping , coastal airfields , radar and stations south of London were attacked during 8 – 18 August . The Luftwaffe gradually increased the frequency of attacks . German bombers also raided targets as far north as Liverpool during night hours . The first major raid inland and against RAF airfields came on 12 August . RAF Hawkinge , Lympne , Manston and radar stations at Pevensey , Rye and Dover were to be destroyed . Portsmouth docks were also targeted . The results of the raids were mixed . The Radar station at Ventnor was badly damaged and others targeted were also damaged , but not destroyed . All were in working order by the following morning . The attacks against the harbour and RAF stations had failed to destroy them . All were not in fully working order by the end of the day , but were back in action the following morning . Unknown to German intelligence , Lympne itself was not even an operational station . This sort of intelligence blunder contributed to the failure of Adlertag .
The Germans had not achieved a degree of success commensurate with their exertions . Nevertheless , in the belief they were having considerable effect on Fighter Command , they prepared to launch their all @-@ out assault on the RAF the following day . By 12 August , German air strength had reached acceptable levels . After bringing its serviceable rates up , the Luftwaffe began Adlertag with 71 percent of its bomber force , 85 percent of its Bf 109 units , and 83 percent of its Bf 110 units operational .
= = Luftwaffe preparations = =
= = = Intelligence = = =
Faulty intelligence was the component that was mostly responsible for the failure of Adlertag . While the gap between the British and Germans was not yet wide in this regard , the British were starting to gain a decisive lead in intelligence . The breaking of the Enigma machine and poor Luftwaffe signals discipline allowed the British easy access to German communications traffic . The impact of Ultra on the Battle of Britain is a matter of dispute , with Official Histories claiming there was no direct impact . Whatever the truth , Ultra , and the Y service in particular , gave the British an increasingly accurate picture of German order of battle deployments .
Joseph " Beppo " Schmid was commander of the Luftwaffe 's Military Intelligence Branch ( Abteilung 5 as Chief IC ) . Throughout this time , Schmid 's reports made a series of errors . In July 1940 , Schmid grossly overestimated the strengths of the Luftwaffe and underestimated the RAF . The most serious mistakes were made concerning radar , airfield identification , and production sites . Schmid asserted that the number of operational airfields in southern England were severely limited ; estimated that the British could produce only 180 – 330 fighters per month ( the true figure was 496 ) and that figure would decrease , indicating that the RAF could not sustain a long battle of attrition . Schmid also claimed the command at all levels was rigid and inflexible , with fighters being tied to home bases . In his list of omissions , Schmid failed to mention the RAF maintenance and organisation operations , which put back damaged aircraft with rapid effect . He anticipated a short battle . Crucially , Schmid failed to mention radar at all .
The lack of sustained and concentrated attacks on radar left it free to help direct the deployment of RAF units at opportune moments . Its continued warnings of incoming raids were a crucial benefit to Fighter Command . The Luftwaffe also had poor intelligence on the type of RAF airfields . It made repeated errors , often misidentifying airfields as Fighter Command bases , which turned out to belong to RAF Coastal Command and RAF Bomber Command . On Adlertag , most of the targets on the Luftwaffe 's list — if destroyed — would not have impaired Fighter Command in the slightest .
= = = Targets and order of battle = = =
The following targets were chosen for attack on 13 August 1940 :
= = RAF preparations = =
= = = Detection = = =
The keystone of the British defence was the complex infrastructure of detection , command , and control that ran the battle . This was the " Dowding System " , after its chief architect , Air Chief Marshal Sir H.C.T. " Stuffy " Dowding , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of RAF Fighter Command . Dowding modernised a system created up from 1917 by Major General E B Ashmore . The core of Dowding 's system was implemented by Dowding himself : the use of Radio Direction Finding ( RDF or radar ) was at his behest , and its use , supplemented by information by the Royal Observer Corps ( ROC ) , was crucial to the RAF 's ability to efficiently intercept incoming enemy aircraft . The technology was named RDF with misleading intent - the vague description would disguise the full nature of the system to the enemy if its existence ever became known .
The first indications of incoming air raids were received by the Chain Home Radio Direction Finding ( RDF ) facilities , which were located along the coastlines of Britain . In most circumstances , RDF could pick up formations of Luftwaffe aircraft as they organised over their own airfields in northern France and Belgium . Once the raiding aircraft moved inland , the formations were also plotted by the ROC . The information from RDF and the Observer Corps were sent through to the main operations room of Fighter Command Headquarters at RAF Bentley Priory . The plots were assessed to determine whether they were " hostile " or " friendly " . If hostile , the information was sent to the main " operations room " , which was in a large underground bunker .
= = = Plotting raids = = =
Here , the course information of each raid was plotted by Women 's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ) , who received information by telephone . Additional intelligence was provided by the Y Service radio posts , which monitored enemy radio communications , and the Ultra decoding centre based at Bletchley Park , which gave the RAF intelligence on the German order of battle . Colour @-@ coded counters representing each raid were placed on a large table , which had a map of Britain overlaid and squared off with a British Modified Grid . As the plots of the raiding aircraft moved , the counters were pushed across the map by magnetic " rakes " . This system enabled the main " Fighter Controller " and Dowding to see where each formation was heading , at what height , and in what strength . This allowed an estimate to be made of possible targets . The age of the information was denoted from the colour of the counter . The simplicity of the system meant that decisions could be made quickly .
= = = Communication and interception = = =
This information was simultaneously sent to the headquarters of each Group where it was cross @-@ checked through a filter room before being sent through to another operations room , housed in an underground bunker . Because Group had tactical control of the battle , the operations room was different in layout from the main Headquarters at Bentley Priory . The main map on the plotting table represented the Group command area and its associated airfields . Extensive radio and telephone equipment transmitted and received a constant flow of information from the various sector airfields as well as the Observer Corps , AA Command and the navy . The " Duty fighter controller " was the Group GOC 's personal representative and was tasked with controlling how and when each raid would be intercepted . If the telephone system failed engineers would be on site within minutes to repair the broken links .
= = Battle = =
= = = KG 2 raid = = =
On the morning of 13 August , the weather was bad and Göring ordered a postponement of raids . However , the Dornier Do 17s of KG 2 were not informed and took off at 04 : 50 for their target . They were to meet with their escorts from ZG 26 over the Channel . ZG 26 received the cancellation order , but II . , and III . / KG 2 did not. kg 2 had formed up by 05 : 10 , led by Geschwaderkommodore Johannes Fink . Part of the ZG 26 formation that had taken off — led by Oberstleutnant Joachim Huth — tried to warn the Dorniers of the cancellation . Unable to contact the bombers by radio , Huth tried to signal them by flying in front of them and performing aerobatics . Fink ignored him and flew on. kg 2 flew around the coast to his target , Eastchurch airfield on the Isle of Sheppey . Albert Kesselring had issued orders for bombers to abandon missions if their escorts did not show up , but Fink did not want to be accused on failing to obey orders and continued onward even though the Bf 110s turned back . The return leg would take KG 2 across No. 11 Group 's territory , which could have been disastrous without fighter escort . But owing to the Observer Corps misjudging the direction of the bombers , owing to low @-@ lying cloud , and the radar not picking up the direction of the German bombers , the WAAF plotted the course of the raid incorrectly and the RAF failed to prevent the target being attacked .
For an hour after dawn on 13 August , there were few German tracks upon the plot tables in operations rooms , and none at all in the central and eastern Channel . The first signs of concentration , however , came earlier than usual , for between 05 : 30 and 05 : 40 two formations of 30 or more aircraft were located in the Amiens area . For 30 minutes , they remained over land , but at 06 : 10 they began moving inland . The Observer Corps and radar tracked them and guided the RAF units to intercept . Unaware of the German intent , the controllers directed three full Squadrons and detachments of three others were alerted by 06 : 15 . No. 151 was protecting a convoy in the Thames , No. 111 was protecting RAF Hawkinge and No. 74 Squadron RAF was covering RAF Manston . Parts of No. 85 , No. 43 and No. 238 Squadron RAF were also airborne near London . By 06 : 25 , the German formations were well over the Channel . No. 238 was moved to cover their own base at RAF Warmwell . No. 257 Squadron RAF was also ordered to take off at 06 : 20 to patrol Canterbury . Not satisfied with the strength of the forces already airborne , controllers dispatched No. 601 , 213 , 64 and 87 Squadrons to intercept between 06 : 30 and 06 : 35 . The first combats began at 06 : 30 .
Owing to the mistake by the Observer Corps , and the Geschwader being missed approaching the eastern , instead of central Channel by radar , KG 2 hit the RAF airfield. kg 2 claimed 10 Spitfires destroyed on the ground . In fact , no Fighter Command fighters were lost . For some time afterward , this wrong claim convinced German intelligence that Eastchurch was a fighter station and the Luftwaffe would launch seven fruitless raids on it in the coming weeks . Added to this mistake was the failure to keep up pressure . Raids were spaced out , giving the field time to recover . The station was used by RAF Coastal Command , which lost five Bristol Blenheims in the attack and one Coastal Command Spitfire . However , severe damage was done to the infrastructure . Much equipment and ammunition was destroyed and 16 of the Command 's personnel were killed . RAF Eastchurch was back in operation by 16 : 00 .
Eventually the bombers were intercepted. kg 2 lost five Do 17s in the attempt . Six Dorniers were also badly damaged . In return , accurate fire from the Dornier gunners shot down two Hurricanes from the attacking Squadrons ; No. 111 , No. 151 and No. 74 Squadron led by Adolph Malan . Malan himself shot down one Do 17 . Another source suggests the destruction of five Do 17s and another seven damaged . German manpower losses amounted to 11 killed in action and nine prisoners of war .
= = = Coastal airfields and ports = = =
Most units of Luftflotte 2 received the order to abandon morning operations , but some began their attacks aimed at airfields and ports in southern Britain. kg 76 abandoned its attack on Debden but struck at RAF Kenley and other airfields in Kent and Essex . Losses and results are unknown . KG 27 also abandoned most of its operations . III . / KG 27 did attempt to make it through to the Bristol docks , losing one He 111 to No. 87 Squadron RAF in the attempt . Little damage was done .
The cancellation order had not reached Luftflotte 3 HQ at all . Its commander , Hugo Sperrle ordered attacks to commence . At 05 : 00 , 20 Junkers Ju 88s of I. / KG 54 took off to bomb the Royal Aircraft Establishment 's airfield at ' RAF Farnborough ' ( RAE Farnborough ) . At 05 : 05 , 18 Ju 88s from II . / KG 54 took off for RAF Odiham . At 05 : 50 , 88 Junkers Ju 87s of StG 77 began heading for Portland Harbour . The raids were escorted by about 60 Bf 110s of Zerstörergeschwader 2 ( Destroyer Wing 2 ; ZG 2 ) , and V. / LG 1 and 173 Bf 109s from Jagdgeschwader 27 ( JG 27 ) , JG 53 and JG 3 , which all flew ahead of the bomber stream to clear the airspace of enemy fighters . StG 77 's target was obscured by cloud , but KG 54 continued to their target . RAF fighters from RAF Northolt , RAF Tangmere and RAF Middle Wallop intercepted . Four Ju 88s and one Bf 109 from JG 2 was shot down . The German fighters claimed six RAF fighters and the bombers another 14 . In reality , the bombers only damaged five . The Bf 109s destroyed only one and damaged another . Of the five RAF fighters damaged by the bombers , two were write @-@ offs . Of the 20 claimed , just three fighters were lost and three pilots were wounded . None were killed .
Further missions by II . / KG 54 to RAF Croydon were cancelled . I. / KG 54 struck at the Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) base at Gosport . ZG 2 was supposed to provide escort during one these attacks , and in a breakdown of communications , arrived over the target without their Ju 88s , which had been ordered to stand down . One Bf 110 was shot down by No. 238 Squadron RAF .
At 11 : 10 , V. / LG 1 Bf 110s took off in advance of a raid by KG 54 , possibly to tempt RAF fighters into battle before the main assault , so the RAF would be out of position . The bomber 's mission was cancelled . The order did not reach V. / LG 1 who continued to their target area . The 23 Bf 110s continued to the target of Portland . They ran into No. 601 Squadron RAF Hurricanes and lost six Bf 110s destroyed and three damaged . Only one Hurricane was shot down and another damaged . A second source states only four Bf 110s were destroyed , whilst a third gives the loss of five destroyed and five damaged . The Zerstörergeschwader optimistically claimed 30 RAF fighters destroyed ( in reality RAF fighter losses in aerial combat amounted to 13 throughout the entire day ) , for a loss of 13 Bf 110s . The morning 's effort had been a fiasco . The attacks showed a serious German technical failure in air @-@ to @-@ air communication .
= = = Renewed attacks = = =
The official go @-@ ahead was given at 14 : 00 . At 15 : 30 , some 58 – 80 Ju 88s from I. , II . , and III . / LG 1 , escorted by 30 Bf 110s of V. / LG 1 , took off to bomb Boscombe Down and Worthy Down . RAF Andover was to be bombed as well , with the support of 52 Ju 87s from StG 1 and StG 2 who were to strike at RAF Warmwell and Yeovil . I. / JG 53 flew a fighter sweep ahead of the bombers from Poole to Lyme Regis in order to tempt the RAF into battle . I. / JG 53 made landfall at 16 : 00 . The sweep failed to attract and divert RAF squadrons . Instead , all it succeeded in doing was to alert the RAF defences a critical five minutes earlier . When the main wave of LG 1 and StG 2 arrived over the coast , they were greeted by 77 RAF fighters .
II . , and III . / JG 53 and III . / ZG 76 flew escort for the Ju 87s . ZG 2 and JG 27 flew escort for LG 1 . In response the whole of No. 10 Group RAF intercepted . One Staffel ( Squadron ) of II . / StG 2 was badly hit by No. 609 Squadron RAF ; six out of nine Ju 87s were shot down . StG 1 and 2 gave up on their original targets owing to cloud . Both headed for Portland .
I. / LG 1 abandoned Boscombe Down and bombed Southampton instead . No. 238 Squadron had been detailed to intercept , but the fighter escort was too strong and the bombers were not diverted from their course . Several warehouses were destroyed and a cold storage plant was also knocked out . All fires were under control by dusk . One III . / LG 1 dropped its bombs by RAF Middle Wallop Sector Station by mistake . Only Andover airfield was hit , and it was used for bomber operations , not fighters . III . / LG 1 lost two Ju 88s . The 13 Ju 88 Gruppen ( Groups ) had lost six destroyed and many damaged . They had escaped lightly . The bombing succeeded in destroying a bicycle factory , a furniture warehouse and a refrigerated meat depot . Luftwaffe intelligence had not identified the Southampton Spitfire factory — on the water front near the docks — as an important target . Poor intelligence suggested it was a bomber factory . Only later , in September , was it attacked and severely damaged . However , even then the Germans were unaware of the damage inflicted to Spitfire production . The factory would later be broken up and production dispersed .
= = = Ju 87 operations = = =
StG 77 was also in action , escorted by JG 27 Bf 109s . StG 77s 52 Ju 87s were joined by 40 Ju 88s of KG 54 . Both formations were heading for No. 10 Group RAF 's airfields . StG 77 was targeting RAF Warmwell . The Geschwader failed to find its target , dropping its bombs at random . The other Ju 87 units had attracted much attention and StG 77 escaped unnoticed .
Erprobungsgruppe 210 were sent further east for an operation to attack targets near Southend . They took off at 15 : 15 and were escorted by ZG 76 . Unfortunately , they found unbroken cloud over Essex . No. 56 Squadron RAF intercepted , but Erprobungsgruppe 210 dropped their bombs over Canterbury . II . / StG 1 was sent to bomb airfields near Rochester . It failed to find the target and returned without incident . IV . / LG 1 — also with Ju 87s — was sent after RAF Detling . JG 26 went out on a fighter sweep to clear the skies in advance of the attack . JG 26 lost one Bf 109 over Folkestone from an unknown cause . The Ju 87s bombed the station and 40 Bf 109s strafed it , killing the commander . The operations block was hit , causing high casualties . The losses were disastrous for No. 53 Squadron RAF , which lost a number of Blenheims on the ground . The commander killed was Group Captain E P Meggs @-@ Davis . One Squadron Leader was killed — a J.H Lowe — and a further two were wounded . One of the wounded men was a First World War ace Robert J. O. Compston . The station 's casualties amounted to 24 killed and 42 wounded . However , Detling was not an RAF Fighter Command station and the attack did not affect No. 11 Group RAF in any way .
= = = South East raids = = =
I. , II . , and III . / KG 55 were also in action . III . / KG 55 bombed Heathrow Airport . Results are unknown and losses are unclear. kg 55 suffered heavy losses the previous day , so its operations seemed limited . On 12 August it lost 13 Heinkel He 111s and their crews . The next day , 14 August , they would lose their Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) Alois Stoeckl .
In the afternoon , a force of 80 Do 17s of KG 3 — escorted by JG 51 , JG 52 , JG 54 and 60 Bf 109s from JG 26 ( some 270 aircraft in all ) — headed for Eastchurch airfield and the Short Brothers factory at Rochester . III . / KG 3 broke away from the main formation and attacked Eastchurch while II . / KG 3 headed for Rochester . Significant damage was done to the factory producing the Short Stirling heavy bomber . The RAF 's No. 3 , No. 64 , No. 111 , No. 151 , No. 234 , No. 249 , No. 601 and No. 609 Squadrons intercepted . According to the account of JG 26 , the British fighters made little impression on the bombers . Three JG 51 Bf 109s were shot down in skirmishes with RAF fighters .
RAF Bomber Command also took part in the day 's fighting . Although Charles Portal — AOC ( Air Officer Commanding ) — had protested against the pointlessness of attacking airfields in Scandinavia , the Air Ministry insisted on such raids . No. 82 Squadron RAF sent 12 Bristol Blenheims to bomb KG 30 airfields at Aalborg , Denmark . One pilot turned back complaining of " fuel problems " and was court @-@ martialled . That bomber was the only one to return . The rest fell to AAA fire and fighters . Some 24 airmen were killed and nine were captured .
= = = Night raids = = =
As darkness fell at the close of Adlertag , Sperrle sent nine Kampfgruppe 100 ( Bombing Group 100 ) He 111s to conduct a strategic bombing raid against the Supermarine Spitfire factory at Castle Bromwich , Birmingham . Despite the group being a specialist night strike unit which had high expertise in night navigation , only four of the crews found their targets . The eleven 551 lb ( 250 kg ) bombs dropped were not sufficient to disrupt fighter production . Around five of the 11 fell inside the compound . Casualties were small as workers had gone to shelter . Serious damage was done only to offices and a tool room , while a gas main was fractured . Another group , led by Gruppenkommandeur Hauptmann ( Captain ) Friedrich Achenbrenner , dispatched 15 He 111s from bases in Brittany across the Irish Sea to strike at the Short Brothers factory at Queen 's Island , Belfast Northern Ireland . Five Short Stirling aircraft were destroyed. kg 27 also took part in the missions , and bombed Glasgow during the night although their specific target is unclear . Other bombers , commencing the night stage of Adlertag , resolutely flew the length and breadth of Great Britain , bombing Bristol , Cardiff , Swansea , Liverpool , Sheffield , Norwich , Edinburgh and Aberdeen . Very little damage was done , though some rail tracks were cut temporarily and around 100 casualties were suffered . It is unknown if any German aircraft were lost . One German airman was found wandering around the countryside in Balcombe , Somerset . No other traces of the aircraft or other crew members were found .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Effect of raids = = =
The Germans had maintained the attacks on airfields in south @-@ western England which they had started the previous day . On 12 August , most of the Kentish airfields had been attacked ; and on 13 August , the Germans concentrated on the second line airfields south of London . The concentration on Detling and Eastchurch was a failure , as both were Coastal Command stations and bore no relation to Fighter Command . The Germans may have reasoned that if bases such as Manston , Hawkinge and Lympne were neutralised through the attacks on 12 August , then Fighter Command may have had to move onto these airfields . In fact , the bombing of 12 August had failed to knock out these strips , and Adlertag had failed to destroy or render Detling or Eastchurch nonoperational . Owing to poor intelligence , weather conditions , and RAF resistance , attacks on other targets had failed or been unsuccessful .
= = = Overclaiming = = =
Overclaiming in aerial warfare is not uncommon . During the Battle of Britain ( and , indeed , the rest of the Second World War ) , both sides claimed to have shot down and destroyed more enemy aircraft on the ground and in the air than they had in reality . RAF Fighter Command claimed 78 German aircraft shot down on 13 August 1940 . Another source states that official RAF claims amounted to 64 . Actual German losses amounted to 47 – 48 aircraft destroyed and 39 severely damaged . Conversely , the Luftwaffe claimed to have destroyed 70 Hawker Hurricanes and Spitfires in the air and a further 18 Blenheim bombers in the air alone . This was an exaggeration of 700 percent . Another 84 RAF fighters were claimed on the ground . Actual RAF losses in the air amounted to 13 fighters and 11 bombers , with 47 aircraft of various kinds on the ground .
= = = Battle of Britain = = =
The failure of Adlertag did not deter the Luftwaffe from continuing its campaign . The assault against RAF airfields continued throughout August and into September 1940 . The battles involved large numbers of aircraft and heavy losses on both sides . The Luftwaffe failed to develop any focused strategy for defeating RAF Fighter Command . At first , it attempted to destroy RAF bases , then switched to strategic bombing by day and night . It tried to achieve the destruction of several British industries at the same time , switching from bombing aircraft factories , to attacking supporting industries , import or distribution networks such as coastal ports . An attempt was even made against unrelated targets , such as destroying the morale of the British population .
The failure of the Luftwaffe to identify the radar chain and distinguish RAF fighter bases from those of other RAF commands undermined its ability to destroy the British fighter defences . The Luftwaffe underestimated British radar , and they had not realised its importance in the British operational system . To the contrary , OKL believed that the radar stations would benefit the German effort by sending RAF forces into large @-@ scale air battles for the Luftwaffe to decimate . The RAF aircraft industry supported the losses and its pilots were replaced sufficiently to limit the RAF ’ s decline in strength and deny the Germans victory . Conversely , the RAF were able to ensure the serviceability rates and aircrew numbers of the Luftwaffe declined in August – September .
Having failed to defeat the RAF , the Luftwaffe adopted a different and clearer strategy of strategic bombing known as The Blitz . However , as with the campaign against the RAF , the types of targets differed radically and no sustained pressure was put under any one type of British target . Disputes among the OKL staff revolved more around tactics than strategy . This method condemned the offensive over Britain to failure before it had even begun . The end result of the air campaign against Britain in 1940 and 1941 was a decisive failure to end the war . As Hitler committed Germany to ever increasing military adventures , the Wehrmacht became increasingly overstretched and was unable to cope with a multi @-@ front war . By 1944 , the Allies were ready to launch Operation Overlord , the invasion of Western Europe . The Battle of Britain ensured that the Western Allies had a base from which to launch the campaign and that there would be a Western Allied presence on the battlefield to meet the Soviet Red Army in central Europe at the end of the war in May 1945 .
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= Enugu =
Enugu ( / eɪˈnuːɡuː / ay @-@ NOO @-@ goo ; Igbo : Énugwú ) is the capital of Enugu State in Nigeria . It is located in southeastern Nigeria . The city had a population of 722 @,@ 664 according to the disputed 2006 Nigerian census and nearly 2 million according to 2015 estimates . The name Enugu is derived from the two Igbo words Énú Ụ ́ gwụ ́ meaning " hill top " denoting the city 's hilly geography . The city was named after Enugwu Ngwo , under which coal was found .
Since the 17th century the location of present @-@ day Enugu has been inhabited by the Nike ( / niːˈkeɪ / nee @-@ KAY ) subgroup of the Igbo people ; one of Enugu 's neighbourhoods still retains the village 's old name Ogui . In 1900 the Southern Nigeria Protectorate was established by the colonial administration of the British Empire . The discovery of coal by the colonialists led to the building of the Eastern Line railway to carry coal from the inland city to the port of Port Harcourt , a city created for this purpose located 151 miles ( 243 km ) south of what was called Enugu Coal Camp . Enugu was then renamed simply Enugu and developed as one of the few cities in West Africa created from European contact . By 1958 Enugu had over 8 @,@ 000 coal miners . As of 2005 there are no significant coal mining activities left in the city .
Enugu became the capital of the Eastern Region after Nigeria 's independence in 1960 ; a succession of territorial adjustments in 1967 , 1976 and 1991 led to Enugu becoming the capital of what is now Enugu State . On 30 May 1967 Enugu was declared the capital of the short @-@ lived Republic of Biafra ; for this Enugu is known as the " capital of Igboland . " After Enugu was captured by the Nigerian armed forces , the Biafran capital was moved to Umuahia .
Industries in the city include the urban market and bottling industries . Enugu has become a preferred filming location for directors of the Nigerian movie industry , dubbed " Nollywood " . Enugu 's main airport is the Akanu Ibiam International Airport . The main educational establishment in the city is the Enugu campus of the University of Nigeria based in Nsukka , a town north of Enugu and in the same state .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The first settlement in the Enugu area was the small Nike village of Ogui , which was present since the era of the Atlantic Slave Trade . Nike in the Igbo language means " with strength or power . " It was through slave raiding that the Nike people acquired most of their lands , which were mostly unsettled . The Nike used slaves for a defence strategy , placing slave camps at the edge of their territories so that it was harder for an enemy to access the free born . The Nike people were allied to the Aro people who formed the Aro Confederacy ( 1690 — 1901 ) which was an Igbo organisation that controlled slave trading in the Enugu area . Along with the Aro people who came to trade from Arochukwu in the south were the Hausa people who came to trade from the north . The Hausa traders provided horses to the Nike which were used for rituals by the Igbo . Both the Aro and Hausa migrated back and forth to what is now the city of Enugu and were considered foreigners to the area .
= = = Industrialisation = = =
A British campaign to invade Arochukwu and open up the hinterland for British military and political rule was carried out in 1901 . A war between the British and Aro officially started on 1 December 1901 lasting till 24 March 1902 when the Aro were defeated . The Aro Confederacy ended and the rest of Aro dominated areas was added to The Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria , declared in 1900 . Europeans first arrived in the Enugu area in 1903 when the British / Australian geologist Albert Ernest Kitson led an exploration of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate to search for especially valued mineral resources under the supervision of the Imperial Institute , London . By 1909 coal was found under the village of Enugwu Ngwo in the Udi and Okoga areas and by 1913 the coal was confirmed to be in quantities that would be viable commercially . By 1914 the colonial government had already merged the Northern and Southern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria .
In 1915 the British began talks with the indigenous people of the land that would become Enugu about its acquisition in order to lay the Eastern Line railway and to build a colliery . The first houses built in the area were in a temporary settlement consisting of Igbo traditional mud housing inhabited by a W.J. Leck and some other Europeans on Milliken Hill . Another settlement known as Ugwu Alfred ( Igbo : Alfred 's Hill ) or " Alfred 's Camp " , inhabited by an Alfred Inoma ( a leader of indigenous labourers from Onitsha ) and his labourers , was located on a hillside . After the land acquisition by the British , Frederick Lugard , the Governor @-@ General of Nigeria at the time , named the colliery built at the bottom of the Udi Hills Enugu Coal Camp to distinguish it from Enugwu Ngwo which overlooks the city from atop a scarp on Enugu 's west . The first coal mine in the Enugu area was the Udi mine opened in 1915 which was shut down two years later and replaced with the Iva Valley mine . Enugu became a major coal mining area and the only significant one in West Africa . The Eastern Line railway connecting Enugu with Port Harcourt was completed in 1916 in order to export the coal through its seaport of which the city was created for this purpose . Enugu became one of the few cities in West Africa created out of contact with Europeans . By 1916 parts of Enugu reserved for Europeans were set up by the colonial government . The area now known as the Government Reserved Area ( GRA ) became the European Quarters located north of the Ogbete River ; alongside this was a section developed for African residents located south of the river . The built @-@ up area of Enugu comprised these two areas , and by 1917 the city officially gained township status . On the African side of the city a rapid influx of migrant workers sparked the development of squatter camps on the Udi Hills near the coal mines and the Iva Valley .
In 1938 Enugu became the administrative capital of the Eastern Region . The number of employed coal miners in Enugu grew from 6 @,@ 000 ( of mostly Udi men ) in 1948 to 8 @,@ 000 in 1958 . Enugu 's population rose sharply with its industrialisation ; the population of the city reached 62 @,@ 000 in 1952 . Mining in Enugu was sometimes turbulent , as demonstrated by the events of 18 November 1949 when 21 striking miners were shot and killed and 51 wounded by police under British governance . The massacre that came to be known as " The Iva Valley Shooting " fuelled nationalist or " Zikist " sentiments among most Nigerians , and especially amongst Eastern Nigerians . " Zikisim " was a post World War II movement that was created out of admiration for Nnamdi Azikiwe who was a prominent nationalist of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons ( NCNC ) . The shooting was right after a period of unrest when miners were angered by the belief that their full pay was being held back by the colliery management , a belief that was pushed by the nationalist press . Many of the Zikists tried to use the Iva Valley shooting to fuel their nationalistic agenda and push the British administration , who they viewed as imperialists , out of Nigeria .
= = = Independence , war , and after = = =
Enugu became a municipality in 1956 with Umaru Altine its first mayor . After four years passed , Nigeria gained its independence in 1960 . On 27 May 1967 the Nigerian government divided the Western , Northern and Eastern Region into 12 states and Enugu was made the capital of the new East Central State . On 30 May 1967 Enugu was declared the capital of the short @-@ lived Republic of Biafra , the latter created out of the eastern Nigerian states of East Central , Cross River and Rivers . Biafra was declared because of Eastern Nigerian sentiment to separate from Nigeria after their members were involved in a series of ethnic clashes with other ethnic groups in other parts of the country . The main rivals of the mostly Igbo Eastern Nigerians were the Hausa / Fulani people of Northern Nigeria . The Nigerian Civil War ( 1967 — 1970 ) lead , Igbo from northern and western Nigeria to return to their " native " areas in eastern Nigeria and Enugu became a destination . Radio Biafra , alternatively the Voice of Biafra ( formerly the Eastern Nigerian Broadcasting Service ) , was based in Enugu ; it was from here that the Biafran leader , Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu , broadcast speeches and propaganda to Biafrans and Nigeria . Because of the war , Enugu witnessed a decrease in the number of non @-@ Igbo , specifically non @-@ eastern Nigerian residents . On 4 October 1967 the Nigerian military bombarded Enugu with artillery just outside its boundaries before capturing it a week later , shortly after this Umuahia became the new capital of the republic . Years after the Republic of Biafra reverted to Nigeria , Enugu is still regarded as the " Capital of Igboland . "
Enugu resumed in 1970 as the capital of the East Central State after the republic was dissolved . On 3 February 1976 the East Central State was made into two new states , Imo and Anambra ; there were then 19 states in Nigeria ; Enugu was the capital of Anambra . On 27 August 1991 the military dictatorship of Ibrahim Babangida divided the old Anambra State into two new states , Enugu State and Anambra State . Enugu remained as the capital of the newly created Enugu State , while Awka became the capital of the new Anambra State .
= = Geography = =
= = = Topography = = =
Despite its name meaning hill top in the Igbo language , Enugu lies at the foot of an escarpment and not a hill . Enugu is located in the Cross River basin and the Benue trough and has the best developed coal in this area . Precambrian basement rock in this region is overlaid with sediments bearing coal from the Cretaceous and Tertiary age . Coal seams in the Enugu coal district measure between 1 and 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 and 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in thickness and the reserves have been estimated to be more than 300 million tonnes . Enugu 's hills at the extreme may reach an elevation of 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . Highlands surrounding Enugu for the most part are underlain by sandstone , while lowlands are underlain by shale . Much of the escarpment stretching from Enugu to Orlu has been ravaged by soil and gully erosion . Other geological features in Enugu include the Nike Lake near which the Nike Lake Hotel has been built . The Ekulu , Asata , Ogbete , Aria , Idaw and Nyaba rivers are the six largest rivers located in the city . The Ekulu River is the largest body of water in Enugu urban and its reservoir contributes to part of the city 's domestic water supply .
= = = Climate = = =
Enugu is located in a tropical rain forest zone with a derived savannah . The city has a tropical savanna climate ( Köppen : Aw ) . Enugu 's climate is humid and this humidity is at its highest between March and November . For the whole of Enugu State the mean daily temperature is 26 @.@ 7 ° C ( 80 @.@ 1 ° F ) . As in the rest of West Africa , the rainy season and dry season are the only weather periods that recur in Enugu . The average annual rainfall in Enugu is around 2 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 79 in ) , which arrives intermittently and becomes very heavy during the rainy season . Other weather conditions affecting the city include Harmattan , a dusty trade wind lasting a few weeks of December and January . Like the rest of Nigeria , Enugu is hot all year round .
= = = Cityscape and architecture = = =
The tallest building in Enugu 's Central Business District ( CBD ) is the African Continental Bank ( ACB ) tower with six stories . The tower was built in the late 50s for the African Continental Bank Limited which was founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe who became the first president of Nigeria after the country 's independence from the United Kingdom on October 1960 . The opening of the building took place on 30 April 1959 . Other tall buildings include the Hotel Presidential opened on August 1963 . The seven story building contains 100 rooms and is located in the Independence Layout . Hotel Presidential cost $ 2 @.@ 5 million to build and was commissioned by the government of what was then the Eastern Region to serve visiting businessmen , officials and tourists . In the middle of Enugu is the Michael Okpara Square , dedicated to the premier of the former Eastern Region Michael Okpara . Beside the square is located the Enugu State Government House , Enugu State House of Assembly and Enugu State Judiciary Complex .
Enugu 's coal mines are dotted around on the outskirts of the city , a majority of which are closed . The Colliery Camp mines are located in the Iva Valley which is near the neighbouring town of Ngwo and Hilltop of Enugu . The Iva Valley coal mine is accessed through the Iva Valley road linking Enugu with Ngwo . Other coal mines are located in the Ogbete and Coal Camp layouts ; these mines are located on the periphery of the city near the Iva Valley as well .
Architectural design in Enugu 's early years was in the hands of the British colonial administration ; Enugu 's architecture was consequently very European . English cottage housing and Victorian houses were used for housing Europeans and Nigerian colonial civil servants in the early 20th century until Europeans started trying to adapt their architecture to the tropical climate . Some other examples of these European styles are visible in churches of the colonial era , such as the Holy Ghost Cathedral with its Greco @-@ Roman stained glass windows depicting Europeans . Enugu 's roads were reflective of its British rule ; much of the city 's narrow roads in the GRA have been preserved dating back to the incorporation of the city itself . Low rent one bedroom flats in Enugu and other Nigerian cities are known as ' Face @-@ me @-@ I @-@ face @-@ you ' for the way a group of flats face each other and form a square where a compound entrance is lead into .
= = Government = =
Enugu city covers three local government areas : Enugu East , Enugu North and Enugu South . A Local Government Council exists for each of these seats that manages sectors including primary education and health ; an elected Executive Chairman and a group of elected Councillors form the Local Government Council that heads each Local Government Area . Enugu South is split between its rural and urban parts when electing an Executive Chairman . The Executive Chairmen include Paul Ogbe for Enugu South Urban , Theresa Egbo for Enugu South Rural , Emeka Nnamani for Enugu North , and Christopher Ugwu for Enugu East ; these chairmen represent their LGA 's in the Enugu State House of Assembly . The Ministry of Lands , Survey and Town Planning ( at the state level ) and the Local Planning Authority ( at the local government level ) are responsible for the administration of urban lands and town planning . Government House , Enugu is where the government of the state is based . On the federal level , the city of Enugu is split between two congressional areas ; Enugu North / South represented by Chukwuegbo Ofor and Enugu East represented by Gilbert Nnaji ; both representatives are in the People 's Democratic Party ( PDP ) as is Sunday Chukwuebuka Agbo , the governor of Enugu State .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2006 Nigerian census , the Enugu metropolitan area has an estimated population of 722 @,@ 664 . This estimate along with population estimates of other Nigerian cities have been disputed with accusations of population inflation and deflation in favour of the northern part of the country . The population of Enugu is predominantly Christian , as is the rest of southeastern Nigeria . Like the rest of Nigeria most people in Enugu speak Nigerian English alongside the dominant language in the region . In this case the dominant language is Igbo . Nigerian English , or pidgin ( a mix of English and indigenous words ) is often used because of ethnic diversity and sometimes because of the diversity of dialects in the Igbo language . In cultural and linguistic terms Enugu is within the Northern cluster of the Igbo region which includes other towns and cities like Awka and Nsukka .
The indigenous people of Enugu include the Ogui Nike who live in the areas surrounding Hotel Presidential , Obiagu , Ama @-@ Igbo , Ihewuzi and Onu @-@ Asata . Other groups include the Awkunanaw people , who live mainly in the Achara Layout and Uwani areas . The Enugwu Ngwo people live in Hilltop on the west of the city with their farm lands sprawling all over the valley . Other Nike people live around the Abakpa , Iji @-@ Nike , and Emene areas of the city . Most of the non @-@ indigenous people of Enugu are migrants from other parts of the Igbo cultural area . After the majority Igbo , the Yoruba people are another significant ethnic group found present in Enugu ; other groups include the Hausa , Kanuri , and Fulani people .
= = = Crime = = =
Enugu 's crime rate rose in 2009 as kidnapping and armed robbery rates increased in southeastern Nigeria specifically between September and December . The Enugu State government sought to check the high kidnapping rates by passing a bill on February 2009 that made kidnapping by the use of a weapon a capital offence ; the bill was passed by the Enugu House of Assembly unanimously . 1 @,@ 088 arrests were made in the city between September and December 2009 ; 270 of these were in September , 303 were in October , 295 in November and 220 were in December . 477 of these detainees were accused of committing capital offences which included kidnapping . The motives of kidnappers in Enugu are primarily financial and some ransoms went into the millions of Naira . The Chief Press Secretary to the Governor of Enugu State , Dan Nwomeh , had his ransom set as high as ₦ 500 million ( 3 @.@ 3 million US Dollars As of 26 June 2010 ) , dropping to ₦ 200 million and then ₦ 50 million before he was released without a ransom being paid because of the refusal of the government to negotiate with the kidnappers . Much of the crime in Enugu and the rest of Nigeria has been attributed to unemployment .
= = Culture = =
As a Northern Igbo city , Enugu shares cultural traits with its neighbouring towns . Two important Igbo traditional festivals take place in Enugu annually ; the Mmanwu festival and the New yam festival . The Mmanwu festival takes place in November and features various types of masquerades that each have a name . This festival is held at the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium as a parade of carnival @-@ like masquerades that are accompanied by music and it is supported by the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture . The second important Igbo festival , the New yam festival known as ' iwa ji ' , is held between August and October marking the harvesting and feasting of the new yam . The yam is a root vegetable that is the staple crop and a cultural symbol for the Igbo people . Recently created festivals include the Enugu Festival of Arts which is managed by the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture . The festival highlights African culture and traditions and it is here that the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture included the Mmanwu parade as part of the events . The Enugu Festival of Arts was started in 1986 ; it has modernised the Mmanwu festival by transferring it from its traditional village surroundings to the urban setting of Enugu . Diana , Princess of Wales was a notable spectator of Enugu 's cultural shows when she visited the city in 1990 .
The tourism industry in Enugu , managed by the Enugu State Tourism Board ( ESTB ) , is small ; however , the state government recognises a variety of historic and recreational sites . These sites include places like the Udi Hills , from which the majority of Enugu city can be viewed . The Polo amusement park is a funfair that is among the first generation of public parks in the city ; other parks in the city include the Murtala Muhammed Park . Enugu 's former coal mines , Onyeama and Okpara , are open to public visits . Some other spots include : The Institute of Management and Technology ( IMT ) Sculptural Garden and Art Gallery , the Eastern Region Parliamentary Building , the Old Government Lodge , and Enugu Golf course . Enugu Zoo is another attraction in the city . It is divided into the botanical garden and the zoological section . A National Museum is located near Enugu at its north , although it receives few visitors . It is managed by National Commission for Museums and Monuments ( NCMM ) . Other galleries include the Bona Gallery .
= = Entertainment = =
= = = Music = = =
Enugu rose as an important centre for Highlife music in Nigeria in the 1950s . The Igbo dominated version of the genre grew out of earlier " Igbo blues " or " palm wine music " and further spread in popularity to the Southern Cameroons where Enugu had considerable influence in arts and culture in towns such as Limbe , Tiko and Douala . Some prominent musicians with origins in Enugu include Sonny Okosun , an afrobeat musician who was born and raised in Enugu and joined his first band The Postmen that was based in the city in 1965 ; Celestine Ukwu joined Michael Ejeagha 's Enugu based Paradise Rhythm Orchestra in 1962 before creating his own band and had a recreational club in the city after the Nigeria Civil War ; other musicians include 2Face Idibia ; a Hip hop / R & B musician who partly grew up and studied music in the city . Other notable musicians originating from Enugu include rapper Phyno , Slowdog and highlife musician Flavour N 'abania .
= = = Media and literature = = =
English @-@ language newspapers published and sold in Enugu include the Daily Star , Evening Star , The Renaissance and New Renaissance . One of the earliest newspapers published in Enugu was the Eastern Sentinel published by Nnamdi Azikiwe 's Zik Group in 1955 , but failed in 1960 . Among the city 's television and radio stations are the Nigerian Television Authority 's network affiliate ( NTA Enugu ) headquarters located at Independence Layout ; and the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria ( FRCN ) network affiliate station ( Radio Enugu ) which broadcasts in English , Igbo , Efik , Ijaw and Tiv . Enugu State Broadcasting Service Television ( ESBS @-@ TV ) is a state owned television broadcasting company which offers 18 hours of continuous broadcasting on weekends . Enugu , after Lagos is the preferred city for shooting films in Nigeria and a film production centre in the East . In 2007 , Enugu hosted the first @-@ ever film festival in the state , the Enugu International Film Festival . Held at Hotel Presidential , the festival 's intent was to highlight Enugu as a " film making hub " in Africa including movie premiers and prizes for different film categories .
Some of Nigeria 's well @-@ known writers were born and have lived in the city of Enugu . Chinua Achebe , writer of Things Fall Apart lived in Enugu in 1958 , the year the book was published . He again moved to the city during the Nigerian Civil War after escaping Lagos with his family . It was at this time that he met and became friends with Nigerian poet Christopher Okigbo where they started the publishing house Citadel Press , among its titles How the Dog was Domesticated and How the Leopard Got His Claws . Okigbo lived in Enugu during the early months of the Nigerian Civil War . His home in Hilltop contained many of his unpublished writings which were mostly destroyed by bombing early in the war . Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie , writer of Half of a Yellow Sun , a winner of the Orange Prize for Fiction in 2007 , was born in Enugu in 1977 and grew up in Nsukka .
= = = Sports = = =
The Enugu Rangers , a first @-@ division professional league association football team , is Enugu 's home team that plays in the Nigerian Premier League and are based in the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium . Former Rangers players include Jay @-@ Jay Okocha and Taribo West . Enugu 's main sports centre is the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium , named after Nnamdi Azikiwe , the first president of Nigeria . The stadium remained the centre of sports for the whole of the Eastern Region until the Nigerian Civil War broke out . At the war 's end the stadium was refurbished . Enugu was a host for the 2009 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup games ( 24 October – 15 November ) alongside Calabar and five other Nigerian cities with matches taking place at the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium . Its hosting of the FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup benefited Enugu through the renovation of the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium , having had such things as a new artificial surface laid .
= = Economy = =
Nicknamed the Coal City , Enugu 's economy in the early 20th century depended on coal mining in the Udi plateau ; this industry was the pushing force towards the city 's growth . The Nigerian Coal Corporation has been based in Enugu since its creation in 1950 where it controlled coal mining . With the creation of the Eastern Line , Enugu was connected with the sea via Port Harcourt to its south and later connected to the city of Kaduna to Enugu 's north . The Nigerian Civil War brought widespread devastation that forced a decline in coal production from damage or destruction of equipment . As of 2005 coal mining is no longer the major source of income and mines lay unused . Other minerals mined in Enugu include iron ore , limestone , fine clay , marble , and silica sand .
In Enugu most goods are sold in open markets or by street hawkers ; a significant number of street hawkers in Nigeria are children . As of 2003 , around 44 under @-@ 16 @-@ year @-@ olds ( equally boys and girls ) hawk on every street on every hour in Enugu . There are three main urban markets in Enugu : Ogbete Market , Awkunanaw Market and New Market . New Market is a major market for the sale of garri . Ogbete market is patronised by merchants from all over the surrounding area , including merchants from cities like Onitsha , Aguleri , Abakaliki and Aba . In Ogebete market non @-@ food goods are also sold . Brewing and soft @-@ drink bottling are among other industries in the city ; there is also a Mercedes assembly plant as well as the production and manufacturing of machinery , pottery , tiles , steel , cement , asbestos , petroleum , and pharmaceuticals . For a period of time Sosoliso Airlines had its head office on the grounds of Akanu Ibiam International Airport in Enugu .
The former Eastern Region was once famed for producing half the world 's total output of palm kernels . Since the Nigerian Civil War production has markedly declined largely because the plantations and processing equipment were either damaged or destroyed . The production of other important cash crops such as cocoa , groundnut and groundnut oil , rubber , cassava , cotton and cotton seed and timber tumbled after the civil war and the subsequent oil boom years . Consequently , the area called Enugu State as well as the rest of Nigeria , which was once a self @-@ sufficient net exporter in agricultural produce , must import food .
= = Education = =
Enugu has three main tertiary institutions : the Enugu State University of Science & Technology ( ESUT ) ; the University of Nigeria , Nsukka Campus ( UNN ) and Enugu Campus ( UNEC ) ; and the Institute of Management & Technology ( IMT ) . Another notable tertiary institution in Enugu State is the Federal Cooperative College , Oji River ( FCCO ) . The city is also home to Our Saviour Institute of Science and Technology , a polytechnic . Some notable secondary schools in Enugu include the College of the Immaculate Conception ( CIC ) built in 1940 , Holy Rosary College ( HRC ) built in 1943 , Colliery Comprehensive Secondary school , Queen 's Secondary School , Federal Government College , Royal Crown Academy , Nsukka and the University of Nigeria Secondary school . University Teaching Hospital ( UNTH ) Enugu , under the university of Nigeria , is another university located in the city .
= = Healthcare = =
In Enugu , health care services can be obtained at several institutions including the ESUT ( Enugu State University of Science and Technology ) Teaching Hospital ; University of Nigeria , Enugu , Teaching Hospital ; Park Lane General Hospital in the GRA ; PMC ( Peenok Medical Center ) located on Ziks Avenue in Uwani ; Hansa Clinic on Awolowo Street in Uwani ; Niger Foundation Hospital and Diagnostic Centre on Presidential Close in the Independence Layout ; and the Ntasi Obi Ndi no n 'Afufu Hospital organization located on Enuguabor Street in the Trans @-@ Ekulu layout , among others . Some of the specialist hospitals in Enugu include the Psychiatric Hospital Enugu and the National Orthopaedic Hospital Enugu ( NOHE ) .
Many of the hospitals in Enugu are privately run . The UNTH and the National Orthopaedic Hospital are among some of the government controlled hospitals in the city . The medical equipment for the UNTH was upgraded in 2009 as well as parts of the hospital which were renovated in the same year . Most hospitals in the city suffer from a poor standard of medical facilities available to them ; many of the city 's citizens travel abroad for medical care . However , hospitals have been aided by foreign organisations and by Enugu 's community at home and abroad who have donated medicine and other medical equipment . The most developed government hospital in Enugu is the Park Lane Hospital . The governor has said that the state has bought some ambulance service vehicles in March 2010 . Enugu State has established free medical care for pregnant women and for all children under 5 years of age in the state . The child healthcare programme , founded under the District Health System ( DHS ) , was added to the states 2008 budget . Enugu State has a HIV / AIDS prevalence of 6 @.@ 5 % , one of the highest in the country .
= = Transport = =
Enugu is located on the narrow @-@ gauge Eastern Line railway linked to the city of Port Harcourt ; the Enugu train station is by the side of the National Stadium ; dating back to its coal @-@ mining origins , it is located on Ogui Street . The main forms of transportation in the city are taxi cabs and buses . Okada ( motorcycles ) , once served as public transportation in the city until the state government banned them from this use in April 2009 . Most transport enters and leaves the city through Enugu 's Ogbete Motor Park , Garki Motor Park serves as a transport pick @-@ up point as well . Unregistered taxis are known as Kabu Kabu and are differentiated with registered ones through the lack of yellow paint on the unregistered vehicles .
In 2009 , Enugu introduced a taxi job scheme under ' Coal City Cabs ' to help in the eradication of poverty in the city . 200 registered Nissan Sunny taxis , provided by the state government ; and 200 registered Suzuki taxis , provided by the Umuchinemere Pro @-@ Credit Micro Finance Bank , were given out on loan to unemployed citizens in the city who will operate as taxi drivers and will own the vehicles after payments are completed . 20 buses with the capacity for 82 passengers seated and standing were introduced as Coal City Shuttle buses on 13 March 2009 to run as public transport for Enugu urban .
The main airport in the state is the Akanu Ibiam International Airport which can be accessed by buses and taxis . Renovations began on 30 November 2009 to upgrade it to accommodate wide @-@ bodied aircraft . These plans include extending the 2 @,@ 400 @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 900 ft ) runway by 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) to make it 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) long ; the runway will be widened from 45 to 60 metres ( 148 to 197 ft ) . It is estimated that the project will cost ₦ 4.13bn ( 27 @.@ 3 million US Dollars As of 26 June 2010 ) .
The A3 , or the Enugu @-@ Port Harcourt highway , was opened in the 1970s and links the two cities together by passing through Aba , a major urban settlement . The A3 goes further on past Enugu 's north to link to the city of Jos via Makurdi . Two more highways , the A232 from Benin City , Asaba and Onitsha to Enugu 's east and the A343 from Abakaliki to Enugu 's west , makes Enugu the site of a major junction .
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= The Tales of Beedle the Bard =
The Tales of Beedle the Bard is a book of children 's stories by British author J. K. Rowling . There is a storybook of the same name mentioned in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , the last book of the Harry Potter series .
