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= Two Dozen and One Greyhounds =
" Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " is the 20th episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 9 , 1995 . The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Bob Anderson . Frank Welker guest stars as Santa 's Little Helper and various other dogs . In the episode , Santa 's Little Helper has puppies with a dog that he met at the greyhound racetrack . When the Simpsons cannot take care of the puppies any longer , they decide to sell them ; however , the puppies do not want to be separated . Montgomery Burns steals the puppies from the Simpsons , and decides to make a tuxedo out of them . Before he can do so , however , Bart and Lisa Simpson save the puppies from Mr. Burns , and ultimately convince him never to wear fur again .
The episode is inspired by Dodie Smith 's 1956 novel The Hundred and One Dalmatians and Walt Disney Pictures ' 1961 animated film adaptation One Hundred and One Dalmatians . The producers decided to have Mr. Burns communicate his horrific plan of making a tuxedo from the puppies through a song after determining that it would be a " fun and light " way to convey his plan of killing the greyhounds . " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " received a generally positive reception from television critics . During the week of its original American broadcast , the episode finished 55th in ratings , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 3 . Several reviews considered the episode to be one of their favorites of the series , and especially praised Mr. Burns ' appearances .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons ' dog , Santa 's Little Helper becomes very excited and runs away from home to the dog racing track , where he falls in love with a female greyhound named She 's the Fastest . She is given to the Simpsons after her owner notes that she will no longer race after falling in love . One day , She 's the Fastest gives birth to 25 puppies . Eventually , the puppies become difficult to manage , and Homer and Marge Simpson attempt to sell them to people more capable of giving them adequate care . After seeing the puppies unwilling to separate , however , people begin to leave . Suddenly , Montgomery Burns arrives and offers to let them live in his mansion . After the Simpsons choose not to sell the puppies to him , he steals them when they are not looking .
Bart and Lisa Simpson track the puppies to Mr. Burns ' mansion , where they spy on him through a window . They see him treating the puppies well by giving them a bath . When one of the puppies stands on his hind legs , Mr. Burns picks him as his favorite of the bunch . Burns inexplicably claims that the puppy reminds him of actor Rory Calhoun , and names him " Little Monty " . After the bath , Mr. Burns walks into the next room , loads a gun , and sings a musical number called " See My Vest " ( a parody of " Be Our Guest " from the 1991 film Beauty and the Beast ) while demonstrating his wardrobe of fur clothing to his personal assistant , Waylon Smithers . After his performance , Burns prepares to kill all of the puppies , except for Little Monty , to make a new tuxedo for his wardrobe .
After learning about Mr. Burns ' plan , Bart and Lisa sneak through the window and attempt to escape with the puppies down a laundry chute using Bart 's socks . However , Mr. Burns is waiting for them at the bottom . As Mr. Burns is about to kill the dogs , Bart grabs Little Monty from Mr. Burns ' hands and places him with the other puppies , hoping that Mr. Burns will not kill the dogs if he can not determine which is Little Monty . When Mr. Burns tells Little Monty to stand up , though , he does . As Mr. Burns bends down to pick up Little Monty , Bart reels a clothesline with some socks hanging from it , causing all of the puppies to stand up . Mr. Burns can not tell which is Little Monty , so he prepares to shoot them all . However , the standing dogs are too cute for him to kill and , emotionally touched , he promises to never wear fur or kill any animals that can do an amusing trick . Mr. Burns buys all of the puppies from the Simpsons and successfully raises all of them into world @-@ class championship racing dogs , winning him millions , to Homer 's dismay over the Simpson 's missed fortune @-@ making opportunity .
= = Production = =
= = = Inspiration , writing , and music = = =
" Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " was written by Mike Scully and directed by Bob Anderson . The Simpsons writers Al Jean and Mike Reiss came up with the original idea for the episode . The idea came to them after watching the 1961 Disney film One Hundred and One Dalmatians . David Mirkin , the episode 's show runner , later jokingly said that Jean and Reiss liked to steal ideas from Disney , and pointed to an episode in season eight that they wrote as proof , titled " Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala ( Annoyed Grunt ) cious " , which was based on the 1964 Disney film Mary Poppins . Mirkin thought that it was great that they could take stuff from Disney and do darker versions on The Simpsons " in a completely legal way " .
Groening was happy with the episode because it felt like a callback to the first episode of The Simpsons , " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " , and because it features references to One Hundred and One Dalmatians . The Disney film thrilled Groening as a kid , and was one of the reasons for why he was first interested in animation and cartooning . In One Hundred and One Dalmatians , the puppies watch cartoons on television several times ; the idea of a cartoon within a cartoon thrilled Groening , and said that this idea inspired him to create The Itchy & Scratchy Show , a fictional television show within the Simpsons universe .
Mr. Burns says in the episode that the puppy that stands up only on its hind legs reminds him of Rory Calhoun , an American actor who lived from 1922 to 1999 . The Simpsons writer George Meyer came up with the joke , but Groening argued against it because he did not think the audience would know who Calhoun was . The writers decided to keep it in anyway , because it was later expanded into a key part of the episode 's ending . Several years later , Groening stated that he was proven correct after pointing to discussions on the Internet about the episode asking who Calhoun was .
As Bart and Lisa sneak away to Mr. Burns ' mansion , they see him loading a gun and singing a musical number called " See My Vest " , in which he proclaims his intention to kill the puppies to make a tuxedo out of them . When the staff discussed how they could gloss over the horrifying things Mr. Burns would do to the dogs , one of the writers suggested that if they communicated his plan through a song , it would stay " fun and light " . Scully , who agreed that the idea was good , came in the following day with complete lyrics that he wrote for " See My Vest " , which was a parody of the song " Be Our Guest " , sung by Jerry Orbach in the 1991 film Beauty and the Beast . Mirkin loved Scully 's work on the parody song , commenting , " The rhymes are really clever . It 's one of our very best songs [ on The Simpsons ] . " He also liked the fact that songs could be used in episodes of The Simpsons without the episodes turning into musicals , saying , " We 'll just do one song and that 's plenty . We have fun with that and then we 're out . "
= = = Animation and voice acting = = =
Even though animals in cartoons often behave with " semi @-@ human awareness " , Groening said he preferred animals in cartoons to behave exactly the way they do in real life , claiming that this was how animals were depicted in " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " . Mirkin said there were some exceptions for gags , but most of the time they tried to keep the animals acting realistically . The animal noises for the episode were performed by Frank Welker , who was praised by Mirkin on the DVD audio commentary for the episode , saying , " He can do anything , and it fits perfectly . You forget you 're listening to a guy , and he 's a pleasure to work with . " Welker was also praised by Groening , who said Welker was unbelievably good at doing animal noises .
The staff had a " big fight " with the Fox network censors over the scene in which Santa 's Little Helper mates with a female greyhound named She 's The Fastest . The writers were originally worried about the idea , but Mirkin knew that they could shoot it in a certain way to show the dogs having sex without being explicit . In the scene 's final version , the dogs are only seen from the shoulders up ; the crew 's animatic showing the scene in full was later released on DVD . Anderson noted that during the episode 's censor screening , there was a giant laugh at the depiction .
= = Cultural references = =
The overarching plot of the episode , as well as its title , was inspired by the Disney film One Hundred and One Dalmatians , which deals with a large number of puppies similar to " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " . Besides the film , less obvious references to Disney @-@ animated films are made throughout the episode . The song " See My Vest " sung by Mr. Burns is a parody of " Be Our Guest " , which is sung by Lumiere ( voiced by Jerry Orbach ) in the film Beauty and the Beast . The scene in which Santa 's Little Helper and She 's the Fastest are presented with a plate of spaghetti at Luigi 's Italian restaurant parodies Lady and the Tramp .
The scene in which the greyhounds watch television is similar to the dalmatians of One Hundred and One Dalmatians . Instead of watching What 's my Crime ? like the dalmatians do in the film , the greyhounds watch the television series Models , Inc . The clerk that performs a mind @-@ meld on Santa 's Little Helper is a reference to the Vulcan mind @-@ meld ability in Star Trek ; the same music from the mind @-@ meld scenes in Star Trek are played during the scene . At one point , Santa 's Little Helper looks wistfully out the window of the Simpson family 's car , and then morphs out of the car window in reference to a similar scene in Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ; music from that film plays in the background . Four of the puppies are named Jay , David , Paul and Branford , a reference to late @-@ night talkshow hosts David Letterman and Jay Leno and their respective bandleaders Paul Shaffer and , at the time , Branford Marsalis .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " finished 55th in ratings for the week of April 3 – 9 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 3 . The song " See My Vest " from the episode , sung by Mr. Burns , was later released on the album Songs in the Key of Springfield in 1997 . The Daily Bruin complimented the song 's lyrics as witty , and claimed that by listening to the song , memories of the episode came to mind . They noted how the musical piece revealed Mr. Burns ' essence of character , and that it also commented on some disturbing elements of humankind . MSNBC compiled a list of " TV ’ s top 10 scariest characters " , placing Mr. Burns at number one . In the list , they noted , " Burns is terrifying because he will do absolutely anything , and since it 's a cartoon , he just might , " pointing to " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " and his plans to make the puppies into a tuxedo as proof .
The episode was generally well received by television critics . In a review by the Toronto Star , Ben Rayner commented that " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " was one of his favorite episodes of the series , and concluded that Mr. Burns ' " tour de force " performance was particularly captivating . The Toronto Star later produced a list of the best and worst The Simpsons episodes , in which they considered " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " one of the best episodes of the series and concluded that the musical number was one of the best scenes involving Mr. Burns . In a review for the sixth season DVD of The Simpsons , IGN 's Todd Gilchrist found Burns ' performance to be memorable , commenting that he " flirts with copyright infringement with his rendition of ' See My Vest ' " . Michael Price of IGN also considered Burns ' performance to have reached a level of excellence comparable to " The Monorail Song " in " Marge vs. the Monorail " .
In a review for The Simpsons season six DVD , review website DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of B − . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson appreciated the spoofs of Disney films , and also complimented " the most bizarre references to Rory Calhoun imaginable " , concluding that the combination of these elements formed a " fine show " . In a review for the Toronto Star , Ben Rayner enjoyed " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " , calling it one of the classic episodes of the series .
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= Clwyd =
Clwyd ( Welsh pronunciation : [ ˈklʊɨd ] ) is a preserved county of Wales , situated in the north @-@ east corner of the country ; it is named after the River Clwyd , which runs through the county . To the north lies the Irish Sea , Cheshire is to the east and Shropshire to the south @-@ east , both in England . The Welsh counties of Powys and Gwynedd lie to the south and west respectively . Clwyd additionally shares a maritime border with the metropolitan county of Merseyside along the River Dee . Between 1974 and 1996 , it was a county with a county council , one of the eight counties into which Wales was divided , and was subdivided into six districts . In 1996 , the county of Clwyd was abolished , and the new unitary authorities of Conwy County Borough , Denbighshire , and Flintshire were created ; under this reorganisation , " Clwyd " became a preserved county , with the name being retained for certain ceremonial functions .
This area of northeastern Wales has been settled since prehistoric times , the Romans built a fort beside a ford on the River Conwy , and the Normans and Welsh disputed the territory . They built their castles at strategic locations as they advanced and retreated , but in the end , England prevailed , and Edward I conquered the country in 1282 . In the following centuries , the Welsh people were repressed and there were numerous uprisings and rebellions against English rule . The Act of Union in 1535 incorporated Wales under the English Crown and made it subject to English law .
Traditionally , agriculture was the mainstay of the economy of this part of Wales , but with the Industrial Revolution , the North Wales Coalfield was developed and parts of eastern Clwyd around the Dee estuary and Wrexham became industrialised . The advent of the railway running from Chester along the North Wales coast in the mid @-@ nineteenth century made it easy for urban dwellers from Lancashire and Cheshire to visit the seaside towns of North Wales , and nowadays , tourism is the main source of income in Clwyd .
= = History = =
North Wales has had human settlements since prehistoric times . By the time the Romans reached Britain , the area that is now Clwyd was occupied by the Celtic Deceangli tribe . They lived in a chain of hill forts running through the Clwydian Range and their tribal capital was Canovium at an important river crossing on the River Conwy . This fell to the Romans , who built their own fort here , in about 75 AD and the whole of Wales was soon under their control . After the Roman departure from Britain in 410 AD , the successor states of Gwynedd and Powys controlled what is now Clwyd . From about 800 onwards , a series of dynastic marriages led to Rhodri Mawr inheriting the kingdoms of Gwynedd and Powys . After his death , this kingdom was divided among his three sons and further strife followed , with not only Welsh battles being fought , but also many raids by Danes and Saxons .
The Normans conquest of England at first had little effect on North Wales . This was to change as the city of Chester on the River Dee became the base for successive campaigns against the country in the thirteenth century . The coastal plain of Clwyd was the main invasion route used and a number of castles were built there to facilitate these advances . The castles at Flint and Rhuddlan date from this period , and were the first to be built by Edward I of England in North Wales during his successful conquest in 1282 . After this , the rule of the Welsh Princes was at an end and Wales became annexed to England . The country was known as the Principality of Wales during the period 1216 to 1536 . From 1301 , the crown 's lands in north and west Wales , including Clwyd , formed part of the appanage of England 's heir apparent , who was given the title " Prince of Wales " . This was a time of repression for the Welsh people and there were numerous uprisings and rebellions against English rule . Under the Act of Union of 1535 , Wales became permanently incorporated under the English Crown and subject to English law .
Although the Industrial Revolution did not much affect the rural parts of Clwyd , there was considerable industrial activity in the North Wales Coalfield in the north @-@ east of the county , particularly around Wrexham . The Bersham Ironworks at Bersham , in the same area , was at the forefront of technological advances and was most famous for being the original working site of the industrialist John Wilkinson who invented new processes for boring cannons . The Williams @-@ Wynn family of Wynnstay had become rich after the dissolution of the monasteries and owned vast estates in Clwyd with resources including lead , tin and copper as well as corn and timber .
= = Geography = =
The county of Clwyd is in the northeastern corner of Wales . It is bounded by the Irish Sea to the north , the Welsh counties of Gwynnedd to the west and Powys to the south , and the English counties of Shropshire and Cheshire to the southeast and east respectively ; much of the eastern boundary follows the course of the River Dee and its estuary . Other large rivers in the county include the River Alyn , a tributary of the Dee , the River Clwyd and the River Conwy in the west . The northern coastal strip of the county is heavily developed for tourism and has many resorts , including Llandudno , Colwyn Bay , Colwyn , Abergele , Rhyl and Prestatyn . In the northeast lies Deeside , the coastal plain beside the Dee estuary , and this part of Clwyd is heavily developed for industry . The area around Wrexham and the commuter settlements close to Chester are also heavily built up .
To the west of this is a ridge of mountains with a steep scarp slope to the west , the Clwydian Range . The highest point of these hills is Moel Famau at 1 @,@ 820 ft ( 555 m ) . The north @-@ central part of the county is the broad Vale of Clwyd , and the best agricultural land lies here . To the south of this , the land is much higher and more rugged , the Denbigh Moors and the Berwyn range are here . The central and western parts of the county are much more rural than the coastal area and the east , with part of the Snowdonia National Park lying in the western part of the county . The population as of 2007 is estimated at 491 @,@ 100 , based on figures for the four component unitary authority areas .
Clwyd is bordered by the preserved counties of Gwynedd to the west , Powys to the south , Shropshire to the south @-@ east , Cheshire to the east and Merseyside over the River Dee . Since the 2003 boundary changes , its coastline has extended from the Dee Estuary in Flintshire through to Llanfairfechan in Conwy . Clwyd consists of the whole of the historic county of Flintshire , and most of Denbighshire . Since 2003 it has also included the former district of Aberconwy , which lies in the historic county of Caernarfonshire , and also Edeyrnion Rural District which was previously part of the historic county of Merionethshire .
= = Economy = =
The economy of Clwyd depends on a mixture of industrial , agricultural and tourism activities , with tourism predominating . The land uses of any region depend on the underlying geology which influences the soil types . In the Clwydian Range , lead and spar minerals have been mined in the past , and limestone quarried from Llantysilio Mountain , Ruabon Mountain and Minera Mountain near Wrexham . The Minera Limeworks were once the largest lime workings in North Wales . Later , road building stone was extracted but the quarries closed in 1992 . Coal mining in the North Wales Coalfield ceased in the second half of the twentieth century but used to be a large source of employment in the area . The main products being manufactured in industrial east Clwyd include aircraft components ( Airbus ) , engines ( Toyota ) , paper ( Shotton Paper ) and steel processing , and the port of Mostyn builds and supports offshore windfarms .
Agriculture , largely based on livestock , has traditionally been the main occupation in the central and western parts of the county . There are a mix of large and small farm businesses , and a thriving dairy sector in the Vale of Clwyd . Many of the towns have livestock markets and the farming industry supports farm machinery merchants , vets , feed merchants , contractors and all the ancillary trades connected with agriculture . With their incomes on the decline , farmers have found opportunities in tourism , rural crafts , specialist food shops , farmers ' markets and value @-@ added food products .
Tourism is nowadays the main source of income in Clwyd . The upland areas with their sheep farms and small , stone @-@ walled fields are attractive to visitors , and redundant farm buildings are often converted to self @-@ catering accommodation while the farmhouses themselves supply bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast opportunities . The arrival of the railway on the coast in the mid @-@ nineteenth century opened up travel from Merseyside and caused a boom in tourism , with guesthouses in seaside towns offering board and lodging for the urban visitors . More recently caravan sites and holiday villages have blossomed and there has been an increase in the ownership of " second homes " .
Various initiatives designed to boost the economy of North Wales are being attempted in 2016 . These include the Northern Gateway project on the former Sealand RAF site on Deeside , and a redevelopment project for the former Rhyl seafront and funfair .
= = Administrative history = =
From the late 1950s , the radical reform of local government in Wales was considered more pressing than that in England , due to the small size of many of the existing authorities , especially the upper tier county councils . The Local Government Commission for Wales set up in 1958 was the first to recommend wholesale amalgamation of the administrative counties outside Glamorgan and Monmouthshire , with extensive boundary changes ; however the then Minister of Housing and Local Government Sir Keith Joseph decided not to accept the report , noting that county amalgamations in England had been highly unpopular when proposed .
In 1967 , after a change of government , the Secretary of State for Wales Cledwyn Hughes published a white paper which revived the idea of amalgamation , but instead of the boundary changes proposed in the previous report , treated each county as a whole . The report recommended a single new county of Gwynedd incorporating Denbighshire , Flintshire , Caernarfonshire , Merionethshire and Anglesey . The white paper stated that " the need for early action is particularly urgent in Wales " , and so the issue was not referred to a Royal Commission as in England . Opponents criticised the proposed new county for being too large , and in November 1968 a new Secretary of State announced that Gwynedd would be divided into two .
This revised proposal was continued in a further white paper in March 1970 , although this proposed that the counties be unitary authorities which would have no district councils below them . The incoming Conservative government resurrected two @-@ tier local government in a consultative document published in February 1971 , again with the same upper @-@ tier boundaries . Some minor changes having been made to the existing county boundaries due to special local factors , the Local Government Act 1972 duly created Clwyd as a merger of Flintshire with most of Denbighshire , along with the Edeyrnion Rural District from Merionethshire . The 1970 white paper had introduced the name of Clwyd by reference to the River Clwyd and the Clwydian range of hills ; Clwyd was the only new Welsh county which did not take its name from an ancient kingdom .
For second @-@ tier local government purposes , Clwyd was divided into six districts : Alyn and Deeside , Colwyn , Delyn , Glyndŵr , Rhuddlan and Wrexham Maelor , each being operated by a district or borough council . These were abolished , along with the county itself , on 1 April 1996 . Clwyd County Council 's coat of arms was granted in December 1974 . The design of the shield , crest and motto includes elements taken from the arms of the councils of the former Flintshire and Denbighshire . The green and white wave represents the Vale of Clwyd and the Clwydian Range lying between the two parts of the county . The cross and choughs come from Flintshire 's shield , which itself incorporated the traditional arms of Edwin of Tegeingl , while the black lion of the Princes of Powys Fadog is taken from Denbighshire 's shield . The motto , Tarian Cyfiawnder Duw can be translated as " The shield of Justice is God " .
Clwyd County Council and its districts were abolished by the Local Government ( Wales ) Act 1994 , and local government would be replaced by the four unitary authorities of Flintshire , Wrexham County Borough , Denbighshire , and parts of Conwy ( along with some smaller communities moving to Powys ) . The Act also abolished the County , and states the term " county " would be synonymous with the " principal areas " created by the 1994 Act . However the Act then created a further set of " preserved counties " , which were based on the eight created by the 1972 Act . These Preserved Counties , similar in respect to English Ceremonial counties , would be retained for a variety of purposes , including Lieutenancy and Shrievalty .
Clwyd County Council and its six districts ceased operations at midnight on 1 April 1996 , and local government was immediately transferred to the new principal areas of Conwy , Denbighshire , Flintshire and Wrexham . However , although bearing the same names , the boundaries of Flintshire and Denbighshire were substantially different from those of the earlier counties . As it happened , the county records for historic Flintshire had been retained at the Hawarden branch of the Clwyd Records Office while those for historic Denbighshire had continued to be held at the Ruthin branch , so there was no problem in segregating the records .
The Preserved County of Clwyd came into effect on the same day that Clwyd County Council was abolished . The preserved county was almost identical to the 1974 – 96 county , but had a few minor changes in line with changes to local government boundaries , the communities of Llanrhaeadr @-@ ym @-@ Mochnant , Llansilin and Llangedwyn being transferred from Clwyd to Powys .
= = 2003 boundary review = =
In 2003 , the borders of Clwyd were changed to cover the remainder of Conwy ( which had previously been part of Gwynedd ) , which was part of a Wales @-@ wide re @-@ organisation of the preserved counties , so that boundaries of the preserved counties would contain whole current principal areas only .
These moves were met with some criticism , as the preserved counties were created to sustain a stable and continuing layout , irrespective of interim local government reviews affecting principal areas . This led to some areas , such as the Aberconwy district , moving to a preserved county it had never been administered by in the past , and therefore these moves went generally unreported due to the preserved county 's limited status . The Boundary Commission proceeded to retain the eight preserved counties , and modified their borders in 2003 to match with the incumbent principal area boundaries . The 2003 arrangement brings towns such as Llandudno , Conwy and Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed into the preserved county of Clwyd .
= = Legacy = =
Many local organisations still make use of the word " Clwyd " in their name , often because their membership covers a wider area than their present unitary authority . These organisations include the Clwyd Theatr Cymru , which is based in Mold and is the largest producing arts centre in Wales . It provides young people the opportunity to get involved in drama . The Clwyd Family History Society can help its members to access many historical documents concerning northeastern Wales , and the Clwyd @-@ Powys Archaeological Trust is one of four archaeological trusts covering the whole of Wales . The Clwyd County Darts Association organises tournaments and takes part in inter @-@ county matches . The Clwyd East Football League was created in 2011 to represent the North East Wales area at the fifth tier of Welsh Football . It has subsequently changed its name to the North East Wales Football League . The Clwyd Pension Fund is the Local Government pension scheme inherited from Clwyd County Council , now providing pension schemes for Wrexham , Flintshire and Denbighshire unitary authorities and former districts .
The position of Lord Lieutenant of Clwyd also continues as the Monarch 's personal representative , as with the other seven preserved counties of Wales . The current Lord Lieutenant is Henry George Fetherstonhaugh , who was appointed in 2013 .
= = Landmarks = =
The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct was built by Thomas Telford in 1805 and is the largest aqueduct in the United Kingdom ; it carries the Llangollen Canal over the River Dee and is a World Heritage Site , being considered a masterpiece of civil engineering . The Clwydian Range and Dee Valley constitute an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty , one of just five in the whole of Wales . Denbigh , Colwyn and Ruthin are historic towns and Llangollen hosts the Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod in July each year .
The Gop is a Neolithic mound , the second largest such structure in Britain being only superseded by Silbury Hill . Caer Drewyn is one of many Iron Age hill forts in the county that attest to human occupation of this area for millennia . Maen Achwyfan Cross is a carved 10th century wheel cross depicting Celtic and Viking symbols . The castles of Rhuddlan and Flint were built by the Normans during their invasion of North Wales and Castell Dinas Brân was a Welsh fortress of the same period . St Asaph Cathedral also dates from the thirteenth century as does the medieval Cistercian abbey of Valle Crucis .
Bodnant Garden is a formal garden in a landscaped setting , and Erddig Hall is a stately home , both owned by the National Trust . Other fine country houses in Clwyd include Trevor Hall and Faenol Fawr , Bodelwyddan , while Plas Mawr and Aberconwy House are historic town houses in Conwy . Also in Conwy is the Conwy Suspension Bridge , one of the first such bridges in the world .
= = Transport = =
The North Wales Coast Line is the railway line from Crewe to Holyhead , operated by Virgin Trains . Trains leaving Crewe pass through Chester , cross the River Dee into Wales , and continue through Flint , Shotton , Holywell junction , Prestatyn , Rhyl , Colwyn Bay , Llandudno Junction , Conwy and Bangor , to Holyhead , from where there is a ferry service to Ireland . Passengers can change at Shotton for the Borderlands Line , which links Wrexham with Bidston on the Wirral Peninsula in England . The Conwy Valley Line links Llandudno Junction to Blaenau Ffestiniog via Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed and was constructed mainly for use as a freight line for the transport of slate to the quay at Deganwy for export by sea . It is a scenic route with a number of request stops .
There are no motorways in Clwyd . The A55 dual carriageway road passes from Chester through St Asaph to the North Wales coast at Abergele , after which it runs parallel to the railway line through Conway and Bangor to terminate at Holyhead . The A548 passes from Chester to Abergele through Deeside and along the coast , before leaving the coast and terminating at Llanrwst . The main road from London is the A5 which enters Clwyd at Chirk and passes northwestwards through Llangollen , Corwen and Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed to join the A55 and terminate at Bangor . The A543 crosses the Denbigh Moors from southeast to northwest , and the A525 links Ruthin with St Asaph . There are local bus services between the main centres of population . Several services by Arriva Wales run along the main coast road between Chester and Holyhead , linking the coastal resorts . Other routes include ; Llandudno to Llanrwst and Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed via Conwy and Dolgarrog ; Rhyl to Denbigh ; Wrexham to Chester ; and Wrexham to Mold .
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= Bahá 'í Faith =
The Bahá 'í Faith ( Persian : بهائیت Bahá 'iyyat , Arabic : بهائية Bahá 'iyya / bəˈhaɪ / ) is a monotheistic religion which emphasizes the spiritual unity of all humankind . Three core principles establish a basis for Bahá 'í teachings and doctrine : the unity of God , that there is only one God who is the source of all creation ; the unity of religion , that all major religions have the same spiritual source and come from the same God ; and the unity of humanity , that all humans have been created equal , coupled with the unity in diversity , that diversity of race and culture are seen as worthy of appreciation and acceptance . According to the Bahá 'í Faith 's teachings , the human purpose is to learn to know and to love God through such methods as prayer , reflection and being of service to humanity .
The Bahá 'í Faith was founded by Bahá 'u'lláh in 19th @-@ century Persia . Bahá 'u'lláh was exiled for his teachings from Persia to the Ottoman Empire and died while officially still a prisoner . After Bahá 'u'lláh 's death , under the leadership of his son , `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá , the religion spread from its Persian and Ottoman roots , and gained a footing in Europe and America , and was consolidated in Iran , where it suffers intense persecution . After the death of `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá , the leadership of the Bahá 'í community entered a new phase , evolving from a single individual to an administrative order with both elected bodies and appointed individuals . There are probably more than 5 million Bahá 'ís around the world in more than 200 countries and territories .
In the Bahá 'í Faith , religious history is seen to have unfolded through a series of divine messengers , each of whom established a religion that was suited to the needs of the time and to the capacity of the people . These messengers have included Abrahamic figures — Moses , Jesus , Muhammad , as well as figures from Indian religions like Krishna , Buddha , and others . For Bahá 'ís , the most recent messengers are the Báb and Bahá 'u'lláh . In Bahá 'í belief , each consecutive messenger prophesied of messengers to follow , and Bahá 'u'lláh 's life and teachings fulfilled the end @-@ time promises of previous scriptures . Humanity is understood to be in a process of collective evolution , and the need of the present time is for the gradual establishment of peace , justice and unity on a global scale .
= = Etymology = =
The word Bahá 'í is used either as an adjective to refer to the Bahá 'í Faith or as a term for a follower of Bahá 'u'lláh . The word is not a noun meaning the religion as a whole . It is derived from the Arabic Bahá ' ( بهاء ) , meaning " glory " or " splendor " . The term " Bahaism " ( or " Baha 'ism " ) is still used , mainly in a pejorative sense .
= = Beliefs = =
Three core principles establish a basis for Bahá 'í teachings and doctrine : the unity of God , the unity of religion , and the unity of humanity . From these postulates stems the belief that God periodically reveals his will through divine messengers , whose purpose is to transform the character of humankind and to develop , within those who respond , moral and spiritual qualities . Religion is thus seen as orderly , unified , and progressive from age to age .
= = = God = = =
The Bahá 'í writings describe a single , personal , inaccessible , omniscient , omnipresent , imperishable , and almighty God who is the creator of all things in the universe . The existence of God and the universe is thought to be eternal , without a beginning or end . Though inaccessible directly , God is nevertheless seen as conscious of creation , with a will and purpose that is expressed through messengers termed Manifestations of God .
Bahá 'í teachings state that God is too great for humans to fully comprehend , or to create a complete and accurate image of , by themselves . Therefore , human understanding of God is achieved through his revelations via his Manifestations . In the Bahá 'í religion , God is often referred to by titles and attributes ( for example , the All @-@ Powerful , or the All @-@ Loving ) , and there is a substantial emphasis on monotheism ; such doctrines as the Trinity are seen as compromising , if not contradicting , the Bahá 'í view that God is single and has no equal . The Bahá 'í teachings state that the attributes which are applied to God are used to translate Godliness into human terms and also to help individuals concentrate on their own attributes in worshipping God to develop their potentialities on their spiritual path . According to the Bahá 'í teachings the human purpose is to learn to know and love God through such methods as prayer , reflection , and being of service to others .
= = = Religion = = =
Bahá 'í notions of progressive religious revelation result in their accepting the validity of the well known religions of the world , whose founders and central figures are seen as Manifestations of God . Religious history is interpreted as a series of dispensations , where each manifestation brings a somewhat broader and more advanced revelation that is rendered as a text of scripture and passed on through history with greater or lesser reliability but at least true in substance , suited for the time and place in which it was expressed . Specific religious social teachings ( for example , the direction of prayer , or dietary restrictions ) may be revoked by a subsequent manifestation so that a more appropriate requirement for the time and place may be established . Conversely , certain general principles ( for example , neighbourliness , or charity ) are seen to be universal and consistent . In Bahá 'í belief , this process of progressive revelation will not end ; however , it is believed to be cyclical . Bahá 'ís do not expect a new manifestation of God to appear within 1000 years of Bahá 'u'lláh 's revelation .
Bahá 'í beliefs are sometimes described as syncretic combinations of earlier religious beliefs . Bahá 'ís , however , assert that their religion is a distinct tradition with its own scriptures , teachings , laws , and history . While the religion was initially seen as a sect of Islam , most religious specialists now see it as an independent religion , with its religious background in Shi 'a Islam being seen as analogous to the Jewish context in which Christianity was established . Muslim institutions and clergy , both Sunni and Shia , consider Bahá 'ís to be deserters or apostates from Islam , which has led to Bahá 'ís being persecuted . Bahá 'ís describe their faith as an independent world religion , differing from the other traditions in its relative age and in the appropriateness of Bahá 'u'lláh 's teachings to the modern context . Bahá 'u'lláh is believed to have fulfilled the messianic expectations of these precursor faiths .
= = = Human beings = = =
The Bahá 'í writings state that human beings have a " rational soul " , and that this provides the species with a unique capacity to recognize God 's station and humanity 's relationship with its creator . Every human is seen to have a duty to recognize God through His messengers , and to conform to their teachings . Through recognition and obedience , service to humanity and regular prayer and spiritual practice , the Bahá 'í writings state that the soul becomes closer to God , the spiritual ideal in Bahá 'í belief . When a human dies , the soul passes into the next world , where its spiritual development in the physical world becomes a basis for judgment and advancement in the spiritual world . Heaven and Hell are taught to be spiritual states of nearness or distance from God that describe relationships in this world and the next , and not physical places of reward and punishment achieved after death .
The Bahá 'í writings emphasize the essential equality of human beings , and the abolition of prejudice . Humanity is seen as essentially one , though highly varied ; its diversity of race and culture are seen as worthy of appreciation and acceptance . Doctrines of racism , nationalism , caste , social class , and gender @-@ based hierarchy are seen as artificial impediments to unity . The Bahá 'í teachings state that the unification of humanity is the paramount issue in the religious and political conditions of the present world .
= = Teachings = =
= = = Summary = = =
Shoghi Effendi , the appointed head of the religion from 1921 to 1957 , wrote the following summary of what he considered to be the distinguishing principles of Bahá 'u'lláh 's teachings , which , he said , together with the laws and ordinances of the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Aqdas constitute the bedrock of the Bahá 'í Faith :
The independent search after truth , unfettered by superstition or tradition ; the oneness of the entire human race , the pivotal principle and fundamental doctrine of the Faith ; the basic unity of all religions ; the condemnation of all forms of prejudice , whether religious , racial , class or national ; the harmony which must exist between religion and science ; the equality of men and women , the two wings on which the bird of human kind is able to soar ; the introduction of compulsory education ; the adoption of a universal auxiliary language ; the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty ; the institution of a world tribunal for the adjudication of disputes between nations ; the exaltation of work , performed in the spirit of service , to the rank of worship ; the glorification of justice as the ruling principle in human society , and of religion as a bulwark for the protection of all peoples and nations ; and the establishment of a permanent and universal peace as the supreme goal of all mankind — these stand out as the essential elements [ which Bahá 'u'lláh proclaimed ] .
= = = Social principles = = =
The following principles are frequently listed as a quick summary of the Bahá 'í teachings . They are derived from transcripts of speeches given by `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá during his tour of Europe and North America in 1912 . The list is not authoritative and a variety of such lists circulate .
Unity of God
Unity of religion
Unity of humanity
Unity in diversity
Equality between men and women
Elimination of all forms of prejudice
World peace and a New world order
Harmony of religion and science
Independent investigation of truth
Principle of Ever @-@ Advancing Civilization
Universal compulsory education
Universal auxiliary language
Obedience to government and non @-@ involvement in partisan politics unless submission to law amounts to a denial of Faith .
Elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty
Spiritual solutions to economic problems
With specific regard to the pursuit of world peace , Bahá 'u'lláh prescribed a world @-@ embracing collective security arrangement as necessary for the establishment of a lasting peace .
= = = Mystical teachings = = =
Although the Bahá 'í teachings have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues , there exist a number of foundational texts that have been described as mystical . The Seven Valleys is considered Bahá 'u'lláh 's " greatest mystical composition . " It was written to a follower of Sufism , in the style of `Attar , The Persian Muslim poet , and sets forth the stages of the soul 's journey towards God . It was first translated into English in 1906 , becoming one of the earliest available books of Bahá 'u'lláh to the West . The Hidden Words is another book written by Bahá 'u'lláh during the same period , containing 153 short passages in which Bahá 'u'lláh claims to have taken the basic essence of certain spiritual truths and written them in brief form .
= = = Covenant = = =
The Bahá 'í teachings speak of both a " Greater Covenant " , being universal and endless , and a " Lesser Covenant " , being unique to each religious dispensation . The Lesser Covenant is viewed as an agreement between a Messenger of God and his followers and includes social practices and the continuation of authority in the religion . At this time Bahá 'ís view Bahá 'u'lláh 's revelation as a binding lesser covenant for his followers ; in the Bahá 'í writings being firm in the covenant is considered a virtue to work toward . The Greater Covenant is viewed as a more enduring agreement between God and humanity , where a Manifestation of God is expected to come to humanity about every thousand years , at times of turmoil and uncertainty . With unity as an essential teaching of the religion , Bahá 'ís follow an administration they believe is divinely ordained , and therefore see attempts to create schisms and divisions as efforts that are contrary to the teachings of Bahá 'u'lláh . Schisms have occurred over the succession of authority , but any Bahá 'í divisions have had relatively little success and have failed to attract a sizeable following . The followers of such divisions are regarded as Covenant @-@ breakers and shunned , essentially excommunicated .
= = Canonical texts = =
The canonical texts are the writings of the Báb , Bahá 'u'lláh , `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá , Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice , and the authenticated talks of `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá . The writings of the Báb and Bahá 'u'lláh are considered as divine revelation , the writings and talks of `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá and the writings of Shoghi Effendi as authoritative interpretation , and those of the Universal House of Justice as authoritative legislation and elucidation . Some measure of divine guidance is assumed for all of these texts . Some of Bahá 'u'lláh 's most important writings include the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Aqdas , literally the Most Holy Book , which is his book of laws , the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Íqán , literally the Book of Certitude , which became the foundation of much of Bahá 'í belief , the Gems of Divine Mysteries , which includes further doctrinal foundations , and the Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys which are mystical treatises .
= = History = =
Bahá 'í history follows a sequence of leaders , beginning with the Báb 's declaration in Shiraz , Iran on the evening of 22 May 1844 , and ultimately resting on an administrative order established by the central figures of the religion . The Bahá 'í community was mostly confined to the Persian and Ottoman empires until after the death of Bahá 'u'lláh in 1892 , at which time he had followers in 13 countries of Asia and Africa . Under the leadership of his son , `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá , the religion gained a footing in Europe and America , and was consolidated in Iran , where it still suffers intense persecution . After the death of `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá in 1921 , the leadership of the Bahá 'í community entered a new phase , evolving from a single individual to an administrative order with both elected bodies and appointed individuals .
= = = The Báb = = =
On the evening of 22 May 1844 , Siyyid `Alí @-@ Muhammad of Shiraz , Iran proclaimed that he was " the Báb " ( الباب " the Gate " ) , referring to his later claim to the station of Mahdi , the Twelfth Imam of Shi`a Islam . His followers were therefore known as Bábís . As the Báb 's teachings spread , which the Islamic clergy saw as a threat , his followers came under increased persecution and torture . The conflicts escalated in several places to military sieges by the Shah 's army . The Báb himself was imprisoned and eventually executed in 1850 .
Bahá 'ís see the Báb as the forerunner of the Bahá 'í Faith , because the Báb 's writings introduced the concept of " He whom God shall make manifest " , a Messianic figure whose coming , according to Bahá 'ís , was announced in the scriptures of all of the world 's great religions , and whom Bahá 'u'lláh , the founder of the Bahá 'í Faith , claimed to be in 1863 . The Báb 's tomb , located in Haifa , Israel , is an important place of pilgrimage for Bahá 'ís . The remains of the Báb were brought secretly from Iran to the Holy Land and eventually interred in the tomb built for them in a spot specifically designated by Bahá 'u'lláh . The main written works translated into English of the Báb 's are collected in Selections from the Writings of the Báb out of the estimated 135 works .
= = = Bahá 'u'lláh = = =
Mírzá Husayn `Alí Núrí was one of the early followers of the Báb , and later took the title of Bahá 'u'lláh . He was arrested and imprisoned for this involvement in 1852 . Bahá 'u'lláh relates that in 1853 , while incarcerated in the dungeon of the Síyáh @-@ Chál in Tehran , he received the first intimations that he was the one anticipated by the Báb .
Shortly thereafter he was expelled from Tehran to Baghdad , in the Ottoman Empire ; then to Constantinople ( now Istanbul ) ; and then to Adrianople ( now Edirne ) . In 1863 , at the time of his banishment from Baghdad to Constantinople , Bahá 'u'lláh declared his claim to a divine mission to his family and followers . Tensions then grew between him and Subh @-@ i @-@ Azal , the appointed leader of the Bábís who did not recognize Bahá 'u'lláh 's claim . Throughout the rest of his life Bahá 'u'lláh gained the allegiance of most of the Bábís , who came to be known as Bahá 'ís . Beginning in 1866 , he began declaring his mission as a Messenger of God in letters to the world 's religious and secular rulers , including Pope Pius IX , Napoleon III , and Queen Victoria .
In 1868 Bahá 'u'lláh was banished by Sultan Abdülâziz a final time to the Ottoman penal colony of `Akká , in present @-@ day Israel . Towards the end of his life , the strict and harsh confinement was gradually relaxed , and he was allowed to live in a home near `Akká , while still officially a prisoner of that city . He died there in 1892 . Bahá 'ís regard his resting place at Bahjí as the Qiblih to which they turn in prayer each day .
Bahá 'u'lláh wrote many written works taken as scripture in the religion of which only a fraction have been translated into English . There have been 15 @,@ 000 works both small and large noted – the most significant of which are the Most Holy Book , the Book of Certitude , the Hidden Words , and the Seven Valleys . There is also a series of compilation volumes of smaller works the most significant of which is the Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá 'u'lláh .
= = = `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá = = =
`Abbás Effendi was Bahá 'u'lláh 's eldest son , known by the title of `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá ( Servant of Bahá ) . His father left a Will that appointed `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá as the leader of the Bahá 'í community , and designated him as the " Centre of the Covenant " , " Head of the Faith " , and the sole authoritative interpreter of Bahá 'u'lláh 's writings . `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá had shared his father 's long exile and imprisonment , which continued until `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá 's own release as a result of the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 . Following his release he led a life of travelling , speaking , teaching , and maintaining correspondence with communities of believers and individuals , expounding the principles of the Bahá 'í Faith .
It is estimated that `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá wrote over 27 @,@ 000 works mostly in the form of letters of which only a fraction have been translated into English . Among the more well known are The Secret of Divine Civilization , the Tablet to Auguste @-@ Henri Forel , and Some Answered Questions . Additionally notes taken of a number of his talks were published in various volumes like Paris Talks during his journeys to the West .
= = = Bahá 'í administration = = =
Bahá 'u'lláh 's Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Aqdas and The Will and Testament of `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá are foundational documents of the Bahá 'í administrative order . Bahá 'u'lláh established the elected Universal House of Justice , and `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá established the appointed hereditary Guardianship and clarified the relationship between the two institutions . In his Will , `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá appointed his eldest grandson , Shoghi Effendi , as the first Guardian of the Bahá 'í Faith , serving as head of the religion until his death , for 36 years .
Shoghi Effendi throughout his lifetime translated Bahá 'í texts ; developed global plans for the expansion of the Bahá 'í community ; developed the Bahá 'í World Centre ; carried on a voluminous correspondence with communities and individuals around the world ; and built the administrative structure of the religion , preparing the community for the election of the Universal House of Justice . He died in 1957 under conditions that did not allow for a successor to be appointed .
At local , regional , and national levels , Bahá 'ís elect members to nine @-@ person Spiritual Assemblies , which run the affairs of the religion . There are also appointed individuals working at various levels , including locally and internationally , which perform the function of propagating the teachings and protecting the community . The latter do not serve as clergy , which the Bahá 'í Faith does not have . The Universal House of Justice , first elected in 1963 , remains the successor and supreme governing body of the Bahá 'í Faith , and its 9 members are elected every five years by the members of all National Spiritual Assemblies . Any male Bahá 'í , 21 years or older , is eligible to be elected to the Universal House of Justice ; all other positions are open to male and female Bahá 'ís .
= = = International plans = = =
In 1937 , Shoghi Effendi launched a seven @-@ year plan for the Bahá 'ís of North America , followed by another in 1946 . In 1953 , he launched the first international plan , the Ten Year World Crusade . This plan included extremely ambitious goals for the expansion of Bahá 'í communities and institutions , the translation of Bahá 'í texts into several new languages , and the sending of Bahá 'í pioneers into previously unreached nations . He announced in letters during the Ten Year Crusade that it would be followed by other plans under the direction of the Universal House of Justice , which was elected in 1963 at the culmination of the Crusade . The House of Justice then launched a nine @-@ year plan in 1964 , and a series of subsequent multi @-@ year plans of varying length and goals followed , guiding the direction of the international Bahá 'í community .
Annually , on 21 April , the Universal House of Justice sends a ‘ Ridván ’ message to the worldwide Bahá ’ í community , which generally gives an update on the progress made concerning the current plan , and provides further guidance for the year to come . The Bahá 'ís around the world are currently being encouraged to focus on capacity building through children 's classes , youth groups , devotional gatherings , and a systematic study of the religion known as study circles . Further focuses are involvement in social action and participation in the prevalent discourses of society . The years from 2001 until 2021 represent four successive five @-@ year plans , culminating in the centennial anniversary of the passing of `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá .
= = Demographics = =
A Bahá 'í published document reported 4 @.@ 74 million Bahá 'ís in 1986 growing at a rate of 4 @.@ 4 % . Bahá 'í sources since 1991 usually estimate the worldwide Bahá 'í population to be above 5 million . The World Christian Encyclopedia estimated 7 @.@ 1 million Bahá 'ís in the world in 2000 , representing 218 countries , and 7 @.@ 3 million in 2010 with the same source . They further state : " The Baha 'i Faith is the only religion to have grown faster in every United Nations region over the past 100 years than the general population ; Baha ’ i was thus the fastest @-@ growing religion between 1910 and 2010 , growing at least twice as fast as the population of almost every UN region . " This source 's only systematic flaw was to consistently have a higher estimate of Christians than other cross @-@ national data sets .
From its origins in the Persian and Ottoman Empires , by the early 20th century there were a number of converts in South and South East Asia , Europe , and North America . During the 1950s and 1960s , vast travel teaching efforts brought the religion to almost every country and territory of the world . By the 1990s , Bahá 'ís were developing programs for systematic consolidation on a large scale , and the early 21st century saw large influxes of new adherents around the world . The Bahá 'í Faith is currently the largest religious minority in Iran , Panama , and Belize ; the second largest international religion in Bolivia , Zambia , and Papua New Guinea ; and the third largest international religion in Chad and Kenya .
According to The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2004 :
The majority of Bahá 'ís live in Asia ( 3 @.@ 6 million ) , Africa ( 1 @.@ 8 million ) , and Latin America ( 900 @,@ 000 ) . According to some estimates , the largest Bahá 'í community in the world is in India , with 2 @.@ 2 million Bahá 'ís , next is Iran , with 350 @,@ 000 , the US , with 150 @,@ 000 , and Brazil , with 60 @,@ 000 . Aside from these countries , numbers vary greatly . Currently , no country has a Bahá 'í majority .
The Bahá 'í Faith is a medium @-@ sized religion and was listed in The Britannica Book of the Year ( 1992 – present ) as the second most widespread of the world 's independent religions in terms of the number of countries represented . According to Britannica , the Bahá 'í Faith ( as of 2002 ) is established in 247 countries and territories ; represents over 2 @,@ 100 ethnic , racial , and tribal groups ; has scriptures translated into over 800 languages ; and has an estimated seven million adherents worldwide . Additionally , Bahá 'ís have self @-@ organized in most of the nations of the world .
The Bahá 'í religion was ranked by the Foreign Policy magazine as the world 's second fastest growing religion by percentage ( 1 @.@ 7 % ) in 2007 .
= = Social practices = =
= = = Laws = = =
The laws of the Bahá 'í Faith primarily come from the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Aqdas , written by Bahá 'u'lláh . The following are a few examples of basic laws and religious observances .
Prayer in the Bahá 'í Faith consists of obligatory prayer and devotional ( general ) prayer . Bahá 'ís over the age of 15 must individually recite an obligatory prayer each day , using fixed words and form . In addition to the daily obligatory prayer , believers are directed to daily offer devotional prayer and to meditate and study sacred scripture . There is no set form for devotions and meditations , though the devotional prayers written by the central figures of the Bahá 'í Faith and collected in prayer books are held in high esteem . Reading aloud of prayers from prayer books is a typical feature of Bahá 'í gatherings .
Backbiting and gossip are prohibited and denounced .
Adult Bahá 'ís in good health should observe a nineteen @-@ day sunrise @-@ to @-@ sunset fast each year from 2 March through 20 March .
Bahá 'ís are forbidden to drink alcohol or to take drugs , unless prescribed by doctors .
Sexual intercourse is only permitted between a husband and wife , and thus premarital , extramarital , and homosexual intercourse are forbidden . ( See also Homosexuality and the Bahá 'í Faith )
Gambling is forbidden .
Fanaticism is forbidden .
Adherence to ritual is discouraged , with the notable exception of the obligatory prayers .
Abstaining from partisan politics is required .
While some of the laws from the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Aqdas are applicable at the present time and may be enforced to a degree by the administrative institutions , Bahá 'u'lláh has provided for the progressive application of other laws that are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Bahá 'í society . The laws , when not in direct conflict with the civil laws of the country of residence , are binding on every Bahá 'í , and the observance of personal laws , such as prayer or fasting , is the sole responsibility of the individual .
= = = Marriage = = =
The purpose of marriage in the Bahá 'i faith is mainly to foster spiritual harmony , fellowship and unity between a man and a woman and to provide a stable and loving environment for the rearing of children . The Bahá 'í teachings on marriage call it a fortress for well @-@ being and salvation and place marriage and the family as the foundation of the structure of human society . Bahá 'u'lláh highly praised marriage , discouraged divorce and homosexuality , and required chastity outside of marriage ; Bahá 'u'lláh taught that a husband and wife should strive to improve the spiritual life of each other . Interracial marriage is also highly praised throughout Bahá 'í scripture .
Bahá 'ís intending to marry are asked to obtain a thorough understanding of the other 's character before deciding to marry . Although parents should not choose partners for their children , once two individuals decide to marry , they must receive the consent of all living biological parents , whether they are Bahá 'í or not . The Bahá 'í marriage ceremony is simple ; the only compulsory part of the wedding is the reading of the wedding vows prescribed by Bahá 'u'lláh which both the groom and the bride read , in the presence of two witnesses . The vows are " We will all , verily , abide by the Will of God . "
= = = Work = = =
Monasticism is forbidden , and Bahá 'ís attempt to ground their spirituality in ordinary daily life . Performing useful work , for example , is not only required but considered a form of worship . Bahá 'u'lláh prohibited a mendicant and ascetic lifestyle . The importance of self @-@ exertion and service to humanity in one 's spiritual life is emphasised further in Bahá 'u'lláh 's writings , where he states that work done in the spirit of service to humanity enjoys a rank equal to that of prayer and worship in the sight of God .
= = = Places of worship = = =
Most Bahá 'í meetings occur in individuals ' homes , local Bahá 'í centers , or rented facilities . Worldwide , there are currently seven Bahá 'í Houses of Worship , with an eighth near completion in Chile , and a further seven planned as of April 2012 . Bahá 'í writings refer to an institution called a " Mashriqu 'l @-@ Adhkár " ( Dawning @-@ place of the Mention of God ) , which is to form the center of a complex of institutions including a hospital , university , and so on . The first ever Mashriqu 'l @-@ Adhkár in `Ishqábád , Turkmenistan , has been the most complete House of Worship .
= = = Calendar = = =
The Bahá 'í calendar is based upon the calendar established by the Báb . The year consists of 19 months , each having 19 days , with four or five intercalary days , to make a full solar year . The Bahá 'í New Year corresponds to the traditional Persian New Year , called Naw Rúz , and occurs on the vernal equinox , near 21 March , at the end of the month of fasting . Bahá 'í communities gather at the beginning of each month at a meeting called a Feast for worship , consultation and socializing .
Each of the 19 months is given a name which is an attribute of God ; some examples include Bahá ’ ( Splendour ) , ‘ Ilm ( Knowledge ) , and Jamál ( Beauty ) . The Bahá 'í week is familiar in that it consists of seven days , with each day of the week also named after an attribute of God . Bahá 'ís observe 11 Holy Days throughout the year , with work suspended on 9 of these . These days commemorate important anniversaries in the history of the religion .
= = = Symbols = = =
The symbols of the religion are derived from the Arabic word Bahá ’ ( بهاء " splendor " or " glory " ) , with a numerical value of 9 , which is why the most common symbol is the nine @-@ pointed star . The ringstone symbol and calligraphy of the Greatest Name are also often encountered . The former consists of two five @-@ pointed stars interspersed with a stylized Bahá ’ whose shape is meant to recall the three onenesses , while the latter is a calligraphic rendering of the phrase Yá Bahá 'u'l @-@ Abhá ( يا بهاء الأبهى " O Glory of the Most Glorious ! " ) .
The five @-@ pointed star is the symbol of the Bahá 'í Faith . In the Bahá 'í Faith , the star is known as the Haykal ( Arabic : " temple " ) , and it was initiated and established by the Báb . The Báb and Bahá 'u'lláh wrote various works in the form of a pentagram .
= = = Socio @-@ economic development = = =
Since its inception the Bahá 'í Faith has had involvement in socio @-@ economic development beginning by giving greater freedom to women , promulgating the promotion of female education as a priority concern , and that involvement was given practical expression by creating schools , agricultural coops , and clinics .
The religion entered a new phase of activity when a message of the Universal House of Justice dated 20 October 1983 was released . Bahá 'ís were urged to seek out ways , compatible with the Bahá 'í teachings , in which they could become involved in the social and economic development of the communities in which they lived . Worldwide in 1979 there were 129 officially recognized Bahá 'í socio @-@ economic development projects . By 1987 , the number of officially recognized development projects had increased to 1482 .
= = = United Nations = = =
Bahá 'u'lláh wrote of the need for world government in this age of humanity 's collective life . Because of this emphasis the international Bahá 'í community has chosen to support efforts of improving international relations through organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations , with some reservations about the present structure and constitution of the UN . The Bahá 'í International Community is an agency under the direction of the Universal House of Justice in Haifa , and has consultative status with the following organizations :
United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF )
United Nations Development Fund for Women ( UNIFEM )
United Nations Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC )
United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP )
World Health Organization ( WHO )
The Bahá 'í International Community has offices at the United Nations in New York and Geneva and representations to United Nations regional commissions and other offices in Addis Ababa , Bangkok , Nairobi , Rome , Santiago , and Vienna . In recent years an Office of the Environment and an Office for the Advancement of Women were established as part of its United Nations Office . The Bahá 'í Faith has also undertaken joint development programs with various other United Nations agencies . In the 2000 Millennium Forum of the United Nations a Bahá 'í was invited as the only non @-@ governmental speaker during the summit .
= = Persecution = =
Bahá 'ís continue to be persecuted in Islamic countries , as Islamic leaders do not recognize the Bahá 'í Faith as an independent religion , but rather as apostasy from Islam . The most severe persecutions have occurred in Iran , where over 200 Bahá 'ís were executed between 1978 and 1998 , and in Egypt . The rights of Bahá 'ís have been restricted to greater or lesser extents in numerous other countries , including Afghanistan , Indonesia , Iraq , Morocco , and several countries in sub @-@ Saharan Africa .
= = = Iran = = =
The marginalization of the Iranian Bahá 'ís by current governments is rooted in historical efforts by Muslim clergy to persecute the religious minority . When the Báb started attracting a large following , the clergy hoped to stop the movement from spreading by stating that its followers were enemies of God . These clerical directives led to mob attacks and public executions . Starting in the twentieth century , in addition to repression that impacted individual Bahá 'ís , centrally directed campaigns that targeted the entire Bahá 'í community and its institutions were initiated . In one case in Yazd in 1903 more than 100 Bahá 'ís were killed . Bahá 'í schools , such as the Tarbiyat boys ' and girls ' schools in Tehran , were closed in the 1930s and 1940s , Bahá 'í marriages were not recognized and Bahá 'í texts were censored .
During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , to divert attention from economic difficulties in Iran and from a growing nationalist movement , a campaign of persecution against the Bahá 'ís was instituted . An approved and coordinated anti @-@ Bahá 'í campaign ( to incite public passion against the Bahá 'ís ) started in 1955 and it included the spreading of anti @-@ Bahá 'í propaganda on national radio stations and in official newspapers . In the late 1970s the Shah 's regime consistently lost legitimacy due to criticism that it was pro @-@ Western . As the anti @-@ Shah movement gained ground and support , revolutionary propaganda was spread which alleged that some of the Shah 's advisors were Bahá 'ís . Bahá 'ís were portrayed as economic threats , and as supporters of Israel and the West , and societal hostility against the Bahá 'ís increased .
Since the Islamic Revolution of 1979 Iranian Bahá 'ís have regularly had their homes ransacked or have been banned from attending university or from holding government jobs , and several hundred have received prison sentences for their religious beliefs , most recently for participating in study circles . Bahá 'í cemeteries have been desecrated and property has been seized and occasionally demolished , including the House of Mírzá Buzurg , Bahá 'u'lláh 's father . The House of the Báb in Shiraz , one of three sites to which Bahá 'ís perform pilgrimage , has been destroyed twice .
According to a US panel , attacks on Bahá 'ís in Iran increased under Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 's presidency . The United Nations Commission on Human Rights revealed an October 2005 confidential letter from Command Headquarters of the Armed Forces of Iran ordering its members to identify Bahá 'ís and to monitor their activities . Due to these actions , the Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights stated on 20 March 2006 , that she " also expresses concern that the information gained as a result of such monitoring will be used as a basis for the increased persecution of , and discrimination against , members of the Bahá 'í faith , in violation of international standards . The Special Rapporteur is concerned that this latest development indicates that the situation with regard to religious minorities in Iran is , in fact , deteriorating .
On 14 May 2008 , members of an informal body known as the " Friends " that oversaw the needs of the Bahá 'í community in Iran were arrested and taken to Evin prison . The Friends court case has been postponed several times , but was finally underway on 12 January 2010 . Other observers were not allowed in the court . Even the defence lawyers , who for two years have had minimal access to the defendants , had difficulty entering the courtroom . The chairman of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom said that it seems that the government has already predetermined the outcome of the case and is violating international human rights law . Further sessions were held on 7 February 2010 , 12 April 2010 and 12 June 2010 . On 11 August 2010 it became known that the court sentence was 20 years imprisonment for each of the seven prisoners which was later reduced to ten years . After the sentence , they were transferred to Gohardasht prison . In March 2011 the sentences were reinstated to the original 20 years . On 3 January 2010 , Iranian authorities detained ten more members of the Baha 'i minority , reportedly including Leva Khanjani , granddaughter of Jamaloddin Khanjani , one of seven Baha 'i leaders jailed since 2008 and in February , they arrested his son , Niki Khanjani .
The Iranian government claims that the Bahá 'í Faith is not a religion , but is instead a political organization , and hence refuses to recognize it as a minority religion . However , the government has never produced convincing evidence supporting its characterization of the Bahá 'í community . Also , the government 's statements that Bahá 'ís who recanted their religion would have their rights restored , attest to the fact that Bahá 'ís are persecuted solely for their religious affiliation . The Iranian government also accuses the Bahá 'í Faith of being associated with Zionism because the Bahá 'í World Centre is located in Haifa , Israel . These accusations against the Bahá 'ís have no basis in historical fact , and the accusations are used by the Iranian government to use the Bahá 'ís as " scapegoats " . In fact it was the Iranian leader Naser al @-@ Din Shah Qajar who banished Bahá 'u'lláh from Persia to the Ottoman Empire and Bahá 'u'lláh was later exiled by the Ottoman Sultan , at the behest of the Persian Shah , to territories further away from Iran and finally to Acre in Syria , which only a century later was incorporated into the state of Israel .
= = = Egypt = = =
Bahá 'í institutions and community activities have been illegal under Egyptian law since 1960 . All Bahá 'í community properties , including Bahá 'í centers , libraries , and cemeteries , have been confiscated by the government and fatwas have been issued charging Bahá 'ís with apostasy .
The Egyptian identification card controversy began in the 1990s when the government modernized the electronic processing of identity documents , which introduced a de facto requirement that documents must list the person 's religion as Muslim , Christian , or Jewish ( the only three religions officially recognized by the government ) . Consequently , Bahá 'ís were unable to obtain government identification documents ( such as national identification cards , birth certificates , death certificates , marriage or divorce certificates , or passports ) necessary to exercise their rights in their country unless they lied about their religion , which conflicts with Bahá 'í religious principle . Without documents , they could not be employed , educated , treated in hospitals , travel outside of the country , or vote , among other hardships . Following a protracted legal process culminating in a court ruling favorable to the Bahá 'ís , the interior minister of Egypt released a decree on 14 April 2009 , amending the law to allow Egyptians who are not Muslim , Christian , or Jewish to obtain identification documents that list a dash in place of one of the three recognized religions . The first identification cards were issued to two Bahá 'ís under the new decree on 8 August 2009 .
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= New wave of British heavy metal =
The new wave of British heavy metal ( commonly abbreviated as NWOBHM ) was a nationwide musical movement that started in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s and achieved international attention by the early 1980s . Journalist Geoff Barton coined the term in a May 1979 issue of the British music newspaper Sounds to describe the emergence of new heavy metal bands in the late 1970s , during the period of punk rock 's decline and the dominance of new wave music .
Although encompassing diverse mainstream and underground styles , the music of the NWOBHM is best remembered for drawing on the heavy metal of the 1970s and infusing it with the intensity of punk rock to produce fast and aggressive songs . The DIY attitude of the new metal bands led to the spread of raw @-@ sounding , self @-@ produced recordings and a proliferation of independent record labels . Song lyrics were usually about escapist themes such as mythology , fantasy , horror and the rock lifestyle .
The NWOBHM began as an underground phenomenon growing in parallel to punk and largely ignored by the media . It was only through the promotion of rock DJ Neal Kay and Sounds ' campaigning that it reached the public consciousness and gained radio airplay , recognition and success in the UK . The movement involved mostly young , white , male and working – class musicians and fans , who suffered the hardships brought on by rising unemployment for years after the 1973 – 75 recession . As a reaction to their bleak reality , they created a community separate from mainstream society to enjoy each other 's company and their favourite loud music . The NWOBHM was heavily criticised for the excessive hype generated by local media in favour of mostly talentless musicians . Nonetheless , it generated a renewal in the genre of heavy metal music and furthered the progress of the heavy metal subculture , whose updated behavioural and visual codes were quickly adopted by metal fans worldwide after the spread of the music to Europe , North America and Japan .
The movement spawned perhaps a thousand metal bands , but only a few survived the advent of MTV and the rise of the more commercial glam metal in the second half of the 1980s . Among them , Iron Maiden and Def Leppard became international stars , and Motörhead and Saxon had considerable success . Other groups , such as Diamond Head , Venom and Raven , remained underground but were a major influence on the successful extreme metal subgenres of the late 1980s and 1990s . Many bands from the NWOBHM reunited in the 2000s and remained active through live performances and new studio albums .
= = Background = =
= = = Social unrest = = =
In the second half of the 1970s , the United Kingdom was in a state of social unrest and widespread poverty as a result of the ineffective social politics of both Conservative and Labour Party governments during a three @-@ year period of economic recession . As a consequence of deindustrialisation , the unemployment rate was exceptionally high , especially among working class youth . It continued to rise in the early 1980s , peaking in February 1983 . The discontent of so many people caused social unrest with frequent strikes , and culminated in a series of riots ( see 1981 Brixton riot , 1981 Toxteth riots ) . During this period , the mass of young people , deprived of the prospect of even relatively low @-@ skill jobs that were available to the previous generations , searched for different ways to earn money in the music and entertainment businesses . The explosion of new bands and new musical styles coming from the UK in the late 1970s was a result of their efforts to make a living in the economic depression that hit the country before the governments of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher .
The desperation and the violent reaction of a generation robbed of a safe future are well @-@ represented by the British punk movement of 1977 – 78 , whose rebellion against the establishment continued diluted in the new wave and post @-@ punk music of the 1980s . These self @-@ proclaimed punks were politically militant , relishing their anarchic attitude and stage practices like pogo dancing . They wore short and spiked hairstyles or shaved heads , often with safety pins and ripped clothes and considered musical prowess unimportant as long as the music was simple and loud . However , not all working @-@ class male youths embraced the punk movement ; some preferred to escape from their grim reality in heavy metal , which was equally effective in providing fun , stress relief , and peer companionship – otherwise denied because of their unemployment .
= = = Heavy rock in the UK = = =
The UK was a cradle of the first wave of heavy metal , which was born at the end of the 1960s and flowered in the early 1970s . Of the many British bands that came to prominence during that period , Led Zeppelin , Black Sabbath and Deep Purple achieved worldwide success and critical acclaim . The success of the music genre , usually called heavy rock at the time , generated a community of UK fans with strong ties to psychedelia , hippie doctrines and biker subculture . Each of these bands was in crisis in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1970s : Led Zeppelin were plagued by discord and personal tragedies and had drastically reduced their activities , Black Sabbath finally fired their charismatic but unreliable frontman Ozzy Osbourne , and Deep Purple disbanded . As a consequence , the whole movement lost much of its momentum and media interest , which were refocused on what British writer Malc Macmillan calls " the more fashionable or lucrative markets of the day " such as disco , glam , mod revival , new wave and electronic music . Just like progressive rock acts and other mainstream music groups of the 1970s , heavy rock bands were viewed as – in the words of journalist Garry Bushell – " lumbering dinosaurs " by a music press infatuated with punk rock and new wave . Some writers even declared the premature demise of heavy metal altogether .
The crisis of British heavy rock giants left space for the rise of other rock bands in the mid @-@ 1970s , like : Queen , Hawkwind , Budgie , Bad Company , Status Quo and Nazareth , all of which had multiple chart entries in the UK and had conducted successful international tours . The British chart results of the period show that there was still a vast audience for heavy metal in the country and upcoming bands Thin Lizzy , UFO and Judas Priest , also had tangible success and media coverage in the late 1970s . Foreign hard rock acts , such as Blue Öyster Cult and Kiss from the US , Rush from Canada , Scorpions from Germany , and especially AC / DC from Australia , climbed the British charts in the same period .
= = = Motörhead = = =
The band Motörhead was founded in 1975 by already experienced musicians . Their leader Ian " Lemmy " Kilmister was a former member of the space rock band Hawkwind , Larry Wallis had played with Pink Fairies , and Eddie Clarke had been a member of Curtis Knight 's Zeus . Their previous experience is one element which divides critics and fans over whether the band belongs to the new wave of British heavy metal . Some believe that the band should be considered an inspiration for the movement but not part of it , because they had signed recording contracts , toured the country , and had chart success before any NWOBHM band had stepped out of their local club scene . Motörhead were also the only metal band of the period recording songs with veteran BBC radio DJ John Peel for his Peel Sessions program and the first to reach No. 1 in the UK Albums Chart with the live album No Sleep ' til Hammersmith in June 1981 . Lemmy himself said , " the NWOBHM ... didn 't do us much good " , because Motörhead " came along a bit too early for it " .
Other critics view Motörhead as the first significant exponent of the movement and the first band to fully implement a crossover between punk rock and heavy metal . Their fast music , the renunciation of technical virtuosity in favour of sheer loudness , and their uncompromising attitude were welcomed equally by punks and heavy metal fans . Motörhead were supported by many NWOBHM bands on tour , and they also shared the stage with Lemmy 's friends punk band The Damned . Motörhead 's musical style became very popular during the NWOBHM , making them a fundamental reference for the nascent movement and for musicians of various metal subgenres in the following decades .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Identity and style = = =
The NWOBHM involved both musicians and fans who were largely young , male and white and shared class origin , ethic and aesthetic values . American sociologist Deena Weinstein , in her book Heavy Metal : The Music and Its Culture , describes the rise and growth of the movement as the achievement of maturity for heavy metal , after its birth in the early 1970s and before branching out into various subgenres in the following years . British heavy metal fans , commonly known as muthas , metalheads or headbangers for the violent , rhythmic shaking of their heads in time to the music , dismissed the simplistic image of rebellious youth inherited from the counterculture of the 1960s and the psychedelic attachments characteristic of heavy rock in the 1970s , updating the shared principles and codes of the heavy metal subculture and definitely separating it from mainstream society .
Towards the end of the 1970s , British metalheads coalesced into a closed community of peers that exalted power and celebrated masculinity . According to Deena Weinstein 's analysis , their male camaraderie and the general absence of women in their ranks did not turn into machismo and misogyny . In the same article , she wrote that British heavy metal : " is not racist , despite its uniformly white performers , and its lyrics are devoid of racial references . " Another characteristic of the subculture was its latent homophobia , less violent but not dissimilar to British skinheads ' disposition ; in his book Running with the Devil : Power , Gender and Madness in Heavy Metal Music , Robert Walser calls it a " collective affirmation of heterosexuality " , and in a journal British sociologist John Clarke regards it as " a reaction against the erosion of traditionally available stereotypes of masculinity " . Headbangers showed little interest in political and social problems , finding in each other 's company , in the consumption of beer and in the music , the means to escape their bleak reality ; for this reason they were often accused of nihilism or escapism . In contrast with punks , they loved musicianship and made idols of virtuoso guitarists and vocalists , viewing the live show as the full realisation of their status . The fans were very loyal to the music , to each other and to the bands with whom they shared origins and from whom they required coherence with their values , authenticity and continuous accessibility . To depart from this strict code meant being marked as a " sell out " or " poseur " and being somewhat excluded from the community . The lyrics of the song " Denim and Leather " by Saxon reflect precisely the condition of British metalheads in those years of great enthusiasm . Access to this male @-@ dominated world for female musicians and fans was not easy and only women who adapted to their male counterparts ' standards and codes were accepted , as attested by Girlschool and Rock Goddess , the only notable all @-@ female metal bands of that era .
The music , philosophy and lifestyle of heavy metal bands and fans were often panned by both left @-@ wing critics and conservative public opinion , described as senseless , ridiculous to the limit of self @-@ parody , and even dangerous for the young generation . The 1984 mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap addressed many idiosyncrasies of British metal bands , showing comic sides of that world which external observers would judge absurd . Instead metal musicians regarded the movie 's content as much too real .
= = = Visual aspects = = =
The dress code of the British headbangers reflected the newly found cohesion of the movement and recalled the look of 1960s rockers and American bikers . The common elements were long hair and jeans , black or white T @-@ shirts with band logos and cover art and leather jackets or denim vests adorned with patches . Following the example of Judas Priest , elements of S & M fashion entered the metal wardrobe of the 1980s and it became typical to show off metallic studs and ornaments , or for metal musicians to wear spandex or leather trousers . Elements of militaria , such as bullet belts and insignia , were also introduced at this time . This style of dress quickly became the uniform of metalheads worldwide .
Most bands of the NWOBHM had the same look as their fans and produced rock shows without special visual effects . A notable exception was Iron Maiden , which created the grisly character Eddie the Head as a stage prop to enrich their performances very early in their career . Other exceptions were Demon , Cloven Hoof and Samson , which used various props , costumes and tricks in their shows , while Pagan Altar and Venom became well known for their elaborate scenography inspired by shock rock and Satanism .
= = = Musical and lyrical elements = = =
The NWOBHM – comprising bands with very different influences and styles – was promoted as both a movement and a distinct music genre only in its formative years during the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1970s . Especially in those early years , what characterised the flood of new music was its raw sound , due in large part to low @-@ budget productions , but also to the amateurish talents of many young bands . Those young musicians were also linked by a shared inspiration from the works of the aforementioned successful heavy rock bands of the late 1960s and 1970s , and kept a sort of continuity with the earlier acts , whose music had temporarily gone out of fashion but was still thriving underground . However , the media of the 1980s and the promotional literature of record labels typically placed rock music that employed loud guitars but was not classifiable as " punk " under the blanket term " heavy metal " , subsuming the entire spectrum of NWOBHM bands within a single music genre .
Following a largely organic and uncalculated impulse , many of these new bands infused classic heavy metal with the immediacy of pub rock and the intensity of punk rock , implementing to various degrees the crossover of genres started by Motörhead ; in general they shunned ballads , de @-@ emphasised harmonies and produced shorter songs with fast tempos and a very aggressive sound based on riffs and power chords , featuring vocals ranging from high pitched wails to gruff and low growls . Iron Maiden , Angel Witch , Saxon , Holocaust , Tygers of Pan Tang , Girlschool , Tank and More are notable performers of this style , which bands such as Atomkraft , Jaguar , Raven and Venom stretched to produce even more extreme results . Critics consider this new approach to heavy metal the greatest musical accomplishment of the NWOBHM and an important evolutionary step for the genre .
A style more melodic and more akin to the hard rock of bands like Rainbow , Magnum , UFO , Thin Lizzy and Whitesnake was equally represented during the NWOBHM . The music of Def Leppard , Praying Mantis , White Spirit , Demon , Shy , Gaskin , Dedringer and many others , contained hooks as much as riffs , often retained a closer link with blues rock , included power ballads and featured keyboards , acoustic instruments and melodic and soaring vocals . After the peak of the movement in 1981 , this style was favoured by the media and gained greater acceptance among the British audience ; it became prevalent when bands usually playing the more aggressive style of metal adapted to the more popular sound , which resembled that of mainstream American acts . These changes in musical direction disoriented some fans and led them to reject those bands which were perceived as having compromised key elements of their musical identity in the pursuit of success .
These two styles do not exhaust all of the musical influences found in the British metal music of the early 1980s , because many bands were also inspired by progressive rock ( Iron Maiden , Diamond Head , Blitzkrieg , Demon , Saracen , Shiva , Witchfynde ) , boogie rock ( Saxon , Vardis , Spider , Le Griffe ) and glam rock ( Girl , Wrathchild ) . Doom metal bands Pagan Altar and Witchfinder General were also part of the NWOBHM and their albums are considered among the best examples of that already established subgenre .
British writer John Tucker writes that NWOBHM bands were in general fuelled by their first experiences with adult life and " their lyrics rolled everything into one big youthful fantasy " . They usually avoided social and political themes in their lyrics , or treated them in a shallow " street @-@ level " way , preferring topics from mythology , the occult , fantasy , science fiction and horror films . Songs about romance and lust were rare , but the frequent lyrics about male bonding and the rock lifestyle contain many sexist allusions . Christian symbolism is often present in the lyrics and cover art , as is the figure of Satan , used more as a shocking and macabre subject than as the antireligious device of 1990s ' black metal subculture .
= = History = =
= = = An underground movement ( 1975 – 78 ) = = =
Thin Lizzy , UFO and Judas Priest were already playing international arenas , when new heavy metal bands , composed of very young people , debuted in small venues in many cities in the UK . The country 's larger venues were usually reserved for chart @-@ topping disco music , because their use as rock music clubs was considered much less profitable . Like most British bands in the past , the new groups spent their formative years playing live in clubs , pubs , dance halls and social circles for low wages ; this training honed their skills , created a local fan base and enabled them to come in contact with managers and record label agents .
Angel Witch , Iron Maiden , Praying Mantis and Samson from London , Son of a Bitch ( later Saxon ) from Barnsley , Diamond Head from Stourbridge , Marseille from Liverpool , White Spirit from Hartlepool , Witchfynde from Derbyshire , Vardis from Wakefield , Def Leppard from Sheffield , Raven and Tygers of Pan Tang from around Newcastle , and Holocaust from Edinburgh were the most important metal bands founded between 1975 and 1977 that animated the club scene in their respective cities and towns . The first bands of the newborn musical movement competed for space in venues with punk outfits , often causing clubs to specialise , presenting only punk or only rock and hard rock . Differences in ideology , attitude and looks also caused heated rivalries between the two audiences . What punk and NWOBHM musicians had in common was their " do @-@ it @-@ yourself " attitude toward the music business and the consequent practice of self @-@ production and self @-@ distribution of recorded material in the form of audio cassette demos , or privately pressed singles , aimed initially at local supporters . It also led to the birth and diffusion of small independent record labels , often an extension of record shops and independent recording studios , which sometimes produced both punk and metal releases . Indie labels are considered important to the movement 's evolution , because they removed the intrusion of corporate business which had hindered rock music in the late 1970s , giving local bands the chance to experiment with more extreme forms of music .
While British and international media covered punk intensively , the new grassroots metal movement remained underground until 1978 , largely ignored by popular music magazines such as New Musical Express , The Face and Melody Maker and by radio stations . News about the bands and music circulated by word @-@ of @-@ mouth and fanzines , or through interested DJs , who travelled the country from club to club . Neal Kay was one of those DJs ; he started to work in 1975 at a disco club called The Bandwagon in Kingsbury , North West London , housed in the back @-@ room of the Prince of Wales pub and equipped with a massive sound system . He transformed his nights at The Bandwagon into The Heavy Metal Soundhouse , a spot specialising in hard rock and heavy metal music and a place to listen to albums of established acts and to demos of new bands , which circulated among fans through cassette trading . Besides participating in air guitar competitions and watching live shows , the audience could also vote for Kay 's selections . The DJ made a weekly Heavy Metal Top 100 list of the most requested songs at The Soundhouse , by both newcomers and established bands and sent it to record shops and to the music journal Sounds , the only paper that showed interest in the developing scene . Many young musicians realised that they were not alone in playing metal only through that weekly list , which included bands from all over the country . At the time , Geoff Barton was a staffer at Sounds who wrote features on the new up @-@ and @-@ coming metal bands and was pivotal in directing the developing subculture of metalheads with his articles . At the suggestion of his editor Alan Lewis and in an attempt to find a common stylistic element in the bands ' music , he used the term " New Wave of British Heavy Metal " for the first time in his review of a gig on the Metal Crusade tour featuring Angel Witch , Iron Maiden and Samson at The Music Machine in London on 8 May 1979 . The term soon became the identifier for the whole movement .
= = = First wave ( 1979 – 81 ) = = =
Compilation albums featuring bands from the nascent movement started to circulate , issued by Neat Records , Heavy Metal Records and Ebony Records , companies that became leaders in the independent metal label market during the 1980s . The fresh outlet of Neal Kay 's chart , the attention of Sounds and the many compilations issued by independent labels , focused the efforts of the new bands on producing demos and singles . Iron Maiden 's The Soundhouse Tapes is one of the best known collections of such demos . As Barton recalled : " There were hundreds of these bands . Maybe even thousands . Barely a day would go by without a clutch of new NWOBHM singles arriving in the Sounds office . "
Tommy Vance , a BBC radio host , took notice of the phenomenon and played singles by the new metal bands on his late night Friday Rock Show on BBC Radio 1 . Along with John Peel 's broadcast , Vance 's was the only corporate radio show to feature songs from underground metal acts , many of whom were invited to play live at BBC studios under the supervision of long @-@ time collaborator and producer , Tony Wilson . Alice 's Restaurant Rock Radio , a pirate FM radio station in London , also championed the new bands on air and with their own " roadshow " in rock pubs and clubs .
Despite the transition of the young bands from being local attractions to touring extensively in the UK , major record labels ' A & R agents still did not recognise the rising new trend . Thus , most new bands signed contracts with small independent labels , which could afford only limited printings of singles and albums and usually offered only national distribution . Many other bands , including Iron Maiden , Def Leppard and Diamond Head , self @-@ produced their first releases and sold them through mail order or at concerts . Saxon were the first to sign with an internationally distributed label , the French Carrere Records , followed by Def Leppard with Phonogram in August 1979 , and Iron Maiden with EMI in December 1979 . In early 1980 , EMI tested the market with the Neal Kay @-@ compiled album Metal for Muthas and a UK tour of the bands that had contributed to the compilation , eventually signing Angel Witch ( who were dropped after the release of their first single ) and Ethel the Frog .
Sounds gave Metal for Muthas a poor review , but the album was nevertheless a commercial success and may have been instrumental in encouraging major labels to sign a few more bands . A II Z , Fist , White Spirit and Praying Mantis were dropped after the release of their debut albums , while Tygers of Pan Tang , Samson , More , Demon and Girlschool had more success and lasted longer on major labels ' line @-@ ups . The new releases by these bands were better produced and some of them , with the support of intensive tours in the UK and Europe , obtained good chart results . The best chart performances of that period were for Iron Maiden 's debut album Iron Maiden and for Wheels of Steel by Saxon , which reached No. 4 and No. 5 on the UK Albums Chart respectively , while their singles " Running Free " , " Wheels of Steel " and " 747 ( Strangers in the Night ) " entered the UK Singles Chart Top 50 . The immediate consequence of that success was increased media coverage for metal bands , which included appearances on the British music TV shows Top of the Pops and The Old Grey Whistle Test . The emergence of many new bands in the period between 1978 and 1980 was another remarkable effect of the promotion of the movement to a relevant national phenomenon .
The momentum behind the NWOBHM also benefited already established bands , which reclaimed the spotlight with new and acclaimed releases . Ex @-@ Deep Purple singer Ian Gillan returned to sing heavy metal with the album Mr. Universe in 1979 and was on the forefront of the British metal scene with his band Gillan in the following years . His former Deep Purple band mate Ritchie Blackmore also climbed the UK charts with his hard rock group Rainbow 's releases Down to Earth ( 1979 ) and Difficult to Cure ( 1981 ) . Black Sabbath recovered and returned to success with the albums Heaven and Hell ( 1980 ) and Mob Rules ( 1981 ) , featuring the ex @-@ Rainbow singer Ronnie James Dio . 1980 saw several other entries by hard rock and heavy metal bands in the top 10 of the British charts : MSG 's first album peaked at No. 8 , Whitesnake 's Ready an ' Willing at No. 6 , Judas Priest 's best @-@ seller British Steel and Motörhead ' s Ace of Spades at No. 4 , while Back in Black by AC / DC reached number one .
As proof of the successful revival of the British hard rock and metal scene , tours and gigs of old and new acts were sold out , both at home and in other European countries , where the movement had spread . Groups arising from the NWOBHM were no longer precluded from world tours and were often chosen as opening acts for major bands in arenas and stadiums . Iron Maiden supported Kiss in Europe in 1980 , embarking on their first world tour as headliners in 1981 , as well as opening for Judas Priest and UFO in the US . Def Leppard visited the US for the first time in 1980 for a three @-@ month trek supporting Pat Travers , Judas Priest , Ted Nugent , AC / DC and Sammy Hagar . Saxon opened for Judas Priest in Europe and for Rush and AC / DC in the US in 1981 . NWOBHM bands were already present on the roster of the famous Reading Festival in 1980 , and were quickly promoted to headliners for the 1981 and 1982 events . The 1980 edition was also remarkable for the violent protests against Def Leppard , whose declared interest in the American market was received badly by British fans . In addition to Reading , a new festival called Monsters of Rock was created in 1980 at Castle Donington , England , to showcase only hard rock and heavy metal acts .
= = = Into the mainstream ( 1982 – 83 ) = = =
The NWOBHM eventually found space in newspapers and music magazines other than Sounds , as journalists caught up with the " next big thing " happening in the UK . Melody Maker even published a weekly heavy metal chart based on record shop sales . Sounds ' publisher exploited his support of the movement to launch the first issue of Kerrang ! , a colour magazine directed by Geoff Barton devoted exclusively to hard rock and heavy metal , in June 1981 . Kerrang ! was an unexpected success and soon became the reference magazine for metalheads worldwide , followed shortly by the American Circus and Hit Parader , the German Metal Hammer and the British Metal Forces . The attention of international media meant more record sales and more world tours for NWOBHM bands , whose albums entered many foreign charts . Their attempts to climb the British charts culminated in Iron Maiden 's The Number of the Beast topping the UK Albums Chart on 10 April 1982 and staying at number 1 for two weeks . The album charted at number 33 in the US , where the band acquired a reputation as Devil @-@ worshippers due to the album cover 's depiction of a hellish scene .
The success of the music produced by the movement and its passage from underground phenomenon to mainstream genre , prompted its main promoter Geoff Barton to declare the NWOBHM finished in 1981 . He felt disappointed by the low quality of the new bands and frustrated by the ease with which record labels exploited enthusiasm for heavy metal . Coincidentally , in the same year , the Bandwagon was closed and the Prince of Wales pub was subsequently demolished to build a restaurant . Although the movement had lost some of its appeal for diehard fans , as evidenced by the increased popularity of American @-@ influenced AOR releases on sales @-@ based national polls , it retained enough vitality to launch a second wave of bands , which rose from the underground and released their first albums in 1982 and 1983 .
NWOBHM bands had been touring steadily in the United States , but had not yet received enough FM radio airplay there to make a significant impression on American charts . Def Leppard remedied that , releasing Pyromania at the beginning of 1983 , an album with a more melodic and FM @-@ friendly approach in comparison with the more aggressive sound of their earlier music . The band 's goal of reaching a wider international audience , which included many female fans , was attained completely in the US , where Pyromania peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 chart behind Michael Jackson 's Thriller . Thanks to a string of hit singles and the heavy rotation of their music videos on the recently launched MTV , the album had sold more than six millions copies in the US by 1984 and made Def Leppard superstars . The overwhelming international success of Pyromania induced both American and British bands to follow Def Leppard 's example , giving a decisive boost to the more commercial and melodic glam metal and heralding the end of the NWOBHM .
= = = Decline = = =
The UK had been a home for music video pioneers . When MTV started broadcasting in 1982 , the importance of videos abruptly grew , changing from an occasional promotional fancy to an indispensable means of reaching an audience . MTV filled its programs with many hard rock and heavy metal videos , but these were too expensive for bands who either had no recording contract or had signed to small , independent labels . Moreover , music videos exalted the visual appeal of a band , an area where some British metal groups were deficient . So the NWOBHM suffered the same decline as other musical phenomena that were based on low @-@ budget productions and an underground following . Many of its leaders , such as Diamond Head , Tygers of Pan Tang , Angel Witch and Samson , were unable to follow up on their initial success ; their attempts to update their look and sound to match new expectations of the wider audience not only failed , but also alienated their original fans . By the mid @-@ 1980s , image @-@ driven , sex @-@ celebrating glam metal emanating from Hollywood 's Sunset Strip , spearheaded by Van Halen and followed by bands such as Mötley Crüe , Quiet Riot , Dokken , Great White , Ratt and W.A.S.P. , quickly replaced other styles of metal in the tastes of many British rock fans . New Jersey act Bon Jovi and the Swedish Europe , thanks to their successful fusion of hard rock and romantic pop , also became very popular in the UK , with the former even headlining the 1987 Monsters of Rock Festival . Record companies latched on to the more polished glam metal subgenre over the NWOBHM bands , which maintained a fan base elsewhere in Europe , but found themselves crowded out of the UK and US markets by the success of these American groups .
While the attention devoted to the NWOBHM bands waned , a new succession of far less mainstream metal subgenres began to emerge and attract many British metalheads . Power metal and thrash metal , both stemming from the NWOBHM and maintaining much of its ethos , were gaining critical acclaim and commercial success in the second half of the 1980s with their even faster and heavier sound . Bands such as Helloween , Savatage , Metallica , Slayer , Megadeth , and Anthrax captured much of the market share of those metalheads who were not content with the sound or style of more mainstream , pop @-@ oriented metal bands .
The N.W.O.B.H.M. Encyclopedia by Malc Macmillan lists more than 500 recording bands established in the decade between 1975 and 1985 and related to the movement . Probably as many bands were born in the same time interval , but never emerged from their local club scene , or recorded nothing more than demos or limited pressings of self @-@ produced singles . The disinterest of record labels , bad management , internal struggles and wrong musical choices that turned off much of their original fan base , resulted in most groups disbanding and disappearing by the end of the decade . A few of the best known groups , such as Praying Mantis in Japan and Saxon , Demon and Tokyo Blade in mainland Europe , survived in foreign markets . Some others , namely Raven , Girlschool and Grim Reaper , tried to break through in the US market signing with American labels , but their attempts were unsuccessful .
Two of the more popular bands of the movement , however , went on to considerable , lasting success . Iron Maiden has since become one of the most commercially successful and influential heavy metal bands of all time , even after adopting a more progressive style . Def Leppard became even more successful , targeting the American mainstream rock market with their more refined hard rock sound .
= = = Revival = = =
The widespread popularity of the Internet in the late 1990s / early 2000s helped NWOBHM fans and musicians to reconnect and rekindle their shared enthusiasm . The NWOBHM experienced a minor revival , highlighted by the good sales of old vinyl and collectibles and by the demand for new performances . Statements of appreciation by metal bands of the 1990s , the success of tribute bands , the re @-@ issues of old albums and the production of new thoroughly edited compilations , attracted the media 's attention and encouraged many of the original groups to reunite for festival appearances and tours . According to Macmillan and AllMusic reviewer Eduardo Rivadavia , probably the most important of those compilation albums was New Wave of British Heavy Metal ' 79 Revisited , compiled by Metallica 's drummer Lars Ulrich and former Sounds and Kerrang ! journalist Geoff Barton . It was released in 1990 as a double CD , featuring bands as obscure as Hollow Ground right through to the major acts of the era .
A new publication called Classic Rock , featuring Barton and many of the writers from Kerrang ! ' s first run , championed the NWOBHM revival and continues to focus much of its attention on rock acts from the 1980s . Starting in the 2000s , many reunited bands recorded new albums and revisited their original styles , abandoned in the second half of the 1980s . Their presence , at metal festivals and on the international rock club circuit , has been constant ever since .
= = Influences and legacy = =
The NWOBHM triggered a renaissance in a stagnant rock genre , but took on heavy criticism for the excessive local media hype surrounding a legion of typically mediocre musicians . Detractors think that , unlike heavy metal of the preceding decades , their music was unoriginal and included no classic rock recordings . Nevertheless , these bands and their diverse output offered a blueprint that counterparts across the Western world would later emulate and expand . The collision of styles that characterized the NWOBHM is now seen as key to the diversification of heavy metal in the second half of the 1980s into various subgenres that came to the fore in the 1990s . The stardom of Def Leppard in the US provided a catalyst for the growth of glam metal , just as bands like Angel Witch , Witchfynde , Cloven Hoof and especially Venom generated the music , lyrics , cover art and attitude that sparked black metal in its various forms in Europe and America . Motörhead , Iron Maiden , Raven , Tank , Venom and other minor groups are viewed as precursors of speed metal and thrash metal , two subgenres which carried forward the crossover with punk , incorporating elements of hardcore while amplifying volume , velocity and aggressive tone . Starting around 1982 , distant points such as North America , West Germany , and Brazil each became the locus of its own distinctive thrash metal scenes – East Coast and Bay Area , Teutonic , and Brazilian thrash metal . Their debt to the NWOBHM was acknowledged for example by Metallica 's Lars Ulrich , an active fan and avid collector of NWOBHM recordings and memorabilia . Under his influence , the set lists of Metallica 's early shows were filled with covers of British metal groups . The sound of the NWOBHM even " cross @-@ pollinated " a subgenre of punk , as UK 82 street punk bands like Discharge blended punk music with elements of metal .
The birth of speed metal in the early 1980s was also pivotal for the evolution of power metal in the latter half of the decade , as exemplified by Helloween from Germany , and Manowar , Savatage , and Virgin Steele from the US .
Since the beginning of the NWOBHM , North American bands like Anvil , Riot , Twisted Sister , Manowar , Virgin Steele , The Rods , Hellion , Cirith Ungol , and Exciter had a continuous exchange with the other side of the Atlantic , where their music was appreciated by British metalheads . In this climate of reciprocity , Manowar and Virgin Steele initially signed with the British indie label Music for Nations , while Twisted Sister recorded their first two albums in London .
The sound of Japanese bands Earthshaker , Loudness , Anthem and other minor groups was also influenced by the NWOBHM , whose British sound engineers were used for their early albums . The Japanese band Bow Wow even transferred to England to be part of the British metal scene .
Germany , Sweden , Denmark , Belgium , Netherlands , France and Spain promptly welcomed the new British bands and spawned imitators almost immediately . Acts like Accept , Grave Digger , Sinner and Warlock from Germany , E. F. Band from Sweden , Mercyful Fate from Denmark , Killer and Ostrogoth from Belgium , Picture and Bodine from the Netherlands , Trust and Nightmare from France , and Barón Rojo and Ángeles del Infierno from Spain , formed between 1978 and 1982 and were heavily influenced by the sound of the NWOBHM . Many of these bands signed with the Dutch Roadrunner Records or with the Belgian Mausoleum Records , independent labels that also published recordings of British NWOBHM acts .
= = = Filmography = = =
= = = Websites = = =
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= Philip Seymour Hoffman =
Philip Seymour Hoffman ( July 23 , 1967 – February 2 , 2014 ) was an American actor , director , and producer of film and theater . Best known for his distinctive supporting and character roles Hoffman was a regular presence in films from the early 1990s until his death at age 46 .
Drawn to theater as a teenager , Hoffman studied acting at New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts . He began his screen career in a 1991 episode of Law & Order and started to appear in films in 1992 . He gained recognition for his supporting work throughout the decade , notably in Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , Happiness ( 1998 ) , The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) , Magnolia ( 1999 ) , and The Talented Mr. Ripley ( 1999 ) . He began to occasionally play leading roles , and for his portrayal of the author Truman Capote in Capote ( 2005 ) , won multiple accolades including the Academy Award for Best Actor . Hoffman 's profile continued to grow , and he received three more Oscar nominations for his supporting work as a brutally frank CIA officer in Charlie Wilson 's War ( 2007 ) , a priest accused of pedophilia in Doubt ( 2008 ) , and the charismatic leader of a Scientology @-@ type movement in The Master ( 2012 ) .
While he mainly worked in independent films , including The Savages ( 2007 ) and Synecdoche , New York ( 2008 ) , Hoffman also appeared in Hollywood blockbusters , such as Twister ( 1996 ) and Mission : Impossible III ( 2006 ) , and , in one of his final roles , as Plutarch Heavensbee in the Hunger Games series ( 2013 – 15 ) . The feature Jack Goes Boating ( 2010 ) marked his debut as a filmmaker . Hoffman was also an accomplished theater actor and director . He joined the off @-@ Broadway LAByrinth Theater Company in 1995 , where he directed , produced , and appeared in numerous stage productions . His performances in three Broadway plays – True West ( 2000 ) , Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 2003 ) , and Death of a Salesman ( 2012 ) – all led to Tony Award nominations .
Hoffman struggled with drug addiction as a young adult , and relapsed in 2013 after many years of sobriety . In February 2014 , he was found dead with a syringe of heroin still in his arm , but official cause of death was combined drug intoxication – an unexpected event that was widely lamented in the film and theater industries . Remembered for his fearlessness in playing reprehensible characters , and for bringing depth and humanity to such roles , Hoffman was described in his New York Times obituary as " perhaps the most ambitious and widely admired American actor of his generation " .
= = Early life = =
Hoffman was born on July 23 , 1967 , in the Rochester suburb of Fairport , New York . His mother , Marilyn O 'Connor ( née Loucks ) , came from nearby Waterloo and worked as an elementary school teacher before becoming a lawyer and eventually a family court judge . His father , Gordon Stowell Hoffman , was a native of Geneva , New York , and worked for the Xerox Corporation . Along with one brother , Gordy , Hoffman had two sisters , Jill and Emily .
Hoffman was baptized a Roman Catholic and attended mass as a child , but did not have a heavily religious upbringing . His parents divorced when he was nine , leaving the children to be raised primarily by their mother . Hoffman 's childhood passion was sports , particularly wrestling and baseball , but at age 12 he saw a stage production of Arthur Miller 's All My Sons and was transfixed . He recalled in 2008 , " I was changed – permanently changed – by that experience . It was like a miracle to me " . Hoffman developed a love for the theater , and proceeded to attend regularly with his mother , who was a lifelong enthusiast . He remembered that productions of Quilters and Alms for the Middle Class , the latter starring a teenage Robert Downey , Jr . , were also particularly inspirational . At the age of 14 , Hoffman suffered a neck injury that ended his sporting activity , and he began to consider acting . Encouraged by his mother , he joined a drama club , and initially committed to it because he was attracted to a female member .
Acting gradually became a passion for Hoffman : " I loved the camaraderie of it , the people , and that 's when I decided it was what I wanted to do . " At the age of 17 , he was selected to attend the 1984 New York State Summer School of the Arts in Saratoga Springs , where he met his future collaborators Bennett Miller and Dan Futterman . Miller later commented on Hoffman 's popularity at the time : " We were attracted to the fact that he was genuinely serious about what he was doing . Even then , he was passionate . " Hoffman applied for several drama degree programs and was accepted to New York University 's ( NYU ) Tisch School of the Arts . Between starting on the program and graduating from Fairport High School , he continued his training at the Circle in the Square Theatre 's summer program . Hoffman had positive memories of his time at NYU , where he supported himself by working as an usher . With friends , he co @-@ founded the Bullstoi Ensemble acting troupe . He received a drama degree in 1989 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career ( 1991 – 95 ) = = =
After graduating , Hoffman worked in off @-@ Broadway theater and made additional money with customer service jobs . He made his screen debut in 1991 , in a Law & Order episode called " The Violence of Summer " , playing a man accused of rape . His first cinema role came the following year , when he was credited as " Phil Hoffman " in the independent film Triple Bogey on a Par Five Hole . After this , he adopted his grandfather 's name , Seymour , to avoid confusion with another actor . More film roles promptly followed , with appearances in the studio production My New Gun , and a small role in the comedy Leap of Faith , starring Steve Martin . Following these roles , he gained attention playing a spoiled student in the Oscar @-@ winning Al Pacino film Scent of a Woman ( 1992 ) . Hoffman auditioned five times for his role , which The Guardian journalist Ryan Gilbey says gave him an early opportunity " to indulge his skill for making unctuousness compelling " . The film earned US $ 134 million worldwide and was the first to get Hoffman noticed . Reflecting on Scent of a Woman , Hoffman later said " If I hadn 't gotten into that film , I wouldn 't be where I am today . " It was only at this time that he abandoned his job in a delicatessen to become a professional actor .
Hoffman continued playing small roles throughout the early 1990s . After appearing in Joey Breaker and the critically panned teen zombie picture My Boyfriend 's Back , he had a more notable role playing John Cusack 's wealthy friend in the crime comedy Money for Nothing . In 1994 , he portrayed an inexperienced mobster in the crime thriller The Getaway , starring Alec Baldwin and Kim Basinger , and appeared with Andy García and Meg Ryan in the romantic drama When a Man Loves a Woman . He then played a police deputy who gets punched by Paul Newman – one of Hoffman 's acting idols – in the drama Nobody 's Fool .
Still considering stage work to be fundamental to his career , Hoffman joined the LAByrinth Theater Company of New York City in 1995 . It was an association that lasted the remainder of his life ; along with appearing in multiple productions , he later became co @-@ artistic director of the theater company with John Ortiz and directed various plays over the years . Hoffman 's only film appearance of 1995 was in the 22 @-@ minute short comedy The Fifteen Minute Hamlet , which satirized the film industry in an Elizabethan setting . He played the characters of Bernardo , Horatio , and Laertes alongside Austin Pendleton 's Hamlet .
= = = A rising actor ( 1996 – 99 ) = = =
Between April and May 1996 , Hoffman appeared at the Joseph Papp Public Theater in a Mark Wing @-@ Davey production of Caryl Churchill 's The Skriker . Following this , based on his work in Scent of a Woman , he was cast by writer – director Paul Thomas Anderson to appear in his debut feature Hard Eight ( 1996 ) . Hoffman had only a brief role in the crime thriller , playing a cocksure young craps player , but it began the most important collaboration of his career . Before cementing his creative partnership with Anderson , Hoffman appeared in one of the year 's biggest blockbusters , Twister , playing a grubby , hyperactive storm chaser alongside Helen Hunt and Bill Paxton . According to a People magazine survey of Twitter and Facebook users , Twister is the film that Hoffman is most popularly associated with . He then reunited with Anderson for the director 's second feature , Boogie Nights , about the Golden Age of Pornography . The ensemble @-@ piece starred Mark Wahlberg , Julianne Moore and Burt Reynolds ; Hoffman played a boom operator , described by David Fear of Rolling Stone as a " complete , unabashed loser " , who attempts to seduce Wahlberg 's character . Warmly received by critics , the film grew into a cult classic and it has been cited as the role in which Hoffman first showed his full ability . Fear commended the " naked emotional neediness " of the performance , adding that it made for compulsive viewing . Hoffman later expressed his appreciation for Anderson when he called the director " incomparable " .
Continuing with this momentum , Hoffman appeared in five films in 1998 . He had supporting roles in the crime thriller Montana and the romantic comedy Next Stop Wonderland , both of which were commercial failures , before working with the Coen brothers in their dark comedy The Big Lebowski . Hoffman had long been a fan of the directors and relished the experience of working with them . Appearing alongside Jeff Bridges and John Goodman , Hoffman played Brandt , the smug personal assistant of the titular character . Although it was only a small role , he claimed it was one that he was most recognized for , in a film that has achieved cult status and a large fan @-@ base . Between March and April 1998 , Hoffman made 30 appearances on stage at the New York Theatre Workshop in a production of Mark Ravenhill 's Shopping and Fucking , portraying an ex @-@ heroin addict .
Hoffman took an unflattering role in Todd Solondz 's Happiness ( 1998 ) , a misanthropic comedy about the lives of three sisters and those around them . He played Allen , a strange loner who makes crude phone calls to women ; the character furiously masturbates during one conversation , producing what film scholar Jerry Mosher calls an " embarrassingly raw performance " . Jake Coyle of the Associated Press rated Allen as one of the creepiest characters in American cinema , but critic Xan Brooks highlighted the pathos that Hoffman brought to the role . Happiness was controversial but widely praised , and Hoffman 's role has been cited by critics as one of his best . His final 1998 release was more mainstream , as he appeared as a medical graduate in the Robin Williams comedy Patch Adams . The film was critically panned but one of the highest @-@ grossing of Hoffman 's career . In 1999 , Hoffman starred opposite Robert De Niro as drag queen Rusty Zimmerman in Joel Schumacher 's drama Flawless . Hoffman considered De Niro the most imposing actor that he had appeared with , and felt that working with the veteran performer profoundly improved his own acting . Hoffman 's ability to avoid clichés in playing such a delicate role was noted by critics , and Roger Ebert said it confirmed him as " one of the best new character actors " . He was rewarded with his first Screen Actors Guild Award nomination . Hoffman then reunited with Paul Thomas Anderson , where he was given an atypically virtuous role in the ensemble drama Magnolia . The film , set over one day in Los Angeles , features Hoffman as a nurse who cares for Jason Robards ' character . The performance was approved of by the medical industry , and Jessica Winter of the Village Voice considered it Hoffman 's most indelible work , likening him to a guardian angel in his caring for the dying father . Magnolia has been included in lists of the greatest films of all time , and it was a personal favorite of Hoffman 's .
One of the most critically and commercially successful films of Hoffman 's career was The Talented Mr. Ripley ( 1999 ) , which he considered " as edgy as you can get for a Hollywood movie " . He played a " preppy bully " who taunts Matt Damon 's Ripley in the thriller , a character which Jeff Simon of The Buffalo News called " the truest upper class twit in all of American movies " . Hoffman 's performance caught the attention of Meryl Streep – another of his cinematic idols – with his performance : " I sat up straight in my seat and said , ' Who is that ? ' I thought to myself : My God , this actor is fearless . He 's done what we all strive for – he 's given this awful character the respect he deserves , and he 's made him fascinating . " In recognition of his work in Magnolia and The Talented Mr. Ripley , Hoffman was named the year 's Best Supporting Actor by the National Board of Review .
= = = Theatrical success and leading roles ( 2000 – 04 ) = = =
Following a string of roles in successful films in the late 1990s , Hoffman had established a reputation as a top supporting player who could be relied on to make an impression with each performance . His film appearances were likened by David Kamp of GQ to " discovering a prize in a box of cereal , receiving a bonus , or bumping unexpectedly into an old friend " . According to Jerry Mosher , as the year 2000 began , " it seemed Hoffman was everywhere , poised on the cusp of stardom " .
Hoffman had begun to be recognized as a theater actor in 1999 , when he received a Drama Desk Award nomination for Outstanding Featured Actor for the off @-@ Broadway play The Author 's Voice . This success continued with the 2000 Broadway revival of Sam Shepard 's True West , where Hoffman alternated roles nightly with co @-@ star John C. Reilly , making 154 appearances between March and July 2000 . Ben Brantley of The New York Times felt that it was the best stage performance of Hoffman 's career , calling him " brilliant " , and the actor earned a Tony Award nomination for Best Actor in a Play . The following year , Hoffman appeared with Meryl Streep , Natalie Portman and John Goodman in a Delacorte Theater production of Chekhov 's The Seagull – although Brantley felt that this performance was less fully realized . As a stage director , Hoffman received two Drama Desk Award nominations for Outstanding Director of a Play : one for Jesus Hopped the ' A ' Train in 2001 ; another for Our Lady of 121st Street in 2003 . In a 2008 interview , Hoffman opined that " switching hats " between acting and directing helped him improve in both roles .
David Mamet 's comedy State and Main , about the difficulties of shooting a film in rural New England , was Hoffman 's first film role of 2000 and had a limited release . He had a more prominent supporting role that year in Almost Famous , Cameron Crowe 's popular coming @-@ of @-@ age film set around the 1970s music industry . Hoffman portrayed the enthusiastic rock critic Lester Bangs , a task that he felt burdened by , but he managed to convey the real figure 's mannerisms and sharp wit after watching him in a BBC interview . The following year , Hoffman featured as the narrator and interviewer in The Party 's Over , a documentary about the 2000 U.S. elections . He assumed the position of a " politically informed and alienated Generation @-@ Xer " who seeks to be educated in U.S. politics , but ultimately reveals the extent of public dissatisfaction in this area .
In 2002 , Hoffman was given his first leading role ( despite joking at the time " Even if I was hired into a leading @-@ man part , I 'd probably turn it into the non @-@ leading @-@ man part " ) in Todd Louiso 's tragicomedy Love Liza ( 2002 ) . His brother Gordy wrote the script , which Hoffman had seen at their mother 's house five years earlier , about a widower who starts sniffing gasoline to cope with his wife 's suicide . He considered it the finest piece of writing he had ever read , " incredibly humble in its exploration of grief " , but critics were less enthusiastic about the production . A review for the BBC wrote that Hoffman had finally been given a part that showed " what he 's truly capable of " , but few witnessed this as the film had a limited release and earned only US $ 210 @,@ 000 .