The book was originally produced in a limited edition of only seven copies , each handwritten and illustrated by J. K. Rowling . One of them was offered for auction through Sotheby 's in late 2007 and was expected to sell for £ 50 @,@ 000 ( US $ 77 @,@ 000 , € 69 @,@ 000 ) ; ultimately it was bought for £ 1 @.@ 95 million ( $ 3 million , € 2 @.@ 7 million ) by Amazon , making the selling price the highest achieved at auction for a modern literary manuscript . The money earned at the auction of the book was donated to The Children 's Voice charity campaign .
The book was published for the general public on 4 December 2008 , with the proceeds going to the Children 's High Level Group .
= = In the Harry Potter series = =
The Tales of Beedle the Bard first appeared as a fictional book in J. K. Rowling 's 2007 Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , the seventh and final novel of the Harry Potter series . The book is bequeathed to Hermione Granger by Albus Dumbledore , former headmaster of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . It is described as a popular collection of Wizarding children 's fairy tales , so that while Ron Weasley is familiar with the stories , Harry Potter and Hermione Granger had not previously heard of them due to their non @-@ magical upbringing .
The book Hermione receives in Dumbledore 's will is a copy of the original edition of the fictional book . It is described as an ancient @-@ looking small book with its binding " stained and peeling in places " . In the novel it is also said the book has a title on its cover , written in embossed runic symbols .
The book acts as the vehicle for introducing the Deathly Hallows . Above the story " The Tale of the Three Brothers " , Hermione Granger finds a strange symbol which later is revealed by Xenophilius Lovegood to be the symbol of the Hallows . The triangle from the symbol represents the Invisibility Cloak , the circle inside the triangle symbolises the Resurrection Stone , and the vertical line represents the Elder Wand .
These three objects are also mentioned in the story itself ( see below ) , and are said to belong to the Peverell brothers , who are later revealed as being both Voldemort 's and Harry Potter 's ancestors . Towards the end of the novel , Albus Dumbledore also confirms Harry 's connection to the Peverells , and states that the three brothers might in fact have been the creators of the Hallows .
The introduction ( written by Rowling ) to the publications released in December 2008 mentions that the fictional character Beedle the Bard was born in Yorkshire , lived in the 15th century , and had " an exceptionally luxuriant beard " .
= = Publication history = =
Rowling started writing the book soon after finishing work on the seventh Harry Potter novel . During an interview with her fandom she also stated that she used other books as a source of inspiration for the tales . More specifically , " The Tale of the Three Brothers " , the only story included entirely in The Deathly Hallows , was inspired by Geoffrey Chaucer 's " The Pardoner 's Tale " from The Canterbury Tales .
= = = Handmade edition = = =
Originally The Tales of Beedle the Bard had only been produced in a limited number of seven handmade copies , all handwritten and illustrated by the author herself . The books were bound in brown morocco leather , and decorated with hand @-@ chased silver ornaments and mounted semiprecious stones by silversmith and jeweller Hamilton & Inches of Edinburgh . Each of the silver pieces represents one of the five stories in the book . Rowling also asked that each of the seven copies be embellished using a different semiprecious stone .
Six of these original handwritten copies were uniquely dedicated and given by Rowling to six people who were most involved with the Harry Potter series . The recipients of these copies were not initially identified . Since then , two of these people have been named . One is Barry Cunningham , Rowling 's very first editor . Another is Arthur A. Levine , editor for Scholastic , the U.S. publisher of the Harry Potter books . Cunningham and Levine had lent their personal copies as part of Beedle the Bard exhibits in December 2008 .
Rowling also decided to create a seventh handwritten copy ( distinguished from the others by its moonstone jewelling ) to sell at auction in order to raise funds for The Children 's Voice charity campaign .
The idea came really because I wanted to thank six key people who have been very closely connected to the ' Harry Potter ' series , and these were people for whom a piece of jewellery wasn 't going to cut it . So I had the idea of writing them a book , a handwritten and illustrated book , just for these six people . And well , if I 'm doing six I really have to do seven , and the seventh book will be for this cause , which is so close to my heart .
= = = Auction = = =
The 157 @-@ page " Moonstone edition " of the book was first put on display prior to bidding on 26 November in New York and on 9 December in London . The book was auctioned 13 December 2007 , at Sotheby 's in London . The starting price was £ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 62 @,@ 000 , € 46 @,@ 000 ) , and originally it was expected to sell for approximately £ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 103 @,@ 000 , € 80 @,@ 000 ) . The closing bid far exceeded all prior projections , as ultimately the book was purchased by a representative from London fine art dealers Hazlitt Gooden and Fox on behalf of Amazon , for a total of £ 1 @.@ 95 million ( $ 3 @.@ 98 million , € 2 @.@ 28 million ) . This was the highest purchase price for a modern literary manuscript at that date . The money earned at auction later was donated by Rowling to The Children 's Voice charity campaign .
Sotheby 's printed a forty @-@ eight @-@ page promotional catalogue for the auction . The catalogue featured illustrations from the book , as well as comments from J. K. Rowling on The Tales of Beedle the Bard . The catalogue was sold as a collector 's item , and the money from the sales also has been donated to The Children 's Voice .
= = = Public editions = = =
On 31 July 2008 , it was announced The Tales of Beedle the Bard would also be made available for the public , in both standard and collector 's editions . The book was published by Children 's High Level Group and printed and distributed by Bloomsbury , Scholastic , and Amazon.com. The decision was taken due to disappointment among Harry Potter fans after it had initially been announced a wide public release was not intended .
Similarly to Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and Quidditch Through the Ages ( two other books mentioned in the Harry Potter novels that have also been printed ) the standard and collector 's editions of The Tales of Beedle the Bard feature commentary and footnotes from Albus Dumbledore , headmaster of Hogwarts and one of the main characters of the series . The standard edition also includes illustrations reproduced from the handwritten edition auctioned in December 2007 and the introduction by the author . The limited collector 's edition features ten illustrations by J.K. Rowling not included in the standard edition or the original handcrafted edition , as well as an exclusive reproduction of J.K. Rowling 's handwritten introduction , and other miscellaneous objects such as replica gemstones and an emerald ribbon .
The book , released on 4 December 2008 , was published in the United Kingdom and Canada by Bloomsbury , while the US edition was published by Scholastic , and the limited collector 's edition of the book , available in all three countries , by Amazon . The limited edition retailed for £ 50 ( $ 100 , € 100 ) , and around 100 @,@ 000 copies have been printed . The book has been translated into 28 languages . Profits from the sale of the book were offered to the Children 's High Level Group . Initial sale estimates were roughly £ 4 million ( $ 7 @.@ 6 million , € 4 @.@ 7 million ) ; as of January 2010 an estimated £ 11 million ( $ 17 million , € 13 million ) were generated from sales for the charity .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Overview = = =
Rowling wrote five stories for the book . One , " The Warlock 's Hairy Heart " , is not mentioned in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows ; three others , " The Wizard and the Hopping Pot " , " The Fountain of Fair Fortune " , and " Babbitty Rabbitty and her Cackling Stump " , receive cursory attention . " The Tale of the Three Brothers " is the only story also included entirely in The Deathly Hallows .
= = = " The Wizard and the Hopping Pot " = = =
This story is about the legacy of an old man who , in his generosity , used his pot to brew magical potions and antidotes for other people when they needed his help . Upon his death , he leaves all his belongings to his only son , who has none of the virtues his father had . After his father 's death , the son finds the pot and a single slipper inside it together with a note from his father that reads , " In the fond hope , my son , that you will never need it " .
Bitter for having nothing left but a pot , the son closes the door on every person who asks for his help . Each time he does so , the pot takes on the symptoms of the ones who ask for help , it starts disturbing the son and prevents him from having any peace of mind . This continues until the son finally gives up and provides aid to the town . Upon doing this , the pot 's ailments are removed one by one and the son 's ordeal finally ends one day when the slipper he received from his father falls out of the pot ; he puts the slipper on the pot 's foot and the two walk off into the sunset .
= = = " The Fountain of Fair Fortune " = = =
In this story , there is a fountain where once per year , one person may bathe to have his or her problems answered . This is how three witches meet . The first witch , Asha , suffers from an incurable disease . The second , Altheda , endures poverty and powerlessness due to a robbery . The third , Amata , is distraught after being left by her beloved . The three witches decide to try to reach the fountain together but along the way , a knight , Sir Luckless , also joins them .
On their path to the fountain , they face three challenges . The first involves a giant worm that demands " proof of [ their ] pain " . The second , a steep slope where they have to bring the " fruit of their labours " . The third challenge , crossing a river , requires them to pay with " the treasure of [ their ] past " . Amata passes the challenge by using magic to withdraw the memories of her ex @-@ lover and drop them into the water .
At the fountain , Asha collapses from exhaustion . To save her , Altheda brews an invigorating potion that also cures Asha of her disease and need of the fountain . Altheda realises that her skills are a means to earn money , so she also no longer needs the fountain . Amata realises that washing away her regret for her lover removed her need as well . Sir Luckless bathes in the water , after which he flings himself at Amata 's feet and asks for " her hand and her heart " which she happily gives . Everyone gets an answer to his or her problem , unaware that the fountain held no magical power at all .
= = = " The Warlock 's Hairy Heart " = = =
The story is about a young and handsome warlock who decides to never fall in love , so he uses Dark Arts to prevent himself from doing so . His family , hoping he will change , does nothing . However , one day , he hears two servants whispering about him not having a wife , so he decides to find a talented , rich , and beautiful witch and marry her to gain everyone 's envy .
He meets that girl the next day . Though the girl is both " fascinated and repelled " , the warlock persuades her to come to a dinner feast at his castle . During the feast , she tells him that she needs to know he has a heart . The warlock shows her his beating hairy heart inside a crystal casket in his dungeon . The witch begs him to put it back inside himself . After the warlock does so , she embraces him . However , being disconnected from its body for so long , his heart has developed savage tastes as it has degenerated into an animalistic state . And so he is driven to take by force a truly human heart . He tears out the witch 's heart to replace his own , but finding that he cannot magic the hairy heart back out of his chest , he cuts it out with a dagger . Thus he and the maiden both die , with him holding both hearts in his hands .
= = = " Babbitty Rabbitty and her Cackling Stump " = = =
This story is about a king who wants to keep all magic to himself . To do this he needs to solve two problems : he must capture and imprison all of the sorcerers in the kingdom and he has to learn magic . He creates a " Brigade of Witch Hunters " and calls for an instructor in magic . Only a " cunning charlatan " with no magical ability responds . The charlatan proves himself with a few simple tricks and begins to ask for jewellery and money to continue teaching . However , Babbitty , the king 's washerwoman , laughs at the king one day as he attempts to do magic with an ordinary twig . This causes the king to demand the charlatan join him in a public demonstration of magic and warns that the charlatan will be beheaded if anyone laughs . The charlatan later witnesses Babbitty performing magic in her house . He threatens to expose her if she does not assist him . She agrees to hide and help the demonstration .
During the performance , the brigade captain asks the king to bring his dead hound back to life . Because Babbitty cannot use magic to raise the dead , the crowd thinks the previous acts were tricks . The charlatan exposes Babbitty , accusing her of blocking the spells . Babbitty flees into a forest and disappears at the base of an old tree . In desperation , the charlatan states that she has turned " into a crab apple " and has the tree cut down .
As the crowd departs , the stump starts cackling and makes the charlatan confess . The stump cackles again , demanding the king never hurt a wizard again , and build a statue of Babbitty on the stump to remind him of his foolishness . The king agrees and heads back to the palace . Afterwards , a " stout old rabbit " with a wand in its teeth hops out from a hole beneath the stump and leaves the kingdom .
= = = " The Tale of the Three Brothers " = = =
The story is about three brothers who , travelling together , reach a treacherous river . They make a magical bridge over the river . Halfway across the bridge , they meet the personification of Death who is angry for losing three potential victims . He pretends to be impressed by them and grants each a wish as a reward . The oldest brother asks for an unbeatable dueling wand , so Death gives him the Elder Wand . The middle brother asks for the ability to resurrect the dead , so Death gives him the Resurrection Stone . The youngest brother doesn 't trust Death and asks for a way to stop Death from following him , so Death reluctantly gives him his Cloak of Invisibility . Afterwards , the brothers go their separate ways .
The oldest brother , bragging about his powerful wand , is robbed of it and murdered while he is asleep . The middle brother uses his ability to bring back the woman he loved , who died before he could marry her . However , she is not fully alive and is full of sorrow . He kills himself to join her . As for the youngest brother , Death never manages to find him , as he stays hidden under his Cloak . Many years later , the brother removes his cloak and gives it to his son . Pleased with his achievements , he greets Death as an old friend and chooses to leave with him as equals .
= = Reception = =
Sotheby 's deputy director Dr. Philip W. Errington described the handmade edition as " one of the most exciting pieces of children 's literature " to have passed through the auction house . After buying the book , Amazon also released a review , describing it as " an artifact pulled straight out of a novel " .
The Times reviewed the published book favourably , calling the tales " funny , sinister , wise and captivating " and likening them to the Brothers Grimm . The Telegraph reviewed it unfavourably , noting that they " would be unremarkable were it not for the body of work that lies behind it " and that there was " an element of padding to make it a respectable length " .
= = Live show = =
A live puppet show of The Fountain of Fair Fortune and The Tale of the Three Brothers is presented daily at the Diagon Alley expansion of The Wizarding World of Harry Potter at Universal Studios Florida .
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= SM U @-@ 67 =
SM U @-@ 67 was a Type U 66 submarine or U @-@ boat for the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during the First World War . She had been laid down in November 1913 as U @-@ 8 the second boat of the U @-@ 7 class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) but was sold to Germany , along with the others in her class , in November 1914 .
The submarine was ordered as U @-@ 8 from Germaniawerft of Kiel as the second of five boats of the U @-@ 7 class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy became convinced that none of the submarines of the class could be delivered to the Adriatic via Gibraltar . As a consequence , the entire class , including U @-@ 8 , was sold to the German Imperial Navy in November 1914 . Under German control , the class became known as the U 66 type and the boats were renumbered ; U @-@ 8 became U @-@ 67 , and all were redesigned and reconstructed to German specifications . U @-@ 67 was launched in May 1915 and commissioned in August . As completed , she displaced 791 tonnes ( 779 long tons ) , surfaced , and 933 tonnes ( 918 long tons ) , submerged . The boat was 69 @.@ 50 metres ( 228 ft ) long and was armed with five torpedo tubes and a deck gun .
A part of the IV Flottilla throughout the war , U @-@ 67 sank 18 ships with a combined gross register tonnage ( GRT ) of 39 @,@ 937 in thirteen war patrols . She also damaged three other ships of 14 @,@ 766 GRT . On 20 November 1918 , nine days after the Armistice , U @-@ 67 was surrendered to the British . She was broken up in 1921 at Fareham .
= = Design and construction = =
After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy had competitively evaluated three foreign submarine designs , it selected the Germaniawerft 506d design , also known as the Type UD , for its new U @-@ 7 class of five submarines . The Navy ordered five boats on 1 February 1913 .
The U @-@ 7 class was seen by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as an improved version of its U @-@ 3 class , which was also a Germaniawerft design . As designed for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the boats were to displace 695 tonnes ( 684 long tons ) on the surface and 885 tonnes ( 871 long tons ) while submerged . The doubled @-@ hulled boats were to be 69 @.@ 50 metres ( 228 ft ) long overall with a beam of 6 @.@ 30 metres ( 20 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 3 @.@ 79 metres ( 12 ft 5 in ) . The Austrian specifications called for two shafts with twin diesel engines ( 2 @,@ 300 metric horsepower ( 2 @,@ 269 bhp ; 1 @,@ 692 kW ) total ) for surface running at up to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , and twin electric motors ( 1 @,@ 240 PS ( 1 @,@ 223 shp ; 912 kW ) total ) for a maximum of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) when submerged . The boats were designed with five 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes ; four located in the bow , one in the stern . The boats ' armament was to also include a single 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) L / 26 deck gun .
U @-@ 8 and sister boat U @-@ 7 were both laid down on 1 November 1913 , the first two boats of the class begun . Her construction was slated to be complete within 29 to 33 months .
Neither U @-@ 8 nor any of her sister boats were complete when World War I began in August 1914 . With the boats under construction at Kiel , the Austrians became convinced that it would be impossible to take delivery of the boats , which would need to be towed into the Mediterranean past Gibraltar , a British territory . As a result , U @-@ 8 and her four sisters were sold to the Imperial German Navy on 28 November 1914 .
U @-@ 8 was renumbered by the Germans as U @-@ 67 when her class was redesignated as the Type U 66 . The Imperial German Navy had the submarines redesigned and reconstructed to German standards , which increased the surface displacement by 96 tonnes ( 94 long tons ) and the submerged by 48 tonnes ( 47 long tons ) . The torpedo load was increased by a third , from 9 to 12 , and the deck gun was upgraded from the 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) gun originally specified to an 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) one .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 67 was launched on 15 May 1915 . On 4 August , SM U @-@ 67 was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy under the command of Korvettenkapitän Erich von Rosenberg @-@ Grusczyski . On 28 October 1915 , U @-@ 67 was assigned to the IV . U @-@ Halbflotille in which she remained for the duration of the war .
In March 1916 , Kapitänleutnant Hans Nieland replaced von Rosenberg @-@ Grusczyski as the captain of U @-@ 67 , and it was under his command that U @-@ 67 was most successful , sinking 18 ships with a combined a total of 39 @,@ 937 gross register tons ( GRT ) , while damaging a further three of 14 @,@ 766 tons . U @-@ 67 's most successful month was April 1917 , when she sank four ships of 15 @,@ 223 tons in a span of twelve days .
Nieland was succeeded as commander of U @-@ 67 by Oberleutnant zur See Helmuth von Rabenau in December 1917 . Under his command during the last eleven months of the war , U @-@ 67 sank no more ships . During her service career under three commanders , U @-@ 67 had completed thirteen war patrols . She was surrendered to the British on 20 November 1918 , nine days after the Armistice , and broken up at Fareham in 1921 .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
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= Monica Reyes =
Monica Julieta Reyes / ˈreɪ.ɛz / is a fictional character in the Fox science fiction @-@ supernatural television series The X @-@ Files . Monica Reyes is portrayed by Annabeth Gish . A Special Agent with the FBI , she works with her longtime friend and partner John Doggett in the X @-@ Files office , which is concerned with the investigation of paranormal cases , dubbed " X @-@ Files " . Introduced in the series ' eighth season , Reyes would become a main character throughout the entirety of its ninth season , before returning for a single @-@ episode guest appearance in the tenth season finale .
= = Conceptual history = =
Due to their decision to continue The X @-@ Files television series and try to appeal to a new generation of viewers , the production personnel knew from the beginning of season 8 that they were going to introduce another female character who would be a believer , as departing character Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) had been a believer . However , the writers wanted a different kind of believer character to contrast with the sceptical nature of John Doggett , who had already been established . The writers were required to create a character who was unlike any of the preconceived main characters that were a part of the series . This female character was initially named Karen Miller and then Jane Jones before the name " Monica Reyes " was decided upon , named after a friend of series creator Chris Carter 's acquaintance who had an art gallery in Vancouver .
When the role was being cast , actress Annabeth Gish received a call from her agent , who informed her that the producers of The X @-@ Files were looking for a new female character . Gish applied for the part , but her audition consisted of a meeting with writers Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz . Spotnitz considered Reyes to be like Mulder in her optimism , faith and enjoyment of being open to beliefs , while still being somewhat different as she was more spiritual and subscribed to a more New Age @-@ like view than Mulder had . Reyes was seen as different from both Mulder and the other main characters as she was somewhat more neurotic , scattered , and quirky . She smiled and laughed more than the other characters , having a nature that writer Frank Spotnitz felt was lighter , sunnier , brighter , warmer and more " overtly sexy " .
The character of Brad Follmer was created in season nine to provide a love interest for Reyes , as the writers believed the audience needed to know more about her . However , Follmer 's unresolved relationship with Reyes also served to heighten the conflict between Doggett and Follmer , as both men had feelings for her . Portraying actress Annabeth Gish was pleased that the relationship between her character and Scully was similar to that of two sisters , rather than Reyes serving as an antagonist to Scully .
The ninth season episode " Hellbound " , in which Reyes discovers that she was apparently reincarnated , began as an effort to give Reyes or Doggett a " drive " or sense of motivation , as they were seen by the writers as the successors to Mulder and Scully . According to the writer of the episode , David Amann , executive producer Frank Spotnitz was interested in giving Reyes " some darkness to play " and her past life was consequently written with sombre overtones .
= = Background = =
Monica Reyes was born and raised in Mexico City , Mexico , and speaks fluent Spanish . She studied folklore and mythology at Brown University , and has a master 's degree in Religious Studies . In 1990 , Reyes enrolled in the Federal Bureau of Investigation at Quantico , Virginia . Her first assignment in the FBI was serving on a special taskforce investigating Satanic ritual abuse . Reyes then served in the New York City field office , where she became romantically involved with special agent Brad Follmer despite the FBI 's strict anti @-@ fraternization rules . Reyes was the head investigator in the kidnapping of 7 year @-@ old Luke Doggett , son of then NYPD officer John Doggett . The boy was eventually found dead , but no suspect was ever apprehended . In 1999 , Monica Reyes transferred to the New Orleans field office .
= = Character arc = =
= = = Season 8 ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = =
In 2001 , Reyes was contacted by Doggett , now an FBI agent assigned to X @-@ Files department , to assist in on a case involving the disappearances of several individuals who claimed to be alien abductees , as well as the disappearance of fellow agent Fox Mulder . Because of her background , Reyes considered that these believers may have simply formed a cult , but did not rule out the possibility of alien intervention . She stayed with the case until after Mulder was returned by his abductors , but returned to her field office soon after .
She later contacted Mulder , who was back to full health at the time , seeking help on a case she suspected had some link to the murder of Doggett 's son . However , as before , she soon returned to her own work . Reyes remained with the New Orleans field office until she was called upon to protect agent Dana Scully in May 2001 , driving her out to a remote location in Georgia so that the pregnant Scully might deliver her child out of harm 's way . Reyes helped deliver the child , and made a permanent move soon afterwards , becoming Doggett 's partner on The X @-@ Files .
= = = Season 9 ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = =
Season nine sees Reyes join the X @-@ Files on a permanent basis , working with both John Doggett and Dana Scully . Following a year of investigating the paranormal , Doggett and Reyes were last seen in the New Mexico desert in 2002 , where they were warning Agents Mulder and Scully of the arrival of Knowle Rohrer , a Super Soldier linked to the alien colonists . They were fleeing the scene as black helicopters destroyed the Anazasi adobes where The Smoking Man had been living . The X @-@ Files office was closed shortly after the involvement of Walter Skinner and Alvin Kersh in Mulder 's escape was revealed ; Reyes still stayed with the FBI in some capacity for a time afterwards .
= = = Between seasons 9 and 10 = = =
Shortly after the closure of the X @-@ Files , Reyes was contacted by C.G.B. Spender ( the Cigarette Smoking Man ) , who had miraculously survived the confrontation in New Mexico , albeit with devastating major injuries . Spender offered to secure Reyes a place among the designated survivors of end @-@ times , in exchange for her assistance . Reyes departed the FBI shortly thereafter , electing to take Spender 's offer . She spent the next 14 years personally assisting the physically damaged Spender ( even lighting his cigarettes for him ) , but with the intent to halt the invasion from within the syndicate .
= = = Season 10 ( 2016 ) = = =
Following the widespread outbreak of a contagion , Dana Scully is contacted by Reyes , who claims to know how to develop a vaccine . During their meeting , Reyes reveals her arrangement with Spender . Scully implies that Monica was weak for accepting the deal , though Reyes ' information ultimately allows Scully to create , and administer , a vaccine to Agent Einstein — and , presumably , to the rest of humanity thereafter .
= = Reception = =
The character of Monica Reyes has attracted mixed reviews from critics . Gish 's portrayal of the character has been described by Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker as " ferocious yet lissome " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , felt that Reyes ' introduction in " This Is Not Happening " was " rather forced " , finding her upbeat personality at odds with the tone of the series at that time ; Shearman and Pearson also felt that the overall use of the character in season nine was " lazy " , with her willingness to believe in anything compromising the tension of episodes such as " 4 @-@ D " or " Hellbound " . However , Shearman considered the character 's appearance in " Empedocles " to be " very clever " , while Gish 's acting in " 4 @-@ D " was described as " stand out " . Writing for The New York Times , Joyce Millman described Reyes and her partner Doggett as " the Diet Coke of Mulder and Scully " , referring to their secondary standing . Fellow New York Times writer Caryn James felt that Reyes and Doggett were " colorless " , and " a shadow " of their predecessors , noting that " where Scully and Mulder 's muted sexual attraction linked them to reality , Doggett and Reyes 's chemistry was nonexistent , even as platonic partners " .
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= Black Arrow =
Black Arrow , officially capitalised BLACK ARROW , was a British satellite carrier rocket . Developed during the 1960s , it was used for four launches between 1969 and 1971 . Its final flight was the first and only successful orbital launch to be conducted by the United Kingdom , and placed the Prospero satellite into low Earth orbit .
Black Arrow originated from studies by the Royal Aircraft Establishment for carrier rockets based on the Black Knight rocket , with the project being authorised in 1964 . It was initially developed by Saunders @-@ Roe , and later Westland Aircraft as the result of a merger .
Black Arrow was a three @-@ stage rocket , fuelled by RP @-@ 1 paraffin ( kerosene ) and high test peroxide , a concentrated form of hydrogen peroxide . It was retired after only four launches in favour of using American Scout rockets , which the Ministry of Defence calculated to be cheaper than maintaining the Black Arrow programme .
= = Development = =
Black Arrow originated from a Royal Aircraft Establishment proposal for a rocket capable of placing a 317 @-@ pound ( 144 kg ) payload into low Earth orbit , in order to test systems designed for larger spacecraft . In the autumn of 1964 , the programme was authorised by Conservative Aviation Minister Julian Amery . Then , following a general election in October , the incoming Labour government put the project on hold to reduce expenditure . Following another election , the government approved the continuation of the programme with several modifications , including the reduction of the test programme from five to three launches . The first launch was set for 1968 .
Most of the technology and systems used on Black Arrow had already been developed or flight @-@ proven on the Black Knight rocket , or the Blue Steel missile . Black Arrow was designed to reuse as much technology from the earlier programmes as possible in order to reduce costs , and simplify the development process . Many senior staff of the Black Knight programme transferred directly to Black Arrow , including the Chief Missile Scientist , Roy Dommett , the Chief Design Engineer , Ray Wheeler and the Deputy Chief Engineer , John Underwood .
Initial development was conducted by Saunders @-@ Roe , which merged into Westland Aircraft in 1964 . Westland was subsequently the prime contractor for the Black Arrow , and assembled the first and second stages at East Cowes on the Isle of Wight . Bristol Siddeley produced the first and second stage engines at a factory in Ansty , Warwickshire . The engines were test fired at the factory before being shipped to the Isle of Wight , where they were integrated into the rocket and the first stage engines were fired again at High Down . Bristol Aerojet produced the third stage in Somerset , while the Explosives Research and Development Establishment produced its solid propellant in Waltham Abbey , Essex . The Rocket Propulsion Establishment , based in Westcott , Buckinghamshire , was responsible for the design and integration of the stage .
The name Black Arrow came from the Ministry of Supply policy of assigning designations consisting of a colour and a noun , unofficially known as Rainbow Codes , to research programmes conducted by the Armed Forces .
= = Vehicle = =
The first and second stages of the Black Arrow were fuelled by RP @-@ 1 paraffin ( kerosene ) , burnt using high test peroxide as an oxidiser . Due to the optimum mixture ratio being about 7 , a larger oxidiser tank was required compared to many contemporary launch systems . The oxidiser tanks were located below the fuel tanks , following the practice of putting the more dense propellent at bottom in order to lower the centre of gravity and make the rocket easier to control . This arrangement had been pioneered by Germany and the United States , whereas the Soviet Union had placed oxidiser tanks above fuel tanks , making it easier for the lower tank to be filled first .
Thrust vectoring was used to provide attitude control on the first two stages . The eight first stage combustion chambers were arranged in pairs which could gimbal either way along one axis . Two of the pairs were arranged perpendicular to the other two , and when all four pairs were used together , they provided roll , pitch and yaw control . The second stage had two combustion chambers , which could gimbal along two axes , providing the same level of control . During a coast phase after second stage cut @-@ off , the rocket was controlled by a reaction control system . The third stage did not have an attitude control system , and was instead spin @-@ stabilised .
The first stage was powered by a single Gamma 8 engine , which burned for 127 seconds . The Gamma 8 was an eight @-@ chamber engine , derived from the Gamma 301 engine used on the Black Knight . It was 6 @.@ 9 metres ( 23 ft ) long , and had a diameter of 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) , the same diameter as the French Coralie . Coralie was used as the second stage of the Europa rocket , and the decision to give Black Arrow the same diameter as Coralie was taken in order to make it compatible with Blue Streak , which was used as the first stage of Europa . This would have allowed Black Arrow 's payload capacity to have been increased , and would also have allowed Britain to use the first stage of Black Arrow as a backup to the Coralie . For this reason , all dimensions in the original specification were given in imperial units except the first stage diameter , which was given in metres .
The first and second stages were connected by an interstage structure containing four Siskin IB separation and ullage motors , which separated and ignited seven seconds after the first stage had cut off . The interstage separated from the second stage six seconds later . The second stage , which was 2 @.@ 9 metres ( 9 ft 6 in ) long and measured 1 @.@ 37 metres ( 4 ft 6 in ) in diameter , was powered by a two @-@ chamber Gamma 2 engine which ignited shortly after the separation motors , and continued to burn for 123 seconds . Three minutes after launch , during the second stage burn , the payload fairing separated .
About 257 seconds into the flight , the second stage cut off , and the rocket entered a coast phase to apogee . Immediately after cut @-@ off , the second stage attitude control system was pressurised . During the coast the correct orientation for third stage separation was maintained by means of the attitude control system . Towards the end of the coast period , the third stage was spun up to a rate of 3 hertz ( 180 rpm ) by means of six Imp rockets . Five seconds later , the third stage separated , and following ten more seconds of coasting , it ignited . The third stage was a Waxwing solid rocket motor , which burned for 55 seconds .
Just over a minute after the third stage had burned out , the payload was released , and gas generators were used to push the spacecraft and spent upper stage apart . The delay between burnout and separation was intended to reduce the risk of recontact between the upper stage and payload due to residual thrust . Despite this , following spacecraft separation on the R3 launch , the upper stage collided with the Prospero satellite , damaging one of the spacecraft 's communications antennae ; however the spacecraft was still able to successfully complete its mission . On the R3 launch , the ascent took 710 seconds ( 11 @.@ 8 min ) from liftoff to spacecraft separation .
Although none were ever built , several derivatives of Black Arrow were also proposed , as ways of increasing its payload capacity . One proposal added eight Raven solid rocket motors from the Skylark programme to the first stage as booster rockets . Another suggestion was to mount the entire rocket atop a Blue Streak missile , while a third proposal involved replacing the Gamma engines with the more powerful Larch .
= = Launches = =
Four Black Arrows were launched between 1969 and 1971 . The first two launches were demonstration flights , with battleship third stages and a boilerplate payload . On the first flight an electrical fault caused a pair of first stage combustion chambers to pivot back and forth . Before it cleared the launch pad , the rocket was rolling erratically , and about a minute later it began to disintegrate . After the first stage engine failed , and the rocket began to fall back to earth , it was destroyed by range safety . The second launch was successful . The first all @-@ up launch on 2 September 1970 was the third launch of the Black Arrow , and Britain 's first attempt to launch a satellite . The launch failed due to a leak in the second stage oxidiser pressurisation system , which caused it to cut out early . The third stage fired , but the rocket did not reach orbit , and re @-@ entered over the Gulf of Carpentaria . The fourth launch successfully orbited the Prospero satellite , making the United Kingdom the sixth nation to place a satellite into orbit by means of an indigenously developed carrier rocket . The satellite , also known as X @-@ 3 , was named Prospero after the character Prospero in Shakespeare 's The Tempest . The name was chosen as a reference to events in the play , in which Prospero , a sorcerer , gives up his powers . Prior to the cancellation of the Black Arrow programme , the satellite was to be named after Puck from A Midsummer Night 's Dream .
All four launches were conducted from Launch Area 5B at the Woomera Prohibited Area in Australia , which had previously been used as a test site for the Black Knight rocket . During the development programme , launch sites in Barbados , Uist and Norfolk were also considered . The launch sites at Uist and Norfolk were rejected because the former was too remote , while there was a risk that a rocket launched from the latter might drop spent stages on an oil rig in the North Sea .
= = Cancellation = =
The Minister of State for Trade and Industry , Frederick Corfield , announced the cancellation of the Black Arrow project in the House of Commons on 29 July 1971 . As the R3 rocket had already been shipped to the launch site , the second stage having arrived three days earlier , permission was given for it to be launched .
The programme was cancelled on economic grounds , as the Ministry of Defence decided that it would be cheaper to use the American Scout rocket , which had a similar payload capacity , for future launches . Prior to the cancellation of Black Arrow , NASA had offered to launch British payloads for free ; however , this offer was withdrawn following the decision to cancel Black Arrow .
The final Black Arrow to be completed was R4 , which did not fly , and is preserved in the Science Museum , London , along with the flight spare for the Prospero satellite . A replica of the Black Arrow rocket stands in the Rocket Park at Woomera . In addition , the remains of the first stage of Black Arrow R3 were recovered from the Anna Creek cattle station and are displayed in the William Creek Memorial Park .
The launch facilities at Woomera were demolished within a year of the final flight , and half of the engineers who had worked on the programme were laid off . The X @-@ 4 satellite , which had been manifested for launch by Black Arrow R4 , was eventually launched on 9 March 1974 , by an American Scout D @-@ 1 rocket flying from Space Launch Complex 5 at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California .
As of 2014 , the United Kingdom is the only country to have successfully developed and then abandoned a satellite launch capability . All other countries that have developed such a capability have retained it either through their own space programme or , in the case of France , through its involvement in the Ariane programme .
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= Ngo Dinh Diem presidential visit to Australia =
The Ngo Dinh Diem presidential visit to Australia from 2 to 9 September 1957 was an official visit by the first president of the Republic of Vietnam . It was part of a year of travelling for Diem , who made official visits to the United States and other anti @-@ communist countries . As with his American trip , Diem was warmly and lavishly received during the height of the Cold War , garnering bipartisan praise from both the Liberal Party of Australia of Prime Minister Robert Menzies and the opposition Australian Labor Party ( ALP ) .
Diem addressed the Parliament of Australia and was made an honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George , one of the highest imperial honours that can be bestowed on a non @-@ British subject — at the time , Australians were also British subjects . Diem did not engage in substantive political discussions with the Australian leaders and he spent most of his time at public functions . He was universally extolled by the media , which praised him for what they perceived to be a successful , charismatic , democratic and righteous rule in South Vietnam , overlooking his authoritarianism , election fraud and other corrupt practices . The Australian Catholic leadership and media were particularly glowing towards the South Vietnamese head of state . A member of Vietnam 's Catholic minority and the brother of Vietnam 's leading archbishop , Diem had pursued policies in Vietnam favoring his co @-@ religionists . He exempted the Catholic Church from land redistribution , gave them more aid and job promotions , and allowed Catholic paramilitaries to attack Buddhists , who formed the religious majority .
Diem 's visit was a highmark in relations between Australia and South Vietnam . Over time , Diem became unpopular with his foreign allies , who began to criticise his autocratic style and religious bias . By the time of his assassination , he had little support . Australia later sent troops to support South Vietnam in the anti @-@ communist fight , but the bipartisanship evaporated during the mid @-@ 1960s as the ALP began to sympathise with North Vietnam and opposition to the war grew . The ALP later withdrew support for and refused to accept refugees from South Vietnam after winning office , but on the return of the centre right Liberal @-@ National coalition to power in 1975 , Vietnamese refugees were allowed to resettle in Australia in large numbers .
= = Background = =
In 1933 , the devoutly Catholic Diem was appointed Interior Minister of Vietnam , serving under Emperor Bảo Đại . However , a few months thereafter he resigned and became a private citizen because the French colonialists would not give Vietnam any meaningful autonomy . During World War II , Imperial Japan attacked Indochina and wrested control from France , but when they were defeated by the Allies in 1945 , a power vacuum was created . The communist @-@ dominated Viet Minh of Ho Chi Minh fought for Vietnamese independence , while the French attempted to regain control of their colony by creating the French Union @-@ allied State of Vietnam under Bảo Đại . A staunch anti @-@ communist nationalist , Diem opposed both and attempted to create his own movement , with little success . With both the French and the communists hostile to him , Diem felt unsafe and went into self @-@ imposed exile in 1950 . He spent the next four years in the United States and Europe enlisting support , particularly among Vatican officials and fellow Catholic politicians in America . The success of the effort was helped by the fact that his elder brother Ngo Dinh Thuc was the leading Catholic cleric in Vietnam and had studied with high @-@ ranking Vatican officials in Rome a few decades earlier .
In 1954 , the French lost the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and the Geneva Conference was held to determine the future of French Indochina . The Viet Minh were given control of North Vietnam , while the State of Vietnam controlled the territory south of the 17th parallel . The Geneva agreements , which the State of Vietnam did not sign , called for reunification elections to be held in 1956 . Bảo Đại appointed Diem as his prime minister , hoping that he would be able to attract American aid as the French withdrew from Southeast Asia . Diem then deposed Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum and declared himself president of the newly proclaimed Republic of Vietnam . Diem received support from the U.S. and other anti @-@ communist countries in the midst of the Cold War . He refused to hold the national elections and asserted that Ho Chi Minh would rig the ballots in the north , although he had done so himself in deposing Bảo Đại .
= = Meetings and ceremonies = =
Diem arrived in the capital Canberra on 2 September 1957 ; his visit was the first by a foreign incumbent head of state to Australia . He had visited the US in May , and the visit to Australia was the second of three legs in a tour of anti @-@ communist countries in the Asia Pacific region ; Diem had visited Thailand in August and went on to South Korea after leaving Australia . The magnitude of the ceremonial welcome accorded to Diem was unseen since the visit in 1954 by Queen Elizabeth II . According to Peter Edwards , a military historian at the Australian War Memorial specialising in the Vietnam War , " Everywhere he was feted as a man of courage , faith and vision " , and he noted that Diem was received with " more ceremony and pageantry " than the visit of Queen Elizabeth II in 1954 .
Upon disembarking from his plane , Diem was photographed for The Age and described as a " small but striking figure in a royal blue silk frock coat , long white trousers and black mandarin hat " . He was greeted by the Governor @-@ General of Australia Sir William Slim and the Prime Minister of Australia Robert Menzies . He was given a 21 @-@ gun salute and a guard of honour by the Royal Australian Air Force , whose fighter jets flew overhead . Diem visited the Royal Military College Duntroon in Canberra , where he watched and addressed a parade of Australian cadets , who were training to become officers . Diem told the students that they were " comrades of the Free World " and that they would help to defend like @-@ minded countries .
The centrepiece of Diem 's visit was a speech to a joint sitting of the Parliament of Australia , with both the House of Representatives and the Senate in attendance . After the speech , Menzies called for three cheers for Diem at an official parliamentary luncheon . Doc Evatt , the leader of the opposition Australian Labor Party joined in , proclaiming that peace , stability and democracy had been achieved in South Vietnam .
The guard of honour and a 21 @-@ gun salute was repeated in Sydney and Melbourne , where large crowds cheered Diem 's arrival at the airport and the passing of his motorcade . The South Vietnamese leader was taken outside the capital cities for two days so that he could see the Snowy Mountains Scheme , a large hydroelectricity project in highland Victoria .
Diem spent little time on detailed defence and policy discussions with Australian officials during the trip , because of his extensive meetings with Catholic leaders . Although Diem had signalled his intentions to discuss defence relations during the visit , these did not materialise . At the end of the visit , Diem and Menzies released a bilateral statement , announcing that they would increase the magnitude of the Colombo Plan , a program under which Asian students could study abroad in Western nations . However , there was little detail in the announcements relating to anti @-@ communism , with only general expressions of Australian support . Diem had previously stated that if North Vietnam attacked the south , he would send the Army of the Republic of Vietnam to land in the Red River Delta in the north and retaliate . This was contrary to the air attack plans of the South East Asian Treaty Organization ( SEATO ) , which had vowed to defend the south under the provisions of the Manila Treaty . Despite the public statements of support , the Australian government never shared the details of the SEATO plans with Diem .
At the end of the visit , Menzies bestowed on Diem an honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George , one of the highest imperial honours that had been bestowed on someone who was not a British subject . Edwards said of the trip : " Australia had now associated Diem 's survival with its national interest , publicly and without restraint " , something that eventually extended to military support against the Vietnamese communists .
= = Media reception and support = =
The Australian media wrote uniformly glowing reports that heaped praise on Diem , and generally presented him as a courageous , selfless and wise leader . The Sydney Morning Herald described Diem as " One of the most remarkable men in the new Asia ... authoritarian in approach but liberal in principle " . The Age compared Diem favourably to Chiang Kai @-@ shek and Syngman Rhee , the Presidents of the Republic of China and South Korea respectively . The trio were the respective leaders of the anti @-@ communist halves of the three countries in Asia that had been divided along communist and anti @-@ communist lines . The Age opined that Diem was not " morally equivocal " but " incorruptible and intensely patriotic " compared to his anti @-@ communist counterparts , and " the type of Asian leader whose straight talk and courageous manner should be valued " . The Canberra Times noted that Diem 's visit coincided with that of Foreign Minister Richard Casey to Malaya for that country 's independence celebrations . Australia had supported Malaya 's successful fight against communism and the newspaper compared the two countries , predicting that they would succeed because " the leaders owe their authority to popular support " . Like the politicians , the press overlooked the negative aspects and reality of Diem 's rule , such as his authoritarianism . Although Diem was depicted as being extremely popular and democratic , he had made himself president when his brother rigged a 1955 referendum that allowed him to depose Bảo Đại ; Diem was subsequently credited with 133 % of the votes in Saigon . Diem 's family regime routinely engaged in corruption , ballot stuffing and arbitrary arrests of all opposition . The newspapers also failed to mention that the South Vietnamese economy was largely being propped up by the Commercial Import Program run by the United States and that land reform had failed .
The mainstream media depicted Diem as a friendly and charismatic leader who related well to the populace . The Herald showed photographs of the president eating cheese , and inspecting the foliage at the Botanic Gardens . Diem was depicted making friends with a young boy from a Collingwood public housing estate and having tea with South Vietnamese students studying abroad at the University of Melbourne , with the females wearing the traditional ao dai . In contrast , Diem was generally regarded as aloof and distant from the population , rarely heading outside the presidential palace to mingle with his people , and holding military processions in honour of his ascension to power in front of empty grandstands .
The strongest support for Diem came from the Australian Catholic media . Diem was a Catholic in a majority Buddhist country , and he had close religious links with the Vatican , who had helped him rise to power . He had stayed in a seminary run by Cardinal Francis Spellman in the United States in the early 1950s before his elevation to power . Diem 's elder brother Archbishop Ngo Dinh Thuc was the leading Catholic figure in Vietnam and a classmate of Spellman when the pair studied in Rome . Spellman was widely regarded as the most powerful Catholic figure in the United States and he helped to organise support for Diem among American politicians , particularly Catholics . In 1957 , Diem dedicated his country to the Virgin Mary and ruled on the basis of a Catholic doctrine known as personalism . His younger brother Ngo Dinh Nhu ran the secret and autocratic Catholic Can Lao Party ( Personalist Labor Party ) , which provided a clandestine network of support and police @-@ state mechanisms to protect Diem 's rule . It counted many leading public servants and military officers among its members . Diem also maintained land policies that were preferential to the Roman Catholic Church , the largest property owner in the country . Their holdings were exempt from redistribution under land reform schemes , while the construction of Buddhist temples was restricted ; military and civil service promotions were given preferentially to Catholics . Some Catholic priests ran their own private armies and in some areas , forced conversions , looting , shelling and demolition of pagodas occurred .
The Catholic Weekly described Diem as " his nation 's saviour from Red onslaught ... an ardent patriot of great courage and moral integrity and an able intellectual " . The paper also praised Diem 's Catholic links , pointing out that Thuc was a former classmate of the current Archbishop of Sydney Norman Thomas Gilroy when they studied at the Vatican .
Diem 's achievements and support for Catholics were particularly praised by Bob Santamaria , the unofficial leader and guiding influence of the Democratic Labor Party ( DLP ) . The DLP had broken away from the Australian Labor Party ( ALP ) , the nation 's main centre @-@ left social democratic party . The split occurred in the 1950s during the McCarthyism scares , as the Catholic factions broke away to form the DLP on the basis that the ALP was too lenient towards communists . One of the reasons that Menzies strongly backed Diem was to gain further favour with the DLP and accentuate the divisions among his left wing opponents .
Diem 's visit prompted increased interest in Vietnam by Australian Catholics , particularly supporters of the DLP . Australian Catholics came to see South Vietnam as an anti @-@ communist and Vatican stronghold in Asia and as a result , became strong supporters of the Vietnam War . Harold Lalor , a Jesuit priest and leading confidant of Santamaria , had studied with Thuc in Rome . During the trip , Diem met with Gilroy , the first Australian cardinal , as well as Santamaria and Archbishop of Melbourne Daniel Mannix , both of whom praised him strongly . Mannix was one of the most powerful men in Australia during the era , and had great political influence .
= = Aftermath = =
The positive reception accorded to Diem in 1957 contrasted with increasingly negative Australian attitudes towards Vietnam . Over time , the media in both Australia and the United States began to pay more attention to Diem 's autocratic style and religious bias , especially after the eruption of the Buddhist crisis in 1963 , and the iconic self @-@ immolation of Thích Quảng Đức . After six months of civil unrest , Diem was deposed and assassinated in November 1963 , and by that time , little goodwill remained . With new leadership in Saigon , and an escalation in the war against the communists , Australia sent in ground troops — including conscripts — to support South Vietnam , but over time , the bipartisanship of the 1950s evaporated . The centre @-@ left ALP became more sympathetic to the communists and Labor leader Arthur Calwell stridently denounced South Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Cao Ky as a " fascist dictator " and a " butcher " ahead of his 1967 visit — at the time Ky was the chief of the Vietnam Air Force and headed a military junta . Despite the controversy leading up to the visit , Ky 's trip was a success . He dealt with the media effectively , despite hostile sentiment from some sections of the press and public . However , with the war becoming increasing destructive , and the death toll rising , opposition to the Vietnam War grew . Edwards and his deputy Jim Cairns led large anti @-@ war protests . Labor won the 1972 federal election on an anti @-@ war platform , and Whitlam withdrew Australian troops and recognised North Vietnam , which welcomed his electoral success . Whitlam later refused to accept South Vietnamese refugees following the fall of Saigon to the communists in April 1975 . The Liberals — led by Malcolm Fraser — condemned Whitlam , and after defeating Labor , allowed South Vietnamese refugees to settle in Australia in large numbers .
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= 2012 – 13 Vancouver Canucks season =
The 2012 – 13 Vancouver Canucks season was the franchise 's 43rd season in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Canucks won their fifth straight Northwest Division title and finished third in the Western Conference . In the playoffs Vancouver was swept by the San Jose Sharks in the first round . Shortly after the Canucks ' playoff elimination , Head Coach Alain Vigneault was fired .
Prior to the beginning of the season the NHL 's collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) expired resulting in a lockout . The season was threatened with cancellation before the lockout ended , ultimately the length of the labor dispute resulted in the reduction of games from the standard 82 to a shortened 48 . Cory Schneider entered the season as the team 's new starting goaltender , while the Canucks attempted to trade incumbent Roberto Luongo . The two goaltenders battled for playing time early in the season resulting in a goaltender controversy . After a six @-@ game winning streak to start February the Canucks dealt with multiple injuries and suspensions resulting in the team slumping . In late March Schneider captured the starters job starting seven consecutive games helping the team to a second six @-@ game winning streak . Vancouver dueled the Minnesota Wild in the standings before pulling away in April and winning the division . Led by Henrik and Daniel Sedin the Canucks ' power play struggled dropping from fourth the previous season to twenty @-@ third , with the Sedin twins ' point production declining . Derek Roy was brought in through a trade to help deal with injuries at centre in the team 's only trade of the year . Schneider was injured late in the season and missed the first two games of the playoffs . Vancouver lost the fourth game of their playoff series on a controversial call on Daniel Sedin .
Three franchise records were set during the season . Henrik Sedin became the Canucks all @-@ time leading scorer , surpassing Markus Naslund . Alexandre Burrows scored six seconds into a game making it the fastest goal to start a game for Vancouver . Vigneault became the all @-@ time leader in games coached . As a way of celebrating 100 years of hockey in British Columbia , the Canucks wore a special patch on their jerseys with the logo of the Vancouver Millionaires , the first professional team in the city . They also wore replica jerseys of the Millionaires for one game .
= = Off @-@ season = =
Following an early exit from the 2012 Stanley Cup playoffs , the off @-@ season began with speculation that Head Coach Alain Vigneault might be fired . There were also rumors that General Manager ( GM ) Mike Gillis could be removed from his position . After an end of the year meeting with Team Owner Francesco Aquilini , Gillis was given a five @-@ year contract extension . Fifteen days after his new deal , Gillis signed Vigneault to a two @-@ year contract extension .
The Canucks announced that they would be celebrating 100 years of hockey in British Columbia during the season . To that end , they would wear a special patch on their jerseys with the logo of the Vancouver Millionaires , the first professional team in the city . They also would wear replica jerseys of the Millionaires for their March 16 game against the Detroit Red Wings .
After being replaced as starter for the final three playoff games , Roberto Luongo stated he would be willing to waive his no @-@ trade clause if asked . Following the re @-@ signing of Cory Schneider to a three @-@ year $ 12 million extension , trade rumors increased . It was later reported that Luongo wanted to be traded and that " it was time to move on . " Though as training camp approached , Luongo had not been traded . He indicated that he would have no issues returning to the Canucks . Gillis further stated that although he had received several " strong " offers , the Canucks were not having a " fire sale " for Luongo . Doug MacLean on Sportsnet 's Hockey Central reported that a deal was in place to send Luongo to the Toronto Maple Leafs . However , Luongo , believing the Florida Panthers , his preferred destination , were going to make a deal for him , refused to waive his no trade clause . Luongo later stated that he never turned down a trade .
= = = 2012 – 13 lockout = = =
Prior to the NHL 's collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) expiring in September , teams reassigned players on two @-@ way or entry @-@ level contracts to minor league affiliates . The Canucks assigned 27 players , including Chris Tanev , Eddie Lack , Zack Kassian and 2012 second @-@ round draft pick Alexandre Mallet to the Chicago Wolves , while first round pick Brendan Gaunce was sent to his junior team , the Belleville Bulls . When the CBA expired on September 15 , the NHL enforced a lockout until a new agreement could be reached . Canucks management posted a message from the team to the fans stating that they would continue with community initiatives throughout the lockout , which they hoped would be resolved as soon as possible , and thanked fans for their loyalty and patience . They also reduced their employees work week to four days and instituted a 20 % pay reduction .
Four days into the lockout , the NHL cancelled all pre @-@ season games before September 30 , cutting the first four games from Vancouver 's schedule . A week later , with no further talks between the two sides , the remainder of the pre @-@ season was canceled . With no movement on a new deal , the NHL cancelled its first set of regular season games on October 4 . Games continued to be cancelled in blocks culminating in their cancellation through January 14 . As the lockout dragged on , NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman gave a self @-@ imposed a deadline of January 11 to agree to terms on a new CBA or the entire season would be cancelled . As the deadline approached , Bettman and the head of the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) , Donald Fehr , engaged in a 16 @-@ hour negotiation session that produced a tentative agreement to end the lockout . Both sides ratified the deal and a memorandum of understanding was signed on January 12 . This officially ended the lockout and allowed training camps to open the following day . Due to the length of the lockout , the NHL announced a new scheduled for a shortened 48 @-@ game season after it ended .
= = = Training camp = = =
Under the prior CBA , players could not be traded until after the lockout was resolved , meaning Roberto Luongo could not be moved . Once a new CBA was reached , the trade rumors returned , including one that alleged Maple Leafs GM Brian Burke was fired in order to help facilitate a trade . For his part , Luongo reiterated that he was willing to remain with the Canucks for the shortened season , but did not want to remain long @-@ term .
With training camp starting on January 13 , 2013 , Vancouver recalled 12 players from the Wolves . They also bolstered their defence corp by signing NHL veterans Jim Vandermeer and Cam Barker to one @-@ year contracts . At the forward position , the Canucks were dealing with injuries to their second line . Centre Ryan Kesler , who was recovering from off @-@ season surgeries to his shoulder and wrist , would be unable to start the season ; it was unknown how long he would be out rehabbing the injuries . Winger David Booth was injured during the team 's physicals to start camp . After having an MRI done on his injury , it was announced that Booth would miss four to six weeks recovering . Alain Vigneault stated that he hoped to keep his third and fourth lines intact , leaving the possible replacements as , Andrew Ebbett , Jordan Schroeder and Zack Kassian . Schroeder was a first @-@ round draft pick for Vancouver in 2009 , but had never played in an NHL game . Ebbett a utility , journeyman forward played in 18 games for Vancouver in 2011 – 12 . While the second @-@ year Kassian produced only four goals in his rookie campaign . Vancouver elected to start the season with Ebbett and put Kassian on their second line . In order to keep defensive depth , the Canucks decided to keep nine defenceman . Schroeder was sent back to the minors in order to comply with the 23 @-@ man roster and because he would not need to clear waivers .
= = Regular season = =
= = = January = = =
After winning back to back Presidents ' Trophies in prior seasons the Canucks were projected as Stanley Cup contenders . The prediction was based on Vancouver 's team depth , the offense provided by Daniel and Henrik Sedin , the two @-@ way play of Kesler and Alexandre Burrows , plus the versatility of the Canuck 's top four defenceman . The Hockey News predicted that the Canucks would win the Northwest Division and finish as the second place team in the Western Conference .
Schneider began the year as the team 's starting goaltender . In his first game against the Anaheim Ducks , Schneider allowed five goals on 14 shots and was pulled midway through the second period . When Luongo entered the game he was given a standing ovation from the crowd . Luongo gave up another two goals as the Canucks lost 7 – 3 . In the post @-@ game interview , Schneider took the blame for the loss , saying , " It was unacceptable to play that way and to put my team in that situation and not even give them a chance to win . " He also stated he would work hard to fix the mistakes . While Luongo said of this ovation that it was " a fun moment . " The situation quickly led to a goalie controversy . Luongo made the start the following night against the Edmonton Oilers . According to Vigneault , he had already determined the starting assignments for the opening two games , and Schneider did not factor into Luongo 's start . In the game , Luongo allowed two goals after Vancouver had taken a 2 – 0 lead . The Canucks lost the game 3 – 2 in a shootout . Luongo failed to stop either of the two shooters he faced , while Vancouver did not score . After losing their first two games , Vancouver added to their forward depth recalling Jordan Schroeder from the AHL and assigning Jim Vandermeer to the Wolves . Schroeder took over the second line duties after Andrew Ebbett went pointless in the first two contests .
Schneider started Vancouver 's next game against the Calgary Flames . For the second @-@ straight game , Vancouver lost a two @-@ goal lead in a game which eventually went to a shootout . In contrast to his first start , Schneider had a strong game , making 34 saves by the end of overtime . In the shootout , he stopped four of the five shooters he faced , earning the Canucks their first win of the season . Two nights later , as they began their first road trip , the Canucks played a rematch with the Ducks in Anaheim . Schneider made the start and earned some redemption , stopping all 30 Anaheim shots , helping the Canucks to the 5 – 0 win and earning his fifth career shutout . Following the win , Schneider started the next game , a 4 – 1 loss to the San Jose Sharks . Luongo started the next four games , finishing off the month of January and beginning February . Vigneault joked that he was making his starting goaltender decisions based on coin tosses . He further noted that the two goaltenders were team guys and they would do what was asked of them and never complain . The coin became a running joke for Vigneault and the Canucks in general , as Ryan Kesler stated he flipped it before announcing his return from injury .
= = = February = = =
At forward , Kassian began the year on the top line with the Sedin twins . Kassian scored five goals in the first seven games of the season . Partway through the Canucks ' second game of February , Kassian was replaced on the top line by Alexandre Burrows . Kassian was dropped to the third line . Despite Kassian surpassing his goal total from his rookie season , the Sedins started the year with their lowest output in nearly ten years , combining for 14 points in the first 10 games . Coinciding with the line changes , Vancouver went on a six @-@ game winning streak between the end of January and their February 12 game . After the last game of their winning streak , the Canucks were expecting Kesler to return to line @-@ up .
As Kesler was returning from injury , Vancouver placed centre Manny Malhotra on injured reserve ( IR ) for the remainder of the season . In regards to the move , Gillis stated he felt Malhotra was vulnerable to serious injury because of an eye injury he suffered in 2011 . The decision was made despite Malhotra playing in 78 games in the 2011 – 12 season and nine games in 2013 . Gillis further noted that he had reservation about him playing in the previous season , but wanted to give Malhotra a chance to adapt . After watching him play , Gillis did not see the types of changes that would not put him at a higher risk of injury . Upon placing Malhotra on IR , Gillis called it the hardest thing he had done as a GM . NHL Deputy Commissioner Bill Daly released a statement on the situation , saying " the League is satisfied and has approved the team 's and player 's joint decision to discontinue the player 's participation in NHL games at this time on the basis of the player ’ s current medical condition and the risk of injury that such condition poses . " The Canucks also announced that Malhotra would remain with the team in some capacity , but would not return to the ice including in the playoffs .
Kesler played his first game of the season on February 15 against the Dallas Stars . The game was also witness to a piece of Canucks history as Henrik Sedin recorded two assists to pass Markus Naslund as the franchise 's all @-@ time leading scorer , with 757 points . After recording the record setting point , Sedin was given a standing ovation that carried on as play continued . After three minutes the play stopped , and Sedin saluted the crowd . During a commercial break , the Canucks ran a tribute video for the accomplishment , featuring congratulations from Naslund and Trevor Linden , the third @-@ leading scorer in team history . As for Kesler , he registered an assist and blocked three shots in over 17 minutes of ice time of the 4 – 3 loss . After experiencing some discomfort in his right foot , Kesler had X @-@ rays taken . The X @-@ rays were negative and he continued to play .
Four days after Kesler 's return , Jannik Hansen was involved in a controversial hit on the Chicago Blackhawks ' Marian Hossa . As both players went up for an airborne puck , Hansen struck Hossa in the back of the head with his forearm and elbow . Hossa then laid on the ice for a few minutes , during which time the training staff examined him before he was able to leave under his own power . Hansen was given a two @-@ minute minor for roughing and Hossa did not return to the game . Opinions of the hit varied with former NHL referee Kerry Fraser , stating that he did not believe that there was any deliberate or malicious intent , and that he would be surprised if Hansen received a suspension for the play . Meanwhile , former Blackhawks analyst Ed Olczyk stated , " there ’ s no doubt in my mind , once he didn ’ t play the puck , he had one thing in his mind , and that was to put his forearm or elbow in the back of the head of Marian Hossa , " and he would be surprised if Hansen was not suspended . Hossa returned to practice the following day . Hansen was suspended for one game due to what Brendan Shanahan called " the carelessness and force of which the blow was delivered . "
With Kesler back in the lineup , the Canucks were inconstant posting a 2 – 3 – 2 record . [ note 1 ] Kesler registered five points in the seven games , but was playing with the discomfort steaming from a blocked shot in his first game back against Dallas . He was given a CT scan for his peace of mind . The results of the scan revealed a fracture in his foot . Though no time table for his return was given , the expectation was that he would be out of the line @-@ up for four @-@ to @-@ six weeks . Late in the month , Kevin Bieksa suffered a groin injury in a game versus the Nashville Predators . He missed the next two games as Vancouver finished the month with back @-@ to @-@ back losses . After being reunited with Burrows , the Sedin twins registered a combined 18 points in the final six games of February , while Kassian tallied only three assists in the 11 games after his demotion .
= = = March = = =
Bieksa returned for the first game in the month of March , a 5 – 2 win over the Los Angeles Kings . During the game , he re @-@ aggravated the injury and was listed as day @-@ to @-@ day . With Bieksa and Kesler out , Vancouver slumped dropping three straight games going 0 – 1 – 2 . Entering their March 10 game against the Minnesota Wild , the lead for the Northwest Division was at stake . A regulation win for the Wild would give them the lead based on tie breakers . Vancouver lost the game 4 – 2 and dropped to sixth place in the Western Conference . The Canucks reclaimed the division lead two days later with a win over the Columbus Blue Jackets . In the March 16 game against Detroit , Alexandre Burrows set a franchise record when he scored six seconds into the game , making it the fastest goal to start a game in team history . Vancouver failed to capitalize on the early lead , losing the game 5 – 2 and falling back into a tie with the Wild . The Canucks re @-@ matched the Wild two days later with a chance to take sole possession of the division lead . Vancouver took the lead in the second scoring on the power play . The goal marked the first power play tally in 11 games , ending a 0 – 36 slump , the worst in franchise history . Much like the Detroit game , the Canucks failed to take advantage of the early lead and lost the game 3 – 1 and fell to seventh in the Conference .
Schneider started Vancouver 's next game and earned the win against the St. Louis Blues . The win marked the beginning of a six @-@ game winning streak with Schneider as the starting goaltender each game . He allowed a total of six goals during the steak and posted two shutouts . The wins put the Canucks back into first in the Northwest . In the second game of their winning streak , defenceman Alexander Edler collided with Phoenix Coyotes ' goaltender Mike Smith and was given a five @-@ minute major for charging . The following day , Edler was given a two @-@ game suspension for his actions . Also during the Canucks ' winning streak , they began to have injury problems . Booth suffered a leg injury that required surgery which ended his season . In 12 games played , Booth scored only a single goal into an empty net . Winger Dale Weise injured a shoulder . Kassian suffered a back injury , and Steve Pinizzotto missed games due to an illness . With the forward corps depleted , defenceman Keith Ballard was moved to forward . He continued to play upfront until he suffered a broken foot .
In his seventh consecutive start , Schneider gave up two early goals to the Edmonton Oilers and was pulled in favor of Luongo . The goals were scored on Edmonton 's first two shots . Goals continued to come in quick succession as Taylor Hall scored his second goal , Edmonton 's third , 2 : 34 into the game , setting an Oilers franchise record for the fastest three goals to start a game . Hall set another Edmonton record minutes later when he completed the hat @-@ trick at 7 : 58 in the first . It marked the fastest hat @-@ trick to start a game , surpassing Wayne Gretzky 's previous record . Vancouver did not allow another goal , but failed to score , losing 4 – 0 . They were again passed by Minnesota for the division lead and finished March as the fourth @-@ placed team in the Western Conference .
= = = April = = =
In their first game of April , Vancouver attempted to improve its offensive production by re @-@ calling their 2011 first round draft choice , Nicklas Jensen , and forward Bill Sweatt . The recalls failed to produce , however , as the Canucks lost to the San Jose Sharks 3 – 2 . The following day , the Canucks acquired centre Derek Roy from the Dallas Stars for Kevin Connauton and a second @-@ round draft pick . The trade was believed to be an attempt to fill a hole at centre while Kesler was out with an injury . The expectation was that Roy would become the team 's third line center once Kesler returned to the line @-@ up , though the possibility of the two playing together was proposed . At the NHL trade deadline , Vancouver failed to trade Luongo . They were reportedly close to a deal with the Toronto Maple Leafs , which eventually fell through . In response to finding out that he would not be traded , Luongo stated , " My contract sucks — that 's what 's the problem , " and would " scrap it if I could now . " The Canucks felt they needed more size and grit in their line @-@ up and attempted to add some though trades . However , they missed out on acquiring Ryane Clowe and Raffi Torres . Clowe chose to waive his no @-@ trade clause to go to the New York Rangers so he could play in the Eastern Conference . The Coyotes traded Torres to the Sharks , as they considered San Jose 's third @-@ round pick more attractive than the Canucks ' third @-@ rounder .
In his first game as a Canuck , Roy tallied an assist helping Vancouver to a 4 – 0 win . The win moved the Canucks passed Minnesota for the division lead . The shutout marked Schneider 's fourth of the season , which doubled his career total . Two games later , Schneider registered his fifth shutout of the season in a 2 – 0 over the Coyotes , tying him for the League lead . The game also marked the return of Kesler , who scored the game @-@ winning goal . Minnesota slumped towards the end of the season and the Canucks won their fifth @-@ straight Northwest Division title with a 2 – 1 victory over the Blackhawks . In the game , Schneider suffered a groin injury and was unable to play the last two games of the season ; he was listed by the Canucks as day @-@ to @-@ day with a " body " injury . With Schneider out , the Canucks lost their final two regular season games . In their final loss , Vigneault rested many of his regulars , though he received criticism for playing Henrik Sedin for only 22 seconds . Furthermore , Sedin left the bench after his one shift . The Los Angeles Times ' Helene Elliott called it a cheap way of keeping Sedin 's ironman streak intact . For his part , Henrik Sedin told Vigneault that " he would be okay with sitting out the game " and to him the streak is just " a number in the paper . " Vigneault responded by telling Sedin that " he 's not going to be the one that breaks the streak , " and he gave him the choice to remain on the bench or return to the locker room . Sedin felt remaining on the bench would have been a further distraction and chose to leave . By season 's end , the Sedin twins ' point production dropped from the previous years . Henrik 's point points @-@ per @-@ game average was the lowest it had been since 2007 – 08 , while Daniel 's was his worst since 2003 – 04 . The Cauncks ' power play also struggled throughout the year dropping from fourth in 2011 – 12 to 23rd in the League .
= = Playoffs = =
Vancouver entered the playoffs as the Western Conference 's third seed by virtue of winning the Northwest Division . As a result , they faced the sixth @-@ seeded San Jose Sharks . The series was a rematch of the 2011 Western Conference Finals , in which Vancouver defeated the Sharks in five games to advance to the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals . However , the Sharks had won all three of the regular season games during the season .
With Schneider still injured , Luongo started the first game of the series . There was concern that Kesler would also be unable to play in Game 1 . When asked about Kesler , Vigneault joked , " We 've got him locked in a back room . We 're feeding him raw meat . The beast will be ready tonight . " Luongo started strong , holding the Sharks scoreless in the first period despite the Canucks being outshot 6 – 1 in the first 4 : 06 of the game . Vancouver took a 1 – 0 lead midway through the second , though San Jose tied the game shortly after and added two more goals in the third to win the game 3 – 1 . Luongo finished with 25 saves , Kesler played over 21 minutes , registering only two shots and finishing as a – 1 . Leading up to Game 2 , Kesler vowed to be better . It was also rumored he had the flu in Game 1 . Schneider was still unable to play , and there were concerns he would not be traveling with the team to San Jose for Game 3 . In Game 2 , the Canucks trailed 1 – 0 after two periods of play . In the third period , Kesler scored a power play goal to tie the game and six minutes later , capitalized on a Sharks turnover to put Vancouver up 2 – 1 . With Canucks leading late , San Jose pulled their goaltender for the extra attacker . With the net empty , Jannik Hansen had a chance to put the game away but missed the net . Shortly after with the play in Vancouver 's end , Henrik Sedin attempted to make a pass to the middle of the ice which resulted in a turnover . On the ensuing play , a Dan Boyle shot deflected off Alexander Edler and through the pads of Luongo . The puck stopped short of the goal line , but Patrick Marleau tapped the puck in to tie the game . In overtime , a blocked shot led to an odd man rush for the Sharks , resulting in Raffi Torres scoring the game @-@ winning goal . The loss put the Canucks down 2 – 0 in the series . Vancouver had never won a series after losing the first two games .
Schneider returned from injury to play in Game 3 after missing two weeks . After the first two periods , the Canucks trailed 2 – 1 . The Sharks scored quickly in the third period and by the 4 : 07 mark had scored three goals to make it a 5 – 1 game . After the fifth goal , Schneider was pulled and replaced by Luongo . Vancouver eventually lost the game 5 – 2 , with Schneider making 23 saves on 28 shots . Luongo stopped all 10 shots he faced . In the post @-@ game press conference , Schneider stated he felt good , but did not do enough to help out his teammates . Later , questions were raised about who would be the starter for Game 4 . Luongo stated he would be ready if asked to play , but also stated he would be supportive of Schneider if he was the starter . Sharks ' centre Joe Thornton stated that San Jose felt Luongo had played great in the first two games , and they were lucky not to have to face him in Game 3 . In Game 4 , Schneider made the start and after two periods , the Canucks trailed 2 – 1 . Midway through the third period , Vancouver had taken the lead , but late in the period , San Jose tied the game with a power play goal to force overtime . In the extra period , Daniel Sedin checked Tommy Wingels , which sent the Sharks winger 's head into the boards . Sedin was given a controversial boarding penalty on the play . On the ensuing power play , San Jose scored to win the game and complete the series sweep . After the goal was scored , Daniel voiced his opinion of the call to the referees and was given a game misconduct penalty for abusive language . When asked about the call after the game , he replied , " It 's the playoffs . It 's shoulder to shoulder , " and it was a bad call , though he further noted that the Canucks did not lose the series on the call . Brother Henrik noted that it was " a bullshit call " also pointing out that it was shoulder to shoulder . Referee Kelly Sutherland explained the call by stating he deemed it a violent shove into the boards where the player could not defend himself . For his part , Schneider made 43 saves on 47 shots in Game 4 , he stated that he was 100 % healthy and his groin injury was not a factor in his play .
= = Post @-@ season = =
At an end of the season press conference , GM Mike Gillis stated the Canucks would " hit the reset button on a number of different fronts . " Days later Vigneault was fired , along with assistant coaches , Rick Bowness and Newell Brown . Vigneault left as the all @-@ time winningest coach in Canucks history , while winning two Presidents ' Trophies and six Northwest Division titles . A month later , John Tortorella was hired as the new head coach . Tortorella had been fired by the New York Rangers earlier in the off @-@ season following a second round playoff loss to the Boston Bruins .
After the coaching situation had been settled , Gillis next turned his attention back to trading Luongo . The Canucks were hoping to make a deal at the 2013 NHL Entry Draft . As the draft approached , it was reported the Canucks were also shopping Schneider . Originally , it was believed the rumors were an attempt by Gillis to gain leverage for any potential Luongo deals . However , in a surprise move , Schneider was trade to the New Jersey Devils for the ninth overall pick in the draft , which Vancouver used to select Bo Horvat . Fans , as well as both Luongo and Schneider , were shocked by the news . Luongo stated , " I have to let this sink in and figure out what I 'm going to do . " While Schneider stated he was not sure what to say or think and he was speechless , adding , " it was nice to have resolution to the situation . "
= = Standings = =
= = = Divisional standings = = =
= = = Conference standings = = =
Divisions : CE – Central , NW – Northwest , PA – Pacific
bold – Qualified for playoffs , y – Won division , p – Won Presidents ' Trophy ( best record in NHL )
= = Schedule and results = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = Detailed records = = =
= = Player statistics = =
= = = Skaters = = =
= = = Goaltenders = = =
† Traded to Canucks mid @-@ season . Stats reflect time with Canucks only . ‡ Traded to another team mid @-@ season . Stats reflect time with Canucks only .
Bold / italics denotes franchise record
= = Awards and honours = =
= = = Awards = = =
= = = Milestones = = =
= = = Records = = =
= = Transactions = =
During the off @-@ season Vancouver signed defenceman Jason Garrison to a six @-@ year contract worth $ 27 @.@ 6 million . While the Canucks brought in Garrison , they lost longtime defenceman Sami Salo . The Canucks wanted to re @-@ sign Salo , though they were unwilling to sign him to a two @-@ year contract and offered only a one @-@ year deal . Salo chose to leave and signed a two @-@ year $ 7 @.@ 5 million contract with the Tampa Bay Lightning . It was believed that Garrison would step in and contribute to the power play and replace the departed Salo , who had performed a similar role . However , he struggled to adjust with his new team . He was taken off the power play unit and dropped to the third paring within the first month . After the injuries to Bieksa , Garrison was moved from left defenceman to the right side paring with Dan Hamhuis . The coaching staff came to consider this paring to be the best and most trusted . Garrison finished the season with eight goals and eight assists , scoring three goals and three assists on the power play , and registering a + 18 rating . His plus @-@ minus was second on the team and led all defenceman .
= = = Trades = = =
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= Born to Make You Happy =
" Born to Make You Happy " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her debut studio album , ... Baby One More Time ( 1999 ) . It was released on December 6 , 1999 , by JIVE Records , as the fourth single from the album . Before recording the song , Spears had to ask the writers of the song , Andreas Carlsson and Kristian Lundin , to re @-@ write it , since it was a sexual song . The singer first recorded her vocals in March 1998 , and re @-@ recorded them later on the same year . The dance @-@ pop and teen pop song alludes to a relationship that a woman desires to correct , not quite understanding what went wrong , as she comes to realize that she was " born to make [ her lover ] happy " .
" Born to Make You Happy " received mixed reviews from critics , who praised it for being an early classic and a proficient single , despite considering the song as entirely unremarkable like other ballads on the album . The song was commercially successful worldwide , peaking at number one in Ireland , and reaching top five positions in Belgium , Europe , Finland , Germany , Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland . In the United Kingdom , it also peaked at number one , and is Spears ' sixth best @-@ selling single in the country . An accompanying music video was directed by Billie Woodruff , and portrays Spears dreaming that she is with her lover , while she sings and dances during the majority of the video . Spears has performed " Born to Make You Happy " on four concert tours .
= = Background = =
Before recording her debut album , Spears had originally envisioned it in style of " Sheryl Crow music , but younger [ and ] more adult contemporary " . However , the singer agreed with her label 's appointment of producers , who had the objective to reach a teen public at the time . She flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden , where half of the album was recorded from March to April 1998 , with producers Max Martin , Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub , among others . " Born to Make You Happy " was written and produced by Kristian Lundin , and co @-@ written by Andreas Carlsson , and was the first work by the duo . Spears originally recorded the vocals for the song in March 1998 , at Battery Studios in New York City , New York . They were later re @-@ recorded in April 1998 at Cheiron Studios , and used on the album version , while the original vocals were used on the " Bonus Remix " of the song . It was also mixed at Cheiron Studios by Max Martin . Esbjörn Öhrwall played the guitar , while keyboards and programming was done by Lundin . Background vocals were provided by Carlsson and Nana Hedin . " Born to Make You Happy " was released as the fourth single from ... Baby One More Time on December 6 , 1999 .
= = Composition = =
" Born to Make You Happy " is a teen pop and dance @-@ pop song that lasts for four minutes and three seconds . The song is composed in the key of B minor and is set in time signature of common time , with a moderately slow tempo of 88 beats per minute . Spears vocal range spans over an octave , from F ♯ 3 to B4 . The song 's lyrics are about a relationship that a woman desires to correct , not quite understanding what went wrong , as she comes to realize that " I don 't know how to live without your love / I was born to make you happy " . The song has a basic sequence of Bm – G – D – A as its chord progression .
David Gauntlett , author of Media , gender , and identity : an introduction ( 2002 ) , noted that , despite wanting her lover next to her in the song , Spears ' " fans see her as assertive , strong and confident , and an example that young women can make it on their own " . The singer revealed in an interview with Rolling Stone , the writers had to re @-@ write the original lyrics of the song . " I asked them to change the words to ' Born to Make You Happy . ' It was a sexual song , " she revealed . " I said , ' This may be a little old for me . ' Because of the image thing , I don 't want to go over the top . If I come out being Miss Prima Donna , that wouldn 't be smart . I want to have a place to grow " .
= = Critical response = =
" Born to Make You Happy " received mixed reviews from music critics . Kyle Anderson of MTV considered the song 's chorus more than " a little bit off @-@ putting , " saying the first lines of it " could be a sentiment that a lovelorn 16 @-@ year @-@ old can understand , but it also sounds like Spears is in training to be a geisha . " Craig MacInnis of Hamilton Spectator said " [ " Born to Make You Happy " ] verge on the sort of boy @-@ worshipping dreck that even Tiffany would have sniffed at . " Mike Ross of Edmond Sun said , as Spears emotes in the song , " the message behind the music is worse than mere sweet nothings . [ ... ] So much for Girl Power . " Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic considered " Born to Make You Happy " a " proficient but entirely unrememberable song , " while Andy Petch @-@ Jex of musicOMH considered the song an " early classic . "
= = Commercial performance = =
On January 29 , 2000 , " Born to Make You Happy " debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart . The song shipped over 200 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom , earning a silver certification by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . " Born to Make You Happy " has sold over 325 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom , according to The Official Charts Company . It is her sixth best @-@ selling single in the country . In Ireland , the song also entered the Irish Singles Chart at number one on January 20 , 2000 , while peaking at number two on the European chart . In Sweden , " Born to Make You Happy " debuted at number four on December 23 , 1999 , peaking at number two in the following week . The song has shipped over 30 @,@ 000 copies in the country , earning a platinum certification by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . In Germany , the song earned a gold certification by The Federal Association of Music Industry ( BMVI ) , after peaking at number three on the charts . In France , " Born to Make You Happy " reached number nine , and was certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) .
= = Music video = =
JIVE Records commissioned a music video for the song to be directed by Billie Woodruff . It was produced under Geneva Films , while the choreography was created by Wade Robson . The narrative of the video shows Spears dreaming as she sleeps in her room . As the dream begins , Spears is shown in a blue and silver futuristic room with several different levels , where she sings and walks around , and puts her feet on the wall while wearing a shiny silver outfit . MTV news reporter Ellen Thompson considered it the sexiest moment of the music video . As the video continues , Spears is seen on top of the apartment building she lives in , performing a dance segment in a red top and black skirt with a few backup dancers . The following scenes shows the singer wearing white clothes and singing in the room in which she is sleeping , while her love interest comes into her room to see her . Together , they start a pillow fight that shortly ends after Spears is shown again in her room still sleeping , however , now with a smile upon her face . A longer dance segment intercalates with all the scenes during the whole video .
= = Live performances = =
" Born to Make You Happy " has been performed by Spears on four tours . On her first tour , ... Baby One More Time Tour , she sang the song seated on a staircase , while on her second tour , Crazy 2k Tour , the performance of the song included a full dance segment . On 2000s Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour , Spears performed " Born to Make You Happy " wearing pajamas and slippers , with a dance segment near the end . " Born to Make You Happy " was performed for the last time on Dream Within a Dream Tour , where Spears emerged from the middle of a giant musical box on the stage as a ballerina , to perform the song in a medley with " Lucky " and " Sometimes " , right after the performance of " Overprotected " . Spears also performed " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " and " Born to Make You Happy " on Disney Channel in Concert in 1999 . The performances were recorded and included on Spears ' first home video release , Time Out with Britney Spears .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Britney Spears – lead vocals
Kristian Lundin – songwriting , producer , keyboards , programming
Andreas Carlsson – songwriting , background vocals
Nana Hedin – background vocals
Esbjörn Öhrwall – bass , guitar
Max Martin – mixing
Michael Tucker – pro @-@ tools engineer
Reza Safina – assistant engineer
Tom Coyne – audio mastering
Source :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Jan Dekert =
Jan Dekert or Jan Dekiert ( 1738 – 4 October 1790 ) was a Polish merchant of German descent and political activist . Starting in the 1760s , he rose to become one of the most prominent merchants in the Polish capital of Warsaw . He was an activist arguing for more rights for the burghers in the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth while opposing Jewish merchants . As the representative of Warsaw , he was elected a deputy to the Sejms of 1784 and 1786 , as well as to the Great Sejm ( 1788 – 1892 ) . He was the mayor of Warsaw ( 1789 – 1790 ) , during which period he organized the Black Procession on 2 December 1789 ( a march of burghers who delivered a petition to the king ) . This was a major step towards the passing of the Free Royal Cities Act enfranchising burghers , as one of the reforms of the Great Sejm and part of the Constitution of the 3rd May , 1791 .
= = Biography = =
He was born in 1738 in the city of Blesen . The exact date , and information about his family are unknown , as any relevant documents have been lost . He likely had beyond basic education , and some sum of money when he left Bledzew and traveled to Warsaw .
In December 1756 , Dekert was admitted to the Warsaw " youth " Confraternity of Merchants ( warszawska konfraternia kupiecka " młodziańska " ) . He started out as a clerk in a cloth store of Kazimierz Martynkowski ( or Marcinkowski ) , in whose house he also stayed . In April 1761 he married his patron 's daughter , Róża Martynkowska . By 1762 he had taken over the cloth store , moved from the " youth " Confraternity of Merchants to the " senior " ( " starsza " ) one , and become a full citizen of Warsaw . Some time before 1786 , Róża died , and Dekert married Antonina Dembska ( Dębska ) . He had several children from his two marriages , among them Jan Dekert , future bishop of Warsaw .
Dekert 's rise to mayor began with his first official positions in the Warsaw merchant organizations in the 1760s . In the early 1760s he was among the steering group of the " youth " Confraternity , which he resigned in 1762 upon joining the " senior " one . There is some confusion regarding his exact positions and the dates he held them . According to Zienkowska , in 1767 he received a position ( gminny ) in the magistrate of Warsaw . According to Jędruch , he became Alderman ( a position usually known in Polish as " radny " ) of Warsaw in 1769 , but this is contradicted by Zienkowska ; according to her , it was only in 1776 that he reached the rank of " ławnik " in the magistrate . He also served an elder ( " starszy " ; Jędruch translates this as an alderman ) for the Confraternity of Merchants from 1771 to 1785 .
Along with his political career , Dekert 's business enterprise was growing . He gathered enough savings to become a cofounder of the Company of Woolen Manufacture in 1766 ( Kompania Manufaktur Wełnianych ) . In 1775 the Sejm granted him a request to buy landed estates ( a privilege usually restricted only to the nobility ) . In 1776 he leased the Tobacco Monopoly ( or Company ; Kompania Tabaczna ) from the Polish Treasury ; ten years later , in 1786 , he leased a theatre in Warsaw .
As the representative of Warsaw , he was elected a deputy to the Sejms of 1784 and 1786 , as well as to the Great Sejm ( 1788 – 1892 ) . In the meantime , in February 1789 , he was elected mayor of Warsaw ; he would be reelected in 1790 ( as a mayor of Warsaw , he succeeded Wojciech Lobert , and would in turn be succeeded by Józef Michał Łukasiewicz ) . During the Great Sejm , together with Hugo Kołłątaj , Dekert organized the confederation of 141 cities and towns and was at the forefront of demanding the representations and enfranchisement of the burghers in the Sejm ; notably , he helped organize the Black Procession on 2 December 1789 ( a march of burghers who delivered a petition to the king ) . The burghers demanded similar privileges to those held by the nobles ( szlachta ) . Their demands included the right to buy and own land estates , the right to be represented in the Polish parliament ( Sejm ) and reforms to the urban law . The procession influenced the Great Sejm to create a Commission for the Cities ( Deputacja w sprawie miast ) tasked with addressing those concerns during the works on the new constitution .
He was a vocal critic of Jews , accusing them of unfair competition .
He spend much of his fortune on political activism , and was nearly bankrupt by the time of his death . In February 1790 , despite his objections , he was pressured , through general public demand , into reelection for a second ( yearly ) term of office as the mayor of Warsaw . It is likely that major reasons he preferred not to have been elected were his ailing business operations and his worsening health . He led his last public debate on 31 April 1790 , and withdrew from politics afterward . He died on 4 October 1790 in Warsaw . He was buried in St. John 's Archcathedral , and his large funeral was paid for by the City of Warsaw .
He died before the Free Royal Cities Act , enfranchising burghers , was passed in 1791 as one of the reforms of the Great Sejm , next to the Constitution of the 3rd May , 1791 .
= = Legacy = =
His contemporary , poet Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin , called him the " leader of Polish burghers " . In 1896 a plaque dedicated to him in St. John 's Archcathedral proclaimed him " the first defender and representative of the burgher class in the Commonwealth " .
Jan Dekert is one of the characters in Jan Matejko 's painting of the " Adoption of the Polish Constitution of May 3 , 1791 " .
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= Operation Copperhead =
Operation Copperhead was a small military deception operation run by the British during the Second World War . It formed part of Operation Bodyguard , the cover plan for the invasion of Normandy in 1944 , and was intended to mislead German intelligence as to the location of General Bernard Montgomery . The operation was conceived by Dudley Clarke in early 1944 after he watched the film Five Graves to Cairo . Following the war M. E. Clifton James wrote a book about the operation , I Was Monty 's Double . It was later adapted into a film , with James in the lead role .
The German high command expected Montgomery ( one of the best @-@ known Allied commanders ) to play a key role in any cross @-@ channel bridgehead . Clarke and the other deception planners reasoned that a high @-@ profile appearance outside the United Kingdom would suggest that an Allied invasion was not imminent . An appropriate look @-@ alike was found , M. E. Clifton James , who spent a short time with Montgomery to familiarise himself with the general 's mannerisms . On 26 May 1944 , James flew first to Gibraltar and then to Algiers , making appearances where the Allies knew German intelligence agents would spot him . He then flew secretly to Cairo and remained in hiding until Montgomery 's public appearance in Normandy following the invasion .
The operation did not appear to have any significant impact on German plans and was not reported high up the chain of command . It was executed some time before D @-@ Day , and in the midst of several other Allied deceptions . German intelligence might have suspected a trick , or not attributed much importance to the visit .
= = Background = =
In preparation for the 1944 invasion of Normandy , the Allied nations conducted a complex series of deceptions under the codename Bodyguard . The overall aim of the plan was to confuse the German high command as to the exact location and timing of the invasion . Significant time was spent constructing the First United States Army Group , a notional army to threaten Pas de Calais , along with political and visual deceptions to communicate a fictional Allied battle plan . Copperhead was a small portion of Bodyguard conceived by Dudley Clarke . Earlier in the war Clarke had pioneered the idea of strategic deception , forming a deception department in Cairo named ' A ' Force . Clarke and ' A ' Force were not officially in charge of Bodyguard planning ( a role that fell to the London Controlling Section ) , but because of the location of the deception the Cairo planners organised much of the operation .
On a visit to Naples in January 1944 Clarke had seen the film Five Graves to Cairo , in which actor Miles Mander makes a brief appearance as Bernard Montgomery . The film involves one character impersonating another and Clarke suggested attempting the same trick in real life . He proposed an operation to mislead German commanders as to Montgomery 's location in the days immediately before the Normandy landings ( codenamed Operation Neptune ) .
Montgomery was one of the most prominent Allied commanders and the German high command expected him to be present for any invasion of France . Clarke hoped Montgomery 's apparent presence in Gibraltar and Africa would lend support to the idea that the Allies might be planning landings in Southern France , as part of Operation Vendetta , rather than across the Channel . While in London , in February 1944 , Clarke , the London Controlling Section and Ops ( B ) drafted Copperhead in support of Vendetta .
= = Operation = =
Mander , the actor from Five Graves to Cairo , was located in Hollywood but found to be too tall in real life . Another look @-@ alike was identified but before he could be drafted into the operation he broke a leg in a motorbike accident . Eventually , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel J. V. B. Jervis @-@ Reid , head of Ops ( B ) , spotted a photograph of Meyrick Clifton James in the News Chronicle . James , an Australian , had spent 25 years as an actor before the war , and at the time was assigned to the Royal Army Pay Corps . Colonel David Niven , a well @-@ known British actor , was asked to contact James and offer him a screen test for future army films . When he arrived at the meeting , James was told his true role .
James was not a perfect stand @-@ in for Montgomery . He had lost a finger during the First World War , so a prosthetic had to be made . He had also never flown before , so the London Controlling Section 's Dennis Wheatley took James up for a test flight to make sure he did not suffer from air sickness . Finally , James both drank heavily and smoked cigars , while Montgomery was a teetotaler and disliked smoking . The deception planners were worried that James might be spotted drinking , spoiling the performance . Despite these hitches , and with Montgomery 's approval , the plan went forward . To get into character , James spent some time with the general , posing as a journalist , to study his mannerisms .
Allied deceivers used their double agent network to circulate the idea that Montgomery would command ground forces during the invasion . Then , on 26 May 1944 , James flew overnight from RAF Northolt to Gibraltar , where the Germans maintained an observation post overlooking the airport from across the Spanish border . The plane had to circle for an hour before landing to allow James , who had smuggled a bottle of gin onto the flight , to sober up . He then attended breakfast with the British governor , Sir Ralph Eastwood , before departing again for the airfield . The Allies had arranged for Ignacio Molina Pérez , a Spanish envoy known to be a German spy , to visit Government House . After observing James 's departure , Pérez hurriedly crossed the border to place a call to his German handler .
James then flew to Algiers , where he was publicly paraded through the airport and driven to meet General Maitland Wilson , ostensibly for a meeting to discuss operations against the south of France . Instead , he was moved quietly to a remote villa by ' A ' Force 's Rex Hamer . Rumours suggest this was because James had been spotted smoking and staggering around Algiers , so the deceivers decided to cut his appearances short . Whatever the reason , the next day , out of character , James was flown to Cairo . He was to remain hidden there until the public disclosure of Montgomery 's presence in France . Meanwhile , double agents in North Africa were used to extend the masquerade for a few more days , by hinting Montgomery was still in the region .
= = Impact = =
The impact of Copperhead is unclear . The visit was reported up the German chain of command , and some double agents later received requests for information about Montgomery 's movements . There is no indication that Montgomery 's appearance affected German views of the imminent invasion threat . Writing in 2011 , historian Joshua Levine attributes this to the fact that the deception was carried out ten days before D @-@ Day , arguing that there would be no reason for a flying visit to North Africa to preclude an imminent invasion .
Another factor was that , in early May 1944 , an uncontrolled agent based in Spain ( who sold fictional intelligence to the Germans ) had passed on details of a meeting in Gibraltar between several high @-@ ranking Allied officers . Documents found after the war indicate that the Germans found this information suspect , and may have treated Montgomery 's appearance as equally so . Although double agents received several urgent requests from the Abwehr about his whereabouts it does not appear that this information was passed on to the German command in France . According to captured enemy generals , German intelligence believed that it was Montgomery , though they still guessed that it was a feint . The Bodyguard deception had confused the German command as to Allied intentions and the apparent arrival of Montgomery in Gibraltar added little to the picture .
James did not enjoy the experience . Although he received equivalent pay ( £ 10 per day ) to Montgomery during the operation , it had been a stressful assignment . Following Montgomery 's public appearance on the Normandy beachhead , James flew back to England and resumed his role within the Pay Corps and was warned not to discuss the operation . Dennis Wheatley , in his memoirs , commented that he felt James had been treated " shabbily " for his efforts .
= = Later depictions = =
In 1954 James wrote an account of the operation , entitled I Was Monty 's Double ( published in the United States as The Counterfeit General ) . The British government made no attempt to stop publication , and in 1958 the book was adapted into a film of the same name . James starred , both as himself and Montgomery , alongside John Mills as an intelligence agent .
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= Madeline Montalban =
Madeline Montalban ( born Madeline Sylvia Royals ; 8 January 1910 – 11 January 1982 ) was an English astrologer and ceremonial magician . She co @-@ founded the esoteric organisation known as the Order of the Morning Star ( OMS ) , through which she propagated her own form of Luciferianism .
Born in Blackpool , Lancashire , Montalban moved to London in the early 1930s , immersing herself in the city 's esoteric subculture , and influenced by Hermeticism she taught herself ceremonial magic . She associated with significant occultists , including Thelemites like Aleister Crowley and Kenneth Grant , and Wiccans like Gerald Gardner and Alex Sanders . From 1933 to 1953 she published articles on astrology and other esoteric topics in the magazine London Life , and from then until her death in the nationally syndicated magazine Prediction . These were accompanied by several booklets on astrology , released using a variety of different pseudonyms , including Dolores North , Madeline Alvarez and Nina del Luna .
In 1952 she met Nicholas Heron , with whom she entered into a relationship . After moving to Southsea in Essex , they founded the OMS as a correspondence course in 1956 , teaching subscribers their own magical rites . Viewing Lucifer as a benevolent angelic deity , she believed Luciferianism had its origins in ancient Babylon , and encouraged her followers to contact angelic beings associated with the planetary bodies to aid their spiritual development . After her relationship with Heron ended in 1964 , she returned to London , continuing to propagate the OMS . She settled in the St. Giles district , where she became known to the press as " The Witch of St. Giles " . She died of lung cancer in 1982 .
Having refused to publish her ideas in books , Montalban became largely forgotten following her death , although the OMS continued under new leadership . Her life and work was mentioned in various occult texts and historical studies of esotericism during subsequent decades ; a short biography by Julia Philips was published by the Atlantis Bookshop in 2012 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1910 – 1938 = = =
Madeline Sylvia Royals was born on 8 January 1910 in Blackpool , Lancashire . Little is known of her early life , which coincided with Britain 's involvement in the First World War , although she appears to have had a strained relationship with her parents . Her father , Willie Royals , was an insurance agent , while her mother , Marion Neruda Shaw , was a tailor 's daughter from Oldham . Willie and Marion had married on 28 June 1909 , followed by Madeline 's birth seven months later . In early life , Madeline was afflicted with polio , resulting in a lifelong withered leg and limp . Bedridden for the course of the illness , she read literature to entertain herself , enjoying the works of Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton , H. Rider Haggard and E. T. A. Hoffman . She also read the Bible in her youth , becoming particularly enamored with the texts of the Old Testament , and was convinced that they contained secret messages , a theme that became a central tenet of her later Luciferian beliefs .
In the early 1930s , she left Blackpool , and moved south to London . Her reasons for doing so have never been satisfactorily explained , and she would offer multiple , contradictory accounts of her reasoning in later life . According to one account , her father sent her to study with the famed occultist and mystic Aleister Crowley , who had founded the religion of Thelema in 1904 ; Montalban 's biographer Julia Philips noted that while she met Crowley in London , this story remains implausible . Another of Montalban 's accounts held that she moved to the capital to work for the Daily Express newspaper ; this claim has never been corroborated , and one of the paper 's reporters at the time , Justine Glass , has claimed that she never remembered Montalban working there . Montalban often changed her stories , and informed later disciple Michael Howard that upon arrival in London , the Daily Express sent her to interview Crowley . According to this story , when she first visited him at his lodgings in Jermyn Street , he was suffering from an asthma attack , and having had experience with this ailment from a family member she was able to help him , earning his gratitude . They subsequently went to the expensive Café Royal in Regent Street , where after their lunch , he revealed that he was unable to pay , leaving Montalban to sort out payment .
Although her own accounts of the initial meeting are unreliable , Montalban met with Crowley , embracing the city 's occult scene . Having a deep interest in western esotericism , she read widely on the subject , and taught herself the practice of magic rather than seeking out the instruction of a teacher . She was particularly interested in astrology , and in 1933 wrote her first article on the subject for the magazine London Life , entitled " The Stars in the Heavens " . Her work continued to see publication in that magazine until 1953 , during which time she used different pseudonyms : Madeline Alvarez , Dolores del Castro , Michael Royals , Regina Norcliff , Athene Deluce , Nina de Luna , and the best known , Madeline Montalban , which she created based upon the name of a film star whom she liked , the Mexican actor Ricardo Montalbán .
= = = Marriage and London Life : 1939 – 1951 = = =
By the end of the 1930s , Montalban was living on Grays Inn Road in the Borough of Holborn . In 1939 , she married fireman George Edward North in London . They had a daughter , Rosanna , but their relationship deteriorated and he left her for another woman . She later informed friends that during the Second World War , George had served in the Royal Navy while she served in the Women 's Royal Naval Service ( WRNS ) , although such claims have never been corroborated . Gerald Gardner , founder of Gardnerian Wicca – known for his unreliable stories – claimed that he met Montalban during the war , when she was wearing a WRNS uniform , and that at the time she was working as a " personal clairvoyant and psychic advisor " to Lord Louis Mountbatten . Various individuals who knew her would comment that she had in her possession a framed blurry picture of Mountbatten with an individual who looked like her .
She continued her publication of articles under an array of pseudonyms in London Life , and from February 1947 was responsible for a regular astrological column entitled " You and Your Stars " under the name of Nina del Luna . She also undertook other work , and in the late 1940s , Michael Houghton , proprietor of Bloomsbury 's esoteric @-@ themed Atlantis Bookshop , asked her to edit a manuscript of Gardner 's novel High Magic 's Aid , which was set in the Late Middle Ages and which featured practitioners of a Witch @-@ Cult ; Gardner later alleged that the book contained allusions to the ritual practices of the New Forest coven of Pagan Witches who had initiated him into their ranks in 1939 . Gardner incorrectly believed that Montalban " claimed to be a Witch ; but got evrything [ sic ] wrong " although he credited her with having " a lively imagination . " Although initially seeming favourable to Gardner , by the mid @-@ 1960s she had become hostile towards him and his Gardnerian tradition , considering him to be " a ' dirty old man ' and sexual pervert . " She also expressed hostility to another prominent Pagan Witch of the period , Charles Cardell , although in the 1960s became friends with the two Witches at the forefront of the Alexandrian Wiccan tradition , Alex Sanders and his wife , Maxine Sanders , who adopted some of her Luciferian angelic practices . She personally despised being referred to as a " witch " , and was particularly angry when the esoteric magazine Man , Myth and Magic referred to her as " The Witch of St. Giles " , an area of Central London which she would later inhabit .
In his 1977 book Nightside of Eden , the Thelemite Kenneth Grant , then leader of the Typhonian OTO , told a story in which he claimed that both he and Gardner performed rituals in the St. Giles flat of a " Mrs. South " , probably a reference to Montalban , who often used the pseudonym of " Mrs North " . The truthfulness of Grant 's claims have been scrutinised by both Doreen Valiente and Julia Philips , who have pointed out multiple incorrect assertions with his account .
= = = Prediction and The Order of the Morning Star : 1952 – 1964 = = =
From August 1953 , Montalban ceased working for London Life , publishing her work in the magazine Prediction , one of the country 's best @-@ selling esoteric @-@ themed publications . Starting with a series on the uses of the tarot , in May 1960 she was employed to produce a regular astrological column for Prediction . Supplementing such esoteric endeavours , she penned a series of romantic short stories for publication in magazines . Throughout the 1950s she released a series of booklets under different pseudonyms that were devoted to astrology ; in one case , she published the same booklet under two separate titles and names , as Madeline Montalban 's Your Stars and Love and Madeline Alvarez 's Love and the Stars . She never wrote any books , instead preferring the shorter booklets and articles as mediums through which to propagate her views , and was critical of those books that taught the reader how to perform their own horoscopes , believing that they put professional astrologers out of business .
In 1952 she met Nicholas Heron , with whom she entered into a relationship . An engraver , photographer and former journalist for the Brighton Argus , he shared her interest in the occult , and together they developed a magical system based upon Luciferianism , the veneration of the deity Lucifer , or Lumiel , whom they considered to be a benevolent angelic deity . In 1956 , they founded the Order of the Morning Star , or Ordo Stella Matutina ( OSM ) , propagating it through a correspondence course . The couple sent out lessons to those who paid the necessary fees over a series of weeks , eventually leading to the twelfth lesson , which contained The Book of Lumiel , a short work written by Montalban that documented her understanding of Lumiel , or Lucifer , and his involvement with humankind . The couple initially lived together in Torrington Place , London , from where they ran the course , but in 1961 moved to the coastal town of Southsea in Essex , where there was greater room for Heron 's engraving equipment .
She encouraged members of her OMS course to come and meet with her , and developed friendships with a number of them , blurring the distinction between teacher and pupil . Meetings of OMS members were informal , and rarely for ritual , with the majority of the organisation 's rites requiring solitary work . According to later members of her Order , Montalban 's basis was in Hermeticism , although she was heavily influenced by Mediaeval and Early Modern grimoires like the Picatrix , Corpus Hermeticum , The Heptameron of Pietro d 'Abano , The Key of Solomon , The Book of Abramelin , and Cornelius Agrippa 's Three Books of Occult Philosophy . Unlike the founders of several older ceremonial magic organisations , such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn or the Fraternity of the Inner Light , she did not claim any authority from higher spiritual beings such as the Ascended masters or Secret Chiefs . She believed that the Luciferian religion had its origin among the Chaldean people of ancient Babylon in the Middle East , and believed that in a former life , the OMS 's members had been " initiates of the Babylonian and Ancient Egyptian priesthood " from where they had originally known each other . She considered herself the reincarnation of King Richard III , and was a member of the Richard III Society ; on one occasion , she visited the site of Richard 's death at the Battle of Bosworth with fellow OMS members , wearing a suit of armour . In March 1964 , Montalban broke from her relationship with Heron , and moved back to London .