Later in 2002 , Hoffman starred opposite Adam Sandler and Emily Watson in Anderson 's critically acclaimed fourth picture , the surrealist romantic comedy @-@ drama Punch @-@ Drunk Love ( 2002 ) , where he played an illegal phone @-@ sex " supervisor " . Drew Hunt of the Chicago Reader saw the performance as a fine example of Hoffman 's " knack for turning small roles into seminal performances " , and praised the actor 's comedic ability . In a very different film , Hoffman was next seen with Anthony Hopkins in the high @-@ budget thriller Red Dragon , a prequel to The Silence of the Lambs , portraying the meddlesome tabloid journalist Freddy Lounds . His fourth appearance of 2002 came in Spike Lee 's drama 25th Hour , playing an English teacher who makes a devastating drunken mistake . Both Lee and the film 's lead Edward Norton were thrilled to work with Hoffman , and Lee confessed that he had long wanted to do a picture with the actor but had waited until he found the right role . Hoffman considered his character , Jakob , to be one of the most reticent characters he had ever played , a straight @-@ laced " corduroy @-@ pants @-@ wearing kind of guy . " Roger Ebert promoted 25th Hour to one of his " Great Movies " in 2009 , and along with A. O. Scott , considered it to be one of the best films of the 2000s .
The drama Owning Mahowny ( 2003 ) gave Hoffman his second lead role , starring opposite Minnie Driver as a bank employee who embezzles money to feed his gambling addiction . Based on the true story of Toronto banker Brian Molony , who committed the largest fraud in Canadian history , Hoffman met with Molony to prepare for the role and help him play the character as accurately as possible . He was determined not to conform to " movie character " stereotypes , and his portrayal of addiction won approval from the Royal College of Psychiatrists . Roger Ebert assessed Hoffman 's performance as " a masterpiece of discipline and precision " , but the film earned little at the box office .
Hoffman 's second 2003 appearance was a small role in Anthony Minghella 's successful Civil War epic Cold Mountain . He played an immoral preacher , a complex character that Hoffman described as a " mass of contradictions " . The same year , from April to August , he appeared with Vanessa Redgrave in a Broadway revival of Eugene O 'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night . Director Robert Falls later commented on the dedication and experience that Hoffman brought to his role of alcoholic Jamie Tyrone : " Every night he ripped it up to an extent that he couldn 't leave [ the role ] . Phil carried it with him . " Hoffman received his second Tony Award nomination , this time for Best Featured Actor in a Play . In 2004 , he appeared as the crude , has @-@ been actor friend of Ben Stiller 's character in the box office hit Along Came Polly . Reflecting on the role , People magazine said it proved that " Hoffman could deliver comedic performances with the best of them " .
= = = Critical acclaim ( 2005 – 09 ) = = =
A turning point in Hoffman 's career came with the biographical film Capote ( 2005 ) , which dramatized Truman Capote 's experience of writing his true crime novel In Cold Blood ( 1966 ) . Hoffman took the title role , in a project that he co @-@ produced and helped come to fruition . Portraying the idiosyncratic writer proved highly demanding , requiring significant weight loss and four months of research – such as watching video clips of Capote to help him affect the author 's effeminate voice and mannerisms . Hoffman stated that he was not concerned with perfectly imitating Capote 's speech , but did feel a great duty to " express the vitality and the nuances " of the writer . During filming , he stayed in character constantly so as not to lose the voice and posture : " Otherwise " , he explained , " I would give my body a chance to bail on me . " Capote was released to great acclaim , particularly regarding Hoffman 's performance . Many critics commented that the role was designed to win awards , and indeed Hoffman received an Oscar , Golden Globe , Screen Actors Guild Award , BAFTA , and various other critics ' awards . In 2006 , Premiere magazine listed his role in Capote as the 35th greatest movie performance of all time . After the film , several commentators began to describe Hoffman as one of the finest , most ambitious actors of his generation .
Hoffman received his only Primetime Emmy Award nomination for his supporting role in the HBO miniseries Empire Falls ( 2005 ) , about life in a New England town , but lost to castmate Paul Newman . In 2006 , he appeared in the summer blockbuster Mission : Impossible III , playing the villainous arms dealer Owen Davian opposite Tom Cruise . A journalist for Vanity Fair stated that Hoffman 's " black @-@ hat performance was one of the most delicious in a Hollywood film since Alan Rickman 's in Die Hard " , and he was generally approved of for bringing gravitas to the action film . With a gross of nearly US $ 400 million , it exposed Hoffman to a mainstream audience .
Returning to independent films in 2007 , Hoffman began with a starring role in Tamara Jenkins 's The Savages , where he and Laura Linney played siblings responsible for putting their dementia @-@ ridden father ( Philip Bosco ) in a care home . Jake Coyle of the Associated Press stated that it was " the epitome of a Hoffman film : a mix of comedy and tragedy told with subtlety , bone @-@ dry humor and flashes of grace " . Hoffman next received a Golden Globe nomination for his performance in Before the Devil Knows You 're Dead , the final film by veteran director Sidney Lumet , where he played a realtor who embezzles funds from his employer to support his drug habit . Mosher comments that the character was one of the most unpleasant of Hoffman 's career , but that his " fearlessness again revealed the humanity within a deeply flawed character " as he appeared naked in the opening anal sex scene . The film was viewed positively by critics as a powerful and affecting thriller .
Mike Nichols 's political film Charlie Wilson 's War ( 2007 ) gave Hoffman his second Academy Award nomination . It was again for playing a real individual – Gust Avrakotos , the CIA agent who conspired with Congressman Charlie Wilson ( played by Tom Hanks ) to aid Afghani rebels in their fight against the Soviet Union . Todd McCarthy wrote of Hoffman 's performance : " Decked out with a pouffy ' 80s hairdo , moustache , protruding gut and ever @-@ present smokes ... whenever he 's on , the picture vibrates with conspiratorial electricity . " The film was a critical and commercial success , and along with his Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor , Hoffman was nominated for a BAFTA and a Golden Globe Award .
The year 2008 contained two significant Hoffman roles . In Charlie Kaufman 's enigmatic drama Synecdoche , New York , he starred as Caden Cotard , a frustrated dramatist who attempts to build a scale replica of New York inside a warehouse for a play . Hoffman again showed his willingness to reveal unattractive traits , as the character ages and deteriorates , and committed to a deeply psychological role . Critics were divided in their response to the " ambitious and baffling " film . Sonny Bunch of The Washington Times found it " impressionistic , inaccessible and endlessly frustrating " , likening Hoffman 's character to " God , if God lacked imagination " . Roger Ebert , on the contrary , named it the best film of the decade and considered it one of the greatest of all time , and Robbie Collin , film critic for The Daily Telegraph , believes Hoffman gave one of cinema 's best performances .
Hoffman 's second role of the year came opposite Meryl Streep and Amy Adams in John Patrick Shanley 's Doubt , where he played Father Brendan Flynn – a priest accused of sexually abusing a 12 @-@ year @-@ old African @-@ American student in the 1960s . Hoffman was already familiar with the play and appreciated the opportunity to bring it to the screen ; in preparing for the role , he talked extensively to a priest who lived through the era . The film had a mixed reception , with some critics such as Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian suspicious of it as Oscar bait , but Hoffman gained second consecutive Best Supporting Actor nominations at the Oscars , BAFTAs and Golden Globes , and was also nominated by the Screen Actors Guild .
On stage in 2009 , Hoffman played Iago in Peter Sellars ' futuristic production of Othello ( with the title role by John Ortiz ) , which received mixed reviews . Ben Brantley , theatre critic of The New York Times found it to be " exasperatingly misconceived " , remarking that even when Hoffman is attempting to " manipulate others into self @-@ destruction , he comes close to spoiling everything by erupting into genuine , volcanic fury " . Hoffman also did his first vocal performance for the claymation film Mary and Max , although the film did not initially have an American release . He played the male title character , a depressed New Yorker with Asperger syndrome , while Toni Collette voiced Mary – the Australian girl who becomes his pen pal . Continuing with animation , Hoffman then worked on an episode of the children 's show Arthur and received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Performer In An Animated Program . Later in the year , he played a brash American DJ opposite Bill Nighy and Rhys Ifans in Richard Curtis 's British comedy The Boat That Rocked ( also known as Pirate Radio ) – a character based on Emperor Rosko , a host of Radio Caroline in 1966 . He also had a cameo role as a bartender in Ricky Gervais 's The Invention of Lying .
Reflecting on Hoffman 's work in the late 2000s , Mosher writes that the actor remained impressive but had not delivered a testing performance on the level of his work in Capote . The film critic David Thomson believed that Hoffman showed indecisiveness at this time , unsure whether to play spectacular supporting roles or become a lead actor who is capable of controlling the emotional dynamic and outcome of a film .
= = = Final years ( 2010 – 14 ) = = =
Hoffman 's profile continued to grow with the new decade , and he became an increasingly recognizable figure . Despite earlier reservations about directing for the screen , his first release of the 2010s was also his first as a film director . The independent drama Jack Goes Boating was adapted from Robert Glaudini 's play of the same name , which Hoffman had starred in and directed for the LAByrinth Theater Company in 2007 . He originally intended only to direct the film , but decided to reprise the main role of Jack – a lonely limousine driver looking for love – after the actor he wanted for it was unavailable . The low @-@ key film had a limited release , and was not a high earner , though it received many positive reviews . However , Dave Edwards of the Daily Mirror remarked that " Hoffman 's directing debut delivers a film so weak I could barely remember what it was about as I left " , while critic Mark Kermode appreciated the cinematic qualities that Hoffman brought to the film , and stated that he showed potential as a director . In addition to Jack Goes Boating , in 2010 Hoffman also directed Brett C. Leonard 's tragic drama The Long Red Road for the Goodman Theatre in Chicago . Steven Oxman of Variety described the production as " heavy handed " and " predictable " , but " intriguing and at least partially successful " .
Hoffman next had significant supporting roles in two films , both released in the last third of 2011 . In Moneyball , a sports drama about the 2002 season of the baseball team Oakland Athletics , he played the manager Art Howe . The film was a critical and commercial success , and Hoffman was described as " perfectly cast " by Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post , but the real @-@ life Art Howe accused the filmmakers of giving an " unfair and untrue " portrayal of him . Hoffman 's second film of the year was George Clooney 's political drama The Ides of March , in which he played the earnest campaign manager to the Democratic presidential candidate Mike Morris ( Clooney ) . The film was well @-@ received and Hoffman 's performance , especially in the scenes opposite Paul Giamatti – who played the rival campaign manager – was positively noted . Hoffman 's work on the film earned him his fourth BAFTA Award nomination .
In the spring of 2012 , Hoffman made his final stage appearance , starring as Willy Loman in a Broadway revival of Death of a Salesman . Directed by Mike Nichols , the production ran for 78 performances and was the highest @-@ grossing show in the Ethel Barrymore Theatre 's history . Many critics felt that Hoffman , at 44 , was too young for the role of 62 @-@ year @-@ old Loman , and Chris Jones of the Chicago Tribune felt that the character had been interpreted poorly . Hoffman admitted that he found the role difficult , but he nevertheless earned his third Tony Award nomination .
Hoffman collaborated with Paul Thomas Anderson for the fifth time in The Master ( 2012 ) , where he turned in what critic Peter Bradshaw considered the most memorable performance of his career . Set in 1950s America , the film featured Hoffman as Lancaster Dodd , the charismatic leader of a nascent Scientology @-@ type movement who brings a troubled man ( Joaquin Phoenix ) under his tutelage . Hoffman was instrumental in the project 's development , having been involved with it for three years . He assisted Anderson in the writing of the script by reviewing samples of it , and suggested making Phoenix 's character , Freddie Quell , the protagonist instead of Dodd . A talented dancer , Hoffman was able to showcase his abilities by performing a jig during a surreal sequence ; Bradshaw called it an " extraordinary moment " that " only Hoffman could have carried off . " The Master was praised as an intelligent and challenging drama , and Drew Hunt of the Chicago Reader also felt that it contained Hoffman 's finest work : " He 's inscrutable yet welcoming , intimidating yet charismatic , villainous yet fatherly . He epitomizes so many things at once that it 's impossible to think of [ Dodd ] as mere movie character " . Hoffman and Phoenix received a joint Volpi Cup Award at the Venice Film Festival for their performances , and Hoffman was also nominated for an Academy Award , a Golden Globe , a BAFTA Award and a SAG Award for the supporting role .
A Late Quartet was Hoffman 's other film release of 2012 , where he played a violinist in a string quartet whose members ( played by Christopher Walken , Catherine Keener and Mark Ivanir ) face a crisis when one is diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease . The drama received favorable reviews , and Stephen Holden of The New York Times called Hoffman 's performance " exceptional " . In 2013 , Hoffman joined the popular Hunger Games series in its second film , The Hunger Games : Catching Fire , where he played gamemaker Plutarch Heavensbee . The film finished as the tenth @-@ highest grossing in history to that point , and made Hoffman recognizable to a new generation of film @-@ goers . In January 2014 , shortly before his death , he attended the Sundance Film Festival to promote two films . In Anton Corbijn 's A Most Wanted Man , a thriller based on John le Carré 's novel , Hoffman played a German intelligence officer . His performance was praised by Xan Brooks as one of " terrific , lip @-@ smacking relish : full of mischief , anchored by integrity . " The other was God 's Pocket , the directorial debut of actor John Slattery , in which Hoffman played a thief . In November 2014 , nine months after his death , Hoffman was seen in The Hunger Games : Mockingjay – Part 1 .
At the time of his death , Hoffman was filming The Hunger Games : Mockingjay – Part 2 , the final film in the series , and had already completed the majority of his scenes . His two remaining scenes were rewritten to compensate for his absence , and the film was released in November 2015 . Hoffman was also preparing for his second directorial effort , a Prohibition @-@ era drama titled Ezekiel Moss , which was to star Amy Adams and Jake Gyllenhaal . In addition , he had filmed a pilot episode for the Showtime series Happyish , in which he played the lead role of an advertising executive , but plans for a full season were put on hold following his death . The role was later passed on to Steve Coogan .
= = Personal life = =
Hoffman rarely mentioned his personal life in interviews , stating in 2012 that he would " rather not because my family doesn 't have any choice . If I talk about them in the press , I 'm giving them no choice . So I choose not to . " For the last 14 years of his life , he was in a relationship with costume designer Mimi O 'Donnell , whom he had met in 1999 when they were both working on the play In Arabia We 'd All Be Kings , which Hoffman directed . They lived in New York City and had a son , Cooper ( 2003 ) , and two daughters , Tallulah ( 2006 ) and Willa ( 2008 ) . Hoffman and O 'Donnell separated in the fall of 2013 , some months before his death .
Hoffman was also discreet about his religious and political beliefs , but it is known that he voted for the Green Party candidate Ralph Nader in the 2000 presidential election . He felt that keeping his personal life private was beneficial to his career : " The less you know about me the more interesting it will be to watch me do what I do " .
In a 2006 interview with 60 Minutes , Hoffman revealed he had engaged in drug and alcohol abuse during his time at New York University , saying he had used " anything I could get my hands on . I liked it all . " Following his graduation in 1989 , he entered a drug rehabilitation program at age 22 , and remained sober for 23 years . However , he relapsed in 2013 , and admitted himself to drug rehabilitation for approximately 10 days in May of that year .
= = Death and legacy = =
Although friends stated that Hoffman 's drug use was under control at the time , on February 2 , 2014 he was found dead in the bathroom of his Manhattan apartment by a friend – playwright and screenwriter David Bar Katz . Hoffman was 46 years old . Detectives searching the apartment found heroin and prescription medications at the scene , and revealed that he was discovered with a syringe in his arm . The death was officially ruled an accident caused by " acute mixed drug intoxication , including heroin , cocaine , benzodiazepines and amphetamine " . It was not determined whether Hoffman had taken all of the substances on the same day , or whether any of the substances had remained in his system from earlier use . A funeral was held at St. Ignatius Loyola church in Manhattan on February 7 , 2014 and was attended by many of his former co @-@ stars .
Hoffman 's unexpected death was widely lamented by fans and the film industry , and was described by several commentators as a considerable loss to the profession . On February 5 , 2014 , the LAByrinth Theatre Company honored his memory by holding a candlelight vigil , and Broadway dimmed its lights for one minute . In another tribute , actress Cate Blanchett dedicated her BAFTA trophy to Hoffman when she received the award for Blue Jasmine on February 16 . Three weeks after Hoffman 's death , David Bar Katz established the American Playwriting Foundation in the actor 's memory . With the money received from a libel lawsuit against the National Enquirer ( which had inaccurately published that Hoffman and Katz were lovers ) , the foundation awards an annual prize of US $ 45 @,@ 000 to the author of an unproduced play . Katz named this the " Relentless Prize " in honor of Hoffman 's dedication to the profession . Regarding his material legacy , Hoffman left his entire fortune ( approximately US $ 35 million ) to Mimi O 'Donnell in his October 2004 will , trusting her to distribute money to their children .
= = Reception and acting style = =
Hoffman was held in high regard within the film and theater industry , and cited in the media as one of the finest actors of his generation . Despite this status among his peers and critics , he was never one of the most popular film stars , and has been overlooked in lists of all @-@ time greatest actors . He was not a typical movie actor , with a pudgy build and lacking matinée idol looks , but Hoffman claimed that he was grateful for his appearance as it made him believable in a wide range of roles . Joel Schumacher once said of him in 2000 , " The bad news is that Philip won 't be a $ 25 @-@ million star . The good news is that he 'll work for the rest of his life " . The Aiken Standard of South Carolina referred to him as an " anti @-@ star " , whose real identity remained " amorphous and unmoored " . Hoffman was acutely aware that he was often too unorthodox for the Academy voters . He remarked , " I 'm sure that people in the big corporations that run Hollywood don 't know quite what to do with someone like me , but that 's OK . I think there are other people who are interested in what I do . "
Most of Hoffman 's notable roles came in arthouse films , including particularly original ones , but he also featured in several Hollywood blockbusters . He generally played supporting roles , appearing in both dramas and comedies , but was noted for his ability to make small parts memorable . Peter Bradshaw , film critic for The Guardian , felt that " Almost every single one of his credits had something special about it " . Hoffman was praised for his versatility and ability to fully inhabit any role , but specialized in playing creeps and misfits : " his CV was populated almost exclusively by snivelling wretches , insufferable prigs , braggarts and outright bullies " , writes the journalist Ryan Gilbey . Hoffman was appreciated for making these roles real , complex and even sympathetic ; while Todd Louiso , director of Love Liza , believed that Hoffman connected to people on screen because he looked like an ordinary man and revealed his vulnerability . Xan Brooks of The Guardian remarked that the actor 's particular talent was to " take thwarted , twisted humanity and ennoble it " . " The more pathetic or deluded the character , " writes Gilbey , " the greater Hoffman 's relish seemed in rescuing them from the realms of the merely monstrous . " When asked in 2006 why he undertook such roles , Hoffman responded , " I didn 't go out looking for negative characters ; I went out looking for people who have a struggle and a fight to tackle . That 's what interests me . "
= = = Work ethic = = =
The journalist Jeff Simon described Hoffman as " probably the most in @-@ demand character actor of his generation " , but Hoffman claimed never to take it for granted he would be offered roles . Although he worked hard and regularly , he was humble about his acting success , and when asked by a friend if he was having any luck he quietly replied , " I 'm in a film , Cold Mountain , that has just come out . " Patrick Fugit , who worked with Hoffman on Almost Famous , recalled the actor was intimidating but an exceptional mentor and influence in " a school @-@ of @-@ hard @-@ knocks way " , remarking that " there was a certain weight that came with him " . Hoffman admitted that he sometimes appeared in big @-@ budget studio films for the money , but said , " ultimately my main goal is to do good work . If it doesn 't pay well , so be it . " He kept himself grounded and invigorated as an actor by attempting to appear on stage once a year .
Hoffman occasionally changed his hair and lost or gained weight for parts , and he went to great lengths to reveal the worst in his characters . But in a 2012 interview he confessed that performing to a high standard was a challenge : " The job isn 't difficult . Doing it well is difficult . " In an earlier interview with The New York Times , he explained how deeply he loved acting but added , " that deep kind of love comes at a price : for me , acting is torturous , and it 's torturous because you know it 's a beautiful thing ... Wanting it is easy , but trying to be great – well , that 's absolutely torturous . " This struggle was confirmed by the author John le Carré , who met Hoffman during the adaptation of his novel A Most Wanted Man . While praising the actor 's intelligence and intuition , le Carré acknowledged the burden that Hoffman felt : " It was painful and exhausting work , and probably in the end his undoing . The world was too bright for him to handle . "
= = Filmography and awards = =
Hoffman appeared in 55 films and one miniseries during his screen career spanning 22 years . He won the Academy Award for Best Actor for Capote ( 2005 ) , and was nominated three times for Best Supporting Actor for Charlie Wilson 's War ( 2007 ) , Doubt ( 2008 ) , and The Master ( 2012 ) . He also received five Golden Globe Award nominations ( winning one ) , five BAFTA Award nominations ( winning one ) , three Screen Actors Guild Awards ( winning one ) , and won the Volpi Cup at the Venice Film Festival . Hoffman remained active in theater throughout his career , starring in ten and directing 19 stage productions ( predominantly in New York ) . He received three Tony Award nominations for his Broadway performances : two for Best Leading Actor , in True West ( 2000 ) and Death of a Salesman ( 2012 ) , and one for Best Featured Actor in Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 2003 ) .
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= Syd Barrett =
Roger Keith " Syd " Barrett ( 6 January 1946 – 7 July 2006 ) was an English musician , composer , singer , songwriter , and painter . Best known as a founder member of the band Pink Floyd , Barrett was the lead singer , guitarist and principal songwriter in its early years and is credited with naming the band . Barrett was excluded from Pink Floyd in April 1968 after David Gilmour took over as their new guitarist , and was briefly hospitalised amid speculation of mental illness .
Barrett was musically active for less than ten years . With Pink Floyd , he recorded four singles , their debut album ( and contributed to the second one ) , and several unreleased songs . Barrett began his solo career in 1969 with the single " Octopus " from his first solo album , The Madcap Laughs ( 1970 ) . The album was recorded over the course of a year with five different producers ( Peter Jenner , Malcolm Jones , David Gilmour , Roger Waters and Barrett himself ) . Nearly two months after Madcap was released , Barrett began working on his second and final album , Barrett ( 1970 ) , produced by Gilmour and featuring contributions from Richard Wright . He went into self @-@ imposed seclusion until his death in 2006 . In 1988 , an album of unreleased tracks and outtakes , Opel , was released by EMI with Barrett 's approval .
Barrett 's innovative guitar work and exploration of experimental techniques such as dissonance , distortion and feedback influenced many musicians . His recordings are also noted for their strongly English @-@ accented vocal delivery . After leaving music , Barrett continued with painting and dedicated himself to gardening . Biographies began appearing in the 1980s . Pink Floyd wrote and recorded several tributes to him , most notably the 1975 album Wish You Were Here , which included " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " , as homage to Barrett .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Syd Barrett was born as Roger Keith Barrett in the English city of Cambridge to a middle @-@ class family living at 60 Glisson Road . Barrett was the fourth of five children . His father , Arthur Max Barrett , was a prominent pathologist and he was related to Elizabeth Garrett Anderson , through Max 's maternal grandmother Ellen Garrett , who was Elizabeth 's cousin . In 1951 his family moved to 183 Hills Road .
Barrett played piano occasionally , but usually preferred writing and drawing . He got a ukulele at 10 , a banjo at 11 and a Hofner acoustic guitar at 14 . A year after he got his first acoustic guitar , he bought his first electric guitar and built his own amplifier . One story of how Barrett acquired the nickname " Syd " is that at the age of 14 he was named after an old local Cambridge jazz double bassist , Sid " The Beat " Barrett , which claims Syd Barrett changed the spelling to differentiate himself from his namesake . Another story is that when he was 13 , his schoolmates nicknamed him " Syd " after he showed up to a field day at Abington Scout site wearing a flat cap instead of his Scout beret because " Syd " was a " working @-@ class " name . He used both names interchangeably for several years . His sister Rosemary stated , " He was never Syd at home . He would never have allowed it . " He was a Scout with the 7th Cambridge troop and went on to be a patrol leader .
At one point at Morley Memorial Junior School he was taught by Roger Waters ' mother , Mary . Later , in 1957 , he attended Cambridgeshire High School for Boys ( with Waters ) . His father died of cancer on 11 December 1961 , less than a month before Barrett 's 16th birthday . Also on this day , Barrett had left the entry in his diary for this date blank . By this time , his brothers and sisters had left home and his mother decided to rent out rooms to lodgers . Eager to help her son recover from his grief , Barrett 's mother encouraged the band in which he played , Geoff Mott and The Mottoes , a band which Barrett formed , to perform in their front room . Roger Waters and Syd Barrett were childhood friends , and Waters often visited such gigs . At one point , Waters even organised a gig , a CND benefit at Friends Meeting House on 11 March 1962 , but shortly afterwards Geoff Mott joined the Boston Crabs , and the Mottoes broke up .
In September 1962 , Barrett had taken a place at the Cambridge Technical College art department , where he met David Gilmour . During the winter of 1962 and early 1963 , the Beatles made an impact on Barrett , and he began to play Beatles songs at parties and at picnics . In 1963 , Barrett became a Rolling Stones fan and Barrett and then @-@ girlfriend Libby Gausden saw them perform at a village hall in Cambridgeshire . It was at this point Barrett started writing songs ; one friend recalls hearing " Effervescing Elephant " ( later to be recorded on his solo album Barrett ) . Also around this time , Barrett and Gilmour occasionally played acoustic gigs together . Barrett had played bass guitar with Those Without during the summer of 1963 and both bass and guitar with The Hollerin ' Blues the next summer . In 1964 , Barrett and Gausden saw Bob Dylan perform . After this performance , Barrett was inspired to write " Bob Dylan Blues " . Barrett , now thinking about his future , decided to apply for Camberwell College of Arts in London . Barrett enrolled in the college in the summer of 1964 to study painting .
= = = Pink Floyd years ( 1965 – 68 ) = = =
Starting in 1964 , the band that would become Pink Floyd evolved through various line @-@ up and name changes including " The Abdabs " , " The Screaming Abdabs " , " Sigma 6 " , and " The Meggadeaths " . In 1965 , Barrett joined them as The Tea Set ( sometimes spelled T @-@ Set ) . When they found themselves playing a concert with another band of the same name , Barrett came up with " The Pink Floyd Sound " ( also known as " The Pink Floyd Blues Band " , later " The Pink Floyd " ) . During 1965 , they went into a studio for the first time , when a friend of Richard Wright 's gave the band free time to record .
During this summer Barrett had his first LSD trip in the garden of friend Dave Gale , with Ian Moore and Storm Thorgerson . During one trip , Barrett and another friend , Paul Charrier , ended up naked in the bath , reciting : " No rules , no rules " . That summer , as a consequence of the continuation of drug use , the band became absorbed in Sant Mat , a Sikh sect . Storm Thorgerson ( then living on Earlham Street ) and Barrett went to a London hotel to meet the sect 's guru ; Thorgerson managed to join the sect , while Barrett , however , was deemed too young to join . Thorgerson perceives this as a deeply important event in Barrett 's life , as he was intensely upset by the rejection . While living within proximity of his friends , Barrett decided to write more songs ( " Bike " was written around this time ) .
= = = = London Underground , Blackhill Enterprises and gigs = = = =
While Pink Floyd began by playing cover versions of American R & B songs , by 1966 they had carved out their own style of improvised rock and roll , which drew as much from improvised jazz . After Bob Klose departed from the band , the band 's direction changed . However , the change was not instantaneous , with more improvising on the guitars and keyboards . Mason reflected , " It always felt to me that most of the ideas were emanating from Syd at the time . "
At this time , Barrett 's reading reputedly included : Grimm 's Fairy Tales , Tolkien 's The Hobbit and Lord of the Rings , Carlos Castaneda 's The Teachings of Don Juan , and The I @-@ Ching . During this period , Barrett wrote most of the songs for Pink Floyd 's first album , and also songs that would later appear on his solo albums . In 1966 , a new rock concert venue , the UFO ( pronounced as " you @-@ foe " ) , opened in London and quickly became a haven for British psychedelic music . Pink Floyd , the house band , was its most popular attraction and after making appearances at the rival Roundhouse , became the most popular musical group of the " London Underground " psychedelic music scene .
By the end of 1966 , Pink Floyd had gained a reliable management team in Andrew King and Peter Jenner . Towards the end of October 1966 , Pink Floyd , with King and Jenner , set up Blackhill Enterprises , to manage the group 's finances . Blackhill was staffed by lodgers Jenner found in his Edbrooke Road house , and among others , Barrett 's flatmate , Peter Wynne Wilson ( who became road manager , however , since he had more experience in lighting , he was also lighting assistant ) . King and Jenner wanted to prepare some demo recordings for a possible record deal , so at the end of October , they booked a session at Thompson Private Recording Studio , in Hemel Hempstead . King said of the demos : " That was the first time I realised they were going to write all their own material , Syd just turned into a songwriter , it seemed like overnight . "
King and Jenner befriended American expatriate Joe Boyd , the promoter of the UFO Club , who was making a name for himself as one of the more important entrepreneurs on the British music scene . The newly hired booking agent , Bryan Morrison , and Boyd had proposed sending in better quality recordings . From Morrison 's agency the band played a gig outside London for the first time . In November , the band performed the first ( of many ) strangely named concerts : Philadelic Music for Simian Hominids , a multimedia event arranged by the group 's former landlord , Mike Leonard , at Hornsey College of Art . They performed at the Free School for the following two weeks , before performing at the Psychodelphia Versus Ian Smith event at the Roundhouse in December , arranged by the Majority Rule for Rhodesia Campaign , and an Oxfam benefit at the Albert Hall ( the band 's biggest venue up to this point ) .
= = = = Tonite Lets All Make Love in London = = = =
At the beginning of 1967 , Barrett was dating Jenny Spires ( who would later marry future Stars member Jack Monck ) . However , unknown to Barrett , Spires had an affair with Peter Whitehead . Spires convinced Whitehead ( who thought the band sounded like " bad Schoenberg " ) to use Pink Floyd in a film about the swinging London scene . So at the cost of £ 80 , in January , Whitehead took the band into John Wood 's Sound Techniques in Chelsea , with promoter Joe Boyd in tow . Here , the band recorded a 16 @-@ minute version of " Interstellar Overdrive " and another composition , " Nick 's Boogie " . Whitehead had filmed this recording , which was used in the film Tonite Let 's All Make Love in London and later on the video release of London ' 66 – ' 67 . Whitehead later commented about the band that : " They were just completely welded together , just like a jazz group " .
= = = = The Piper at the Gates of Dawn = = = =
Boyd attempted to sign the band with Polydor Records . However , Morrison had convinced King and Jenner to try to start a bidding war between Polydor and EMI . In late January , Boyd produced a recording session for the group , with them returning to Sound Techniques in Chelsea again . After the aforementioned bidding war idea was finished , Pink Floyd signed with EMI . Unusually for the time the deal included recording an album , which meant the band had unlimited studio time at EMI Studios , in return for a smaller royalty percentage . The band then attempted to re @-@ record " Arnold Layne " , but the Boyd version from January was released instead .
The band 's first studio album , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , was recorded intermittently between February and July 1967 in Studio 3 at Abbey Road Studios , and produced by former Beatles engineer Norman Smith . At the same time , the Beatles were recording " Lovely Rita " for their album , Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , in Studio 2 . By the time the album was released on 4 August , " Arnold Layne " ( which was released months earlier , on 11 March ) had reached number 20 on the British singles charts ( despite being banned by Radio London ) and the follow @-@ up single , " See Emily Play " , had done even better , peaking at number 6 . The album was successful in the UK , hitting number 6 on the British album charts . Their first three singles ( including their third , " Apples and Oranges " ) , were written by Barrett , who also was the principal visionary / author of their critically acclaimed 1967 debut album . Of the eleven songs on Piper , Barrett wrote eight and co @-@ wrote another two .
= = = Departure from Pink Floyd = = =
Through late 1967 and early 1968 , Barrett 's behaviour became increasingly erratic and unpredictable , partly as a consequence of his reported heavy use of psychedelic drugs , most prominently LSD . There is also much speculation that he suffered from schizophrenia . Once described as joyful , friendly , and extroverted , he became increasingly depressed and socially withdrawn , and experienced hallucinations , disorganized speech , memory lapses , intense mood swings , and periods of catatonia . Although the changes began gradually , he went missing for a long weekend and , according to several friends including Rick Wright , came back " a completely different person . " One of the striking features of his change was the development of a blank , empty , dead @-@ eyed stare ( referred to in Pink Floyd 's " Shine on You Crazy Diamond " with the line " now there 's a look in your eye like black holes in the sky " ) . He was unable to recognize old friends that he had known for years , and often did not know where he was . At one point , while on a tour of the city of Los Angeles , Barrett is said to have exclaimed , " gee , it sure is nice to be in Las Vegas ! " Many reports described him on stage , strumming one chord through the entire concert , or not playing at all . At a show at The Fillmore in San Francisco , during a performance of " Interstellar Overdrive " , Barrett slowly detuned his guitar . The audience seemed to enjoy such antics , unaware of the rest of the band 's consternation . Interviewed on Pat Boone 's show during this tour , Syd 's reply to Boone 's questions was a " blank and totally mute stare , " according to Nick Mason , " Syd wasn 't into moving his lips that day . " Barrett exhibited similar behaviour during the band 's first appearance on Dick Clark 's popular TV show American Bandstand . Although surviving footage of this appearance shows Barrett miming his parts of the song competently , during a group interview afterwards , when asked two questions by Clark , Barrett 's answers were terse , almost to the point of rudeness ( though , Clark noted , they had been flying non @-@ stop from London to Los Angeles ) . During this time , Barrett would often forget to bring his guitar to sessions , damage equipment and occasionally was unable to hold his pick . Before a performance in late 1967 , Barrett reportedly crushed Mandrax tranquilliser tablets and an entire tube of Brylcreem into his hair , which subsequently melted down his face under the heat of the stage lighting , making him look like " a guttered candle " . Nick Mason later disputed the Mandrax portion of this story , stating that " Syd would never waste good mandies " .
During their UK tour with Jimi Hendrix in November 1967 , guitarist David O 'List from The Nice was called in to substitute for Barrett on several occasions when he was unable to perform or failed to appear . Sometime around Christmas , David Gilmour ( Barrett 's old school friend ) was asked to join the band as a second guitarist to cover for Barrett , with the idea of retaining a five @-@ member line @-@ up of the band . For a handful of shows Gilmour played and sang while Barrett wandered around on stage , occasionally deciding to join in playing . The other band members soon grew tired of Barrett 's antics and , on 26 January 1968 , when Waters was driving on the way to a show at Southampton University , the band elected not to pick Barrett up : one person in the car said , " Shall we pick Syd up ? " and another said , " Let 's not bother . " As Barrett had , up until then , written the bulk of the band 's material , the initial plan was to keep him in the group as a non @-@ touring member — as The Beach Boys had done with Brian Wilson — but this soon proved to be impractical . Gilmour subsequently became a full @-@ time member of the band .
According to Roger Waters , Barrett came into what was to be their last practice session with a new song he had dubbed " Have You Got It Yet ? " The song seemed simple enough when he first presented it , but it soon became impossibly difficult to learn and they eventually realised that while they were practising it , Barrett kept changing the arrangement . He would then play it again , with the arbitrary changes , and sing " Have you got it yet ? " Eventually they realised they never would , and that they were simply bearing the brunt of Barrett 's idiosyncratic sense of humour . Waters had called it " a real act of mad genius " .
Barrett did not contribute material to the band after A Saucerful of Secrets was released in 1968 . Of the songs he wrote for Pink Floyd after The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , only one , " Jugband Blues " , made it to the band 's second album ; one , " Apples and Oranges " , became a less @-@ than @-@ successful single ; and two others , " Scream Thy Last Scream " and " Vegetable Man " , were never officially released as they were deemed too dark and unsettling . Feeling guilty for ousting their friend , the members of Pink Floyd were unable to bring themselves to definitively tell Barrett that he was no longer in the band . According to Rick Wright , who lived with Barrett at the time , Wright had the awful job of telling Barrett that he was going out to buy cigarettes while he went off to play a gig . He would return hours later to find Barrett in the same position , sometimes with a cigarette burned completely down between his fingers ( an incident later referenced in Pink Floyd 's The Wall ) . Emerging from catatonia and unaware that a long period of time had elapsed , Barrett would ask , " Have you got the cigarettes ? " . Barrett supposedly spent time outside the recording studio , in the reception area , waiting to be invited in . He also showed up to a few gigs and glared at Gilmour . Barrett played slide guitar on " Remember a Day " ( which had been first attempted during the Piper sessions ) , and also played on " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " . On 6 April 1968 , the group officially announced Barrett was no longer a member , the same day the band 's contract with Blackhill Enterprises was terminated as the record label , considering Barrett to be the musical brains of the band , stayed with Barrett .
= = = Solo years ( 1968 – 72 ) = = =
After leaving Pink Floyd , Barrett was out of the public eye for a year . Then , in 1969 , at the behest of EMI and Harvest Records , he embarked on a brief solo career , releasing two solo albums , The Madcap Laughs and Barrett ( both 1970 ) , and a single , " Octopus " . Some songs , " Terrapin " , " Maisie " and " Bob Dylan Blues " , reflected Barrett 's early interest in the blues .
= = = = The Madcap Laughs = = = =
After Barrett left Pink Floyd , Jenner followed suit . He led Barrett into EMI Studios to record some tracks in May that would later be released on Barrett 's first solo album , The Madcap Laughs . However , Jenner said : " I had seriously underestimated the difficulties of working with him " . By the sessions of June and July , most of the tracks were in better shape ; however , shortly after the July sessions , Barrett broke up with girlfriend Lindsay Corner and went on a drive around Britain in his Mini , ending up in psychiatric care in Cambridge . During New Year 1969 , a somewhat recovered Barrett had taken up tenancy in a flat on Egerton Gardens , South Kensington , London , with the Post Modernist artist Duggie Fields . Here , Barrett 's flat was so close to Gilmour 's that Gilmour could look right into Barrett 's kitchen . Deciding to return to music , Barrett contacted EMI and was passed to Malcolm Jones , the then @-@ head of EMI 's new prog rock label , Harvest ( after Norman Smith and Jenner declined to produce Barrett 's record , Jones produced it ) . Barrett wanted to recover the Jenner @-@ produced sessions recordings ; several of the tracks were improved upon .
The Jones @-@ produced sessions started in April 1969 at EMI Studios . After the first of these sessions , Barrett brought in friends to help out : Humble Pie drummer , Jerry Shirley and Jokers Wild ( Gilmour 's old band ) drummer , Willie Wilson . For the sessions , Gilmour played bass . Talking to Barrett wasn 't easy , said Jones : " It was a case of following him , not playing with him . They were seeing and then playing so they were always a note behind " . A few tracks on the album feature overdubs by members of the band Soft Machine . During this time , Barrett also played guitar on the sessions for Soft Machine founder Kevin Ayers ' debut LP Joy of a Toy , although his performance on " Religious Experience " ( later titled " Singing a Song in the Morning " ) was not released until the album was reissued in 2003 . One time , Barrett had told his flatmate that he was going off " for an afternoon drive " . However , he followed Pink Floyd to Ibiza ( according to legend , he skipped check @-@ ins and customs , ran onto the runway and attempted to flag down a jet ) . One of his friends , J. Ryan Eaves , bass player for the short @-@ lived but influential Manchester band " York 's Ensemble " , later spotted him on a beach wearing messed @-@ up clothes and with a carrier bag full of money . At this point , during the trip , Barrett had asked Gilmour for his help in the recording sessions .
After two of the Gilmour / Waters @-@ produced sessions , they remade one track from the Soft Machine overdubs and recorded three tracks . These sessions came to a minor halt when Gilmour and Waters were mixing Pink Floyd 's newly recorded album , Ummagumma , to Barrett 's dismay . However , through the end of July , they managed to record three more tracks . The problem with the recording was that the songs were recorded as Barrett played them " live " in studio . On the released versions a number of them have false starts and commentaries from Barrett . Despite the track being closer to complete and better produced , Gilmour and Waters left the Jones @-@ produced track " Opel " off Madcap .
Gilmour later said of the sessions for The Madcap Laughs :
[ Sessions ] were pretty tortuous and very rushed . We had very little time , particularly with The Madcap Laughs . Syd was very difficult , we got that very frustrated feeling : Look , it 's your fucking career , mate . Why don 't you get your finger out and do something ? The guy was in trouble , and was a close friend for many years before then , so it really was the least one could do .
Upon the album 's release in January 1970 , Malcolm Jones was shocked by the substandard musicianship on the Gilmour and Waters @-@ produced songs : " I felt angry . It 's like dirty linen in public and very unnecessary and unkind " . Gilmour said : " Perhaps we were trying to show what Syd was really like . But perhaps we were trying to punish him " . Waters was more positive : " Syd is a genius " .
Barrett said " It 's quite nice but I 'd be very surprised if it did anything if I were to drop dead . I don 't think it would stand as my last statement . "
= = = = Barrett = = = =
The second album , Barrett , was recorded more sporadically than the first , with sessions taking place between February and July 1970 . The album was produced by David Gilmour , and featured Gilmour on bass guitar , Richard Wright on keyboard and Humble Pie drummer Jerry Shirley . The first two songs attempted were for Barrett to play and / or sing to an existing backing track . However , Gilmour thought they were losing the " Barrett @-@ ness " . One track ( " Rats " ) was originally recorded with Barrett on his own . That would later be overdubbed by musicians , despite the changing tempos . Shirley said of Barrett 's playing : " He would never play the same tune twice . Sometimes Syd couldn 't play anything that made sense ; other times what he 'd play was absolute magic . " At times Barrett , who experienced extreme synesthesia , would say : " Perhaps we could make the middle darker and maybe the end a bit middle afternoonish . At the moment it 's too windy and icy " .
These sessions were happening while Pink Floyd had just begun to work on Atom Heart Mother . On various occasions , Barrett went to " spy " on the band as they recorded their album .
Wright said of the Barrett sessions :
Doing Syd 's record was interesting , but extremely difficult . Dave [ Gilmour ] and Roger did the first one ( The Madcap Laughs ) and Dave and myself did the second one . But by then it was just trying to help Syd any way we could , rather than worrying about getting the best guitar sound . You could forget about that ! It was just going into the studio and trying to get him to sing .
= = = = Performances = = = =
Despite the numerous recording dates for his solo albums , Barrett undertook very little musical activity between 1968 and 1972 outside the studio . On 24 February 1970 , he appeared on John Peel 's BBC radio programme Top Gear playing five songs — only one of which had been previously released . Three would be re @-@ recorded for the Barrett album , while the song " Two of a Kind " was a one @-@ off performance ( possibly written by Richard Wright ) . Barrett was accompanied on this session by Gilmour and Shirley who played bass and percussion , respectively .
Gilmour and Shirley also backed Barrett for his one and only live concert during this period . The gig took place on 6 June 1970 at the Olympia Exhibition Hall as part of a Music and Fashion Festival . The trio performed four songs , " Terrapin " , " Gigolo Aunt " , " Effervescing Elephant " and " Octopus " . Poor mixing left the vocals barely audible until part @-@ way through the last number . At the end of the fourth song , Barrett unexpectedly but politely put down his guitar and walked off the stage . The performance has been bootlegged . Barrett made one last appearance on BBC Radio , recording three songs at their studios on 16 February 1971 . All three came from the Barrett album . After this session , he took a hiatus from his music career that lasted more than a year , although in an extensive interview with Mick Rock and Rolling Stone in December , he discussed himself at length , showed off his new 12 @-@ string guitar , talked about touring with Jimi Hendrix and stated that he was frustrated in terms of his musical work because of his inability to find anyone good to play with .
= = = Later years ( 1972 – 2006 ) = = =
= = = = Stars and final recordings = = = =
In February 1972 , after a few guest spots in Cambridge with ex @-@ Pink Fairies member Twink on drums and Jack Monck on bass using the name The Last Minute Put Together Boogie Band ( backing visiting blues musician Eddie " Guitar " Burns and also featuring Henry Cow guitarist Fred Frith ) , the trio formed a short @-@ lived band called Stars . Though they were initially well received at gigs in the Dandelion coffee bar and the town 's Market Square , one of their gigs at the Corn Exchange in Cambridge with the MC5 proved to be disastrous . A few days after this final show , Twink recalled that Barrett stopped him on the street , showed him a scathing review of the gig they had played , and quit on the spot , despite having played at least one subsequent gig at the same venue supporting Nektar .
Free from his EMI contract on 9 May 1972 , Barrett signed a document that ended his association with Pink Floyd , and any financial interest in future recordings . Barrett attended an informal jazz and poetry performance by Pete Brown and former Cream bassist Jack Bruce in October 1973 . Brown arrived at the show late , and saw that Bruce was already onstage , along with " a guitarist I vaguely recognised " , playing the Horace Silver tune " Doodlin ' " . Later in the show , Brown read out a poem , which he dedicated to Syd , because , " he 's here in Cambridge , and he 's one of the best songwriters in the country " when , to his surprise , the guitar player from earlier in the show stood up and said , " No I 'm not " . By the end of 1973 , Barrett had returned to live in London , staying at various hotels and , in December of that year , settling in at Chelsea Cloisters . He had little contact with others , apart from his regular visits to his management 's offices to collect his royalties , and the occasional visit from his sister Rosemary .
In August 1974 , Jenner persuaded Barrett to return to Abbey Road Studios in hope of recording another album . According to John Leckie , who engineered these sessions , even at this point Syd still " looked like he did when he was younger .. long haired " . The sessions lasted three days and consisted of blues rhythm tracks with tentative and disjointed guitar overdubs . Barrett recorded 11 tracks , the only one of which to be titled was " If You Go , Don 't Be Slow " . Once again , Barrett withdrew from the music industry , but this time for good . He sold the rights to his solo albums back to the record label and moved into a London hotel . During this period , several attempts to employ him as a record producer ( including one by Jamie Reid on behalf of the Sex Pistols , and another by The Damned , who wanted him to produce their second album ) were all fruitless .
= = = = Withdrawal to Cambridge = = = =
In 1978 , when Barrett 's money ran out , he moved back to Cambridge to live with his mother . He returned to live in London again in 1982 , but lasted only a few weeks and soon returned to Cambridge for good . Barrett walked the 50 miles ( 80 km ) from London to Cambridge . Until his death , Barrett received royalties from his work with Pink Floyd from each compilation and some of the live and studio albums and singles that featured his songs ; Gilmour said that he " made sure the money got to [ Barrett ] . "
In 1996 , Barrett was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Pink Floyd , but he did not attend the ceremony .
According to a 2005 profile in the book Madcap by biographer and journalist Tim Willis , Barrett , who had reverted to using his original name of Roger , continued to live in his late mother 's semi @-@ detached home in Cambridge , and had returned to painting , creating large abstract canvases . He was also said to have been an avid gardener and his main point of contact with the outside world was his sister , Rosemary , who lived nearby . He was reclusive , and his physical health declined , as he suffered from stomach ulcers and type 2 diabetes .
Although Barrett had not appeared or spoken in public since the mid @-@ 1970s , time did little to diminish interest in his life and work . Reporters and fans still travelled to Cambridge to seek him out , despite his attempts to live a quiet life and public appeals from his family for people to leave him alone . Many photos of Barrett being harassed by paparazzi when walking or cycling from the 1980s until his death in 2006 , have been published in various media . Apparently , Barrett did not like being reminded about his musical career and the other members of Pink Floyd had no direct contact with him . However , he did visit his sister 's house in November 2001 to watch the BBC Omnibus documentary made about him – reportedly he found some of it " a bit noisy " , enjoyed seeing Mike Leonard of Leonard 's Lodgers again , calling him his " teacher " , and enjoyed hearing " See Emily Play " again .
Barrett made a final public acknowledgement of his musical past in 2002 , his first since the 1970s , when he autographed 320 copies of photographer Mick Rock 's book Psychedelic Renegades , which contained a number of photos of Barrett . Rock was perhaps the last person in the music industry with whom Barrett kept in contact . In 1971 , Rock conducted the final interview of Barrett before his retirement from the music industry a few years later , and Barrett subsequently turned up on Rock 's London doorstep " four , maybe five times " for a cup of tea and conversation through 1978 , before Barrett moved back to Cambridge . They had not spoken in more than twenty years when Rock approached Barrett to autograph his photography book , and Barrett uncharacteristically agreed . Having reverted to his birth name " Roger " from his stage name " Syd " many years before , he had autographed the book simply " Barrett . "
= = = = Death and aftermath = = = =
After suffering from diabetes for several years , Barrett died at home in Cambridge on 7 July 2006 , aged 60 . The cause of death was pancreatic cancer . The occupation on his death certificate was " retired musician " . He was cremated , with his ashes given to a family member or friend . In 2006 , his home in St. Margaret 's Square , Cambridge , was put on the market and reportedly attracted considerable interest . After over 100 showings , many by fans , it was sold to a French couple who bought it simply because they liked it ; reportedly they knew nothing about Barrett . On 28 November 2006 , Barrett 's other possessions were sold at an auction at Cheffins auction house in Cambridge , raising £ 120 @,@ 000 for charity . Items sold included paintings , scrapbooks and everyday items that Barrett had decorated . NME produced a tribute issue to Barrett a week later with a photo of him on the cover . In an interview with The Sunday Times , Barrett 's sister revealed that he had written a book :
He read very deeply about the history of art and actually wrote an unpublished book about it , which I 'm too sad to read at the moment . But he found his own mind so absorbing that he didn 't want to be distracted .
In response to the news of Barrett 's death , fellow Pink Floyd bandmate David Gilmour said :
We are very sad to say that Roger Keith Barrett – Syd – has passed away . Do find time to play some of Syd ’ s songs and to remember him as the madcap genius who made us all smile with his wonderfully eccentric songs about bikes , gnomes and scarecrows . His career was painfully short , yet he touched more people than he could ever know .
According to local newspapers , Barrett left approximately £ 1 @.@ 7 million to his two brothers and two sisters . This sum was apparently largely acquired from royalties from Pink Floyd compilations and live recordings featuring songs he had written while with the band . A tribute concert called Games for May was held at the Barbican Centre , London on 10 May 2007 with Robyn Hitchcock , Captain Sensible , Damon Albarn , Chrissie Hynde , Kevin Ayers and his Pink Floyd bandmates performing . A series of events called The City Wakes was held in Cambridge in October 2008 to celebrate Barrett 's life , art and music . Barrett 's sister , Rosemary Breen , supported this , the first @-@ ever series of official events in memory of her brother . After the festival 's success , arts charity Escape Artists announced plans to create a centre in Cambridge , using art to help people suffering from mental health problems . A memorial bench has been placed in the Botanic Gardens in Cambridge and a more prominent tribute is planned in the city .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Wish You Were Here sessions = = =
Barrett had one noted reunion with the members of Pink Floyd , in 1975 during the recording sessions for Wish You Were Here . He attended the Abbey Road session unannounced , and watched the band record " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " — a song that happened to be about Barrett . By that time , the 29 @-@ year @-@ old Barrett had become quite overweight , had shaved off all of his hair ( including his eyebrows ) , and his ex @-@ bandmates did not at first recognise him . Barrett 's behaviour at the session was erratic ; he spent part of the session brushing his teeth . Roger Waters finally managed to ask him what he thought of the song and he simply said " sounds a bit old " . He briefly attended the reception for Gilmour 's wedding to Ginger that immediately followed the recording sessions ; however , he left early without saying goodbye .
Apart from a brief encounter between Waters and Barrett in Harrods a couple of years later ( during which , when Barrett saw Waters he ran outside , dropping his bags full of sweets in the process ) , this was the last time any member of Pink Floyd saw him . A reflection on the day appears in Nick Mason 's book Inside Out : A Personal History of Pink Floyd . A reference to this reunion also appears in the film The Wall , where the character Pink , played by Bob Geldof , shaves his body hair after having a mental breakdown , just as Barrett had .
= = = Compilations = = =
In 1988 , EMI Records ( after constant pressure from Malcolm Jones ) released an album of Barrett 's studio out @-@ takes and previously unreleased material recorded from 1968 to 1970 under the title Opel . The disc was originally set to include the unreleased Barrett Pink Floyd songs " Scream Thy Last Scream " and " Vegetable Man " , which had been remixed for the album by Jones , but the band pulled two songs before Opel was finalised . In 1993 EMI issued another release , Crazy Diamond , a boxed set of all three albums , each with further out @-@ takes from his solo sessions that illustrated Barrett 's inability / refusal to play a song the same way twice . EMI also released The Best of Syd Barrett : Wouldn 't You Miss Me ? in the UK on 16 April 2001 and in the US on 11 September 2001 . This was the first time his song " Bob Dylan Blues " was officially released , taken from a demo tape that Gilmour had kept after an early 1970s session . Gilmour kept the tape , which also contains the unreleased " Living Alone " from the Barrett sessions . In October 2010 Harvest / EMI and Capitol Records released An Introduction to Syd Barrett — a collection of both his Pink Floyd and remastered solo work . The 2010 compilation An Introduction to Syd Barrett includes the downloadable bonus track " Rhamadan " , a 20 @-@ minute track recorded at one of Syd 's earliest solo sessions , in May 1968 . In 2011 , it was announced that a vinyl double album version would be issued for Record Store Day .