= = = Later life : 1964 – 1982 = = =
From 1964 until 1966 she dwelt in a flat at 8 Holly Hill , Hampstead , which was owned by the husband of one of her OMS students , the Latvian exile and poet Velta Snikere . After leaving Holly Hill , Montalban moved to a flat in the Queen Alexandra Mansions at 3 Grape Street in the St. Giles district of Holborn . Here , she was in close proximity to the two primary bookstores then catering to occult interests , Atlantis Bookshop and Watkins Bookshop , as well as to the British Museum . She offered one of the rooms in her flat to a young astrologer and musician , Rick Hayward , whom she had met in the summer of 1967 ; he joined the OMS , and in the last few months of Montalban 's life authored her astrological forecasts for Prediction . After her death , he continued publishing astrological prophecies in Prediction and Prediction Annual until summer 2012 .
In 1967 , Michael Howard , a young man interested in witchcraft and the occult wrote to Montalban after reading one of her articles in Prediction ; she invited him to visit her at her home . The two became friends , with Montalban believing that she could see the " Mark of Cain " in his aura . She invited him to become a student of the ONS , which he duly did . Over the coming year , he spent much of his time with her , and in 1968 they went on what she called a " magical mystery tour " to the West Country , visiting Stonehenge , Boscastle and Tintagel . In 1969 , he was initiated into Gardnerian Wicca , something she disapproved of , and their friendship subsequently " hit a stormy period " with the pair going " [ their ] own ways for several years . "
A lifelong smoker , Montalban developed lung cancer , causing her death on 11 January 1982 . The role of sorting out her financial affairs fell to her friend , Pat Arthy , who discovered that despite her emphasis on the magical attainment of material wealth , she owned no property and that her estate was worth less than £ 10 @,@ 000 . The copyright of her writings fell to her daughter , Rosanna , who entrusted the running of the OMS to two of Montalban 's initiates , married couple Jo Sheridan and Alfred Douglas , who were authorised as the exclusive publishers of her correspondence course . Sheridan – whose real name was Patricia Douglas – opened an alternative therapy centre in Islington , North London , in the 1980s , before retiring to Rye , East Sussex in 2002 , where she continued running the OMS correspondence course until her death in 2011 .
= = Personal life and magico @-@ religious beliefs = =
According to her biographer Julia Philips , Montalban had been described by her magical students as " tempestuous , generous , humorous , demanding , kind , capricious , talented , volatile , selfish , goodhearted , [ and ] dramatic " . Philips noted that she was a woman who made a " definite impression " in all those whom she encountered , but who equally could be quite shy and disliked being interviewed in anything other than print . Philips asserted that Montalban had a " mercurial personality " and could be kind and generous at one moment and fly into a violent temper the next . Several of her friends noted that she was prudish when it came to sexual matters . She would take great pleasure in causing arguments , particularly between a couple who were romantically involved .
Describing herself as a " pagan " , Montalban 's personal faith was Luciferian in basis , revolving around the veneration of Lucifer , or Lumiel , whom she considered to be a benevolent angelic being who had aided humanity 's development . Within her Order , she emphasised that her followers discover their own personal relationship with the angelic beings , including Lumiel . Montalban considered astrology to be a central part of her religious worldview , and always maintained that one could be a good magician only if they had mastered astrology . Her correspondence course focused around the seven planetary bodies that were known in the ancient world and the angelic beings that she associated with them : Michael ( Sun ) , Gabriel ( Moon ) , Samael ( Mars ) , Raphael ( Mercury ) , Sachiel ( Jupiter ) , Anael ( Venus ) and Cassiel ( Saturn ) . Each of these beings was in turn associated with certain days , hours , minerals , plants , and animals , each of which could be used in the creation of talismans that invoked the angelic power . Montalban disliked the theatrical use of props and rites in ceremonial magic , such as that performed by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , preferring a more simplistic use of ritual .
= = Legacy = =
In his book on the history of Wicca , The Triumph of the Moon ( 1999 ) , historian Ronald Hutton of Bristol University noted that Montalban was " one of England 's most prominent occultists " of the 20th century . Michael Howard referred to Montalban 's teachings in his book on Luciferian mythology , The Book of Fallen Angels ( 2004 ) , with religious studies scholar Fredrik Gregorius noting that Howard played an " important [ role ] in furthering an interest " in Montalban 's ideas .
In 2012 , Neptune Press – the publishing arm of Bloomsbury 's Atlantis Bookshop – published a short biography of Montalban entitled Madeline Montalban : The Magus of St Giles , written by Anglo @-@ Australian Wiccan Julia Philips . Philips noted that for much of the project she found it difficult separating fact from fiction when it came to Montalban 's life , but that she had been able to nevertheless put together a biographical account , albeit an incomplete one , of " one of the truly great characters of English occultism . "
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= Cranham =
Cranham is a residential suburb in northeast London , England , and part of the London Borough of Havering . It is located 17 @.@ 5 miles ( 28 km ) east @-@ northeast of Charing Cross and comprises an extensive built @-@ up area to the north and a low density conservation area to the south surrounded by open land . It was historically a rural village in the county of Essex and formed an ancient parish . It is peripheral to London , forming the eastern edge of the urban sprawl . The economic history of Cranham is characterised by a shift from agriculture to housing development . As part of the suburban growth of London in the 20th century , Cranham significantly increased in population , becoming part of Hornchurch Urban District in 1934 and has formed part of Greater London since 1965 .
= = History = =
= = = Toponomy = = =
Cranham is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Craohv and in 1201 as Craweno . It means ' spur of land frequented by crows ' and is formed from the Old English ' crāwe ' and ' hōh ' . It contained two Anglo @-@ Saxon manors of Ockendon ( Wochenduna ) and Cranham ( Crawenho ) . During the Middle Ages , and until around the 15th century , it was also known as Bishop 's Ockendon because a large part of its area was owned by the Bishop of London .
= = = Economic development = = =
The parish is recorded in 1086 as being heavily wooded , supporting an agrarian way of life . Forest clearance was well advanced by the 15th century , with an increase in population and arable land ; and there was a windmill in Cranham . Cranham lay on brick earth and this gave rise to the Cranham Brick and Tile Company which was in operation from 1900 to 1920 . Drury has suggested that early trade was with the nearby settlements of Romford and Hornchurch and with London via the River Thames at Rainham .
= = = Local government = = =
Cranham formed an ancient parish of 1 @,@ 879 acres ( 7 @.@ 60 km2 ) in the Chafford hundred of Essex . The vestry met in the church until 1829 and then at the parish workhouse . In 1836 the parish was grouped for poor relief into the Romford Poor Law Union and for sanitary provision in 1875 into Romford rural sanitary district . The sanitary district became Romford Rural District from 1894 and a parish council was formed to replace the vestry .
The parish formed part of the London Traffic Area from 1924 and the London Passenger Transport Area from 1933 . To reflect the significantly increased population in the area , Romford Rural District was abolished in 1934 and Cranham was amalgamated with neighbouring parishes into Hornchurch Urban District . The parish council was abolished and Hornchurch Urban District Council became the local authority . There was a revision of boundaries with North Ockendon , which had been part of Orsett Rural District , absorbed into Cranham and a small area to the north , near Great Warley , transferred to Brentwood Urban District .
In 1965 Hornchurch Urban District was abolished and its former area was transferred from Essex to Greater London , to be combined with that of the Municipal Borough of Romford in order to form the present @-@ day London Borough of Havering . In 1993 the Greater London boundary , to the east of Cranham and north of the railway line , was locally realigned to the M25 motorway , returning some mostly unpopulated areas of open land to Essex and leaving North Ockendon as the only part of Greater London outside the bounds of the motorway .
= = = Urban development = = =
In the 17th and 18th centuries manorial homes , including Cranham Hall , became attractive properties for merchants from the City of London . Initial attempts to expand the suburban estates from Upminster in the early 20th century ran into problems because of the lack of water supply . In 1922 sewage works for Upminster and Cranham were opened in Great Warley . In the 1930s land was used to develop some council housing and following the sale of the Benyon estate the pace of new building quickened . Cranham 's location on the very edge of London 's urban sprawl is explained by the halting effect on suburban house building of the introduction of the Metropolitan Green Belt and World War II . Thereafter building took place within the area bounded by the Southend Arterial Road in the north and St Mary 's Lane in the south ; and there were 615 council houses built by 1971 .
= = Governance = =
Cranham forms part of the Hornchurch and Upminster UK Parliament constituency , and is partly within the Havering wards of Upminster and Cranham . Together these form the Upminster Area Committee . The current MP is Angela Watkinson . Each ward elects three councillors to Havering London Borough Council . All six councillors elected in 2010 for the two wards were the Upminster and Cranham Residents ' Association candidates and the area is unusual in that the residents ' association is strongly active . From 1945 to 1974 Cranham formed part of the Hornchurch constituency and from 1974 to 2010 it formed part of the Upminster constituency . Cranham is within the Havering and Redbridge London Assembly constituency and the London European Parliament constituency .
= = Geography = =
Most of Cranham is located on the London Clay belt , with loam to the north and a gravel valley to the south . It rises to about 250 feet ( 76 m ) in the north and to below 50 feet ( 15 m ) in the south ; with a ridge running east to west upon which All Saints Church is located . Cranham forms a continuously built @-@ up area with Upminster to the west , with open fields separating it from Harold Wood in the north , Great Warley to the east and North Ockendon to the southeast . Franks Wood and Cranham Brickfields are designated a Site of Importance for Nature Conservation with a habitat of ancient woodland , coppices , ditches , scrub , tall herbs and neutral grassland . The community forest centre for the extensive Thames Chase is located in the open land to the south east . Cranham forms part of the Upminster post town in the RM14 postcode district . Climate data for Cranham is taken from the nearest weather station at Greenwich , around 12 miles ( 19 @.@ 3 km ) southwest of All Saints church :
= = Demography = =
Demographic data is produced by the Office for National Statistics for the wards of Cranham and Upminster . All of Cranham is contained within these wards , however they also cover the connected settlement of Upminster and the rural outlier of North Ockendon . In 2001 the population of Upminster ward was 12 @,@ 674 and Cranham ward was 12 @,@ 242 , giving a total population of 25 @,@ 098 . 80 @.@ 95 % in Upminster and 81 @.@ 73 % in Cranham report their religion as Christian , compared to 76 @.@ 13 % for Havering , 58 @.@ 23 % in London and 71 @.@ 74 % in England . 10 @.@ 08 % in Upminster and 10 @.@ 46 % in Cranham report having no religion , compared to 13 @.@ 18 % in Havering , 15 @.@ 76 % in London and 14 @.@ 59 % in England . With a black and minority ethnic population of 3 % in 2001 , Cranham and Upminster wards have the lowest Simpson index for ethnic diversity in London . The level of home ownership is atypically high compared to the rest of London and England , with over 90 % of housing tenure under owner @-@ occupation in both wards .
= = Economy = =
There are several short parades of shops ; the largest on Front Lane , dominated by a Tesco Express store . The nearest significant activity centre identified in the London Plan is the local district centre at Upminster . Within Havering , Upminster is identified as the nearest of seven main town centres . There are a number of commercial businesses centred around the A127 Southend Arterial Road including a wholesale butcher , mushroom cultivator , caravan sales , and a sports equipment supplier . There are a limited number of hospitality venues , including pubs and a popular tandoori restaurant .
= = Transport = =
Front Lane is the main road through Cranham and runs north to south , connecting with the A127 road in the north . Approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) to the northeast it has a junction with the M25 motorway , which forms the outer ring road of London . Cranham is the location of the Upminster depot of the London Underground 's District line . The nearest London Underground station is at Upminster , approximately 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) to the west . The London @-@ Tilbury @-@ Southend Line of the National Rail network passes through the area in two places , with the nearest station also at Upminster . There are Transport for London bus service to Upminster , Hornchurch , Romford , and Ockendon station on routes 248 , 346 and 347 .
= = Culture = =
All Saints parish church was rebuilt in 1873 and is a grade II listed building . James Oglethorpe , the first governor of Georgia , now part of the United States of America , is buried with his wife at the centre of its chancel . The area around the church forms a conservation area . There is a second church called St Luke 's further north on Front Lane . Cranham Hall , the former manor house , is a grade II listed building . There are two community associations that are both registered charities . The Cranham Community Association operates a broad range of sporting , self @-@ improvement and hobby activities at Cranham Community Centre on Marlborough Gardens . Cranham Social Hall , with a capacity of 100 , is separately operated by the Front Lane Community Association , and provides a limited range of activities . The main cultural and entertainment facilities of the borough are located in Hornchurch and Romford .
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= Thomas R. Cornelius =
Thomas Ramsey Cornelius ( November 16 , 1827 – June 24 , 1899 ) was a prominent American politician and soldier in the early history of Oregon . Born in Missouri , he moved to the Oregon Country with his family as a young man where he fought in the Cayuse War and Yakima Indian War against the Native Americans . He settled in Washington County near what later became Cornelius , named in his honor .
A Whig and later a Republican , he served in the Oregon Territorial Legislature , and following statehood , he served in the Oregon State Senate . In the Senate he served one term as the president of that chamber . He also built the Cornelius Pass Road that bears his name . He was the father of Benjamin P. Cornelius , who was also prominent in state politics .
= = Early life = =
Cornelius was born in Missouri , on November 16 , 1827 , to Elizabeth and Benjamin Cornelius . In 1845 , Thomas and his family traveled over the Oregon Trail to the Oregon Country and set up a farm on the Tualatin Plains , north of what would become the community of Cornelius . After the Whitman Massacre in late 1847 , Thomas volunteered for the militia of the Oregon Provisional Government in 1848 . The militia prosecuted the Cayuse War in an attempt to punish those responsible for the killings at the Whitman Mission .
After gold was discovered in California , Cornelius journeyed there for a brief time , returning to the Oregon Territory in 1849 . The next year he married Florentine Wilkes , and they had six children together before she died in 1864 , including son Benjamin . The family would settle on 640 acres ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) of their Donation Land Claim near Cornelius . In 1855 , a second war against the Native Americans started east of the Cascade Mountains against the Yakima tribe . Cornelius volunteered again for the militia . For three months he led a company with the rank of captain before being elected as colonel after James W. Nesmith resigned his commission . Cornelius continued as colonel until the end of the war in 1856 .
= = Political career = =
In 1856 , Cornelius was elected to upper chamber of the Oregon Territorial Legislature , called the Council . Serving as a Whig , he represented Washington , Columbia , and Multnomah counties in District 8 . He won re @-@ election to the Council in 1857 and again in 1858 to the final session of the territorial legislature . In 1859 , he continued holding office in the newly formed Oregon State Senate after Oregon entered the Union on February 14 , 1859 as the 33rd state .
In the Oregon Senate , Cornelius continued as a Republican representing Washington County and several other counties through the 1874 legislature . His service was interrupted by the American Civil War during 1862 session , when he was authorized by President Abraham Lincoln to raise a regiment of cavalry for federal service . He was chosen as colonel of the troops and they deployed to a military post at Walla Walla , Washington , where he assumed command . He resigned during the summer of 1862 and returned home .
During the 1866 legislature Cornelius was selected as President of the Oregon Senate . In 1886 , he won the Republican nomination for Governor of Oregon , but lost the general election to Sylvester Pennoyer .
= = Later life and family = =
After his first wife died in 1864 , Cornelius remarried in 1866 to Missouri A. Smith . In 1872 , he moved to Cornelius , which would be renamed after him , and opened a store . In addition to the store , Cornelius owned a total of 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) , including covering three farms , a warehouse , and a sawmill . He built the Cornelius Pass Road that linked the Tualatin Valley to the Columbia River . Cornelius died on June 24 , 1899 , at the age of 71 . He was buried at the Cornelius Methodist Church Cemetery .
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= Thirsty Merc =
Thirsty Merc are an Australian pop rock band formed in 2002 by Rai Thistlethwayte ( vocals , guitar , keyboards ) , Phil Stack ( bass guitar ) , Karl Robertson ( drums ) , and Matthew Baker ( guitar ) . In 2004 Baker was replaced by Sean Carey who was , in turn , replaced by Matt Smith in 2010 . Thirsty Merc have released one extended play , First Work ( September 2003 ) , and four studio albums : Thirsty Merc ( August 2004 ) , Slideshows ( April 2007 ) , Mousetrap Heart ( June 2010 ) and Shifting Gears ( September 2015 ) . The band have sold over 200 @,@ 000 albums , toured extensively around Australia , and received national radio airplay for their tracks .
In June 2005 Billboard 's Christie Eliezer felt their debut album showed " eclectic rock- , classical- and jazz @-@ influenced pop [ that ] appealed to Australian radio programmers " . The work reached the top 20 on the ARIA Albums Chart and was certified platinum by ARIA for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 units by the end of 2005 . Slideshows peaked at No. 4 in Australia – their highest position . It reached No. 38 on the New Zealand Albums Chart , however Thirsty Merc had attained No. 29 in that market . The group were nominated for four ARIA Awards in 2005 and the Thistlethwayte @-@ written track , " 20 Good Reasons " , was nominated for Song of the Year at the APRA Music Awards of 2008 . From 2006 , their song " In the Summertime " was the opening theme for the Australian TV reality show , Bondi Rescue .
= = History = =
Three of the founding members of Thirsty Merc – Matthew Baker , Karl Robertson , and Phil Stack – had played together in various bands in Dubbo , a regional New South Wales city . In 1996 Drown was formed with Baker on guitar , Robertson on drums , Peter Jamieson on vocals , and Stack on bass guitar . By 1998 Baker , Jamieson and Stack had split to form Twenty Two and then moved to Sydney . In 2002 , Baker and Stack returned to Dubbo where Rai Thistlethwayte , from Sydney , as lead singer ( later also on guitar and keyboards ) and Stack worked as a live jazz duo and session musicians . They were joined by Baker and Robertson , and formed a pop rock band , initially called Thirsty ; soon after they moved to Sydney and were renamed , Thirsty Merc . The band 's name came from Thistlethwayte 's old Mercedes Benz , which was a gas @-@ guzzler .
In October 2006 Thistlethwayte described his jazz and R & B background to MusicFix and the band 's sound as " rock Sinatra " where " [ t ] he outlook , I guess , is about being a young person in today 's society ... being an Australian in an American @-@ ised , Britain @-@ ised kind of world , where you 're trying to stay true to yourself " . Baker added " We contrived to make it not contrived ... Rai was all for originality in his own vision and so were we " .
A car accident on 22 September 2015 at Streatham , Victoria during a Thirsty Merc tour killed the band 's stage manager and injured drummer Mick Skelton .
= = = First Work = = =
Thirsty Merc 's first extended play , First Work , was released on 8 September 2003 by the band 's own label , Don 't Music and was distributed by Warner Music Australia . The five @-@ track CD was independently recorded during downtime at a studio where Thistlethwayte worked . The EP reached the top 100 on the ARIA Singles Chart ; and its lead single , " Wasting Time " , achieved radio airplay on national radio stations , Triple J and Nova . The self @-@ funded music video for the single was broadcast on Channel [ V ] , and became the ' ripe clip of the week ' . At the time of recording the EP they were without a label . After extensive gigging around Sydney 's pubs , representatives from Warner had signed the band in June 2003 , for the release of the EP and the follow up single , " Emancipate Myself " , which was a reworked version of the EP track . It was issued in April 2004 and The Age 's Andrew Murfett declared that " this bitter tirade wrapped in melodic hooks has become one of the biggest local radio successes of the year " .
= = = Debut studio album = = =
On 16 August 2004 Thirsty Merc issued their debut studio album , the self @-@ titled , Thirsty Merc , which was co @-@ produced by the group with Lindsay Gravina ( The Living End , Magic Dirt ) . Also that month , prior to a national tour in support of its release , Baker left and was replaced on guitar by Sean Carey ( ex @-@ Midnight Swim ) , whom they had met when playing a support slot to his group at a Kings Cross venue , Club 77 . The album spent 48 weeks on the ARIA Albums Chart Top 50 , peaking at No. 15 , and launched the band in the Australian mainstream. dB Magazine 's Kelly Parish observed " [ e ] ven though the band 's sound is predominantly rock , it has been influenced by more traditional flavours ... they have developed a very wide audience which embraces both the alternative and mainstream camps " . Thirsty Merc reached No. 29 on New Zealand 's RIANZ Albums Chart . It was recorded and mixed on 2 inch tape , and then further mixed by Gravina at his Birdland Studios .
Five singles were released from Thirsty Merc : " Emancipate Myself " , " My Completeness " ( August 2004 ) , " Someday , Someday " ( December ) , " In the Summertime " ( April 2005 ) , and " When the Weather Is Fine " ( September ) . All five appeared in the ARIA Singles Chart top 50 , with the highest charting , " Someday , Someday " reaching No. 19 . Of these singles only " In the Summertime " reached the top 50 in New Zealand , where it peaked at No. 12 . In June 2005 Billboard 's Christie Eliezer felt the album showed " eclectic rock- , classical- and jazz @-@ influenced pop [ that ] appealed to Australian radio programmers " . The album was due for United States and European release in early 2006 on Atlantic Records .
" In the Summertime " was nominated at the ARIA Music Awards of 2005 for " Best Video " , while " Someday , Someday " was nominated for " Single of the Year " , " Best Group " , and " Best Pop Release " . At the ceremony in October , the group performed " Someday , Someday " . In 2006 Carey described the group 's style to Jet Magazine , it was " Just be yourself " and " about being young and living in Australia . We ’ re not trying to be 50 Cent or anything , we ’ re all just boys from the country , just trying to move into the city and make our way " . He listed Evermore , Crowded House , Foo Fighters and Cold Chisel as his favourite bands . In February 2007 they supported Ozzy Osbourne on the Australian leg of his national tour .
= = = Slideshows = = =
Thirsty Merc 's second album , Slideshows , was issued on 21 April 2007 via Warner Music Australia . It became the band 's most successful release yet , peaking at No. 4 in Australia , although it was less successful in New Zealand , only reaching No. 38 . To support the release of Slideshows , Thirsty Merc toured Australia , playing an album tour in theatres nationally and then various regional tours , the biggest of which had 38 shows booked across seven weeks . The album 's first single , " 20 Good Reasons " ( March 2007 ) , reached No. 4 in Australia and No. 17 in New Zealand . In June they supported Evermore on a tour of New Zealand , showcasing their " unique blend of pop rock dance @-@ able balladry " . The next three singles appeared in the top 100 in Australia , " The Hard Way " ( September ) , " Those Eyes " ( December ) , and " Homesick " ( May 2008 ) .
The band 's main songwriter , Thistlethwayte , inadvertently wrote a " break @-@ up album " , which The Sydney Morning Herald 's Brett Winterford noted was unusual , " that the articulate and intelligent 27 @-@ year @-@ old has strung together 12 such stock @-@ standard , radio @-@ friendly songs about broken hearts " . Thistlethwayte described his influences : " Jazz taught me about spontaneity ... Central to jazz is improvisation . It 's also great to get that knowledge of theory , an understanding of the geeky side of music " and writing advertising jingles had showed him how to " do a lot of things in differing genres and recording styles – but had to try to be authentic about it " . After writing the tracks , the other members " choose the songs that had the ultimate emotional impact " .
= = = Mousetrap Heart = = =
On 14 January 2010 Thirsty Merc announced that Carey had left the band and was replaced on guitar by Matt Smith , from afrobeat and reggae band , The Strides . Carey wanted to work as a record producer and spend more time with his wife . On 18 June 2010 Thirsty Merc released their third album , Mousetrap Heart , which was recorded mostly in Los Angeles with Matt Wallace co @-@ producing , while two tracks were produced in Melbourne with Gravina . Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald opined that " we buy , or actively avoid , songs that excite a response in us but radio wants songs that fit in , that don 't provoke strong responses , that offend the fewest people ... this [ album ] is a collection of extremely professional , well @-@ considered , carefully targeted songs whose key performance indicators are ticked off one by one in a manner so efficient you suspect band meetings must have an agenda , notes secretary and double @-@ cream biscuits for elevenses " .
The band toured nationally in July 2010 to support the album , while its lead single , the title track , had appeared in May and charted in the Top 30 on the ARIA Singles Chart . The second single , " Tommy and Krista " , was released in September , which peaked at No. 10 in New Zealand . Another single , " All My Life " , was featured in the promotional clips for the 2010 AFL grand final . Its music video was directed by Adrian Van de Velde and was shot in early October in Bangkok , Thailand . The narrative is a ' heroic love ' set on a local military base and features Russian model @-@ actress Maria Mazikova , together with 50 Thai army troops , an Iroquois helicopter , and a Chinook helicopter . In November Lip Magazine 's Shannon Andreucci reviewed a live gig , " [ they ] are certainly no Pixies , Beatles or Sex Pistols . They 're not breaking any rules or boundaries in the revolutionary world of rock music . In fact they are perfectly happy and capable of playing within the parameters of radio friendly and commercially safe pop rock . But one thing is for sure ; they go the extra mile in giving a charmingly refined and hearty live performance and that in itself should be commended " .
= = Members = =
Current members
Rai Thistlethwayte – guitar , piano , singer @-@ songwriter ( 2002 – present )
Phil Stack – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 2002 – present )
Matt Smith – guitar ( 2010 – present )
Former members
Matt Baker – guitar , backing vocals ( 2002 – 2004 )
Sean Carey – guitar , backing vocals ( 2004 – 2009 )
Karl Robertson – drums , percussion ( 2002 – 2014 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Extended plays = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = APRA Music Awards = = =
The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) .
= = = ARIA Music Awards = = =
The ARIA Music Awards are presented annually from 1987 by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Thirsty Merc have received four nominations .
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= Laurentia Tan =
Laurentia Tan Yen Yi BBM PBM ( / lɒˈrɛnʃə / lo @-@ REN @-@ shə ; Chinese : 陈雁仪 ; pinyin : Chén Yànyí , pronounced [ tʂə ̌ n jɛ ̂ n í ] ) ( born 24 April 1979 ) , is a United Kingdom @-@ based Singaporean Para @-@ equestrian competitor . Tan developed cerebral palsy and profound deafness after birth , and moved to the United Kingdom with her parents at the age of three . She took up horse riding at age of five years as a form of physiotherapy . She subsequently completed her A @-@ levels at the Mary Hare Grammar School , a residential special school for the deaf , and graduated with an honours degree from Oxford Brookes University in hospitality management and tourism .
In March 2007 , the Riding for the Disabled Association Singapore ( RDA ) invited Tan to join the Singapore team for the World Para Dressage Championships at Hartpury College in Hartpury , Gloucester , in England in July that year . At this event , her first international competition , she did well enough to qualify for the 2008 Paralympic Games . In September 2008 , at the Hong Kong Olympic Equestrian Centre at Sha Tin , she achieved bronze medals in the Individual Championship and Individual Freestyle Tests ( class Ia ) . These were Singapore 's first Paralympic medals and Asia 's first equestrian medals at the Paralympic Games . Tan was conferred the Pingat Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Medal ) by the President of Singapore at a ceremony at the Istana Singapore on 20 September 2008 .
On 2 September 2012 , Tan won Singapore 's first medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , a bronze in the dressage Individual Championship Test ( class Ia ) . She followed this up with a silver medal in the Individual Freestyle Test ( class Ia ) on 4 September . For her achievements , Tan was conferred a Bintang Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Star ) by the President in November 2012 .
= = Early years and education = =
Laurentia Tan was born on 24 April 1979 in Singapore . She moved with her family to London at the age of three years due to her father 's work . Tan developed cerebral palsy and profound deafness after birth , and doctors informed her parents that she would probably not be able to walk . Her family decided to settle in the United Kingdom as they felt she would be better able to reach her full potential with the medical facilities and specialist educational support available there . When she was in school , she fell so often and sustained so many minor injuries that her teachers and the school nurse affectionately nicknamed her " Trouble " . At five years she was unable to sit and walk properly , and took up horse riding at the Diamond Centre for Disabled Riders in London as a form of physiotherapy . This activity also helped her confidence and self @-@ esteem .
Tan completed her A @-@ levels at the Mary Hare Grammar School , a residential special school for the deaf , where she was a prefect . She also won an Elizabeth Dyson Prize for progress and achievement and a prize for business studies . From the age of 18 , she stopped horse riding for eight years to pursue an honours degree in hospitality management and tourism at Oxford Brookes University , and for a job as a mental health worker . However , she missed the sport and took it up again in 2005 . Tan said , " For me , riding a horse gives me the freedom , movement and energy that my own legs cannot do . "
= = Sporting career = =
Tan took up riding in October 2005 at the Diamond Centre for Disabled Riders , where she met her coach Heather " Penny " Pegrum . Encouraged to participate in dressage competitions in March 2006 , she quickly progressed to the Riding for the Disabled Association ( RDA ) Nationals that year . In March 2007 , RDA Singapore contacted Tan and invited her to join the Singapore team for the World Para Dressage Championships 2007 , which was a qualifier for the 2008 Summer Paralympics . The event , Tan 's first international competition , was held at Hartpury College , Gloucester , in England in July 2007 . She achieved 63 % or higher in both her Team and Individual Tests , qualifying her to be selected for the 2008 Summer Paralympics . In the Freestyle to Music Test , despite her profound deafness , she was placed fourth in a field of 18 riders with a best score of 67 @.@ 94 % . In October 2007 , Tan went to Singapore for a visit and trained daily at Singapore 's RDA with volunteer coach Sally Drummond . Tan resigned her job in June 2008 to train full @-@ time with her coach Penny Pegrum and physiotherapist Anthea Pell .
= = = 2008 Summer Paralympics = = =
Tan 's first Paralympic event was the para @-@ dressage Individual Championship Test ( class Ia ) . Riders in this event are categorized into classes I to IV , those in class I having the most severe disabilities . On 9 September , riding a 20 @-@ year @-@ old chestnut gelding loaned to her named Nothing to Lose ( also known as Harvey ) at the Hong Kong Olympic Equestrian Centre in Sha Tin , Tan scored 68 @.@ 80 % to claim the bronze medal behind the United Kingdom 's Anne Dunham ( 73 @.@ 10 % ) and Sophie Christiansen ( 72 @.@ 80 % ) . She thus became the first Singaporean to win a Paralympic medal , and the holder of Asia 's first Paralympic equestrian medal . Two days after achieving the first medal , Tan collected her second bronze with a score of 70 @.@ 167 % for the Individual Freestyle Event , in which she performed to music with Nothing To Lose . The president of the Equestrian Federation of Singapore , Melanie Chew , described her performance as " beyond our expectations " , and that the wins would aid in promoting local awareness of the sport .
Tan 's win sparked discussion about the recognition given to Paralympians in Singapore . A correspondent to the Straits Times criticized the fact that the newspaper had not elaborated on Tan 's performance or what was involved in the event , but had " focused almost primarily on her disability " . Another letter writer to my paper expressed disappointment that less publicity had been given to Tan 's achievement compared to the silver medals won by the Singapore women 's table tennis team at the 2008 Summer Olympics . In addition , a Today reader noted that Tan would be receiving S $ 25 @,@ 000 for her bronze medal , a tenth of the S $ 250 @,@ 000 that table tennis players Feng Tianwei , Li Jiawei and Wang Yuegu received for their silver medals . He felt that she should receive even more than them , given what she had achieved in spite of her disabilities . The President of the Society for the Physically Disabled , Ms Chia Yong Yong , commented that the disparity between the cash awards given to able @-@ bodied and disabled sportspeople was " disconcerting " and looked forward to a single common scheme , because :
If we persist in having two different standards , we reinforce the erroneous perception that disabled people are different , and strengthen the barriers against building an inclusive society . We cannot build a gracious inclusive society if we continue to deny the achievements of those perceived to be different and less able than we .
On 16 September , Nominated Member of Parliament Eunice Olsen asked in Parliament if there was a difference in the amount of funding given to Olympians and Paralympians , and why Paralympians receive a much smaller cash reward for medals won compared to Olympians . Teo Ser Luck , Senior Parliamentary Secretary ( Community Development , Youth and Sports ) , said that on a per capita basis disabled sportspeople received about S $ 106 @,@ 000 in the current financial year compared to S $ 54 @,@ 000 for each able @-@ bodied sportsperson as there were 794 registered able @-@ bodied sportspeople but only 16 disabled ones . Teo attributed the disparity in the cash rewards to the fact that Olympians faced higher levels and a larger scale of competition , since disabled sportspeople compete within disability classes . Further , cash rewards were provided by the private sector and Singapore Totalisator Board and were not paid out of state funds . The scheme for Olympians had also been in place for a number of years , while cash rewards for Paralympians were only introduced recently . He said that the government was looking at how it could " develop a system to accommodate all athletes that represent Singapore " .
Tan was conferred the Pingat Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Medal ) by the President of Singapore at a ceremony at the Istana Singapore on 20 September 2008 . At an appreciation dinner on 21 November 2008 , the Singapore National Paralympic Committee ( SNPC ) announced that it was increasing the monetary awards under its Athlete Achievement Award scheme for Paralympic Games medallists in individual and team events , a quarter of which would be paid to the SNPC towards developing elite athletes and sports . As a result , for her Paralympic win , Tan received a cash reward of S $ 37 @,@ 500 , S $ 12 @,@ 500 of which went to the SNPC . She made it into Today newspaper 's list of athletes of the year for 2008 in eighth place , and shared the Her World Young Woman Achiever 2008 award with Paralympian swimmer Yip Pin Xiu .
= = = 2012 Summer Paralympics = = =
On 2 September 2012 , Tan won Singapore 's first medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics , a bronze in the dressage Individual Championship Test ( class Ia ) . Riding on Ruben James 2 , a gelding from Germany she had only known for ten months , she scored 73 @.@ 650 percentage points . Two days later , on 4 September , she scored 79 @.@ 000 in the Individual Freestyle Test ( class Ia ) which brought her a silver medal . Her wins brought her prizes of $ 50 @,@ 000 ( for her bronze medal ) and $ 100 @,@ 000 ( silver ) from the SNPC 's Athletes Achievement Awards scheme , again leading to comments about the stark difference between the cash prizes that Olympic and Paralympic medallists receive . Twenty per cent of the prize money will be paid to the Singapore National Paralympic Council for training and development . For her achievements , Tan won The Straits Times newspaper 's Star of the Month for September , and was conferred a Bintang Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Star ) by the President on 11 November 2012 .
= = Medals = =
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= The First Time ( Glee ) =
" The First Time " is the fifth episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ ninth overall . Written by Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa and directed by co @-@ executive producer Bradley Buecker , it first aired on Fox in the United States on November 8 , 2011 . The episode features the preparations for performing West Side Story and the show 's opening night , and the various events leading to the decisions by two of the show 's student couples — Rachel ( Lea Michele ) and Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , and Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) — to begin having sex .
While an advanced copy of the episode was released to several reviewers and was highly praised by them , the reviewers of the broadcast were not as generally enthusiastic . In particular , some of the plotting and resulting characterization came in for criticism . The performance of " America " , however , was widely acclaimed , especially that of Santana ( Naya Rivera ) in the role of Anita . While the advance publicity about the " first time " events drew some pre @-@ broadcast condemnation , many critics were enthusiastic about the fact that a gay couple was being given such a storyline .
All six songs were released in five singles , available for download . Of these , " Uptown Girl " , a song sung by the returning Dalton Academy Warblers , charted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and also on the Canadian Hot 100 . The remaining songs , all from West Side Story , did not chart . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 6 @.@ 91 million American viewers , the lowest of the season , and garnered a 3 @.@ 1 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership for this episode was down somewhat from the previous episode , " Pot o ' Gold " , though ratings were fractionally higher .
= = Plot = =
Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) has taken charge of directing the school musical , West Side Story , and he tells the two leads — Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , playing Maria , and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) , playing Tony — that they are not conveying enough emotion in their rendition of " Tonight " . He questions whether they can convincingly portray the roles if they are still virgins . Later , his co @-@ director Coach Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) confesses to him that she is attracted to football recruiter Cooter Menkins ( Eric Bruskotter ) , who is at McKinley to scout potential players for Ohio State , though she is sure he would never consider her . Artie thinks otherwise , and acting on his advice , Cooter arranges a date with her .
Blaine and Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) discuss their decision to postpone sex . Blaine goes to Dalton Academy to invite the Warblers to see him in West Side Story and arrives as they are performing " Uptown Girl " . Afterward , new Warbler Sebastian Smythe ( Grant Gustin ) makes a play for Blaine , intercut with Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Rachel singing " A Boy Like That " from the musical . They later meet at a coffee shop , and Kurt arrives as Blaine is telling Sebastian that he already has a boyfriend . Sebastian convinces them to go with him to the local gay bar and supplies fake IDs . While Blaine and Sebastian are dancing , Kurt is surprised to see Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) , who has transferred to another school . When Blaine and Kurt leave , Blaine is drunk and aroused , and urges Kurt to have sex with him in the back seat of the car ; Kurt refuses , and Blaine angrily walks home .
Rachel lets Finn ( Cory Monteith ) know that she is interested in having sex with him , but he balks when she admits her reason is to be a better Maria . Later , she asks advice from the other girls in the show . While Santana and Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) both urge her not to have sex with Finn , Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) reveals that she and Mike ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) had sex over the summer and says how wonderful it was with the boy she loved — her words are intercut with Rachel and Santana singing " I Have a Love " in rehearsal . Mike 's father ( Keong Sim ) confronts him about his participation in the musical , and Mike tells him he wants to be a professional dancer , not a doctor . His father disowns him .
Cooter recruits Shane ( LaMarcus Tinker ) for Ohio State , but not Finn , who is despondent about his future . Rachel comforts him , and promises that she will help him find a new future . Back at school , Blaine apologizes to Kurt for getting drunk , and says he cares nothing for Sebastian . Kurt proposes that they go over to Blaine 's house for the night .
On opening night , Artie is assailed by self @-@ doubt , but he is thanked by the cast for his leadership , and he thanks them for trusting him . They perform " America " , which gets a standing ovation . Blaine and Rachel , waiting to go on and still virgins , are afraid they will not convey the necessary emotion , but Rachel reminds Blaine that they both have found their soulmates in Finn and Kurt , just like Maria and Tony had with each other . As they sing " One Hand , One Heart " on stage , they are also shown in scenes involving their first sexual encounters with their true soulmates .
= = Production = =
The episode began filming on September 23 , 2011 , and ended on October 14 , 2011 . The last nine days were shot in parallel with the sixth episode , which began shooting on October 6 , 2011 , and briefly with the seventh episode , which began shooting on October 13 , 2011 .
Grant Gustin makes his first appearance in this episode , playing a new " major " recurring character , Sebastian Smythe , a " gay Dalton Academy Warbler who sets his sights on Blaine " . Gustin won the role after " an exhaustive , weeks @-@ long casting search " , and the character is referred to as " promiscuous " and " scheming " . Gustin 's first day on the Glee set was September 26 , 2011 . He had been playing the role of Baby John in the touring company of Broadway revival of West Side Story since it opened on September 30 , 2010 , and left the show after performing on September 23 , 2011 to return for his first day with Glee .
Although the Dalton Academy Warblers also return in this episode , they are not voiced by the Tufts Beelzebubs , who sang backgrounds for Warblers numbers in the second season . According to Curt Mega , who sings lead on the Warblers track in this episode , the backgrounds were sung by " Jon Hall , Brock Baker and Luke Edgemon and some others " , with the three named men having played on @-@ screen Warblers in the second season . Some of the actors who played Warblers in the second season , including Hall and Mega , returned for the third . After the Warblers were filmed on October 3 , 2011 , Dominic Barnes , who played Trent in season two , tweeted to Gustin , " very impressive moves today sir " , to which Gustin replied , " Thanks bro ! Fun stuff ! ! "
Another " major recurring role " debuts in this episode : Eric Bruskotter joins the cast as Cooter Menkins , " a football recruiter who comes scouting for talent at McKinley , but finds he can ’ t take his eyes off the team ’ s gruff but big @-@ hearted coach . " Other recurring guest stars that appear in the episode include football coach Shannon Beiste ( Jones ) , the focus of Cooter 's eyes , former prom king Dave Karofsky ( Adler ) , exchange student and new glee club member Rory Flanagan ( Damian McGinty ) , and Mike 's parents Julia Chang and Mike Chang , Sr. ( Tamlyn Tomita and Sim ) .
This episode features six covers , five of which are from West Side Story , the stage musical being rehearsed and performed during the course of the episode : " A Boy Like That " and " I Have a Love " sung by Rivera and Michele , " Tonight " and " One Hand , One Heart " sung by Michele and Criss , and the number performed by the Sharks and Jets , " America " . The sixth cover , " Uptown Girl " , is sung by the Dalton Academy Warblers , with Mega on lead vocal .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The First Time " was first broadcast on November 8 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 3 @.@ 1 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 6 @.@ 91 million American viewers during its initial airing , the lowest number of viewers for a new episode in the third season . While the show 's viewership was down by over 7 % from the 7 @.@ 47 million for previous new episode , " Pot o ' Gold " , which was broadcast on November 1 , 2011 , the rating in the 18 – 49 demographic increased slightly from the 3 @.@ 0 / 8 rating / share received by that episode .
Viewership also decreased in other countries , and hit season lows in the United Kingdom and Australia as well . In the United Kingdom , " The First Time " was watched on Sky1 by 973 @,@ 000 viewers , down 7 % compared to " Pot o ' Gold " the previous week , when 1 @.@ 05 million viewers were watching . In Australia , " The First Time " was watched by 660 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the fourteenth most @-@ watched program of the night . The viewership was down almost 9 % from " Pot o ' Gold " , which was seen by 724 @,@ 000 viewers . In Canada , however , viewership was up slightly and 1 @.@ 66 million viewers watched the episode , which made it the fifteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , up three slots and over 2 % from the 1 @.@ 62 million viewers who watched " Pot o ' Gold " the week before .
= = = Pre @-@ broadcast reception = = =
Like " Asian F " before it , screener copies of this episode were sent to a number of critics before the show aired . Michael Ausiello of TVLine called it " stellar " and a " standout episode " , and Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack wrote that it was " one of Glee 's best installments ever " and an " exceptional episode " . Both articles headlined the sexual theme of the episode , and made prominent mention of the fact that both couples would be " having sex for the first time " .
Prior to broadcast , Colfer anticipated that the episode 's sexual themes and content would prove controversial among television watchdog groups . He said , " I absolutely expect to hear from them , but I think it 's handled very sweetly and very emotionally . They 're expecting this big , raunchy , suggestive , brainwashing storyline when , really , it 's very sweet . " Before the episode aired , the conservative Parents Television Council called the show " reprehensible " and the Fox network reckless for " celebrating teen sex " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
When the show aired , the reviewers were not as uniformly enthusiastic as the screeners . Bobby Hankinson of The Houston Chronicle called this " one of the better episodes in the show ’ s three @-@ season run , though not as good as ' Asian F ' " . Time 's James Poniewozik weighted them differently , calling " The First Time " the " best episode , overall , of Glee season three " . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal said it had " tasteful restraint , subtle playfulness and smoothly woven storylines " , and The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon said the episode " treats its characters realistically and send an important message " . Robert Canning of IGN gave the episode a " good " grade of 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman wrote that it was " clinical and awkward " , and the " second flatline " episode in a row , though she complimented the four actors playing the two couples as " genuine and relatable " . John Kubicek of BuddyTV said that the episode infuriated him " on a grand scale " . Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times wrote that the episode was " far more nuanced , gentle @-@ hearted and romantic than it sounds — much more about love than about sex " , and a number of reviewers agreed , including AOLTV 's Crystal Bell . For Hankinson , however , " the teenage lust was played a touch too safe , a bit too romanticized " .
Canning said that Kurt and Blaine 's " attempts to get a little wild " , and " trying to grow up faster than they should " , were " the better parts of the episode as they felt the most realistic " . Futterman praised their departure from the bar as a " very faithful and honest scene " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club and Kubicek both had issues with Blaine 's characterization . The latter asserted that he " just behaves however the writers need him to behave in order for the scene to work " , while the former said that Blaine 's season three storyline " hasn ’ t been bad by any means , but it does feel like Darren Criss is playing someone who ’ s quite a bit different from the guy he was playing last season " . Bell was impressed by the way the characters ' relationship " inspires gay youth in a way that we haven 't seen on network television yet " and called them " amazing role models for all teens " , and Fallon said it was " remarkable " and a " milestone " that " the decision by gay teen characters to lose their virginities is given equal weight to that of a straight couple " . Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times characterized the scene with Kurt and Karofsky as " subtle " and " a home run " , and Entertainment Weekly 's Abby West called it a " perfect little nuanced scene " , while Ausiello said it was his " favorite scene of the episode " .
Poniewozik complimented the way " Monteith really sold Finn ’ s feeling of being helpless and overmatched " , and Canning said that Finn 's reaction to Rachel 's admission that she wanted to have sex because of the play was a " solid and true moment " . Rachel 's reasoning , however , came in for harsh criticism : Brett Berk of Vanity Fair said it was " neither believable nor even amusing " that she would try intercourse for such a reason , Bell called her a " dunce " , and VanDerWerff didn 't believe that she would just blurt it out to Finn . The Star @-@ Ledger 's Vicki Hyman felt her decision to go all the way did not " ring quite true " , and Poniewozik called it " essentially pity sex " . Ausiello had a different view — " I would hardly call it pity sex " — and West said she was " going to choose to believe " that Rachel did not have her first time " just to make him feel better " .
Several of Artie 's scenes came in for criticism . The scene where he advised Rachel and Blaine to have sex was viewed by Poniewozik as " a forced conflict designed to drive the plot " and highly implausible for a number of reasons . Kubicek stated that " acting is about pretending , and if Rachel is really a great actress , she 'd be able to play the emotion without needing to have sex " . Bell and West made similar points . Rae Votta of Billboard commented on the " weird " plotline that involved Artie and Coach Beiste , for which Kubicek called Artie 's actions " inappropriate " . While Hyman " liked Artie coming into his own as a director " , she called his pre @-@ show jitters " jarring " , though she called his final speech " a nice moment " , and Benigno characterized it as " a kind of cheesy but actually appropriate speech " . Futterman felt it was a " valid and heartwarming point " , but " awkwardly slotted in " . Poniewozik credited Jones as Coach Beiste with " stunning work " , and Kubicek said Beiste 's " fragile lack of self @-@ esteem " was " believable and heartfelt " and that Jones was " brilliant " .
The scene where Mike is disowned by his father was characterized as " weird " and " tonally off " by VanDerWerff and " abrupt and unlikely " by Hyman . Kubicek was even more critical : " the most over @-@ the @-@ top , terribly cliched scene ever " . However , Votta gave " kudos to Glee for sticking with Mike 's story this season as he figures out his path " , and West wrote that Shum " played it well " , while Canning said it and the later scene with his mother " were mighty effective , if a bit stereotypical " . Hyman and West also approved of the latter scene .
Sue 's absence from the episode was applauded by Bell , who called it " exactly what the show needed " . Michael Slezak of TVLine said " the show might be at its best " when Sue and Will " are relegated to benchwarmer status " , and Poniewozik " did not miss them one bit " . The new Warbler , Sebastian , was said to be " instantly loathsome " by Benigno . His scene with Blaine that was blended with Santana and Rachel singing " A Boy Like That " was variously described as " savvily intercut " by Hyman , " heavy @-@ handed " by Votta , and bringing " the dangers of teen love " to " ferocious life " by Slezak .
Of the ending , Futterman noted that " the final scenes actually wound up truthful to these characters " , and Kevin Sullivan of MTV wrote that " when the two separate moments finally did arrive at the end of the episode , it felt like the natural end and was quite touching " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
Supervising Music Editor David Klotz received a Best Sound Editing : Short Form Musical in Television nomination at the 2012 Golden Reel Awards for his work on the episode . The musical performances were generally well received by reviewers , though a few songs came in for some criticism . One that was given near @-@ universal plaudits was " America " , from Hankinson 's " awesome " to Hyman 's " killer rendition " to VanDerWerff 's " one of the best production numbers the show has ever done " . The most frequent caveat seemed to be the accents used by the singers ; Flandez thought they " could 've used a little finesse " , and Futterman characterized them as " questionable " , though both complimented the performance 's dance moves . Santana 's performance in the number and the show came in for particular comment : The Hollywood Reporter 's Lesley Goldberg called her " completely captivating as Anita " , and Rae Votta of Billboard mentioned her " two stand out vocal performances " .
Of the four other songs from West Side Story , " Tonight " was given an " A − " and called " pretty wonderful " by Benigno , while Futterman thought it " very sweet , yet very vanilla " and West gave it a " B " and noted it " was lacking something " . Slezak gave the musical 's songs a collective grade of " A " . Although others praised Santana as Anita , Futterman was not impressed with her rendition of " A Boy Like That " and wrote , " Santana 's part of the song is not nearly angry or urgent enough and sounds like a watered @-@ down version of what Santana is capable of " . West gave the song a " B + " , and stated that the song was " stellar for Rachel 's fire " . Futterman singled out Rachel for " I Have a Love " : " Rachel delivers the best vocals of the night with her powerful , yet incredibly high soprano that sounds effortless despite being out of her normal range . " Benigno and West both gave " One Hand , One Heart " an " A " ; the former called it " wonderful " , although he railed about the prevalence of show tunes in the episode , and the latter wrote , " This was the perfect soundtrack to the trio of first times . "
The one song that did not come from the musical was " Uptown Girl " . Votta said the performance by the Dalton Academy Warblers , with " leads by minor Warbler Nick , played by Curt Mega " , was " refreshing and nostalgic all at once , a bright pop musical spot in an episode devoted to Broadway and a reminder of the dominant Dalton presence last season " . Bell wrote that the " Warblers were totally born to sing ' Uptown Girl ' " , and Goldberg called it " among the young season ’ s best " performances . Flandez said it was a " terrific performance " , though Benigno was more restrained , and gave it a " B + " despite there being " less innovation " in the a cappella " gimmick " , and noted that " the barbershop @-@ quartet finish is actually pretty good " . Slezak , however , said the song was the only musical " weak link " in the episode , and Canning called it " too polished " . Futterman thought the lead singers were " grating and over @-@ the @-@ top " , and Poniewozik characterized the performance as " unfortunate " .
= = = Chart history = = =
One of the six cover versions released as five singles — the " A Boy Like That " single also contained " I Have a Love " — debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " Uptown Girl " debuted at number sixty @-@ eight . It also debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ three . The other singles , all from West Side Story , did not chart . Two of these singles , " Uptown Girl " and " Tonight " , are included on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 7 .
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= Alpine chough =
The Alpine chough / ˈtʃʌf / , or yellow @-@ billed chough , ( Pyrrhocorax graculus ) is a bird in the crow family , one of only two species in the genus Pyrrhocorax . Its two subspecies breed in high mountains from Spain eastwards through southern Europe and North Africa to Central Asia and Nepal , and it may nest at a higher altitude than any other bird . The eggs have adaptations to the thin atmosphere that improve oxygen take @-@ up and reduce water loss .
This bird has glossy black plumage , a yellow beak , red legs , and distinctive calls . It has a buoyant acrobatic flight with widely spread flight feathers . The Alpine chough pairs for life and displays fidelity to its breeding site , which is usually a cave or crevice in a cliff face . It builds a lined stick nest and lays three to five brown @-@ blotched whitish eggs . It feeds , usually in flocks , on short grazed grassland , taking mainly invertebrate prey in summer and fruit in winter ; it will readily approach tourist sites to find supplementary food .
Although it is subject to predation and parasitism , and changes in agricultural practices have caused local population declines , this widespread and abundant species is not threatened globally . Climate change may present a long @-@ term threat , by shifting the necessary Alpine habitat to higher altitudes .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Alpine chough was first described as Corvus graculus by Linnaeus in the Systema Naturae in 1766 . It was moved to its current genus , Pyrrhocorax , by English ornithologist Marmaduke Tunstall in his 1771 Ornithologia Britannica , along with the only other member of the genus , the red @-@ billed chough , P. pyrrhocorax . The closest relatives of the choughs were formerly thought to be the typical crows , Corvus , especially the jackdaws in the subgenus Coloeus , but DNA and cytochrome b analysis shows that the genus Pyrrhocorax , along with the ratchet @-@ tailed treepie ( genus Temnurus ) , diverged early from the rest of the Corvidae .
The genus name is derived from Greek πύρρος ( purrhos ) , " flame @-@ coloured " , and κόραξ ( korax ) , " raven " . The species epithet graculus is Latin for a jackdaw . The current binomial name of the Alpine chough was formerly sometimes applied to the red @-@ billed chough . The English word " chough " was originally an alternative onomatopoeic name for the jackdaw , Corvus monedula , based on its call . The red @-@ billed chough , formerly particularly common in Cornwall and known initially as the " Cornish chough " , eventually became just " chough " , the name transferring from one genus to another .
The Alpine chough has two extant subspecies .
P. g. graculus , the nominate subspecies in Europe , north Africa , Turkey , the Caucasus and northern Iran .
P. g. digitatus , described by the German naturalists Wilhelm Hemprich and Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg as P. alpinus var. digitatus in 1833 , is larger and has stronger feet than the nominate race . It breeds in the rest of the depicted Asian range , mainly in the Himalayas .
Moravian palaeontologist Ferdinand Stoliczka separated the Himalayan population as a third subspecies , P. g. forsythi , but this has not been widely accepted and is usually treated as synonymous with digitatus . A Pleistocene form from Europe was similar to the extant subspecies , and is sometimes categorised as P. g. vetus .
The Australian white @-@ winged chough , Corcorax melanorhamphos , despite its similar bill shape and black plumage , is only distantly related to the true choughs .
= = Description = =
The adult of the nominate subspecies of the Alpine chough has glossy black plumage , a short yellow bill , dark brown irises , and red legs . It is slightly smaller than red @-@ billed chough , at 37 – 39 centimetres ( 14 @.@ 6 – 15 @.@ 3 in ) length with a 12 – 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) tail and a 75 – 85 cm ( 30 – 33 in ) wingspan , but has a proportionally longer tail and shorter wings than its relative . It has a similar buoyant and easy flight . The sexes are identical in appearance although the male averages slightly larger than the female . The juvenile is duller than the adult with a dull yellow bill and brownish legs . The Alpine chough is unlikely to be confused with any other species ; although the jackdaw and red @-@ billed chough share its range , the jackdaw is smaller and has unglossed grey plumage , and the red @-@ billed chough has a long red bill .
The subspecies P. g. digitatus averages slightly larger than the nominate form , weighing 191 – 244 grams ( 6 @.@ 8 – 8 @.@ 7 oz ) against 188 – 252 g ( 6 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 0 oz ) for P. g. graculus , and it has stronger feet . This is in accordance with Bergmann 's rule , which predicts that the largest birds should be found higher elevations or in colder and more arid regions . The extremities of the body , the bill and tarsus , were longer in warmer areas , in line with Allen 's rule . Temperature seemed to be the most important cause of body variation in the Alpine chough .
The flight of the Alpine chough is swift and acrobatic with loose deep wing beats . Its high manoeuvrability is accomplished by fanning the tail , folding its wings , and soaring in the updraughts at cliff faces . Even in flight , it can be distinguished from the red @-@ billed chough by its less rectangular wings , and longer , less square @-@ ended tail .
The rippling preep and whistled sweeeooo calls of the Alpine chough are quite different from the more typically crow @-@ like chee @-@ ow vocalisations of the jackdaw and the red @-@ billed chough . It also has a rolling churr alarm call , and a variety of quiet warbles and squeaks given by resting or feeding birds . In a study of chough calls throughout the Palearctic region it was found that call frequencies in the Alpine chough showed an inverse relationship between body size and frequency , being higher @-@ pitched in smaller @-@ bodied populations .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Alpine Chough breeds in mountains from Spain eastwards through southern Europe and the Alps across Central Asia and the Himalayas to western China . There are also populations in Morocco , Corsica and Crete . It is a non @-@ migratory resident throughout its range , although Moroccan birds have established a small colony near Málaga in southern Spain , and wanderers have reached Czechoslovakia , Gibraltar , Hungary and Cyprus .
This is a high @-@ altitude species normally breeding between 1 @,@ 260 – 2 @,@ 880 metres ( 4 @,@ 130 – 9 @,@ 450 ft ) in Europe , 2 @,@ 880 – 3 @,@ 900 m ( 9 @,@ 450 – 12 @,@ 800 ft ) in Morocco , and 3 @,@ 500 – 5 @,@ 000 m ( 11 @,@ 500 – 16 @,@ 400 ft ) in the Himalayas . It has nested at 6 @,@ 500 m ( 21 @,@ 300 ft ) , higher than any other bird species , even surpassing the Red @-@ billed chough which has a diet less well adapted to the highest altitudes . It has been observed following mountaineers ascending Mount Everest at an altitude of 8 @,@ 200 m ( 26 @,@ 900 ft ) . It usually nests in cavities and fissures on inaccessible rock faces , although locally it will use holes between rocks in fields , and forages in open habitats such as alpine meadows and scree slopes to the tree line or lower , and in winter will often congregate around human settlements , ski resorts , hotels and other tourist facilities . Its penchant for waiting by hotel windows for food is popular with tourists , but less so with hotel owners .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The Alpine chough is socially monogamous , showing high partner fidelity in summer and winter and from year to year . Nesting typically starts in early May , and is non @-@ colonial , although in suitable habitat several pairs may nest in close proximity . The bulky nests are composed of roots , sticks and plant stems lined with grass , fine twiglets or hair , and may be constructed on ledges , in a cave or similar fissure in a cliff face , or in an abandoned building . The clutch is 3 – 5 glossy whitish eggs , averaging 33 @.@ 9 by 24 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 33 in × 0 @.@ 98 in ) in size , which are tinged with buff , cream or light @-@ green and marked with small brown blotches ; they are incubated by the female for 14 – 21 days before hatching . The chicks hatch with a dense covering of natal down , in contrast to those of the red @-@ billed chough which are almost naked , and fledge in a further 29 – 31 days from hatching . The young birds are fed by both parents , and may also be fed by other adults when they have fledged and joined the flock . Breeding is possible in the high mountains because chough eggs have relatively fewer pores than those of lowland species , and lose less water by evaporation at low atmospheric pressure . The embryos of bird species that breed at high altitude also have haemoglobin with a genetically determined high affinity for oxygen .
In the western Italian Alps , the Alpine chough nests in a greater variety of sites than red @-@ billed chough , using natural cliffs , pot @-@ holes and abandoned buildings , whereas the red @-@ billed uses only natural cliffs ( although it nests in old buildings elsewhere ) . The Alpine chough lays its eggs about one month later than its relative , although breeding success and reproductive behaviour are similar . The similarities between the two species presumably arose because of the same strong environmental constraints on breeding behaviour .
A study of three different European populations showed a mean clutch size of 3 @.@ 6 eggs , producing 2 @.@ 6 chicks , of which 1 @.@ 9 fledged . Adult survival rate varied from 83 to 92 % , with no significant difference detected between males and females . Survival of first @-@ year birds was , at 77 % , lower than that of adults . The availability or otherwise of human food supplied from tourist activities did not affect breeding success .
= = = Feeding = = =
In the summer , the Alpine chough feeds mainly on invertebrates collected from pasture , such as beetles ( Selatosomus aeneus and Otiorhynchus morio have been recorded from pellets ) , snails , grasshoppers , caterpillars and fly larvae . The diet in autumn , winter and early spring becomes mainly fruit , including berries such as the European Hackberry ( Celtis australis ) and Sea @-@ buckthorn ( Hippophae rhamnoides ) , rose hips , and domesticated crops such as apples , grapes and pears where available . It has been observed eating flowers of Crocus vernus albiflorus , including the pistils , perhaps as a source of carotenoids . The chough will readily supplement its winter diet with food provided by tourist activities in mountain regions , including ski resorts , refuse dumps and picnic areas . Where additional food is available , winter flocks are larger and contain a high proportion of immature birds . The young birds principally frequent the sites with the greatest food availability , such as refuse dumps . Both chough species will hide food in cracks and fissures , concealing the cache with a few pebbles .
This bird always forages in groups , which are larger in winter than summer , and have constant composition in each season . Where food resources are restricted , adults dominate young birds , and males outrank females . Foraging areas change altitudinally through the year , depending on climatic factors , food availability and food quality . During the breeding season , birds remain above the tree line , although they may use food provided by tourists at refuges and picnic areas .
Movement to lower levels begins after the first snowfalls , and feeding by day is mainly in or near valley bottoms when the snow cover deepens , although the birds return to the mountains to roost . In March and April the choughs frequent villages at valley tops or forage in snow @-@ free patches prior to their return to the high meadows . Feeding trips may cover 20 km ( 12 mi ) distance and 1 @,@ 600 m ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) in altitude . In the Alps , the development of skiing above 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) has enabled more birds to remain at high levels in winter .
Where their ranges overlap , the two chough species may feed together in the summer , although there is only limited competition for food . An Italian study showed that the vegetable part of the winter diet for the red @-@ billed chough was almost exclusively Gagea bulbs dug from the ground , whilst the Alpine chough took berries and hips . In June , red @-@ billed choughs fed mainly on caterpillars whereas Alpine choughs ate crane fly pupae . Later in the summer , the Alpine chough consumed large numbers of grasshoppers , while the red @-@ billed chough added cranefly pupae , fly larvae and beetles to its diet . In the eastern Himalayas in November , Alpine choughs occur mainly in juniper forests where they feed on juniper berries , differing ecologically from the red @-@ billed choughs in the same region and at the same time of year , which feed by digging in the soil of terraced pastures of villages .
= = = Natural threats = = =
Predators of the choughs include the peregrine falcon , golden eagle and Eurasian eagle @-@ owl , while the common raven will take nestlings . Alpine choughs have been observed diving at a Tibetan red fox . It seems likely that this " mobbing " behaviour may be play activity to give practice for when genuine defensive measures may be needed to protect eggs or young .
The Alpine chough is a host of the widespread bird flea Ceratophyllus vagabunda , two specialist chough fleas Frontopsylla frontalis and F. laetus , a cestode Choanotaenia pirinica , and various species of chewing lice in the genera Brueelia , Menacanthus and Philopterus .
= = Status = =
The Alpine chough has an extensive though sometimes fragmented range , estimated at 1 – 10 million square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 8 million sq mi ) , and a large population , including an estimated 260 @,@ 000 to 620 @,@ 000 individuals in Europe . The Corsican population has been estimated to comprise about 2 @,@ 500 birds . Over its range as a whole , the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the global population decline criteria of the IUCN Red List ( i.e. , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) , and is therefore evaluated as Least Concern .
At the greatest extent of the last glacial period around 18 @,@ 000 years ago , southern Europe was characterised by cold open habitats , and the Alpine chough was found as far as south as southern Italy , well outside its current range . Some of these peripheral prehistoric populations persisted until recently , only to disappear within the last couple of centuries . In the Polish Tatra Mountains , where a population had survived since the glacial period , it was not found as a breeding bird after the 19th century . In Bulgaria , the number of breeding sites fell from 77 between 1950 and 1981 to just 14 in the 1996 to 2006 period , and the number of pairs in the remaining colonies were much smaller . The decline was thought to be due to the loss of former open grasslands which had reverted to scrubby vegetation once extensive cattle grazing ceased . Foraging habitat can also be lost to human activities such as the construction of ski resorts and other tourist development on former alpine meadows . Populations of choughs are stable or increasing in areas where traditional pastoral or other low intensity agriculture persists , but are declining or have become locally extinct where intensive farming methods have been introduced , such as Brittany , England , south @-@ west Portugal and mainland Scotland .
Choughs can be locally threatened by the accumulation of pesticides and heavy metals in the mountain soils , heavy rain , shooting and other human disturbances , but a longer @-@ term threat comes from global warming , which would cause the species ' preferred Alpine climate zone to shift to higher , more restricted areas , or locally to disappear entirely . Fossils of both chough species were found in the mountains of the Canary Islands . The local extinction of the Alpine chough and the reduced range of red @-@ billed chough in the islands may have been due to climate change or human activity .
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= British contribution to the Manhattan Project =
Britain contributed to the Manhattan Project by helping initiate the effort to build the first atomic bombs in the United States during World War II , and helped carry it through to completion in August 1945 by supplying crucial expertise . Following the discovery of nuclear fission in uranium , scientists Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch at the University of Birmingham calculated , in March 1940 , that the critical mass of a metallic sphere of pure uranium @-@ 235 was as little as 1 to 10 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 2 to 22 @.@ 0 lb ) , and would explode with the power of thousands of tons of dynamite . The Frisch – Peierls memorandum prompted Britain to create its own atomic bomb project , known as Tube Alloys . Mark Oliphant , an Australian physicist working in Britain , was instrumental in making the British results known in the United States , and this encouraged the expansion of the American Manhattan Project . Initially the British project was larger and more advanced , but after the United States entered the war , the American project soon outstripped and dwarfed its British counterpart . The British government then decided to shelve its own nuclear ambitions , and participate in the American project .
In August 1943 , the prime minister , Winston Churchill , and President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Quebec Agreement , which provided for cooperation between the two countries . The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee and the Combined Development Trust to coordinate the efforts of the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada . A British Mission led by Wallace Akers assisted in the development of gaseous diffusion technology in New York . Britain also produced the powdered nickel required by the gaseous diffusion process . Another mission , led by Oliphant who acted as deputy director at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory , assisted with the electromagnetic separation process . As head of the British Mission to the Los Alamos Laboratory , James Chadwick led a multinational team of distinguished scientists that included Sir Geoffrey Taylor , James Tuck , Niels Bohr , Peierls , Frisch , and Klaus Fuchs , who was later revealed to be a Soviet atomic spy . Four members of the British Mission became group leaders at Los Alamos . William Penney observed the bombing of Nagasaki and participated in the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 .
Cooperation ended with the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 , known as the McMahon Act , and Ernest Titterton , the last British government employee , left Los Alamos on 12 April 1947 . Britain then proceeded with its own nuclear weapons programme , and became the third country to test an independently developed nuclear weapon in October 1952 .
= = Origins = =
The 1938 discovery of nuclear fission in uranium , by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn , raised the possibility that an extremely powerful atomic bomb could be created . Refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries were particularly alarmed by the notion of a German nuclear weapon project . In the United States , three of them , Leo Szilard , Eugene Wigner and Albert Einstein , were moved to write the Einstein – Szilárd letter to United States President Roosevelt warning of the danger . This led to the President creating the Briggs Advisory Committee on Uranium . In Britain , Nobel Prize in Physics laureates George Paget Thomson and William Lawrence Bragg were sufficiently concerned to take up the matter . Their concerns reached the Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , Major General Hastings Ismay , who consulted with Sir Henry Tizard . Like many scientists , Tizard was sceptical of the likelihood of an atomic bomb being developed , reckoning the odds against success at 100 @,@ 000 to 1 .
Even at such long odds , the danger was sufficiently great to be taken seriously . Thomson , at Imperial College London , and Mark Oliphant , an Australian physicist at the University of Birmingham , were tasked with carrying out a series of experiments on uranium . By February 1940 , Thomson 's team had failed to create a chain reaction in natural uranium , and he had decided that it was not worth pursuing . But at Birmingham , Oliphant 's team had reached a strikingly different conclusion . Oliphant had delegated the task to two German refugee scientists , Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch , who could not work on the University 's radar project because they were enemy aliens and therefore lacked the necessary security clearance . They calculated the critical mass of a metallic sphere of pure uranium @-@ 235 , the only fissile isotope found in significant quantity in nature , and found that instead of tons , as everyone had assumed , as little as 1 to 10 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 2 to 22 @.@ 0 lb ) would suffice , which would explode with the power of thousands of tons of dynamite .
Oliphant took the Frisch – Peierls memorandum to Tizard , and the MAUD Committee was established to investigate further . It directed an intensive research effort , and in July 1941 , produced two comprehensive reports that reached the conclusion that an atomic bomb was not only technically feasible , but could be produced before the war ended , perhaps in as little as two years . The Committee unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb as a matter of urgency , although it recognised that the resources required might be beyond those available to Britain . A new directorate known as Tube Alloys was created to coordinate this effort . Sir John Anderson , the Lord President of the Council , became the minister responsible , and Wallace Akers from Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) was appointed the director of Tube Alloys .
= = Early Anglo @-@ American cooperation = =
In July 1940 , Britain had offered to give the United States access to its scientific research , and the Tizard Mission 's John Cockcroft briefed American scientists on British developments . He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British , and not as far advanced . As part of the scientific exchange , the Maud Committee 's findings were conveyed to the United States . Oliphant , one of the Maud Committee 's members , flew to the United States in late August 1941 , and discovered that vital information had not reached key American physicists . He met the Uranium Committee , and visited Berkeley , California , where he spoke persuasively to Ernest O. Lawrence , who was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory . Lawrence in turn spoke to James B. Conant , Arthur H. Compton and George B. Pegram . Oliphant 's mission was a success ; key American physicists became aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb . Armed with British data , Vannevar Bush , the director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , briefed Roosevelt and Vice President Henry A. Wallace in a meeting at the White House on 9 October 1941 .
The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information , but did not initially combine their efforts . British officials did not reply to an August 1941 offer by Bush and Conant to create a combined British and American project . In November 1941 , Frederick L. Hovde , the head of the London liaison office of OSRD , raised the issue of cooperation and exchange of information with Anderson and Lord Cherwell , who demurred , ostensibly over concerns about American security . Ironically , it was the British project that had already been penetrated by atomic spies for the Soviet Union .
Yet the United Kingdom did not have the manpower or resources of the United States , and despite its early and promising start , Tube Alloys fell behind its American counterpart and was dwarfed by it . Britain was spending around £ 430 @,@ 000 per year on research and development , and Metropolitan @-@ Vickers was building gaseous diffusion units for uranium enrichment worth £ 150 @,@ 000 ; but the Manhattan Project was spending £ 8 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 on research and development , and had let construction contracts worth £ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 at the fixed wartime rate of four dollars to the pound . On 30 July 1942 , Anderson advised the prime minister , Winston Churchill , that : " We must face the fact that ... [ our ] pioneering work ... is a dwindling asset and that , unless we capitalise it quickly , we shall be outstripped . We now have a real contribution to make to a ' merger . ' Soon we shall have little or none . "
By then , the positions of the two countries had reversed from what they were in 1941 . The Americans had become suspicious that the British were seeking commercial advantages after the war , and Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , who took over command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942 , wanted to tighten security with a policy of strict compartmentalisation similar to the one that the British had imposed on radar . American officials decided that the United States no longer needed outside help . The Secretary of War , Henry L. Stimson , felt that since the United States was doing " ninety percent of the work " on the bomb , it would be " better for us to go along for the present without sharing anything more than we could help " . In December 1942 , Roosevelt agreed to restricting the flow of information to what Britain could use during the war , even if doing so slowed down the American project . In retaliation , the British stopped sending information and scientists to America , and the Americans then stopped all information sharing .
The British considered how they would produce a bomb without American help . A gaseous diffusion plant to produce 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of weapons @-@ grade uranium per day was estimated to cost up to £ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in research and development , and anything up to £ 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to build in wartime Britain . A nuclear reactor to produce 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of plutonium per day would have to be built in Canada . It would take up to five years to build and cost £ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The project would also require facilities for producing the required heavy water for the reactor costing between £ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and £ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , and for producing uranium metal £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The project would need overwhelming priority , as it was estimated to require 20 @,@ 000 workers , many of them highly skilled , 500 @,@ 000 tons of steel , and 500 @,@ 000 kW of electricity . Disruption to other wartime projects would be inevitable , and it was unlikely to be ready in time to affect the outcome of the war in Europe . The unanimous response was that before embarking on this , another effort should be made to obtain American cooperation .
= = Cooperation resumes = =
By March 1943 Conant decided that British help would benefit some areas of the project . In particular , the Manhattan Project could benefit enough from assistance from James Chadwick , the discoverer of the neutron , and one or two other British scientists to warrant the risk of revealing weapon design secrets . Bush , Conant and Groves wanted Chadwick and Peierls to discuss bomb design with Robert Oppenheimer , and Kellogg still wanted British comments on the design of the gaseous diffusion plant .
Churchill took up the matter with Roosevelt at the Washington Conference on 25 May 1943 , and Churchill thought that Roosevelt gave the reassurances he sought ; but there was no follow @-@ up . Bush , Stimson and William Bundy met Churchill , Cherwell and Anderson at 10 Downing Street in London . None of them were aware that Roosevelt had already made his decision , writing to Bush on 20 July 1943 with instructions to " renew , in an inclusive manner , the full exchange with the British Government regarding Tube Alloys . "
Stimson , who had just finished a series of arguments with the British about the need for an invasion of France , was reluctant to appear to disagree with them about everything , and spoke in conciliatory terms about the need for good post @-@ war relations between the two countries . For his part , Churchill disavowed interest in the commercial applications of nuclear technology . The reason for British concern about the post @-@ war cooperation , Cherwell explained , was not commercial concerns , but so that Britain would have nuclear weapons after the war . Anderson then drafted an agreement for full interchange , which Churchill re @-@ worded " in more majestic language " . News arrived in London of Roosevelt 's decision on 27 July , and Anderson was dispatched to Washington with the draft agreement . Churchill and Roosevelt signed what became known as the Quebec Agreement at the Quebec Conference on 19 August 1943 .
The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee to coordinate the efforts of the United States , United Kingdom and Canada . Stimson , Bush and Conant served as the American members of the Combined Policy Committee , Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J. J. Llewellin were the British members , and C. D. Howe was the Canadian member . Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir Ronald Ian Campbell , who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States , Lord Halifax , in early 1945 . Dill died in Washington , D.C. , in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson .
Even before the Quebec Agreement was signed , Akers had already cabled London with instructions that Chadwick , Peierls , Oliphant and Francis Simon should leave immediately for North America . They arrived on 19 August , the day it was signed , expecting to be able to talk to American scientists , but were unable to do so . Two weeks would pass before American officials learnt of the contents of the Quebec Agreement . Over the next two years , the Combined Policy Committee met only eight times .
The first occasion was on 8 September 1943 , on the afternoon after Stimson discovered that he was the chairman . The first meeting established a Technical Subcommittee chaired by Major General Wilhelm D. Styer . Because the Americans did not want Akers on the Technical Subcommittee due to his ICI background , Llewellin nominated Chadwick , whom he also wanted to be Head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project . The other members were Richard C. Tolman , who was Groves 's scientific adviser , and C. J. Mackenzie , the president of the Canadian National Research Council . It was agreed that the Technical Committee could act without consulting the Combined Policy Committee whenever its decision was unanimous . The Technical Subcommittee held its first meeting on 10 September , but negotiations dragged on . The Combined Policy Committee ratified the proposals in December 1943 , by which time several British scientists had already commenced working on the Manhattan Project in the United States .
There remained the issue of cooperation between the Manhattan 's Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago and the Montreal Laboratory . At the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 17 February 1944 , Chadwick pressed for resources to build a nuclear reactor at what is now known as the Chalk River Laboratories . Britain and Canada agreed to pay the cost of this project , but the United States had to supply the heavy water . At that time , the United States controlled , by a supply contract , the only major production site on the continent , that of the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company at Trail , British Columbia . Given that it was unlikely to have any impact on the war , Conant in particular was cool about the proposal , but heavy water reactors were of great interest . Groves was willing to support the effort and supply the heavy water required , but with certain restrictions . The Montreal Laboratory would have access to data from the research reactors at Argonne and the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge , but not from the production reactors at the Hanford Site ; nor would they be given any information about plutonium . This arrangement was formally approved by the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 19 September 1944 . The Canadian ZEEP ( Zero Energy Experimental Pile ) reactor went critical on 5 September 1945 .
Chadwick supported British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent , abandoning any hopes of a British project during the war . With Churchill 's backing , he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honoured . While the pace of research was easing as the war entered its final phase , these scientists were still in great demand , and it fell to Anderson , Cherwell and Sir Edward Appleton , the Permanent Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research , which was responsible for Tube Alloys , to prise them away from the wartime projects in which they were invariably engaged .
The September 1944 Hyde Park Agreement extended both commercial and military cooperation into the post @-@ war period . Part of the Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent . In June 1945 , Wilson agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee .
= = Gaseous diffusion project = =
Tube Alloys made its greatest advances in gaseous diffusion technology , and Chadwick had originally hoped that the pilot plant at least would be built in Britain . Gaseous diffusion technology was devised by Simon and three expatriates , Nicholas Kurti from Hungary , Heinrich Kuhn from Germany , and Henry Arms from the United States , at the Clarendon Laboratory in 1940 . The prototype gaseous diffusion equipment , two two @-@ stage models and two ten @-@ stage models , was manufactured by Metropolitan @-@ Vickers at a cost of £ 150 @,@ 000 for the four units . Two single @-@ stage machines were later added . Delays in delivery meant that experiments with the single @-@ stage machine did not commence until June 1943 , and with the two @-@ stage machine until August 1943 . The two ten @-@ stage machines were delivered in August and November 1943 , but by this time the research programme they had been built for had been overtaken by events .
The Quebec Agreement allowed Simon and Peierls to meet with representatives of Kellex , who were designing and building K @-@ 25 , the American gaseous diffusion plant , Union Carbide and Carbon , who would operate it , and Harold Urey 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories at Columbia University , the Manhattan Project 's centre tasked with research and development of the process . The year 's loss of cooperation cost the Manhattan Project dearly . The corporations were committed to tight schedules , and the engineers were unable to incorporate British proposals that would involve major changes . Nor would it be possible to build a second plant . Nonetheless , the Americans were still eager for British assistance , and Groves asked for a British mission to be sent to assist the gaseous diffusion project . In the meantime , Simon and Peierls were attached to Kellex .
The British mission consisting of Akers and fifteen British experts arrived in December 1943 . This was a critical time . Severe problems had been encountered with the Norris @-@ Adler barrier . Nickel powder and electro @-@ deposited nickel mesh diffusion barriers were pioneered by American chemist Edward Adler and British interior decorator Edward Norris at the SAM Laboratories . A decision had to be made whether to persevere with it or switch to a powdered nickel barrier based upon British technology that had been developed by Kellex . Up to this point , both were under development . The SAM Laboratory had 700 people working on gaseous diffusion and Kellex had about 900 . The British experts conducted a thorough review , and agreed that the Kellex barrier was superior , but felt that it would be unlikely to be ready in time . Kellex 's technical director , Percival C. Keith , disagreed , arguing that his company could get it ready and produce it more quickly than the Norris @-@ Adler barrier . Groves listened to the British experts before he formally adopted the Kellex barrier on 5 January 1944 .
The United States Army assumed responsibility for procuring sufficient quantities of the right type of powdered nickel . In this , the British were able to help . The only company that manufactured it was the Mond Nickel Company at Clydach in Wales . By the end of June 1945 , it had supplied the Manhattan Project with 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) of nickel powder , paid for by the British government and supplied to the United States under Reverse Lend @-@ Lease .
The Americans planned to have the K @-@ 25 plant in full production by June or July 1945 . Having taken two years to get the prototype stages working , the British experts regarded this as incredibly optimistic , and felt that , barring a miracle , it would be unlikely to reach that point before the end of 1946 . This opinion offended their American counterparts and dampened the enthusiasm for cooperation , and the British mission returned to the United Kingdom in January 1944 . Armed with the British Mission 's report , Chadwick and Oliphant were able to persuade Groves to reduce K @-@ 25 's enrichment target ; the output of K @-@ 25 would be enriched to weapons grade by being fed into the electromagnetic plant . Despite the British Mission 's pessimistic forecasts , K @-@ 25 was producing enriched uranium in June 1945 .
After the rest of the mission departed , Peierls , Kurti and Fuchs remained in New York , where they worked with Kellex . They were joined there by Tony Skyrme and Frank Kearton , who arrived in March 1944 . Kurti returned to England in April 1944 and Kearton in September . Peierls moved on to the Los Alamos Laboratory in February 1944 ; Skyrme followed in July , and Fuchs in August .
= = Electromagnetic project = =
On 26 May 1943 , Oliphant wrote to Appleton to say that he had been considering the problem of electromagnetic isotope separation , and believed that he had devised a better method than Lawrence 's , one which would result in a five to tenfold improvement in efficiency , and make it more practical to use the process in Britain . His proposal was reviewed by Akers , Chadwick , Peierls and Simon , who agreed that it was sound . While the majority of scientific opinion in Britain favoured the gaseous diffusion method , there was still a possibility that electromagnetic separation might be useful as a final stage in the enrichment process , taking uranium that had already been enriched to 50 per cent by the gaseous process , and enriching it to pure uranium @-@ 235 . Accordingly , Oliphant was released from the radar project to work on Tube Alloys , conducting experiments on his method at the University of Birmingham .
Oliphant met Groves and Oppenheimer in Washington , D.C. , on 18 September 1943 , and they attempted to persuade him to join the Los Alamos Laboratory , but Oliphant felt that he would be of more use assisting Lawrence on the electromagnetic project . Accordingly , the Technical Subcommittee directed that Oliphant and six assistants would go to Berkeley , and later move on to Los Alamos . Oliphant found that he and Lawrence had quite different designs , and that the American one was frozen , but Lawrence , who had expressed a desire for Oliphant to join him on the electromagnetic project as early as 1942 , was eager for Oliphant 's assistance . Oliphant secured the services of a fellow Australian physicist , Harrie Massey , who had been working for the Admiralty on magnetic mines , along with James Stayers and Stanley Duke , who had worked with him on the cavity magnetron . This initial group set out for Berkeley in a B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber in November 1943 . Oliphant found that Berkeley had shortages of key skills , particularly physicists , chemists and engineers . He prevailed on Sir David Rivett , the head of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Australia , to release Eric Burhop to work on the project . His requests for personnel were met , and the British mission at Berkeley grew in number to 35 , two of whom , Robin Williams and George Page , were New Zealanders .
Members of the British mission occupied several key positions in the electromagnetic project . Oliphant became Lawrence 's de facto deputy , and was in charge of the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory when Lawrence was absent . His enthusiasm for the electromagnetic project was rivalled only by Lawrence 's , and his involvement went beyond scientific problems , extending to policy questions such as whether to expand the electromagnetic plant , although in this he was unsuccessful . The British chemists made important contributions , particularly Harry Emeléus and Philip Baxter , a chemist who had been research manager at ICI , was sent to the Manhattan Project 's Clinton Engineering Works at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , in 1944 in response to a request for assistance with uranium chemistry , and became personal assistant to the general manager . His status as an ICI employee was of no concern to Groves . The British mission was given complete access to the electromagnetic project , both in Berkeley and at the Y @-@ 12 electromagnetic separation plant in Oak Ridge . While some of the British mission remained at Berkeley or Oak Ridge only for a few weeks , most stayed until the end of the war . Oliphant returned to Britain in March 1945 , and was replaced as head of the British mission in Berkeley by Massey .
= = Los Alamos Laboratory = =
When cooperation resumed in September 1943 , Groves and Oppenheimer revealed the existence of the Los Alamos Laboratory to Chadwick , Peierls and Oliphant . Oppenheimer wanted all three to proceed to Los Alamos as soon as possible , but it was decided that Oliphant would go to Berkeley to work on the electromagnetic process and Peierls would go to New York to work on the gaseous diffusion process . The task then fell to Chadwick . The original idea , favoured by Groves , was that the British scientists would work as a group under Chadwick , who would farm out work to them . This was soon discarded in favour of having the British Mission fully integrated into the laboratory . They worked in most of its divisions , only being excluded from plutonium chemistry and metallurgy .
First to arrive was Otto Frisch and Ernest Titterton and his wife Peggy , who reached Los Alamos on 13 December 1943 . At Los Alamos Frisch continued his work on critical mass studies , for which Titterton developed electronic circuitry for high voltage generators , X @-@ ray generators , timers and firing circuits . Peggy Titterton , a trained physics and metallurgy laboratory assistant , was one of the few women working at Los Alamos in a technical role . Chadwick arrived on 12 January 1944 , but only stayed for a few months before returning to Washington , D.C.
When Oppenheimer appointed Hans Bethe as the head of the laboratory 's prestigious Theoretical ( T ) Division , he offended Edward Teller , who was given his own group , tasked with investigating Teller 's " Super " bomb , and eventually assigned to Enrico Fermi 's F Division . Oppenheimer then wrote to Groves requesting that Peierls be sent to take Teller 's place in T Division . Peierls arrived from New York on 8 February 1944 , and subsequently succeeded Chadwick as head of the British Mission at Los Alamos . Egon Bretscher worked in Teller 's Super group , as did Anthony French , who later recalled that " never at any time did I have anything to do with the fission bomb once I went to Los Alamos . " Four members of the British Mission became group leaders : Bretscher ( Super Experimentation ) , Frisch ( Critical Assemblies and Nuclear Specifications ) , Peierls ( Implosion Hydrodynamics ) and George Placzek ( Composite Weapon ) .
Niels Bohr and his son Aage , a physicist who acted as his father 's assistant , arrived on 30 December on the first of several visits as a consultant . Bohr and his family had escaped from occupied Denmark to Sweden . A De Havilland Mosquito bomber brought him to England where he joined Tube Alloys . In America , he was able to visit Oak Ridge and Los Alamos , where he found many of his former students . Bohr acted as a critic , a facilitator and a role model for younger scientists . He arrived at a critical time , and several nuclear fission studies and experiments were conducted at his instigation . He played an important role in the development of the uranium tamper , and in the design and adoption of the modulated neutron initiator . His presence boosted morale , and helped improve the administration of the laboratory to strengthen ties with the Army .
Nuclear physicists knew about fission , but not the hydrodynamics of conventional explosions . As a result , there were two additions to the team that made significant contributions in this area of physics . First was James Tuck whose field of expertise was in shaped charges used in anti tank weapons for armour piercing . In terms of the plutonium bomb the scientists at Los Alamos were trying to wrestle with the idea of the implosion issue . Tuck was sent to Los Alamos in April 1944 and used a radical concept of explosive lensing which was then put into place . Tuck also designed the Urchin initiator for the bomb working closely with Seth Neddermeyer . This work was crucial to the success of the plutonium atomic bomb : Italian @-@ American scientist Bruno Rossi later stated that without Tuck 's work the plutonium bomb could not have exploded in August 1945 . The other was Sir Geoffrey Taylor , an important consultant who arrived a month later to also work on the issue . Taylor 's presence was desired so much at Los Alamos , Chadwick informed London , " that anything short of kidnapping would be justified " . He was sent , and provided crucial insights into the Rayleigh – Taylor instability . The acute need for scientists with an understanding of explosives also led Chadwick to obtain the release of William Penney from the Admiralty , and William Marley from the Road Research Laboratory . Peierls and Fuchs worked on the hydrodynamics of the explosive lenses . Bethe considered Fuchs " one of the most valuable men in my division " and " one of the best theoretical physicists we had . "
William Penney worked on means to assess the effects of a nuclear explosion , and wrote a paper on what height the bombs should be detonated at for maximum effect in attacks on Germany and Japan . He served as a member of the target committee established by Groves to select Japanese cities for atomic bombing , and on Tinian with Project Alberta as a special consultant . Along with Group Captain Leonard Cheshire , sent by Wilson as a British representative , he watched the bombing of Nagasaki from the observation plane Big Stink . He also formed part of the Manhattan Project 's post @-@ war scientific mission to Hiroshima and Nagasaki that assessed the extent of the damage caused by the bombs .
Bethe declared that :
For the work of the theoretical division of the Los Alamos Project during the war the collaboration of the British Mission was absolutely essential ... It is very difficult to say what would have happened under different conditions . However , at least , the work of the Theoretical Division would have been very much more difficult and very much less effective without the members of the British Mission , and it is not unlikely that our final weapon would have been considerably less efficient in this case .
From December 1945 on , members of the British Mission began returning home . Peierls left in January 1946 . At the request of Norris Bradbury , who had replaced Oppenheimer as laboratory director , Fuchs remained until 15 June 1946 . Eight British scientists , three from Los Alamos and five from the United Kingdom , participated in Operation Crossroads , the nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific . With the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 , known as the McMahon Act , all British government employees had to leave . Titterton was granted a special dispensation , and remained until 12 April 1947 . The British Mission ended when he departed . Carson Mark remained , as he was a Canadian government employee . He remained at Los Alamos , becoming head of its Theoretical Division in 1947 , a position he held until he retired in 1973 . He became a United States citizen in the 1950s .
= = Feed materials = =
The Combined Development Trust was proposed by the Combined Policy Committee on 17 February 1944 . The declaration of trust was signed by Churchill and Roosevelt on 13 June 1944 . The trustees were approved at the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 19 September 1944 . The United States trustees were Groves , who was elected chairman , geologist Charles K. Leith , and George L. Harrison . The British trustees were Sir Charles Hambro , the head of the British Raw Materials Mission in Washington , D.C. , and Frank Lee from HM Treasury . Canada was represented by George C. Bateman , a deputy minister and member of the Canadian Combined Resources Board . Each of the three governments had its own raw materials resources staff , and the Combined Development Trust was a means of coordinating their efforts .
The role of the Combined Development Trust was to purchase or control the mineral resources needed by the Manhattan Project , and to avoid competition between the three . Britain had little need for uranium ores while the war continued , but was anxious to secure adequate supplies for its own nuclear weapons programme when it ended . Half the funding was to come from the United States and half from Britain and Canada . The initial $ 12 @.@ 5 million was transferred to Groves from an account in the office of the United States Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau , Jr . , that was not subject to the usual accounting auditing and oversight . By the time Groves resigned from the Trust at the end of 1947 , he had deposited $ 37 @.@ 5 million into an account he controlled at the Bankers Trust . Payments were then made from this account .
Britain took the lead in securing control of the world 's major source of ore in the Belgian Congo . They also negotiated deals with Swedish companies to acquire ore from there . Oliphant had approached the Australian High Commissioner in London , Sir Stanley Bruce , in August 1943 about uranium supplies from Australia , and Anderson made a direct request to the prime minister of Australia , John Curtin , during the latter 's visit to Britain in May 1944 to initiate mineral exploration in Australia in places where uranium deposits were believed to exist . As well as uranium , the Combined Development Trust secured supplies of thorium from Brazil , Netherlands East Indies , Sweden and Portugal . At the time uranium was believed to be a rare mineral , and the more abundant thorium was seen as a possible alternative , as it could be irradiated to produce uranium @-@ 233 , another isotope of uranium suitable for making atomic bombs .
= = Intelligence = =
In December 1943 , Groves sent Robert R. Furman to Britain to establish a London Liaison Office for the Manhattan Project to coordinate scientific intelligence with the British government . Groves selected the head of the Manhattan District 's security activities , Captain Horace K. Calvert , to head the London Liaison Office with the title of Assistant Military Attaché . He worked in cooperation with Lieutenant Commander Eric Welsh , the head of the Norwegian Section of MI6 , and Michael Perrin from Tube Alloys . An Anglo @-@ American intelligence committee was formed by Groves and Anderson in November 1944 , consisting of Perrin , Welsh , Calvert , Furman and R. V. Jones .
At the urging of Groves and Furman , the Alsos Mission was created on 4 April 1944 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Boris Pash to conduct intelligence in the field relating to the German nuclear energy project . The more experienced British considered creating a rival mission , but in the end agreed to participate in the Alsos Mission as a junior partner . In June 1945 , Welsh reported that the German nuclear physicists captured by the Alsos Mission were in danger of being executed by the Americans , and Jones arranged for them to be moved to Farm Hall , a country house in Huntingdonshire used for training by MI6 and the Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) . The house was bugged , and the conversations of the scientists were recorded .
= = Results = =
Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists ' contributions to the Manhattan Project , but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them . He considered British assistance " helpful but not vital " , but at the same time , acknowledged that " without active and continuing British interest , there probably would have been no atomic bomb to drop on Hiroshima . " He considered Britain 's key contributions to have been encouragement and support at the intergovernmental level , scientific aid , the production of powdered nickel in Wales , and preliminary studies and laboratory work .
Cooperation did not long survive the war . Roosevelt died on 12 April 1945 , and the Hyde Park Agreement was not binding on subsequent administrations . In fact , it was physically lost . When Wilson raised the matter in a Combined Policy Committee meeting in June , the American copy could not be found . The British sent Stimson a photocopy on 18 July 1945 . Even then , Groves questioned the document 's authenticity until the American copy was located years later in the papers of Vice Admiral Wilson Brown , Jr . , Roosevelt 's naval aide , apparently misfiled by someone unaware of what Tube Alloys was , who thought it had something to do with naval guns .
Harry S. Truman , who had succeeded Roosevelt on the latter 's death , Clement Attlee , who had replaced Churchill as prime minister in July 1945 , Anderson and United States Secretary of State James F. Byrnes conferred while on a boat cruise on the Potomac River , and agreed to revise the Quebec Agreement . On 15 November 1945 , Groves , Robert P. Patterson and George L. Harrison met a British delegation consisting of Anderson , Wilson , Malcolm MacDonald , Roger Makins and Denis Rickett to draw up a communiqué . They agreed to retain the Combined Policy Committee and the Combined Development Trust . The Quebec Agreement 's requirement for " mutual consent " before using nuclear weapons was replaced with one for " prior consultation " , and there was to be " full and effective cooperation in the field of atomic energy " , but in the longer Memorandum of Intention , signed by Groves and Anderson , this was only " in the field of basic scientific research " . Patterson took the communiqué to the White House , where Truman and Attlee signed it on 16 November 1945 .
The next meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 15 April 1946 produced no accord on collaboration , and resulted in an exchange of cables between Truman and Attlee . Truman cabled on 20 April that he did not see the communiqué he had signed as obligating the United States to assist Britain in designing , constructing and operating an atomic energy plant . Attlee 's response on 6 June 1946 " did not mince words nor conceal his displeasure behind the nuances of diplomatic language . " At issue was not just technical cooperation , which was fast disappearing , but the allocation of uranium ore . During the war this was of little concern , as Britain had not needed any ore , so all the production of the Congo mines and all the ore seized by the Alsos Mission had gone to the United States , but now it was also required by the British atomic project . Chadwick and Groves reached an agreement by which ore would be shared equally .
The McMahon Act , which was signed by Truman on 1 August 1946 , and went into effect at midnight on 1 January 1947 , ended technical cooperation . Its control of " restricted data " prevented the United States ' allies from receiving any information . The remaining scientists were denied access to papers that they had written just days before . The terms of the Quebec Agreement remained secret , but senior members of Congress were horrified when they discovered that it gave the British a veto over the use of nuclear weapons . The McMahon Act fuelled resentment from British scientists and officials alike , and led directly to the British decision in January 1947 to develop its own nuclear weapons . In January 1948 , Bush , James Fisk , Cockcroft and Mackenzie concluded an agreement known as the modus vivendi , that allowed for limited sharing of technical information between the United States , Britain and Canada .
As the Cold War set in , enthusiasm in the United States for an alliance with Britain cooled as well . A September 1949 poll found that 72 per cent of Americans agreed that the United States should not " share our atomic energy secrets with England " . The reputation of the British Mission to Los Alamos was tarnished by the 1950 revelation that Fuchs was a Soviet atomic spy . It damaged the relationship between the United States and Britain , and provided ammunition for Congressional opponents of cooperation like Senator Bourke B. Hickenlooper .
British wartime participation in the Manhattan Project provided a substantial body of expertise that was important to the subsequent success in October 1952 of the United Kingdom 's nuclear weapons programme , although it was not without important gaps , such as in the field of plutonium metallurgy . The development of the independent British nuclear deterrent led to the Atomic Energy Act being amended in 1958 , and to a resumption of the nuclear Special Relationship between America and Britain under the 1958 US – UK Mutual Defence Agreement .
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= Delta County Courthouse =
The Delta County Courthouse is a historic , three @-@ story courthouse building in the city of Cooper , in Delta County , Texas , United States . The building is located at 200 West Dallas Avenue , and functions as the meeting place for the county government . The building also houses all of the county records . The county 's first courthouse was built in 1873 , in Cooper . A courthouse was built to replace the original in 1898 . After the Great Depression , the new courthouse was built by the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) , helping the community to grow . The building has remained virtually unchanged since .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
During the Texas Constitutional Convention of 1868 , the delegates paid attention to northeastern portion of the state , especially the increasing need for the creation of new counties in the region . At the time , there were a total of twenty counties located in the region , compared to twenty @-@ three presently . The convention originally met to write a new state constitution , but members quickly tried to shift the focus to other issues . During the convention , the Committee on Counties and County Boundaries presented proposals for the creation of three new counties in the region . They were to be called Delta , Webster , and Richland . Delta County was established on July 29 , 1870 , by the Twelfth State Legislature . The proposals for Webster and Richland counties , however , were not passed .
= = = Creation and development = = =
After Delta County was established , it held its first election on October 6 , 1870 . The first five members of the county commissioners board were chosen in the election . Cooper was established as the county seat for the newly formed county . However , a courthouse was not established for the county government until 1873 . Constructed in the county seat , the courthouse was built in the town square . Confederate and Union veterans of the Civil War planted pecan trees on the square around the courthouse , to symbolize the end of conflict . The building , which was two stories tall , was designed by architects R.C. Andrews and E. Blackwell , for a price of approximately $ 6000 ( equivalent to $ 118 @,@ 500 in 2016 ) .
In 1898 , the newly incorporated city of Cooper passed a $ 40 @,@ 000 bond ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 137 @,@ 800 in 2016 ) to begin construction of a new , three @-@ story brick courthouse . While construction of the new courthouse was underway , the original courthouse was destroyed in a fire . Construction of the second courthouse was completed in 1900 .
Delta County 's economy plummeted in 1926 when the local cotton crop failed . The county 's economy was slow to recover , finally reaching a steady level in the late 1930s . In 1940 , the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) began working on improving several items in Delta County . Among these projects was the demolition of the existing courthouse and the construction of a new one . The new courthouse was built at a cost of $ 110 @,@ 450 ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 865 @,@ 600 in 2016 ) . The courthouse was designed by architect Hook Smith . The building was constructed in a modern architecture style , and is three stories tall . The present courthouse was constructed two blocks west of the previous building , on the site of the former Blackwell Livery Stable , which had closed in 1912 . The site of the former courthouse is still surrounded by the brick roads that were constructed for the courthouse and is now home to a gazebo .
= = Location and usage = =
The present courthouse is located at 200 West Dallas Avenue , two blocks west of the center of the city of Cooper . The building and its property take up half of the city block . It is bordered by Texas State Highway 154 ( Dallas Avenue ) to the south , Bonham Avenue to the north , NW 2nd Street to the east , and a small alleyway to the west . The courthouse is located slightly south of the geographic center of Delta County . The courthouse serves as the offices for most of the county government , including the county judge , commissioners ' court , county auditor , clerk , sheriff , and the justice of the peace . The court also houses all of the county 's historical records .
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= Yoga Yajnavalkya =
The Yoga Yajnavalkya ( Sanskrit : योगयाज ् ञवल ् क ् य , Yoga @-@ Yājñavalkya ) is a classical Hindu yoga text in the Sanskrit language . The text is written in the form of a male @-@ female dialogue between the sage Yajnavalkya and Gargi . The text consists of 12 chapters and contains 504 verses .
Like Patanjali 's Yogasutras , the Yoga Yajnavalkya describes the eight limbs of yoga ; however , it has different goals . The text contains additional material that is not found in Yogasutras , such as the concept of kundalini . The Yoga Yajnavalkya contains one of the most comprehensive discussion of yoga limbs such as the Pranayama , Pratyahara Dhyana , and Dharana . The Yajnavalkya – Gargi ( man – woman ) dialogue structure of this ancient text is notable in implying that the Yoga Yajnavalkya teachings is universally applicable and encouraged for both women and men .
The text was influential in the development and practice of the yoga traditions of India before the 12th century .
= = Author = =
The text is attributed to Yajnavalkya , a revered Vedic sage in Hinduism . He is estimated to have lived in around the 8th century BCE , and is associated with several other major ancient texts in Sanskrit , namely the Shukla Yajurveda , the Shatapatha Brahmana , the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , the Dharmasastra named Yājñavalkya Smṛti , Vriddha Yajnavalkya , and Brihad Yajnavalkya . He is also mentioned in the Mahabharata and the Puranas , as well as in ancient Jainism texts such as the Isibhasiyaim . These references to Yajnavalkya in other texts , in addition to the eponymous Yoga Yajnavalkya , may be to different sages with the same name .
The actual author of Yoga Yajnavalkya text was probably someone who lived many centuries after the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya , and is unknown . Ian Whicher , a professor of Religion at the University of Manitoba , writes that the author of Yoga Yajnavalkya may be an ancient Yajnavalkya , but this Yajnavalkya is not to be confused with the Vedic @-@ era Yajnavalkya " who is revered in Hinduism for Brihadaranyaka Upanishad " .
David White , a professor of Comparative Religion at the University of California , suggests that the author – a 9th- to 12th @-@ century South Indian with the name of Yajnavalkya – was " the author of two works that combined the eight part practice with teachings on Hatha Yoga and Vedanta Philosophy " : the Yoga Yajnavalkya and the Yogi Yajnavalkya @-@ smriti .