Bootleg editions of Barrett 's live and solo material exist . For years the " off air " recordings of the BBC sessions with Barrett 's Pink Floyd circulated , until an engineer who had taken a tape of the early Pink Floyd gave it back to the BBC — which played it during a tribute to John Peel on their website . During this tribute , the first Peel programme ( Top Gear ) was aired in its entirety . This show featured the 1967 live versions of " Flaming " , " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " , and a brief 90 @-@ second snippet of the instrumental " Reaction in G " . In 2012 , engineer Andy Jackson said he had found " a huge box of assorted tapes " , in Mason 's possession , containing versions of R & B songs that ( the Barrett @-@ era ) Pink Floyd played in their early years .
= = = Creative impact and technical innovation = = =
Barrett wrote most of Pink Floyd 's early material . He was also an innovative guitarist , using extended techniques and exploring the musical and sonic possibilities of dissonance , distortion , feedback , the echo machine , tapes and other effects ; his experimentation was partly inspired by free improvisation guitarist Keith Rowe of the group AMM , active at the time in London . One of Barrett 's trademarks was playing his guitar through an old echo box while sliding a Zippo lighter up and down the fret @-@ board to create the mysterious , otherworldly sounds that became associated with the group . Barrett was known to have used Binson delay units to achieve his trademark echo sounds . Daevid Allen , founder member of Soft Machine and Gong , has cited Barrett 's use of slide guitar with echo as a key inspiration for his own " glissando guitar " style .
His recordings both with Pink Floyd and in later solo albums were delivered with a strongly British @-@ accented vocal delivery , specifically that of southern @-@ England . He was described by Guardian writer Nick Kent as having a " quintessential English style of vocal projection " . David Bowie was quoted as saying that Barrett , along with Anthony Newley , was the first person he had heard sing rock or pop music with a British accent .
Barrett 's free @-@ form sequences of " sonic carpets " pioneered a new way to play the rock guitar . He played several different guitars during his tenure , including an old Harmony hollowbody electric , a Harmony acoustic , a Fender acoustic , a single @-@ coil Danelectro 59 DC , several different Fender Telecasters and a white Fender Stratocaster in late 1967 . A silver Fender Esquire with mirrored discs glued to the body was the guitar he was most often associated with and the guitar he " felt most close to . "
= = = Musical and pop culture influence = = =
Many artists have acknowledged Barrett 's influence on their work . Paul McCartney , Pete Townshend , Blur , Kevin Ayers , Gong , Marc Bolan , Tangerine Dream , Julian Cope and David Bowie were inspired by Barrett ; Jimmy Page , Brian Eno , and The Damned all expressed interest in working with him at some point during the 1970s . Bowie recorded a cover of " See Emily Play " on his 1973 album Pin Ups . The track " Grass " , from XTC 's album Skylarking was influenced when Andy Partridge let fellow band member Colin Moulding borrow his Barrett records . Robyn Hitchcock 's career was dedicated to being Barrett @-@ esque ; he even played " Dominoes " for the 2001 BBC documentary The Pink Floyd and Syd Barrett Story .
Barrett 's decline had a profound effect on Roger Waters ' songwriting , and the theme of mental illness permeated Pink Floyd 's later albums , particularly 1973 's The Dark Side of the Moon and 1975 's Wish You Were Here which was a deliberate and affectionate tribute to Barrett , the song , " Shine on You Crazy Diamond " , and also 1979 's The Wall . " Wish You Were Here " , partly about Barrett , borrows imagery of a " steel rail " from Barrett 's solo song , " If It 's in You , " from The Madcap Laughs album .
In 1987 , an album of Barrett cover songs called Beyond the Wildwood was released . The album was a collection of cover songs from Barrett 's tenure with Pink Floyd and from his solo career . Artists appearing were UK and US indie bands including The Shamen , Opal , The Soup Dragons , and Plasticland .
Other artists who have written tributes to Barrett include his contemporary Kevin Ayers , who wrote " O Wot a Dream " in his honour ( Barrett provided guitar to an early version of Ayers ' song " Religious Experience : Singing a Song in the Morning " ) . Robyn Hitchcock has covered many of his songs live and on record and paid homage to his forebear with the song " ( Feels Like ) 1974 " . Phish covered " Bike " , " No Good Trying " , " Love You " , " Baby Lemonade " and " Terrapin " . The Television Personalities ' single " I Know Where Syd Barrett Lives " from their 1981 album And Don 't the Kids Love It is another tribute . In 2008 , The Trash Can Sinatras released a single in tribute to the life and work of Syd Barrett called " Oranges and Apples " , from their 2009 album In the Music . Proceeds from the single go to the Syd Barrett Trust in support of arts in mental health .
Johnny Depp showed interest in a biographical film based on Barrett 's life . Barrett is portrayed briefly in the opening scene of Tom Stoppard 's play Rock ' n ' Roll ( 2006 ) , performing " Golden Hair " . His life and music , including the disastrous Cambridge Corn Exchange concert and his later reclusive lifestyle , are a recurring motif in the work . Barrett died during the play 's run in London .
= = = Statue = = =
In October 2015 , a proposed statue of Barrett to be erected in the foyer of Cambridge Corn Exchange was announced . With £ 10 @,@ 000 funded by Cambridge City Council , the unveiling is planned for 2016 .
= = Personal life = =
There has been much speculation concerning Barrett 's psychological well @-@ being . His family have denied that he suffered from mental illness , ( despite displaying an almost textbook case of schizophrenia ) , but in a 2016 interview , his sister Rosmary Breen said that his mind was brilliant , bordering on that seen in Aspergers Syndrome . Barrett 's use of psychedelic drugs , especially LSD , during the 1960s is well documented , and there were theories he subsequently suffered from schizophrenia . Rick Wright asserts that Syd 's problems stemmed from a massive overdose of acid , as the change in his personality and behavior came on quite suddenly . However , Roger Waters maintains that Syd suffered " without a doubt " from schizophrenia and in an article published in 2006 , in response to notions that Barrett 's problems came from the drug , and Gilmour was quoted as saying :
In my opinion , his nervous breakdown would have happened anyway . It was a deep @-@ rooted thing . But I 'll say the psychedelic experience might well have acted as a catalyst . Still , I just don 't think he could deal with the vision of success and all the things that went with it . "
Many stories of Barrett 's erratic behaviour off stage as well as on are also well @-@ documented . In Saucerful of Secrets : The Pink Floyd Odyssey , author Nicholas Schaffner interviewed people who knew Barrett before and during his Pink Floyd days . These included friends Peter and Susan Wynne @-@ Wilson , artist Duggie Fields ( with whom Barrett shared a flat during the late 1960s ) , June Bolan and Storm Thorgerson , among others .
" For June Bolan , the alarm bells began to sound only when Syd kept his girlfriend under lock and key for three days , occasionally shoving a ration of biscuits under the door . " A claim of cruelty against Barrett committed by the groupies and hangers @-@ on who frequented his apartment during this period was described by writer and critic Jonathan Meades . " I went [ to Barrett 's flat ] to see Harry and there was this terrible noise . It sounded like heating pipes shaking . I said , ' What 's up ? ' and he sort of giggled and said , ' That 's Syd having a bad trip . We put him in the linen cupboard ' " . Storm Thorgerson responded to this claim by stating " I do not remember locking Syd up in a cupboard . It sounds to me like pure fantasy , like Jonathan Meades was on dope himself . " Other friends assert that Barrett 's infamous flatmates , " Mad Jock " and " Mad Sue , " believed that acid held all the answers and thought of Barrett as a genius or " god , " and were spiking his morning coffee with LSD every day without his knowledge , leaving him in a never @-@ ending trip . He was later rescued from that flat by friends and moved elsewhere , but his erratic behavior continued . Watkinson and Anderson included quotes from a story told to them by Thorgerson that underscored how volatile Barrett could be . " On one occasion , I had to pull him off Lindsay ( Barrett 's girlfriend at the time ) because he was beating her over the head with a mandolin " . On one occasion , Barrett threw a woman called Gilly across the room , because she refused to go to Gilmour 's house . These strange behaviors contradicted Barrett 's usually gentle nature . According to Gilmour in an interview with Nick Kent , the other members of Pink Floyd approached psychiatrist R. D. Laing with the ' Barrett problem ' . After hearing a tape of a Barrett conversation , Laing declared him " incurable " .
After Barrett died , his sister Rosemary insisted that Barrett neither suffered from mental illness nor received treatment for it at any time since they resumed regular contact in the 1980s . She allowed that he did spend some time in a private " home for lost souls " — Greenwoods in Essex — but claimed there was no formal therapy programme there . Some years later , Barrett apparently agreed to sessions with a psychiatrist at Fulbourn psychiatric hospital in Cambridge , but Breen claimed that neither medication nor therapy was considered appropriate . His sister denied he was a recluse or that he was vague about his past :
Roger may have been a bit selfish — or rather self @-@ absorbed — but when people called him a recluse they were really only projecting their own disappointment . He knew what they wanted , but he wasn 't willing to give it to them .
Barrett , she said , took up photography and sometimes they went to the seaside together . She also said he took a keen interest in art and horticulture and continued to devote himself to painting :
Quite often he took the train on his own to London to look at the major art collections — and he loved flowers . He made regular trips to the Botanic Gardens and to the dahlias at Anglesey Abbey , near Lode . But of course , his passion was his painting .
Despite his relationships with various women such as Libby Gaudsen , Lindsay Korner , Jenny Spires and Iggy the Eskimo ; Barrett never married or had children , he was briefly engaged to marry Gayla Pinion and planned to relocate to Oxford , but the marriage never happened .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
The Madcap Laughs ( 1970 )
Barrett ( 1970 )
= = Filmography = =
Syd Barrett 's First Trip ( 1966 ) directed by Nigel Lesmoir @-@ Gordon
London ' 66 – ' 67 ( 1967 )
Tonite Lets All Make Love in London ( 1967 )
The Pink Floyd and Syd Barrett Story ( 2003 )
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= The Prestige ( film ) =
The Prestige is a 2006 mystery thriller drama film directed by Christopher Nolan , from a screenplay adapted by Nolan and his brother Jonathan from Christopher Priest 's 1995 World Fantasy Award @-@ winning novel of the same name . The story follows Robert Angier and Alfred Borden , rival stage magicians in London at the end of the 19th century . Obsessed with creating the best stage illusion , they engage in competitive one @-@ upmanship with tragic results .
The American @-@ British co @-@ production features Hugh Jackman as Robert Angier , Christian Bale as Alfred Borden , and David Bowie as Nikola Tesla . It also stars Michael Caine , Scarlett Johansson , Piper Perabo , Andy Serkis , and Rebecca Hall . The film reunites Nolan with actors Bale and Caine from Batman Begins , and returning cinematographer Wally Pfister , production designer Nathan Crowley , film score composer David Julyan , and editor Lee Smith .
A co @-@ production between Touchstone Pictures and Warner Bros. Pictures , the film was released on October 20 , 2006 , receiving positive reviews and strong box office results , and received Academy Award nominations for Best Cinematography and Best Art Direction . Along with The Illusionist and Scoop , The Prestige was one of three films in 2006 to explore the world of stage magicians .
= = Plot = =
In early 1900s London , magician Robert Angier ( Hugh Jackman ) performs his trick , ' The Real Transported Man ' to a sold out theater . A disguised Alfred Borden ( Christian Bale ) sneaks under the stage . At the trick 's culmination , Angier drops through a trap door and into a waiting water tank , where Borden watches him drown .
At Borden 's murder trial , Angier 's ingénieur , John Cutter , testifies that he believes Borden pushed the water tank under the trap door to catch and kill Angier during his Transported Man trick . In prison , Borden is visited by an agent of Lord Caldlow , who offers to care for Borden 's daughter Jess in exchange for all of Borden 's secrets . As a show of good faith , Caldlow gives Borden a copy of Angier 's diary , which he begins reading .
In flashback , Angier and Borden work as shills for " Milton the Magician , " ( Ricky Jay ) alongside John Cutter ( Michael Caine ) then Milton 's ingénieur , and Julia ( Piper Perabo ) , Milton 's assistant and Angier 's wife . Milton 's famous trick is the water tank trick , where Julia is bound in ropes and dropped in a water tank , from which she frees herself and escapes . Borden , with Julia 's consent , ties her hands with a more secure , yet difficult knot . Julia fails to slip the knot and drowns , infuriating Angier and fueling his deep @-@ seated grudge against Borden .
Borden launches a solo magic career and hires Fallon , a silent , mysterious man as his ingénieur . Borden courts and eventually marries a woman named Sarah ( Rebecca Hall ) , who becomes pregnant . At his first show , Borden 's bullet catch trick is sabotaged by Angier , destroying two of Borden 's fingers . Angier launches his own magic career , hiring Olivia Wenscombe ( Scarlett Johansson ) as his assistant and Cutter as his ingénieur . During the finale of Angier 's show , a disguised Borden sabotages Angier 's bird cage act , which maims an audience member and ruins Angier 's reputation .
Angier decides to steal Borden 's fantastic , yet understated , trick , " The Transported Man , " where Borden instantly travels between two wardrobes on opposite ends of a stage . Cutter and Olivia groom Root , an out @-@ of @-@ work actor , into a " double " for Angier , mimicking his appearance and mannerisms . ' The New Transported Man ' is a huge success , but Angier is displeased , as he ends the trick hidden under the stage while Root basks in the applause . Obsessed with finding Borden 's secret , Angier sends Olivia to spy on him . Instead , Olivia revamps Borden 's act , making it more elaborate and successful . Borden sabotages Angier 's show , humiliating him and leaving him with a permanent limp . Angier confronts Olivia , who confesses that she is in love with Borden , before giving Angier a copy of Borden 's diary , its contents scrambled by a coded cipher . Angier and Cutter kidnap Fallon and extort from Borden his codeword , " Tesla , " which Borden claims is also his secret . As Angier leaves for America to find Tesla , Borden begins an affair with Olivia . Sarah becomes increasingly disturbed with Borden 's emerging fickle and contradictory nature and succumbs to depression and alcoholism , committing suicide .
Angier meets scientist Nikola Tesla ( David Bowie ) and asks him to build him the machine he built for Borden . While waiting for Tesla to finish , Angier fully deciphers Borden 's diary , which he discovers to be fraudulent : Borden confesses that Tesla has nothing to do with Borden 's trick and how Borden ordered Olivia to give Angier the diary . Angier confronts Tesla , who admits to never building any teleporting device for Borden , but has successfully built a replicating machine for Angier , capable of reproducing animate and inanimate objects a distance from the original machine . Tesla departs , advising Angier to destroy the machine .
In London , Angier debuts The Real Transported Man where he vanishes within the machine 's electrical field and appears atop the balcony at the back of the hall . Baffled by the trick 's success , Borden sneaks backstage to find Angier 's secret , only to witness Angier drop through a trap door and plunge into a waiting water tank , where he drowns . Cutter stumbles upon the scene , and Borden is arrested .
In the present , Borden is found guilty and sentenced to death . He agrees to Lord Caldlow 's terms , and writes down the secrets to all his tricks . When Caldlow visits , Borden recognizes him as Angier . Baffled by Angier 's return , Borden begs for his life , but Angier ignores Borden 's pleas . Borden is hanged and dies . Cutter learns that Caldlow has bought Angier 's machine and visits him to plead for its destruction . He discovers that Caldlow is Angier , and faked his death to kill Borden in revenge for Julia . Cutter agrees to assist Angier in disposing of his machine at a private theater . As the two work , Cutter discovers numerous water tanks containing duplicates of Angier : Angier used the machine to create clones of himself atop the balcony , while unbeknownst to anyone , the original Angier would fall through the trap door to be drowned in the tanks under the stage . The night that Borden ventured backstage , Angier 's clone disappeared into the crowd , making it appear Borden had killed him under the stage .
Disgusted by Angie 's framing for Borden and adopting Jess , Cutter leaves the theater , nodding casually to a man about to enter . The man fatally shoots Angier , and reveals himself as Borden . Angier realises that " Alfred Borden " is actually an identity assumed by twin brothers , Albert and Frederick , who take turns being Borden and Fallon , each living half of Alfred 's life to prepare for their " Transported Man " trick , right down to each having separate spouses , Sarah and Olivia . As Angier dies , Albert leaves to pick up Jess at Cutter 's workshop , exchanging a silent goodbye and leaving .
= = Cast = =
Hugh Jackman as Robert Angier / Lord Caldlow ( The Great Danton ) , an aristocratic magician . After reading the script , Jackman expressed interest in playing the part . Christopher Nolan discovered Jackman was interested in the script , and after meeting him , saw that Jackman possessed the qualities of stage showmanship that Nolan was looking for in the role of Angier . Nolan explained that Angier had a " wonderful understanding of the interaction between a performer and a live audience " , a quality he believed that Jackman had . Nolan said that Jackman " has the great depth as an actor that hasn 't really been explored . People haven 't had the chance to really see what he can do as an actor , and this is a character that would let him do that . " Jackman based his portrayal of Angier on 1950s @-@ era American magician Channing Pollock . Jackman also portrays Gerald Root , an alcoholic double used for Angier 's New Transported Man .
Christian Bale as Alfred Borden ( The Professor ) / Fallon , a working class magician . Christian Bale expressed interest in playing the part , and was cast after Jackman . Although Nolan had previously cast Bale as Batman in Batman Begins , he did not consider Bale for the part of Borden until Bale contacted him about the script . Nolan said that Bale was " exactly right " for the part of Borden , and that it was " unthinkable " for anyone else to play the part . Nolan described Bale as " terrific to work with " , who " takes what he does very , very seriously " . Nolan suggested that the actors should not read the book , but Bale ignored his advice .
Michael Caine as John Cutter , the stage engineer ( ingenieur ) who works with Angier and Borden . Caine had previously collaborated with Nolan and Bale in Batman Begins . Nolan said that even though it felt like the character of Cutter was written for Caine , it was not . Nolan noted that the character was written " before I 'd ever met " Caine . Caine describes Cutter as " a teacher , a father and a guide to Angier " . Caine , in trying to create Cutter 's nuanced portrait , altered his voice and posture . Nolan later said that " Michael Caine ’ s character really becomes something of the heart of the film . He has a wonderful warmth and emotion to him that draws you into the story and allows you to have a point of view on these characters without judging them too harshly . "
Piper Perabo as Julia McCullough , Milton the Magician 's assistant and Angier 's wife .
Rebecca Hall as Sarah Borden , Borden 's wife . Hall had to relocate from North London to Los Angeles in order to shoot the film , although the film itself takes place in London . Hall said that she was " starstruck just to be involved in [ the film ] " .
Scarlett Johansson as Olivia Wenscombe , Angier 's assistant and lover . Nolan said that he was " very keen " for Johansson to play the role , and when he met with her to discuss it , " she just loved the character " . Johansson praised Nolan 's directing methods , saying that she " loved working with [ him ] " ; he was " incredibly focused and driven and involved , and really involved in the performance in every aspect . "
David Bowie as Nikola Tesla , the real @-@ life inventor who creates a teleportation device for Angier . For the role of Nikola Tesla , Nolan wanted someone who was not necessarily a film star , but was " extraordinarily charismatic " . Nolan said that " David Bowie was really the only guy I had in mind to play Tesla because his function in the story is a small but very important role " . Nolan contacted Bowie , who initially turned down the part . A lifelong fan , Nolan flew out to New York to pitch the role to Bowie in person , telling him no one else could possibly play the part ; Bowie accepted after a few minutes .
Andy Serkis as Mr. Alley , Tesla 's assistant . Serkis said that he played his character with the belief that he was " once a corporation man who got excited by this maverick , Tesla , so jumped ship and went with the maverick " . Serkis described his character as a " gatekeeper " , a " conman " , and " a mirror image of Michael Caine ’ s character . " Serkis , a big fan of Bowie , said that he was enjoyable to work with , describing him as " very unassuming , very down to earth ... very at ease with himself and funny . "
Ricky Jay as Milton the Magician , an older magician who employs Borden and Angier at the beginning of their careers . Jay and Michael Weber trained Jackman and Bale for their roles with brief instruction in various stage illusions . The magicians gave the actors limited information , allowing them to know enough to pull off a scene .
Roger Rees as Owens , a solicitor working for Angier / Lord Caldlow .
W. Morgan Sheppard as Merrit , the owner of a theatre where Angier initially performs .
Daniel Davis as the judge presiding over Borden 's trial .
= = Production = =
Julian Jarrold 's and Sam Mendes ' producer approached Christopher Priest for an adaptation of his novel The Prestige . Priest was impressed with Nolan 's films Following and Memento , and subsequently , producer Valerie Dean brought the book to Nolan 's attention . In October 2000 , Nolan traveled to the United Kingdom to publicize Memento , as Newmarket Films was having difficulty finding a United States distributor . While in London , Nolan read Priest 's book and shared the story with his brother while walking around in Highgate ( a location later featured in the scene where Angier ransoms Borden 's ingénieur in Highgate Cemetery ) . The development process for The Prestige began as a reversal of their earlier collaboration : Jonathan Nolan had pitched his initial story for Memento to his brother during a road trip .
A year later , the option on the book became available and was purchased by Aaron Ryder of Newmarket Films . In late 2001 , Nolan became busy with the post @-@ production of Insomnia , and asked his brother Jonathan to help work on the script . The writing process was a long collaboration between the Nolan brothers , occurring intermittently over a period of five years . In the script , the Nolans emphasized the magic of the story through the dramatic narrative , playing down the visual depiction of stage magic . The three @-@ act screenplay was deliberately structured around the three elements of the film 's illusion : the pledge , the turn , and the prestige . " It took a long time to figure out how to achieve cinematic versions of the very literary devices that drive the intrigue of the story , " Christopher Nolan told Variety : " The shifting points of view , the idea of journals within journals and stories within stories . Finding the cinematic equivalents of those literary devices was very complex . " Although the film is thematically faithful to the novel , two major changes were made to the plot structure during the adaptation process : the novel 's spiritualism subplot was removed , and the modern @-@ day frame story was replaced with Borden 's wait for the gallows . Priest approved of the adaptation , describing it as " an extraordinary and brilliant script , a fascinating adaptation of my novel . "
In early 2003 , Nolan planned to direct the film before the production of Batman Begins accelerated . Following the release of Batman Begins , Nolan started up the project again , negotiating with Bale and Jackman in October 2005 . While the screenplay was still being written , production designer Nathan Crowley began the set design process in Nolan 's garage , employing a " visual script " consisting of scale models , images , drawings , and notes . Jonathan and Christopher Nolan finished the final shooting draft on January 13 , 2006 , and began production three days later on January 16 . Filming ended on April 9 .
Crowley and his crew searched Los Angeles for almost seventy locations that resembled fin de siècle London . Jonathan Nolan visited Colorado Springs to research Nikola Tesla and based the electric bulb scene on actual experiments conducted by Tesla . Nathan Crowley helped design the scene for Tesla 's invention ; It was shot in the parking lot of the Mount Wilson Observatory . Influenced by a " Victorian modernist aesthetic , " Crowley chose four locations in the Broadway theater district in downtown Los Angeles for the film 's stage magic performances : the Los Angeles Theatre , the Palace Theatre , the Los Angeles Belasco , and the Tower Theatre . Crowley also turned a portion of the Universal back lot into Victorian London .
Osgood Castle in Colorado was used as a location .
Nolan built only one set for the film , an " under @-@ the @-@ stage section that houses the machinery that makes the larger illusions work , " preferring to simply dress various Los Angeles locations and sound stages to stand in for Colorado and Victorian England . In contrast to most period pieces , Nolan kept up the quick pace of production by shooting with handheld cameras , and refrained from using artificial lighting in some scenes , relying instead on natural light on location . Costume designer Joan Bergin chose attractive , modern Victorian fashions for Scarlett Johansson ; cinematographer Wally Pfister captured the mood with soft earth tones as white and black colors provided background contrasts , bringing actors ' faces to the foreground .
Editing , scoring and mixing finished on September 22 , 2006 .
= = Themes = =
The rivalry between Borden and Angier dominates the film . Obsession , secrecy , and sacrifice fuel the battle , as both magicians contribute their fair share to a deadly duel of one @-@ upmanship , with disastrous results . Angier 's obsession with beating Borden costs him a great deal of money and Cutter 's friendship , while providing him with a collection of his own suicide victims ; Borden 's obsession with maintaining the secrecy of his twin leads Sarah to question their relationship eventually resulting in her suicide when she suspects the truth . Angier and one of the twins both lose Olivia 's love because of their inhumanity . Finally , Borden is hanged and the last copy of Angier shot . Their struggle is also expressed through class warfare : Borden as The Professor , a working @-@ class magician who gets his hands dirty , versus Angier as The Great Danton , a classy , elitist showman whose accent makes him appear American . Film critic Matt Brunson claimed that a complex theme of duality is exemplified by Angier and Borden , that the film chooses not to depict either magician as good or evil .
Angier 's theft of Borden 's teleportation illusion in the film echoes many real @-@ world examples of stolen tricks among magicians . Outside the film , similar rivalries include magicians John Nevil Maskelyne and Harry Kellar 's dispute over a levitation illusion . Gary Westfahl of Locus Online also notes a " new proclivity for mayhem " in the film over the novel , citing the murder / suicide disposition of Angier 's duplicates and intensified violent acts of revenge and counter @-@ revenge . This " relates to a more general alteration in the events and tone of the film " rather than significantly changing the underlying themes .
Nor is this theme of cutthroat competition limited to prestidigitation : the script incorporates the popular notion that Nikola Tesla and Thomas Edison were directly engaged in the War of Currents , a rivalry over electrical standards , which appears in the film in parallel to Borden and Angier 's competition for magical supremacy . In the book , Tesla and Edison serve as foils for Borden and Angier , respectively .
Den Shewman of Creative Screenwriting says the film asks how far one would go to devote oneself to an art . The character of Chung Ling Soo , according to Shewman , is a metaphor for this theme . Film critic Alex Manugian refers to this theme as the " meaning of commitment . " For example , Soo 's pretense of being slow and feeble misdirects his audience from noticing the physical strength required to perform the goldfish bowl trick , but the cost of maintaining this illusion is the sacrifice of individuality : Soo 's true appearance and freedom to act naturally are consciously suppressed in his ceaseless dedication to the art of magic .
Nicolas Rapold of Film Comment addresses the points raised by Shewman and Manugian in terms of the film 's " refracted take on Romanticism " :
Angier 's technological solution — which suggests art as sacrifice , a phoenix @-@ like death of the self — and Borden 's more meat @-@ and @-@ potatoes form of stagecraft embody the divide between the artist and the social being .
For Manugian the central theme is " obsession , " but he also notes the supporting themes of the " nature of deceit " and " science as magic . " Manugian criticizes the Nolans for trying to " ram too many themes into the story . "
= = Release = =
Touchstone Pictures opted to move the release date up a week , from the original October 27 , to October 20 , 2006 . The film earned $ 14 @.@ 8 million on opening weekend in the United States , debuting at # 1 . It grossed $ 109 million , including $ 53 million from the United States . The film received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Art Direction ( Nathan Crowley and Julie Ochipinti ) and the Academy Award for Best Cinematography ( Wally Pfister ) , as well as a nomination for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Long Form in 2007 . Along with The Illusionist and Scoop ( also starring Jackman and Johansson ) , The Prestige was one of three films in 2006 to explore the world of stage magicians .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Prestige received largely positive reviews from film critics . Rotten Tomatoes reported that 76 % of critics gave the film positive reviews , with an average score of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 , based upon a sample of 179 reviews . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 66 , based on 36 reviews . Claudia Puig of USA Today described the film as " one of the most innovative , twisting , turning art films of the past decade . " Drew McWeeny gave the film a glowing review , saying it demands repeat viewing , with Peter Travers of Rolling Stone agreeing . Richard Roeper and guest critic A.O. Scott gave the film a " two thumbs up " rating . Todd Gilchrist of IGN applauded the performances of Bale and Jackman whilst praising Nolan for making " this complex story as easily understandable and effective as he made the outwardly straightforward comic book adaptation ( Batman Begins ) dense and sophisticated ... any truly great performance is almost as much showmanship as it is actual talent , and Nolan possesses both in spades . " CNN.com and Village Voice film critic Tom Charity listed it amongst his best films of 2006 . Philip French of The Observer recommended the film , comparing the rivalry between the two main characters to that of Mozart and Salieri in the highly acclaimed Amadeus .
On the other hand , Dennis Harvey of Variety criticized the film as gimmicky , though he felt the cast did well in underwritten roles . Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter felt that characters " ... are little more than sketches . Remove their obsessions , and the two magicians have little personality . " Nonetheless , the two reviewers praised David Bowie as Tesla , as well as the production values and cinematography . On a simpler note , Emanuel Levy has said : " Whether viewers perceive The Prestige as intricately complex or just unnecessarily complicated would depend to a large degree on their willingness to suspend disbelief for two hours . " He gave the film a B grade .
Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four , describing the revelation at the end a " fundamental flaw " and a " cheat . " He wrote , " The pledge of Nolan 's The Prestige is that the film , having been metaphorically sawed in two , will be restored ; it fails when it cheats , as , for example , if the whole woman produced on the stage were not the same one so unfortunately cut in two . " R.J. Carter of The Trades felt , " I love a good science fiction story ; just tell me in advance . " He gave the film a B- . Christopher Priest , who wrote the novel the film is based on , saw it three times as of January 5 , 2007 , and his reaction was " ' Well , holy shit . ' I was thinking , ' God , I like that , ' and ' Oh , I wish I 'd thought of that . ' "
In 2009 , The A.V. Club included The Prestige in their best films of the decade list . The film was included in American Cinematographer 's " Best @-@ Shot Film of 1998 @-@ 2008 " list , ranking at 36 . More than 17 @,@ 000 people around the world participated in the final vote . As with much of Nolan 's work , The Prestige is rated highly on IMDb ; the film holds an average rating of 8 @.@ 5 / 10 , ranking it # 51 on the site 's top 250 films .
= = = Music = = =
The film score was written by English musician and composer David Julyan . Julyan had previously collaborated with director Christopher Nolan on Following , Memento and Insomnia . Following the film 's narrative , the soundtrack had three sections : the Pledge , the Turn , and the Prestige .
= = = = Track listing = = = =
All music composed by David Julyan .
Some critics were disappointed with the score , acknowledging that while it worked within the context of the film , it was not enjoyable by itself . Jonathan Jarry of SoundtrackNet described the score as " merely functional , " establishing the atmosphere of dread but never taking over . Although the reviewer was interested with the score 's notion , Jarry found the execution was " extremely disappointing . "
Christopher Coleman of Tracksounds felt that though it was " ... a perfectly fitting score , " it was completely overwhelmed by the film , and totally unnoticed at times . Christian Clemmensen of Filmtracks recommended the soundtrack for those who enjoyed Julyan 's work on the film , and noted that it was not for those who expected " any semblance of intellect or enchantment in the score to match the story of the film . " Clemmensen called the score lifeless , " constructed on a bed of simplistic string chords and dull electronic soundscapes . "
The song " Analyse " by Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke is played over the credits .
= = = Home media = = =
The Region 1 disc is by Buena Vista Home Entertainment , and was released on February 20 , 2007 , and is available on DVD and BD formats . The Warner Bros. Region 2 DVD was released on March 12 , 2007 . It is also available in both BD and regionless HD DVD in Europe ( before HD DVD was cancelled ) . Special features are minimal , with the documentary Director 's Notebook : The Prestige – Five Making @-@ of Featurettes , running roughly twenty minutes combined , an art gallery and the trailer . Nolan did not contribute to a commentary as he felt the film primarily relied on an audience 's reaction and did not want to remove the mystery from the story .
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= 2012 United States federal budget =
The 2012 United States federal budget was the budget to fund government operations for the fiscal year 2012 , which lasted from October 1 , 2011 through September 30 , 2012 . The original spending request was issued by President Barack Obama in February 2011 . That April , the Republican @-@ held House of Representatives announced a competing plan , The Path to Prosperity , emboldened by a major victory in the 2010 Congressional elections associated with the Tea Party movement . The budget plans were both intended to focus on deficit reduction , but differed in their changes to taxation , entitlement programs , defense spending , and research funding .
The House resolution did not pass the Senate , nor did the Senate pass a resolution of their own , so there was no 2012 budget of record . The actual appropriations bills for Fiscal Year 2012 included four continuing resolutions and three full @-@ year appropriations bills enacted in November and December 2011 , in accordance with the United States budget process . These appropriations were greatly affected by the Budget Control Act of 2011 , passed in August 2011 as a resolution to the debt @-@ ceiling crisis ; it mandated budget cuts over a ten @-@ year period beginning with Fiscal Year 2012 .
In addition , legislation was passed to extend a cut in the Social Security payroll tax for the entirety of calendar year 2012 .
= = Background = =
In February 2010 , President Obama formed the bipartisan Bowles – Simpson Commission to recommend steps that could be taken to reduce future budget deficits . The commission released its report on November 10 , 2010 , which recommended deep domestic and military spending cuts , reforming the tax system by eliminating many tax breaks in return for lower overall rates , and reducing benefits for Social Security and Medicare . The plan did not receive the supermajority vote within the commission which it needed to be directly sent to Congress , and portions of the plan were rejected by both parties .
= = Budget proposals = =
The Obama administration proposed its 2012 budget on February 14 , 2011 . It aimed to reduce annual deficits to more sustainable levels by making selective cuts in spending , while increasing support in specific areas such as education and clean energy to foster long @-@ term economic growth . The plan did not contain specific proposals to rein in spending on entitlement programs such as Medicare , Medicaid , and Social Security , which were expected to make up much of the increase in the deficit in future years . The budget represented a shift from the Obama administration 's strategy in previous years of using increased government spending , such as the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , to combat the late 2000s recession . The 2012 budget plan was instead projected to reduce deficits by $ 1 @.@ 1 trillion over the next ten years . Republicans criticized the plan for not going far enough to reduce future deficits .
A competing plan , called The Path to Prosperity , was announced by House Republicans , led by House Budget Committee chairman Paul Ryan , on April 5 , 2011 . This plan would cut $ 5 @.@ 8 trillion in spending over ten years , but would also reduce tax income by $ 4 @.@ 2 trillion below current projections . The plan would make no further reduction in defense spending beyond the Obama administration 's plan , but would make major changes to Medicare , Medicaid , and Social Security , which was expected to pass more of the cost of these programs onto individuals . It would also cut energy research and other applied research and development . This plan was criticized by Democrats for disproportionately cutting programs which benefit the disadvantaged and stifling innovation , while not cutting defense spending further and containing deep tax cuts . The House Republican plan was defeated in the Senate by a margin of 40 – 57 votes on May 25 , 2011 , the same day that the Obama budget was also defeated .
In response to the Republican plan and a recent deal on the 2011 budget , President Obama on April 13 , 2011 presented an alternative plan in a major policy speech . This new plan would cut deficits by $ 4 trillion over 12 years through a combination of broad spending cuts and tax increases , including the expiration of the Bush tax cuts for incomes over $ 200 @,@ 000 and proposed a cap on increases in Medicare and Medicaid spending , to be paid for by individuals . Obama criticized the Republican plan for enriching the wealthy through tax cuts while placing a greater economic burden on the elderly through Medicare cuts . Obama 's plan was criticized by Republicans for its large cuts in defense spending and for its lack of specific detail . On June 23 , at a hearing of the Budget Committee , CBO director Douglas Elmendorf was asked what his agency made of the proposals in that presidential address . “ We don ’ t estimate speeches , ” he said . “ We need much more specificity than was provided in that speech . " A motion to proceed on a Republican @-@ sponsored bill meant to represent the original Obama administration budget proposal was defeated in the Senate by a margin of 0 – 97 votes on May 25 , 2011 ; the lack of Democratic support was said to have been because the original budget had been superseded by Obama 's April speech .
= = Legislation = =
= = = Implications of debt limit deal = = =
A controversy arose in July 2011 over the raising of the federal debt limit , which was needed to prevent a default by the United States government . Republicans in Congress demanded spending cuts in the budgets for 2012 and subsequent years in return for raising the debt limit . On July 19 , 2011 , the Republican @-@ led House passed a bill , the Cut , Cap and Balance Act , by a margin of 234 – 190 which would require $ 111 billion in cuts in 2012 spending levels , exempting defense , Medicare , and Social Security from these cuts , and would limit subsequent federal spending to about 20 % of the gross national product as compared to the current 24 % . It did not immediately increase the debt limit , but would have required Congress to pass a Balanced Budget Amendment to the United States Constitution before increasing the debt limit . The bill was tabled by a vote of 51 – 46 in the Senate on July 22 , and thus defeated . An alternate plan proposed by the bipartisan Gang of Six senators and favored by the Obama administration would contain about $ 3 @.@ 7 trillion in deficit reduction over the next decade , including both new revenue and large spending cuts , including in entitlement healthcare and defense , failed to gain traction .
Two rival plans were then prepared by the Senate Democrats and House Republicans . The Democratic plan would immediately raise the debt limit by $ 2 @.@ 7 trillion , enough to last beyond the 2012 elections , and would decrease spending by $ 900 billion over ten years . The Republican plan would cut a total of $ 850 billion over ten years , and would raise the debt limit in two stages : by $ 1 trillion immediately , enough to last until early 2012 , and then would form a bipartisan committee to recommend the second half of the budget cuts , which upon being passed by Congress would increase the debt limit by another $ 1 @.@ 6 trillion . Neither plan included revenue increases or cuts to entitlement programs . The vote on the Republican plan was delayed several times as more conservative members of the caucus refused to support it . After being altered to again require passage of a Balanced Budget Amendment before the second stage of debt limit increases , it passed the House 218 – 210 , with 22 Republicans opposing the bill . It was defeated in the Senate two hours later by a vote of 59 – 41 , as the Democratic plan was prepared to be taken up there .
On July 31 , 2011 , President Obama and the leadership of both legislative chambers reached a deal on the debt limit legislation . The deal guaranteed $ 2 @.@ 4 trillion in immediate and eventual debt limit increases . It mandated $ 917 billion in spending cuts over ten years , of which $ 21 billion would be included in the FY2012 budget . It would then give Congress a choice between either accepting the recommendation of a Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction which would cut the deficit by $ 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 5 trillion through spending cuts and / or revenue increases , or accepting automatic budget cuts to national security funding ( including defense spending ) and to Medicare , which would start in the FY2013 budget . Congress would also be required to vote on a Balanced Budget Amendment . On August 1 , the Budget Control Act of 2011 passed the House 269 – 161 , with 66 Republicans and 95 Democrats voting against the bill . On August 2 , it passed in the Senate 74 – 26 , and was signed into law by President Obama the same day . August 2 was also the date estimated by the department of the Treasury that the borrowing authority of the US would be exhausted .
= = = Initial continuing resolutions and FEMA controversy = = =
Because the federal budget legislation was not expected to be enacted by the September 30 , 2011 deadline , work began on a continuing resolution to fund the government temporarily through November 18 , 2011 with an across @-@ the @-@ board reduction of 1 @.@ 503 % below the 2011 budget levels . However , a dispute arose between the Republican @-@ led House and the Democrat @-@ led Senate over the amount of additional funding for the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) for costs associated with relief from Hurricane Irene , and whether this extra funding should be partially offset with cuts elsewhere . FEMA 's disaster relief fund had $ 792 million remaining in it just prior to the hurricane 's landfall in August 2011 , which was below the $ 1 billion threshold that caused FEMA to act under " immediate @-@ needs status , " delaying long @-@ term projects in favor of urgent tasks . The proposed cuts targeted a program to fund development of fuel @-@ efficient automobiles as well as the program that had guaranteed a loan to the recently bankrupt Solyndra corporation . The Senate rejection of the House bill on September 23 , 2011 raised the possibility of a government shutdown on October 1 .
However , FEMA subsequently determined that the $ 114 million left in the fund as of late September would suffice for the final week of the fiscal year , and the fund would thus not in fact run out of money . This led to the Senate passing a pair of continuing resolutions on September 26 : one lasting until October 4 , 2011 to give the then @-@ out @-@ of @-@ session House of Representatives time to consider the second resolution , which funded the government through the first seven weeks of the 2012 fiscal year , until November 18 , 2011 . The House passed the short @-@ term resolution on September 29 , 2011 by unanimous consent in an unusual example of passing legislation during a pro forma session . After the House came back into normal session , the second continuing resolution was passed by a vote of 352 – 66 on October 4 , 2011 .
= = = Appropriations legislation passed = = =
On November 18 , 2011 , the first appropriations bill was enacted , the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act , 2012 . It combined the three appropriations bills for Agriculture , Commerce / Justice / Science ( CJS ) , and Transportation / Housing and Urban Development ( THUD ) , and also contained a continuing resolution providing funding for other departments until December 16 , 2011 .
On December 15 , 2011 , a deal was reached on the remaining nine appropriations bills , which were combined into the Consolidated Appropriations Act , 2012 . One point of contention was that an earlier draft of the bill supported by Republicans contained new restrictions on travel to Cuba , which had been relaxed by the Obama administration in 2009 . These restrictions were removed in the enacted bill at the insistence of the Obama administration . A separate Disaster Relief Appropriations Act , 2012 was also included in the package , as well as a concurrent resolution which offset the increased disaster funding by imposing a 1 @.@ 83 % across @-@ the @-@ board spending cut to all discretionary programs except Defense and Veterans Affairs . Two more continuing resolutions were also passed , one extending the deadline by one day so that the Senate could vote on the package , and one until December 23 , 2011 . The two appropriations bills were enacted on December 23 , 2011 , but the concurrent resolution failed in the Senate .
On December 17 , 2011 , the Senate passed legislation to extend the Social Security payroll tax cut which had been previously enacted during the FY2011 budget negotiations . That legislation had reduced the rate from 6 @.@ 2 % to 4 @.@ 2 % for the 2011 calendar year only . The initial 2012 extension was for two months , rather than the full @-@ year extension which had been sought ; the legislation also extended unemployment benefits as well as a measure preventing a drop in rates for Medicare reimbursement ; the spending for these was offset by enacting new fees on Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac . Points of contention included a Democratic plan to fund the tax cut with a new surtax on income over $ 1 million , which was dropped in later stages of negotiation , as well as attempts by Republicans to insert language which would speed the approval of the Keystone XL pipeline , which had recently been delayed by the Obama administration . The bill was initially rejected in the House , whose leaders insisted on a full @-@ year extension , despite the fact that the Senate had already adjourned for the year . However , after criticism from other Republicans that the impasse would harm their prospects in the upcoming 2012 elections , the House leadership on December 23 , 2011 announced that it would pass the Senate bill in return for Democrats promptly beginning negotiations on a full @-@ year extension . The bill , the Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act of 2011 , was passed by the House and signed by the President later that day .
The tax cut extension for the remainder of the year was passed as the Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act of 2012 on February 17 , 2012 , by a vote of 293 – 132 in the House and 60 – 36 in the Senate . The bill also contained a further extension of unemployment benefits and the Medicare reimbursement rates . The cost of the tax cut was not offset by spending cuts , but the other provisions were offset by cuts in federal healthcare and pension programs . Republican support for the bill was motivated by a desire to not oppose a tax cut in an election year . Some Democrats criticized the bill for directing spending cuts at federal employees rather than generating funds by increasing taxes on the wealthy or closing tax loopholes .
= = Major initiatives = =
The following provisions were enacted in the final budget legislation :
No new funding for long @-@ distance intercity and high @-@ speed rail was included in the budget . This funding had originally been introduced as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act stimulus bill in 2009 , but had proved controversial as several Republican governors elected in the 2010 elections subsequently rejected the federal funding for rail projects in their states . However , funding for 26 short @-@ distance routes eliminated in the House version was restored in the enacted bill .
The National Science Foundation 's budget was increased 2 @.@ 5 % , to $ 7 @.@ 03 billion , and the National Institutes of Health 's was increased slightly from $ 30 @.@ 4 billion to $ 30 @.@ 7 billion . However , the Office of Science and Technology Policy 's budget was cut by 32 % to $ 4 @.@ 5 million , in retaliation for the office allegedly ignoring a provision in 2011 budget legislation banning it from pursuing collaborations with China . Funding for the James Webb Space Telescope , the successor to the Hubble Space Telescope , was maintained , as was funding for the Joint Polar Satellite System .
The legislation contained a ban on using federal funds to enforce the phase @-@ out of incandescent light bulbs that had been mandated in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 , but requires recipients of more than $ 1 million in Department of Energy grants to comply with the energy efficiency standards .
Regular funding for the Department of Defense increased from $ 513 billion to $ 518 billion , including a 1 @.@ 6 % pay raise for military personnel . Funding for the wars in Iraq and in Afghanistan was reduced from $ 158 billion to $ 115 billion .
Funding for the Race to the Top education program was cut from $ 698 million to $ 550 million . A proposal to create an educational technology research and development program , Advanced Research Projects Agency @-@ Education ( ARPA @-@ ED ) , in a similar vein to the successful DARPA research agency within the Department of Defense , was not enacted .
The Obama administration had requested to create a Climate Service within NOAA , similar to the National Weather Service . This request was not enacted .
Transfers of prisoners from the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to the United States was prohibited , and language on transfers to other countries was revised .
The Department of Justice was forbidden from consolidating or maintaining certain firearms records , and it was prohibited for health officials to use federal money to advocate gun control .
= = Total revenues and spending = =
The Obama administration 's budget request contained $ 2 @.@ 627 trillion in revenues and $ 3 @.@ 729 trillion in outlays ( expenditures ) for 2012 , for a deficit of $ 1 @.@ 101 trillion . The April 2011 Republican plan contained $ 2 @.@ 533 trillion in revenues and $ 3 @.@ 529 trillion in outlays , for a deficit of $ 0 @.@ 996 trillion . The enacted budget contained $ 2 @.@ 469 trillion in receipts and $ 3 @.@ 796 trillion in outlays , for a deficit of $ 1 @.@ 327 trillion .
= = = Total receipts = = =
= = = Total outlays by agency = = =
The Department of Defense budget is divided into two parts : the base budget , and Overseas Contingency Operations which includes the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan .
= = = Total outlays by budget function = = =
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= The Client ( The Office ) =
" The Client " is the seventh episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's thirteenth episode overall . Written by Paul Lieberstein , who also acts in the show as Toby Flenderson , and directed by Greg Daniels , the episode first aired in the United States on November 8 , 2005 on NBC .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) and Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) begin a relationship after landing an important client ( Tim Meadows ) . Meanwhile , the rest of the office finds a screenplay written by Michael and they decide to read it together .
The idea for Jan and Michael to have a romantic relationship was conceived by Steve Carell as far back as the filming of the pilot episode . The kiss between the two was rehearsed and filmed " many , many , many times " , according to B.J. Novak . While filming , Steve Carell and Tim Meadows improvised a good majority of their dinner scene , but most of it never made the final cut . During the production of the episode , the cast and crew were informed by NBC that the show would be picked up for a whole 22 episodes , a move that " surprised " them . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics and earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 8 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being viewed by 7 @.@ 5 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) and Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) meet with a potential client , Christian ( Tim Meadows ) , at Chili 's . Jan is disgusted with Michael 's antics ( which began with Michael changing the meeting location from a hotel meeting room to Chili 's without permission ) and refusal to talk business , but discovers at the end of the day that there is a method to his madness when the client bonds with Michael , allowing him to close the deal . Afterwards , in the parking lot , Michael and the recently divorced Jan kiss and leave together .
Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) finds a screenplay written by Michael called Threat @-@ Level Midnight starring himself as " Agent Michael Scarn " , and the staff read it together . While reading the script , the character sequence " Dwigt " appears . Pam explains to the camera that originally , Michael based his incompetent sidekick on Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) , but later changed the name with a search and replace . Unfortunately , the search and replace mechanism failed to change Dwight 's misspelled name . Dwight is upset and quickly shuts down the exercise to invite everyone to set off fireworks outside , but only Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) follows .
Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam break off their respective evening plans to enjoy an impromptu dinner on the roof and watch Dwight and Kevin fool around with fireworks . The next day , Jim jokes about their " first date " , and Pam , in an unexpectedly blunt tone , tells him it was not a date . Surprised and obviously disappointed , Jim makes an unwise comment that at least he didn 't leave her at a high school hockey game , in reference to Pam 's earlier revelation of what Roy had done on her worst date ever . Pam is clearly upset and gets up to go send some faxes , leaving it awkward between her and Jim , who tries unsuccessfully to apologize .
Word quickly spreads that Jan and Michael spent the night together . Michael initially tells the documentary crew that " nothing happened " , that they just talked for several hours , but his story gradually changes to imply that they did more than that . Jan calls , clearly regretting what happened , but Michael refuses to accept her change of heart .
Jim and Michael share a glance at each other , both disappointed in the days ' events .
= = Production = =
This episode was the third episode of the series directed by Greg Daniels . Daniels had previously directed the episodes " Basketball " and " The Dundies " . " The Client " was written by Paul Lieberstein , who acts on the show as human resources director Toby Flenderson . The idea for Jan and Michael to have a romantic relationship was conceived by Steve Carell as far back as the filming of the pilot episode . According to writer and producer Greg Daniels " it was like he ( Michael ) was turned on by his teacher . " Writer and actor Paul Lieberstein said that the first idea that anybody came up for the episode was the final shot , where Jim and Michael look at each other and shake their heads , suggesting that they had been through similar experiences . The rest of the episode was written to lead to that scene . The scene where Oscar tells a story about a date getting a background check on him was based on an actual date that Paul Lieberstein went on .
While filming , Steve Carell and Tim Meadows improvised a lot of their dinner scene , but most of it never made the final cut . One improvised scene that did make the final cut was the " Baby Back Ribs " song . In an interview , Jenna Fischer said that the rooftop scene was her favorite to shoot . Fischer recalled that " there was a very small crew up on the roof and they had the cameras really far away . " After the main shooting ended , producers decided to do a re @-@ shoot to explain the " Dwigt " situation clearly and concisely . The kiss between Michael and Jan was rehearsed and filmed " many , many , many times " , according to B.J. Novak . While editing the kiss between Michael and Jan , Greg Daniels brought many people into the editing room to see if they thought the kiss was too long or not long enough .
During the production of the episode , the cast and crew were informed by NBC that the show would be picked up for a whole 22 episodes . Initially , the show 's second season had only been brought back for six episodes , to test the water . Despite the lackluster reception the first season had , ratings jumped during the second season to 7 @.@ 7 million in the fall alone . After the ratings success , Kevin Reilly , NBC Entertainment president , " surprised " the cast and crew of the staff and ordered a full season ; he later likened the series to Seinfeld and Cheers , noting that they too had " slow starts " .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael tells Jan that he moved their meeting from a Radisson to a Chili 's , per advice — that he sent in — to the magazine Small Businessman . During their meeting , Michael tells Christian and Jan the Lighthouse and naval vessel joke . Dwight reveals to the camera that he was once in a production of Oklahoma ! , and played the part of " Mutie The Mailman " . He explains that the production had too many kids , so they made up extra roles .
Michael 's screenplay is a parody of secret agent films , most notably the James Bond franchise . In Michael 's screenplay , his love interest is named Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones . The name of Michael 's movie has been referenced several other times through the series . In the third season episode " Product Recall " , Michael frantically states that , due to the amount of angry customers , the office has been " put at Threat Level Midnight . " Michael 's screenplay was eventually turned into a home movie , and is viewed by the entire office in the seventh season episode " Threat Level Midnight . "
= = Reception = =
" The Client " originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 8 , 2005 . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 5 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 9 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode retained 73 percent of its lead @-@ in " My Name is Earl " audience , the best the show had done up until that point . An encore presentation of the episode , on April 25 , 2006 , received 2 @.@ 4 rating / 7 % share was viewed by over 4 @.@ 8 million viewers .
The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics . TV Squad 's Michael Sciannamea gave the episode a largely positive review wrote that Michael is " totally taken with himself " , but still " has shown us his vulnerabilities " . Sciannamea noted that , by showing the audience Michael 's humanity , the writers were making " this sitcom so compelling " . Sciannamea , however , did point out that this is the second week in a row that " Pam is offended by something Jim has said or done " , which in his mind " will get tiresome quickly if it continues " . " Miss Alli " of Television Without Pity graded the episode with a " B + " . Rolling Stone named the scene wherein the employees read Threat Level : Midnight as the tenth funniest in The Office 's first three seasons .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A " and called it " a series @-@ best episode of The Office whose series @-@ best status sneaks up on you " . He was largely complimentary towards the way the episode built towards a climax , and followed various successful " setup @-@ punchline rhythms " . He also applauded the introduction of the Threatlevel : Midnight screenplay , calling it " a subplot so crucial to the mythology of the series , it would form the basis of an entire episode near the end of Steve Carell ’ s time in Scranton . " Adams ultimately concluded that the episode is " a top @-@ notch Office installment overall " , thanks in large part to the Pam @-@ Jim and Michael @-@ Jan subplots and dynamics .