= = Chronology = =
The composition date of Yoga Yajnavalkya is unclear . Prahlad Divanji , an Indologist and Sanskrit scholar , states that the text was composed between the second century BCE and fourth century CE , because Yoga Upanishads and Hatha Yoga texts contain verses from Yoga Yajnavalkya . Divanji cites Tantra texts , Ayurveda tradition texts , and literature of Advaita Vedanta from the 4th century CE , which mention the Yoga Yajnavalkya , thereafter concluding that the text or some version of the Yoga Yajnavalkya text must have been in existence by the 4th century CE . However , adds Divanji , the text is likely to have been composed after Patanjali 's Yogasutra , which itself is variously estimated to have composed sometime between 500 BCE and 400 CE . Divanji premises his dating proposal from the observation that Yoga Yajnavalkya expands on ideas in Patanjali 's text , such as its list of Yamas , which includes the Patanjali 's five plus five additional ones .
A. G. Mohan , an author and yoga teacher , states that the text was likely completed before the 4th century CE . David White , in contrast , suggests the date of composition to be much later , between the 10th and 12th centuries . White states that the 13th @-@ century Dattatreya Yoga @-@ shastra acknowledges Yajnavalkya , and describes its teachings as " supplementary to the eight part practice as taught by Yajnavalkya " , which means that the text was already established and accepted by then . Other manuscripts with devotional , " non @-@ mental " and " mental " yoga texts in the Hindu tradition also refer to teachings of the text , suggesting the text originated before many other yoga texts .
Ram Shankar Bhattacharya , an Indologist , dates the Pune version of a manuscript of the text to about the 13th or 14th century CE , and notes that this version of the Yoga Yajnavalkya quotes verses from Hatha Yoga texts . He also points out that Gargi is mentioned as the wife of Yajnavalkya in the manuscript . However , no other text affirms that Gargi was the wife of Yajnavalkya ; rather , Maitreyi and Katyayani are listed as his two wives , leading to the theory that the Pune manuscript is a corrupted and more modern edition of the original text .
= = Manuscripts = =
Several versions of the Yoga Yajnavalkya manuscripts are known . The earliest published manuscript of Yoga Yajnavalkya was discovered in Bengal in 1893 . Since then , other manuscripts have been discovered with differing numbers of verses . The text published by Divanji in 1954 , for example , has over 500 verses , while the manuscript translated by Krishnamacharya and Desikachar , writers and teachers of yoga books , has 460 verses .
= = Structure = =
The Yoga Yajnavalkya ( or Yogayajnavalkya ) text is structured as a conversation between a man ( Yajnavalkya ) and a woman ( Gargi ) , in the presence of an audience . It is organized into twelve chapters , and cumulatively contains 504 verses .
The text opens with a discussion of virtues and lifestyle of a yogi , with 70 verses in the first chapter dedicated primarily to Yamas and 19 in second dedicated to Niyamas . The yoga postures with breathing and cleansing exercises are described in 149 verses of the third through seventh chapters , wherein the text asserts that these yoga exercises help the yogi master his senses and achieve awareness of his body .
Meditation discussions start in the eighth chapter of the text , where 40 verses discuss how to start and develop meditative practices with the help of Om and resonating sounds , followed by 44 verses in the ninth chapter for advanced meditation that is reflective on one 's mind , Vedana ( feelings ) and nature of one 's Atman ( self , soul ) . The text dedicates 23 verses in the tenth chapter on samadhi ( concentration ) to become aware of the equality of one 's Atman and Brahman ( Universal Ultimate Reality , God ) .
The final sections of the text discuss the need for a Guru ( teacher ) along with the duties of a yogin , and what to do when one realizes one has made a mistake . The last chapter briefly discusses the kundalini , the benefits of yoga and the nature of calmness , contentedness in one 's mind and consciousness .
= = Contents = =
The text opens with reverence and introduction for Yajnavalkya and Gargi , and then gives its purpose : " to disclose the nature of yoga " . In verses 10 to 19 , Gargi remarks that yoga has been called the best karma , and asks Yajnavalkya to explain yoga to her . Yajnavalkya agrees , but first attributes his knowledge to the Hindu god Brahma who taught him this jnana ( knowledge ) and karma ( works ) .
= = = Knowledge and Varnas = = =
Yajnavalkya states that there are two paths to attain knowledge . One path is Pravritti @-@ karma , wherein a person is driven by desire and a craving for rewards , forms his will , and then uses his knowledge to act out his free will . The second path is Nivritti @-@ karma , wherein a person is not driven by desire and does not crave for rewards , but he uses his knowledge in his works in a detached way . The Pravritti @-@ karma path is the cause for suffering and rebirth , while the Nivritti @-@ karma is liberating and practiced by those who want to end suffering and rebirth .
Verses 1 @.@ 27 – 40 are a non @-@ yoga commentary on the duties of four social classes – this section is missing in manuscripts of Yoga Yajnavalkya that contain 460 verses . The commentary presents two theories on the duties of the four Varna in terms of ashrama dharmas of Brahmacharya , Grihastha , Vanaprastha and Sannyasa . One theory allows only the Brahmins , Kshatriyas and Vaishyas to enter Brahmacharya and study the Vedas , and the other states that Shudras can also enter Brahmacharya .
Neither theory is recommended , and according to Bhattacharya 's translation it adds that all four varnas are required to " pay off the debts owed to the sages , men and gods " by practicing Brahmacharya , procreating offspring and performing karma . All four social classes should strive for Nivritti @-@ karma ( work without craving for rewards ) . According to Desikachar 's translation , yoga is open to all , without restrictions to varna or gender .
Verses 1 @.@ 41 – 49 state that " karma with knowledge is the means to liberation " . Yoga is the essence of this knowledge , and it has eight components : Yama , Niyama , Asana , Pranayama , Pratyahara , Dharana , Dhyana and Samadhi .
= = = Yamas : virtuous restraints of a yoga student = = =
The Yoga Yajnavalkya starts its description of yoga practice with a statement of virtuous self @-@ restraints that a yogi or yogini needs to adhere to . This list is longer than the five yamas listed by Patañjali in Yogasūtra , but similar to those found in other Hindu texts such as the Shandilya Upanishad and other ancient and medieval @-@ era Yoga texts . Verses 1 @.@ 50 – 51 of Yoga Yajnavalkya list the following ten Yamas ( the restraints ) , while verses 1 @.@ 52 – 70 explain what these virtues mean and why they are necessary :
Ahiṃsā ( अहिंसा ) : nonviolence , nonharmfulness by action , with word or in thought
Satya ( सत ् य ) : truthfulness
Asteya ( अस ् तेय ) : not stealing
Brahmacharya ( ब ् रह ् मचर ् य ) : celibacy , fidelity to one 's partner
Dayā ( दया ) : kindness , compassion
Ārjava ( आर ् जव ) : no hypocrisy , sincerity
Kṣamā ( क ् षमा ) : forgiveness
Dhṛti ( धृति ) : fortitude
Mitāhāra ( मितहार ) : moderation in diet
Śauca ( शौच ) : purity , cleanliness
Verse 1 @.@ 69 asserts that in a cleansed body resides a peaceful mind , and when this mind achieves purity , Atmavidya ( knowledge of soul ) becomes feasible .
= = = Niyamas : virtuous observances of a yoga student = = =
The chapter 2 begins with a list of ten Niyamas ( the Observance , Do @-@ these list , positive duties ) , followed by an explanation of each in the rest of the chapter . The list is again longer than the list of five found in Patanjali 's Yogasutras , but similar to those found in the Shandilya and Varaha Upanishads , the Hatha Yoga Pradipika , and verses 552 to 557 in Book 3 of the Tirumandhiram of Tirumular , in the sense of positive duties , desirable behaviors and discipline . The list of the ten niyamas are :
Tapas : austerity , persistence and perseverance in one 's purpose
Santoṣa : contentment , acceptance of others and of one 's circumstances as they are , optimism for self
Āstika : faith in merit and demerit
Dāna : generosity , charity , sharing with others
Īśvarapūjana : worship of the Ishvara ( Brahman , Vishnu , Rudra , God / Supreme Being , True Self )
Siddhānta śrāvaṇa : listening to the Vedas and Upanishads , texts about virtues and principles
Hrī : shyness , modesty , remorse and acceptance of one 's past , humility
Mati : faith in self and duties , reflection to reconcile conflicting ideas
Japa : steady reading of the Vedas , repetition of mantras or sacred sounds set in poetic meters , either with sound or silently in one 's mind
Vratam : vows and self @-@ promise to focus and achieve appropriate self set goals on Dharma , Artha , Kama and Moksha .
Richard Rosen , yoga teacher and a contributing editor at Yoga Journal , states that the first two chapters provides the moral foundations of its yoga teachings , and are more detailed than many other yoga texts in the Indian traditions .
= = = Asanas : the yoga postures = = =
Chapter 3 is short , and opens with a list of eight asanas ( postures ) , followed by the description of each one . The asanas are of two types : one set is for meditative contemplation , and the other for cleansing the body . Both are said to be important in the journey of yoga . Different asanas focus on different organ groups . Of the eight asanas , the text discusses two variations each for the Swastikasana and the Mukta Sirsasana in verses 3 @.@ 3 – 5 and 3 @.@ 13 – 14 respectively , with claims that each asana helps cleanse the body when these are practiced with Yamas and Niyamas .
Cleansing asanas are those that when practiced for short periods of time help the body prevent or correct internal imbalances and tone inner organs ; while meditative asanas are those postures , either sitting or standing , that one can maintain steadily and comfortably for extended periods of time . In both , a proper posture is achieved when one can combine relaxed steadiness with deep breathing exercises . Such comfortable and stable asanas are necessary for cleansing of the Nadi ( blood vessels ) through the Pranayama stage of yoga . This view is shared by other yoga texts , such as in verse 5 @.@ 2 of Gheranda Samhita . The Padmasana ( lotus position ) is esteemed for both cleansing and meditative contemplation .
= = = A theory of human body and inner fire = = =
Gargi inquires in chapter 4 about the nature of Nadis , the human body and how vital airs function in it . Yajnavalkya begins his reply by asserting that the height of every adult human being is about 96 times the width of his or her Angula ( thumb ) .
The Prana ( breath , vital air ) of the body is dispersed within and outside the body . The first aim of yoga is to become aware and control this vital air , to be equal to or lower than the inner fire within one 's body . This inner fire resides in the middle part of the body , and he calls it the Nabhi ( center ) and a Chakra . This is the residence of the Jiva , and the vital air nourishes it from below while one is alive . Just above this Nabhi is the kundalini which normally is dormant . Yoga awakens her , by bringing vital air and heat to her .
Verses 4 @.@ 26 – 35 state that the human body has fourteen nadis ( blood vessels ) , of which three are primary . Sushumna ( Sanskrit : सुषुम ् णा ) is the most important , as it extends all along the spinal cord and reaches into the head , sustaining the whole body . Vishnu is the deity whose power propels Sushumna according to verse 4 @.@ 31 . On both sides of the Sushumna reside the Ida and Pingala vessels , the former connected to the moon and the latter to the sun . These three drive the three Guṇas ( forces behind the innate character ) of a being , with Sushumna driving Sattva ( goodness ) , Pingala driving the Rajas ( action ) , and Ida driving the Tamas ( destructiveness ) . These primary vessels are connected to numerous channels inside the human body , which pervade the whole body , and nourish it .
When one inhales or exhales , according to verses 4 @.@ 47 – 65 , the Nadis are loaded with vital airs . There are ten types of vital airs , corresponding to different stages of breathing , and they are named Prana , Apana , Samana , Udana , Vyana , Naga , Kurma , Krikara , Devadatta and Dhananjaya . These affect the Nadis in different ways , and how the body functions and what the balance of organs within the body is , depends on food one takes in and how well inhalation and exhalation are able to deliver the vital airs to various body parts .
The body interacts with nature , and removes liquids and excretes waste through nine holes . The aim of pranayama ( breath control ) is to purify the channels and nourish the inner body with vital airs . This benefits a yogi and yogini in preventing and curing diseases , as well as preparing the mind for meditation .
= = = Breath control and meditation for self @-@ purification = = =
Chapters 5 and 6 discuss the means of cleansing the body and mind . The first ten verses of chapter 5 summarize and restate the need for always practicing virtuous self @-@ restraints ( Yamas ) , observances ( Niyamas ) , avoiding anger against anyone or anything , truthfully following Dharma , respecting and learning from the Guru ( teacher ) , and pursuing the proper goals of life without craving for rewards of one 's action .
= = = = Location for yoga = = = =
Solitary places are the best venues for yoga . A matha ( hut ) in a forest is ideal , but any private place that is free from distractions , high winds or intense sunshine is a good location for yoga . Either a pad made of kusha grass or a solid ground with deer skin mat on it , is desirable . Yoga can be learned , with the help of a teacher , within three to four months if practiced six times a day . If frequent practice is not possible , yoga can be mastered over a period of three to four years .
= = = = Mastering the breath = = = =
The text dedicates the largest number of verses to the discussion of breath and breath exercises .
Yajnavalkya dedicates significant amount of text to explain the art of mastering each stage of breathing , that is inhalation , exhalation and stoppage between the two . Each stage is discussed in terms of its nature , speed , duration , depth on its own and relative to the other stage of breathing , regulating these at will during asanas meant for cleansing body or mind . In order to keep time for each stage without distraction , he recommends silently reciting time @-@ measured mantras or sound beats to help measure each stage and thus establish progress during the yoga . The mantras for internal time measurement mentioned include Pranava ( Om ) , Gayatri with Vyahritis , or Gayatri with Siras .
The text classifies three levels of breath regulation , namely Puraka ( पूरक , satisfying ) , Kumbhaka ( कुम ् भक , prominent ) and Rechaka ( रेचक , purging ) . The Puraka exercise is shortest and counts twelve moments ( matras , music beats ) ; the Kumbhaka is medium and stretches over twenty @-@ four moments , while the Rechaka is highest lasting thirty @-@ six moments . The text then describes various combinations of Puraka , Kumbhaka and Rechaka in various asanas for the purposes of energizing the Nadis and cleansing the body , asserting that , when mastered , Prana , Apana , Samana , Udana , Vyana and other vital airs help gain endurance , calmness , measured speed , ascension and inner healing . The text says that Pranayama exercises have therapeutic powers . Yajnavalkya describes Sanmukhi mudra , Kevaka kumbhaka and Sahita kumbhaka in chapter 6 , asserting that the best exercises are those that make one feel lightness in the body and relaxation in the mind .
= = = Meditation = = =
Chapter 7 discusses the fifth limb of yoga , Pratyahara , which it says is of five forms . This stage is one where the focus of the mind shifts from external stimuli received by sensory organs to various levels of internal awareness . The theory of Marma ( joints ) is presented , and 18 vital points inside one 's body are listed that can be used as focal points to help initial stages of the meditative exercises .
Verses 1 – 10 of chapter 8 elaborate on the practice of Dharana or meditation to train the mind in the consciousness of the self . The five elements in the universe correspond to five body functional systems , and that systems are gods residing within the human body . The next level of meditation is to fix one 's undistracted attention to these five , while simultaneously performing the breath exercises mastered in the previous step .
The five deities are addressed by chanting the five letters or syllables ( Bijamantra which are the sounds of the Chakras ) which are laṃ ( लं ) , vaṃ ( वं ) , raṃ ( रं ) , yaṃ ( यं ) , and haṃ ( हं ) to become one with Parameshvara ( God ) . Verses 8 @.@ 11 – 15 state that a yogin should practice meditating on these respective body systems as deities , with the help of Om mantra , as this leads to dissolution , and realization of the Brahman @-@ Purusha . After mastery is achieved with the aid of envisioning the five deities within one 's body , the text mentions that the yogin overcomes three Dosha ( दोष , faults ) . The chapter ends by reminding the yoga student to not forget the daily duties and works , the virtuous self @-@ restraints ( yamas ) and virtuous observances ( niyamas ) as he gains mastery to this level of yoga .
Chapter 9 discusses Dhyana limb of yoga . Dhyana can lead to freedom or bondage , depending on how and what one concentrates on . Freedom comes from realizing the oneness of individual self with the universal self . The Nirguna ( non @-@ qualified , attribute less ) form of meditation is best suited for those who have mastered the vital airs as well as all the Asanas with inner awareness of Marmans ( vital points ) and Nadis ( blood vessels ) . These yogins and yoginis can abstract , feel the Self within , and should meditate on " I am Brahman , who is all pervasive , all embracing , all perceiving and full of bliss " .
The Saguna meditation , that is qualified and with attributes , is for those who need a concrete symbol such as a Murti , or a visualization aid . They should think of the identity of their lotus heart having eight petals with the highest self visualized as Vasudeva , Narayana or Purushottama . The meditation should concentrate on one 's own identity with this image of imperishable highest self . This is the path to the state of Vaishvanara , or qualified Dhyana .
The text suggests variations to the Saguna meditation , such as perceiving the union of a golden disc with four @-@ faced golden Purusha , imagining a lustrous inner self inside oneself and then oneness with it , and other variations . Verses 9 @.@ 43 – 44 state that the inner self , whether meditated upon as Nirguna or Saguna , is one and the same .
= = = Concentration = = =
Chapter 10 states meditation practice perfects one 's ability to concentrate , wherein the object one concentrates on becomes the one of attachment , of oneness and one feels one 's identity with it . Verses 10 @.@ 6 – 15 suggest that one must concentrate on self as the supreme self , oneness with Brahman in everything , and this process of attachment of one 's individual self to the supreme self leads to oneness and liberation .
Verses 10 @.@ 19 – 23 advise that those who seek liberation in life or after death , should do yoga and reach the stage of Samadhi wherein one fixes one 's mind on the supreme self . This is recommended for those in their advanced years and seekers of inner liberation and peace . Yajnavalkya suggests to Gargi that she should meditate on the self in her through yoga , and thus attain nirvana .
= = = Dharma of a yogin , Astanga yoga = = =
Gargi , in chapter 11 asks Yajnavalkya whether a yogin in the state of Samadhi needs to perform Vedic duties . He replies , " No , any one in the state of yoga need not do Vedic duties " , because that state is the goal . However , anyone who leaves the state of Samadhi must perform Dharmic duties because " no living being can survive without performing any actions " . All duties should be performed until the end of one 's life , when the self unites with the supreme self . Gargi then asks Yagnavalkya to summarize the eight limbs of yoga .
= = = The theory of kundalini = = =
In the first 47 verses of chapter 12 , Yajnavalkya elucidates Siddha yoga and Kundalini . The aim of these yogic exercises , according to verses 12 @.@ 1 – 4 , is to reach the " internal fire " with Prana ( life force , breath energy ) ; these should be performed three times daily for ten days . With the vital air under control through the yoga , the yogin realizes signs of progress such as a relaxed state of body , manifested divine sound or nada inside . Verses 12 @.@ 10 – 14 state that this Kundalini fire is situated in the navel , and should be meditated upon by breathing exercises . This warms up the Kundalini , awakening her , and the warmth glows through the entire body , and at this stage the yogin must draw the breath above the navel .
Yagnavalkya explains that warm air inhaled passes to the Brahmarandhra via the navel which helps in curing diseases . When hot air is retained in the heart it is the stage when it makes entry into the Sahasrara Chakra , the thousand petaled lotus , that then emerges in an inverted form . When the vital air is held in the abode of Brahman ( Atman ) , which is the heart , according to verses 12 @.@ 15 – 22 , the fire located in the region of Susumna , which is between the eyebrows glows . These exercises , which stimulates the heart with vital air and fire , lead to the perception of light internally and externally . At this stage one should behold with the mind 's eye , the fire @-@ like glowing moon in the forehead , and meditate on the inner self in the Chitta ( mind ) .
Verses 12 @.@ 23 – 31 state that the lingasharira , which is the subtle body that is not visible , glistens in the central region of the body or the heart or the forehead . This shining Shakti ( force , energy , power ) , translates Bhattacharya , is realised by the knower of Brahman through his concentrated vision . Atman is perceived when the mind located in the space between the eyebrows , becomes free of all distractions and activities . In this state , the yogin becomes aware of self within , and in the sages , in siddhas and others . If dissolution of the mind in the space between the eye brows does not occur , the yogin should envision absolute bliss , alternatively the full moon inside the mouth . This helps the mind dissolve away distractions and activity , helping it reside in Vishnupada or the Akasha ( sky ) , and brings the yogin closer to moksha or liberation . This is a stage where the feeling of liberation and bliss begins to emerge , the goal of the practice of yoga .
Brahman is the origin of all , it is all that exists and all that into which it will dissolve back , and the Vedas teach that this Brahman resides in the heart of a person . It is , translates Bhattacharya , " subtler than the subtle , greater than the great " and is perceived with the cleansing of one 's mind and intellect , one achievable with breathing exercises , sacred sound exercises and yoga .
= = = Epilogue = = =
Following the complete exposition of all the principles of yoga , Yagnavalkya leaves for a secluded place to continue his meditative contemplation , while Gargi forsakes her world , retires to a forest hermitage , and seeks refuge in the practice of yoga .
= = Translations = =
Two English translations of the complete text are known , one by Desikachar and the other by Mohan , while Bhattacharya has published a condensed summary of the twelve chapters .
According to Desikachar 's translation : " In the 1960s only two [ Sanskrit ] versions of this valuable text were available [ Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society ( BBRAS ) and Trivandrum editions ] , and both were incomplete or inaccurate . He [ Krishnamacharya ] took the pains of writing the whole manuscript . " Desikachar further states in his introduction : " However many verses of this twelve @-@ chapter text are missing in both versions ... He [ Krishnamacharya ] even corrected those manuscripts that were incomplete . " In The Heart of Yoga , Desikachar indicates : " There is one critical edition of the Yoga Yājñavalkya written by Śrī Prabhad [ sic ] C. Divanji [ BBRAS edition ] . "
According to A. G. Mohan 's English translation : " However , a comparative reading shows that the Desikachar edition is a faithful reproduction of the 1938 Trivandrum publication . The only edits made are to fill in a negligible number of missing words – around 60 words out of 6000 – in mostly obvious contexts . There are no significant corrections to existing verses . The Divanji publication is easily more complete and error free , containing copious footnotes comparing different versions of the text from sixteen manuscripts and five printed editions ( including the Trivandrum publication ) ... The Trivandrum publication offered by the Desikachar misses 39 1 ⁄ 2 verses that appear in the Divanji publication . "
= = Significance = =
According to David White , Yoga Yajnavalkya was more significant in practice than the Patanjali 's Yogasutras before the 12th century . Among the texts on asanas and meditation , it dominated the Indian yoga scene . Along with texts such as Yoga Vasistha , chapters embedded inside the Hindu epic the Mahabharata and literature related to traditions such as Hatha Yoga , Pashupata Yoga and Tantric Yoga , the Yoga Yajnavalkya was historically influential in Indian spiritual traditions .
Secondary Sanskrit language texts from the 9th to 12th centuries incorporate the ideas of Yoga Yajnavalkya into their own traditions . These include the bhasya ( commentary ) of Lakshmidhara and manuscripts of Vedanta schools such as Advaita Vedanta that discuss and incorporate yoga philosophy and practices as essential for their traditions .
The presence of Gargi in Yoga Yajnavalkya is significant in a historical sense , as encouraging yoga to women . According to Divanji , the text includes some yoga @-@ related verses exclusively addressed to women , such as those in verses 1 @.@ 21 – 40 , 2 @.@ 8 – 9 and 6 @.@ 11 – 20 .
The text was influential on many later yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika , and Yoga Upanishads such as the Yoga @-@ kundalini Upanishad and Yogatattva Upanishad , because they make frequent references to it .
= = = Yoga Yajnavalkya versus Patanjali 's Yogasutra = = =
The philosophical premises of Yajnavalkya and Patanjali are different , according to Richard Rosen . Patanjali accepts the dualism premise , and defines yoga as cessation of mental activity associated with sensory interaction with nature , leading to Kaivalya ( aloneness ) of the self and a state of self @-@ awareness . Yajnavalkya accepts the Advaita Vedanta premise of non @-@ dualism , " essential oneness of self and nature " , and defines yoga as path to intense interconnectedness between Jiva and Paramatman , where the union of self and supreme self is realized .
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= North Carolina @-@ class battleship =
The North Carolina class was a class of two fast battleships , North Carolina and Washington , built for the United States Navy in the late 1930s and early 1940s . The navy was originally uncertain whether the ships should be fast enough to counter the Japanese Kongō class , which was believed by the United States to be capable of 26 knots ( 30 mph ; 48 km / h ) , or should sacrifice speed for additional firepower and armor . The Second London Naval Treaty 's requirement that all capital ships have a standard displacement of under 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 35 @,@ 560 metric tons ) prevented the desired objectives from being fully realized within its limits , and the navy considered over fifty designs before one was chosen .
Towards the end of this lengthy design period the General Board of the United States Navy declared its preference for a battleship with a speed of 30 knots ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) , faster than any in US service or under construction , with a main battery of nine 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark B guns . The board believed that such ships could fulfill a multitude of roles , as they would have enough protection to be put into a battle line while also having enough speed to escort aircraft carriers or engage in commerce raiding . However , the acting Secretary of the Navy authorized a modified version of a different design , which in its original form had been rejected by the General Board . This called for a 27 @-@ knot ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) ship with twelve 14 @-@ inch guns in quadruple turrets and protection against guns of the same caliber . In a major departure from traditional American design practices , this design accepted lower speed and protection in exchange for maximum firepower . After construction had begun , the United States became concerned over Japan 's refusal to commit to the caliber limit of the Second London Naval Treaty , so they invoked the " escalator clause " of that pact and increased the class ' main armament to nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 45 Mark 6 caliber guns from the original twelve 14 @-@ inch guns .
Both North Carolina and Washington saw extensive service during the Second World War in a variety of roles , primarily in the Pacific theater where they escorted fast carrier task forces and conducted shore bombardments . North Carolina shot down between seven and fourteen Japanese aircraft in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons , and later sustained a torpedo hit from a Japanese submarine . During the naval battle of Guadalcanal , which was a chaotic night engagement , Washington 's radar @-@ directed main batteries fatally damaged the Japanese battleship Kirishima causing it to sink the next day . In February 1944 , Washington crushed its bow in a collision with battleship Indiana . Following repairs , Washington rejoined its sister for the Battle of the Philippine Sea . After the end of the war , both ships took part in Operation Magic Carpet , the withdrawal of American military personnel from overseas deployments . The vessels were laid up in the reserve fleet until the early 1960s , when North Carolina was sold to its home state as a museum ship , and Washington was broken up for scrap .
= = Background = =
After the end of the First World War , several navies continued and expanded naval construction programs that they had started during the conflict . The United States ' 1916 program called for six Lexington @-@ class battlecruisers and five South Dakota @-@ class battleships ; in December 1918 , the government of President Woodrow Wilson called for building an additional ten battleships and six battlecruisers . 1919 – 20 General Board proposals planned for slightly smaller , but still significant , acquisitions beyond the 1916 plan : two battleships and a battlecruiser for the fiscal year 1921 , and three battleships , a battlecruiser , four aircraft carriers and thirty destroyers between the fiscal years 1922 and 1924 . The United Kingdom was in the final stages of ordering eight capital ships ( the G3 battlecruisers , with the first 's keel laying in 1921 , and N3 @-@ class battleships , to be laid down beginning in 1922 ) . Imperial Japan was , by 1920 , attempting to build up to an 8 @-@ 8 standard with the Nagato , Tosa , Amagi , Kii and Number 13 classes . Two ships from these designs would be laid down per year until 1928 .
With the staggering costs associated with such programs , the United States ' Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes invited delegations from the major maritime powers — France , Italy , Japan , and the United Kingdom — to come together in Washington , D.C. to discuss , and hopefully end , the naval arms races . The subsequent Washington Naval Conference resulted in the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty . Along with many other provisions , it limited all future battleships to a standard displacement of 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) and a maximum gun caliber of 16 inches ( 406 mm ) . It also decreed that the five countries could not construct another capital ship for ten years and could not replace any ship that survived the treaty until it was at least twenty years old .
The 1936 Second London Naval Treaty , while superseding the 1922 agreement , nonetheless kept many of the same requirements , though it restricted gun size on new warships to 14 inches ( 356 mm ) . These treaties heavily influenced the design of the North Carolina class , as can be attested to in the long quest to find a ship that incorporated everything considered necessary while remaining under 35 @,@ 000 long tons .
= = Design = =
= = = Early = = =
The General Board began preparations for a new class of battleships in May – July 1935 . Three design studies were submitted to them : " A " would be 32 @,@ 150 long tons ( 32 @,@ 670 t ) armed with nine 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) guns in triple turrets — all forward of the bridge — capable of 30 knots ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) , and armored against 14 @-@ inch shells ; " B " and " C " would both be over 36 @,@ 000 long tons ( 37 @,@ 000 t ) , able to reach 30 @.@ 5 knots ( 35 @.@ 1 mph ; 56 @.@ 5 km / h ) and armored against 14 @-@ inch shells — the major difference between the two was the planned main battery , as " B " had twelve 14 @-@ inch guns in triple turrets , while " C " had eight 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 45 @-@ caliber guns in dual turrets . " A " was the only one to remain within the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) displacement limit set in the Washington Naval Treaty and reaffirmed in the Second London Naval Treaty . When the Bureau of Ordnance introduced a " super @-@ heavy " 16 @-@ inch shell , the ships were redesigned ( " A1 " , " B1 " and " C1 " ) in an attempt to provide protection against it , but this introduced severe weight problems : " A1 " was only 500 long tons ( 510 t ) below the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ ton limit , while the other two were close to 40 @,@ 000 long tons ( 41 @,@ 000 t ) .
Although these original three studies were all fast battleships , the General Board was not definitively committed to the higher maximum speeds . It posed questions to the Naval War College , asking for their opinion as to whether the new class should be a " conventional " 23 @-@ knot ( 26 mph ; 43 km / h ) ship with an eight @-@ nine , 16 @-@ inch main battery , or rather one akin to " A " , " B " or " C " .
Five more design studies were produced in late September 1935 , which had characteristics of 23 – 30 @.@ 5 knots , eight or nine 14- or 16 @-@ inch guns , and a standard displacement between 31 @,@ 500 long tons ( 32 @,@ 000 t ) and 40 @,@ 500 long tons ( 41 @,@ 100 t ) . " D " and " E " were attempts at fast battleships with 16 @-@ inch guns and protections against the same , but their displacement was greater than the Washington Naval Treaty allowed . " F " was a radical attempt at a hybrid battleship @-@ carrier , with three catapults mounted fore and eight 14 @-@ inch guns aft . It was reportedly favored by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt , but as aircraft launched from catapults were necessarily inferior to most carrier- or land @-@ based aircraft because of the floats used to land , nothing came of the design . " G " and " H " were slower 23 @-@ knot ships with nine 14 @-@ inch guns ; in particular , " H " was thought to be a very well balanced design by the Preliminary Design section of the Bureau of Construction and Repair . However , the General Board finally decided to use faster ships , which " G " and " H " were not .
These studies demonstrated the difficulty the designers faced . With a displacement of 35 @,@ 000 tons , there were two basic choices : a ship similar to " A1 " which was faster ( 30 knots ) but more lightly armed and armored than contemporary battleships or one which was slower but armed with heavier guns — although fitting in protection against 16 @-@ inch guns would be extremely difficult . Preliminary Design drew up five more studies in October , based upon either " A " with additional armor or a scaled @-@ down " B " ; all utilized 14 @-@ inch guns and called for 30 or 30 @.@ 5 knots . Two called for four turrets , but this would be too heavy and mount less armor . Another , " K , " 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) belt and 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 133 mm ) deck and a 19 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 yd ( 11 – 17 mi ; 17 – 27 km ) immune zone against the United States ' super @-@ heavy 14 @-@ inch shell . While " K " was liked by the naval constructors , its designed standard displacement of 35 @,@ 000 tons left little room for error or any modifications and improvements to the design . A final two , " L " and " M , " would use quadruple turrets to save weight ( similar to the French Dunkerque ) while still mounting 12 guns .
Many officers in the United States Navy supported the construction of three or four battlecruiser @-@ type ships for carrier escorts and to counter Japan 's Kongō class . These included the acting Secretary of the Navy and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral William Standley , the president of the Naval War College Admiral William S. Pye , a small majority ( 9 – 7 ) of senior officers at sea , and five of six line officers engaged in strategic planning as part of the War Plans Division , although at least one officer believed that an aerial attack would also be capable of sinking the Kongōs . With the above recommendations , the General Board selected " K " to undergo further development .
= = = Final = = =
At least 35 different final designs were proposed . All numbered with Roman numerals ( " I " through " XVI @-@ D " ) , the first five ( " I " – " V " , variations upon " K " ) were completed on 15 November 1935 . They were the first to employ so @-@ called " paper " weight reductions : not counting certain weights in the ship 's 35 @,@ 000 long ton limit that were not specifically part of the definition of standard displacement . In this case , even though there was designed storage room for 100 shells per main battery gun and an extra 100 rounds , the weight of the rounds did not figure toward the treaty @-@ mandated limit .
These designs varied greatly in everything but their standard displacements and speeds . " II " called for 35 @,@ 743 long tons ( 36 @,@ 317 t ) , every other design called for 35 @,@ 000 long tons , and only five planned for a top speed of under 27 knots ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) ; of those , only one was lower than 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 5 mph ; 49 @.@ 1 km / h ) : " VII " , with 22 knots ( 25 mph ; 41 km / h ) . " VII " returned to a lower speed to obtain more firepower ( twelve 14 @-@ inch guns in triple turrets ) and protection ; as such , the design called for only 50 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( shp ) and a length of only 640 ft ( 200 m ) . Most other plans called for 710 ft ( 220 m ) or 725 ft ( 221 m ) , although six had lengths between 660 ft ( 200 m ) and 690 ft ( 210 m ) . The first eight designs ( " I " – " IV @-@ C " ) carried nine 14 @-@ inch guns , but many other combinations were tried , including eight 14 @-@ inch in two quadruple turrets ( one design , " V " , even planned for two quadruple 16 @-@ inch ) , eight 14 @-@ inch guns in four dual turrets ( " VIA " and " VIB " ) , and ten , eleven or twelve 14 @-@ inch guns .
The " XVI " version of 20 August 1936 was a 27 @-@ knot , 714 ft ( 218 m ) -long ship that the Bureau of Ordnance found many problems in . Model tests showed at high speeds , waves generated by the design of the hull would leave some lower parts of the ship uncovered — including the magazines . To complicate the issue , the Bureau found low or underwater shell hits could be a serious problem when fighting at ranges between 20 @,@ 000 yd ( 10 nmi ( 12 mi ; 19 km ) ) and 30 @,@ 000 yd ( 15 nmi ( 17 mi ; 28 km ) ) . Other problems included the design 's defense against aircraft @-@ dropped bombs , as the Bureau thought the formula used to calculate its effectiveness was not realistic ; and the tapering of a fore bulkhead below the waterline could worsen underwater shell hit problems because the mostly unarmored bow could easily be penetrated . The solutions for these issues were all impractical ; added patches of armor around the magazines could neutralize the torpedo @-@ defense system 's effectiveness , and deepening the belt near the bow and stern would put the ships over the 35 @,@ 000 long ton limit . The General Board detested this design , saying it was " not ... a true battleship " due to its speed and armor problems .
To address these problems , a final set of designs , " XVI @-@ B " – " XVI @-@ D " , was presented by Preliminary Design in October 1936 . They were modifications of the " XVI " plan for a ship that was 714 ft. long , had twelve 14 in ( 356 mm ) guns in three quadruple turrets , a belt of 11 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 284 @.@ 5 mm ) sloped at 10 ° , and a deck 5 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 129 @.@ 5 mm ) to 5 @.@ 6 @-@ inch ( 142 @.@ 2 mm ) thick . In the final set , length was fixed at 725 ft ( 221 m ) for greater speed , but this meant only eleven 14 @-@ inch guns could be mounted with a thin 10 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 260 mm ) belt . Alternatively , one gun could be traded for a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 342 @.@ 9 mm ) belt , and another could be swapped for a 30 @-@ knot speed and one more tenth of an inch of belt armor ; this became design " XVI @-@ C " . The General Board liked " XVI @-@ C " very much , seeing in it a ship that had enough protection to fight — and survive — in a battle line formed with the older battleships while also having enough speed to operate in a detached wing with , for example , aircraft carrier or cruiser commerce raiding groups .
However , one member of the Board , Admiral Joseph Reeves — who had previously been one of the principal developers of the United States ' aircraft carrier strategy — disliked " XVI @-@ C " because he believed that it was not fast enough to work with the 33 @-@ knot ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) fast carriers , and it was not powerful enough to justify its cost . Instead , he advocated a development of the previously rejected " XVI " , adding additional underwater protection and patches of armor within the ship to make the magazines immune to above- and below @-@ water shell hits from 19 @,@ 000 yd ( 9 @.@ 5 nmi ( 10 @.@ 9 mi ; 17 @.@ 6 km ) and beyond . The immune zone 's outer limit was increased from 28 @,@ 200 yd ( 14 nmi ( 16 mi ; 26 km ) ) ) to 30 @,@ 000 yd ( 15 nmi ( 17 mi ; 28 km ) ) . After further revisions , Reeves went to Admiral William Standley , the Chief of Naval Operations , who approved " XVI " in its newly modified form over the hopes of the General Board , who still thought that " XVI @-@ C " should be built . Standley 's only addition to the characteristics was provision for a switch from quadruple 14 @-@ inch to triple 16 in ( 406 mm ) turrets if the " escalator clause " in the Second London Naval Treaty was invoked .
= = = The " escalator clause " = = =
Although the Second London Naval Treaty stipulated that warship guns could be no larger than 14 inches , a so @-@ called " escalator clause " was included at the urging of American negotiators in case any country that had signed the Washington Naval Treaty refused to adhere to this new limit . The provision allowed signatory countries of the Second London Treaty — France , the United Kingdom and the United States — to raise the limit from 14 to 16 inches if Japan or Italy still refused to sign after 1 April 1937 . When figuring potential configurations for the North Carolinas , designers focused most of their planning on 14 @-@ inch weaponry ; Standley 's requirement meant that a switch from 14- to 16 @-@ inch , even after the ships ' keels had been laid , was possible . Japan formally rejected the 14 @-@ inch limit on 27 March 1937 , meaning that the " escalator clause " could be invoked . There were hurdles that still needed to be overcome , though : Roosevelt was under heavy political pressure and , as a result , was reluctant to allow the 16 @-@ inch gun .
I am not willing that the United States be the first naval power to adopt the 16 in. gun . ... Because of the international importance of the United States not being the first to change the principles laid down in the Washington and London Treaties , it seems to me that the plans for the two new battleships should contemplate the ... 14 @-@ inch gun .
Admiral Reeves also came out strongly in favor of the larger weapon . In a two @-@ page letter to Secretary of the Navy Claude A. Swanson and indirectly to Roosevelt , Reeves argued that the 16 @-@ inch gun 's significantly greater armor penetration was of paramount importance , drawing examples from the First World War 's Battle of Jutland , where some battleships were able to survive ten or twenty hits from large guns , but other battlecruisers were blown up in three to seven hits because the shells were able to cut through the armor protecting magazines and turrets . Reeves also argued that the larger gun would favor the " indirect method " of shooting then being developed , where airplanes would be used to relay targeting information to allied battleships so that they could bombard targets that were out of their sight or over the horizon , because new battleships being built by foreign powers would have more armor . Reeves believed that if the 14 @-@ inch gun was adopted , it would not be able to penetrate this larger amount of protection , whereas the 16 @-@ inch would be able to break through .
In a final vain attempt , Roosevelt 's Secretary of State Cordell Hull sent a telegram on 4 June to the Ambassador to Japan Joseph Grew instructing him that the United States would still accept a cap of 14 @-@ inch guns if he could get Japan to as well . The Japanese replied that they could not accept this unless the number of battleships was also limited ; they wanted the United States and the United Kingdom to agree to having an equal number of battleships with Japan , but this was a condition that the two countries refused to accept . On 24 June , the two North Carolinas were ordered with the 14 @-@ inch weapons , but on 10 July , Roosevelt directed that they be armed with triple 16 @-@ inch instead .
= = Specifications = =
= = = Armament = = =
The two North Carolinas were principally armed with nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 45 caliber ( cal ) Mark 6 and twenty 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) / 38 cal Mark 28 Mod 0 guns . Their lighter armament consisted of varying numbers of 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 28 mm ) , .50 caliber machine guns , Bofors 40 mm and Oerlikon 20 mm .
= = = = Main battery = = = =
Mounted on both the North Carolina class and the follow @-@ up South Dakota class , the nine 16 in / 45 were improved versions of the guns mounted on the Colorado @-@ class battleships , hence the designation of " Mark 6 " . A major alteration from the older guns was the Mark 6 's ability to fire a new 2 @,@ 700 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 200 @-@ kilogram ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shell developed by the Bureau of Ordnance . At full charge with a brand @-@ new gun , the heavy shell would be expelled at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 feet per second ( 701 m / s ) ; at a reduced charge , the same shell would be fired at 1 @,@ 800 f / s ( 549 m / s ) . Barrel life — the approximate number of rounds a gun could fire before needing to be relined or replaced — was 395 shells when using AP , although if only practice shots were used this figure was significantly higher : 2 @,@ 860 . Turning at 4 degrees a second , each turret could train to 150 degrees on either side of the ship . The guns could be elevated to a maximum inclination of 45 degrees ; turrets one and three could depress to − 2 degrees , but due to its superfiring position , the guns on turret two could only depress to 0 degrees .
Each gun was 736 inches ( 18 @,@ 700 mm ) long overall ; its bore and rifling length were 720 @-@ inch ( 18 @,@ 000 mm ) and 616 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 15 @,@ 670 mm ) , respectively . Maximum range with the heavy AP shell was obtained at an inclination of 45 degrees : 36 @,@ 900 yards ( 21 @.@ 0 mi ; 33 @.@ 7 km ) . At the same elevation a lighter 1 @,@ 900 @-@ pound ( 860 @-@ kilogram ) high capacity ( HC ) shell would travel 40 @,@ 180 yards ( 22 @.@ 83 miles ; 36 @.@ 74 kilometres ) . The guns weighed 192 @,@ 310 lb ( 87 @,@ 230 kg ; 86 long tons ) not including the breech ; the turrets weighed slightly over 3 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 lb ( 1 @,@ 410 @,@ 000 kg ; 1400 long tons ) .
When firing the same shell , the 16 in / 45 Mark 6 had a slight advantage over the 16 in / 50 Mark 7 when hitting deck armor — a shell from a 45 cal gun would be slower , meaning that it would have a steeper trajectory as it descended . At 35 @,@ 000 yards ( 20 miles ; 32 kilometres ) , a shell from a 45 cal would strike a ship at an angle of 45 @.@ 2 degrees , as opposed to 36 degrees with the 50 cal .
= = = = Secondary battery = = = =
The North Carolinas carried ten twin enclosed base ring mounts supporting 5 in / 38 caliber Mark 28 Mod 0 guns . Originally designed to be mounted upon destroyers built in the 1930s , these guns were so successful that they were added to a myriad of American ships during the Second World War , including every major ship type and many smaller warships constructed between 1934 and 1945 . They were considered to be " highly reliable , robust and accurate " by the Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance .
The 5 in / 38 functioned as a dual purpose gun ; that is , it was able to fire at both surface and air targets with reasonable degrees of success . However , this did not mean that it possessed inferior anti @-@ air abilities ; as established during 1941 gunnery tests conducted on board North Carolina , the gun possessed the ability to consistently shoot down aircraft flying at 12 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 5 miles ; 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 0 kilometres ) , which was twice as far as the effective range of the earlier single purpose 5 in / 25 anti @-@ air gun .
Each 5 in / 38 weighed almost 4 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 800 kg ) without the breech ; the entire mount weighed 156 @,@ 295 pounds ( 70 @,@ 894 kilograms ) . It was 223 @.@ 8 inches ( 5 @,@ 680 mm ) long overall , had a bore length of 190 inches ( 4 @,@ 800 mm ) , and had a rifling length of 157 @.@ 2 inches ( 3 @,@ 990 mm ) . The gun could fire shells at about 2 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 762 – 792 m / s ) ; about 4 @,@ 600 could be fired before the barrel needed to be replaced . Minimum and maximum elevations were − 15 and 85 degrees , respectively . The guns ' elevation could be raised or lowered at about 15 degrees per second . The mounts closest to the bow and stern could aim from − 150 to 150 degrees ; the others were restricted to − 80 to 80 degrees . They could be turned at about 25 degrees per second .
= = = = Smaller weaponry = = = =
The remaining weaponry on board the two North Carolinas was composed of differing numbers of 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 28 @-@ millimetre ) , .50 caliber machine guns , Bofors 40 mm and Oerlikon 20 mm guns . Although the ships were originally designed to carry only four quadruple 1 @.@ 1 in and twelve .50 caliber , this was greatly increased and upgraded during the war .
On both ships , two more quadruple sets of 1 @.@ 1 in guns were added in place of two searchlights amidships . After it was torpedoed in 1942 , North Carolina had these removed and ten quadruple sets of 40 mm guns added . Fourteen were present by June 1943 , while a fifteenth mount was added on top of the third main turret that November . Washington retained its six 1 @.@ 1 in quads until the middle of 1943 , when ten quad 40 mm guns replaced them . By August , it had fifteen . The two ships carried these through to the close of the war .
The .50 caliber machine guns did not have the range or power needed to combat modern aircraft and were scheduled for replacement by equal numbers of 20 mm guns , but nothing immediately came of the proposal . In fact , both North Carolina and Washington carried 20 mm and .50 caliber guns for most of 1942 . In April , North Carolina had , respectively , forty and twelve , while Washington had twenty and twelve . Two months later , the number of 20 mm guns remained the same , but twelve .50 caliber guns had been added . By September , Washington had twenty more 20 mm guns added , for a total of forty , but five were removed — along with all of the .50 caliber guns — shortly thereafter when two quadruple sets of 1 @.@ 1 in guns were added . In its refit after being torpedoed , North Carolina had an additional six 20 mm guns added and all of its .50 caliber weapons removed . Washington had sixty @-@ four 20 mm weapons by April 1943 , prior to one single mount being replaced by a quadruple mount , and North Carolina had fifty @-@ three by March 1944 . In April 1945 , North Carolina was assigned to have fifty @-@ six 20 mm , while Washington was assigned seventy @-@ five . In August 1945 , the ships both had eight twin 20 mm mounts ; North Carolina also carried twenty single , while Washington carried one quad and sixty @-@ three single .
= = = Electronics = = =
Both North Carolina and Washington , designed prior to radar , were originally fitted with many fire @-@ control and navigational optical range @-@ finders . The former lasted until 1944 , when it was replaced by a Mark 27 microwave radar — though it was supplemented by a Mark 3 main armament fire control radar . The range @-@ finders were removed in favor of additional 20 mm guns sometime between the end of 1941 and mid @-@ 1942 . In addition , the ships were commissioned with two Mark 38 directors and were originally fitted with a CXAM air search , two Mark 3s and three Mark 4 secondary armament .
By November 1942 , North Carolina had an additional Mark 4 and a SG surface search radar added . The normal battleship configuration was present aboard North Carolina in April 1944 , with SK and SG radars ( air and surface search , respectively ) , a backup SG , and Mark 8s to direct its main battery . All of the Mark 4s remained for the secondary battery , and one of the older Mark 3s was still present , possibly as a backup for the Mark 8s . An SK @-@ 2 dish replaced the older SK radar and Mark 12s and 22s superseded the Mark 4s in September of that year . Aside from never receiving an SK @-@ 2 , Washington was the recipient of similar upgrades .
Both ships underwent extensive refits near the end or after the war ; North Carolina received a secondary air search set ( SR ) and a SCR @-@ 720 zenith search radar on the forward funnel . At the end of the war , it had an SP surface @-@ search , a SK @-@ 2 air @-@ search , a Mark 38 main battery fire control system with Mark 13 and 27 radars , a Mark 37 secondary battery fire control system with Mark 12 , 22 and 32 radars , and a Mark 57 smaller weaponry fire control system , with a Mark 34 radar . In March 1946 , Washington had a SK fore and a SR aft , a SG both fore and aft , and a TDY jammer ( which could scramble radar on other ships ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships in the North Carolina class were equipped with four General Electric geared turbines and eight Babcock & Wilcox three @-@ drum express type boilers . The ships ' powerplant incorporated several recent developments in turbine equipment , including double helical reduction gears and high @-@ pressure steam technology . North Carolina 's boilers supplied steam at 575 pounds per square inch and as hot as 850 ° F ( 454 ° C ) . To meet the design requirement of 27 knots , the engine system was originally designed to supply 115 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( shp ) , but the new technologies increased this output to 121 @,@ 000 shp . Despite this increase , the maximum speed for the ships did not change , since the modifications to the powerplant were incorporated later in the design process . The turbines that had already been installed could not fully take advantage of the higher pressure and temperature steam , and so the level of efficiency was not as high as it should have been . When going astern , the engines provided 32 @,@ 000 shp .
The engine system was divided into four engine rooms , all on the centerline . Each room contained a turbine and two boilers , without any division between the boilers and turbines . This was done to limit the risk of capsizing should the ship sustain heavy flooding in the engine rooms . The engine rooms alternated in their layout : the first and third engine rooms were arranged with the turbine on the starboard side and its corresponding boilers on the port , this was reversed in the second and fourth rooms . The forward @-@ most engine room powered the starboard outer shaft , the second turbine drove the outer screw on the port side , the third engine supplied power to the inner starboard propeller , and the fourth turbine drove the port @-@ side inner screw . All four screws had four blades ; the two outer propellers were 15 ft 4 in ( 4 @.@ 674 m ) in diameter and the inner pair were 16 ft 7 @.@ 5 in ( 5 @.@ 067 m ) wide . Steering was controlled by a pair of rudders .
At the time of their commissioning , the ships had a top speed of 28 knots ( 32 mph ; 52 km / h ) , though by 1945 , with the addition of other equipment , such as anti @-@ aircraft weaponry , their maximum speed was reduced to 26 @.@ 8 knots ( 30 @.@ 8 mph ; 49 @.@ 6 km / h ) . The increases in weight also reduced the ships ' cruising range . In 1941 , the ships could steam for 17 @,@ 450 nautical miles ( 32 @,@ 320 km ; 20 @,@ 080 mi ) at a cruising speed of 15 knots ( 17 mph ; 28 km / h ) ; by 1945 , the range at that speed was reduced to 16 @,@ 320 nmi ( 30 @,@ 220 km ; 18 @,@ 780 mi ) . At 25 knots ( 29 mph ; 46 km / h ) , the range was considerably lower , at 5 @,@ 740 nmi ( 10 @,@ 630 km ; 6 @,@ 610 mi ) .
Electrical power was supplied by eight generators . Four were turbo @-@ generators designed for naval use ; these provided 1 @,@ 250 kilowatts each . The other four were diesel generators that supplied 850 kilowatts each . Two smaller diesel generators — each provided 200 kilowatts — supplied emergency power should the main system be damaged . Total electrical output was 8 @,@ 400 kilowatts , not including the emergency generators , at 450 volts on an alternating current .
= = = Armor = = =
North Carolina and Washington incorporated " all or nothing " armor which weighed 41 % of the total displacement ; it consisted of an " armored raft " that extended from just forward of the first gun turret to just aft of the rear gun turret . They had a main armored belt that was 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) thick amidships , inclined at 15 ° , and backed by 0 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 19 mm ) Special Treatment Steel ( STS ) . This tapered down to 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) on the lower edge of the belt . The ships had three armored decks ; the main deck was 1 @.@ 45 @-@ inch ( 37 mm ) thick , the second , thickest deck was 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) , and the third and thinnest deck was 0 @.@ 62 @-@ inch ( 16 mm ) thick . The first deck was designed to cause delay @-@ fuzed projectiles to detonate , while the thicker second belt would protect the ships ' internals . The third deck was intended to protect against shell splinters that might have penetrated the second deck ; it also acted as the upper support for the torpedo bulkheads . The conning tower was connected to the armored citadel by a 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) thick communications tube . Armor thickness for the conning tower itself ranged from 16 inches ( 410 mm ) on both sides to 14 @.@ 7 inches ( 370 mm ) on the front and rear . The roof was 7 inches ( 180 mm ) thick and the bottom was 3 @.@ 9 inches ( 99 mm ) thick .
The main battery turrets were heavily armored : the turret faces were 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) thick , the sides were 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) thick , the rear sides were 11 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) thick , and the roofs were 7 @-@ inch ( 180 mm ) thick . 16 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 410 mm ) armor was the maximum width factories were able to produce at the time of the ships ' design ; by 1939 , however , it was possible to create 18 in @-@ thick plates . These were not installed because it was estimated that the conversion would delay completion of the ships by 6 to 8 months . The barbettes that held the turrets were also strongly protected . The front portion was 14 @.@ 7 inches ( 370 mm ) , the sides increased to 16 inches ( 410 mm ) , and the rear portion reduced to 11 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 290 mm ) . The 5 @-@ inch gun turrets , along with their ammunition magazines , were armored with 1 @.@ 95 @-@ inch ( 50 mm ) STS plates .
The side protection system incorporated five compartments divided by torpedo bulkheads and a large anti @-@ torpedo bulge that ran the length of the " armored raft " . The outer two compartments , the innermost compartment and the bulge would remain empty , while the third and fourth compartments would be filled with liquid . The system was reduced in depth at either end by the forward and rear gun turrets . In these areas , the fifth compartment was deleted ; instead , there was an outer empty compartment and two liquid @-@ filled spaces , backed by another empty compartment . To compensate for the reduced underwater protection system , these sections received additional armor plating , up to 3 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 95 mm ) in thickness . The complete system was designed to withstand warheads of up to 700 lb ( 320 kg ) of TNT . Underwater protection was rounded out by a triple bottom that was 5 @.@ 75 ft ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) deep . The bottom layer was 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick and was kept filled with fluid , while the upper 2 @.@ 75 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 84 m ) thick layer was kept empty . The triple bottom was also heavily subdivided to prevent catastrophic flooding should the upper layer be penetrated .
= = Service = =
= = = Construction = = =
Two ships , each to cost about $ 50 million , were authorized in January 1937 . Five shipyards submitted bids to build one of the two planned ships . Three were privately run corporations : Bethlehem Shipbuilding , New York Shipbuilding and Newport News Shipbuilding . The other two , the New York Naval Shipyard and Philadelphia Naval Shipyard , were run by the government . When bids were reviewed , the privately run shipyards ' submissions ranged from $ 46 to 50 million , while their government counterparts came in at $ 37 million . Newport News was unique among these in refusing any fixed monetary value in favor of a " cost @-@ plus 3 1 ⁄ 2 % " price , but this led to the rejection of their bid out of hand .
The bids from private companies were heavily influenced by the legislation of the New Deal . The Vinson @-@ Trammell Act limited profit from a ship 's construction to 10 percent , while the Walsh @-@ Healey Public Contracts Act specified a minimum wage and required working conditions for workers . The latter act greatly affected the ability of the navy to acquire steel , as the text of the law caused friction between executives in the industry , who greatly disliked the forty @-@ hour work week and minimum wage requirements , and their workers — who themselves were embroiled in a separate dispute pitting the union of the skilled workers , the American Federation of Labor , against the union of the unskilled , the Congress of Industrial Organizations . Amid the unrest , the navy ran into difficulties trying to acquire 18 million pounds of steel to build six destroyers and three submarines ; many more pounds than this would be needed for the new battleships .
The private shipyards , however , had their own labor problems , so much so that one author described the navy 's issues as " minimal " compared to their shipbuilding counterparts . This increased the price of the battleships to $ 60 million each , so the Bureau of Steam Engineering and Bureau of Construction and Repair recommended to their superiors that the $ 37 million tenders from the two navy yards be accepted . This was confirmed by Roosevelt , as the private shipyards ' bids were seen as unjustly inflated . The contracts for North Carolina and Washington — names had been officially chosen on 3 May 1937 — were sent to the New York and Philadelphia yards , respectively , on 24 June 1937 . Shortly after this announcement , Roosevelt was bombarded with heavy lobbying from citizens and politicians from Camden and the state of New Jersey , in an ultimately futile attempt to have the construction of North Carolina shifted to Camden 's New York Shipbuilding ; such a contract would keep many men employed in that area . Roosevelt refused , saying that the disparity in price was too great . Instead , the company was awarded two destroyer tenders in December 1937 , Dixie and Prairie .
Construction of the North Carolina class was slowed by the aforementioned material issues , the changes made to the basic design after this date — namely the substitution of 16 @-@ inch for 14 @-@ inch guns — and the need to add both length and strength to the slipways already present in the navy yards . Increased use of welding was proposed as a possible way to reduce weight and bolster the structural design , as it could have reduced the ships ' structural weight by 10 % , but it was only utilized in about 30 % of the ship . The costs associated with welding and an increase in the time of construction made it impractical .
= = = North Carolina = = =
USS North Carolina ( BB @-@ 55 ) was laid down on 27 October 1937 , the first battleship begun by the United States since the never @-@ completed South Dakota class of the early 1920s . Although North Carolina was launched on 13 June 1940 and commissioned on 9 April 1941 , it did not go on active duty because of acute longitudinal vibrations from its propeller shafts . A problem shared with its sister Washington and some other ships like Atlanta , it was only cured after different propellers were tested aboard North Carolina , including four @-@ bladed and cut @-@ down versions of the original three @-@ bladed . This testing required it to be at sea , and the many resulting trips out of New York Harbor to the Atlantic Ocean caused it to be nicknamed " The Showboat " .
After a shakedown cruise in the Caribbean Sea and participation in war exercises , North Carolina transited the Panama Canal en route to the Pacific War . Joining Task Force ( TF ) 16 , the battleship escorted the aircraft carrier Enterprise during the invasions of Guadalcanal and Tulagi on 7 August 1942 , and continued to accompany the carrier when it moved to be southeast of the Solomons . The Battle of the Eastern Solomons began when Japanese carriers were spotted on 24 August ; although American planes were able to strike first by sinking the light carrier Ryūjō , a strike group from a different force , formed around the fleet carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku , attacked TF 16 . In an intense eight @-@ minute battle , North Carolina shot down 7 – 14 aircraft and was relatively undamaged , though there were seven near @-@ misses and one crewman was killed by strafing . Enterprise took three bomb hits .
North Carolina then joined the carrier Saratoga 's screen , and protected it while support was rendered to American troops fighting on Guadalcanal . Although it dodged one torpedo on 6 September , it was not able to avoid another on the 15th . Out of a six @-@ torpedo salvo from a Japanese submarine , three hit the carrier Wasp , one hit O 'Brien , one missed , and one struck North Carolina . A 660 lb ( 300 kg ) warhead hit on the port side 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) below the waterline at a point that was just behind the number one turret . It created a 32 x 18 ft ( 9 @.@ 8 x 5 @.@ 5 m ) hole , allowed about 970 long tons ( 990 t ) of water into the ship — which had to be offset with counter @-@ flooding , meaning that another 480 long tons ( 490 t ) entered — killed five men , and wounded twenty . Although North Carolina could steam at 24 knots ( 28 mph ; 44 km / h ) soon after the explosion , it was later forced to slow to 18 knots ( 21 mph ; 33 km / h ) to ensure that temporary shoring did not fail . Structural damage beneath the first turret rendered it unable to fire unless in absolute need , and the main search radar failed . As this was the first torpedo to strike a modern American battleship , it elicited a large amount of interest from various officers and bureaus within the navy . It was seen as a vindication by some who believed that too much had been sacrificed in the design of the ships — the torpedo defense system had come close to breaking near one of the most important areas of the ship ( a magazine ) , after all — and the General Board called for the fifth and sixth Iowa @-@ class battleships , Illinois and Kentucky , to have a torpedo bulge added outside its magazines . However , the new Bureau of Ships opposed this on the basis that the system performed as it was supposed to ; in any case , no modifications were made .
Repaired and refitted at the facilities in Pearl Harbor , North Carolina operated as a carrier escort for Enterprise and Saratoga for the remainder of 1942 and the majority of 1943 while they provided cover for supply and troop movements in the Solomons . In between , it received advanced fire control and radar gear in March , April and September 1943 at Pearl Harbor . In November , North Carolina escorted Enterprise while the carrier launched strikes upon Makin , Tarawa and Abemama . On 1 – 8 December it bombarded Nauru before returning to carrier screening ; it accompanied Bunker Hill while that carrier launched attacks on Kavieng and New Ireland .
Joining Task Force 58 in January 1944 , North Carolina escorted aircraft carriers as the flagship of Admiral Willis A. Lee for much of the year , providing support for airborne strikes on Kwajalein , Namur , Truk ( twice ) , Saipan , Tinian , Guam , Palau , Woleai , and Hollandia in January – April . Also in April , North Carolina destroyed defensive installations on Ponape before setting course for Pearl Harbor for repairs to a damaged rudder . With repairs completed , the battleship joined with Enterprise on 6 June for assaults within the Marianas ; as part of these , North Carolina used its main battery to bombard Saipan and Tanapag .
In late June , North Carolina was one of the American ships which took part in the so @-@ called " Marianas Turkey Shoot " , where a majority of attacking Japanese aircraft were shot down out of the air at little cost to the American defenders . Problems with its propeller shafts then caused the battleship to sail to the Puget Sound Navy Yard to receive an overhaul . It returned to active duty in November and to its carrier escort tasks in time to be hit by a typhoon . North Carolina protected carriers while they provided air cover for invasion fleets and launched attacks on Leyte , Luzon , and the Visayas . Surviving another typhoon , one which sank three destroyers , North Carolina continued escort duty when naval aircraft struck Formosa , Indo @-@ China , China , the Ryukyus and Honshu in January and February 1945 . During the invasion of Iwo Jima , the battleship provided bombardment support for troops ashore .
During the assault on Okinawa , North Carolina screened carriers and bombarded targets ashore . Although it was able to shoot down three kamikazes on 6 April , it also was struck by a 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) shell during that time in a friendly fire incident ; three were killed and forty @-@ four injured . The battleship shot down a plane on the 7th and two on the 17th . After receiving another overhaul from 9 May to 28 June , this one in the naval yard at Pearl Harbor , North Carolina operated as both a carrier escort and shore bombardier for the remainder of the war . Of note was a 17 July bombardment of the industrial area in Hitachi , Ibaraki in company with fellow battleships Alabama , Missouri , Wisconsin and HMS King George V , along with smaller warships .
In August , members of North Carolina 's crew and Marine contingent were sent ashore to assist in occupying Japan . After the official surrender , these men were brought back aboard and the battleship sailed to Okinawa . As part of Operation " Magic Carpet " , soldiers were embarked to be returned to the United States . Passing through the locks of Panama Canal on 8 October , it weighed anchor in Boston on the 17th . After an overhaul in the New York Naval Yard , it participated in exercises off New England before beginning a midshipman training cruise in the Caribbean .
North Carolina was decommissioned in Bayonne , New Jersey on 27 June 1947 ; it remained in the reserve fleet in until 1 June 1960 , when it was struck from the Naval Vessel Register . Instead of the scrapping that faced most of the United States ' battleships , North Carolina was sold to the state of North Carolina for $ 250 @,@ 000 on 8 August 1961 to be a museum ship. it was dedicated in Wilmington on 29 April 1962 as a memorial to the citizens of the state who died in the Second World War . Listed on the United States ' National Register of Historic Places and designated as a National Historic Landmark on 1 January 1986 , it remains there today , maintained by the USS North Carolina Battleship Commission .
= = = Washington = = =
USS Washington ( BB @-@ 56 ) was laid down on 14 June 1938 , launched on 1 June 1940 and commissioned on 15 May 1941 at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard . Although commissioned , its engine had not been run at full power — like its sister , Washington had major problems with longitudinal vibrations , which were only tempered after many tests conducted aboard North Carolina . The fixes made it possible to run builder 's trials , which Washington did on 3 August 1941 ; loaded at about 44 @,@ 400 long tons ( 45 @,@ 100 t ) , the propulsion plant was run up to 123 @,@ 850 shp , and repeated the performance again in February 1942 , achieving 127 @,@ 100 and 121 @,@ 000 shp .
In early 1942 Rear Admiral John W. Wilcox chose Washington as the flagship of Task Force 39 . On 26 March 1942 , Washington , along with Wasp , Wichita , Tuscaloosa and various smaller ships , sailed to bolster the British Home Fleet . During the voyage , Wilcox fell into the ocean ; he was seen soon after by the destroyer Wilson , face down in the water , but due to rough seas was unable to retrieve the body . It is not known what exactly happened ; he could have simply been caught by a wave and washed overboard , but there has been speculation that he suffered a heart attack . The force reached the main anchorage of the Home Fleet , Scapa Flow , on 4 April .
Washington and the other ships of TF 39 participated in exercises with the Home Fleet until late April . Along with certain British units , the task force departed the British Isles as TF 99 . They escorted some of the Arctic convoys which were carrying vital cargo to the Soviet Union . While carrying out this duty , an accompanying British battleship , HMS King George V , accidentally rammed a destroyer , cutting it in two . Directly behind King George V , Washington passed through the same stretch of sea and received damage from exploding depth charges . Though damage to the hull was minimal — limited to only one leaking fuel tank — many devices on board the ship were damaged , including main battery range finders , circuit breakers , three fire @-@ control and the search radars . The American ships then put in at an Icelandic port , Hvalfjörður , until 15 May ; they returned to Scapa Flow on 3 June . On 4 June , Washington hosted the commander of naval forces in Europe , Admiral Harold Rainsford Stark , who set up a temporary headquarters on the ship for the next few days . On 7 June , King George VI of the United Kingdom inspected the battleship .
Washington left the North Sea bound for the United States on 14 July with an escort of four destroyers ; upon arrival at the New York Naval Yard on the 23rd , it was given a full overhaul which took a month to be completed. it set sail for the Panama Canal and the Pacific Ocean on 23 August and reached its destination , Tonga Island , on 14 September , where it became the flagship of Admiral Willis " Ching " Lee . Over the coming months , Washington would be focused upon the safe arrival of supply convoys to the men fighting on Guadalcanal . On 13 November , three formations of Japanese ships were discovered on course for Guadalcanal , one of them aiming to bombard Henderson Field while night gave them protection from aircraft . The first Japanese bombardment force was driven back by an American cruiser @-@ destroyer force . On 14 November , the Japanese organized another sortie to neutralize the airfield . Washington , South Dakota , and four destroyers were sent to intercept the Japanese force that night . The Japanese , composed of the fast battleship Kirishima , two heavy cruisers , two light cruisers , and nine destroyers , initially sank three US destroyers and inflicted significant topside damage to South Dakota . However , Washington remained undetected and at midnight fired on Kirishima from 5 @,@ 800 yards ( 5 @,@ 300 m ) , point blank range for Washington 's 16 @-@ inch / 45 @-@ caliber guns . Washington fired seventy @-@ five 16 @-@ inch and one hundred and seven 5 @-@ inch rounds during the melee , scoring 20 main and seventeen secondary battery hits , knocking out its steering and main battery and causing uncontrollable progressive flooding . Kirishima capsized at 03 : 25 on the morning of 15 November 1942 , with 212 crewmen lost . Radar @-@ directed fire from Washington 's secondary battery also damaged destroyer Ayanami so severely it had to be scuttled . Soon after the battle , the Japanese began evacuating Guadalcanal .
Until April 1943 , Washington stayed near its base in New Caledonia , providing protection for convoys and battle groups that were supporting the Solomons campaign . Returning to Pearl Harbor , it practiced for battle and underwent an overhaul before returning to the combat zone in late July . From August to the end of October , Washington operated out of Efate. it then joined with four battleships and six destroyers as Task Group ( TG ) 53 @.@ 2 for exercises ; Enterprise , Essex and Independence also participated . TG 52 @.@ 2 then voyaged to the Gilbert Islands to add additional firepower to the strikes currently hitting them . Departing in late November , Washington steamed to first Makin to provide protection for ships there , then Ocean Island to prepare to bombard Nauru with its sister North Carolina , all four South Dakota @-@ class battleships , and the carriers Bunker Hill and Monterey . All of the capital ships struck before dawn on 8 December ; the aircraft carriers struck again soon after . The ships then sailed back to Efate , arriving on 12 December . On Christmas , Washington , North Carolina , and four destroyers left Efate for gunnery practice . By late January , it was made part of TG 50 @.@ 1 to escort the fast carriers in that group as they launched strikes on Taroa and Kwajalein. it also moved in to hit Kwajalein with its guns on 30 January .
Before dawn on 1 February , with the sky still shrouded in darkness , Washington collided with Indiana when the latter left formation to fuel four destroyers . Indiana had radioed that it was going to make a turn to port out of the formation , but soon after starting the turn , its captain ordered a reversal , back to starboard . About seven minutes later , it came into view of lookouts aboard Washington at a range of 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ; 910 m ) . Although crews on both ships frantically tried to avoid the other , it was to no avail ; Washington gave Indiana a glancing blow , scraping down a large aft portion of the ship 's starboard side . Washington 's fore end was severely damaged , with about 60 ft ( 18 m ) of its bow hanging down and into the water . Ten men , six from Washington , were killed or listed as missing . After temporary reinforcements to the damaged section , it was forced to sail to Pearl Harbor to be fitted with a false bow to make possible a voyage to Puget Sound . Once there , it received a full overhaul , along with a new bow ; this work lasted from March until April . Washington did not enter the war zone again until late May .
Washington next participated in the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign , serving again as a carrier escort ship , though it was detached on the 13th to fire on Japanese positions on Saipan and Tinian . With the sortie of a majority of the remaining ships in the Imperial Japanese Navy spotted by American submarines , Washington , along with six other battleships , four heavy cruisers and fourteen destroyers covered the aircraft carriers of TF 58 ; on the 19th , with the attack of many aircraft , the Battle of the Philippine Sea began . Able to beat off the attacks , Washington refueled and continued escorting carriers until she , with three battleships and escorts , formed a new task group . After a lengthy stop at Enewetak Atoll , it supported troops assaulting Peleliu and Angaur before returning to screening duties . This duty lasted from 10 October to 17 February 1945 .
The battleship bombarded Iwo Jima from 19 – 22 February in support of the invasion there before escorting carriers which sent aircraft raids against Tokyo and targets on the island of Kyūshū . On 24 March and 19 April , Washington bombarded Okinawa ; it then departed for Puget Sound to receive a refit , having been in action for the majority of the time since its refit in March – April 1944 . This lasted through V @-@ J Day and the subsequent formal ceremony aboard Missouri , so Washington received orders to voyage to Philadelphia , where it arrived on 17 October . Here it was modified to have an additional 145 bunks , so that it could participate in Operation Magic Carpet . Sailing to Southampton with a reduced crew of 84 officers and 835 crew , it brought 185 army officers and 1 @,@ 479 enlisted men back to the United States ; this was the only voyage it would make in support of the operation . The battleship was placed into reserve at Bayonne , New Jersey on 27 June 1947 , after only a little more than six years of service . Washington was never reactivated . Struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 June 1960 — exactly 21 years to the day since its launch — she was sold on 24 May 1961 to be scrapped .
= = Post @-@ war alterations and proposals = =
North Carolina and Washington remained in active duty in the years immediately after the war , possibly because they were more comfortable and less cramped than the four South Dakotas . The ships received alterations during this period ; the Ship Characteristics Board ( SCB ) directed in June 1946 that four of the quadruple @-@ mounted 40 mm guns be removed , though only two were actually taken off each ship . The 20 mm weapons were also reduced at some point so that both ships were decommissioned with sixteen twin mounts . North Carolina and Washington were decommissioned on 27 June 1947 and subsequently moved to the reserve fleet .
In May 1954 , SCB created a class improvement plan for the North Carolinas which included twenty @-@ four 3 in / 50 guns directed by six Mark 56s . A month later , the SCB chairman voiced his belief that the North Carolinas and South Dakotas would be excellent additions to task forces — if they could be faster . The Bureau of Ships then considered and discarded designs that would move these ships at 31 knots ( 36 mph ; 57 km / h ) , four knots faster than their current attainable speed . In order for a North Carolina to obtain 31 knots , 240 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( shp ) would be required . This , in turn , would necessitate the installation of an extremely large power plant , one which would not fit into the ship even if the third turret was removed . If the outer external belt armor were removed , 216 @,@ 000 shp would still be required . However , no matter if the belt was taken off or not , all of the hull form aft would have to be greatly modified to accept larger propellers . The last strike against the project was the high estimated cost of $ 40 million — which did not include the cost of activating battleships that had been out of commission for ten years .
Later calculations proved that the North Carolinas could be lightened from 44 @,@ 377 to around 40 @,@ 541 long tons ( 41 @,@ 192 t ) , at which 210 @,@ 000 shp would suffice . At the trial displacement figure of 38 @,@ 400 long tons ( 39 @,@ 000 t ) , even 186 @,@ 000 shp would be enough ; the 210 @,@ 000 figure was derived from a 12 @.@ 5 % overestimation to account for a fouled bottom or bad weather . A similar power plant to the one used in the Iowa class ( generating 212 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ) would be enough , and if the third turret was removed there would be no problems with weight , but there was not enough space within the North Carolinas . When compared , the current power plant measured 176 × 70 × 24 , but the Iowa 's was 256 × 72 × 26 . Lastly , there would be an issue with the propellers ; the Iowa class ' were 19 ft ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) wide , while the North Carolina 's were 17 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) . In the end , no conversions were undertaken .
Designs for helicopter carriers also contained a plan for a conversion of the North Carolinas . At a cost of $ 30 @,@ 790 @,@ 000 , the ships would have been able to embark 28 helicopters , 1 @,@ 880 troops , 530 long tons ( 540 t ) of cargo and 200 @,@ 000 US gal ( 760 @,@ 000 L ) of oil . All of the 16 @-@ inch and 5 @-@ inch guns would have been removed , though the number one turret would have remained so that weights added on the stern half of the ship could be balanced . In place , the ships would have received sixteen 3 @-@ inch guns in twin mounts . Displacement would be lowered slightly to a fully loaded weight of about 41 @,@ 930 long tons ( 42 @,@ 600 t ) , while speed would not have changed . It was estimated that the ships could serve for about fifteen to twenty years at a cost of about $ 440 @,@ 000 a year for maintenance . However , it was found that a purpose @-@ built helicopter carrier would be more economical , so the plans were shelved .
= = Endnotes = =
= = = Web = = =
DiGiulian , Tony . " United States of America 16 " / 45 ( 40 @.@ 6 cm ) Mark 6 . " NavWeaps . Accessed 15 November 2009 .
DiGiulian , Tony . " United States of America 5 " / 38 ( 12 @.@ 7 cm ) Mark 12 . " NavWeaps . Accessed 15 November 2009 .
Haworth , R.B. " Single Ship Report for " 6112175 " ( North Carolina ) . " ( subscription required ) . Miramar Ship Index . Accessed 15 November 2009 .
Haworth , R.B. " Single Ship Report for " 6112726 " ( Washington ) . " ( subscription required ) . Miramar Ship Index . Accessed 15 November 2009 .
" Marshall Islands Campaign , Jan. – Feb. 1944 – USS Washington and USS Indiana Collide , 1 February 1944 . " Online Library of Selected Images , Naval History & Heritage Command . Accessed 15 November 2009 .
" North Carolina ( BB @-@ 55 ) ; battleship . " Naval Vessel Register , Department of the Navy . Accessed on 15 November 2009 .
" Washington ( BB @-@ 56 ) ; battleship . " Naval Vessel Register , Department of the Navy . Accessed 15 November 2009 .
= = = Primary = = =
" Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armament [ Second London Naval Treaty ] " . London : Third London Naval Conference , 25 March 1936 .
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= Shadow of the Colossus =
Shadow of the Colossus , released in Japan as Wander and the Colossus ( Japanese : ワンダと巨像 , Hepburn : Wanda to Kyozō ) , is an action @-@ adventure video game published by Sony Computer Entertainment ( SCEI ) for the PlayStation 2 . The game was released in North America and Japan in October 2005 and PAL territories in February 2006 . It was directed by Fumito Ueda and developed at SCEI 's International Production Studio 1 , also known as Team Ico ; the same development team responsible for the cult hit Ico . , which the game is considered a spiritual successor to . An HD remastered version developed by Bluepoint Games , that collects both games was released as The Ico & Shadow of the Colossus Collection ( ICO & Shadow of the Colossus Classics HD in the PAL region ) for the PlayStation 3 in September 2011 ; it features high @-@ definition ( HD ) graphics , content previously missing from the North American version , PlayStation Network Trophies , and 3D support . The HD version was released separately in Japan .
The game 's storyline focuses on a young man named Wander who enters a forbidden land . Wander must travel across a vast expanse on horseback and defeat sixteen massive beings , known simply as colossi , in order to restore the life of a girl named Mono . The game is unusual within the action @-@ adventure genre in that there are no towns or dungeons to explore , no characters with which to interact , and no enemies to defeat other than the colossi . Shadow of the Colossus has been described as a puzzle game , as each colossus ' weakness must be identified and exploited before it can be defeated .
Cited as an influential title in the video game industry , Shadow of the Colossus is often regarded as an important example of video game as art due to its minimalist landscape designs , immersive gameplay and emotional journey . It received wide critical acclaim by the media and was met with strong sales compared to Ico , due in part to a larger marketing campaign . The soundtrack was also widely praised . The game won several awards for its audio , design , and overall quality . Today , the game is widely regarded as one of the greatest video games of all time . Shadow of the Colossus is also referenced numerous times in debates regarding the art quality and emotional perspectives of video games .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Basics = = =
Progression through Shadow of the Colossus occurs in cycles . Beginning at a central point in an expansive landscape , the player seeks out and defeats a colossus , and is then returned to the central point to repeat the process . To find each colossus , Wander may raise his sword while in a sunlit area to reflect beams of light , which will converge when the sword is pointed in the right direction of the next encounter . The journey to a colossus is seldom a straightforward matter : stretches of varied terrain often require that a detour be taken along the way . Most colossi are located in remote areas , such as atop cliffs or within ancient structures .
Once a colossus is found , the player must discover its weaknesses to defeat it . Each colossus dwells in a unique lair , and many colossi cannot be defeated without making use of the surrounding environment . Every colossus has at least one weak point , indicated by a glowing sigil that can be illuminated and identified by the sword 's reflected light . Each colossus has areas covered with fur or protruding ledges , which Wander may use to grip and scale the colossus while it thrashes about in an attempt to dislodge him . While scaling a colossus , the player must act quickly , as Wander has a limited stamina gauge that decreases while he hangs onto the creature .
Wander and the colossi have life bars to indicate their remaining health . A colossus ' health will decrease significantly when its weak points are attacked , while Wander can be harmed by a colossus ' attacks or a fall from great height . Throughout the game , Wander is equipped with only a sword and a bow with arrows , but may obtain other weapons from completing the Time Attack trials .
While the colossi are the only enemies , there are natural animals in the environment . Only one species , however , has any effect on gameplay : eating the tail of a certain kind of lizard increases Wander 's stamina gauge . Likewise , the player may find fruit that increases Wander 's maximum health .
= = = Agro and the environment = = =
Wander 's horse , Agro , plays a large role in the game . In addition to serving as a means of transportation , fighting from horseback is vital to defeat some of the colossi . There are , however , many environments that cannot be traversed by horse , and colossi often inhabit areas within deep water or beyond large obstacles that must be scaled . Agro cannot travel beyond these , and when separated from Wander by such obstacles , cannot participate in the following battle . Agro is referred to as a male in the English @-@ language version of the game , though director Fumito Ueda said that he saw Wander 's horse as female .
The environment must be used to the player 's advantage more often as the game progresses . The first two battles take place on simple , large , flat areas of land , with the only goal being to discover how to scale the colossi and attack their weak points . However , the majority of the following fourteen battles require that some aspect of the battlefield be used .
= = Plot and setting = =
During Shadow of the Colossus , the player receives little information concerning the backstories of the characters and their relationships with one another . The game takes place in a fantasy setting , with most of the game 's events occurring within a vast and unpopulated peninsula , known as the Forbidden Land , separated from the outside world by a mountain range to its north and sea to the south and east . The presence of ruins and other ancient structures indicate the area was once a settlement .
The region is only accessible via a small cleft in the mountains to the north , leading to a massive stone bridge . This bridge spans half the distance of the landscape and terminates at a large temple called the " Shrine of Worship " located at its center . It is , however , forbidden to enter the land , which is characterized by diverse geographical features , such as lakes , plateaus , canyons , caves , and deserts in addition to human @-@ made structures .
= = = Characters = = =
The protagonist of the game is Wander ( ワンダ , Wanda , voiced by Kenji Nojima ) , a young man whose goal is to resurrect a girl named Mono ( モノ , voiced by Hitomi Nabatame ) . Little is known about Mono other than that she was a maiden who was somehow sacrificed because she was believed to have a cursed destiny . Wander and Mono were designed with long hair from the start of the design process , with Mono 's long hair specifically as a contrast to Yorda of Ico , who has short hair . Assisting Wander in his quest to revive her is his loyal horse , Agro ( アグロ , Aguro ) , who serves as his only ally in defeating the colossi . Wander also receives aid from an entity called Dormin ( ドルミン , Dorumin , voiced by Kazuhiro Nakata and Kyōko Hikami ) . The story revolves around these characters but features a small supporting cast including Lord Emon ( エモン , voiced by Naoki Bandō ) .
Speaking with two voices at once ( one male and one female ) , Dormin is a mysterious , disembodied entity . In legends of the game 's world , it is said that Dormin has the power to revive the dead ; it is for this reason that Wander enters the forbidden land , seeking its assistance in reviving Mono . Dormin offers to revive her in exchange for Wander destroying the sixteen colossi . " Dormin " , which spells " Nimrod " backwards , has been speculated to be a reference to the body of the biblical King Nimrod which was cut up and scattered .
Lord Emon is a shaman who narrates a vision in the game 's introduction , vaguely explaining the origin of the land Wander has come to , and emphasising that entry to this place is forbidden . He is portrayed as having extensive knowledge regarding the containment of Dormin , and the ability to use powerful magic . He has a small group of warriors at his command , and is pursuing Wander to prevent the use of " the forbidden spell " , the ritual involving the destruction of the sixteen colossi and the restoration of Dormin 's power .
The colossi are armored , most often enormous creatures with forms ranging from various humanoids to predatory animals , and live in all manner of surroundings and environments including beneath water and flying through the air . Their bodies are a fusion of organic and inorganic parts such as rock , earth , fur , and architectural elements , some of which are weathered or fractured . Some colossi are peaceful and will only attack when provoked , while others are aggressive and will attack on sight . Inhabiting specific locations in the forbidden land , they do not venture outside their own territory . Once slain they will remain where fallen , as a mound of earth and rock vaguely resembling the original colossus .
= = = Story = = =
The story of Shadow of the Colossus begins as Wander enters the forbidden land , traveling across the long bridge at its entrance on his horse , Agro . According to Lord Emon later in the game , prior to entering the forbidden land Wander had stolen an ancient sword , which is the only weapon capable of slaying the colossi of the forbidden land . Led to the massive Shrine of Worship at the center of the region , Wander carries with him the body of a maiden named Mono . A moment later , several man @-@ like shadowy creatures appear and prepare to attack Wander before he easily dismisses them with a wave of the ancient sword in his possession . After vanquishing the shadow creatures , the voice of the disembodied entity known as " Dormin " echoes from above , expressing surprise that Wander possesses the weapon . Wander requests that Dormin return Mono 's soul to her body , which it states may be possible on the condition that Wander can destroy the sixteen idols lining the temple 's hall by using the ancient sword to kill the sixteen colossi located throughout the land . Despite being warned by Dormin that he may have to pay a great price to revive Mono , Wander sets out to search the land for the colossi and destroy them .
What Wander does not know is that the colossi contain portions of Dormin 's own essence that was scattered long ago to render the entity powerless . As Wander kills each colossus , a released fragment of Dormin enters his body . In time , after slaying his eighth colossus , the signs of Wander 's deterioration from the gathered essence is shown clearly — his skin becoming paler , his hair darker , and dark streaks growing across his face . After the death of the twelfth colossus , it is revealed to the player that Wander is being pursued by a group of warriors led by Emon . Urged to hurry with his task by Dormin , Wander soon heads off to defeat the sixteenth and final colossus . On the way to this confrontation , he travels on horseback across a long bridge which begins to collapse as he is halfway across . At the last second when it seems he will not make it , Wander is thrown to the other side by Agro as the steed saves her master while falling into the river hundreds of feet below as the bridge finally gives way .
Soon after , Wander goes on to defeat the final colossus as Emon 's company arrives in the Shrine of Worship to witness the last temple idol crumble . With a paled and horned Wander appearing soon , Emon orders his warriors to kill the " possessed " man as he approaches Mono and finally falls once stabbed through the heart . However , Emon finds a newly whole Dormin possessing Wander 's body and transforming its host into a shadowy giant . While his men flee , Lord Emon casts the ancient sword into a small pool at the back of the temple 's hall to evoke a whirlwind of light that consumes Dormin and Wander . After fleeing with the bridge connecting to the temple collapsing behind them , forever isolating the forbidden land from the rest of the world , Emon expresses hope that Wander may be able to atone for his crimes should he have survived . Back in the temple , the revived Mono awakens and finds Agro limping into the temple with an injured hind leg . Mono follows Agro to the pool into which Wander and Dormin were pulled by Emon 's spell , finding a male infant with tiny horns on his head . She takes the child with her , following the horse to higher levels of the Shrine of Worship , and arrives at a secret garden within the shrine as the game ends .
= = = Connections to Ico = = =
Shadow of the Colossus is considered both a spiritual successor and prequel to Ico . For several months during and after the game 's release , the game 's director and lead designer , Fumito Ueda , maintained that the game 's status as a prequel was simply his personal take on the game and not necessarily its canon nature , as he largely intended for players to decide the specifics of the story for themselves , but he confirmed the two do have a connection . Moreover , the shadowy figures which appear in the Shrine of Worship are connected to the shadows which the player must fight in Ico . Both games feature " horned " characters for protagonists ( Wander sprouts horns at the end of the game ) . The Queen 's Sword from Ico is also available as a bonus unlockable item . Both games also use unique fictional languages .
= = Development = =
With a team of thirty @-@ five people , Shadow of the Colossus began development in 2002 under the project name Nico ( a portmanteau of " Next Ico " ) and was intended to be a sequel to Ico . An early technology demo for the project shown at the DICE Summit in 2003 depicted a group of masked , horned boys riding horses while attacking and defeating a colossus . However , Fumito Ueda expressed that , at the time , it was simpler to reuse the character design of Ico 's protagonist , and that he never explicitly desired a sequel to Ico . Japanese pre @-@ orders of Shadow of the Colossus later included a bonus DVD with the concept video , a trailer describing Nico 's plot , and an introduction the development team states they wanted to use in Shadow of the Colossus .
Ueda and producer Kenji Kaido held their team to a high standard throughout production . An admitted perfectionist , Ueda felt that only one or two out of 500 artists who applied to work on Shadow of the Colossus met his criteria , and often demanded thorough changes in design until it matched his vision . For his part , Kaido challenged the programmers to meet the concept of realistic physics in relation to the movement of the colossi and the subsequent effect this movement would have for Wander , both in terms of how he might be displaced and how he may be able to use this movement to his advantage . For instance , if a colossus were to shake , Kaido wanted Wander 's position to shift realistically in response . Additionally , if a colossus ' limb was currently horizontal , Kaido wanted the player to be able to run across the limb as though it were any other flat surface . He referred to these two concepts as " player dynamics and reactions " and " organic collision deformation " . The realistic physics engine produced as a result required that faster colossi had to be smaller as well .
Ueda wished the game to have a unique presentation and change how both players and developers perceived the idea of what bosses should be in video games . To achieve this , he ensured that the game 's only enemies would be the sixteen colossi , that they could only be approached one at a time , and that they would have various behavior patterns . Though limiting the presence of enemies to only bosses was partly intended to differentiate the game from others , Ueda also expressed that it was to ensure that the programmers ' focus was entirely on the colossi so that their quality would be as high as possible . In accordance with this focus upon the colossi — and his preference for simple controls — he intended that one button on the game controller be used solely for targeting the colossi during battles .
A theme of companionship between the player and an AI @-@ controlled partner was a concern for Ueda . In Ico , this theme was presented through the protagonist and the character Yorda , whom the player was required to work with and protect while navigating the game 's environments . Similarly , a key element in Shadow of the Colossus is the relationship between Wander and his horse , Agro . Intended to be a realistic representation of a horse , Agro will occasionally ignore commands . In Ueda 's words , " a real horse ... doesn 't always obey . It 's not like a car or a motorcycle , it won 't always turn when you say ' turn ! ' " However , he has admitted that the team had to seek a balance in how often Agro did not respond to commands so as to not sacrifice playability in the pursuit of realism .
All elements of the game — including audio , gameplay and visuals — were used to achieve an atmosphere of a " lonely hero " , which Ueda considered important in the development of the game . Lighting , in particular , was used to establish a dark , fearsome setting for the forbidden land , while the protagonist 's sword would provide a means of navigation that was " direct and only expressible visually " . Like Ico , Shadow of the Colossus uses a distinct style of lighting . The game 's engine uses elements such as desaturated colors , motion blur and partial high dynamic range rendering , with a heavy emphasis on bloom lighting .
A PlayStation 3 remastered version of Ico and Shadow of the Colossus was announced at Tokyo Game Show 2010 and released in September 2011 . Developed by Bluepoint Games , both were improved graphically to take advantage of the PlayStation 3 's hardware and HDTVs , and now run in up to 1920x1080 ( Ico ) or upscaled from 960x1080 ( Shadow of the Colossus ) , with numerous other improvements implemented .
= = Audio = =
While the game has an extensive orchestral soundtrack , the music is only heard during cut scenes and colossus encounters , while time spent at the Shrine of Worship and traversing the landscape is silent save for the sounds made by the protagonist , his horse and their surroundings . The open nature of the game world and lack of life , coupled with this limited use of music , aids in establishing an atmosphere of solitude , similar to that of Ico .
On December 7 , 2005 , a soundtrack album containing music from the game was released only in Japan , titled Wander and the Colossus Original Soundtrack : Roar of the Earth ( Japanese : ワンダと巨像 オリジナル サウンドトラック大地の咆哮 , Hepburn : Wanda to Kyozō Original Soundtrack : Daichi no Hōkō ) . There are currently no announced plans to release the album in other territories . The game 's score was composed by Kow Otani , whose previous video game work included the soundtracks to the PlayStation 2 flight simulator Sky Odyssey and the PlayStation shooter Philosoma . He has also worked on several of the 1990s @-@ era Gamera films , as well as a variety of anime . Roar of the Earth won the award for " Soundtrack of the Year " in the US @-@ based video game magazine Electronic Gaming Monthly .
All music composed by Kow Otani .
= = PAL release = =
The PAL version of the game was released in February 2006 . Much like the PAL release for Ico , the game came in cardboard packaging displaying various pieces of artwork from the game , and contained four art cards .
The game also came with a " making of " documentary , a trailer for Ico and a gallery of concept art , accessible from the game 's main menu . Sony Computer Entertainment also re @-@ released Ico in PAL territories at the time of Shadow of the Colossus 's release , both to promote the game through Ico 's reputation , and to allow players who did not buy Ico during its original limited release to " complete their collections " .
Some confusion has arisen in PAL regions concerning the official name of the protagonist primarily because of the manual 's usage of " Wanda " , while the North American manual and the game itself uses the name " Wander " . In fact , the Japanese version of the game spells the name " Wander " as ワンダ ( Wanda ) , which is also the common transliteration of the English name " Wanda " , hence the mistake in the manual .
= = Reception = =
Shadow of the Colossus 's commercial reception was positive , with sales of 140 @,@ 000 copies in its first week at retail in Japan , reaching number one in the charts . Almost 80 % of the initial Japanese shipment was sold within two days . These figures compare favorably with Ico , which was well received by critics but failed to sell a significant number of units . The game was placed on Sony 's list of Greatest Hits titles on August 6 , 2006 .
Unlike Ico , Shadow of the Colossus received far more exposure , due in part to Sony putting its weight behind a massive advertising campaign . It was advertised in game magazines , on television and on the internet , including a viral marketing campaign launched in October 2005 . The site posted links to several websites claiming that the remains of five giants resembling certain colossi had been discovered in various parts of the world . The website has since been taken down . Some speculate that Ico 's sales figures could have been improved if similar advertising efforts were made before its release .
= = = Critical response = = =
Shadow of the Colossus received critical acclaim , with an average critic score of 91 % at GameRankings , making it the 11th @-@ highest rated game of 2005 . These include the Japanese magazine Famitsu , who rated the game 37 / 40 , the UK @-@ based Edge , who awarded an 8 / 10 , and Electronic Gaming Monthly , who granted 8 @.@ 8 / 10 . GameSpot 's review gave it an 8 @.@ 7 , commenting that " the game 's aesthetic presentation is unparalleled , by any standard " , while multimedia website IGN hailed the game as " an amazing experience " and " an absolute must @-@ have title " , rating it 9 @.@ 7 / 10 . GameSpy described it as " possibly the most innovative and visually arresting game of the year for the PS2 " . A retrospective Edge article described the game as " a fiction of unquestionable thematic richness , of riveting emotional power , whose fundamental artistic qualities are completely fused with its interactivity . " Dave Ciccoricco , a literature lecturer at the University of Otago , praised the game for its use of long cutscenes and stretches of riding to make the player engage in self @-@ reflection and feel immersed in the game world .
Many reviewers consider the game 's soundtrack to be one of its greatest aspects . In addition to Electronic Gaming Monthly 's award of " Soundtrack of the Year " , GameSpot commented that the musical score conveyed , and often intensified , the mood of any given situation , while it was described as " one of the finest game soundtracks ever " by a reviewer from Eurogamer .
However , the game has been criticised for its erratic frame rate , which is usually smooth while traversing the landscape , but often slows down in fast @-@ paced situations , such as colossus battles . Concern was also expressed about the game 's camera , which was described by GameSpy as being " as much of an opponent as the Colossi " , " manag [ ing ] to re @-@ center itself at the worst and most inopportune times " . Reviewers are often mixed about Agro 's AI and controls ; while gaming website Thunderbolt insists the realism of Agro 's movement and behaviour " create [ s ] a videogame experience unlike any other " , Edge commented that the controls were " clumsy , crude , and unpredictable " . Other critics like Game Revolution and GameSpot felt the game was too short ( average playthrough time estimated 6 to 8 hours ) , with little replay value given the puzzle elements to each colossus battle .
= = = Awards = = =
Shadow of the Colossus has received several awards , including recognition for " Best Character Design " , " Best Game Design " , " Best Visual Arts " and " Game of the Year " , as well as one of three " Innovation Awards " at the 2006 Game Developers Choice Awards . At the 2006 DICE Summit , the game won the award for " Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction " at the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences , while it received one of two " Special Rookie Awards " at the Famitsu Awards 2005 . It was nominated for " Best Original Music " , " Best Artistic Graphics " and " Best PS2 Game " , yet also " Most Aggravating Frame Rate " in GameSpot 's awards for 2005 , while it won " Best Adventure Game " and " Best Artistic Design " in IGN 's Best of 2005 awards , who cited Agro as the best sidekick in the history of video games . Two years after its release IGN listed Shadow as the second greatest PlayStation 2 game of all time . Games Radar awarded it Best Game of the Year 2006 ( being released in the UK in early 2006 , later than the US ) , and appears in the site 's " The 100 best games ever " list at number ten . The game 's ending was selected as the fourth greatest moment in gaming by the editors of GamePro in July 2006 . The readers of PlayStation Official Magazine voted it the 8th greatest PlayStation title ever released . Destructoid named the game # 1 in their list of the top 50 video games of the decade . IGN named Shadow of the Colossus the best game of 2005 , and the second best game of the decade , behind Half @-@ Life 2 . In 2012 , Complex magazine named Shadow of the Colossus the second @-@ best PlayStation 2 game of all time , behind God of War II . In 2015 , the game placed 4th on USgamer 's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list .
= = = In other media = = =
The game plays a significant role in the 2007 Mike Binder film Reign Over Me as one of the ways Adam Sandler 's character copes with his primary struggle – with aspects of the game mirroring the tragedy that befell Sandler 's character ; Shadow of the Colossus falling giants mirroring the crashing towers of the September 11 attacks in which his wife and children died , and the game 's lead character trying to resurrect his deceased love are two of the main themes which strike a similarity . Sandler is said to have ad libbed a detailed description of the control scheme in a scene with Don Cheadle , who plays his old friend . Both actors are said to have become experts at the game during the filming .
= = Further adaptions = =
= = = Film adaptation = = =
In April 2009 , it was reported that Sony Pictures would adapt Shadow of the Colossus into a film . Kevin Misher , producer of The Scorpion King , The Interpreter and the recent attempted remake of Dune , is negotiating to produce . It was revealed that Fumito Ueda , the game 's creator , will be involved in the film 's production . On May 23 , 2012 , it was reported that Chronicle director Josh Trank would be directing the film adaptation . Kevin Misher will still be producing the film . Seth Lochhead will be writing the film . On September 4 , 2014 , Variety reports that Mama director Andrés Muschietti will direct the film after Trank has dropped out due of his commitment to one of the upcoming Star Wars spin @-@ off movies . As of 2016 , no cast or release date has been announced .
= = = Deathcore band = = =
There is a deathcore band named Shadow of the Colossus . Many of the band 's lyrics and album art are inspired by the video game .
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= Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women =
The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women ( OP @-@ CEDAW ) is an international treaty which establishes complaint and inquiry mechanisms for the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ( CEDAW ) . Parties to the Protocol allow the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to hear complaints from individuals or inquire into " grave or systematic violations " of the Convention . The Protocol has led to a number of decisions against member states on issues such as domestic violence , parental leave and forced sterilization , as well as an investigation into the systematic killing of women in the Mexican city of Ciudad Juárez , Chihuahua .
The Protocol was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 6 October 1999 , and in force from 22 December 2000 . As of May 2016 , the Protocol has 80 signatories and 107 parties .
= = Genesis = =
In 1979 , the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ( CEDAW ) . The Convention outlawed discrimination against women , but did not include any mechanism by which this prohibition could be legally enforced .
An individual complaints mechanism was suggested during the original drafting of CEDAW , but was rejected at the time . Fifteen years later , the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action of the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights suggested that new procedures were needed to implement the Convention , and suggested a " right of petition " . An independent expert group produced a draft in 1994 , containing a complaint procedure and an inquiry procedure , and this was adopted for further study by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in early 1995 . The idea of an Optional Protocol was further endorsed by the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 , which called for " the elaboration ( of ) a draft optional protocol to the Women 's Convention that could enter into force as soon as possible . "
In March 1996 the Commission on the Status of Women established an open @-@ ended working group to produce a formal draft . This reported back after three years of deliberation in early 1999 . The Optional Protocol was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 6 October 1999 .
= = Summary = =
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women outlaws discrimination on the basis of gender , and obliges its parties to repeal discriminatory laws and guarantee equality in the fields of health , employment , and education . The Optional Protocol is a subsidiary agreement to the Convention . It does not establish any new rights , but rather allows the rights guaranteed in the Convention to be enforced .
Articles 1 – 7 create an individual complaints mechanism similar to those of the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and Article 14 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination . Parties agree to recognise the competence of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to consider complaints " by or on behalf of " individuals or groups who claim their rights under the Convention have been violated . If a complaint is submitted on behalf of a victim , then this requires their consent , unless the submitter can justify acting without it . What constitutes " justification " in such a case is up to the Committee . The ability for complaints to be submitted on behalf of victims is seen as vital in allowing NGOs such as women 's organizations and human rights groups to use the Protocol to enforce the Convention .
Complainants must have exhausted all domestic remedies , and anonymous complaints and complaints referring to events which occurred before the country concerned joined the Optional Protocol are not permitted . The Committee can request information from and make recommendations to a party , though these are not binding .
Articles 8 – 10 create an inquiry mechanism . Parties may permit the Committee to investigate , report on and make recommendations on " grave or systematic violations " of the Convention . The Committee may invite the relevant party to respond and inform it of any measures taken as a result of such an inquiry , either directly or through the normal reporting process under the Convention . Parties may opt out of this obligation on signature or ratification , but only Bangladesh , Belize and Colombia have done so .
Article 11 requires parties to ensure that those complaining under the Optional Protocol are not subjected to ill @-@ treatment or intimidation .
Article 13 requires parties to inform their citizens about the Convention , the Optional Protocol , and the rulings of the Committee , so as to facilitate complaints .