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= Neville McNamara =
Air Chief Marshal Sir Neville Patrick McNamara , KBE , AO , AFC , AE ( 17 April 1923 – 7 May 2014 ) was a senior commander of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He served as Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) , the RAAF 's highest @-@ ranking position , from 1979 until 1982 , and as Chief of the Defence Force Staff ( CDFS ) , Australia 's top military role at the time , from 1982 until 1984 . He was the second RAAF officer to hold the rank of air chief marshal .
Born in Queensland , McNamara joined the RAAF during World War II and saw action in the South West Pacific , flying P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . He also flew combat missions in Gloster Meteors during the Korean War . In 1961 , he was awarded the Air Force Cross for his leadership of No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit . He gained further operational experience heading the RAAF presence in Ubon , Thailand , in the late 1960s . Promoted to air commodore , McNamara was Commander RAAF Forces Vietnam , and Deputy Commander Australian Forces Vietnam , in 1971 – 72 , for which he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire . As Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1976 , he was named an Officer of the Order of Australia . Knighted while CAS in 1980 , he retired after completing his term as CDFS in 1984 .
= = Early life and World War II = =
Neville Patrick McNamara was born on 17 April 1923 in Toogoolawah , Queensland . He was educated at Toogoolawah State School , and by the Christian Brothers in Warwick and at St. Joseph 's Nudgee College . He enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) on 12 October 1941 . Following aircrew training , he graduated as a sergeant pilot on 15 October 1942 . He served as an instructor before being posted to the South West Pacific as a fighter pilot with No. 75 Squadron , flying P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . He gained his commission in 1944 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = Rise to senior command = = =
After the war , McNamara was posted to air traffic control duties at Headquarters North @-@ Eastern Area . During 1947 , he was stationed at Bofu , Japan , with No. 82 Squadron , as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) . He married Dorothy Miller on 27 May 1950 ; the couple had two daughters . From 1951 to 1953 , he served as an instructor at Central Flying School in East Sale , Victoria . Ranked squadron leader , he then saw operational service in the Korean War as the Executive Officer of No. 77 Squadron , flying Gloster Meteors . Initially employed in the conflict as a fighter unit , by this time No. 77 Squadron 's role was primarily ground attack , using the Meteors ' cannon augmented by newly fitted rocket armament . McNamara briefly took charge of the unit in November – December when there was a hiatus between commanding officers rotating out and rotating in .
Returning to Australia in 1954 , McNamara was posted to Headquarters Training Command as pilot training officer . From 1955 until 1957 he served as staff officer fighter operations at the Department of Air , before being appointed Commanding Officer No. 25 Squadron . Promoted wing commander , he took charge of No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 2 OCU ) at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales in 1959 . No. 2 OCU was responsible for training pilots to fly the CAC Sabre jet fighter , which was operated by Nos. 3 , 75 and 77 Squadrons . His performance as commanding officer earned him the Air Force Cross in the 1961 Queen 's Birthday Honours .
In 1961 McNamara was posted to England as senior air staff officer at RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London , and then in 1964 was appointed Director of Personnel ( Officers ) at the Department of Air . He received the Air Efficiency Award in 1965 , and the following year took command of RAAF Ubon , Thailand . Operating under the provisions of the SEATO agreement during the early years of the Vietnam War , the Australian contingent included No. 79 Squadron , flying Sidewinder @-@ equipped CAC Sabres . Although only fifty kilometres from the Laotian border and occasionally scrambled to intercept North Vietnamese fighters , the Sabres never saw action , in contrast to their USAF brethren also based at Ubon . Limited as its military role was , however , the RAAF presence was judged politically valuable . After completing his tour in Thailand , McNamara served as air staff officer at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales , until 1968 , before being appointed Director General Organisation at the Department of Air .
= = = Senior RAAF and Australian Defence Force command = = =
Promoted to air commodore , in April 1971 , McNamara became the last Commander RAAF Forces Vietnam and Deputy Commander Australian Force Vietnam ( AFV ) . Believing that the Air Force paid " lip service " to its army co @-@ operation responsibilities in the 1950s and 1960s , he familiarised himself with the finer points of air / ground operations by accompanying No. 9 Squadron helicopters on missions supporting 1st Australian Task Force in Phuoc Tuy Province . Given the responsibility of overseeing the withdrawal of the RAAF from Vietnam in 1972 , McNamara was praised for his " wise and patient counsel , devotion to duty and firm control " , leading to his appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in September that year . In 1973 , he was posted to the United States as the Australian Air Attache to Washington , D.C. Promoted to air vice marshal , he returned to Australia in 1975 and took up duties as the Deputy Chief of Air Staff , which he later described as " an invaluable learning experience for the top job " . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia ( AO ) on 7 June 1976 for " distinguished service in responsible positions " .
McNamara was promoted to air marshal and became Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) in March 1979 . He succeeded Air Marshal Sir James Rowland , who had been the first CAS to personally command the RAAF in a legal sense , following the abolition of the Australian Air Board in 1976 . Previously , the CAS position was more akin to a chairman , " first among equals " with the other members of the Air Board . Under this earlier arrangement , McNamara considered that some senior commanders tended to behave like " regional war lords " who thought that the CAS existed purely to handle politicians and paperwork , while they ( the commanders ) got on with the Air Force 's " real work " . As CAS , McNamara put in train development of new strategies for the air defence of Australia , later remarking that " capability must be matched by ideas " . He also supervised the selection process that chose the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet to the replace the RAAF 's Mirage III fighters . McNamara personally favoured the F / A @-@ 18 due to its multi @-@ role capability . Appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) on 31 December 1980 , he was the last CAS to be knighted before Australia abandoned the imperial honours system .
In 1982 , McNamara became the first Air Force member to directly command all three of Australia 's armed services as Chief of the Defence Force Staff ( CDFS ) , which had replaced the earlier senior position in the defence force , Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee . He also became only the second RAAF officer to be raised to the rank of air chief marshal . As CDFS , McNamara had to work to repair strained relations between the Defence Department 's military and civilian components . He sought to accomplish this through a restrained management style and respect for the department 's public servants . At the same time , he maintained the need for military and civilian personnel to be easily distinguishable , and reversed a trend for armed force personnel to wear suits " in the office " and uniforms only " on parade " , which was the preference of Secretary of Defence Arthur Tange . The military and public service wings of the department still clashed over the question of enlarging the CDFS 's role to achieve more coherent defence planning . Shortly after McNamara completed his term as CDFS in 1984 , the position was redesignated Chief of the Defence Force ( CDF ) , to more clearly reflect its authority over the Australian armed services .
= = Retirement = =
Air Chief Marshal McNamara retired from military life in April 1984 . He was awarded the Centenary Medal on 1 January 2001 for his " service to Australian society through the Royal Australian Air Force " . That year he joined celebrations at Point Cook , Victoria , to mark the 80th anniversary of the founding of the RAAF . McNamara published his autobiography , The Quiet Man , in 2005 . He died at Jervis Bay , New South Wales , on 7 May 2014 , and was survived by his wife and two daughters . He is commemorated by Sir Neville McNamara Drive in North Turramurra , New South Wales .
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= Kenneth Widmerpool =
Kenneth Widmerpool is a fictional character in Anthony Powell 's novel sequence A Dance to the Music of Time , a 12 @-@ volume account of upper @-@ class and bohemian life in Britain between 1920 and 1970 . Regarded by critics as one of the more memorable characters of 20th century fiction , Widmerpool is the antithesis of the sequence 's narrator @-@ hero Nicholas Jenkins . Initially presented as a comic , even pathetic figure , he becomes increasingly formidable , powerful and ultimately sinister as the novels progress . He is successful in business , in the army and in politics , and is awarded a life peerage . His only sphere of failure is his relationships with women , exemplified by his disastrous marriage to Pamela Flitton . The sequence ends with Widmerpool 's downfall and death , in circumstances arising from his involvement with a New Age @-@ type cult .
Literary analysts have noted Widmerpool 's defining characteristics as a lack of culture , small @-@ mindedness , and a capacity for intrigue ; generally , he is thought to embody many of the worst aspects of the British character . However , he has the ability to rise above numerous insults and humiliations that beset him to achieve positions of prominence through dogged industry and self @-@ belief . In this respect he represents the meritocratic middle class 's challenge to the declining power of the traditional " establishment " or ruling group , which is shown to be vulnerable to a determined assault from this source .
Among the more prominent names suggested as real @-@ life models for Widmerpool have been Edward Heath , the British prime minister 1970 – 74 , and Reginald Manningham @-@ Buller who was Britain 's Attorney General in the 1950s . Others of Powell 's contemporaries have made claims to be the character 's source , although Powell gave little encouragement to such speculation . Widmerpool has been portrayed in two British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) radio dramatisations of the novel sequence ( 1979 – 82 and 2008 ) and in Channel 4 's television filmed version broadcast in 1997 .
= = Context : A Dance to the Music of Time = =
The novel sequence A Dance to the Music of Time comprises 12 volumes spanning a period of approximately 50 years ; from the early 1920s to the first years of the 1970s . The title is taken from Nicolas Poussin 's 1634 – 36 painting of the same name . Through the eyes of a narrator , Nicholas Jenkins , the reader observes the changing fortunes of a varied collection of mainly upper @-@ class characters . Their ambience is a bohemian world of art , literature and music , intermingled with more the practical spheres of politics , business and the military . In a 1971 study of the novels , the journalist and editor Dan McLeod summarised the theme of the sequence as that of a decaying establishment , confronted by " aggressive representatives from the middle classes elbowing their way up " . The latter are prepared to suffer any number of indignities in their pursuit of power but the establishment proves capable of resisting the advance of " all but the most thick @-@ hided and persevering " of outsiders . Kenneth Widmerpool becomes the principal embodiment of these incomers .
The first three volumes are set in the 1920s and follow the main characters through school , university and their first steps towards social and professional acceptance . The next three are placed in the 1930s ; the protagonists become established , put down roots , watch the international situation anxiously and prepare for war . The background for the seventh , eighth and ninth volumes is the Second World War , which not all the characters survive . The final three books cover the 25 years from the early days of the post @-@ war Attlee government to the counterculture and protests of the early 1970s . During the long narrative , the focus changes frequently from one group to another ; new faces appear while established characters are written out , sometimes reappearing after many volumes , sometimes not at all , though news of their doings may reach Jenkins , through one or other of his many acquaintances . Apart from Jenkins , Widmerpool is the only one of the 300 @-@ odd characters who takes part in the action of each of the 12 volumes . Richard Jones , writing in the Virginia Quarterly Review , suggests that the novels may be regarded as " the dance of Kenneth Widmerpool , who is Jenkins 's fall @-@ guy , tormentor , and antithesis " . Widmerpool dogs Jenkins 's career and life ; in the opening pages of the first book at school , he is encountered running through the mists , in the vain hope of athletic glory . In the final stages of the last book he is running again , this time at the behest of the quasi @-@ religious cult that has claimed him .
= = Character = =
= = = Origins , appearance , personality = = =
The name " Widmerpool " was assumed by many critics to derive from Widmerpool a Nottinghamshire village . In a 1978 interview , Powell said he first came across the name in a 17th @-@ century book , Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson , which features a Captain of Horse , Major Joseph Widmerpoole , who served in Cromwell 's army under John Hutchinson during the English Civil War . Powell viewed this Widmerpoole as a mean @-@ spirited and disagreeable character and " had his name down for really quite a long time as a name I was going to use " .
The fictional Widmerpool 's background is meritocratic rather than aristocratic . His paternal grandfather was a Scottish businessman surnamed Geddes , who on marriage to a woman of higher social standing , adopted her name as his own . The family appears to have settled in either Nottinghamshire or Derbyshire ; Widmerpool 's father trades as a fertiliser manufacturer , a matter of extreme embarrassment to his son , who never mentions him . His mother is a woman of strong opinions and a great admirer of Stalin ; her passion is her son 's career and advancement . Mother and son live together , from Widmerpool père 's death in the mid @-@ 1920s until Widmerpool 's marriage in 1945 .
Jenkins 's descriptions of Widmerpool 's appearance are unflattering ; at school he is painted as " heavily built , [ with ] thick lips and metal @-@ rimmed spectacles giving his face as usual an aggrieved expression ... [ as if ] he suspected people of trying to worm out of him important information ... " A few years later , he is wearing more fashionable spectacles but Jenkins notes that he still has a curiously fishlike ( " piscine " ) countenance . He has a propensity to put on weight ; although barely 30 , Widmerpool appears to Jenkins as portly and middle @-@ aged . At the outbreak of war in 1939 , in an badly cut army uniform , he resembles a music @-@ hall burlesque of a military officer or else " a railway official of some obscure country " . After the war as an MP , his demeanour and shape are " demanding of treatment by political cartoonists " . In 1958 , meeting Widmerpool ( then in his mid @-@ fifties ) after some years , Jenkins is shocked by his elderly appearance . His clothes are ill @-@ fitting through weight loss , giving him the look of a scarecrow ; his grey hair is sparse and his facial flesh hangs in pouches . The final glimpse of Widmerpool , in his cult milieu , reveals him as a physical wreck , looking aged , desperate and worn out .
Widmerpool 's chief characteristic in his youth is an exaggerated respect for and deference to authority . This is first indicated by his obsequious response to being hit in the face by a banana , thrown by the school 's cricket captain . It is further shown by his outrage over a prank played by his schoolfellow Charles Stringham on their housemaster , Le Bas . He has a craving for acceptance , even at the price of humiliation , and has a natural talent for aligning himself with the dominant power . Many of Widmerpool 's traits are evident quite early in his career : his pomposity , his aversion to all forms of culture ( " the embodiment of thick @-@ skinned , self @-@ important philistinism " according to one commentator ) , his bureaucratic obsessions and his snobbishness . He is politically naïve and his contribution to the pre @-@ war appeasement of Nazi Germany is to suggest that Hermann Göring be awarded the Order of the Garter and given a tour of Buckingham Palace . Yet , as the novel sequence progresses , Widmerpool emerges as far less of a buffoon and becomes , against all expectations , powerful and power @-@ obsessed . In his analysis of Powell 's fiction , Nicholas Birns identifies an incident in The Acceptance World ( the third volume of the series ) as the point at which the assessment of Widmerpool by his contemporaries begins to change . Widmerpool takes charge of a drunken Stringham after a reunion dinner , guides him home and despite resistance puts him firmly to bed : " Widmerpool , once so derided by all of us , had in some mysterious manner become a person of authority . Now , in a sense , it was he that derided us " .
Widmerpool 's egotism and will @-@ power enable him , once set , to carry all before him , although before his ultimate downfall his powers develop in somewhat sinister directions . In a review of the early novels in the sequence , Arthur Mizener wrote : " Powell makes his great egoists , for all their absurdity , something not essentially different from all the rest of us ; even Widmerpool , the most extravagant of the lot , is not . However sublimely ridiculous he becomes , he continues to remind us , not so much , perhaps , of what we have done , as what we have , in our time , known we might do " .
= = = Career = = =
At school ( not identified but generally recognised as Eton ) , Widmerpool is undistinguished academically and athletically , a " gauche striver " in the words of one literary commentator . He is the object of some ridicule , chiefly remembered for wearing the " wrong kind of overcoat " on his arrival at the school . Driven by ambition , instead of going on to university ( " much better get down to work right away " ) he is articled to a firm of solicitors , declaring this to be a springboard to wider horizons in business and politics . When Jenkins encounters him a few years after school , Widmerpool has achieved some social success and is a regular invitee at dinner @-@ dances . He has also acquired a commission as a lieutenant in the Territorial Army .
Through his social contacts Widmerpool secures a job in the politico @-@ legal department of the Donners @-@ Brebner industrial conglomerate , a post that brings him into close contact with Sir Magnus Donners , for whom he exhibits a respect bordering on reverence . He develops a talent for intrigue , which irritates Sir Magnus to the extent that Widmerpool is asked to leave the organisation . He joins a City firm of bill @-@ brokers and still under the age of 30 , becomes an influential and respected figure in the financial world . By the late 1930s , Widmerpool is advising Donners @-@ Brebner again . Just before the outbreak of war in September 1939 , he oversees a scheme on behalf of Donners to corner the Turkish market in chromite and emerges unscathed when the project collapses .
At the beginning of the war Widmerpool joins the army and with the advantage of his Territorial commission is rapidly promoted . By mid @-@ 1940 he holds the rank of major and is serving as Deputy @-@ Assistant @-@ Adjutant @-@ General at Divisional Headquarters in Northern Ireland . Jenkins becomes his junior officer and observes Widmerpool 's industry and his skill as a manipulator . Among the rank and file troops at headquarters , serving as a mess waiter , is Charles Stringham . Widmerpool is embarrassed by the presence of his former school @-@ fellow , and engineers his transfer to a mobile laundry unit , which is sent to Singapore where Stringham meets his death . In June 1941 , Widmerpool is transferred to London as a Military Assistant Secretary at the Cabinet Office . Promotions to lieutenant colonel and colonel follow and he is appointed an OBE . In his new post he is close to the centres of power and is able to influence war policy and settle old scores . He is complicit in the death of another school rival , Peter Templer , who as the result of a policy recommendation by Widmerpool , is abandoned while on a secret mission in the Balkans . Just after the end of the war , Widmerpool surprises his acquaintances by marrying Stringham 's niece , Pamela Flitton , an ATS driver , whose sex life is rumoured to be " gladiatorial " .
Since the mid @-@ 1930s , Widmerpool 's political leanings have been generally to the left , ( possibly as a result of his brief association with the radical Gypsy Jones in the late 1920s ) . In 1945 he becomes a Labour Member of Parliament during the postwar Attlee government and eventually receives ( unspecified ) minor ministerial office in the administration . He is also one of the backers of a left @-@ leaning magazine , Fission , through which he hopes to propagate his economic and political views . He is an assiduous promoter of good relations with eastern European countries and is suspected by some of a secret communist allegiance . After losing his parliamentary seat in the 1955 General Election Widmerpool continues to promote east – west friendship and trade and is thought to have become wealthy as a result . Doubts as to his motives remain and rumours connect him with Burgess and Maclean . In 1958 , Widmerpool is appointed a life peer and takes his seat in the House of Lords . His eastern European activities again arouse suspicion , questions are asked in parliament and it seems likely that he will be charged with spying but the investigation is dropped without explanation . His marriage to Pamela is disintegrating ; for years he has tolerated her constant infidelities and she publicly accuses him of voyeurism . After Pamela 's sudden death in 1959 , Widmerpool leaves the country to take up an academic post in California .
In America Widmerpool becomes something of a figurehead among youth protest movements ; there are suggestions that his earlier problems may have resulted from a CIA plot . He returns to England in the late 1960s and is installed as Chancellor of a new university . During the ceremony he is pelted with red paint but immediately identifies with the demonstrators and becomes a central figure in the counter @-@ culture movement . He resigns the chancellorship after a year , to run a commune for dissident youth . By late 1969 , he has been drawn into a more sinister cult , led by the young mystic Scorpio Murtlock , which gradually overwhelms his life and independence . He is last heard of late in 1971 , when during a ritual dawn run through the woods he collapses and dies .
= = = Love life = = =
The novels leave open the nature and extent of Widmerpool 's sexuality , an aspect on which critics have often speculated . Stephen McGregor of the Spectator describes him as " impotent " ; another commentator used the words " sexual incompetent " . At school he gets Akworth a fellow @-@ pupil , expelled for sending a presumably compromising note to Peter Templer ; afterwards , Jenkins and Stringham discuss Templer 's belief that Widmerpool was motivated by sexual jealousy . A few years later , Jenkins recalls how Widmerpool recoiled when touched gently on the arm by Berthe , a French girl encountered during the pair 's summer sojourn at La Grenadière , shortly after leaving school .
In his mid @-@ twenties , Widmerpool confesses to Jenkins his love for Barbara Goring , a girl whom he had known since his childhood . Their families had been neighbours and Widmerpool 's father had supplied Lord Goring with liquid manure . This unrequited passion ends suddenly , when Barbara pours sugar over Widmerpool 's head at a ball , as a means of " sweetening " him . Shortly afterwards , Widmerpool becomes obsessed by Gypsy Jones , a fiery street radical he meets by chance , who according to Jenkins resembles " a thoroughly ill @-@ conditioned errand boy " . The nature of the Widmerpool – Jones relationship is not made explicit ; it culminates in his paying for an abortion , even though he is not responsible for her condition and apparently receives no favours from her in return . His actions in this respect haunt Widmerpool for a long time thereafter ; he vows that he will never again allow a woman to take his mind off his work .
When he is about 30 , Widmerpool becomes engaged to a considerably older widow , Mildred Haycock . His main motivation appears to be his craving for social status ; she is the daughter of Lord Vowchurch . In his analysis of Powell 's works , Nicholas Birns wrote : " What Widmerpool wants to do is to ' marry up ' , to make a marriage that will cement his upward social mobility , and he is willing to take an older woman with two teenage children in order to accomplish this . " The engagement ends abruptly , over Widmerpool 's impotence during an attempted premarital sexual union .
After this episode , the issue of Widmerpool 's sex life is not mentioned until , in the later stages of the Second World War , he admits to picking up " tarts " during the blackout . After the war his disastrous marriage to Pamela Flitton appears to provide him with no normal physical satisfaction ; according to Pamela he gave up trying after two abortive attempts to sleep with her and was reduced to furtive pleasure from observing her sexual activities with others . He is also reported to have had some depraved dealings with a prostitute known as " Pauline " . In old age , within the Murtlock cult , he is said to have " watched [ girls ] naked , whenever he could " .
= = Critical and popular reception = =
Critics generally find Widmerpool the most interesting and absorbing of the sequence 's major characters . He has been described as " one of the most memorable characters of 20th century fiction " , and according to the literary critic John Bayley is as " famous a character in the annals of English fiction as either Pickwick or Jeeves " . Powell , in a 1978 interview , confessed that he had used Widmerpool as a bait to catch readers , but found that the character had taken over , to a greater extent than he would have wished .
The essayist Tariq Ali views Widmerpool as a giant among fictional characterisations of his kind , comparable to Baron de Charlus in Proust 's epic In Search of Lost Time and Ulrich in Robert Musil 's trilogy The Man Without Qualities . Ali asserts that Widmerpool is " in many ways a more inspired creation than Charlus " . The circumstances of Widmerpool 's death , whereby he is transformed from a believable person into " a sub @-@ Dickensian grotesque " is , says Ali , a cause for much regret . Powell 's A Writer 's Notebook ( 2001 ) reveals that Powell originally considered a different ending for Widmerpool , in which he simply disappears into the mists , his ultimate fate an enigma . Ali argues that this would have been " much more in keeping with the dance of life and death " .
Norman Shrapnel , in his obituary of Powell , speculates whether the author ever regretted creating the " maddening , mysterious , apparently indestructible Widmerpool " and , like Ali , expresses disappointment with the manner of the character 's death . Conversely , in a biographical sketch of Powell , Michael Barber believes that Widmerpool 's demise accords with a principal theme of the novels , expressed in Casanova 's Chinese Restaurant ( fifth book in the sequence ) , that " in the end most things in life — perhaps all things — turn out to be appropriate " . Michael Gorra , reviewing Powell 's autobiography To Keep the Ball Rolling , presents the view that , while the novels are built around Widmerpool , they are not essentially about him : " He is an organising principle , a means , not an end , and serves primarily to establish a system of judgement . "
Evelyn Waugh , who reviewed the early novels as they appeared at two @-@ year intervals , found Widmerpool particularly compelling . He wrote to Powell after reading At Lady Molly 's ( fourth volume ) : " In the opening pages I felt the void of Widmerpool really aching – I could not have borne another page 's delay for his entry . Did you intend him to dominate the series ? " After reviewing Casanova 's Chinese Restaurant Waugh complained of a " sad disappointment – only three pages of Widmerpool " .
= = Real @-@ life models = =
Many readers and literary analysts have assumed that Widmerpool was drawn from Powell 's acquaintances . Powell was circumspect and chose not to confirm any of the suggestions put to him . Candidates include Powell 's Eton contemporary Sir Reginald Manningham @-@ Buller ( nicknamed " Bullying @-@ Manner " ) , later ennobled as Lord Dilhorne , who served as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor during the 1950s . According to Powell , Manningham @-@ Buller was an unattractive figure at school ; he was instrumental in the dismissal of a master who sent an inappropriate note to a junior boy , an action reflected in the novels when Widmerpool instigates the sacking of Akworth . Powell 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , the Labour peer Lord Longford , believed that he was the model for Widmerpool , a proposition that Powell rejected ; Longford had also claimed to be Erridge , another character from the novels . The Labour politician Denis Healey thought that Powell had based Widmerpool on Edward Heath , the British prime minister between 1970 and 1974 . It is possible that the episodes relating to Widmerpool 's spying career are drawn from the activities of Denis Nowell Pritt , a Labour MP who was expelled from the party for his pro @-@ Soviet stance . Powell 's biographer Michael Barber wrote that Cyril Connolly declared his long @-@ standing enemy , the art historian Douglas Cooper , to be a Widmerpool prototype ; Cooper 's companion John Richardson thought that Connolly was joking .
Powell came close to endorsing a real @-@ life model in Denis Capel @-@ Dunn , a lawyer and wartime lieutenant @-@ colonel in the Intelligence Corps , who was briefly Powell 's senior officer . Capel @-@ Dunn was nicknamed " The Papal Bun " , and was derided by his subordinates for his appearance and demeanour . He was described by his contemporaries as " a very fat , extremely boring , overwhelmingly ambitious arriviste . His conversations were hideously detailed and humourless " . He was responsible , apparently through spite , for preventing Powell 's promotion to the rank of major . When the historian Desmond Seward proposed Capel @-@ Dunn as the original Widmerpool , Powell hinted that he " might be on to something " .
In the Catholic Herald , Alexander Lucie @-@ Smith wrote that everyone has Widmerpools in their lives ; these are usually " impenetrable egomaniacs ... who have nevertheless carried all before them " . He includes in this category several recent and current politicians : " Some have thought Gordon Brown resembled him . One might point out that our current Prime Minister [ David Cameron ] has certain shades of Widmerpool , and like him , went to Eton " .
The Anthony Powell Society , a literary society founded in 2000 to promote public interest in Powell 's life and works , has from time to time offered a " Widmerpool Award " to persons in public life whose behaviour is deemed suitably " Widmerpudlian " , specifically abuse of power . The recipient is presented with an engraved award representing a " wrong kind of overcoat " and the former Labour Lord Chancellor , Lord Irvine , the journalist Max Hastings and the political analyst Karl Rove have received awards . The name of John Bercow , Speaker of the House of Commons since 2009 , has been mentioned as a possible recipient .
= = Dramatic portrayals = =
Widmerpool has twice been portrayed in BBC radio broadcasts of the Dance to the Music of Time sequence . The first was a 26 @-@ part serial , transmitted on Radio Four between summer 1979 and autumn 1982 , in four batches . The novels were dramatised by Frederick Bradnum and the series was produced by Graham Gauld . The part of Widmerpool was played — with , according to one listener " audible pomposity " — by Brian Hewlett , more generally known as a longstanding cast member of the BBC radio serial The Archers . A later radio adaptation was broadcast in six episodes , in Radio Four 's " Classic Serial " of April and May 2008 . The dramatisation was by Michael Butt ; the youthful Widmerpool was played by Anthony Hoskyns and the adult character by Mark Heap .
In October and November 1997 , Channel 4 presented the novel sequence in four television films , with a screenplay by Hugh Whitemore , produced by Peter Amsorge . Widmerpool was played by Simon Russell Beale ; in a generally critical review of the first film of the series , Thomas Sutcliffe in The Independent refers to Beale 's performance as particularly good , bearing in mind the " thin ledges of characterisation " the script provides to the cast . The journalist David Aaronovitch thought Beale 's interpretation of the character definitive : " ... the Widmerpool who insinuated his podgy bulk into my private space was ... Simon Russell Beale 's Widmerpool , who has come to stay " . Reviewing the reissue of the films in DVD in 2012 , Stuart Jeffries in The Guardian describes Widmerpool as " one of fiction 's most intriguing monsters " and likens Beale 's portrayal to that of " a kind of grown @-@ up Billy Bunter with the charm sucked out " . Christopher Hitchens , writing in the New York Review of Books , criticised the production ( though not Beale 's performance ) , for depicting Widmerpool as " a hapless rather than a hateful figure " .
Beale was the reader for the cassette recordings of the first two novels : A Question of Upbringing and A Buyer 's Market . As a result of his television portrayal of Widmerpool , he was asked by the Wallace Collection to open its Powell centenary exhibition in October 2005 . In the following year he accepted a request from the Anthony Powell Society to serve as its president , a post he held until 2011 .
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= Second Avenue Subway =
The Second Avenue Subway ( officially the IND Second Avenue Line ; abbreviated to SAS ) is a future New York City Subway line that has been under discussion for almost a century . The line will run primarily under Second Avenue on the East Side of Manhattan . A first phase of this new line is expected to open on December 30 , 2016 , having been under construction since 2007 . It will run between 96th Street and Second Avenue and the existing 63rd Street Lines , where it will connect to the BMT Broadway Line and the rest of the subway system . The Q train will provide full @-@ time service on phase one and will serve about 200 @,@ 000 daily riders . The full line , when funded , will be built in three additional phases , allowing portions of the line to open before the entire line is completed . When complete , it will be served by a proposed T train and is projected to serve about 560 @,@ 000 daily riders . The full proposed Second Avenue line would consist of 16 stations and 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) of tunnel , and is expected to cost over $ 17 billion .
The line was originally proposed in 1919 as part of a massive expansion of what would become the Independent Subway System ( IND ) . Work on the line never commenced , as the Great Depression crushed the economy . Numerous plans for the Second Avenue Subway appeared throughout the 20th century , but these were usually deferred due to lack of funds . In anticipation of the never @-@ built new subway line , the Second and Third Avenue elevated lines were demolished in 1942 and 1955 , respectively . This left the Lexington Avenue Subway as the only rapid transit line on much of Manhattan 's east side ; today , it is by far the busiest subway line in the United States with an estimated 1 @.@ 3 million daily riders .
Construction on the Second Avenue line started in 1972 , but was halted in 1975 because of the city 's major fiscal crisis ; only a few small segments of the line were completed at the time . Simultaneously , construction work on the 63rd Street Lines , which would connect the Second Avenue Line and the IND Queens Boulevard Line to the BMT Broadway Line and the IND Sixth Avenue Line , started in 1969 . Work on the 63rd Street line continued even after construction on the Second Avenue line ended . The first segment of the 63rd Street Lines — which opened in October 1989 and extended to 21st Street – Queensbridge in Long Island City , Queens — left provisions for future construction to the Second Avenue Line .
Construction restarted in 2007 following the development of a financially secure construction plan . The Metropolitan Transportation Authority ( MTA ) awarded a tunneling contract for the first phase of the project to the consortium of Schiavone / Shea / Skanska ( S3 ) on March 20 , 2007 . This followed preliminary engineering and a final tunnel design completed by a joint venture between AECOM and Arup . Parsons Brinckerhoff is serving as the Construction Manager of the project . A full funding grant agreement with the Federal Transit Administration for the first phase of the project was received in November 2007 . A ceremonial ground @-@ breaking for the Second Avenue Subway was held on April 12 , 2007 . The first phase of the line consists of three new stations and two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of tunnel , costing $ 4 @.@ 45 billion . The contractor prepared the initial construction site at 96th Street on April 23 , 2007 . The tunnel boring machine launch box was completed in May 2010 , and on May 14 , MTA 's contractors completed the TBM installation and turned it on . On March 28 , 2011 , S3 , having completed the west tunnel to 65th Street , began drilling for the east tunnel , which completed its run to the Lexington Avenue – 63rd Street station 's bellmouth on September 22 , 2011 . As of July 1 , 2016 , the first phase was 96 @.@ 3 % complete .
= = Initial attempts = =
From 1919 through the 1980s , several different entities came up with many distinct plans for the Second Avenue subway line that were never carried out . The complex reasons for these delays are why the line is sometimes called " The Line That Time Forgot " .
= = = 1919 – 41 : Initial planning = = =
After World War I , the New York City Subway experienced a surge in ridership . By 1920 , 1 @.@ 3 billion annual passengers were riding the subway , compared to 523 million annual riders just seven years before the war . In 1919 , the New York Public Service Commission launched a study at the behest of engineer Daniel L. Turner to determine what improvements were needed in the city 's public transport system . Turner 's final paper , titled Proposed Comprehensive Rapid Transit System , was a massive plan calling for new routes under almost every north @-@ south Manhattan avenue , extensions to lines in Brooklyn and Queens , and several crossings of the Narrows to Staten Island . Massively scaled @-@ down versions of some of Turner 's plans were found in proposals for the new city @-@ owned Independent Subway System ( IND ) . Among the plans was a massive trunk line under Second Avenue consisting of at least six tracks and numerous branches throughout Brooklyn , Queens , and the Bronx . Turner also proposed that the two elevated lines be knocked down to make room for the 6 @-@ track Second Avenue Subway . The plan was to connect the new line to the then @-@ unbuilt Sixth Avenue and Eighth Avenue subway lines .
In January 1927 , Turner submitted a revised proposal . It was now going to connect to a Tenth Avenue trunk line as well as to crosstown lines in the Bronx and Queens . The Second Avenue Subway was still a six @-@ track line through Manhattan , except for a short eight @-@ track tunnel at its junction with the Queens lines . The plan called for a connection to the IND Concourse Line in the Bronx , as well as another one to the IND Fulton Street Line in Brooklyn . Such a plan would have cost $ 165 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 2 @,@ 248 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , including connections and underwater crossings . As the IRT Lexington Avenue Line got more crowded , some suggested ideas that were considered unusual . One suggestion included a new tunnel under Lexington Avenue , while another included a tunnel under a separate right @-@ of @-@ way between Second and Third Avenue .
In 1929 , the Board of Transportation of the City of New York tentatively approved the expansion , which included a Second Avenue Line with a projected construction cost of $ 98 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 351 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , not counting land acquisition . From north to south , the 1929 plan included four tracks from the Harlem River ( where it would continue north as a Bronx trunk line with several branches ) to 125th Street , six tracks from 125th Street to a link with the Sixth Avenue Line at 61st Street , four tracks from 61st Street to Chambers Street , and two tracks from Chambers Street to Pine Street . The plan was soon modified with the addition of another Bronx branch , as well as an extension of the subway to Water and Wall Streets . At the time , it was supposed to be completed between 1938 and 1941 . In anticipation of the line 's opening , real estate prices along the proposed route rose by an average of 50 % .
Due to the Great Depression , the soaring costs of the expansion became unmanageable . Construction on the first phase of the IND was already behind schedule , and the city and state were no longer able to provide funding . By 1930 , the line was shortened to between 125th and 34th Streets , with a turnoff at 34th Street and a crosstown connection there ; this line was to be complete by 1948 . The line above 32nd Street was to start construction in 1931 , with construction of a southern extension to Houston Street to commence in 1935 ; these segments would open in 1937 and 1940 , respectively . This scaled @-@ down plan was postponed in 1931 . By 1932 , the Board of Transportation had come up with another plan , which omitted a branch in the Bronx in order to cut costs . The new line 's southern terminus would be truncated to the Nassau Street Loop .
Further revision of the plan and more studies followed . By 1939 , construction had been postponed indefinitely , and Second Avenue line was relegated to " proposed " status , and was number 14 on the Board of Transportation 's list of important transportation projects . The Second Avenue line was also cut to two tracks , but now had a connection to the BMT Broadway Line . The reduced plan now had a single northern branch through Throggs Neck , Bronx , and a branch south into Brooklyn , connecting to a stub of the IND Fulton Street Line at the Court Street station , which is now the site of the New York Transit Museum . The subway was now also US $ 249 million ( equivalent to $ 4 @,@ 006 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The United States ' entry into World War II in 1941 halted all but the most urgent public works projects , delaying the Second Avenue Line once again .
= = = 1940s – 50s : After World War II = = =
As part of the unification of the three subway companies that comprised the New York City Subway , elevated lines were being shut down all over the city and replaced by subways , continuing the IND 's trend of phasing out elevated lines and streetcars in favor of new subways . For example , the IND Sixth Avenue Line replaced the Sixth Avenue Elevated , while the IND Fulton Street Line replaced the Fulton Street Elevated . Demolition of the elevateds also had the perceived effect of revitalizing the neighborhoods . The northern half of the Second Avenue Elevated , serving the Upper East Side and East Harlem closed in 1940 ; the southern half , running through Lower Manhattan , East Midtown and across the Queensborough Bridge to Queens , closed on June 13 , 1942 . The demolition of the Second Avenue elevated caused overcrowding on the Astoria and Flushing Lines in Queens , which no longer had direct service along Manhattan 's far East Side . Because of the elevated line 's closure , as well as a corresponding increase in the East Side population , the need for a Second Avenue subway increased .
In 1944 , Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia announced that work on the Second Avenue subway line was progressing . The same year , BOT superintendent Philip E. Pheifer came up with a map of train frequencies for the line , with about 56 trains per hour projected to go through the Second Avenue line . Pheifer also put forth a proposal for Second Avenue Subway services , which would branch extensively off to B Division lines , including the IND Sixth Avenue Line , BMT Broadway Line , and BMT Nassau Street Line , via pre @-@ existing BMT trackage over the Manhattan and Williamsburg Bridges . From Canal Street to 57th Street the line was to be four tracks , with six tracks north of 57th Street . South of Canal Street there would be two tracks . The subway was to be opened by 1951 . In addition , a new Bronx Branch would replace the Third Avenue El in the Bronx . By 1945 , though , plans for the Second Avenue Subway were again revised . The southern two @-@ track portion was abandoned as a possible future plan for connecting the line to Brooklyn , through a Bronx route to Throggs Neck was put forth .
Under Mayor William O 'Dwyer and General Charles P. Gross , another plan was put forth in 1947 by Colonel Sidney H. Bingham , a city planner and former Interborough Rapid Transit Company ( IRT ) engineer . O 'Dwyer and Gross believed that construction of a Second Avenue subway line would be vital to both increasing capacity on existing lines and allowing new branch lines to be built . This plan would again connect the Second Avenue Line to Brooklyn . As with Pheifer 's proposal , a train frequency map was created ; however , Bingham 's proposal involved more branch lines and track connections . A connection to Brooklyn was to be made via the Manhattan and Williamsburg Bridge , and would allow trains from these bridges to go onto the Sixth Avenue Line or the Second Avenue Line . Other connections to the Second Avenue Line were to be provided at 57th Street , via a line connecting to the Sixth Avenue Line ; two express tracks would be built along that line north of West Fourth Street . The IRT Pelham Line would be switched to the combined IND / BMT division ( this plan also includes other connections , which have been built ) , and connected to the Second Avenue Line . The Second Avenue Line would end just north of that connection , at 149th Street , with transfers to the IRT White Plains Road Line and the elevated IRT Third Avenue Line , the latter of which would be demolished south of 149th Street . There would also be a connection to the IND Concourse Line . The line was to be built in sections . The Manhattan section was top @-@ priority , but the Brooklyn section was 19th on the priority list , and the Bronx section did not have a specific priority .
By the next year , New York City had budget shortfalls . The City was short of $ 145 million ( in 1948 dollars ) that were needed for rehabilitation and proposed capital improvements , which cost a total of $ 800 million . The City petitioned the New York State Legislature to exceed its $ 655 million debt ceiling so that the city could spend $ 500 million on subway construction , but this request was denied .
The New York Board of Transportation ordered ten new prototype subway cars made of stainless steel from the Budd Company . These R11 cars , so called because of their contract number , were delivered in 1949 and specifically intended for the Second Avenue Subway . They cost US $ 100 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) each ; the train became known as the " million dollar train " . The cars featured porthole style round windows and a new public address system . Reflecting public health concerns of the day , especially regarding polio , the R11 cars were equipped with electrostatic air filters and ultraviolet lamps in their ventilation systems to kill germs .
By 1949 , Queens and Lower Manhattan residents complained that the Second Avenue Subway would not create better transit options for them . A year later , revised plans called for a connection from Second Avenue at 76th Street to Queens , under 34th Avenue and Northern Boulevard , via a new tunnel under the East River . Connections would also be made to the Long Island Rail Road ( LIRR ) ' s Rockaway Beach Branch . New York voters approved a bond measure for its construction in 1951 , and the city was barely able to raise the requisite $ 559 million for the construction effort . However , the onset of the Korean War caused soaring prices for construction materials and saw the beginning of massive inflation . Money from the 1951 bond measure was diverted to buy new cars , lengthen platforms , and maintain other parts of the aging New York City Subway system . Out of a half @-@ billion @-@ dollar bond measure , only $ 112 million ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 021 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , or 22 % of the original amount , went toward the Second Avenue Subway . By then , construction was due to start by either 1952 or 1957 , with estimated completion by 1958 at the earliest . Because many people thought that the bonds were solely to be used on the new subway , many people accused the New York City Transit Authority ( NYCTA ) of misusing the bonds .
A block to the west of the proposed subway line , the Manhattan section of the Third Avenue Elevated , the only other elevated line in the area , closed on May 13 , 1955 , and was demolished in 1956 . Contrary to what many East Side residents thought , the demolition of the elevateds did not help the travel situation , as the Lexington Avenue Line was now the only subway transportation option on the East Side .
By 1957 , it had been made clear that the 1951 bond issue was not going to be able to pay for the Second Avenue Line . The money had been used for other projects , such as the integration of the IRT Dyre Avenue Line , and IND Rockaway Line , and reconfiguration of the DeKalb Avenue Interlocking . By then , the New York Times despaired of the line 's ever being built . In March of that year , NYCTA chairman Charles L. Patterson stated that the NYCTA had used the bond funds properly and that the bonds were not dedicated solely to fund the Second Avenue Line . He stated that the bonds had been allocated to the corridor based on increasing ridership on the Second Avenue Line , but admitted that currency inflation , as well as necessary rehabilitation work to the existing lines , made the Second Avenue Line unlikely in the near future .
= = = 1960s – 1970s : Original construction efforts = = =
As the early 1960s progressed , the East Side experienced an increase in development , and the Lexington Avenue Line became overcrowded . In 1962 , construction began on a connection between the Manhattan and Williamsburg Bridges and the Sixth Avenue Line . This segment , the Chrystie Street Connection , was first proposed in the 1947 plan as the southern end of the Second Avenue line , which would feed into the two bridges . When opened in 1967 , the connection included a new station on the Sixth Avenue Line — Grand Street ( another station , 57th Street , opened in July 1968 ) — and introduced the most significant service changes ever carried out in the subway 's history . Grand Street , located under Chrystie Street ( the southern end of Second Avenue ) was designed to include cross @-@ platform transfers between the Sixth Avenue and Second Avenue Lines . Although the connection only served Sixth Avenue Line trains , it was essentially the first part of the Second Avenue line constructed .
In 1964 , Congress passed the Urban Mass Transportation Act , promising federal money to fund mass transit projects in America 's cities via the Urban Mass Transportation Administration ( UMTA ) . Three years later , voters approved a $ 2 @.@ 5 billion ( worth about $ 17 @,@ 742 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in current dollars ) Transportation Bond Issue , which provided over $ 600 million ( worth $ 4 @,@ 258 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today ) for New York City projects , including for a 1968 Program for Action . The Second Avenue project , for a line from 34th Street to the Bronx , was given top priority . The City secured a $ 25 million UMTA grant for initial construction .
The Program for Action proposed a Second Avenue line to be built in two phases : The first phase would start from 34th Street in Midtown , running up Second Avenue to 126th Street and continuing to the Bronx , with stops planned at 34th , 48th , 57th , 86th , 106th , and 125th Streets . The 48th Street stop would connect to a planned Metropolitan Transportation Center at Third Avenue and 48th Street , which would contain a new east side terminal for the Long Island Rail Road . The line included older proposals for connections to the Sixth Avenue and Broadway lines in Midtown via a new crosstown line , which would now be located on 63rd Street . The BMT 63rd Street Line would also include a connection allowing Second Avenue line trains to run to Queens . In the Bronx , the line would run along East 138th Street , with a cross @-@ platform transfer to Lexington Avenue Line trains at Brook Avenue on the IRT Pelham Line , which would be reconfigured . After that , Second Avenue line trains would use a new express bypass line along East 138th Street , and the former tracks of the New York , Westchester and Boston Railway ( NY & WB ) near the Bruckner Expressway . In Hunts Point , service would split into two branches . One branch would continue to use former NY & WB trackage to East 180th Street , at which point the line would connect to the IRT Dyre Avenue Line . A second branch would connect to the IRT Pelham Line in the vicinity of Whitlock Avenue station , another element from earlier plans . The first branch would take over all service on the Dyre Avenue Line , offering cross @-@ platform transfers to IRT White Plains Road Line trains at East 180th Street station , which would also be reconfigured . The second branch would take over service on the upper portion of the Pelham Line , between Whitlock Avenue and Pelham Bay Park . All stations on the Dyre Avenue and upper Pelham Lines would have platforms shaved back to accommodate larger B Division trains .
The second phase of construction would extend the Second Avenue line south from 34th Street in Midtown to Lower Manhattan , with stations at 23rd , 14th , Houston and Grand Streets , Chatham Square , Pine / Wall Streets , and a terminal at Whitehall Street . Free transfers would be offered to existing lines at 14th Street , Houston Street and Whitehall Street , while Grand Street would be reconstructed . Pine @-@ Wall and Whitehall Street stations would both have four tracks ( two platform levels with two tracks each ) in order to increase the capacity of Whitehall Street terminal above 30 trains per hour , and to improve passenger flow . Also during this phase , service on the upper Pelham Line would be extended to Co @-@ op City , Bronx . A third branch of the Second Avenue line to replace the Third Avenue El in the Bronx would also be built , running adjacent to the right @-@ of @-@ way of Metro @-@ North ’ s Harlem Line on Park Avenue .
The line 's planned stops in Manhattan , spaced farther apart than those on existing subway lines , proved controversial ; the Second Avenue line was criticized as a " rich man 's express , circumventing the Lower East Side with its complexes of high @-@ rise low- and middle @-@ income housing and slums in favor of a silk stocking route . ” People protested for almost a year over the lack of stations at 72nd and 96th Streets ; while a 72nd Street station was added in October 1970 , the 96th Street station was still not in the official plans , despite the proximity of the Metropolitan Hospital Center to the proposed station . In response to public outcry , the MTA announced the addition of a station at 96th Street in 1971 . The line ’ s planned route on Second Avenue , Chrystie Street and the Bowery in the Lower East Side also drew criticism from citizens and officials . In January 1970 , the MTA issued a plan for a spur line , called the " cuphandle " , to serve the heart of the Lower East Side : branching off from the IND Sixth Avenue Line near the Second Avenue station , the spur would run east on Houston Street , turn north on Avenue C , and turn west on 14th Street , connecting to the BMT Canarsie Line .
Despite the controversy over the number of stops and route , a groundbreaking ceremony was held on October 27 , 1972 at Second Avenue and 103rd Street . Construction began shortly thereafter on what was to be the 99th – 105th Streets segment , which was projected to cost $ 17 @.@ 48 million ( worth about $ 98 @,@ 886 @,@ 000 today ) . Construction costs for the entire line were pegged at $ 1 billion ( about $ 5 @.@ 657 billion today ) , and rose to $ 1 @.@ 3 billion ( about $ 6 @.@ 93 billion today ) a year later . On October 25 , 1973 , the line 's Chinatown segment commenced construction at Canal Street under the foot of the Manhattan Bridge ; this segment , between Canal and Pell Streets , was due to be completed by 1980 and was being built at a cost of $ 8 @.@ 3 million ( equal to about $ 44 @,@ 244 @,@ 000 in current dollars ) . Less than a year later , on July 25 , 1974 , construction for an East Village segment of the line started near Second Street , spanning between 2nd Street and 9th Street . Another contract , for a Midtown segment between 50th and 54th Streets , was awarded that year , but construction never commenced . In total , construction on the Second Avenue Line during the 1970s spanned over 27 blocks . A segment between 110th and 120th Streets in East Harlem was also completed at a cost of $ 34 @.@ 45 million ( equivalent to $ 194 @,@ 888 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) .
However , the city soon experienced its most dire fiscal crisis yet , due to the stagnant economy of the early 1970s , combined with the massive outflow of city residents to the suburbs . By 1974 , New York City mayor Abraham Beame was considering reallocating $ 5 @.@ 1 billion of funding from the Second Avenue Line to the existing infrastructure , which was rapidly deteriorating and in dire need of repair . In September 1975 , Beame issued a stop @-@ work order for the line . Construction of the line was halted , and no other funding was to be allocated to the line 's construction . Besides the Chrystie Street Connection , only three sections of tunnel had been completed ; these tunnels were sealed . By 1978 , when the New York City Subway was at its lowest point in its existence , State Comptroller Arthur Levitt stated that there were no plans to finish the line . During the 1980s , plans for the Second Avenue line stagnated . Construction on the 63rd Street Lines continued ; the IND portion of the line opened in 1989 , but it did not include a connection to the Second Avenue line . Of this failure to complete construction , Gene Russianoff , an advocate for subway riders since 1981 , stated : " It 's the most famous thing that 's never been built in New York City , so everyone is skeptical and rightly so . It 's much @-@ promised and never delivered . "
= = = = Segments completed in the 1970s = = = =
When construction on the line was halted in 1975 , three tunnel segments were completed : one from 99th to 105th Streets and a second from 110th to 120th Streets , both under Second Avenue in East Harlem , and a third from Pell to Canal Streets in Chinatown , under the Confucius Apartments complex next to the Bowery . They were not initially outfitted with track or signals . Over the next few decades , the MTA regularly inspected and maintained the tunnel segments ( spending $ 20 @,@ 000 a year by the early 1990s ) , to maintain the structural integrity of the streets above , and in case construction would ever resume . Trespassers would often camp in the tunnels until the MTA increased security .
The modern construction plan for the Second Avenue Subway , developed in 2004 , would make use of most of these tunnel segments . The first phase of service , which will reroute Q train service from the 60th Street Line ( to Queens ) to the BMT 63rd Street Line ( and north to 96th Street ) , would use the tunnel segment between 99th and 105th Streets for storage of up to four trainsets . By mid @-@ 2013 , work had resumed in this tunnel segment , involving the addition of track and signals , mechanical and plumbing equipment , and upgrading the tunnels to meet modern fire code standards . Phase 2 , which does not have a set timetable for construction , is planned to extend Q train service from 96th Street to 125th Street . During Phase 2 , both East Harlem segments will be connected , modified , and used for normal train service . In 2007 , the MTA reported that the segments were in pristine condition .
The fourth phase of construction will bring the Second Avenue line through Chinatown at an undetermined date . However , the tunnel under the Confucius Apartments is not planned to be used ; while original plans involved the Second Avenue line running at the same depth of the Sixth Avenue Line at the Grand Street station , that option would require the utilization of cut @-@ and @-@ cover construction methods , which would disrupt the community and require the demolition of several nearby structures . Instead the MTA has proposed a deeper tunnel alignment in this area , including a new lower level at Grand Street , to reduce construction impacts on the Chinatown community . As a result , trains will be unable to use this tunnel segment ; however , the MTA suggests that the tunnel segment could be used to store ancillary facilities for the subway line , such as a power substation or a ventilation facility .
Some construction work also took place between 2nd and 9th Streets , though the extent is disputed . Some reports say that only utilities were relocated , while others say that this section was excavated but later filled back in .
= = 2000s – present : Construction and development = =
With the city 's economic and budgetary recovery in the 1990s , there was a revival of efforts to complete construction of the SAS . Rising ridership on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line , the only subway trunk line east of Central Park , demonstrated the need for the Second Avenue Line , as capacity and safety concerns rose . The four @-@ track IRT Lexington Avenue Line , the lone rapid transit option in the Upper East Side and East Harlem since the 1955 closure of the Third Avenue elevated , is the most crowded subway line in the country . The line sees an average of 1 @.@ 3 million daily riders , more than the entire Washington Metro system ( which has the second @-@ highest ridership in the U.S. ) and more than the rail transit systems of San Francisco and Boston combined . Local bus routes are just as crowded during various times of the day , with the surface Second Avenue Line , carrying the M15 and M15 SBS buses , seeing an annual ridership of 17 @.@ 5 million , or a daily ridership of about 47 @,@ 945 . The construction of the Second Avenue line would add another two tracks to fill the gap that has existed since the elevated Second and Third Avenue Lines were demolished in the 1950s .
= = = 1995 – 2007 : Planning = = =
In the early 1990s , New York governor Mario Cuomo allocated $ 22 million to renew planning and design efforts for the Second Avenue line , but in 1993 the MTA , facing budget cuts , removed these funds from its capital budget . In 1995 , the MTA began its Manhattan East Side Alternatives ( MESA ) study , seeking ways to alleviate overcrowding on the Lexington Avenue Line and improve mobility on Manhattan 's East Side . The study analyzed several alternatives , such as improvements to the Lexington Avenue Line to increase capacity , enhanced bus service with dedicated lanes , and light rail or ferry service on the East Side . The favored alternative , build alternative 1 included a subway running down Second Avenue , from 125th Street in Harlem to the existing Lexington Avenue – 63rd Street station with provisions for expansion to the Bronx and to Lower Manhattan . Build alternative two would involve the addition of a separate light rail service between Union Square and Broad Street that would serve the Lower East Side and Lower Manhattan . Due in part to strong public support , the MTA committed in 2000 to building a full @-@ length subway line along the East Side , from East Harlem to Lower Manhattan . In 2001 , a contract for subway design was awarded to DMJM Harris / Arup Joint Venture .
The MTA 's final environmental impact statement was approved in April 2004 ; this latest proposal is for a two @-@ track line from 125th Street and Lexington Avenue in Harlem , down Second Avenue to Hanover Square in the Financial District . The new subway line will actually carry two services . The full @-@ length Second Avenue line , extending from Harlem to the Financial District , is to be given the color turquoise and the letter designation T. However , a rerouted Q , the line 's other service , will begin carrying passengers first . The MTA plan calls for building the Second Avenue Subway in four segments with connections to other subway lines . The first segment ( Phase One ) is a proposed reroute of the Q , the Broadway Express via the BMT 63rd Street Line and north along Second Avenue to the Upper East Side at 96th Street . Phase Two will extend the rerouted Q train to 125th Street . In Phase Three , the new T train will run from 125th Street to Houston Street . The final phase will extend T train service from Houston Street to Hanover Square in Lower Manhattan . Track maps on the MTA 's website show that all stations , except for 125th Street , will have two tracks and one island platform . ( 72nd Street was conceived as a three @-@ track , two @-@ platform station , as is 125th Street . However , the 72nd Street station is being constructed with two tracks and one platform . )
In August 2006 , the MTA revealed that all future subway stations , including ones built for the Second Avenue subway , the 7 Subway Extension , and the new South Ferry station will be outfitted with air @-@ cooling systems to reduce the temperature along platforms by as much as 10 ° F ( 6 ° C ) . The Second Avenue Subway was also to have platform screen doors to assist with air @-@ cooling and ventilation , but this plan was scrapped in 2012 as cost @-@ prohibitive .
The first phase will be within budget , at $ 4 @.@ 45 billion . The total cost of the 8 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) line is expected to exceed $ 17 billion . According to MTA Capital Construction President Dr. Michael Horodniceanu , the whole line may be completed as early as 2029 and would serve 560 @,@ 000 daily passengers upon completion .
= = = 2007 – present : First phase = = =
= = = = Construction = = = =
Second Avenue Subway plans for Phase 1 were only allowed to proceed because New York voters passed a transportation bond issue on November 8 , 2005 , allowing for dedicated funding allocated for that phase . Its passage had been seen as critical to its construction . After warning that failure to pass the act would doom the project , MTA chairman Peter S. Kalikow stated that " Now it 's up to us to complete the job " given its approval by a 55 – 45 percent margin . In addition , the U.S. Department of Transportation announced , on December 18 , 2006 , that they would allow the MTA to commit up to $ 693 million in funds to begin construction of the Second Avenue Subway Line and that the federal share of such costs would be reimbursed with FTA transit funds , subject to appropriations and final labor certification .
The Phase 1 construction site was designated as being from 105th Street and Second Avenue to 63rd Street and Third Avenue . Deep bore tunneling methods were to be used in order to avoid the disruptions for road traffic , pedestrians , utilities and local businesses produced by cut @-@ and @-@ cover methods of past generations . Stations were to retain cut @-@ and @-@ cover construction .
Preliminary engineering and a final tunnel design was completed by a joint venture between AECOM and Arup . On March 20 , 2007 , upon completion of preliminary engineering , the MTA awarded a contract for constructing the tunnels between 92nd and 63rd Streets , a launch box for the tunnel boring machine ( TBM ) at 92nd to 95th Streets , and access shafts at 69th and 72nd Streets . This contract , valued at $ 337 million , was awarded to S3 , a joint venture of Schiavone Construction , Skanska USA Civil , and J.F. Shea Construction . A ceremonial groundbreaking took place on April 12 , 2007 , in a tunnel segment built in the 1970s at 99th Street . At the time , it was announced that passengers would be able to ride trains on the new line by the end of 2013 . Actual construction work began , on the surface of Second Avenue between 91st and 95th Streets , on April 23 , 2007 . Initial construction work involved moving utility pipes , wires , and other infrastructure , which took 14 months , far more than the MTA 's anticipated eight months . For boring , a trench was dug from 96th to 93rd Streets .
In November 2007 , Mary Peters , the United States Secretary of Transportation , announced that the Second Avenue Subway would receive $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in federal funding for the project 's first phase , to be funded over a seven @-@ year period . However , due to cost increases for construction materials and diesel fuel affecting the prices of contracts not yet signed , the MTA announced in June 2008 that certain features of the Second Avenue Subway would be simplified to save money . One set of changes , which significantly reduces the footprint of the subway in the vicinity of 72nd Street , is the alteration of the 72nd Street Station from a three @-@ track , two @-@ platform design to a two @-@ track , single island platform design , paired with a simplification of the connection to the Broadway Line spur . Supplemental environmental impact studies covering the changes for the proposed 72nd Street and 86th Street stations were completed in June 2009 .
On May 28 , 2009 , the MTA awarded a $ 303 @.@ 8 million contract to E.E. Cruz and Tully Construction Co . , a joint venture and limited liability company , to construct the 96th Street station box . Work began in July on site clearing and utility relocation necessary to prepare for the installation of slurry walls between 95th and 99th Streets where the station connects to the existing tunnel section . In June 2009 , the first of three contracts for the 86th Street station was awarded for the advance utility relocation work and construction of cut and cover shaft areas at 83rd and 86th Streets . This contract provided two vertical starter shafts that were used by a subsequent contractor to excavate the station cavern in the rock between 83rd and 86th Streets .
During construction , two buildings had to be evacuated in June 2009 due to construction work . On June 5 , 2009 , an apartment building at 1772 Second Avenue was evacuated by the NYC Department of Buildings ( DOB ) after it was determined that the building was in danger of collapse . Then on June 29 , 2009 , the DOB evacuated a mixed use building at 1768 Second Avenue / 301 East 92nd Street because it too was in danger of collapse . The evacuation of these two buildings delayed the contractor 's plan to use controlled blasting to remove bedrock in the southern section of the launch box . Until the blasting permits could be issued , MTA required contractors to use mechanical equipment to remove the bedrock , which is slower than blasting out the rock .
The tunnel boring machine was originally expected to arrive six to eight months after construction began , but the utility relocation and excavation required to create its " launch box " delayed its deployment until May 2010 . On May 14 , 2010 , MTA 's contractors completed the TBM installation and turned it on at the Second Avenue Subway launch box at 96th Street and boring southward to connecting shafts built at 86th and 72nd Streets .
On October 1 , 2010 , MTA awarded a $ 431 million contract to joint venture SSK Constructors for the mining of the tunnels connecting the 72nd Street station to the existing Lexington Avenue – 63rd Street station , and for the excavation and heavy civil structures of the 72nd Street station . A subsequent contract was awarded to Skanska Traylor Joint Venture for excavation of the cavern at the 86th Street station on August 4 , 2011 . In January 2011 , MTA awarded Judlau Contracting a 40 @-@ month , $ 176 @.@ 4 million contract to rebuild and enlarge the Lexington Avenue – 63rd Street station .
Meanwhile , the tunnel boring machine dug at a rate of approximately 50 feet ( 15 m ) per day . The machine finished its run at the planned endpoint under 65th Street on February 5 , 2011 . S3 partially disassembled the TBM and backed it out of the tunnel . It was repositioned in the east starter tunnel to begin boring again . Because the east side of Second Avenue has some soft ground not compatible with the Robbins TBM , ground @-@ freezing was undertaken to prepare the soil for the TBM . On March 28 , 2011 , S3 , having completed its task of completing the 7 @,@ 200 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 200 m ) west tunnel to 65th Street , began drilling the east tunnel , with the first 200 feet ( 61 m ) being through soil frozen by S3 using calcium chloride solution fed through a network of pipes . The TBM drilling the east tunnel will negotiate the curve onto 63rd Street and break through the bellmouth at the existing 63rd Street subway station . The portion of the west tunnel remaining to be created will be mined using conventional drill @-@ and @-@ blast methods , because the curve S3 construction teams would have to negotiate is too tight for the TBM . On September 22 , 2011 , the TBM completed its run to the Lexington Avenue – 63rd Street station 's bellmouth .
The final contract , for architectural and mechanical and electrical work at 72nd , 86th , and 96th Street stations ; rehabilitation of the Lexington Avenue – 63rd Street station ; and the Systems Contract ( track , signals , and communications ) for the entire Phase 1 area was awarded on June 1 , 2013 . On a July 2013 " report card " that indicated the progress of the subway by Congresswoman Carolyn Maloney , the construction progress got a " B " . Blasting for the station caverns was finished in November 2013 , and the muck houses were taken down at around the same time .
In the winter of 2013 , many of the tracks and signal panels began to arrive at the construction site , to be installed on the line over the next few years . It was reported in November 2013 that one third of the tracks for the line had arrived , for the segments of track between 87th and 105th Streets ; the tracks were being stored at 96th Street station . As of May 21 , 2015 , the first phase of construction was more than 80 % complete . By August 2015 , the construction project was 84 @.@ 3 % complete , with all 10 Phase 1 construction contracts having been awarded and 5 of them having been completed . As of July 1 , 2016 , the first phase was 96 @.@ 3 % complete .
= = = = Schedules for construction and planning = = = =
The MTA and its contractors on the project meet on a regular basis with the Manhattan Community Board 8 Second Avenue Subway Task Force and Manhattan Community Board 11 to report on construction progress and to seek input from the community .
The MTA 's forecasted opening date for Phase I is December 30 , 2016 , as of January 2 , 2015 . Horodniceanu called earlier estimates lacking " the precision required " . On May 2 , 2014 , it was reported that Phase 1 of the line was 66 % complete , and six of the ten construction contracts awarded were already being worked on . The agency was still targeting December 2016 as a completion date , and the project is still within budget at a cost of $ 4 @.@ 45 billion , while serving approximately 200 @,@ 000 daily riders . As of April 2015 , the first phase is 82 % complete .
Estimated completion schedules have been widely varying . As of 2009 , the proposed construction schedule showed the Second Avenue Subway opening for passenger service in 2016 . Other publications have listed expected construction dates for Phase 1 , as well as mentioned the possible December 2016 opening . In its 2008 capital improvement budget proposal , the MTA pushed back completion of Phase 1 from 2014 to 2015 , and in 2009 , the MTA pushed it back again to 2016 . As of February 2016 , the line is still scheduled to open in December 2016 . On February 24 , 2016 , the MTA allocated $ 66 million to speed up the construction of the first phase so that it could open in December . However , in June 2016 , it was reported that contractors for the MTA were not expending extra resources to accelerate the last portion of Phase 1 construction , and that the MTA had only completed 67 % of testing , with the line requiring another 1 @,@ 100 equipment tests by October 2016 in order to be deemed operational . The contractors and the MTA blamed the delays on each other , with the MTA saying that the contractors did not show up to work on certain days ; the contractors , on the other hand , said that the MTA had asked for over 2 @,@ 500 design changes during construction , and in some cases , the contractors had to destroy and rebuild sidewalks , rooms , entrances , and other design elements that had already been built .
In a public meeting in May 2016 , the MTA unveiled the first iteration New York City Subway map that included the Second Avenue Subway and a rerouted Q service . At the meeting , the MTA also made several suggestions for service changes , including making the N train express in Manhattan and replacing the Queens section of the Q , as well as the Manhattan local section of the N , with a resurrected W train .
In July 2016 , news outlets reported that the Second Avenue Line had a " significant risk " of a delayed opening . The test train for the subway line was not set to run until October 2016 , despite the line being projected to open within two months of that date . Also , contractors had only reached 70 % of the construction milestones for June 2016 , and 80 % of the May 2016 milestones . For instance , communications systems at the stations were not finished , despite the fact that these systems should have been wired already , and the elevator at 72nd Street had not been delivered yet . As of July 25 , 2016 , construction spending was only $ 32 million for the month , even though a monthly spending goal of $ 46 million was needed to complete the project on time .
= = = = Controversies = = = =
In February 2011 , a lawsuit was filed by the Yorkshire Towers at 86th Street over the location of two proposed Second Avenue Subway entrances that were located right in front of the building but facing away from its semicircular driveway . The quality of life for building tenants was allegedly to be destroyed if the entrances were to be built in the location ; however , the lawsuit was later dismissed . In an unrelated 2012 controversy , some residents in the 72nd Street station area claimed to have come down with a " Second Avenue cough " caused by dust from construction , and local doctors saw that the air quality of the area had decreased while nasal sicknesses had increased . The MTA tried to combat this by creating new structures and using other methods to reduce dust inhalation . The MTA prepared a report that said in the 86th Street station area " all monitored concentrations were below the established benchmark levels " .
The New York Daily News alleged that the subway project was very unsafe . For example , on August 8 , 2012 , an explosion caused rocks to fly all over an intersection . Less than two weeks later , on August 21 , 2012 , an uncontrolled blast for the station was done incorrectly , causing a large explosion that sent debris into the air and broke windows of buildings in the area and damaged nearby sidewalks . In another instance , contaminated rocks were carried away from a construction site on 63rd Street , and the incident went unnoticed . On March 19 , 2013 , in yet another allegation of wrongdoing , a construction worker got stuck in waist @-@ deep muck at the 96th Street station site , but while he was extricated after four hours of rescue efforts , he nearly died after the incident .
In a product @-@ related controversy involving the Second Avenue Subway project , American Standard Testing and Consulting Laboratories ( ASTCL ) , company president Alan Fortich , and five other executives admitted filing false documents on the subway tunnels and " thousands " of other New York City construction projects within 10 years . ASTCL had replaced Testwell Inc . , another firm indicted for faking concrete tests , in 2008 .
= = = Construction methods = = =
Planned construction methods varied depending on the section of the line , due to varying underground conditions . The methods planned for each section were as follows :
A number of methods will be used to tunnel for 13 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 8 @.@ 5 mi ) underneath Manhattan , which is densely populated . About 90 % of the tunneling is to be performed by a tunnel boring machine . The rest will be done using the cut and cover method and mined drill and blast , for sections , generally the 16 stations , that average 275 meters ( 902 ft ) in length . The stations at 86th and 72nd Streets were mined . This was challenging , given the number of expensive high rise properties in their vicinities . The 96th Street cut @-@ and @-@ cover station was about 15 meters ( 49 ft ) deep , making it one of the shallowest stations being built on the line ; the shallowness was so that the new line could align with the preexisting piece of subway tunnel built in the 1970s between 99th and 105th Streets . Stations at the two mined stations are between 25 @.@ 9 and 27 @.@ 4 meters ( 85 and 90 ft ) deep in rock . The construction method that was used was supposed to ease concerns for buildings above the station sites , because only two shafts were required for excavation .
In Phase 1 , there was tunneling between East 63rd and 92nd Streets and a 248 @-@ by @-@ 23 @-@ meter @-@ wide ( 814 by 75 ft ) TBM launch box was built . That tunnel box is now part of the 96th Street station . Two access shafts were constructed for the 72nd Street station . Slurry or diaphragm walls , 1 @.@ 1 meters ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) wide and 6 @.@ 1 meters ( 20 ft ) long and about 35 meters ( 115 ft ) deep , were built alongside the sections between East 93rd and 95th Streets . Since the rock is shallower between East 91st and 93rd Streets , 1 @.@ 1 @-@ meter @-@ diameter ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) secant piles did the same work at shallower depths .
Earth excavation was conducted between walls once they were installed , and box structures were built using a bottom @-@ up construction method . Temporary decking constituted the top of the boxes , and the decking both braced the excavation and supported the walls and Second Avenue traffic . Of the below @-@ ground obstacles , Arup director of construction David Caiden stated : " It 's a spaghetti of tunnels , utilities , pipes and cables — I 've never seen anything like it . " Complicating the process , the project must go over , or under , subway lines , Amtrak railway lines , and the Queens @-@ Midtown Tunnel linking Manhattan and Queens , in later phases .
There are three options for subway construction between 11th Street and Hanover Square . One option known as the Shallow Chrystie Option would mainly use cut and cover , while the Deep Chrystie Street and Forsyth Option would use a combination of the Earth Pressure Balance Machine ( EPBM ) and cut and cover .
There were geological anomalies along the way . Manhattan 's geology changes along the subway 's length , passing through rock and soft ground , consisting of sands , silts , and clays over Manhattan schist , and there are faults and shear zones as well as fractured rock . Hard @-@ rock Tunnel Boring Machines 6 @.@ 7 meters ( 22 ft ) in diameter tunneled during the first phase , progressing at a rate of about 20 meters ( 66 ft ) per day .
The stations on the line were built so that they are more wide open than most other underground subway stations in the system ; because of this , Horodniceanu likened the Second Avenue Subway stations to the stations on the Washington Metro . The tracks themselves are built atop rubber padding so as to reduce the noise from the trains .
= = Service = =
= = = Route = = =
The plans for the Second Avenue Subway involve digging 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) of new tunnel from 125th Street in Harlem south to Hanover Square , which is located in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan . During Phase 1 , the initial phase , the line was to begin at the intersection of Second Avenue and 96th Street , running south to join the BMT Broadway Line via the existing , but rarely used , BMT 63rd Street Line . Phase I stations will be located at 96th Street , 86th Street and 72nd Street . The Q service will be routed to 96th Street . The Q service will initially have a rush @-@ hour service frequency of 7 @.@ 5 to 10 trains per hour , or one train every 8 to 6 minutes in each direction ; by contrast , the IRT Lexington Avenue Line 's express tracks ( 4 5 trains ) have an estimated rush @-@ hour frequency of 30 trains per hour , or one train approximately every 2 minutes in each direction .
In Phase 2 , Q service would be extended to 125th Street and Lexington Avenue . After Phase 3 , a new T service will operate from 125th Street to Houston Street . After Phase 4 opens , T service will run the full length of the line , from 125th Street to Hanover Square .
The Second Avenue Subway 's infrastructure also includes a connection to the BMT Broadway Line , utilizing an existing connection via the 63rd Street Line as part of phase 1 . The Q service will operate northward from 57th Street – Seventh Avenue , curving east under Central Park on the 63rd Street Line . The Q train would stop at Lexington Avenue – 63rd Street with a cross @-@ platform interchange to the F train before merging with the Second Avenue Line at 64th Street . Thus , after Phase 4 is completed , the residents of Spanish Harlem and the Upper East Side will have direct mass transit service down both Second Avenue and Broadway ( via transfer ) to the Financial District , and across the Manhattan Bridge to Brooklyn via the Q train .
An additional two @-@ track connection is planned between the line toward Lower Manhattan ( around 63rd Street ) and the IND 63rd Street Line toward Queens ; current plans do not call for it to be used by regular service . Provisions are also being made for an extension north under Second Avenue past 125th Street to the Bronx , and an extension south to Brooklyn .
= = = = Other phases = = = =
The second phase , between 125th and 96th Streets , was allocated $ 525 million in the MTA 's 2015 – 2019 Capital Plan for planning , design , environmental studies , and utility relocation . This budget originally carried $ 1 @.@ 5 billion , which would be used to start construction of the tunnels ; the MTA reduced the amount of money allocated in the budget , projecting that the agency would not be able to start construction by the end of the 5 @-@ year cycle in 2019 . Now , construction of the tunnels will likely be funded in future 5 @-@ year capital programs , and possibly not start until 2020 . Although the MTA previously expressed concerns about funding the Capital Program , spokesman Adam Lisberg stated that the reduction in funding was a result of uncertain timing and not money issues . The delay had upset politicians and residents of East Harlem , who objected to the 3 @-@ to @-@ 4 @-@ year delay . In March 2016 , the MTA began advertising Requests for Proposals ( RFP ) for three new contracts for the second phase , which were planned to be awarded in summer 2016 . In April 2016 , the MTA and the State of New York reached a deal to restore funding to Phase 2 .
Phase 3 , from 63rd to Houston Streets , has no funding commitments . Phase 4 , from Houston Street to Hanover Square , also has no funding commitments .
= = = Stations = = =
= = = Future full @-@ length designation = = =
The MTA had decided to designate the future , full @-@ length Second Avenue service with the letter T , in part because :
The letters O and I are too easily confused with the digits 0 and 1 , respectively .
The letter K was used until the late 1980s to denote services on the IND Eighth Avenue Line , and earlier on the BMT Jamaica Line , and thus is not preferred . H was the Rockaway Park Shuttle 's internal route designator .
The letters P , U and Y are more easily confused with common words .
The T 's route emblem was colored turquoise ( hex triplet # 00ADD0 , which could also be considered robin 's egg blue or teal ) because the color had also been used for the JFK Express in the past . In 2011 , turquoise was considered " the color of the year " , and at the time of the color 's selection in the 2000s , it was also considered a very upscale color .
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= Mascarene parrot =
The Mascarene parrot or Mascarin ( Mascarinus mascarin ) is an extinct species of parrot that was endemic to the Mascarene island of Réunion in the western Indian Ocean . The taxonomic relationships of this species has been subject to debate . It has been connected to the Psittaculini parrots based on anatomical grounds , but to the vasa parrots based on genetic grounds . The exact placement is unresolved .
The Mascarene parrot was 35 cm ( 14 in ) in length with a large red bill and long , rounded tail feathers . Its legs were red , and it had naked red skin around the eyes and nostrils . It had a black facial mask and partially white tail feathers , but the colouration of the body , wings and head is unclear . Descriptions from life indicate the body and head were ash grey , and the white part of the tail had two dark central feathers . In contrast , descriptions based on stuffed specimens state that the body was brown and the head bluish but do not mention the dark central tail feathers . This may be due to the specimens having changed colour as a result of aging and exposure to light , as well as other forms of damage . Very little is known about the bird in life .
The Mascarene parrot was first mentioned in 1674 , and live specimens were later brought to Europe , where they lived in captivity . The species was scientifically described in 1771 . Only two stuffed specimens exist today , in Paris and Vienna . The date and cause of extinction for the Mascarene parrot is unclear . The latest account from 1834 is considered dubious , so it is probable that the species became extinct prior to 1800 , and may have become extinct in the wild even earlier .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Mascarene parrot was first mentioned by the French traveller Sieur Dubois in his 1674 travelogue and only described a few times from life afterwards . At least three live specimens were brought to France in the late 18th century and kept in captivity , two of which were described while alive . Today , two stuffed specimens exist . The holotype , specimen MNHN 211 , is in the Muséum National d 'Histoire Naturelle in Paris , while the other , specimen NMW 50 @.@ 688 , is in the Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna . The latter specimen was bought from the Leverian Museum during a sale in London in 1806 . A third stuffed specimen existed around the turn of the 18th century .
The Mascarene parrot was scientifically described as Psittacus mascarinus ( abbreviated as " mascarin " ) by Swedish zoologist Carolus Linnaeus in 1771 . This name was first used by French zoologist and natural philosopher Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 but was not intended as a scientific name . The name is a reference to the Mascarene Islands , which were themselves named after their Portuguese discoverer , Pedro Mascarenhas .
Early writers claimed the Mascarene parrot was found on Madagascar , an idea that led French naturalist and ornithologist René Primevère Lesson to coin the junior synonym Mascarinus madagascariensis in 1831 . His new genus name prevailed and , when Tommaso Salvadori combined it with the earlier specific name in 1891 , it became a tautonym ( a scientific name in which the two parts are identical ) . Lesson also included species of the Tanygnathus and Psittacula genera in Mascarinus , but this was not accepted by other writers . The following year , German herpetologist Johann Georg Wagler erected the genus Coracopsis for the Mascarene parrot ( which became Coracopsis mascarina under this system ) and the lesser vasa parrot ( Coracopsis nigra ) . English zoologist William Alexander Forbes , believing that mascarinus was invalid as a specific name , since it was identical to the genus name , coined the new name Mascarinus duboisi in 1879 , in honour of Dubois . The binomial name was emended from M. mascarinus to M. mascarin in 2014 .
An unidentified dark parrot seen alive by Swedish naturalist Fredrik Hasselqvist in Africa was given the name Psittacus obscurus by Linnaeus in 1758 , who again synonymised it with the Mascarene parrot in 1766 . Because of this association , some authors believed it was from the Mascarene Islands as well , but this dark parrot 's description differs from that of the Mascarene parrot . This disagreement led some authors to use now @-@ invalid combinations of the scientific names , such as Mascarinus obscurus and Coracopsis obscura . The unidentified parrot may have been an African grey parrot ( Psittacus erithacus ) instead .
Another unidentified parrot specimen , this one brown and housed in Cabinet du Roi , was described by French naturalist Comte de Buffon in 1779 under his entry for the Mascarene parrot , in which he pointed out similarities and differences between the two . The English palaeontologist Julian Hume has suggested the possibility that this might have been a lesser vasa parrot , if not a discoloured old Mascarene grey parakeet ( Psittacula bensoni ) . The specimen is now lost . English zoologist and author George Robert Gray assigned some eclectus parrot ( Eclectus roratus ) subspecies from the Moluccas to Mascarinus in his book A List of the Genera of Birds from the 1840s , but this idea was soon dismissed by other writers .
Subfossil parrot remains were later excavated from grottos on Réunion . X @-@ rays of the two existing stuffed Mascarene parrots made it possible to compare the remaining bones with the subfossils and showed these were intermediate in measurements in comparison to the modern specimens . The lesser vasa parrot was introduced to Réunion as early as 1780 but , though the subfossil parrot bones were similar to that species in some aspects , they were more similar to those of the Mascarene parrot and considered to belong to it .
= = = Evolution = = =
The affinities of the Mascarene parrot are unclear , and two hypotheses have competed since the mid @-@ 19th century . Some authors grouped it with the Coracopsinae ( of African origin ) due to its dark plumage , and others with the Psittaculinae parrots ( of Asian origin ) based on the large red beak , a feature which is diagnostic for that group . Its plumage pattern was mostly atypical for a psittaculine , though other members have black facial patterns .
Sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene , so it was possible for species to colonise the Mascarene Islands from other areas . Although little is known about most extinct parrot species of the Mascarenes , subfossil remains show that they shared common features , such as enlarged heads and jaws , reduced pectoral bones , and robust leg bones . Hume supported their common origin in the radiation of the Psittaculini tribe based on morphological features and the fact that Psittacula parrots have managed to colonise many isolated islands in the Indian Ocean . According to this theory , the Psittaculini could have invaded the area several times , as many of the species were so specialised that they may have evolved significantly on hotspot islands before the Mascarenes emerged from the sea .
Réunion is 3 million years old , which is enough time for new genera to evolve , but many endemics would have been wiped out by the eruption of the volcano Piton des Neiges between 300 @,@ 000 and 180 @,@ 000 years ago . Most recent and extant species would therefore probably be descendants of animals which had recolonised the island from Africa or Madagascar after this event . If the Mascarene parrot had in fact evolved into a distinct genus on Réunion prior to the volcanic eruption , it would have been one of the few survivors of this extinction event .
A 2011 genetic study instead found the Mascarene parrot to be nested among the subspecies of the lesser vasa parrot from Madagascar and nearby islands and therefore not related to the Psittacula parrots . It also found that the Mascarene parrot line diverged 4 @.@ 6 to 9 million years ago , prior to the formation of Réunion , indicating this must have happened elsewhere . The cladogram accompanying the study is shown below :
Another group of scientists later acknowledged the finding but pointed out that the sample might have been damaged and that further testing was needed before the issue could be fully resolved . They also noted that if Mascarinus was confirmed to be embedded within the Coracopsis genus , the latter would become a junior synonym , since the former name is older . Hume has expressed surprise at these findings due to the anatomical similarities between the Mascarene parrot and other parrots from the Mascarene islands that are believed to be psittaculines . He also points out that there is no fossil evidence found on other islands to support the hypothesis that the species evolved elsewhere before reaching Réunion .
= = Description = =
The Mascarene parrot was 35 cm ( 14 in ) in length . The wing was 211 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) , the tail 144 – 152 mm ( 5 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 0 in ) , the culmen 32 – 36 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) , and the tarsus 22 – 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 – 0 @.@ 94 in ) . It had a large red bill and moderately long , rounded tail feathers . It had a black velvet @-@ like facial mask on the front part of the head . There are several discrepancies in how the colour of the body , wings , tail feathers and the head have historically been described and depicted . In 1674 , Dubois described live specimens as being " petit @-@ gris " which is the colour of the dark phase of the red squirrel . This colour is a dark blackish @-@ grey or brown .
In 1760 , Brisson published the following description based on a captive bird ( which may have been the specimen now preserved in Paris ) :
Upperparts of head and neck clear ( ash ) grey . Back , rump , underparts of neck , breast , belly , sides , legs , scapular feathers , uppercoverts of tail very @-@ dark ( ash ) grey . Wing feathers of the same colour . The tail is composed of 12 feathers : the two median ones are also very @-@ dark ( ash ) grey . All the lateral ones are of the same colour , except that they have a little white at their base . The eyes are surrounded by a naked skin , bright red . Pupil black , iris red . The base of the superior half of the beak is also surrounded by a red naked skin in which the nostrils are placed . Beak similarly red . Legs pale flesh . Claws grey @-@ brown . I am unaware from which country it is found . I have seen it living in Paris .
Instead of grey , several later authors described the body as brown and the head as bluish @-@ lilac , based on stuffed specimens , and this has become the orthodox image of the bird . Live birds were never described with these colours . Hume has proposed that this colouration is an artifact of the taxidermy specimens having aged and being exposed to light , which can turn grey and black to brown . Such a transformation has also turned an aberrant dickcissel specimen ( sometimes referred to as a distinct species , Townsend 's dickcissel , Spiza townsendi ) from grey to brown . The two extant specimens also differ from each other in colouration . The Paris specimen has a greyish @-@ blue head , and a brown body , paler on the underparts . Its tail and wing feathers were severely damaged by sulphuric acid in an attempt at fumigation in the 1790s . The Vienna specimen is a pale brown on the head and body overall , with an irregular distribution of white feathers on the tail , back , and wings .
Confusion over the colouration of the Mascarene parrot has also been furthered by a plate by French engraver and naturalist François @-@ Nicolas Martinet in Buffon 's 1779 Histoire Naturelle Des Oiseaux , the first coloured illustration of this species . It shows the bird as brown with a purplish head , and the strength of these colours differs considerably between copies , a result of having been hand @-@ coloured by many different artists who worked under Martinet in his workshop . Across these copies , the body ranges from chestnut brown to greyish chocolate , the tail from light grey to blackish grey @-@ brown , and the head from bluish @-@ grey to dove @-@ grey . The plate also lacks two dark central tail feathers without white bases , a feature described by Brisson , and these features have been repeated by subsequent artists . Martinet 's illustration and Buffon 's description were perhaps based on the Paris specimen .
In 1879 , Forbes stated the cere was covered by feathers which concealed the nostrils . This contradicts other accounts that mention that the nostrils were surrounded by red skin . Forbes based his description on the Paris specimen which had previously had its skull and mandible removed for study by French mammalogist and ornithologist Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards . This may have led to the distortion of the shape of the head and nostrils as indicated by the illustration in Forbes ' article .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Very little is known about the Mascarene parrot in life . Since several specimens were kept alive in captivity , it was probably not a specialised feeder . That the Vienna specimen was partially white may have been the result of food deficiency during a long period in captivity ; the clipped primary wing feathers indicate it was caged . Little was known about parrot @-@ diet in the 1700s , and the Vienna specimen may not have received enough of the amino acid tyrosine through its food , which it would have needed for melanin synthesis . In other parrots , this would have resulted in orange instead of white colour in the affected feathers , due to the presence of the pigment psittacin , but Coracopsis parrots and the Mascarene parrot are the only parrots that lack this pigment . The specimen has also been described as " partially albinistic " at times , though true albinism ( lack of the enzyme tyrosinase ) can by definition never only be partial .
In 1705 , Jean Feuilley gave a description of the parrots of Réunion and their ecology which indicates that they fattened themselves seasonally :
There are several sorts of parrot , of different sizes and colours . Some are the size of a hen , grey , the beak red [ Mascarene parrot ] ; others the same colour the size of a pigeon [ Mascarene grey parakeet ] , and yet others , smaller , are green [ Réunion parakeet ] . There are great quantities , especially in the Sainte @-@ Suzanne area and on the mountainsides . They are very good to eat , especially when they are fat which is from the month of June until the month of September , because at that time the trees produce a certain wild seed that these birds eat .
The Mascarene parrot may have once inhabited Mauritius as well based on a 17th @-@ century account by the English traveller Peter Mundy which mentioned " russet parrots " . This is a possibility , since Réunion and Mauritius do share some types of animals , but no fossil evidence has yet been discovered .
Many other endemic species of Réunion became extinct after the arrival of man and the resulting disruption of the island 's ecosystem . The Mascarene parrot lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the hoopoe starling , the Réunion ibis , the Réunion parakeet , the Mascarene grey parakeet , the Réunion swamphen , the Réunion owl , the Réunion night heron , and the Réunion pink pigeon . Extinct Réunion reptiles include the Réunion giant tortoise and an undescribed Leiolopisma skink . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Réunion and Mauritius but vanished from both islands .
= = Extinction = =
Of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the Mascarenes , only the echo parakeet ( Psittacula echo ) of Mauritius has survived . The others probably all became extinct due to a combination of excessive hunting and deforestation . The cause and date of extinction for the Mascarene parrot itself is uncertain . In 1834 , German zoologist and author Carl Wilhelm Hahn published an often @-@ cited account of a live Mascarene parrot in the possession of Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria . The bird must have been very old at the time , and Hahn claimed an accompanying illustration was drawn after this specimen . The IUCN Red List accepts the 1834 account as the last mention of a live specimen .
The veracity of Hahn 's claim was questioned as early as 1876 , and the illustration appears to be plagiarised from the plate by François @-@ Nicolas Martinet which was published at least 50 years earlier . After King Maximilian died in 1825 , his collection was auctioned off , but no Mascarene parrot was mentioned in the inventory list of species . Hahn did not mention the date in which he actually saw the bird which could have been long before 1834 . However , the fact that Martinet 's image was copied and that no mounted specimen exists ( though such a rare bird would probably have been preserved ) makes Hahn 's account dubious . He may instead have based his account on other sources or even hearsay .
If Hahn 's account is disregarded , the Mascarene parrot probably became extinct prior to 1800 . The last account of wild specimens on Réunion is from the 1770s . It is thought that the Mascarene parrot went extinct in the wild while captive specimens still survived in Europe , since specimens are known to have lived there after the last mention of wild birds . In the 1790s , French author , explorer , and naturalist François Levaillant stated that the bird was rare and that he had seen three specimens in France .
One of the last definite accounts of live specimens is the following 1784 description by Mauduyt based on captive birds :
The Mascarin is found at Ile Bourbon [ Réunion ] ; I have seen several alive in Paris , they were rather gentle birds ; they had in their favour only that the red beak contrasted agreeably with the dark background of their plumage ; they had not learnt to talk .
Contrary to Feuilley 's claims , Dubois mentioned that the Mascarene parrot was not edible which may have led to Réunion visitors mostly ignoring it . It was the last of the indigenous parrots of Réunion to become extinct . The only endemic bird species on Réunion that disappeared after the Mascarene parrot was the hoopoe starling in the mid @-@ 19th century .
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= Tourism in Nunavut =
Tourism in Nunavut focuses on outdoor activities and culture of the local Inuit , the indigenous people of Nunavut . Wildlife watching is a popular tourist attraction , as the territory is home to a number of wildlife and bird sanctuaries . It is possible to spot walrus , polar bears , a large variety of birds and belugas throughout Nunavut . Outdoor adventure activities are also popular . Nunavut has a wide and lengthy river system , meaning that there are a large number of canoeing and kayaking opportunities to suit experienced travellers . Nunavut 's vast expanse of uninhabited territory offers many opportunities for hiking and camping . However , the region 's often extreme conditions and remote location often necessitates a guide , even for experienced campers .
Nunavut Tourism does not regularly publish tourism statistics . However , an exit survey conducted by the Department of Economic Development and Transportation between June and October 2008 revealed that 33 @,@ 378 people visited Nunavut during that period , up from 28 @,@ 802 in June @-@ October 2006 . The vast majority of visitors to Nunavut are Canadian , with 96 % of travellers arriving from Canada . However , the leisure travel market is not as dominated by Canadian visitors , with 28 % of foreign visitors .
= = Attractions = =
Nunavut features a number of outdoor adventure activity opportunities as a result of the territory 's vast uninhabited area . Wildlife watching is one particularly popular activity - the territory is home to walrus and belugas , as well as eleven bird sanctuaries housing millions of birds . Muskox are also spread throughout Nunavut , although the territory 's tourism authority does not promote ' muskox watching ' trips specifically . The territory is also home to a population of polar bears , and trips designed to increase tourists ' chances of spotting a polar bear are common . A number of private operators offer wildlife , bird , polar and whale watching tours , in addition to other activities .
Other popular activities for tourists in Nunavut involve the Canadian territory 's vast opportunities for adventuring . Canoeing and kayaking are possible on the territory 's lengthy rivers , with the Thelon River being the most famous of these . This river is most popular during summer - despite not having road access direct to the river , many visitors participate in kayaking or canoeing along the river each year , as it is not as difficult to navigate as some of the other rivers in Nunavut . Another popular outdoor adventure activity is hiking . Nunavut Tourism promotes Nunavut as having a number of short and long hikes available to tourists , with camping possible in the middle of " caribou birthing grounds ... [ and at Whale Cove , ] at the river , teeming with chirping white whales . " However , due to Nunavut 's rugged terrain and often extreme conditions , Nunavut Tourism recommends the use of a guide for all campers and hikers staying the night outdoors to enhance safety .
One tourism activity unique to the Arctic North is iceberg watching . During the summer season of April to July , it is possible to watch icebergs moving down rivers while the ice around them melts . In addition , watching the floe edge is also a popular activity due to wildlife movement during this time . Whales can often be seen swimming metres from the ice , polar bears can be observed swimming briefly in the icy water and amphibious animals often bring themselves up on to dry land or on to the ice to sunbathe .
= = Statistics = =
Nunavut Tourism did not , as of 2002 , produce detailed statistics about tourism numbers , trends and characteristics . However , by 2010 , this appeared to have changed , with Nunavut Tourism providing media outlets with general figures on trends in tourism in Nunavut . Tourism brings approximately CAD $ 30 million to Nunavut 's economy each year according to Nunavut Tourism , with one in five of its tourists arriving on cruise ships . Between June and October 2008 , 33 @,@ 378 people visited Nunavut by air and sea , according to the territory 's Department of Economic Development and Transportation . This is an almost 16 percent increase on the number of people who visited Nunavut by air and sea during the same period in 2006 , which was 28 @,@ 802 people . The average age of people arriving in Nunavut was 46 during the period in 2008 that the Department of Economic Development and Transportation conducted its survey , and the majority of visitors were in the territory for business purposes . 96 percent of all business travellers entering the territory were domestic travellers ( Canadian residents ) . However , among the leisure traveller sub @-@ group , the proportion of domestic travellers declines - Canadians make up only 72 percent of the leisure traveller arrival numbers , with travellers from the United States ( 20 percent ) and other countries ( 8 percent ) making up the difference . September and July account for 46 percent of arrivals , making them the busiest arrival months .
The most popular tourist destination among arrivals to Nunavut was Qikiqtaaluk ( Baffin Island ) , home to the territory 's capital , Iqaluit . Visitors to Baffin Island comprised 63 percent of all travellers to Nunavut . 11 percent visited the Kivalliq Region , seven percent travelled to the Kitikmeot Region and the remainder were cruise ship passengers who visited a number of Nunavut towns during their journeys . 76 percent of visitors to the Kivalliq Region travelled for business , leisure tourism was the most popular reason given for travel to the Kitikmeot Region , and visiting friends and family was the most popular reason given for travel to Baffin Island . 21 cruise ships visited Nunavut communities in 2009 .
= = Market issues = =
In the 2002 Nunavut Tourism publication The Time is Right : A Vision and Strategy for Tourism Development in Nunavut , a number of issues facing Nunavut tourism operators were highlighted . One major issue for the Nunavut tourism industry is the territory 's remote nature . This imposes high travel costs on visitors to Nunavut , and drives tourism numbers down . In addition , Nunavut 's position north of the Arctic Circle reduces the opportunity for spring activities , and results in a highly seasonally based tourism market . This limits opportunities for year @-@ round employment in the territory . Many tourism organisations and operators faced difficulty attracting high @-@ quality staff members to their ranks , and experienced high levels of turnover . There are limited links between tourism operators , inhibiting opportunities for inter @-@ sector growth .
A number of governmental and human resource issues also exist . Employees in the tourism industry are often poorly trained and tourism operators also face high staff turnover . A lack of interest in tourism development also exists in many Nunavut governmental organisations as well as in the private sector , and a policy put in place to prevent " market disruption " by new businesses has led to many businesses being denied licences to operate due to the new competition they would bring to the market . This policy has not only acted to the detriment of competition in the tourism sector but has also limited the opportunities for industry growth . Finally , a lack of in @-@ depth and relevant statistics about trends and growth in tourism in Nunavut has prevented businesses from planning for their short- and long @-@ term futures .
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= James A. Garfield =
James Abram Garfield ( November 19 , 1831 – September 19 , 1881 ) was the 20th President of the United States , serving from March 4 , 1881 , until his assassination later that year . Garfield had served nine terms in the House of Representatives , and had been elected to the Senate before his candidacy for the White House , though he declined the senatorship once he was president @-@ elect . He is the only sitting House member to be elected president .
Garfield was raised in humble circumstances on an Ohio farm by his widowed mother . He worked at various jobs , including on a canal boat , in his youth . Beginning at age 17 , he attended several Ohio schools , then studied at Williams College in Williamstown , Massachusetts , from which he graduated in 1856 . A year later , Garfield entered politics as a Republican . He married Lucretia Rudolph in 1858 , and served as a member of the Ohio State Senate ( 1859 – 1861 ) . Garfield opposed Confederate secession , served as a major general in the Union Army during the American Civil War , and fought in the battles of Middle Creek , Shiloh , and Chickamauga . He was first elected to Congress in 1862 to represent Ohio 's 19th District . Throughout Garfield 's extended congressional service after the Civil War , he firmly supported the gold standard and gained a reputation as a skilled orator . Garfield initially agreed with Radical Republican views regarding Reconstruction , but later favored a moderate approach for civil rights enforcement for freedmen .
At the 1880 Republican National Convention , Senator @-@ elect Garfield attended as campaign manager for Secretary of the Treasury John Sherman , and gave the presidential nomination speech for him . When neither Sherman nor his rivals – Ulysses S. Grant and James G. Blaine – could get enough votes to secure the nomination , delegates chose Garfield as a compromise on the 36th ballot . In the 1880 presidential election , Garfield conducted a low @-@ key front porch campaign , and narrowly defeated Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock .
Garfield 's accomplishments as president included a resurgence of presidential authority against senatorial courtesy in executive appointments , energizing American naval power , and purging corruption in the Post Office , all during his extremely short time in office . Garfield made notable diplomatic and judiciary appointments , including a U.S. Supreme Court justice . He enhanced the powers of the presidency when he defied the powerful New York senator Roscoe Conkling by appointing William H. Robertson to the lucrative post of Collector of the Port of New York , starting a fracas that ended with Robertson 's confirmation and Conkling 's resignation from the Senate . Garfield advocated agricultural technology , an educated electorate , and civil rights for African Americans . He also proposed substantial civil service reform , eventually passed by Congress in 1883 and signed into law by his successor , Chester A. Arthur , as the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act . With his term cut short by his death after only 200 days , and much of it spent in ill health trying to recover from the attack , Garfield is little @-@ remembered in the American cultural memory other than for his assassination ; historians often forgo listing him in rankings of U.S. presidents due to the short length of his presidency .
= = Childhood = =
James Garfield was born the youngest of five children on November 19 , 1831 , in a log cabin in Orange Township , now Moreland Hills , Ohio . Orange Township was located in the Western Reserve , and like many who settled there , Garfield 's ancestors were from New England . James ' father Abram had been born in Worcester , New York , and came to Ohio to woo his childhood sweetheart , Mehitabel Ballou , only to find her married . He instead wed her sister Eliza , who had been born in New Hampshire . James was named for an older brother , dead in infancy .
In early 1833 , Abram and Eliza Garfield joined the Disciples of Christ , a decision that would help shape their youngest son 's life . Abram Garfield died later that year ; his son was raised in poverty in a household led by the strong @-@ willed Eliza . James was her favorite child , and the two remained close for the rest of her life . Eliza Garfield remarried in 1842 , but soon left her second husband , Warren Belden ( possibly Alfred Belden ) , and a then @-@ scandalous divorce was awarded against her in 1850 . James took his mother 's side and when Belden died in 1880 , noted the fact in his diary with satisfaction . Garfield enjoyed his mother 's stories about his ancestry , especially his Welsh great @-@ great @-@ grandfathers and his ancestor who served as a knight of Caerffili Castle .
Poor and fatherless , Garfield was mocked by his fellow boys , and throughout his life was very sensitive to slights . He escaped through reading , devouring all the books he could find . He left home at age 16 in 1847 . Rejected by the only ship in port in Cleveland , Garfield instead found work on a canal boat , responsible for managing the mules that pulled it . This labor would be used to good effect by Horatio Alger , who penned Garfield 's campaign biography in 1880 .
After six weeks , illness forced Garfield to return home and , during his recuperation , his mother and a local education official got him to promise to postpone his return to the canals for a year and go to school . Accordingly , in 1848 , he began at Geauga Seminary , in nearby Chester Township . Garfield later said of his childhood , " I lament that I was born to poverty , and in this chaos of childhood , seventeen years passed before I caught any inspiration ... a precious 17 years when a boy with a father and some wealth might have become fixed in manly ways . "
= = Education , marriage and early career = =
At Geauga Academy , which he attended from 1848 to 1850 , Garfield learned academic subjects he had not previously had time for . He shone as a student , and was especially interested in languages and elocution . He began to appreciate the power a speaker had over an audience , writing that the speaker 's platform " creates some excitement . I love agitation and investigation and glory in defending unpopular truth against popular error . " Geauga was co @-@ educational , and Garfield was attracted to one of his fellow students , Lucretia Rudolph , whom he later married . To support himself at Geauga , he worked as a carpenter 's assistant and as a teacher . The need to go from town to town to find a place as a teacher disgusted Garfield , and he thereafter developed a dislike of what he called " place @-@ seeking " , which became , he said , " the law of my life " . In later years , he would astound his friends by letting positions pass that could have been his with a little politicking . Garfield had attended church more to please his mother than to worship God , but in his late teens underwent a religious awakening , and attended many camp meetings , at one of which he was born again . The next day , March 4 , 1850 , he was baptized into the Disciples by being submerged in the icy waters of the Chagrin River .
After leaving Geauga , Garfield worked for a year at various jobs , including teaching . Finding that some New Englanders worked their way through college , Garfield determined to do the same , and first sought a school that could prepare him for the entrance examinations . From 1851 to 1854 , he attended the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute ( later named Hiram College ) in Hiram , Ohio , a school run by the Disciples . While there , he was most interested in the study of Greek and Latin , but was inclined to learn about and discuss any new thing he encountered . Securing a position on entry as janitor , he was hired to teach while still a student . Lucretia Rudolph had also enrolled at the Institute , and Garfield wooed her while teaching her Greek . He developed a regular preaching circuit at neighboring churches , in some cases earning a gold dollar per service . By 1854 , Garfield had learned all the Institute could teach him and was a full @-@ time teacher . Garfield then enrolled at Williams College in Williamstown , Massachusetts , as a third @-@ year student , given credit for two year 's study at the Institute after passing a cursory examination . Garfield was impressed with the college president , Mark Hopkins , who had responded warmly to Garfield 's letter inquiring about admission . He said of Hopkins , " The ideal college is Mark Hopkins on one end of a log with a student on the other . " Hopkins later stated about Garfield in his student days , " There was a large general capacity applicable to any subject . There was no pretense of genius , or alternation of spasmodic effort , but a satisfactory accomplishment in all directions . " After his first term , Garfield was hired to teach penmanship to the students of nearby Pownal , Vermont , a post whose previous incumbent was Chester A. Arthur .
Garfield graduated from Williams in August 1856 as salutatorian , giving an address at the commencement . Garfield biographer Ira Rutkow pointed out that the future president 's years at Williams gave Garfield the opportunity to know and respect those of different social backgrounds , and despite his origin as an unsophisticated Westerner , he was liked and respected by socially conscious New Englanders . " In short , " as Rutkow later wrote , " Garfield had an extensive and positive first experience with the world outside the Western Reserve of Ohio . "
On his return to Ohio , the degree from a prestigious Eastern school made Garfield a man of distinction . He returned to Hiram to teach at the Institute , and in 1857 was made its president . He did not see education as a field in which he could realize his full potential . At Williams , he had become more politically aware in the intensely anti @-@ slavery atmosphere of the Massachusetts school , and began to consider politics as a career . In 1858 , he married Lucretia ; they would have seven children , five of whom survived infancy . Soon after the wedding , he formally entered his name to read law at a Cleveland firm , although he did his studying in Hiram . He was admitted to the bar in 1861 .
Local Republican Party leaders invited Garfield to enter politics upon the death of Cyrus Prentiss , the presumptive nominee for the local state senate seat . He was nominated by the party convention on the sixth ballot , and was elected , serving until 1861 . Garfield 's major effort in the state senate was a bill providing for Ohio 's first geological survey to measure its mineral resources , though it failed .
= = Civil War = =
After Abraham Lincoln 's election as president , several Southern states announced their secession from the Union to form a new government , the Confederate States of America . Garfield read military texts while anxiously awaiting the war effort , which he regarded as a holy crusade against the Slave Power . In April 1861 , the rebels bombarded Fort Sumter , one of the last federal outposts in the South , beginning the Civil War . Although he had no military training , Garfield knew that his place was in the Union Army .
At Governor William Dennison 's request , Garfield deferred his military ambitions to remain in the legislature , where he helped appropriate the funds to raise and equip Ohio 's volunteer regiments . Afterward , the legislature adjourned and Garfield spent the spring and early summer on a speaking tour of northeastern Ohio , encouraging enlistment in the new regiments . Following a trip to Illinois to purchase muskets , Garfield returned to Ohio and , in August 1861 , received a commission as a colonel in the 42nd Ohio Infantry regiment . The 42nd Ohio existed only on paper , so Garfield 's first task was to fill its ranks . He did so quickly , recruiting many of his neighbors and former students . The regiment traveled to Camp Chase , outside Columbus , Ohio , to complete training . In December , Garfield was ordered to bring the 42nd to Kentucky , where they joined the Army of the Ohio under Brigadier General Don Carlos Buell .
= = = Buell 's command = = =
Buell quickly assigned Garfield the task of driving Confederate forces out of eastern Kentucky , giving him the 18th Brigade for the campaign which , besides his own 42nd , included the 40th Ohio Infantry , two Kentucky infantry regiments and two cavalry units . They departed Catlettsburg , Kentucky , in mid @-@ December , advancing through the valley of the Big Sandy River . The march was uneventful until Union forces reached Paintsville , Kentucky , on January 6 , 1862 , where Garfield 's cavalry engaged the rebels at Jenny 's Creek . Confederate troops under Brigadier General Humphrey Marshall held the town in numbers roughly equal to Garfield 's own , but Garfield positioned his troops so as to deceive Marshall into believing that rebel forces were outnumbered . Marshall ordered his troops to withdraw to the forks of Middle Creek , on the road to Virginia ; Garfield ordered his troops to pursue the Confederates . They attacked the rebel positions on January 9 , 1862 , in the Battle of Middle Creek , the only pitched battle Garfield personally commanded . At the end of the fighting , the Confederates withdrew from the field , and Garfield sent his troops to Prestonsburg to reprovision .
In recognition of his success , Garfield was promoted to brigadier general . After Marshall 's retreat , Garfield 's command was the sole remaining Union force in eastern Kentucky , and he announced that any men who had fought for the Confederacy would be granted amnesty if they returned to their homes and lived peaceably and remained loyal to the Union . The proclamation was surprisingly lenient , as Garfield now believed the war was a crusade for eradication of slavery . Following a brief skirmish at Pound Gap , the last rebel units in the area were outflanked , and they retreated to Virginia .