Articles 12 and 14 govern the procedure and reporting of the Committee in handling complaints .
Articles 15 – 21 govern ratification , entry into force , and amendment of the Optional Protocol .
= = Reservations and membership = =
A number of parties have made reservations and interpretative declarations to their application of the Protocol . Bangladesh , Belize and Colombia have exercised their right under Article 10 of the Protocol not to recognise the jurisdiction of the Committee to investigate " grave or systematic violations " of the Convention . Colombia declares that neither the Protocol nor the Committee can require it to decriminalise " offences against life or personal integrity " .
Not every state which is a party to CEDAW is a party to the Protocol , and several major states still remain outside the Protocol . The United States has not become a signatory because it has not yet ratified CEDAW . Japan does not participate in any of the individual communications mechanisms for human rights treaties , but is currently considering joining while observing how these procedures are functioning . China is currently " studying the problem of accession to the Optional Protocol " .
= = Individual complaints = =
The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has considered eleven complaints against seven countries since the Optional Protocol came into force , on subjects such as domestic violence , division of property , forced sterilization and parental leave . Six complaints were rejected for lack of jurisdiction or because the complainants had not exhausted all domestic remedies . The other five decisions are summarised below :
In 2005 , in the case of A.T. v. Hungary , the Committee ruled that Hungary had violated numerous articles of the Convention by failing to adequately protect women against domestic violence . It recommended that the complainant be immediately protected from her abusive former partner , and that Hungary improve its handling of domestic violence cases and immediately adopt the Committee 's previous recommendation for a law allowing protection and exclusion orders . The recommendations were implemented by the time of Hungary 's sixth periodic report to the Committee in 2006 .
In 2006 , in the case of Dung Thi Thuy Nguyen v. The Netherlands , the Committee expressed concerns about aspects of parental leave provisions in The Netherlands . It recommended the Dutch government collect further information on the number of women combining part @-@ time salaried employment with self @-@ employment , and review the law if this revealed that a significant number of women were disadvantaged .
In 2006 , in the case of A.S. vs Hungary , the Committee ruled that the forced sterilization of a Romani woman in Hungary violated the Convention . It recommended compensating the complainant for the breach of her rights , a full review of legislation surrounding informed consent in cases of sterilisation to ensure it complied with international human rights standards , and ongoing monitoring of Hungarian medical facilities to ensure that any changes were put into practice .
In 2007 , in the cases of Şahide Goekce ( deceased ) v. Austria and Fatma Yildirim ( deceased ) v. Austria , the Committee ruled that the Austrian government was failing to protect women from domestic violence . It recommended strengthening the implementation and monitoring of existing domestic violence laws and greater training for police .
= = Inquiries = =
The Committee has also conducted one inquiry into " grave or systematic violations " under Article 8 , in relation to the systematic killing of women in the Mexican city of Ciudad Juárez , Chihuahua . This found " serious lapses in compliance " by the Mexican government and tolerance of severe and systematic abuses of women 's rights . The Committee recommended the involvement of federal as well as state authorities in the investigation of the murders , the punishment of negligent or complicit officials and those involved in the persecution of victims ' relatives , and increased violence prevention plans .
= = Impact and criticism = =
The impact of an international treaty can be measured in two ways : by its acceptance , and by its implementation . On the first measure , the Optional Protocol has gained widespread international acceptance . Most major states are parties , and the Protocol is the second most @-@ accepted enforcement mechanism after the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights .
On the second measure , the number of complaints dealt with by the Committee has been limited . A 2008 assessment for the UK government found that the Protocol had hardly been used by NGOs as originally expected , that the reasoning of the Committee was unpredictable , and that it had not had an impact on policy @-@ making . It found that there had been some limited success in highlighting the importance of effective policies to protect women from domestic violence and forced sterilization , but that outside these areas , the Protocol " has not led to a breakthrough in advancing women 's rights . " It concludes that unless greater efforts are made to highlight awareness of the Optional Protocol and build trust in the rulings of the Committee , the complaints mechanism will remain under @-@ utilized .
The Protocol has been criticised by legal academics such as Bal Sokhi @-@ Bulley and feminists such as Catharine MacKinnon who view the complaints mechanism as difficult , lengthy , and lacking transparency . The voluntary nature of the Protocol and the non @-@ binding nature of its " recommendations " are seen as key limits on its effectiveness . Despite this , these critics tend to view the Protocol as a valuable , if flawed , instrument for realizing women 's rights .
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= North Carolina Highway 68 =
North Carolina Highway 68 ( NC 68 ) is a north – south state highway in North Carolina . It serves as a connector between Interstate 40 ( I @-@ 40 ) and Piedmont Triad International Airport ( via Bryan Boulevard ) . On its routing from Thomasville to Stokesdale , NC 68 passes through urban High Point , the western outskirts of Greensboro , and the town of Oak Ridge . The segment from just north of the I @-@ 40 interchange to Pleasant Ridge Road in Guilford County is a limited access freeway .
= = Route description = =
Beginning in the south at Business I @-@ 85 / US 29 / US 70 , the route travels north out of Thomasville in Davidson County as National Highway , a name which referred to the former routing of US 29 / 70 ( later US 29A / 70A ) along this segment . Crossing from Davidson County into neighboring Guilford County and the city of High Point , NC 68 is cosigned with English Road . Approximately one mile within the city limits , NC 68 turns left onto Westchester Drive , a boulevard that bypasses High Point 's downtown area . Arriving at the Main Street interchange , the city 's busiest , NC 68 continues onto Eastchester Drive , another boulevard . After passing Oak Hollow Mall , I @-@ 74 / US 311 ( High Point East Belt ) , and the Wendover Avenue interchange , NC 68 and Eastchester Drive continue north into neighboring Greensboro .
Shortly after entering Greensboro , NC 68 meets Interstate 40 / US 421 , and becomes a limited access freeway after a traffic signal at Triad Center Drive . Continuing north as a divided four @-@ lane highway , NC 68 has junctions with W. Market Street ( Colfax exit ) and Bryan Boulevard , the exit for Piedmont Triad International Airport . The road downgrades to an undivided primary road at the Pleasant Ridge Road junction . From there , the route heads north through the heart of Oak Ridge , North Carolina , passing the Oak Ridge Military Academy at the route 's intersection with NC 150 . After crossing the Haw River into Stokesdale , NC 68 crosses US 158 and joins NC 65 for a short 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) concurrency , before splitting to the northeast en route to its northern terminus at NC 220 in Rockingham County .
= = History = =
The first NC 68 was an original state highway that traversed from NC 60 , in Millers Creek ( west of Wilkesboro ) , northwest through Glendale Springs , Jefferson and Crumpler , before crossing into Virginia . By 1928 , NC 68 was rerouted west of Jefferson onto new primary routing west to the Tennessee state line ; the old alignment becoming NC 681 . In 1929 , all of NC 68 was replaced by an extension of NC 16 .
The second and current NC 68 was established in 1930 as a new primary routing from US 70 / US 170 / NC 10 , northeast of High Point , to NC 65 , in Stokesdale . In 1936 , NC 68 was rerouted south through High Point to US 29A / US 70A ( Lexington Avenue ) ; its old alignment , along Penny Road , became a secondary road . In 1941 , NC 68 was extended north on new primary routing to US 220 ( Sylvania Road ) .
In 1952 , NC 68 was extended north to its current terminus with US 220 , replacing part of old US 220 . Between 1950 @-@ 1953 , NC 68 was extended south to English Street . In 1956 or 1957 , NC 68 was extended to its current southern terminus , sharing a concurrency with US 29A / US 70A , until 1991 . In 1982 , NC 68 was placed on new freeway connecting I @-@ 40 and the Piedmont Triad International Airport , its old alignment along Bull Road ( today 's Regional Road ) a secondary road .
= = Future = =
Future NCDOT plans call for the construction of a new four @-@ lane highway connecting NC 68 and US 220 . Starting with a new interchange with I @-@ 73 ( near Pleasant Ridge Road ) , improvements will be made along a short section of existing NC 68 before going northwest onto new construction that will bypass east of Oak Ridge and connect with US 220 in Summerfield . This section will become part of I @-@ 73 . North of Oak Ridge , safety improvements are to be done between East Harrell Road ( SR 2111 ) and Bartonshire Drive ( SR 4831 ) . The estimated cost is $ 1 @.@ 96 million . Property acquisition is expected to start in December 2014 .
= = Junction list = =
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= Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact =
The cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact is the corpus of changes to terrestrial science , technology , religion , politics , and ecosystems resulting from contact with an extraterrestrial civilization . Although closely related to it , the study of the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact is distinct from the search for extraterrestrial intelligence ( SETI ) , which attempts to locate intelligent life as opposed to analyzing the implications of contact with that life .
The potential changes from extraterrestrial contact could vary greatly in magnitude and type , based on the extraterrestrial civilization 's level of technological advancement , degree of benevolence or malevolence , and level of mutual comprehension between itself and humanity . The medium through which humanity is contacted , be it electromagnetic radiation , direct physical interaction , extraterrestrial artefact , or otherwise , may also influence the results of contact . Incorporating these factors , various systems have been created to assess the implications of extraterrestrial contact .
The implications of extraterrestrial contact , particularly with a technologically superior civilization , have often been likened to the meeting of two vastly different human cultures on Earth , a historical precedent being the Columbian Exchange . Such meetings have generally led to the destruction of the civilization receiving contact ( as opposed to the " contactor " , which initiates contact ) , and therefore destruction of human civilization is a possible outcome . However , the absence of verified public contact to date means such conjecture is largely speculative .
= = Background = =
= = = Search for extraterrestrial intelligence = = =
To detect extraterrestrial civilizations with radio telescopes , one must identify an artificial , coherent signal against a background of various natural phenomena that also produce radio waves . Telescopes capable of this include the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico and the newer Allen Telescope Array in Hat Creek , California . Various programs to detect extraterrestrial intelligence have had government funding in the past . Project Cyclops was commissioned by NASA in the 1970s to investigate the most effective way to search for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial sources , but the report 's recommendations were set aside in favor of the much more modest approach of Messaging to Extra @-@ Terrestrial Intelligence ( METI ) , the sending of messages that intelligent extraterrestrial beings might intercept . NASA then drastically reduced funding for SETI programs , which have since turned to private donations to continue their search .
With the discovery in the late 20th and early 21st centuries of numerous extrasolar planets , some of which may be habitable , governments have once more become interested in funding new programs . In 2006 the European Space Agency launched COROT , the first spacecraft dedicated to the search for exoplanets , and in 2009 NASA launched the Kepler space observatory for the same purpose . By February 2013 Kepler had detected 105 of the 3 @,@ 472 confirmed exoplanets , and one of them , Kepler @-@ 22b , is potentially habitable . After it was discovered , the SETI Institute resumed the search for an intelligent extraterrestrial civilization , focusing on Kepler 's candidate planets , with funding from the United States Air Force .
Newly discovered planets , particularly ones that are potentially habitable , have enabled SETI and METI programs to refocus projects for communication with extraterrestrial intelligence . In 2009 A Message From Earth ( AMFE ) was sent toward the Gliese 581 system , which contains two potentially habitable planets , the confirmed Gliese 581 d and the more habitable but unconfirmed Gliese 581 g . In the SETILive project , which began in 2012 , human volunteers analyze data from the Allen Telescope Array to search for possible alien signals that computers might miss because of terrestrial radio interference . The data for the study is obtained by observing Kepler target stars with the radio telescope .
In addition to radio @-@ based methods , some projects , such as SEVENDIP ( Search for Extraterrestrial Visible Emissions from Nearby Developed Intelligent Populations ) at the University of California , Berkeley , are using other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum to search for extraterrestrial signals . Various other projects are not searching for coherent signals , but want to rather use electromagnetic radiation to find other evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence , such as megascale astroengineering projects .
Several signals , such as the Wow ! signal , have been detected in the history of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence , but none have yet been confirmed as being of intelligent origin .
= = = Impact assessment = = =
The implications of extraterrestrial contact depend on the method of discovery , the nature of the extraterrestrial beings , and their location relative to the Earth . Considering these factors , the Rio Scale has been devised in order to provide a more quantitative picture of the results of extraterrestrial contact . More specifically , the scale gauges whether communication was conducted through radio , the information content of any messages , and whether discovery arose from a deliberately beamed message ( and if so , whether the detection was the result of a specialized SETI effort or through general astronomical observations ) or by the detection of occurrences such as radiation leakage from astroengineering installations . The question of whether or not a purported extraterrestrial signal has been confirmed as authentic , and with what degree of confidence , will also influence the impact of the contact . The Rio Scale was modified in 2011 to include a consideration of whether contact was achieved through an interstellar message or through a physical extraterrestrial artifact , with a suggestion that the definition of artifact be expanded to include " technosignatures " , including all indications of intelligent extraterrestrial life other than the interstellar radio messages sought by traditional SETI programs .
A study by astronomer Steven J. Dick at the United States Naval Observatory considered the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact by analyzing events of similar significance in the history of science . The study argues that the impact would be most strongly influenced by the information content of the message received , if any . It distinguishes short @-@ term and long @-@ term impact . Seeing radio @-@ based contact as a more plausible scenario than a visit from extraterrestrial spacecraft , the study rejects the commonly stated analogy of European colonization of the Americas as an accurate model for information @-@ only contact , preferring events of profound scientific significance , such as the Copernican and Darwinian revolutions , as more predictive of how humanity might be impacted by extraterrestrial contact .
The physical distance between the two civilizations has also been used to assess the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact . Historical examples show that the greater the distance , the less the contacted civilization perceives a threat to itself and its culture . Therefore , contact occurring within the Solar System , and especially in the immediate vicinity of Earth , is likely to be the most disruptive and negative for humanity . On a smaller scale , people close to the epicenter of contact would experience a greater effect than would those living farther away , and a contact having multiple epicenters would cause a greater shock than one with a single epicenter . Space scientists Martin Dominik and John Zarnecki state that in the absence of any data on the nature of extraterrestrial intelligence , one must predict the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact on the basis of generalizations encompassing all life and of analogies with history .
The beliefs of the general public about the effect of extraterrestrial contact have also been studied . A poll of United States and Chinese university students in 2000 provides factor analysis of responses to questions about , inter alia , the participants ' belief that extraterrestrial life exists in the Universe , that such life may be intelligent , and that humans will eventually make contact with it . The study shows significant weighted correlations between participants ' belief that extraterrestrial contact may either conflict with or enrich their personal religious beliefs and how conservative such religious beliefs are . The more conservative the respondents , the more harmful they considered extraterrestrial contact to be . Other significant correlation patterns indicate that participants took the view that the search for extraterrestrial intelligence may be futile or even harmful .
= = = Post @-@ detection protocols = = =
Various protocols have been drawn up detailing a course of action for scientists and governments after extraterrestrial contact . Post @-@ detection protocols must address three issues : what to do in the first weeks after receiving a message from an extraterrestrial source ; whether or not to send a reply ; and analyzing the long @-@ term consequences of the message received . No post @-@ detection protocol , however , is binding under national or international law , and Dominik and Zarnecki consider the protocols likely to be ignored if contact occurs .
One of the first post @-@ detection protocols , the " Declaration of Principles for Activities Following the Detection of Extraterrestrial Intelligence " , was created by the SETI Permanent Committee of the International Academy of Astronautics ( IAA ) . It was later approved by the Board of Trustees of the IAA and by the International Institute of Space Law , and still later by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) , the Committee on Space Research , the International Union of Radio Science , and others . It was subsequently endorsed by most researchers involved in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence , including the SETI Institute .
The Declaration of Principles contains the following broad provisions :
Any person or organization detecting a signal should try to verify that it is likely to be of intelligent origin before announcing it .
The discoverer of a signal should , for the purposes of independent verification , communicate with other signatories of the Declaration before making a public announcement , and should also inform their national authorities .
Once a given astronomical observation has been determined to be a credible extraterrestrial signal , the astronomical community should be informed through the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams of the IAU . The Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations and various other global scientific unions should also be informed .
Following confirmation of an observation 's extraterrestrial origin , news of the discovery should be made public . The discoverer has the right to make the first public announcement .
All data confirming the discovery should be published to the international scientific community and stored in an accessible form as permanently as possible .
Should evidence for extraterrestrial intelligence take the form of electromagnetic signals , the Secretary @-@ General of the International Telecommunications Union ( ITU ) should be contacted , and may request in the next ITU Weekly Circular to minimize terrestrial use of the electromagnetic frequency bands in which the signal was detected .
Neither the discoverer nor anyone else should respond to an observed extraterrestrial intelligence ; doing so requires international agreement under separate procedures .
The SETI Permanent Committee of the IAA and Commission 51 of the IAU should continually review procedures regarding detection of extraterrestrial intelligence and management of data related to such discoveries . A committee comprising members from various international scientific unions , and other bodies designated by the committee , should regulate continued SETI research .
A separate " Proposed Agreement on the Sending of Communications to Extraterrestrial Intelligence " was subsequently created . It proposes an international commission , membership of which would be open to all interested nations , to be constituted on detection of extraterrestrial intelligence . This commission would decide whether to send a message to the extraterrestrial intelligence , and if so , would determine the contents of the message on the basis of principles such as justice , respect for cultural diversity , honesty , and respect for property and territory . The draft proposes to forbid the sending of any message by an individual nation or organization without the permission of the commission , and suggests that , if the detected intelligence poses a danger to human civilization , the United Nations Security Council should authorize any message to extraterrestrial intelligence . However , this proposal , like all others , has not been incorporated into national or international law .
Paul Davies , a member of the SETI Post @-@ Detection Taskgroup , has stated that post @-@ detection protocols , calling for international consultation before taking any major steps regarding the detection , are unlikely to be followed by astronomers , who would put the advancement of their careers over the word of a protocol that is not part of national or international law .
= = Contact scenarios and considerations = =
Scientific literature and science fiction put forward various models of the ways in which extraterrestrial and human civilizations might interact . Their predictions range widely , from sophisticated civilizations that could advance human civilization in many areas to imperial powers that might draw upon the forces necessary to subjugate humanity . Some theories suggest that an extraterrestrial civilization could be advanced enough to dispense with biology , living instead inside of advanced computers .
The implications of discovery depend very much on the level of aggressiveness of the civilization interacting with humanity , its ethics , and how much human and extraterrestrial biologies have in common . These factors will govern the quantity and type of dialogue that can take place . The question of whether contact is physical or through electromagnetic signals will also govern the magnitude of the long @-@ term implications of contact . In the case of communication using electromagnetic signals , the long silence between the reception of one message and another would mean that the content of any message would particularly affect the consequences of contact , as would the extent of mutual comprehension .
= = = Friendly civilizations = = =
Many writers have speculated on the ways in which a friendly civilization might interact with humankind . Albert Harrison , a professor emeritus of psychology at the University of California , Davis , thought that a highly advanced civilization might teach humanity such things as a physical theory of everything , how to use zero @-@ point energy , or how to travel faster than light . They suggest that collaboration with such a civilization could initially be in the arts and humanities before moving to the hard sciences , and even that artists may spearhead collaboration . Seth D. Baum , of the Global Catastrophic Risk Institute , and others consider that the greater longevity of cooperative civilizations in comparison to uncooperative and aggressive ones might render extraterrestrial civilizations in general more likely to aid humanity . In contrast to these views , however , Paolo Musso , a member of the SETI Permanent Study Group of the International Academy of Astronautics ( IAA ) and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences , took the view that extraterrestrial civilizations possess , like humans , a morality driven not entirely by altruism but for individual benefit as well , thus leaving open the possibility that at least some extraterrestrial civilizations are hostile .
Futurist Allen Tough suggests that an extremely advanced extraterrestrial civilization , recalling its own past of war and plunder and knowing that it possesses superweapons that could destroy it , would be likely to try to help humans rather than to destroy them . He identifies three approaches that a friendly civilization might take to help humanity :
Intervention only to avert catastrophe : this would involve occasional limited intervention to stop events that could destroy human civilization completely , such as nuclear war or asteroid impact .
Advice and action with consent : under this approach , the extraterrestrials would be more closely involved in terrestrial affairs , advising world leaders and acting with their consent to protect against danger .
Forcible corrective action : the extraterrestrials could require humanity to reduce major risks against its will , intending to help humans advance to the next stage of civilization .
Tough considers advising and acting only with consent to be a more likely choice than the forceful option . While coercive aid may be possible , and advanced extraterrestrials would recognize their own practices as superior to those of humanity , it may be unlikely that this method would be used in cultural cooperation . Lemarchand suggests that instruction of a civilization in its " technological adolescence " , such as humanity , would probably focus on morality and ethics rather than on science and technology , to ensure that the civilization did not destroy itself with technology it was not yet ready to use .
According to Tough , it is unlikely that the avoidance of immediate dangers and prevention of future catastrophes would be conducted through radio , as these tasks would demand constant surveillance and quick action . However , cultural cooperation might take place through radio or a space probe in the Solar System , as radio waves could be used to communicate information about advanced technologies and cultures to humanity .
Even if an ancient and advanced extraterrestrial civilization wished to help humanity , humans could suffer from a loss of identity and confidence due to the technological and cultural prowess of the extraterrestrial civilization . However , a friendly civilization may calibrate its contact with humanity in such a way as to minimize unintended consequences . Michael A. G. Michaud suggests that a friendly and advanced extraterrestrial civilization may even avoid all contact with an emerging intelligent species like humanity , to ensure that the less advanced civilization can develop naturally at its own pace .
= = = Hostile civilizations = = =
Science fiction films often depict humans successfully repelling alien invasions , but scientists more often take the view that an extraterrestrial civilization with sufficient power to reach the Earth would be able to destroy human civilization with minimal effort . Operations that are enormous on a human scale , such as destroying all major population centers on a planet , bombarding a planet with deadly neutron radiation , or even traveling to another planetary system in order to lay waste to it , may be important tools for a hostile and totalitarian civilization .
Deardorff speculates that a small proportion of the intelligent life forms in the galaxy may be aggressive , but the actual aggressiveness or benevolence of the civilizations would cover a wide spectrum , with some civilizations " policing " others . According to Harrison and Dick , hostile extraterrestrial life may indeed be rare in the Universe , just as belligerent and autocratic nations on Earth have been the ones that lasted for the shortest periods of time , and humanity is seeing a shift away from these characteristics in its own sociopolitical systems . In addition , the causes of war may be diminished greatly for a civilization with access to the galaxy , as there are prodigious quantities of natural resources in space accessible without resort to violence .
SETI researcher Carl Sagan believed that a civilization with the technological prowess needed to reach the stars and come to Earth must have transcended war to be able to avoid self @-@ destruction . Representatives of such a civilization would treat humanity with dignity and respect , and humanity , with its relatively backward technology , would have no choice but to reciprocate . Seth Shostak , an astronomer at the SETI Institute , disagrees , stating that the finite quantity of resources in the galaxy would cultivate aggression in any intelligent species , and that an explorer civilization that would want to contact humanity would be aggressive . Similarly , Ragbir Bhathal claims that since the laws of evolution would be the same on another habitable planet as they are on Earth , an extremely advanced extraterrestrial civilization may have the motivation to colonize humanity , much as British colonizers did to the aboriginal peoples of Australia .
Disputing these analyses , David Brin states that while an extraterrestrial civilization may have an imperative to act for no benefit to itself , it would be naïve to suggest that such a trait would be prevalent throughout the galaxy . Brin points to the fact that in many moral systems on Earth , such as the Aztec or Carthaginian one , non @-@ military killing has been accepted and even " exalted " by society , and further mentions that such acts are not confined to humans but can be found throughout the animal kingdom .
Baum et al. speculate that highly advanced civilizations are unlikely to come to Earth to enslave humans , as the achievement of their level of advancement would have required them to solve the problems of labor and resources by other means , such as creating a sustainable environment and using mechanized labor . Moreover , humans may be an unsuitable food source for extraterrestrials because of marked differences in biochemistry . For example , the chirality of molecules used by terrestrial biota may differ from those used by extraterrestrial beings .
Politicians have also commented on the likely human reaction to contact with hostile species . In his 1987 speech to the United Nations General Assembly , Ronald Reagan said , " I occasionally think how quickly our differences worldwide would vanish if we were facing an alien threat from outside this world . "
= = = Equally advanced and more advanced civilizations = = =
Robert Freitas speculated in 1978 that the technological advancement and energy usage of a civilization , measured either relative to another civilization or in absolute terms by its rating on the Kardashev scale , may play an important role in the result of extraterrestrial contact . Given the infeasibility of interstellar space flight for civilizations at a technological level similar to that of humanity , interactions between such civilizations would have to take place by radio . Because of the long transit times of radio waves between stars , such interactions would not lead to the establishment of diplomatic relations , nor any significant future interaction at all , between the two civilizations .
According to Freitas , direct contact with civilizations significantly more advanced than humanity would have to take place within the Solar System , as only the more advanced society would have the resources and technology to cross interstellar space . Consequently , such contact could only be with civilizations rated as Type II or higher on the Kardashev scale , as Type I civilizations would be incapable of regular interstellar travel . Freitas expected that such interactions would be carefully planned by the more advanced civilization to avoid mass societal shock for humanity .
However much planning an extraterrestrial civilization may do before contacting humanity , the humans may experience great shock and terror on their arrival , especially as they would lack any understanding of the contacting civilization . Ben Finney compares the situation to that of the tribespeople of New Guinea , an island that was settled fifty thousand years ago during the last glacial period but saw little contact with the outside world until the arrival of European colonial powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . The huge difference between the indigenous stone @-@ age society and the Europeans ' technical civilization caused unexpected behaviors among the native populations known as cargo cults : to coax the gods into bringing them the technology that the Europeans possessed , the natives created wooden " radio stations " and " airstrips " as a form of sympathetic magic . Finney argues that humanity may misunderstand the true meaning of an extraterrestrial transmission to Earth , much as the people of New Guinea could not understand the source of modern goods and technologies . He concludes that the results of extraterrestrial contact will become known over the long term with rigorous study , rather than as fast , sharp events briefly making newspaper headlines .
Billingham has suggested that a civilization which is far more technologically advanced than humanity is also likely to be culturally and ethically advanced , and would therefore be unlikely to conduct astroengineering projects that would harm human civilization . Such projects could include Dyson spheres , which completely enclose stars and capture all energy coming from them . Even if well within the capability of an advanced civilization and providing an enormous amount of energy , such a project would not be undertaken . For similar reasons , such civilizations would not readily give humanity the knowledge required to build such devices . Nevertheless , the existence of such capabilities would at least show that civilizations have survived " technological adolescence " . Despite the caution that such an advanced civilization would exercise in dealing with the less mature human civilization , Sagan imagined that an advanced civilization might send those on Earth an Encyclopædia Galactica describing the sciences and cultures of many extraterrestrial societies .
Whether an advanced extraterrestrial civilization would send humanity a decipherable message is a matter of debate in itself . Sagan argued that a highly advanced extraterrestrial civilization would bear in mind that they were communicating with a relatively primitive one and therefore would try to ensure that the receiving civilization would be able to understand the message . Arguing against this view , astronomer Guillermo Lemarchand stated that an advanced civilization would probably encrypt a message with high information content , such as an Encyclopædia Galactica , in order to ensure that only other ethically advanced civilizations would be able to understand it .
= = = Interstellar groups of civilizations = = =
Given the age of the galaxy , Harrison surmises that there exist several " galactic clubs " , groupings of multiple civilizations from across the galaxy . Such clubs could begin as loose confederations or alliances , eventually developing into powerful unions of many civilizations . If humanity could enter into a dialogue with one extraterrestrial civilization , it might be able to join such a galactic club . As more extraterrestrial civilizations , or unions thereof , are found , these could also become assimilated into such a club . Sebastian von Hoerner has suggested that entry into a galactic club may be a way for humanity to handle the culture shock arising from contact with an advanced extraterrestrial civilization .
Whether a broad spectrum of civilizations from many places in the galaxy would even be able to cooperate is disputed by Michaud , who states that civilizations with huge differences in the technologies and resources at their command " may not consider themselves even remotely equal " . It is unlikely that humanity would meet the basic requirements for membership at its current low level of technological advancement . A galactic club may , William Hamilton speculates , set extremely high entrance requirements that are unlikely to be met by less advanced civilizations .
Michaud suggests that an interstellar grouping of civilizations might take the form of an empire , which need not necessarily be a force for evil , but may provide for peace and security throughout its jurisdiction . Owing to the distances between the stars , such an empire would not necessarily maintain control solely by military force , but may rather tolerate local cultures and institutions to the extent that these would not pose a threat to the central imperial authority . Such tolerance may , as has happened historically on Earth , extend to allowing nominal self @-@ rule of specific regions by existing institutions , while maintaining that area as a puppet or client state to accomplish the aims of the imperial power . However , particularly advanced powers may use methods , including faster @-@ than @-@ light travel , to make centralized administration more effective .
In contrast to the belief that an extraterrestrial civilization would want to establish an empire , Ćirković proposes that an extraterrestrial civilization would maintain equilibrium rather than expand outward . In such an equilibrium , a civilization would only colonize a small number of stars , aiming to maximize efficiency rather than to expand massive and unsustainable imperial structures . This contrasts with the classic Kardashev Type III civilization , which has access to the energy output of an entire galaxy and is not subject to any limits on its future expansion . According to this view , advanced civilizations may not resemble the classic examples in science fiction , but might more closely reflect the small , independent Greek city @-@ states , with an emphasis on cultural rather than territorial growth .
= = = Extraterrestrial artifacts = = =
An extraterrestrial civilization may choose to communicate with humanity by means of artifacts or probes rather than by radio , for various reasons . While probes may take a long time to reach the Solar System , once there they would be able to hold a sustained dialogue that would be impossible using radio from hundreds or thousands of light @-@ years away . Radio would be completely unsuitable for surveillance and continued monitoring of a civilization , and should an extraterrestrial civilization wish to perform these activities on humanity , artifacts may be the only option other than to send large , crewed spacecraft to the Solar System .
Although faster @-@ than @-@ light travel has been seriously considered by physicists such as Miguel Alcubierre , Tough speculates that the enormous amount of energy required to achieve such speeds under currently proposed mechanisms means that robotic probes traveling at conventional speeds will still have an advantage for various applications . 2013 research at NASA 's Johnson Space Center , however , shows that faster @-@ than @-@ light travel with the Alcubierre drive requires dramatically less energy than previously thought , needing only about 1 metric ton of exotic mass @-@ energy to move a spacecraft at 10 times the speed of light , in contrast to previous estimates that stated that only a Jupiter @-@ mass object would contain sufficient energy to power a faster @-@ than @-@ light spacecraft .
According to Tough , an extraterrestrial civilization might want to send various types of information to humanity by means of artifacts , such as an Encyclopædia Galactica , containing the wisdom of countless extraterrestrial cultures , or perhaps an invitation to engage in diplomacy with them . A civilization that sees itself on the brink of decline might use the abilities it still possesses to send probes throughout the galaxy , with its cultures , values , religions , sciences , technologies , and laws , so that they may not die along with their civilization .
Freitas finds numerous reasons why interstellar probes may be a preferred method of communication among extraterrestrial civilizations wishing to make contact with Earth . A civilization aiming to learn more about the distribution of life within the galaxy might , he speculates , send probes to a large number of star systems , rather than using radio , as one cannot ensure a response by radio but can ( he says ) ensure that probes will return to their sender with data on the star systems they survey . Furthermore , probes would enable the surveying of non @-@ intelligent populations , or those not yet capable of space navigation ( like humans before the 20th century ) , as well as intelligent populations that might not wish to provide information about themselves and their planets to extraterrestrial civilizations . In addition , the greater energy required to send living beings rather than a robotic probe would , according to Michaud , be only used for purposes such as a one @-@ way migration .
Freitas points out that probes , unlike the interstellar radio waves commonly targeted by SETI searches , could store information for long , perhaps geological , timescales , and could emit strong radio signals unambiguously recognizable as being of intelligent origin , rather than being dismissed as a UFO or a natural phenomenon . Probes could also modify any signal they send to suit the system they were in , which would be impossible for a radio transmission originating from outside the target star system . Moreover , the use of small robotic probes with widely distributed beacons in individual systems , rather than a small number of powerful , centralized beacons , would provide a security advantage to the civilization using them . Rather than revealing the location of a radio beacon powerful enough to signal the whole galaxy and risk such a powerful device being compromised , decentralized beacons installed on robotic probes need not reveal any information that an extraterrestrial civilization prefers others not to have .
Given the age of the Milky Way galaxy , an ancient extraterrestrial civilization may have existed and sent probes to the Solar System millions or even billions of years before the evolution of Homo sapiens . Thus , a probe sent may have been nonfunctional for millions of years before humans learn of its existence . Such a " dead " probe would not pose an imminent threat to humanity , but would prove that interstellar flight is possible . However , if an active probe were to be discovered , humans would react much more strongly than they would to the discovery of a probe that has long since ceased to function .
= = Further implications of contact = =
= = = Theological = = =
The confirmation of extraterrestrial intelligence could have a profound impact on religious doctrines , potentially causing theologians to reinterpret scriptures to accommodate the new discoveries . However , a survey of people with many different religious beliefs indicated that their faith would not be affected by the discovery of extraterrestrial intelligence , and another study , conducted by Ted Peters of the Pacific Lutheran Theological Seminary , shows that most people would not consider their religious beliefs superseded by it . Surveys of religious leaders indicate that only a small percentage are concerned that the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence might fundamentally contradict the views of the adherents of their religion . Gabriel Funes , the chief astronomer of the Vatican Observatory and a papal adviser on science , has stated that the Catholic Church would be likely to welcome extraterrestrial visitors warmly .
Contact with extraterrestrial intelligence would not be completely inconsequential for religion . The Peters study showed that most non @-@ religious people , and a significant majority of religious people , believe that the world could face a religious crisis , even if their own beliefs were unaffected . Contact with extraterrestrial intelligence would be most likely to cause a problem for western religions , in particular traditionalist Christianity , because of the geocentric nature of western faiths . The discovery of extraterrestrial life would not contradict basic conceptions of God , however , and seeing that science has challenged established dogma in the past , for example with the theory of evolution and the teachings of Giordano Bruno , it is likely that existing religions will adapt similarly to the new circumstances . In the view of Musso , however , a global religious crisis would be unlikely even for Abrahamic faiths , as the studies of himself and others on Christianity , the most " anthropocentric " religion , see no conflict between that religion and the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence . In addition , the cultural and religious values of extraterrestrial species would likely be shared over centuries if contact is to occur by radio , meaning that rather than causing a huge shock to humanity , such information would be viewed much as archaeologists and historians view ancient artifacts and texts .
Funes speculates that a decipherable message from extraterrestrial intelligence could initiate an interstellar exchange of knowledge in various disciplines , including whatever religions an extraterrestrial civilization may host . Billingham further suggests that an extremely advanced and friendly extraterrestrial civilization might put an end to present @-@ day religious conflicts and lead to greater religious toleration worldwide . On the other hand , Jill Tarter puts forward the view that contact with extraterrestrial intelligence might eliminate religion as we know it and introduce humanity to an all @-@ encompassing faith .
= = = Political = = =
Tim Folger speculates that news of radio contact with an extraterrestrial civilization would prove impossible to suppress and would travel rapidly , though Cold War scientific literature on the subject contradicts this . Media coverage of the discovery would probably die down quickly , though , as scientists began to decipher the message and learn its true impact . Different branches of government ( for example legislative , executive , and judiciary ) may pursue their own policies , potentially giving rise to power struggles . Even in the event of a single contact with no follow @-@ up , radio contact may prompt fierce disagreements as to which bodies have the authority to represent humanity as a whole . Michaud hypothesizes that the fear arising from direct contact may cause nation @-@ states to put aside their conflicts and work together for the common defense of humanity .
Apart from the question of who would represent the Earth as a whole , contact could create other international problems , such as the degree of involvement of governments foreign to the one whose radio astronomers received the signal . The United Nations discussed various issues of foreign relations immediately before the launch of the Voyager probes , which in 2012 left the Solar System carrying a golden record in case they are found by extraterrestrial intelligence . Among the issues discussed were what messages would best represent humanity , what format they should take , how to convey the cultural history of the Earth , and what international groups should be formed to study extraterrestrial intelligence in greater detail .
According to Luca Codignola of the University of Genoa , contact with a powerful extraterrestrial civilization is comparable to occasions where one powerful civilization destroyed another , such as the arrival of Christopher Columbus and Hernán Cortés into the Americas and the subsequent destruction of the indigenous civilizations and their ways of life . However , the applicability of such a model to contact with extraterrestrial civilizations , and that specific interpretation of the arrival of the European colonists to the Americas , have been disputed . Even so , any large difference between the power of an extraterrestrial civilization and our own could be demoralizing and potentially cause or accelerate the collapse of human society . Being discovered by a " superior " extraterrestrial civilization , and continued contact with it , might have psychological effects that could destroy a civilization , as is claimed to have happened in the past on Earth .
Even in the absence of close contact between humanity and extraterrestrials , high @-@ information messages from an extraterrestrial civilization to humanity have the potential to cause a great cultural shock . Sociologist Donald Tarter has conjectured that knowledge of extraterrestrial culture and theology has the potential to compromise human allegiance to existing organizational structures and institutions . The cultural shock of meeting an extraterrestrial civilization may be spread over decades or even centuries if an extraterrestrial message to humanity is extremely difficult to decipher .
= = = Legal = = =
Contact with extraterrestrial civilizations would raise legal questions , such as the rights of the extraterrestrial beings . An extraterrestrial arriving on Earth would only have the protection of animal cruelty statutes . Much as various classes of human being , such as women , children , and indigenous people , were initially denied human rights , so might extraterrestrial beings , who could therefore be legally owned and killed . If such a species were not to be treated as a legal animal , there would arise the challenge of defining the boundary between a legal person and a legal animal , considering the numerous factors that constitute intelligence .
Freitas considers that even if an extraterrestrial being were to be afforded legal personhood , problems of nationality and immigration would arise . An extraterrestrial being would not have a legally recognized earthly citizenship , and drastic legal measures might be required in order to account for the technically illegal immigration of extraterrestrial individuals .
If contact were to take place through electromagnetic signals , these issues would not arise . Rather , issues relating to patent and copyright law regarding who , if anyone , has rights to the information from the extraterrestrial civilization would be the primary legal problem .
= = = Scientific and technological = = =
The scientific and technological impact of extraterrestrial contact through electromagnetic waves would probably be quite small , especially at first . However , if the message contains a large amount of information , deciphering it could give humans access to a galactic heritage perhaps predating the human species itself , which may greatly advance our technology and science . A possible negative effect could be to demoralize research scientists as they come to know that what they are researching may already be known to another civilization .
On the other hand , extraterrestrial civilizations with malicious intent could send information that could enable human civilization to destroy itself , such as powerful computer viruses or information on how to make extremely potent weapons that humans would not yet be able to use responsibly . While the motives for such an action are unknown , it would require minimal energy use on the part of the extraterrestrials . According to Musso , however , computer viruses in particular will be nearly impossible unless extraterrestrials possess detailed knowledge of human computer architectures , which would only happen if a human message sent to the stars were protected with little thought to security . Even a virtual machine on which extraterrestrials could run computer programs could be designed specifically for the purpose , bearing little relation to computer systems commonly used on Earth . In addition , humans could send messages to extraterrestrials detailing that they do not want access to the Encyclopædia Galactica until they have reached a suitable level of technological advancement , thus mitigating harmful impacts of extraterrestrial technology .
Extraterrestrial technology could have profound impacts on the nature of human culture and civilization . Just as television provided a new outlet for a wide variety of political , religious , and social groups , and as the printing press made the Bible available to the common people of Europe , allowing them to interpret it for themselves , so an extraterrestrial technology might change humanity in ways not immediately apparent . Harrison speculates that a knowledge of extraterrestrial technologies could increase the gap between scientific and cultural progress , leading to societal shock and an inability to compensate for negative effects of technology . He gives the example of improvements in agricultural technology during the Industrial Revolution , which displaced thousands of farm laborers until society could retrain them for jobs suited to the new social order . Contact with an extraterrestrial civilization far more advanced than humanity could cause a much greater shock than the Industrial Revolution , or anything previously experienced by humanity .
Michaud suggests that humanity could be impacted by an influx of extraterrestrial science and technology in the same way that medieval European scholars were impacted by the knowledge of Arab scientists . Humanity might at first revere the knowledge as having the potential to advance the human species , and might even feel inferior to the extraterrestrial species , but would gradually grow in arrogance as it gained more and more intimate knowledge of the science , technology , and other cultural developments of an advanced extraterrestrial civilization .
The discovery of extraterrestrial intelligence would have various impacts on biology and astrobiology . The discovery of extraterrestrial life in any form , intelligent or non @-@ intelligent , would give humanity greater insight into the nature of life on Earth and would improve the conception of how the tree of life is organized . Human biologists could learn about extraterrestrial biochemistry and observe how it differs from that found on Earth . This knowledge could help human civilization to learn which aspects of life are common throughout the universe and which are specific to Earth .
= = = Ecological and biological @-@ warfare impacts = = =
An extraterrestrial civilization might bring to Earth pathogens or invasive life forms that do not harm its own biosphere . Alien pathogens could decimate the human population , which would have no immunity to them , or they might use terrestrial livestock or plants as hosts , causing indirect harm to humans . Invasive organisms brought by extraterrestrial civilizations could cause great ecological harm because of the terrestrial biosphere 's lack of defenses against them .
On the other hand , pathogens and invasive species of extraterrestrial origin might differ enough from terrestrial organisms in their biology to have no adverse effects . Furthermore , pathogens and parasites on Earth are generally suited to only a small and exclusive set of environments , to which extraterrestrial pathogens would have had no opportunity to adapt .
If an extraterrestrial civilization bearing malice towards humanity gained sufficient knowledge of terrestrial biology and weaknesses in the immune systems of terrestrial biota , it might be able to create extremely potent biological weapons . Even a civilization without malicious intent could inadvertently cause harm to humanity by not taking account of all the risks of their actions .
According to Baum , even if an extraterrestrial civilization were to communicate using electromagnetic signals alone , it could send humanity information with which humans themselves could create lethal biological weapons .
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= Australian blacktip shark =
The Australian blacktip shark ( Carcharhinus tilstoni ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , endemic to northern and eastern Australia . Favoring the upper and middle parts of the water column , it can be found from the intertidal zone to a depth of 50 m ( 160 ft ) . Appearance @-@ wise this species is virtually identical to the common blacktip shark ( C. limbatus ) , from which it can be reliably distinguished only by its lower vertebra number and by genetic markers . Generally reaching 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in length , it is a fairly stout @-@ bodied , bronze @-@ colored shark with a long snout and black @-@ tipped fins .
Primarily piscivorous , the Australian blacktip shark forms large groups of similar size and sex that tend to remain within a local area . It exhibits vivipary , meaning that the unborn young are provisioned through a placental connection . There is a well @-@ defined annual reproductive cycle with mating occurring in February and March . Females bear one to six pups around January of the following year , after a 10 @-@ month gestation period . The Australian blacktip shark is among the sharks most commonly caught by northern Australian commercial fisheries . It is mainly valued for its meat , which is sold as " flake " . This species was an important catch of a Taiwanese gillnet fishery that operated from 1974 to 1986 , and of the Australian Northern Shark Fishery that continues to the present day . As current fishing levels are not thought to threaten this shark 's population , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Australian blacktip shark was described by Australian ichthyologist Gilbert Percy Whitley in a 1950 issue of the scientific journal Western Australian Naturalist . He named it Galeolamna pleurotaenia tilstoni in honor of Richard Tilston , assistant surgeon at Port Essington , Northern Territory . The type specimen is a 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long female caught from Van Cloon Reef in Joseph Bonaparte Gulf . Later authors have regarded Galeolamna as a synonym of the genus Carcharhinus . This shark may also be referred to as blacktip whaler , Tilston 's whaler shark , and Whitley 's blacktip shark .
After Whitley 's initial description , C. tilstoni was generally regarded as synonymous with C. limbatus , the common blacktip shark . In the 1980s , additional morphological and life history data again favored the recognition of C. tilstoni as a separate species , which was eventually confirmed by allozyme studies performed by Shane Lavery and James Shaklee . Several molecular phylogenetic studies based on allozymes , mitochondrial DNA , and nuclear DNA have found that that the Australian and common blacktip sharks form a closely related clade with the graceful shark ( C. amblyrhynchoides ) and the smoothtooth blacktip shark ( C. leiodon ) . The interrelationships between them have not been fully resolved , but available data suggest that C. tilstoni and C. limbatus are not the most closely related species within the clade despite their similarity .
= = Description = =
Physically , the Australian blacktip shark can only reliably be distinguished from the common blacktip shark by the number of vertebrae ( 174 – 182 total , 84 – 91 before the tail in C. tilstoni , 182 – 203 total , 94 – 102 before the tail in C. limbatus ) . It has a moderately robust , spindle @-@ shaped body and a long , pointed snout . The anterior rims of the nostrils are slightly enlarged into low triangular flaps . The large , circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes . The furrows at the corners of the mouth are barely evident . There are 32 – 35 upper and 29 – 31 lower tooth rows ; each upper tooth has a slender , upright cusp and fine serrations that become coarser near the base , while the lower teeth are narrower and more finely serrated . The five pairs of gill slits are long .
The long and narrow pectoral fins are falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) with pointed tips . The large first dorsal fin is also falcate and originates over or slightly behind the rear of the pectoral fin bases . The second dorsal fin is moderately tall and positioned about opposite the anal fin . There is no midline ridge between the dorsal fins . A crescent @-@ shaped notch is present on the caudal peduncle just before the upper caudal fin origin . The caudal fin is asymmetrical , with a strong lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . The roughly diamond @-@ shaped dermal denticles are placed closely together and slightly overlapping ; each bears five to seven ( three in juveniles ) horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth . The Australian blacktip shark is bronze above ( gray after death ) and whitish below , with a pale stripe on the flanks . Some individuals have black tips on all fins , while others have unmarked pelvic and anal fins . It typically reaches 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) long ; the maximum length and weight on record are 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and 52 kg ( 115 lb ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Inhabiting the continental shelf , the Australian blacktip shark is found from Thevenard Island in Western Australia to Sydney in New South Wales . Within its range , it co @-@ occurs with the common blacktip shark ; the ratio between C. limbatus and C. tilstoni was once thought to be 1 : 300 , but recent genetic studies have found it to be closer to 50 : 50 . This species has been reported from the intertidal zone to a depth of 150 m ( 490 ft ) ; larger sharks tend to occur in deeper water . Though it occupies the entire water column , it is most common close to the surface or in midwater . Genetic data suggest Australian blacktip sharks across northern Australia are all members of a single population . Tagging studies have found this species mostly moves only short distances along the coastline and rarely enters offshore waters . However , some individuals have been recorded traveling longer distances , up to 1 @,@ 348 km ( 838 mi ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The Australian blacktip shark is known to form large groups , segregated by size and sex . It preys mainly on teleost fishes , including ponyfishes , grunters , tunas , and herring . Cephalopods are a secondary food source , which are particularly important around April . This species also occasionally consumes smaller sharks , including snaggletooth sharks ( Hemipristis pristis ) , spottail sharks ( C. sorrah ) , and sharpnose sharks ( Rhizoprionodon ) . Their diets shift with age : smaller individuals feed on proportionately more bottom @-@ dwelling fish , while larger individuals feed on proportionately more midwater fish and cephalopods . Documented parasites of this shark include the tapeworms Fossobothrium perplexum and Platybothrium sp . , and the copepod Perissopus dentatus .
Like other requiem sharks , the Australian blacktip shark is viviparous : once the embryos exhaust their yolk supply , the depleted yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother provides sustenance . Females bear litters of one to six pups ( average three ) every year . Mating takes place in February and March , with the females storing the sperm until ovulation in March and April . After a gestation period of 10 months , the young are born around January of the following year . Near @-@ term females move into shallow , coastal nurseries , such as Cleveland Bay in northern Queensland , to give birth . Such nursery areas appear to be widespread , as newborns have been recorded throughout the range of the species . The newborns are relatively large , measuring about 60 cm ( 24 in ) long . They grow rapidly in their first year , increasing in length by an average of 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) . The growth rate subsequently slows , averaging 8 – 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) per year by age five . Both sexes attain sexual maturity at three to four years of age , at lengths of roughly 1 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 6 and 3 @.@ 9 ft ) for males and females , respectively . The maximum lifespan is estimated to be 20 years .
Hybrids between the Australian blacktip shark and the common blacktip shark , comprising both F1 and backcrossed individuals , have been discovered all along the eastern coast of Australia . Despite the widespread incidence of hybridization , there is no evidence that the two parental lineages are merging and the mechanisms preventing introgression are unclear . This is the first confirmed case of hybridization among cartilaginous fishes .
= = Human interactions = =
Along with the spottail shark , the Australian blacktip shark is one of the most economically important sharks off northern Australia . It was historically fished for its meat and fins by a Taiwanese gillnet fishery , which began operating off northern Australia in 1974 . The annual catch initially averaged around 25 @,@ 000 tons ( live weight ) , with approximately 70 % consisting of Australian blacktip sharks , spottail sharks , and longtail tuna ( Thunnus tonggol ) . Following the establishment of the Australian Fishing Zone ( AFZ ) in November 1979 , the Australian government progressively excluded Taiwanese gillnet vessels from large portions of Australian waters and imposed fishing quotas . The fishery eventually became uneconomical when Australia restricted gillnet lengths to 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) in May 1986 , and Taiwanese vessels ceased fishing in Australian waters that year . At end of the fishery , Australian blacktip shark numbers were estimated to have been diminished by around 50 % . Given its relatively high reproductive rate , its population has likely since recovered .
Since 1980 , the Australian blacktip shark has also been targeted by Australian commercial gillnetters and longliners in the Northern Shark Fishery . It is additionally caught incidentally by other commercial fisheries targeting bony fishes or prawns . The contemporary northern Australian shark catch is estimated to be between 100 and 900 tons ( live weight ) annually , of which most are Australian blacktip and spottail sharks . The meat of this species is sold in Australia as " flake " , though it may contain high concentrations of mercury . The fins are exported to Asia , while the cartilage , liver oil , and skin may also be used . Since fishing pressure on the Australian blacktip shark is now much lower than historical levels , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it under Least Concern . However , of potential concern are Indonesian fishers in the Arafura Sea , who are increasingly trespassing into the AFZ .
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