Garfield 's promotion gave him command of the 20th Brigade of the Army of the Ohio , which was ordered in early 1862 to join Major General Ulysses S. Grant 's forces as they advanced on Corinth , Mississippi . Before the 20th Brigade arrived , however , Confederate forces under General Albert Sidney Johnston surprised Grant 's men in their camps , driving them back . Garfield 's troops got word of the battle and advanced quickly , joining the rest of the army on the second day to drive the Confederates back across the field and into retreat . The action , later known as the Battle of Shiloh , was the bloodiest of the war to date ; Garfield was exposed to fire for much of the day , but emerged uninjured . Major General Henry W. Halleck , Grant 's superior , took charge of the combined armies and advanced ponderously toward Corinth ; when they arrived , the Confederates had fled .
That summer Garfield suffered from jaundice and significant weight loss . He was forced to return home , where his wife nursed him back to health . While he was home , Garfield 's friends worked to gain him the Republican nomination for Congress , although he refused to politick with the delegates . He returned to military duty that autumn and went to Washington to await his next assignment . During this period of idleness , a rumor of an extra @-@ marital affair caused friction in the Garfield marriage until Lucretia eventually chose to overlook it . Garfield repeatedly received tentative assignments that were quickly withdrawn , to his frustration . In the meantime , he served on the court @-@ martial of Fitz John Porter , a sensational trial in which Porter was tried for his tardiness at the Second Battle of Bull Run . He was convinced of Porter 's guilt , and voted with his fellow generals to convict . The trial lasted almost two months , from November 1862 to January 1863 , and by the end of it , Garfield had at last procured an assignment as Chief of Staff to Major General William S. Rosecrans .
= = = Chief of staff for Rosecrans = = =
The position of Chief of Staff for a general was usually held by a more junior officer , but Garfield 's influence with Rosecrans was greater than usual , with duties extending beyond mere communication of orders to duties that involved actual management of his Army of the Cumberland . Rosecrans had a voracious appetite for conversation , especially when he was unable to sleep ; in Garfield , he found " the first well read person in the Army " and the ideal candidate for discussions that ran deep into the night . The two became close in spite of Garfield 's being twelve years junior to Rosecrans , and their talks covered all topics , especially religion ; Rosecrans , who had converted from Methodism to Roman Catholicism , succeeded in softening Garfield 's view of his faith . Garfield recommended that Rosecrans replace wing commanders Alexander McCook and Thomas Crittenden , whom he believed ineffective , but Rosecrans ignored the suggestions . With Rosecrans , Garfield devised the Tullahoma Campaign to pursue and trap Confederate General Braxton Bragg in Tullahoma . After initial Union success , Bragg retreated toward Chattanooga , where Rosecrans stalled and requested more troops and supplies . Garfield argued for an immediate advance , in line with demands from Halleck and Lincoln . After a council of war and lengthy deliberations , Rosecrans agreed to attack .
At the ensuing Battle of Chickamauga on September 19 and 20 , 1863 , confusion among the wing commanders over Rosecrans 's orders created a gap in the lines , resulting in a rout of the right flank . Rosecrans concluded that the battle was lost and fell back on Chattanooga to establish a defensive line . Garfield , however , thought that part of the army had held and , with Rosecrans 's approval , headed across Missionary Ridge to survey the scene . Garfield 's hunch was correct . His ride became legendary , while Rosecrans ' error reignited criticism about his leadership . While Rosecrans 's army had avoided disaster , they were stranded in Chattanooga , surrounded by Bragg 's army . Garfield sent a telegram to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton alerting Washington to the need for reinforcements to avoid annihilation , and Lincoln and Halleck delivered 20 @,@ 000 troops by rail within nine days . In the meantime , Grant was promoted to command of the western armies , and quickly replaced Rosecrans with George H. Thomas . Garfield was ordered to report to Washington , where he was promoted to major general , a commission he would resign before taking a seat in the House of Representatives . According to historian Jean Edward Smith , Grant and Garfield had a " guarded relationship " , since Grant promoted Thomas to command of the Army of the Cumberland , rather than Garfield , after Rosecrans was dismissed .
= = Congressional career = =
= = = Election in 1862 ; Civil War years = = =
While serving in the army in early 1862 , Garfield was approached by friends about running for Congress from Ohio 's newly redrawn , heavily Republican 19th district . He was worried that he and other state @-@ appointed generals would get obscure assignments , and running for Congress would allow him to resume his political career . The fact that the new Congress would not hold its first regular session until December 1863 would allow him to continue his war service for a time . Home on medical leave , he refused to campaign for the nomination , leaving that to political managers who secured it at the local convention in September 1862 , on the eighth ballot . In October , he defeated D.B. Woods by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin in the general election for a seat in the 38th Congress .
Soon after the nomination , Garfield was ordered to report to War Secretary Edwin Stanton in Washington to discuss his military future . There , Garfield met Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase , who befriended him , seeing him as a younger version of himself . The two men agreed politically , and both were part of the Radical wing of the Republican Party . Once he took his seat in December 1863 , Garfield was frustrated that Lincoln seemed reluctant to press the South hard . Many radicals , led in the House by Pennsylvania 's Thaddeus Stevens , wanted lands owned by rebels to be confiscated , but Lincoln threatened to veto any bill that would do that on a widespread basis . Garfield , in debate on the House floor , supported such legislation and , discussing England 's Glorious Revolution , hinted that Lincoln might be thrown out of office for resisting the bills . Although Garfield had supported Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation , the congressman marveled that it was a " strange phenomenon in the world 's history , when a second @-@ rate Illinois lawyer is the instrument to utter words which shall form an epoch memorable in all future ages " .
Garfield not only favored abolition of slavery , but believed that the leaders of the rebellion had forfeited their constitutional rights . He supported the confiscation of southern plantations and even exile or execution of rebellion leaders as a means to ensure the permanent destruction of slavery . Garfield felt Congress was obliged " to determine what legislation is necessary to secure equal justice to all loyal persons , without regard to color . " Garfield was more supportive of Lincoln when Lincoln took action against slavery . Early in his tenure , he differed from his party on several issues ; his was the solitary Republican vote to terminate the use of bounties in recruiting . Some financially able recruits had used the bounty system to buy their way out of service ( called commutation ) , which Garfield considered reprehensible . Garfield gave a speech pointing out the flaws in the existing conscription law : that of 300 @,@ 000 called upon to enlist , barely 10 @,@ 000 had , the remainder claiming exemption or providing money or a substitute . Lincoln appeared before the Military Affairs committee on which Garfield served , demanding a more effective bill ; even if it cost him re @-@ election , Lincoln was confident he could win the war before his term expired . After many false starts , Garfield , with the support of Lincoln , procured the passage of a conscription bill which excluded commutation .
Under Chase 's influence , Garfield became a staunch proponent of a dollar backed by a gold standard , and was therefore a strong opponent of the " greenback " ; he regretted very much , but understood , the necessity for suspension of payment in gold or silver during the emergency presented by the Civil War . Garfield voted with the Radical Republicans in passing the Wade – Davis Bill , designed to give Congress more authority over Reconstruction , but it was defeated by Lincoln 's pocket veto .
Garfield did not consider Lincoln particularly worthy of re @-@ election , but no viable alternative seemed available . " He will probably be the man , though I think we could do better . " The Ohioan attended the party convention and promoted Rosecrans as Lincoln 's running mate , but delegates chose Military Governor of Tennessee Andrew Johnson . Both Lincoln and Garfield were re @-@ elected . By then , Chase had left the Cabinet and had been appointed Chief Justice , and his relations with Garfield became more distant .
Garfield took up the practice of law in 1865 as a means to improve his personal finances . His efforts took him to Wall Street where , the day after Lincoln 's assassination , a riotous crowd led him into an impromptu speech to calm it : " Fellow citizens ! Clouds and darkness are round about Him ! His pavilion is dark waters and thick clouds of the skies ! Justice and judgment are the establishment of His throne ! Mercy and truth shall go before His face ! Fellow citizens ! God reigns , and the Government at Washington still lives ! " The speech , with no mention or praise of Lincoln , was according to Garfield biographer Robert G. Caldwell " quite as significant for what it did not contain as for what it did " . In the following years , Garfield had more praise for Lincoln ; a year after the Illinoisan 's death Garfield stated that " greatest among all these developments were the character and fame of Abraham Lincoln " , and in 1878 called Lincoln " one of the few great rulers whose wisdom increased with his power " .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
After the war , Garfield became a proponent of black suffrage , though he admitted that the idea of African Americans as political equals with whites gave him " a strong feeling of repugnance " . The new president , Johnson , sought the rapid restoration of the Southern states during the months between his accession and the meeting of Congress in December 1865 ; Garfield hesitantly supported this policy as an experiment . Johnson , an old friend , sought Garfield 's backing , and their conversations led Garfield to assume that differences between president and Congress were not large . When Congress assembled in December ( to Johnson 's chagrin without the elected representatives of the Southern states , who were excluded ) , Garfield urged conciliation on his colleagues , although he feared that Johnson , a former Democrat , might combine with other Democrats to gain political control if he rejoined the party . Garfield foresaw conflict even before February 1866 when Johnson vetoed a bill to extend the life of the Freedmen 's Bureau , charged with aiding the former slaves . By April , Garfield had concluded that Johnson was either " crazy or drunk with opium " .
The conflict between the branches of government was the major issue of the 1866 campaign , with Johnson taking to the campaign trail in a Swing Around the Circle and Garfield facing opposition within his party in his home district . With the South still disenfranchised and Northern public opinion behind them , the Republicans gained a two @-@ thirds majority in both houses of Congress . Garfield , having overcome his challengers at his district nominating convention , was easily re @-@ elected .
Garfield opposed the initial talk of impeaching President Johnson when Congress convened in December 1866 . However , he supported legislation to limit Johnson 's powers , such as the Tenure of Office Act , which restricted Johnson in removing presidential appointees . Distracted by committee duties , he rarely spoke in connection with these bills , but was a loyal Republican vote against Johnson . Due to a court case , he was absent on the day in April 1868 when the House impeached Johnson , but soon gave a speech aligning himself with Thaddeus Stevens and others who sought Johnson 's removal . When the president was acquitted in trial before the Senate , Garfield was shocked , and blamed the outcome of the trial on its presiding officer , Chief Justice Chase , his onetime mentor .
By the time Ulysses S. Grant succeeded Johnson in 1869 , Garfield had moved away from the remaining radicals ( Stevens , their leader , had died in 1868 ) . He hailed the ratification of the 15th Amendment in 1870 as a triumph , and he favored the re @-@ admission of Georgia to the Union as a matter of right , not politics . In 1871 , Garfield opposed passage of the Ku Klux Klan Act , saying " I have never been more perplexed by a piece of legislation " . He was torn between his indignation at " these terrorists " and his concern for the freedoms endangered by the power the bill gave to the president to enforce the act through suspension of habeas corpus .
= = = Tariffs and finance = = =
Throughout his political career , Garfield favored the gold standard and decried attempts to increase the money supply through the issuance of paper money not backed by gold , and later , through the free and unlimited coinage of silver . In 1865 , Garfield was placed on the House Ways and Means Committee , a long @-@ awaited opportunity to focus on financial and economic issues . He reprised his opposition to the greenback , saying , " any party which commits itself to paper money will go down amid the general disaster , covered with the curses of a ruined people . " In 1868 Garfield gave a two @-@ hour speech on currency in the House , which was widely applauded as his best oratory to that point ; in it he advocated a gradual resumption of specie payments , that is , the government paying out silver and gold , rather than paper money that could not be redeemed .
Tariffs had been raised to high levels during the Civil War . Afterwards , Garfield , who made a close study of financial affairs , advocated moving towards free trade , though the standard Republican position was a protective tariff that would allow American industries to grow . This break with his party likely cost him his place on the Ways and Means Committee in 1867 , and though Republicans held the majority in the House until 1875 , Garfield remained off that committee during that time . Garfield came to chair the powerful House Appropriations Committee , but it was Ways and Means , with its influence over fiscal policy , that he really wanted to lead . Part of the reason Garfield was denied a place on Ways and Means was the opposition of the influential Republican editor , Horace Greeley .
In September 1870 , Garfield , who was then chairman of the House Banking Committee , led an investigation into the Black Friday Gold Panic scandal . The committee investigation into corruption was thorough , but found no indictable offenses . Garfield blamed the easy availability of fiat money greenbacks for financing the speculation that led to the scandal .
Garfield was not at all enthused about the re @-@ election of President Grant in 1872 — until Horace Greeley , who emerged as the candidate of the Democrats and Liberal Republicans , became the only serious alternative . Garfield opined , " I would say Grant was not fit to be nominated and Greeley is not fit to be elected . " Both Grant and Garfield won overwhelming re @-@ election victories .
= = = Crédit Mobilier scandal ; Salary Grab = = =
The Crédit Mobilier of America scandal involved corruption in the financing of the Union Pacific Railroad , part of the transcontinental railroad that was completed in 1869 . Union Pacific officers and directors secretly purchased control of the Crédit Mobilier of America company , then contracted with the firm to have it undertake the construction of the railroad . The grossly inflated invoices submitted by the company were paid by the railroad , using federal funds appropriated to subsidize the project , and the company was allowed to purchase Union Pacific securities at par value , well below the market rate . Crédit Mobilier showed large profits and stock gains , and distributed substantial dividends . The high expenses meant that Congress was called upon to appropriate more funds . One of the railroad officials who controlled Crédit Mobilier was also a congressman , Oakes Ames of Massachusetts . He offered some of his colleagues the opportunity to buy Crédit Mobilier stock at par value , well below what it sold for on the market , and the railroad got its additional appropriations .
The story broke in July 1872 , in the middle of the presidential campaign . Among those named were Vice President ( and former House Speaker ) Schuyler Colfax , Grant 's second @-@ term running mate ( Massachusetts Senator Henry Wilson ) , Speaker James G. Blaine of Maine , and Garfield . Greeley had little luck taking advantage of the scandal . When Congress reconvened after the election , Blaine , seeking to clear his name , demanded a House investigation . Evidence before the special committee exonerated Blaine . Garfield had stated , in September 1872 , that Ames had offered him stock , but he had repeatedly refused it . Testifying before the committee in January , Ames alleged that he had offered Garfield ten shares of stock at par value , but that Garfield had never taken the shares , or paid for them . A year had passed , from 1867 to 1868 , before Garfield had finally refused it . Garfield , appearing before the committee on January 14 , 1873 , confirmed much of this . Ames testified several weeks later that Garfield agreed to take the stock on credit , and that it was paid for by the company 's huge dividends . The two men differed over a sum of some $ 300 that Garfield received and later paid back , with Garfield deeming it a loan and Ames a dividend .
Garfield 's biographers were unwilling to exonerate him in Crédit Mobilier , with Allan Peskin writing " Did Garfield lie ? Not exactly . Did he tell the truth ? Not completely . Was he corrupted ? Not really . Even Garfield 's enemies never claimed that his involvement ... influenced his behavior " . Rutkow wrote that " Garfield 's real offense was that he knowingly denied to the House investigating committee that he had agreed to accept the stock and that he had also received a dividend of $ 329 . " Caldwell suggested that Garfield " while he told the truth [ before the committee ] , certainly failed to tell the whole truth , clearly evading an answer to certain vital questions and thus giving the impression of worse faults than those of which he was guilty " . That Crédit Mobilier was a corrupt organization had been a secret badly kept , even mentioned on the floor of Congress , and editor Sam Bowles wrote at the time that Garfield , in his positions on committees dealing with finance , " had no more right to be ignorant in a matter of such grave importance as this , than the sentinel has to snore on his post " .
Another issue that caused Garfield trouble in his 1874 re @-@ election bid was the so @-@ called " Salary Grab " of 1873 , which increased the compensation for members of Congress by 50 percent , retroactive to 1871 . Garfield was responsible , as Appropriations Committee chairman , for shepherding the legislative appropriations bill through the House ; during the debate in February 1873 , Massachusetts Representative Benjamin Butler offered the increase as an amendment , and despite Garfield 's opposition , it passed the House and eventually became law . The law was very popular in the House , as almost half the members were lame ducks , but the public was outraged , and many of Garfield 's constituents blamed him , though he refused to accept the increase . In what was a bad year for Republicans , who lost control of the House for the first time since the Civil War , Garfield had his closest congressional election , winning with only 57 percent of the vote .
= = = Minority leader ; Hayes administration = = =
With the Democratic takeover of the House of Representatives in 1875 , Garfield lost his chairmanship of the Appropriations Committee . The Democratic leadership in the House appointed Garfield as a Republican member of Ways and Means . With many of his leadership rivals defeated in the 1874 Democratic landslide , and Blaine elected to the Senate , Garfield was seen as the Republican floor leader and the likely Speaker should the party regain control of the chamber .
As the 1876 presidential election approached , Garfield was loyal to the candidacy of Senator Blaine , and fought for the former Speaker 's nomination at the 1876 Republican National Convention in Cincinnati . When it became clear , after six ballots , that Blaine could not prevail , the convention nominated Ohio Governor Rutherford B. Hayes . Although Garfield had supported Blaine , he had kept good relations with Hayes , and wholeheartedly supported the governor . Garfield had hoped to retire from politics after his term expired to devote himself full @-@ time to the practice of law , but to help his party , he sought re @-@ election , and won it easily that October . Any celebration was short lived , as Garfield 's youngest son , Neddie , fell ill with whooping cough shortly after the congressional election , and soon died .
When Hayes appeared to have lost the presidential election the following month to Democrat Samuel Tilden , the Republicans launched efforts to reverse the result in Southern states where they held the governorship : South Carolina , Louisiana , and Florida . If Hayes won all three states , he would take the election by a single electoral vote . Grant asked Garfield to serve as a " neutral observer " in the recount in Louisiana . The observers soon recommended to the state electoral commissions that Hayes be declared the winner — Garfield recommended that the entire vote of West Feliciana Parish , which had given Tilden a sizable majority , be thrown out . The Republican governors of the three states certified that Hayes had won their states , to the outrage of Democrats , who had the state legislatures submit rival returns , and threatened to prevent the counting of the electoral vote — under the Constitution , Congress is the final arbiter of the election . Congress then passed a bill establishing the Electoral Commission , to determine the winner . Although he opposed the Commission , feeling that Congress should count the vote and proclaim Hayes victorious , Garfield was appointed to it over the objections of Democrats that he was too partisan . Hayes emerged the victor by a Commission vote of 8 to 7 , with all eight votes being cast by Republican politicians or appointees of that party to the Supreme Court . As part of the deal whereby they recognized Hayes as president , Southern Democrats secured the removal of federal troops from the South , ending Reconstruction .
Although a Senate seat would be disposed of by the Ohio General Assembly after the resignation of John Sherman to become Treasury Secretary , Hayes needed Garfield 's expertise to protect him from the agenda of a hostile Congress , and asked him not to seek it . Garfield , as the president 's key legislator , gained considerable prestige and respect from his role . When Congress debated what became the Bland @-@ Allison Act , to have the government purchase large quantities of silver and strike it into fully legal tender dollar coins , Garfield fought against this deviation from the gold standard , but it was enacted over Hayes 's veto in February 1878 .
Garfield during this time purchased the property in Mentor that reporters later dubbed Lawnfield , and from which he would conduct the first successful front porch campaign for the presidency . Hayes suggested that Garfield run for governor in 1879 , seeing that as a road that would likely put Garfield in the White House . Garfield preferred to seek election as senator , and devoted his efforts to seeing that Republicans won the 1879 election for the General Assembly , with the likely Democratic candidate the incumbent , Allen G. Thurman . The Republicans swept the legislative elections . Rivals were spoken of for the seat , such as Secretary Sherman , but he had presidential ambitions ( for which he sought Garfield 's support ) , and other candidates fell by the wayside . Garfield was elected to the Senate by the General Assembly in January 1880 , though his term was not to begin until March 4 , 1881 .
= = = Legal career and other activities = = =
Garfield was one of three attorneys who argued for the petitioners in the landmark Supreme Court case Ex parte Milligan in 1866 . The petitioners were pro @-@ Confederate northern men who had been found guilty and sentenced to death by a military court for treasonous activities . The case turned on whether the defendants should instead have been tried by a civilian court , and resulted in a ruling that civilians could not be tried before military tribunals while the civil courts were operating . The oral argument was Garfield 's first court appearance . Jeremiah Black had taken him in as a junior partner a year before , and assigned the case to him in light of his highly regarded oratory skills . With the result , Garfield instantly achieved a reputation as a preeminent appellate lawyer .
During Grant 's first term , discontented with public service , Garfield pursued opportunities in the law , but declined a partnership offer when told his prospective partner was of " intemperate and licentious " reputation . In 1873 , after the death of Chase , Garfield appealed to Grant to appoint Justice Noah H. Swayne as Chief Justice . Grant , however , appointed Morrison R. Waite .
Garfield thought the land grants given to expanding railroads to be an unjust practice ; as well , he opposed some monopolistic practices by corporations , as well as the power sought by the workers ' unions . Garfield supported the proposed establishment of the United States civil service as a means of ridding officials of the annoyance of aggressive office seekers . He especially wished to eliminate the common practice whereby government workers , in exchange for their positions , were forced to kick back a percentage of their wages as political contributions .
In 1876 , Garfield displayed his mathematical talent when he developed a trapezoid proof of the Pythagorean theorem . His finding was placed in the New England Journal of Education . Mathematics historian William Dunham stated that Garfield 's trapezoid work was " really a very clever proof " .
= = Presidential election of 1880 = =
= = = Republican nomination = = =
Having just been elected to the Senate with Sherman 's support , Garfield entered the 1880 campaign season committed to Sherman as his choice for the Republican presidential nominee . Even before the convention began , however , a few Republicans , including Wharton Barker of Philadelphia , thought Garfield the best choice for the nomination . Garfield denied any interest in the position , but the attention was enough to make Sherman suspicious of his lieutenant 's ambitions . Besides Sherman , the early favorites for the nomination were Blaine and former president Grant , but several other candidates attracted delegates as well .
As the convention began , Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York , the floor leader for the Grant forces ( known as the Stalwart faction ) , proposed that the delegates pledge to support the eventual nominee in the general election . When three West Virginia delegates declined to be so bound , Conkling sought to expel them from the convention . Garfield rose to defend the men , giving a passionate speech in defense of their right to reserve judgement . The crowd turned against Conkling , and he withdrew the motion . The performance delighted Garfield 's boosters , who now believed more than ever that he was the only man who could attract a majority of the delegates ' votes .
After speeches in favor of the other front @-@ runners , Garfield rose to place Sherman 's name in nomination ; his nominating speech was well @-@ received , but the delegates mustered little excitement for the idea of Sherman as the next president . The first ballot showed Grant leading with 304 votes and Blaine in second with 284 ; Sherman 's 93 placed him in a distant third . Subsequent ballots quickly demonstrated a deadlock between the Grant and Blaine forces , with neither having the 379 votes needed for nomination . Jeremiah McLain Rusk , a member of the Wisconsin delegation , and Benjamin Harrison , an Indiana delegate , sought to break the deadlock by shifting a few of the anti @-@ Grant votes to a dark horse candidate — Garfield . Garfield gained 50 votes on the 35th ballot , and the stampede began . Garfield protested to the other members of his Ohio delegation that he had not sought the nomination and had never intended to betray Sherman , but they overruled his objections and cast their ballots for him . In the next round of voting , nearly all of the Sherman and Blaine delegates shifted their support to Garfield , giving him 399 votes and the Republican nomination . Most of the Grant forces backed the former president to the end , creating a disgruntled Stalwart minority in the party . To obtain that faction 's support for the ticket , former New York customs collector Chester A. Arthur , a member of Conkling 's political machine , was chosen as the vice @-@ presidential nominee .
= = = Campaign against Hancock = = =
Despite including a Stalwart on the ticket , animosity between the Republican factions carried over from the convention , and Garfield traveled to New York to meet with party leaders there . After convincing the Stalwart crowd to put aside their differences and unite for the coming campaign , Garfield returned to Ohio , leaving the active campaigning to others , as was traditional at the time . Meanwhile , the Democrats settled on their nominee , Major General Winfield Scott Hancock of Pennsylvania , a career military officer . Hancock and the Democrats expected to carry the Solid South , while much of the North was considered safe territory for Garfield and the Republicans ; most of the campaign would involve a few close states , including New York and Indiana .
Practical differences between the candidates were few , and Republicans began the campaign with the familiar theme of waving the bloody shirt : reminding Northern voters that the Democratic Party was responsible for secession and four years of civil war , and that if they held power they would reverse the gains of that war , dishonor Union veterans , and pay Confederate veterans pensions out of the federal treasury . With fifteen years having passed since the end of the war , and Union generals at the head of both tickets , the bloody shirt was of diminishing value in exciting the voters . With a few months to go before the election , the Republicans switched tactics to emphasize the tariff . Seizing on the Democratic platform 's call for a " tariff for revenue only " , Republicans told Northern workers that a Hancock presidency would weaken the tariff protection that kept them in good jobs . Hancock made the situation worse when , attempting to strike a moderate stance , he said " the tariff question is a local question " . The ploy proved effective in uniting the North behind Garfield . In the end , fewer than two thousand votes , of the more than 9 @.@ 2 million popular votes cast , separated the two candidates , but in the Electoral College Garfield had an easy victory over Hancock , 214 to 155 .
= = Presidency , 1881 = =
= = = Cabinet and inauguration = = =
Between his election and his inauguration , Garfield was occupied with assembling a cabinet that would establish peace between Conkling 's and Blaine 's warring factions . Blaine 's delegates had provided much of the support for Garfield 's nomination , and the Maine senator received the place of honor : Secretary of State . Blaine was not only the president 's closest advisor , he was obsessed with knowing all that took place in the White House , and was even said to have spies posted there in his absence . Garfield nominated William Windom of Minnesota as Secretary of the Treasury , William H. Hunt of Louisiana as Secretary of the Navy , Robert Todd Lincoln as Secretary of War , and Samuel J. Kirkwood of Iowa as Secretary of the Interior . New York was represented by Thomas Lemuel James as Postmaster General . Garfield appointed Pennsylvania 's Wayne MacVeagh , an adversary of Blaine 's , as Attorney General . Blaine tried to sabotage the appointment by convincing Garfield to name an opponent of MacVeagh , William E. Chandler , as Solicitor General under MacVeagh . Only Chandler 's rejection by the Senate forestalled MacVeagh 's resignation over the matter .
Distracted by cabinet maneuvering , Garfield 's inaugural address was not up to his typical oratorical standards . In one high point , Garfield emphasized the civil rights of African @-@ Americans , saying " Freedom can never yield its fullness of blessings so long as the law or its administration places the smallest obstacle in the pathway of any virtuous citizen . " After discussing the gold standard , the need for education , and an unexpected denunciation of Mormon polygamy , the speech ended . The crowd applauded , but the speech , according to Peskin , " however sincerely intended , betrayed its hasty composition by the flatness of its tone and the conventionality of its subject matter . "
Garfield 's appointment of James infuriated Conkling , a factional opponent of the Postmaster General , who demanded a compensatory appointment for his faction , such as the position of Secretary of the Treasury . The resulting squabble occupied much of Garfield 's brief presidency . The feud with Conkling reached a climax when the president , at Blaine 's instigation , nominated Conkling 's enemy , Judge William H. Robertson , to be Collector of the Port of New York . This was one of the prize patronage positions below cabinet level , and was then held by Edwin A. Merritt . Conkling raised the time @-@ honored principle of senatorial courtesy in an attempt to defeat the nomination , to no avail . Garfield , who believed the practice to be corrupt , would not back down and threatened to withdraw all nominations unless Robertson was confirmed , intending to " settle the question whether the President is registering clerk of the Senate or the Executive of the United States . " Ultimately , Conkling and his New York colleague , Senator Thomas C. Platt , resigned their Senate seats to seek vindication , but found only further humiliation when the New York legislature elected others in their places . Robertson was confirmed as Collector and Garfield 's victory was clear . To Blaine 's chagrin , the victorious Garfield returned to his goal of balancing the interests of party factions , and nominated a number of Conkling 's Stalwart friends to offices .
= = = Reforms = = =
Grant and Hayes had both advocated civil service reform , and by 1881 , civil service reform associations had organized with renewed energy across the nation . Garfield sympathized with them , believing that the spoils system damaged the presidency and distracted from more important concerns . Some reformers were disappointed that Garfield had advocated limited tenure only to minor office seekers and had given appointments to his old friends , but many remained loyal and supported Garfield .
Corruption in the post office also cried out for reform . In April 1880 , there had been a congressional investigation into corruption in the Post Office Department , in which profiteering rings allegedly stole millions of dollars , securing bogus mail contracts on star routes . After obtaining contracts with the lowest bid , costs to run the mail routes would be escalated and profits would be divided among ring members . That year , Hayes stopped the implementation of any new star route contracts . Shortly after taking office , Garfield received information from Attorney General MacVeagh and Postmaster General James of postal corruption by an alleged star route ringleader , Second Assistant Postmaster @-@ General Thomas J. Brady . Garfield demanded Brady 's resignation and ordered prosecutions that would end in trials for conspiracy . When told that his party , including his own campaign manager , Stephen W. Dorsey , was involved , Garfield directed MacVeagh and James to root out the corruption in the Post Office Department " to the bone " , regardless of where it might lead . Brady resigned and was eventually indicted for conspiracy . After two " star route " ring trials in 1882 and 1883 , the jury found Brady not guilty .
= = = Civil rights and education = = =
Garfield believed that the key to improving the state of African American civil rights would be found in education aided by the federal government . During Reconstruction , freedmen had gained citizenship and suffrage that enabled them to participate in government , but Garfield believed their rights were being eroded by Southern white resistance and illiteracy , and was concerned that blacks would become America 's permanent " peasantry " . His answer was to propose a " universal " education system funded by the federal government . Congress and the northern white public , however , had lost interest in African @-@ American rights , and federal funding for universal education did not find support in Congress during Garfield 's term . Garfield also worked to appoint several African Americans to prominent positions : Frederick Douglass , recorder of deeds in Washington ; Robert Elliot , special agent to the Treasury ; John M. Langston , Haitian minister ; and Blanche K. Bruce , register to the Treasury . Garfield believed that Southern support for the Republican party could be gained by " commercial and industrial " interests rather than race issues and began to reverse Hayes 's policy of conciliating Southern Democrats . He appointed William H. Hunt , a carpetbagger Republican from Louisiana , as Secretary of the Navy . To break the hold of the resurgent Democratic Party in the Solid South , Garfield took patronage advice from Virginia Senator William Mahone of the biracial independent Readjuster Party , hoping to add the independents ' strength to the Republicans ' there .
= = = Foreign policy and naval reform = = =
Entering the presidency , Garfield had little foreign policy experience , so he leaned heavily on Blaine . Blaine , a former protectionist , now agreed with Garfield on the need to promote freer trade , especially within the Western Hemisphere . Their reasons were twofold : firstly , Garfield and Blaine believed that increasing trade with Latin America would be the best way to keep Great Britain from dominating the region . Secondly , by encouraging exports , they believed they could increase American prosperity , and by doing so position the Republican party as the author of that prosperity , ensuring continued electoral success . Garfield authorized Blaine to call for a Pan @-@ American conference in 1882 to mediate disputes among the Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for talks on increasing trade . At the same time , they hoped to negotiate a peace in the War of the Pacific then being fought by Bolivia , Chile , and Peru . Blaine favored a resolution that would not result in Peru yielding any territory , but Chile , which had by 1881 occupied the Peruvian capital , Lima , rejected any settlement that restored the previous status quo . Garfield sought to expand American influence in other areas , calling for renegotiation of the Clayton @-@ Bulwer Treaty to allow the United States to construct a canal through Panama without British involvement , as well as attempting to reduce British influence in the strategically located Kingdom of Hawaii . Garfield 's and Blaine 's plans for the United States ' involvement in the world stretched even beyond the Western Hemisphere , as he sought commercial treaties with Korea and Madagascar . Garfield also considered enhancing the United States ' military strength abroad , asking Navy Secretary Hunt to investigate the condition of the navy with an eye toward expansion and modernization . In the end , these ambitious plans came to nothing after Garfield was assassinated . Nine countries had accepted invitations to the Pan @-@ American conference , but the invitations were withdrawn in April 1882 after Blaine resigned from the cabinet and Arthur , Garfield 's successor , cancelled the conference . Naval reform continued under Arthur , if on a more modest scale than Garfield and Hunt had envisioned , ultimately ending in the construction of the Squadron of Evolution .
= = = Administration and cabinet = = =
= = Assassination = =
= = = Guiteau and shooting = = =
Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau , a disgruntled office seeker , at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington , D.C. on July 2 , 1881 . After eleven weeks of intensive and other care Garfield died in Elberon , New Jersey , the second of four Presidents to be assassinated , following Abraham Lincoln . Guiteau had followed various professions in his life , but in 1880 had determined to gain federal office by supporting what he expected to be the winning Republican ticket . He composed a speech , " Garfield vs. Hancock " , and got it printed by the Republican National Committee . One means of persuading the voter in that era was through orators expounding on the candidate 's merits , but with the Republicans seeking more famous men , Guiteau received few opportunities to speak . On one occasion , according to Kenneth D. Ackerman in his book about Garfield 's candidacy and assassination , Guiteau was unable to finish his speech due to nerves . Guiteau , who considered himself a Stalwart , deemed his contribution to Garfield 's victory sufficient to justify the position of consul in Paris , despite the fact he spoke no French , nor any foreign language .
One of President Garfield 's more wearying duties was seeing office seekers , and he saw Guiteau at least once . White House officials suggested to Guiteau that he approach Blaine , as the consulship was within the Department of State . Blaine also saw the public regularly , and Guiteau became a regular at these sessions ; Blaine , who had no intention of giving Guiteau a position for which he was not qualified nor one he had not earned , simply stated that the deadlock in the Senate over Robertson 's nomination made it impossible to consider the Paris consulship , which required Senate confirmation . Once the New York senators had resigned , and Robertson had been confirmed as Collector , Guiteau pressed his claim , and Blaine told him he would not receive the position .
Guiteau came to believe he had lost the position because he was a Stalwart . The office @-@ seeker decided that the only way to end the internecine warfare in the Republican Party was for Garfield to die — though he had nothing personal against the president . Arthur 's succession would restore peace , he felt , and lead to rewards for fellow Stalwarts , including Guiteau .
The assassination of Abraham Lincoln was deemed a fluke due to the Civil War , and Garfield , like most people , saw no reason why the president should be guarded ; Garfield 's movements and plans were often printed in the newspapers . Guiteau knew the president would leave Washington for cooler climes on July 2 , and made plans to kill him before then . He purchased a gun he thought would look good in a museum , and followed Garfield several times , but each time his plans were frustrated , or he lost his nerve . His opportunities dwindled to one — Garfield 's departure by train for New Jersey on the morning of July 2 , 1881 .
Guiteau concealed himself by the ladies ' waiting room at the Sixth Street Station of the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad , from where Garfield was scheduled to depart . Most of Garfield 's cabinet planned to accompany him at least part of the way ; Blaine , who was to remain in Washington , came to the station to see him off . The two men were deep in conversation and did not notice Guiteau before he took out his revolver and shot Garfield twice , once in the back and once in the arm . The time was 9 : 30 a.m. The assassin attempted to leave the station , but was quickly captured . As Blaine recognized him and Guiteau made no secret of why he had shot Garfield , the assassin 's motivation to benefit the Stalwarts reached many with the early news of the shooting , causing rage against that faction .
= = = Treatment and death = = =
Garfield was hit by two shots ; one glanced off his arm while the other pierced his back , shattering a rib and embedding itself in his abdomen . " My God , what is this ? " he exclaimed . Guiteau , as he was led away , stated , " I did it . I will go to jail for it . I am a Stalwart and Arthur will be President . "
Among those at the station was Robert Todd Lincoln , who sixteen years before had watched his father die from an assassin 's bullet . Garfield was taken on a mattress upstairs to a private office , where several doctors examined him , probing the wound with unwashed fingers . At his request , Garfield was taken back to the White House , and his wife , then in New Jersey , was sent for . Blaine sent word to Vice President Arthur in New York City , who received threats against his life because of his animosity toward Garfield and Guiteau 's statements .
Although Joseph Lister 's pioneering work in antisepsis was known to American doctors , with Lister himself having visited America in 1876 , few of them had confidence in it , and none of his advocates were among Garfield 's treating physicians . The physician who took charge at the depot and then at the White House was Doctor Willard Bliss . A noted physician and surgeon , Bliss was an old friend of Garfield , and about a dozen doctors , led by Bliss , were soon probing the wound with unsterilized fingers and instruments . Garfield was given morphine for the pain , and asked Bliss to frankly tell him his chances , which Bliss put at one in a hundred . " Well , Doctor , we 'll take that chance . "
Over the next few days , Garfield made some improvement , as the nation viewed the news from the capital and prayed . Although he never stood again , he was able to sit up and write several times , and his recovery was viewed so positively that a steamer was fitted out as a seagoing hospital to aid with his convalescence . He was nourished on oatmeal ( which he detested ) and milk from a cow on the White House lawn . When told that Indian chief Sitting Bull , a prisoner of the army , was starving , Garfield said , " Let him starve " , then , " Oh , no , send him my oatmeal . " Alexander Graham Bell tried to locate the bullet with a primitive metal detector ; he was not successful . One means of keeping the president comfortable in Washington 's summer heat was one of the first successful air conditioning units : air that was propelled by fans over ice and then dried had reduced the temperature in the sickroom by 20 degrees Fahrenheit ( 11 degrees Celsius ) .
Beginning on July 23 , Garfield took a turn for the worse . His temperature increased to 104 ° F ( 40 ° C ) ; doctors , concerned by a pus sac that had developed by the wound , operated and inserted a drainage tube . This initially seemed to help , and Garfield , in his bed , was able to hold a brief cabinet meeting on July 29 , though members were under orders from Bliss to discuss nothing that might excite Garfield . Doctors probed the sac , which went into Garfield 's body , hoping to find the bullet ; they most likely only made the infections worse . Garfield performed only one state act in August , signing an extradition paper . By the end of the month , the president was much more feeble than he had been , and his weight had decreased to 130 pounds ( 59 kg ) .
Garfield had long been anxious to escape hot , unhealthy Washington , and in early September the doctors agreed to move him to Elberon , where his wife had recovered earlier in the summer . He left the White House for the last time on September 5 , traveling in a specially cushioned railway car ; a spur line to the Franklyn Cottage , a seaside mansion given over to his use , was built in a night by volunteers . There , Garfield could see the ocean as officials and reporters maintained what became ( after an initial rally ) a death watch . Garfield 's personal secretary , Joe Stanley Brown , wrote 40 years later , " to this day I cannot hear the sound of the low slow roll of the Atlantic on the shore , the sound which filled my ears as I walked from my cottage to his bedside , without recalling again that ghastly tragedy . "
On September 18 , Garfield asked A. F. Rockwell , a friend , if he would have a place in history . Rockwell assured him he would , and told Garfield he had much work still before him . But his response was , " No , my work is done . " The following day , Garfield , by then also suffering from pneumonia and heart pains , marveled that he could not pick up a glass despite feeling well , and went to sleep without discomfort . He awoke that evening around 10 : 15 pm with great pain in his chest . The attendant watching him sent for Bliss , who found him unconscious . Despite efforts to revive him , Garfield never awoke , and died at 10 : 35 pm that evening .
According to some historians and medical experts , Garfield might have survived his wounds had the doctors attending him had at their disposal today 's medical research , techniques , and equipment . Standard medical practice at the time dictated that priority be given to locating the path of the bullet . Several of his doctors inserted their unsterilized fingers into the wound to probe for the bullet , a common practice in the 1880s . Historians agree that massive infection was a significant factor in President Garfield 's demise . Biographer Peskin stated that medical malpractice did not contribute to Garfield 's death ; the inevitable infection and blood poisoning that would ensue from a deep bullet wound resulted in damage to multiple organs and spinal bone fragmentation . Rutkow , a professor of surgery at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey , has argued that starvation also played a role . Rutkow suggests that " Garfield had such a nonlethal wound . In today 's world , he would have gone home in a matter of two or three days . "
Guiteau was indicted on October 14 , 1881 , for the murder of the President . In a chaotic trial in which Guiteau often interrupted and argued , and in which his counsel used the insanity defense , the jury found him guilty on January 5 , 1882 , and he was sentenced to death by hanging . Guiteau might have had syphilis , a disease that causes physiological mental impairment . He was executed on June 30 , 1882 .
= = Funeral , memorials and commemorations = =
Garfield 's funeral train left Long Branch on the same special track that brought him there , traveling over tracks blanketed with flowers and past houses adorned with flags . His body was transported to the Capitol and then continued on to Cleveland for burial . More than 70 @,@ 000 citizens , some waiting over three hours , passed by Garfield 's coffin as his body lay in state in Washington ; later , on September 25 , 1881 , in Cleveland , more than 150 @,@ 000 — a number equal to the entire population of that city — likewise paid their respects . His body was temporarily interred in a vault in Cleveland 's Lake View Cemetery until his permanent memorial was built .
Memorials to Garfield were erected across the country . On April 10 , 1882 , seven months after Garfield 's death , the U.S. Post Office issued a postage stamp in his honor , the second stamp issued by the U.S. to honor an assassinated president . In 1884 , sculptor Frank Happersberger completed a monument on the grounds of the San Francisco Conservatory of Flowers . In 1887 , the James A. Garfield Monument was dedicated in Washington . Another monument , in Philadelphia 's Fairmount Park , was erected in 1896 . In Victoria , Australia , Cannibal Creek was renamed Garfield in his honor .
On May 19 , 1890 , Garfield 's body was permanently interred , with great solemnity and fanfare , in a mausoleum in Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland . Attending the dedication ceremonies were former president Hayes , President Benjamin Harrison , and future president William McKinley . Garfield 's Treasury Secretary , William Windom , also attended . Harrison said that Garfield was always a " student and instructor " and that his life works and death would " continue to be instructive and inspiring incidents in American history " . Three panels on the monument display Garfield as a teacher , Union major general , and orator ; another shows him taking the Presidential oath , and a fifth shows his body lying in state at the Capitol rotunda in Washington D.C.
Garfield 's murder by a deranged office @-@ seeker awakened public awareness of the need for civil service reform legislation . Senator George H. Pendleton , a Democrat from Ohio , launched a reform effort that resulted in the Pendleton Act in January 1883 . This act reversed the " spoils system " where office seekers paid up or gave political service in order to obtain or keep federally appointed positions . Under the act , appointments were awarded on merit and competitive examination . To ensure the reform was implemented , Congress and Arthur established and funded the Civil Service Commission . The Pendleton Act , however , covered only 10 % of federal government workers . For Arthur , previously known for having been a " veteran spoilsman " , civil service reform became his most noteworthy achievement .
= = Legacy and historical view = =
For a few years after his assassination , Garfield 's life story was seen as an exemplar of the American success story : that even the poorest boy might someday become President of the United States . Peskin noted that " in mourning Garfield , Americans were not only honoring a president ; they were paying tribute to a man whose life story embodied their own most cherished aspirations " . As the rivalry between Stalwarts and Half @-@ Breeds faded from the scene in the late 1880s and after , so too did memories of Garfield . Beginning in 1882 , the year after Garfield 's death , the U.S. Post Office began issuing postage stamps honoring the late President . Despite his short term as President , nine different issues were printed over the years . In the 1890s , Americans became disillusioned with politicians , and looked elsewhere for inspiration , focusing on industrialists , labor leaders , scientists , and others as their heroes . Increasingly , Garfield 's short time as president was forgotten .
The 20th century saw no revival for Garfield . Thomas Wolfe deemed the presidents of the Gilded Age , including Garfield , " lost Americans " whose " gravely vacant and bewhiskered faces mixed , melted , swam together " . The politicians of the Gilded Age faded from the public eye , their luster eclipsed by those who had influenced America outside of political office during that time : the robber barons , the inventors , those who had sought social reform , and others who had lived as America rapidly changed . Current events and more recent figures occupied America 's attention : according to Ackerman , " the busy Twentieth Century has made Garfield 's era seem remote and irrelevant , its leaders ridiculed for their very obscurity . "
Garfield 's biographers , and those who have studied his presidency , tend to think well of him , and that his presidency saw a promising start before its untimely end . Historian Justus D. Doenecke , while deeming Garfield a bit of an enigma , chronicles his achievements , " by winning a victory over the Stalwarts , he enhanced both the power and prestige of his office . As a man , he was intelligent , sensitive , and alert , and his knowledge of how government worked was unmatched . " Yet Doenecke criticizes Garfield 's dismissal of Merritt in Robertson 's favor , and wonders if the president was truly in command of the situation even after the latter 's confirmation . According to Caldwell , writing in 1931 , " If Garfield lives in history , it will be partly on account of the charm of his personality — but also because in life and in death , he struck the first shrewd blows against a dangerous system of boss rule which seemed for a time about to engulf the politics of the nation . Perhaps if he had lived he could have done no more . " Rutkow writes , " James Abram Garfield 's presidency is reduced to a tantalizing ' what if . ' "
Peskin believes Garfield deserves more credit for his political career than he has received :
True , his accomplishments were neither bold nor heroic , but his was not an age that called for heroism . His stormy presidency was brief and , and in some respects , unfortunate , but he did leave the office stronger than he found it . As a public man he had a hand in almost every issue of national importance for almost two decades , while as a party leader he , along with Blaine , forged the Republican Party into the instrument that would lead the United States into the twentieth century .
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= These Are Special Times =
These Are Special Times is the sixth English @-@ language studio album and the first English @-@ language holiday album by Canadian singer Celine Dion . Released by Sony Music Entertainment on October 30 , 1998 , it features cover versions of popular Christmas tunes and original material . Dion worked with David Foster and Ric Wake , who produced most of the tracks for the album . Other producers include R. Kelly and Bryan Adams . Critics praised Dion 's commitment to the recorded material , as well as the production of the songs .
These Are Special Times was released after two of Dion 's most successful albums , Falling into You ( 1996 ) and Let 's Talk About Love ( 1997 ) . It includes the US number @-@ one single , " I 'm Your Angel " ( duet with R. Kelly ) and the Golden Globe winning song , " The Prayer " ( also featured in Quest for Camelot ) . The album has sold 5 @.@ 4 million copies in the United States as of May 2016 , according to Nielsen SoundScan , and has been certified five @-@ times Platinum by the RIAA . In Canada , the album has sold one million copies and been certified Diamond by the CRIA . The album has sold twelve million copies worldwide and is one of the best @-@ selling Christmas albums of all time .
= = Background = =
Celine Dion released two French @-@ language Christmas albums in her early career : Céline Dion chante Noël ( 1981 ) and Chants et contes de Noël ( 1983 ) . Later , in 1993 , she recorded " The Christmas Song " which appears on David Foster 's The Christmas Album . The next year , Dion was featured on Alvin and the Chipmunks ' " Petit Papa Noël " which is on their album A Very Merry Chipmunk . In 1996 , she recorded " Brahms ' Lullaby " for the compilation For Our Children Too to benefit the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation . " The Christmas Song " and " Brahms ' Lullaby " were included on These Are Special Times in 1998 .
= = Content = =
Celine Dion worked on These Are Special Times with her longtime partners David Foster and Ric Wake , who produced most of the songs . The album contains seven original compositions : " Don 't Save It All for Christmas Day " ( co @-@ written by Celine Dion ; covered by Avalon in 2000 and Clay Aiken in 2004 ) , " Another Year Has Gone By " ( written and produced by Bryan Adams ) , a solo version of " The Magic of Christmas Day " ( recorded in 1999 as a duet with Rosie O 'Donnell and included on a charity album , A Rosie Christmas ) , " The Prayer " ( duet with Andrea Bocelli ; each artist sang it solo on the 1998 soundtrack to Quest for Camelot ) , " Christmas Eve , " " These Are the Special Times " ( written by Diane Warren ; covered by Christina Aguilera in 2000 ) and " I 'm Your Angel " ( duet with R. Kelly , written and produced by Kelly ) . Other tracks include inspired arrangements of standards like " O Holy Night , " " Blue Christmas " ( Diana Krall on acoustic piano ) , " Adeste Fideles , " " Ave Maria " and new versions of the modern classics " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " and " Feliz Navidad . " On the latter track and " Les cloches du hameau , " Dion is joined by her family . In October 2007 , the album was re @-@ released as a Collector 's Edition that includes a DVD of Dion 's CBS television special for These Are Special Times .
= = Promotion = =
Celine Dion promoted the album in the United States with a television special which aired on CBS on November 25 , 1998 . It included two musical guests : Andrea Bocelli on " The Prayer " and Rosie O 'Donnell on " Do You Hear What I Hear ? . " Dion also performed album tracks ( " O Holy Night , " " These Are the Special Times " ) , her number @-@ one hits ( " The Power of Love , " " Because You Loved Me , " " My Heart Will Go On " ) , as well as favorites ( " Let 's Talk About Love , " " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " ) . These Are Special Times was a television ratings champion , ranking number @-@ one for the night and drawing an audience of more than sixteen million viewers . The show was nominated for two Emmy Awards . Celine Dion and Andrea Bocelli also performed " The Prayer " at the 41st Grammy Awards on February 24 , 1999 and at the 71st Academy Awards on March 21 , 1999 . She also performed " Blue Christmas " at " The Today Show " and " Another Year Has Gone By " at " The Rosie O 'Donnell Show " and with Bryan Adams at the " Late Show with David Letterman " . " The Christmas Song ( Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire ) " was performed in 1992 at the TV show " Good Morning America " , in 1993 with David Foster on his TV special , " David Foster 's Christmas Album " on NBC on December 10 , 1993 and at The Rockefeller Center on November 28 , 2007 . Additionally , Dion performed " Don 't Save It All for Christmas Day " and " Adeste Fideles ( O Come All Ye Faithful ) " at the 2009 Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade , which aired on ABC .
= = Singles = =
" I 'm Your Angel " was released as the first single from the album . It became Dion 's fourth number @-@ one on the US Billboard Hot 100 , topping the chart for six consecutive weeks . On December 9 , 1998 , it was certified Platinum by the RIAA for shipment of one million copies in the United States . The song was also successful in Europe , peaking at number three in the United Kingdom . In March 1999 , " The Prayer " ( duet with Andrea Bocelli ) was sent to adult contemporary radio stations in the United States and peaked at number twenty @-@ two on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks . In February 2008 , Dion recorded a live version of this song in a duet with Josh Groban . Thanks to the digital sales , the track entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy .
= = Critical reception = =
These Are Special Times garnered generally positive reviews from music critics . Paul Verna from Billboard gave it a very positive review , praising Dion 's maturity and the album 's production . He wrote , " sounding at complete ease and wielding a wildly creative wand , an ever @-@ maturing Dion conjures up surprise on what should be regarded as her next " big " album . " Verna noted that this " grade @-@ A effort " is " no ordinary holiday project . " He praised " grandiose versions of standards " ( " O Holy Night , " " Adeste Fideles " ) , " modern classics " ( " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) , " " Feliz Navidad " ) and " thoughtfully produced original compositions " ( " Another Year Has Gone By , " " Don 't Save It All for Christmas Day " ) . According to him , other highlights include " The Prayer , " a " gorgeous duet " with Andrea Bocelli , the " Phil Spector @-@ esque " " Christmas Eve , " and a " sparkling reading " of " Ave Maria . "
Chuck Taylor from Billboard also praised " I 'm Your Angel , " a duet with R. Kelly . He wrote that " this wonderfully restrained ballad delights with the most graceful vocal performances either of these artists has ever offered to radio . " Taylor commented , " what raises the roof is the tune 's elegant , epic instrumental base , which includes sweeping strings , a soulful choir , and gentle but determined percussive drive . " He continued , that " I 'm Your Angel " " sells big at the bridge , where the instrumentation drops and Kelly and Dion harmonize in a gorgeous minor key – it truly makes the song . " Chuck Taylor also reviewed " The Prayer " , calling it " a breathtaking , ultra @-@ lush song , and the tour de force combination of Dion and Bocelli [ which ] will send a half @-@ dozen chills up your spine . " Although he felt that the song is " an unorthodox track for the radio " , Taylor called it " affecting , " " heartwarming , " " absolutely exquisite " and " one of Dion 's most radiant performances ever . "
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that " any fan of Dion , or of ' 90s adult contemporary pop in general , should find this [ album ] very enjoyable . " Although according to him , " at times , the production is too slick " and " at other times Dion 's vocals are a little mannered , " overall , These Are Special Times " is very effective , because the songs are good and she 's committed to the material . " Erlewine wrote that These Are Special Times is " an especially successful holiday album since Dion wisely balances " popular carols ( " Blue Christmas , " " The Christmas Song , " " Feliz Navidad " ) with new songs ( " I 'm Your Angel , " " Don 't Save It All for Christmas " ) , hymns ( " Adeste Fideles , " " Ave Maria " ) , and Christmas songs with a distinct religious theme ( " The Prayer , " " O Holy Night " ) . "
= = Commercial reception = =
These Are Special Times debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 , selling 126 @,@ 000 copies . The next week , it became a greatest gainer , jumping to number three and selling 163 @,@ 000 units . In its third week , despite selling 210 @,@ 000 copies , These Are Special Times fell to number five . In the fourth week , thanks to Dion 's CBS television special , the album rose to number three , with a 94 % sales increase ( 409 @,@ 000 copies ) becoming a greatest gainer again . The next week , it moved to its peak position on the Billboard 200 , number two , with sales of 366 @,@ 000 units . These Are Special Times tied Amy Grant 's 1992 Home for Christmas as the highest @-@ charting holiday album ever by a female artist . It stayed at number two for the second week , selling 413 @,@ 000 copies . In the seventh week , These Are Special Times reached its highest weekly sales of 462 @,@ 000 copies , despite falling to number three . In the last week inside the top ten , the album fell to number five selling another 461 @,@ 000 copies . On the Top Holiday Albums , it topped the chart for nine consecutive weeks .
These Are Special Times became the best @-@ selling holiday album of 1998 in the US with a total of 2 @,@ 684 @,@ 000 copies sold . Dion 's album also sold more copies in its first year of release than any other holiday album by a female artist . On December 6 , 2005 , the album was certified five @-@ times Platinum by the RIAA for shipment of five million copies in the US . On November 16 , 2008 , it also became the first holiday album by a female artist to top the five million mark in Nielsen SoundScan history . These Are Special Times is also the highest selling Christmas album by an artist born outside the US . It is the fourth best @-@ selling Christmas album of the entire Nielsen SoundScan era with US sales of 5 @.@ 4 million copies .
In Canada , These Are Special Times peaked at number one . The album shipped one million copies and was certified Diamond by the CRIA . In Japan , the album reached number four and exceeded sales of more than 500 @,@ 000 copies . These Are Special Times was also successful in Australasia and Europe , hitting the top ten in most countries and peaking at number one in Switzerland and Norway . It has sold twelve million copies worldwide , and is one of the best @-@ selling Christmas album of all time .
= = Awards = =
These Are Special Times received the 1999 Japan Gold Disc Award for International Pop Album of the Year . At the 56th Golden Globe Awards , " The Prayer " won the award for Best Original Song . " I 'm Your Angel " and " The Prayer " were nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 41st and 42nd Grammy Awards , respectively . " The Prayer " was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 71st Academy Awards .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits taken from AllMusic .
= = Release history = =
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= Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich I @-@ 250 =
The Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich I @-@ 250 ( a.k.a. Samolet N ) was a Soviet fighter aircraft developed as part of a crash program in 1944 to develop a high @-@ performance fighter to counter German turbojet @-@ powered aircraft such as the Messerschmitt Me @-@ 262 . The Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich design bureau decided to focus on a design that used something more mature than the jet engine , which was still at an experimental stage in the Soviet Union , and chose a mixed @-@ power solution with the VRDK ( Vozdushno @-@ Reaktivny Dvigatel Kompressornyi – air reaction compressor jet ) motorjet powered by the Klimov VK @-@ 107 V12 engine . While quite successful when it worked , with a maximum speed of 820 km / h ( 510 mph ) being reached during trials , production problems with the VRDK fatally delayed the program and it was canceled in 1948 as obsolete .
= = Design and development = =
By January 1944 the Soviets were aware of successful British and American jet aircraft projects and that the Germans were about to deploy jet and rocket @-@ propelled aircraft of their own . The GKO ordered on 18 February that the NKAP ( People 's Commissariat for Aviation Industry ) centralize jet research under its control and that the NKAP was to present proposals to alleviate the situation within a month . As a result of this meeting the NKAP ordered the Lavochkin , Sukhoi , Yakovlev and Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich design bureaux ( OKBs ) to develop and build jet aircraft with the utmost dispatch . Aware of earlier problems encountered with other novel propulsion systems such as ramjets both Sukhoi and Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich chose to use the VRDK booster engine that had been under development since 1942 .
The VRDK was a motorjet , a rudimentary type of jet engine where an external power source drove the engine 's compressor . It forced air into the stainless steel combustion chamber where fuel was sprayed from seven nozzles and ignited to exhaust out the variable rear nozzle . In the I @-@ 250 a 1 @,@ 650 @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 230 kW ) Klimov VK @-@ 107R V @-@ 12 piston engine was used as the primary powerplant . After takeoff a clutch at the end of the crankshaft could be engaged which drove a step up gearbox with a ratio of 13 : 21 to an extension shaft that powered the compressor of the VRDK . The air for the compressor was fed through a long duct that ran from the inlet underneath the propeller spinner , thence under the engine and through the belly of the aircraft . This duct also fed air to the oil cooler near the engine , but the water radiator was positioned behind the compressor to maximize airflow over it . A secondary duct led from the main duct to the VK @-@ 107 's supercharger ; when the VRDK was running the secondary duct diverted some of that additional air to the supercharger which boosted the engine 's output to 2 @,@ 500 @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) at 7 @,@ 000 m ( 22 @,@ 966 ft ) . The increased airflow over the engine radiator helped to dump the engine 's excess heat into the exhaust stream . However the VRDK was limited to only ten minutes ' operating time per sortie , which meant that it was useless weight during the rest of the flight .
The I @-@ 250 was a low @-@ wing , all @-@ metal aircraft with a monocoque fuselage . Other than the VRDK the aircraft was largely conventional in layout , although the cockpit was set very far back in the fuselage , almost to the base of the vertical tail . The two @-@ spar wings had a thickness of 10 % to preserve aileron control and avoid tip stall . They were fitted with Frise ailerons and slotted flaps . Fuel was contained in a 412 @-@ litre ( 91 imp gal ; 109 US gal ) fuselage tank and a 100 @-@ litre ( 22 imp gal ; 26 US gal ) tank in each wing . The conventional landing gear mainwheels had a levered suspension and retracted inwards . The tail wheel retracted aft into the very small ventral fin . The VK @-@ 107A engine initially drove a 3 @.@ 1 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) VISh @-@ 105SV propeller .
The NKAP had asked Mikoyan to begin preliminary design work on a high @-@ altitude interceptor in January 1944 , but ordered two prototypes of an all @-@ metal interceptor using the VRDK for testing in February and March 1945 . The aircraft was to reach an altitude of 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) in 4 @.@ 5 minutes with full power and 5 @.@ 5 minutes using the piston engine alone . Its maximum speed was to be 810 km / h ( 500 mph ) at 7 @,@ 000 m ( 22 @,@ 966 ft ) with full power and 700 km / h ( 430 mph ) at 7 @,@ 000 m ( 22 @,@ 966 ft ) using the VK @-@ 107 by itself . Its intended armament was one 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) autocannon and two 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) machine guns . To assist Mikoyan TsAGI was ordered to provide help with aerodynamic and stress calculations and to test a full @-@ size mockup in their wind tunnel in one month 's time . TsIAM was ordered to deliver three VRDK engines with 9 @-@ kilonewton ( 2 @,@ 000 lbf ) at 7 @,@ 000 m ( 22 @,@ 966 ft ) with a specific fuel consumption of 1 @,@ 200 kg ( 2 @,@ 600 lb ) per hour . The plane was designated I @-@ 250 by the NKAP ; but the internal OKB designation was N.
The NKAP approved the preliminary specifications of the I @-@ 250 on 19 September 1944 which included a maximum speed of 825 km / h ( 513 mph ) a take @-@ off weight of 3 @,@ 500 kg ( 7 @,@ 700 lb ) and a time to 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) of 3 @.@ 9 minutes . A mock @-@ up was inspected on 26 October and rejected because of the poor cockpit layout , although this decision was reversed because the fuselage of the first prototype was too far along for major changes that would have significantly delayed the program . That same month the combustion chamber was sent to TsIAM for testing which revealed it to be too weak . The complete powerplant was tested in December , but the drive shaft connecting them failed several times .
The first prototype was completed on 26 February 1945 , although the VRDK was not yet ready . It was fitted with a new 3 @.@ 1 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) AV @-@ 10P @-@ 60 propeller before making its first flight on 4 April according to Gordon and Komissarov , although Belyakov and Marmain say 3 March . It was armed with three 20 mm Berezin B @-@ 20 cannon with 160 rounds each . One gun was fitted on each side of the nose and the third fired through the hollow propeller shaft . The VRDK was tested for the first time on 8 April in a dive , attaining a speed of 710 km / h ( 440 mph ) , but a leak was found in the oil cooler after landing and the VRDK had to be returned to the factory for repairs . The VRDK was reinstalled by 14 April , but was still troublesome . It twice reached 809 km / h ( 503 mph ) at about 7 @,@ 000 m ( 22 @,@ 966 ft ) during these early tests , but its service life had been exceeded by 30 May and it had to be returned to TsIAM , which postponed any further tests until the second aircraft was finished .
The unarmed second prototype was completed on 19 May , but did not make its first flight until 26 May . It was later discovered to have several major defects , including an oil leak from the VRDK compressor 's sleeve . The VRDK 's designer was summoned in an attempt to solve its problems although not all of these were design issues . The first prototype was grounded for most of June to remedy magneto problems and to add extra air intakes to cool the spark plugs . It attained a speed of 820 km / h ( 510 mph ) at 6 @,@ 700 m ( 21 @,@ 982 ft ) on 3 July . Unfortunately its port tailplane failed at low altitude two days later , killing the test pilot , Alexandr Deyev , when his parachute failed to open in time . Post @-@ crash analysis revealed that he had exceeded the airframe 's G limit while maneuvering .
Despite the accident , a pre @-@ production batch of ten aircraft was ordered on 27 July 1945 as it was felt that mixed @-@ power aircraft would be of some use easing the transition of pilots from piston @-@ engine fighters to jet @-@ engined ones . At the same time Sukhoi 's Su @-@ 5 was cancelled as it was judged inferior to the I @-@ 250 .
In the meantime the horizontal stabilizer of the second prototype was strengthened and it resumed flying on 20 July . The pilot complained of excess torque pull to the right so the vertical stabilizer was enlarged by 0 @.@ 63 m2 ( 6 @.@ 8 sq ft ) , but this was just one of numerous problems , and it was not ready to pass State acceptance trials without more development work on the powerplant . However , the second prototype continued flight testing until 12 July 1946 when an engine fire forced an emergency landing and it was damaged beyond repair .
The order for the pre @-@ production I @-@ 250s had been placed with Factory No. 381 in Moscow for two aircraft to be delivered in September , three more in October and the remainder by the end of the year . This proved to be very optimistic and it was revised to a single aircraft by the end of the year . The airframe was completed on this revised schedule , but its engine was not ready in time . The factory management was much criticized for these problems which were not entirely under their control as changes to the design and drawings were constant . The criticism was not limited to just the I @-@ 250 program as the other jet programs could not be developed as fast as the leadership wanted as well and Alexei Shakhurin , the head of MAP ( Ministry of Aviation Industry ) and its NKAP predecessor since 1940 , was arrested in March 1946 as a sign of their displeasure . The new Minister severely reprimanded the designer of the VRDK and three factory directors on 13 April 1946 and set up a commission to determine why Factory No. 381 and TsIAM had failed to meet their deadlines . He refused to accept its findings as it apportioned blame fairly evenly among those responsible for the production program and he had the director of Factory No. 381 and his quality control manager arrested for industrial sabotage .
Despite these production problems and the fact that the I @-@ 250 had yet even to be submitted for State acceptance trails , an order had been placed for fifty more aircraft on 26 February ( these aircraft have been referred to as the MiG @-@ 13 , which presumably would have been their designation if they had actually entered service ) . A new deadline of 5 July 1946 was set for the delivery of the first pre @-@ production aircraft , but it was stymied , again , for a lack of an engine . By this time seven airframes had been completed , but all lacked engines . The first I @-@ 250 was finally accepted on 8 August and flown for the first time three days later , although its engine seals failed and a number of ignition cables were scorched . The engine replacement and repairs forced the aircraft to miss its scheduled appearance at the Tushino Air Display . It was handed over to the NII VVS ( Air Force Institute ) on 15 September to finally begin its State acceptance tests . All ten aircraft had been delivered by 30 October , although construction number 3810107 ( Factory No. 381 , first batch , seventh aircraft ) was used as a static test airframe and 3810110 became a static engine testbed .
Stalin convened a meeting on 29 November 1946 to settle the future policy on jet fighters for the VVS and PVO . The Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 9 was selected as the primary fighter with the Yakovlev Yak @-@ 15 relegated to conversion training and familiarization . The imminent availability of British jet engines and access to German jet technology and engineers meant that there was no longer any need for mixed @-@ power aircraft , but Stalin insisted that the I @-@ 250 finish its trials and that the tooling and drawings should be retained along with unassembled parts even though the program was cancelled .
Completion of the trials would be delayed until May 1947 when the trials of the VRDK itself would be completed and Mikoyan tried to sell the aircraft to Naval Aviation for use as escorts for torpedo bombers . Additional fuel tanks were fitted in the wings and fuselage of 3810102 to carry an additional 218 litres ( 48 imp gal ; 58 US gal ) of fuel and the capacity of the oil tank was increased to 78 litres ( 17 imp gal ; 21 US gal ) . These changes increased its empty weight to 3 @,@ 028 kg ( 6 @,@ 676 lb ) and its take @-@ off weight to 3 @,@ 931 kg ( 8 @,@ 666 lb ) . A new round of State trials began on 9 October 1947 , but these were delayed by bad weather and reliability issues . Only six flights totaling two hours and twenty @-@ five minutes had been completed by 21 January 1948 and the VRDK had only been run for a minute and half during a ground test . The I @-@ 250 was unsurprisingly declared to have failed the trials on 3 April 1948 .
= = Specifications ( first prototype ) = =
Data from Gordon and Komissarov , OKB Mikoyan : A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 8 @.@ 19 m ( 26 ft 10 in )
Wingspan : 9 @.@ 5 m ( 31 ft 2 in )
Height : 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft 2 in )
Wing area : 15 m2 ( 160 sq ft )
Empty weight : 2 @,@ 797 kg ( 6 @,@ 166 lb )
Gross weight : 3 @,@ 680 kg ( 8 @,@ 113 lb )
Fuel capacity : 612 litres ( 135 imp gal ; 162 US gal )
Powerplant : 1 × Klimov VK @-@ 107R liquid @-@ cooled V12 engine , 1 @,@ 230 kW ( 1 @,@ 650 hp )
Powerplant : 1 × VRDK ( Vozdushno @-@ Reaktivny Dvigatel Kompressornyi – air reaction compressor jet ) motorjet , 6 kN ( 1 @,@ 300 lbf ) thrust
Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed AV @-@ 10P @-@ 60 , 3 @.@ 1 m ( 10 ft 2 in ) diameter
Performance
Maximum speed : 820 km / h ( 510 mph ; 443 kn )
Range : 790 km ( 491 mi ; 427 nmi )
Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 900 m ( 39 @,@ 042 ft )
Time to altitude : 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) in 3 @.@ 9 min ( with VRDK )
Wing loading : 245 kg / m2 ( 50 lb / sq ft )
Armament
Guns : 3 × 20 mm Berezin B @-@ 20 cannons ( 160 rounds each )
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= Jesus College , Oxford =
Jesus College ( in full : Jesus College in the University of Oxford of Queen Elizabeth 's Foundation ) is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford in England . It is in the centre of the city , on a site between Turl Street , Ship Street , Cornmarket Street and Market Street . The college was founded by Elizabeth I on 27 June 1571 for the education of clergy , though students now study a broad range of secular subjects . A major driving force behind the establishment of the college was Hugh Price ( or Ap Rhys ) , a churchman from Brecon in Wales . The oldest buildings , in the first quadrangle , date from the 16th and early 17th centuries ; a second quadrangle was added between about 1640 and about 1713 , and a third quadrangle was built in about 1906 . Further accommodation was built on the main site to mark the 400th anniversary of the college , in 1971 , and student flats have been constructed at sites in north and east Oxford .
The life of the college was disrupted by the English Civil War . Leoline Jenkins , who became principal after the war in 1661 , put the college on a more stable financial footing . Little happened at the college during the 18th century , and the 19th century saw a decline in numbers and academic standards . Reforms of Oxford University after two Royal Commissions in the latter half of the 19th century led to removal of many of the restrictions placed on the college 's fellowships and scholarships , such that the college ceased to be predominantly full of Welsh students and academics . Students ' academic achievements rose in the early 20th century as fellows were appointed to teach in new subjects . Women were first admitted in 1974 and now form a large part of the undergraduate population .
There are about 475 students at any one time ; the Principal of the college is Sir Nigel Shadbolt . Former students include Harold Wilson ( who was twice British Prime Minister ) , Norman Washington Manley ( Chief Minister of Jamaica ) , T. E. Lawrence ( " Lawrence of Arabia " ) , Angus Buchanan ( winner of the Victoria Cross ) , and Viscount Sankey ( Lord Chancellor ) . The university 's professorship of Celtic is attached to the college , a post held by scholars such as Sir John Rhys , Ellis Evans and Thomas Charles @-@ Edwards . Past or present fellows of the college include the historians Sir Goronwy Edwards and Niall Ferguson , the philosopher Galen Strawson and the political philosopher John Gray .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
Jesus College was founded on 27 June 1571 , when Elizabeth I issued a royal charter . It was the first Protestant college to be founded at the university , and it is the only Oxford college to date from Elizabeth 's reign . It was the first new Oxford college since 1555 , in the reign of Queen Mary , when Trinity College and St John 's College were founded as Roman Catholic colleges . The foundation charter named a principal ( David Lewis ) , eight fellows , eight scholars , and eight commissioners to draw up the statutes for the college . The commissioners included Hugh Price , who had petitioned the queen to found a college at Oxford " that he might bestow his estate of the maintenance of certain scholars of Wales to be trained up in good letters . " The college was originally intended primarily for the education of clergy . The particular intention was to satisfy a need for dedicated , learned clergy to promote the Elizabethan Religious Settlement in the parishes of England , Ireland and Wales . The college has since broadened the range of subjects offered , beginning with the inclusion of medicine and law , and now offers almost the full range of subjects taught at the university . The letters patent issued by Elizabeth I made it clear that the education of a priest in the 16th century included more than just theology , however :
... to the Glory of God Almighty and Omnipotent , and for the spread and maintenance of the Christian religion in its sincere form , for the eradication of errors and heresies , for the increase and perpetuation of true loyalty , for the extension of good literature of every sort , for the knowledge of languages , for the education of youth in loyalty , morality , and methodical learning , for the relief of poverty and distress , and lastly for the benefit and well @-@ being of the Church of Christ in our realms , [ ... ] we have decreed that a College of learning in the sciences , philosophy , humane pursuits , knowledge of the Hebrew , Greek and Latin languages , to the ultimate profession of Sacred Theology , to last for all time to come , be created , founded , built , and established ....
Price continued to be closely involved with the college after its foundation . On the strength of a promised legacy , worth £ 60 a year on his death ( approximately £ 15 @,@ 100 in present day terms ) , he requested and received the authority to appoint the new college 's principal , fellows and scholars . He financed early building work in the college 's front quadrangle , but on his death in 1574 it transpired that the college received only a lump sum of around £ 600 ( approximately £ 151 @,@ 000 in present day terms ) . Problems with his bequest meant that it was not received in full for about 25 years . As the college had no other donors at this time , " for many years the college had buildings but no revenue " .
= = = 17th century = = =
The main benefactor , other than the King , was Eubule Thelwall , from Ruthin , North Wales , who became Principal in 1621 ; he succeeded in securing a new charter and statutes for the college from James I , having spent £ 5 @,@ 000 of his own money on the hall and chapel , which earned him the title of its second founder . Thelwall died on 8 October 1630 , aged 68 and was buried in Jesus College Chapel where a monument was erected to his memory by his brother Sir Bevis Thelwall ( Page of the King 's Bedchamber and Clerk of the Great Wardrobe ) .
Other benefactions in the 17th century include Herbert Westfaling , the Bishop of Hereford , left enough property to support two fellowships and scholarships ( with the significant proviso that " my kindred shallbe always preferred before anie others " ) . Sir Eubule Thelwall ( principal 1621 – 30 ) spent much of his own money on the construction of a chapel , hall and library for the college . The library , constructed above an over @-@ weak colonnade , was pulled down under the principalship of Francis Mansell ( 1630 – 49 ) , who also built two staircases of residential accommodation to attract the sons of Welsh gentry families to the College .
The English Civil War " all but destroyed the corporate life of the college . " Mansell was removed from his position as principal and Michael Roberts was installed . After the Restoration , Mansell was briefly reinstated as principal , before resigning in favour of Leoline Jenkins . It was Jenkins ( principal 1661 – 73 ) who secured the long @-@ term viability of the college . On his death , in 1685 , he bequeathed a large complex of estates , acquired largely by lawyer friends from the over @-@ mortgaged landowners of the Restoration period . These estates allowed the college 's sixteen fellowships and scholarships to be filled for the first time – officially , sixteen of each had been supported since 1622 , but the college 's income was too small to keep all occupied simultaneously . In 1713 , the bequest of Welsh clergyman and former student Edmund Meyricke established a number of scholarships for students from north Wales .
= = = 18th and 19th centuries = = =
The 18th century , in contrast to the disruption of the 17th century , was a comparatively quiet time for the college . A historian of the college , J. N. L. Baker , wrote that the college records for this time " tell of little but routine entries and departures of fellows and scholars " . The Napoleonic Wars saw a reduction in the numbers of students and entries in the records for the purchase of muskets and other items for college members serving in the university corps . After the war , numbers rose , to an average of twenty new students per year between 1821 and 1830 . However , debts owed to the college had increased , perhaps due to the economic effects of the war – by 1832 , the college was owed £ 986 10s 5d ( approximately £ 82700 in present day terms ) . During the first half of the 19th century , the academic strength of the college diminished : scholarships were sometimes not awarded because of a lack of suitable candidates , and numbers fell : there were only seven new entrants in 1842 . Ernest Hardy wrote in his history of the college in 1899 that it had been becoming " increasingly evident for years ... that the exclusive connection with Wales was ruining the college as a place of education . "
A Royal Commission was appointed in 1852 to investigate the university . The college wished to retain its links with Wales , and initial reforms were limited despite the wishes of the commissioners : those scholarships that were limited to particular parts of Wales were opened to the whole of Wales , and half of the fellowships awarded were to remain open only to Welshmen " ' if and so long as the Principal and Fellows shall deem it expedient for the interests of education in connection with the Principality of Wales ' " . All the scholarships at the college , except for two , and all the exhibitions were still restricted to students from Wales . The numbers of students at the college still fell , despite prizes being awarded for success in university examinations . Daniel Harper , principal from 1877 to 1895 , noted the continuing academic decline . Speaking in 1879 , he noted that fewer students from the college were reaching high standards in examinations , and that more Welsh students were choosing to study at other Oxford colleges in preference to Jesus . A further Royal Commission was appointed . This led to further changes at the college : in 1882 , the fellowships reserved to Welshmen were made open to all , and only half ( instead of all ) of the 24 scholarships were to be reserved for Welsh candidates . Thereafter , numbers gradually rose and the non @-@ Welsh element at the college increased , so that by 1914 only about half of the students were Welsh .
= = = 20th century = = =
During the First World War , " the college in the ordinary sense almost ceased to exist " . From 129 students in the summer of 1914 , numbers dropped to 36 in the spring of 1916 . Some refugee students from Belgium and Serbia lodged in empty rooms in the college during 1916 , and officers of the Royal Flying Corps resided from August 1916 to December 1918 . After the war , numbers rose and fellowships were added in new subjects : history ( 1919 and 1933 ) ; theology ( 1927 ) ; physics ( 1934 ) ; a second fellowship in chemistry ( 1924 ) ; and modern languages ( lectureship 1921 , fellowship 1944 ) . The improved teaching led to greater success in university examinations and prizes .
In the inter @-@ war years ( 1918 – 39 ) Jesus was seen by some as a small college and something of a backwater ; it attracted relatively few pupils from the public schools traditionally seen as the most prestigious . The college did , however , attract many academically able entrants from the grammar schools ( particularly those in northern England and Scotland ) . Among these grammar @-@ school boys was Harold Wilson , who would later become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . During the Second World War , many of the fellows served in the armed forces or carried out war work in Oxford . The college remained full of students , though , as it provided lodgings for students from other colleges whose buildings had been requisitioned , and also housed officers on military courses .
The college had its own science laboratories from 1907 to 1947 , which were overseen ( for all but the last three years ) by the physical chemist David Chapman , a fellow of the college from 1907 to 1944 . At the time of their closure , they were the last college @-@ based science laboratories at the university . They were named the Sir Leoline Jenkins laboratories , after a former principal of the college . The laboratories led to scientific research and tuition ( particularly in chemistry ) becoming an important part of the college 's academic life . The brochure produced for the opening ceremony noted that the number of science students at the college had increased rapidly in recent years , and that provision of college laboratories would assist the tuition of undergraduates , as well as attracting to Jesus College graduates of the University of Wales who wished to continue their research at Oxford . A link between one of the college science lecturers and Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) led to 17 students joining ICI between the two World Wars , some , such as John Rose , reaching senior levels in the company . The laboratories became unnecessary when the university began to provide centralised facilities for students ; they were closed in 1947 .
The quatercentenary of the college , in 1971 , saw the opening of the Old Members ' Buildings in the third quadrangle . Further student accommodation has been built at the sports ground and at a site in north Oxford . In 1974 , Jesus was among the first group of five men 's colleges to admit women as members , the others being Brasenose , Wadham , Hertford and St Catherine 's ; between one @-@ third and one @-@ half of the undergraduates are women . A long @-@ standing rivalry with nearby Exeter College reached a peak in 1979 , with seven police vehicles and three fire engines involved in dealing with trouble in Turl Street . Sir John Habakkuk ( principal 1967 – 84 ) and Sir Peter North ( principal 1984 – 2005 ) both served terms as Vice @-@ Chancellor of the university , from 1973 to 1977 and from 1993 to 1997 respectively .
= = Location and buildings = =
The main buildings are located in the centre of Oxford , between Turl Street , Ship Street , Cornmarket Street and Market Street . The main entrance is on Turl Street . The buildings are arranged in three quadrangles , the first quadrangle containing the oldest college buildings and the third quadrangle the newest . The foundation charter gave to the college a site between Market Street and Ship Street ( which is still occupied by the college ) as well as the buildings of a defunct university academic hall on the site , called White Hall . The buildings that now surround the first quadrangle were erected in stages between 1571 and the 1620s ; the principal 's lodgings were the last to be built . Progress was slow because the new college lacked the " generous endowments " that earlier colleges enjoyed . Before new buildings were completed , the students lived in the old buildings of White Hall .
= = = First quadrangle = = =
The chapel was dedicated on 28 May 1621 , and extended in 1636 . The architectural historian Giles Worsley has described the chapel 's east window ( added in 1636 ) as an instance of Gothic Revival architecture , rather than Gothic Survival , since a choice was made to use an outdated style – classical architecture had become accepted as " the only style in which it was respectable to build " . Jonathan Edwards ( principal from 1686 to 1712 ) is reported to have spent £ 1 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 134 @,@ 900 in present day terms ) during his lifetime on the interior of the chapel , including the addition of a screen separating the main part of the chapel from the ante @-@ chapel ( at the west end ) in 1693 . In 1853 , stained glass by George Hedgeland was added to the east window . In 1863 , the architect George Edmund Street was appointed to renovate the chapel . The arch of the chancel was widened , the original Jacobean woodwork was removed ( save for the screen donated by Edwards and the pulpit ) , new seats were installed , new paving was placed in the main part of the chapel and a stone reredos was added behind the altar . Views of the changes have differed . On 21 October 1864 , Building News reported that the restoration was nearing completion and was of " a very spirited character " . It said that the new " handsome " arch showed the east window " to great advantage " , with " other improvements " including a " handsome reredos " . Ernest Hardy , principal from 1921 to 1925 , said that the work was " ill @-@ considered " , described the reredos as " somewhat tawdry " and said that the Jacobean woodwork had been sold off too cheaply . In contrast , the architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner called the reredos " heavily gorgeous " .
The principal of the college resides in the lodgings , a Grade I listed building , on the north side of the first quadrangle between the chapel ( to the east ) and the hall ( to the west ) . They were the last part of the first quadrangle to be built . Sir Eubule Thelwall , principal from 1621 to 1630 , built the lodgings at his own expense , to include ( in the words of the antiquarian Anthony Wood ) " a very fair dining @-@ room adorned with wainscot curiously engraven " . The shell @-@ hood over the doorway ( which Pevsner called " beautiful " ) was added at some point between 1670 and 1740 ; Pevsner dates it to about 1700 .
The hall has been said to be " among the most impressive of all the Oxford college halls " , with its " fine panelling , austere ceiling , and its notable paintings " . Like the chapel , it was largely built by Griffith Powell between 1613 and 1620 , and was finally completed soon after his death in 1620 . Pevsner noted the " elaborately decorated columns " of the screen ( installed in 1634 ) and the dragons along the frieze , and said that it was one of the earliest examples in Oxford of panelling using four " L " shapes around a centre . In 1741 and 1742 , the oak @-@ beamed roof was covered with plaster to make rooms in the roof space . Pevsner described the 1741 cartouche on the north wall , which contains the college crest , as " large [ and ] rich " . The hall contains a portrait of Elizabeth I , as well as portraits of former principals and benefactors . There are also portraits by court artists of two other monarchs who were college benefactors : Charles I ( by Anthony van Dyck ) and Charles II ( by Sir Peter Lely ) .
= = = Second quadrangle = = =
In 1640 , Francis Mansell ( appointed principal in 1630 ) began construction of a second quadrangle with buildings along the north and south sides ; further work was interrupted by the English Civil War . Work began again in 1676 , and the library ( now the Fellows ' Library ) was completed by 1679 . Under Jonathan Edwards ( principal from 1688 to 1712 ) , further rooms were built to complete the quadrangle ; the project was completed just after his death in 1712 . Pevsner described the second quadrangle as " a uniform composition " , noting the " regular fenestration by windows with round @-@ arched lights , their hood @-@ moulds forming a continuous frieze " . The Dutch gables have ogee sides and semi @-@ circular pediments . The writer Simon Jenkins said that the quadrangle has " the familiar Oxford Tudor windows and decorative Dutch gables , crowding the skyline like Welsh dragons ' teeth and lightened by exuberant flower boxes " .
The Fellows ' Library contains bookcases decorated with strapwork dating from about 1628 , which were used in an earlier library in the college . Hardy 's opinion was that , " if only it had an open timber roof instead of the plain ceiling , it would be one of the most picturesque College Libraries " . Another author said ( in 1914 , after the provision of a library for undergraduates elsewhere in the quadrangle ) that it was " one of the most charming of Oxford libraries , and one of the least frequented " . It holds 11 @,@ 000 antiquarian printed books and houses many of the college 's rare texts , including a Greek bible dating from 1545 and signed by Philipp Melanchthon and others , much of the library of the scholar and philosopher Lord Herbert of Cherbury and 17th @-@ century volumes by Robert Boyle and Sir Isaac Newton .
= = = Third quadrangle = = =
The long but narrow third quadrangle adjoins Ship Street , on the north of the site and to the west of the garden of the principal 's lodgings , where the college has owned some land since its foundation . In the 18th century , this was home to the college stables . A fire in 1904 led to the demolition of the stables and the gateway to Ship Street . Replacement buildings adjoining Ship Street , effectively creating a third quadrangle for the college , were constructed between 1906 and 1908 . It contained the college 's science laboratories ( now closed ) and a new gate @-@ tower , as well as further living accommodation and a library for students , known as the Meyricke Library , after a major donor – there had been an undergraduate library in the second quadrangle since 1865 , known as the Meyricke Library from 1882 onwards .
The Old Members ' Building , which contains a music room , 24 study @-@ bedrooms and some lecture rooms , was built between 1969 and 1971 . It was built after a fundraising appeal to Old Members to mark the college 's quatercentenary , and was opened by the Prince of Wales in 1971 . The Fellows ' Garden is between the Old Members ' Building and the rear of the rooms on the west side of the second quadrangle . In 2002 , a two @-@ year project to rebuild the property above the college @-@ owned shops on Ship Street was completed . As part of the work , the bottom floor was converted from rooms occupied by students and fellows into a new Junior Common Room ( JCR ) , to replace the common room in the second quadrangle , which was by then too small to cope with the increased numbers of students .
= = = Other buildings = = =
The college purchased 10 acres ( 0 @.@ 040 km2 ; 0 @.@ 016 sq mi ) of land in east Oxford ( near the Cowley Road ) in 1903 for use as a sports ground . Residential accommodation was first built at the sports ground in 1967 ( Thelwall House , rebuilt in 1998 ) , with additions between 1988 and 1990 ( Hugh Price House and Leoline Jenkins House ) . A further development , known as Hazel Court ( after Alfred Hazel , principal 1925 – 1944 ) , was built in 2000 , bringing the total number of students who can be housed at the sports ground to 135 .
Donations from Edwin Stevens , an Old Member of the college , enabled the construction in 1974 of student flats at a site in north Oxford on the Woodstock Road , named " Stevens Close " in his honour . The college also owns a number of houses on Ship Street , which are used for student accommodation . It has purchased a further site in Ship Street at a cost of £ 1.8M , which will be converted at a projected cost of £ 5.5M to provide 31 student rooms with en @-@ suite facilities , a 100 @-@ seat lecture theatre and other teaching rooms . The Ship Street Centre was officially opened by the Chancellor of the University of Oxford , Lord Patten of Barnes , on 25 September 2010 .
= = People associated with the college = =
= = = Principals and Fellows = = =
The college is run by the Principal and Fellows . The Principal must be " a person distinguished for literary or scientific attainments , or for services in the work of education in the University or elsewhere " . The Principal has " pre @-@ eminence and authority over all members of the College and all persons connected therewith " and exercises " a general superintendence in all matters relating to education and discipline " . The current Principal , Sir Nigel Shadbolt , was appointed in 2015 . Fourteen Principals have been former students of the college : Griffith Powell ( elected in 1613 ) was the first and Alfred Hazel ( elected in 1925 ) was the most recent . The longest @-@ serving principal was Henry Foulkes , from 1817 to 1857 .
When the college was founded in 1571 , the first charter installed David Lewis as Principal and named eight others as the first Fellows of the college . The statutes of 1622 allowed for 16 Fellows . There is now no limit on the number of Fellowships that the Governing Body can create . The college statutes provide for various categories of Fellows . Professorial Fellows are those Professors and Readers of the University who are allocated to the college by the University . One of these professorships is the Jesus Professor of Celtic , which is the only chair in Celtic Studies at an English university . Celtic scholars such as Sir John Rhys and Ellis Evans have held the position since its creation in 1877 . The chair is currently vacant , having been held by Thomas Charles @-@ Edwards until his retirement in 2011 . The zoologists Charles Godfray and Paul Harvey are both Professorial Fellows . Official Fellows are those who hold tutorial or administrative appointments in the college . Past Official Fellows include the composer and musicologist John Caldwell , the historians Sir Goronwy Edwards and Niall Ferguson , the philosopher Galen Strawson and the political philosopher John Gray . There are also Senior and Junior Research Fellows . Principals and Fellows who retire can be elected as Emeritus Fellows .
A further category is that of Welsh Supernumerary Fellows , who are , in rotation , the Vice @-@ Chancellors of Cardiff University , Swansea University , Lampeter University , Aberystwyth University , Bangor University and the University of Wales College of Medicine . There is one Welsh Supernumerary Fellow at a time , holding the position for not longer than three years . The first of these was John Viriamu Jones in 1897 .
The college formerly had a category of missionary Fellows , known as Leoline Fellows after their founder , Leoline Jenkins ( a former principal ) . In his will in 1685 , he stated that " It is but too obvious that the persons in Holy Orders employed in his Majesty 's fleet at sea and foreign plantations are too few . " To address this , he established two Fellowships at Jesus College , whose holders should serve as clergy " in any of his Majesty 's fleets or in his Majesty 's plantations " under the direction of the Lord High Admiral and the Bishop of London respectively . The last of these , Frederick de Winton , was appointed in 1876 and held his Fellowship until his death in 1932 . This category was abolished in 1877 by the Oxford and Cambridge Universities Commission , without prejudice to the rights of existing holders such as de Winton . Another category of Fellowship that was abolished in the 19th century was that of the King Charles I Fellows , founded by King Charles in 1636 and tenable by natives of the Channel Islands in an attempt by him to " reclaim the Channel Islands from the extreme Calvinism which characterised them . " The first such Fellow was Daniel Brevint .
= = = Honorary Fellows = = =
The Governing Body has the ability to elect " distinguished persons " to Honorary Fellowships . Under the current statutes of the college , Honorary Fellows cannot vote at meetings of the Governing Body and do not receive financial reward . They can be called upon , however , to help decide whether to dismiss or discipline members of academic staff ( including the Principal ) .
All but one of the Honorary Fellows – the journalist and broadcaster Francine Stock – have been men . Three former Principals of the College ( John Christie , Sir John Habakkuk and Sir Peter North ) have been elected Honorary Fellows on retirement . Some Honorary Fellows were formerly Fellows of the college , others were Old Members of the college , and some were in both categories . Others had no previous academic connection with the college before their election . Some of these were distinguished Welshmen – for example , the Welsh businessman Sir Alfred Jones was elected in 1902 and the Welsh judge Sir Samuel Evans , President of the Probate , Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court , was elected in 1918 . The Welsh politician David Lloyd George was elected to an Honorary Fellowship in 1910 when he was Chancellor of the Exchequer . He wrote to Sir John Rhys , the Principal at the time , to thank the college for the honour , saying :
I wish to express to you and to the Fellows of Jesus College my deep sense of the great honour which you have done me in electing me to be one of your body . It is a very special gratification to me to be associated in this intimate way with Jesus College . As a Welshman , I have watched with pleasure and pride the prosperity , especially since you have been Principal , of the college which is so closely connected with our country , little thinking ever to find myself a member of it ; and I can honestly say that no honour can fall to my lot which I shall prize more highly than this Fellowship which you have conferred upon me . Please accept and express to the Fellows of the college my hearty and sincere thanks . Ever yours sincerely , D. LLOYD GEORGE .
The first three Honorary Fellows , all former students of the college , were elected in October 1877 : John Rhys , the first Jesus Professor of Celtic ( later an Official Fellow ( 1881 – 1895 ) and Principal ( 1895 – 1915 ) ) ; the historian John Richard Green ; and the poet Lewis Morris . The college noted in 1998 that the number of Honorary Fellows of the college was markedly below the average of other Oxford colleges and it adopted a more methodical approach to increase numbers . Seven Honorary Fellows were elected that year , followed by another five in 1999 . The college 's Honorary Fellows have included two Old Members who later became Prime Minister of their respective countries : Norman Washington Manley , who studied at Jesus College as a Rhodes Scholar and who was Chief Minister of Jamaica from 1955 to 1962 , and Harold Wilson , who was twice British Prime Minister ( 1964 – 1970 and 1974 – 1976 ) .
= = = Alumni = = =
Notable former students of the college have included politicians , scientists , writers , entertainers and academics . T. E. Lawrence ( " Lawrence of Arabia " ) , known for his part in the Arab Revolt of 1916 – 1918 and for his writings including Seven Pillars of Wisdom , studied history at the college . His thesis on Crusader castles ( the fieldwork for which marked the beginning of his fascination with the Middle East ) is held in the Fellows ' Library . Other former students include Pixley ka Isaka Seme ( a founder and president of the African National Congress ) , Sir William Williams ( Speaker of the House of Commons 1680 – 1685 ) , and Lord Sankey ( Lord Chancellor 1929 – 1935 ) . Members of Parliament from the three main political parties in the United Kingdom have attended the college , as have politicians from Australia ( Neal Blewett ) , New Zealand ( Harold Rushworth ) , Sri Lanka ( Lalith Athulathmudali ) and the United States ( Heather Wilson ) .
The founders ' hopes that their college would produce prominent Welsh clergy were fulfilled in no small measure when a former student , Alfred George Edwards , was elected the first Archbishop of Wales when the Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920 . Two later Archbishops of Wales , Glyn Simon ( Archbishop from 1968 to 1971 ) and Gwilym Owen Williams ( Archbishop 1971 – 1982 ) were also educated at the college . Celticists associated with the college include Sir John Rhys , Sir John Morris @-@ Jones , and Sir Thomas ( T. H. ) Parry @-@ Williams , whilst the list of historians includes the college 's first graduate , David Powel , who published the first printed history of Wales in 1584 , and the Victorian historian J. R. Green . Angus Buchanan won the Victoria Cross during the First World War . Record @-@ breaking quadriplegic solo sailor Hilary Lister was also a student here , whilst from the field of arts and entertainment there are names such as Magnus Magnusson , presenter of Mastermind , the National Poet of Wales Gwyn Thomas , and television weather presenters Kirsty McCabe and Siân Lloyd . Nigel Hitchin , the Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford since 1997 , studied at the college , as did Edward Hinds ( a physicist who won the Rumford Medal in 2008 ) , Chris Rapley ( director of the Science Museum ) , and the zoologists Edward Bagnall Poulton and James Brontë Gatenby .
= = Student life = =
There are about 325 undergraduates and 150 postgraduates . About half of the undergraduates studied at state schools before coming to Oxford , and about 10 % are from overseas . Students from the college participate in a variety of extracurricular activities . Some contribute to student journalism for Cherwell or The Oxford Student . The Turl Street Arts Festival ( a week @-@ long student @-@ organised event ) is held annually in conjunction with the two other colleges on Turl Street , Exeter and Lincoln colleges . The festival , which takes place in Fifth Week of Hilary term , includes exhibitions , plays and concerts . Although the college does not award choral scholarships , the chapel choir is well @-@ attended by college members and others . The choir is non @-@ auditioning for college members , and is run by one or more undergraduate organ scholars .
= = = Sports = = =
In common with many Oxford colleges , Jesus provides sporting facilities for students , including playing fields at a site in east Oxford off the Cowley Road known as Bartlemas ( for its proximity to St Bartholomew 's Chapel ) . Football , rugby , netball , field hockey , cricket , and tennis can be played there . Squash courts are at a separate city @-@ centre site on St Cross Road . The college also provides students with membership of the university 's gym and swimming pool on Iffley Road .
Jesus College Boat Club ( commonly abbreviated to JCBC ) is the rowing club for members of the college . The club was formed in 1835 , but rowing at the college predates the foundation of the club : a boat from the college was involved in the earliest recorded races between college crews at Oxford in 1815 , when it competed against a crew from Brasenose College . These may have been the only two colleges who had boats racing at that time , and the Brasenose boat was usually victorious . Neither the men 's nor the women 's 1st VIIIs have been " Head of the River " during Eights Week , the main college races , but the women 's 1st VIII was Head of the River in the spring races , Torpids , between 1980 and 1983 . Jesus boats have also had other successful seasons : the 1896 Jesus College boat had a reputation of being one of the faster boats in the university , and the women 's 1st VIII of 1993 won their " blades " in the first divisions of both Torpids and Eights Week , an achievement that led to the crew being described in the Jesus College Record as vying " not just for the College team of the decade , but perhaps for the team of the last three decades " , in any sport .
A number of college members have rowed for the university against Cambridge University in the Boat Race and the Women 's Boat Race . Barney Williams , a Canadian rower who studied at the college , won a silver medal in rowing at the 2004 Summer Olympics , and participated in the Boat Race in 2005 and 2006 . Other students who rowed while at the college have achieved success in other fields , including John Sankey , who became Lord Chancellor , Alwyn Williams , who became Bishop of Durham , and Maurice Jones , who became Principal of St David 's College , Lampeter . Another college rower , James Page , was appointed Secretary of the Amateur Rowing Association and coached both the Oxford and Cambridge University boat clubs .
The college boathouse , which is shared with the boat club of Keble College , is in Christ Church Meadow , on the Isis ( as the River Thames is called in Oxford ) . It dates from 1964 and replaced a moored barge used by spectators and crew @-@ members . The last college barge had been purchased from one of the Livery Companies of the City of London in 1911 . It is now a floating restaurant further down the Thames at Richmond , and for some years was painted in the college colours of green and white .
= = = Welsh connection = = =
Education in Wales had been stimulated by the foundation of grammar schools during the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI : King Henry VIII Grammar School in Abergavenny and Christ College , Brecon were established in the 1540s , and Friars School , Bangor dates from 1557 . However , despite the numbers of Welsh students coming to Oxford University as a result , there was no special provision for Welshmen before 1571 . Despite the links with Wales that Hugh Price and many of the founding Fellows had , neither the 1571 charter nor any of the later charters limited entry to the college to Welshmen . Nevertheless , the college students were predominantly Welsh from the outset , and the college became " the pinnacle of the academic ambition of the young men of Wales " . Many of the fellows in the past were Welsh , since when new fellowships were created by benefactions ( often by people of Welsh descent ) there was frequently a stipulation that the recipients would be related to the donor or come from a specified part of Wales . These specific limitations were removed as part of reforms of Oxford University during the 19th century . Between 1571 and 1915 , only one Principal ( Francis Howell , 1657 – 1660 ) was not from Wales or of Welsh descent .
Jesus still has a particular association with Wales and is often referred to as " the Welsh college " . The college is home to the university 's Professor of Celtic , and a specialist Celtic library in addition to the college 's normal library . Meyrick scholarships , from the bequest of Edmund Meyrick in 1713 , are awarded for academic merit where the student is a native of Wales ( or the child of a native of Wales ) , able to speak Welsh or was educated for the last three years of secondary school in Wales .
The college 's undergraduate gossip sheet is entitled The Sheepshagger in allusion to an offensive joke about Welsh people 's supposed penchant for sheep . Furthermore , the Welshness of the College is self @-@ perpetuating , as Welsh students will often apply to Jesus because it is seen as the Welsh college . Old members recall the college having a majority of Welsh members until well into the 20th century ; today , however , around 15 % of undergraduates come from Wales . For comparison , residents of Wales comprise just under 5 % of the United Kingdom population ( 2 @.@ 9 million out of a total of 58 @.@ 8 million at the time of the 2001 Census ) .
In modern times , the Welsh roots of the college come to the fore most prominently on Saint David 's Day . The feast is marked by a choral Evensong in the chapel , decorated for the occasion with daffodils . The service , including music , is conducted entirely in Welsh ( despite only a small minority of the choir usually being native speakers of the language ) . It is generally well attended by members of the Welsh community in Oxford . The college 's annual St. David 's Day Dinner traditionally culminates with the serving of Sir Watkin Williams @-@ Wynn 's Pudding . The name recalls the Welsh politician and prominent Jacobite who attended the college early in the 18th century .
= = Silverware = =
The college 's collection of silverware includes a silver @-@ gilt punch bowl , presented by Sir Watkin Williams @-@ Wynn in 1732 . The bowl , which weighs more than 200 ounces ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) and holds 10 imperial gallons ( 45 L ) , was used at a dinner held in the Radcliffe Camera in 1814 , to celebrate what was supposed to be the final defeat of Napoleon . Those present at the dinner included the Tsar , the King of Prussia , Blücher , Metternich , the Prince Regent , the Duke of York and the Duke of Wellington . There is a college tradition that the bowl will be presented to anyone who can meet two challenges . The first is to put arms around the bowl at its widest point ; the second is to drain the bowl of strong punch . The bowl measures 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) at its widest point , and so the first challenge has only been accomplished rarely ; the second challenge has not been met .
= = Coat of arms = =
The college 's coat of arms , in heraldic terminology , is Vert , three stags trippant argent attired or . The arms are not those of Hugh Price . His arms , according to their depiction in the margins of his will , were gules ( red ) a chevron ermine between three fleurs @-@ des @-@ lis . The arms were not granted or authorised by the College of Arms , but the length of time for which they have been used has given them a prescriptive authority .
The earliest depiction of the arms was thought to be about 1590 , in a document held by the College of Arms , which refers to the stags appearing on a blue ( in heraldic terms , azure ) background but subsequent examination of this document by Peter Donoghue , Bluemantle Pursuivant shows that the arms were added c.1680 . The first known appearance of the arms is therefore on John Speed ’ s Map of Oxfordshire in 1605 with a blue field . The green field made its appearance by 1619 in an armorial quarry painted by one of the Van Linge brothers . The green background became generally ( but not universally ) used by the 1730s , still appearing as horizontal hatchings indicating azure were in use on bookplates for the college library as late as 1761 .
There are similarities with the arms of Lincoln College , Oxford , where one of the elements consists of three golden stags statant ( standing still ) ; this was derived from the coat of arms of Lincoln 's so @-@ called " second founder " , Thomas Rotherham . It was once claimed that Jesus had stolen the stags from Lincoln , but the counter @-@ argument ( from an antiquarian with close Lincoln connections ) was that the origins of each were distinct . One suggestion ( by Paul Langford , the Rector of Lincoln College ) is that Jesus College continued the arms adopted by a theological college founded by Rotherham in his home town – Jesus College , Rotherham – which had been suppressed in the time of Edward VI .
The arms of Maud Green , Lady Parr , mother of Catherine Parr ( the last of the six wives of Henry VIII and stepmother to Elizabeth I ) , were of three stags on an azure background , and this became one of the elements of the arms of Catherine Parr on her marriage . Her sister , Anne Parr , married William , 1st Earl of Pembroke , whose grandson ( the 3rd Earl , also called William ) became the first Visitor of the college in 1622 . Maud Green 's arms are depicted in plasterwork from about 1592 at Powis Castle , owned by a kinsman of the earls . One writer has suggested that the college may have adopted the arms in order to be associated with one of the leading Welsh families of the day .
This latter theory is not heraldically tenable as the quarters in an achievement after the first and pronominal quarter brought into the family by marriage to heraldic heiresses cannot meaningfully exist on their own to represent the person who now quarters them . It is more probable then that the arms of the College really are those of Archbishop Rotherham and were assumed to be those of the College by John Speed who saw them on one of its buildings in 1605 when preparing his map . Lawrence Hall in Ship Street was given to Rotherham in 1476 and leased to Jesus in 1572 . It may well have displayed the Archbishop ’ s arms in its structure as did the building on the south side of the front quad of Lincoln which he completed . These arms for Jesus College could not be confused with those of Lincoln as that College , since 1574 , already had a complex tripartite coat granted to it by Richard Lee , Portcullis Pursuivant , in which the colour of the stags in the centre section had been changed to Or ( gold ) and their attitude to statant .
= = Graces = =
Grace is said by a scholar of the college at Formal Hall ( the second , more elaborate sitting of dinner ) .
= = = Before dinner = = =
Nos miseri et egentes homines pro cibo quem ad alimoniam corporis sanctificatum nobis es largítus , ut eo utamur grati , tibi Deus omnipotens , Pater caelestis , gratias reverenter agimus , simul obsecrantes ut cibum angelorum , verum panem caelestem , verbum Dei aeternum , Dominum nostrum Iesum Christum nobis impertiaris , ut illo mens nostra pascatur et per carnem et sanguinem eius foveamur , alamur et corróboremur .
Translation :
We wretched and needy men reverently give thee thanks , almighty God , heavenly Father , for the food which thou hast sanctified and bestowed for the sustenance of the body , so that we may use it thankfully ; at the same time we beseech thee that thou wouldst impart to us the food of angels , the true bread of heaven , the eternal word of God , Jesus Christ our Lord , so that our mind may feed on him and that through his flesh and blood we may be nourished , sustained and strengthened .
= = = After dinner = = =
Quandoquidem nos , Domine , donis tuis , omnipotens et misericors Deus , exsatiasti , effice ut posthac quid per nos fieri aut secus velis diligenter observemus , atque illud animo sincero effectum praestemus , per Iesum Christum Dominum nostrum .
Versicle — Domine , salvam fac Reginam .
Response — Et exaudi nos in die qua invocaverimus te .
Deus , in cuius manu sunt corda regum , qui es humilium consolator et fidelium fortitudo et protector omnium in Te sperantium , da Reginae nostrae Elizabethae populoque Christiano triumphum virtutis tuae scienter excolere , ut per te semper reparentur ad gloriam , per Christum Dominum nostrum .
Translation :
Since , O Lord , almighty and most merciful God , thou hast satisfied us with thy gifts , ensure from henceforth that we may diligently regard what thou wishest to be done or left undone by us and cause this to be effected with sincere heart , through Jesus Christ our Lord .
Versicle : — O Lord , keep the Queen safe .
Response : — And hear us in the day in which we call on thee .
God in whose hands are the hearts of Kings , who art the consoler of the humble and the protector of all who hope in thee , grant to our Queen Elizabeth and to the Christian people to celebrate wisely the triumph of thy goodness so that they may be always renewed to glory through thee , through Jesus Christ our Lord .
Modern Grace
Benedictus Benedicat .
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= Cardinal protector of England =
The Cardinal protector of England was an appointed crown @-@ cardinal of England from 1492 until 1539 . A cardinal protector is the representative of a Roman Catholic nation or organisation within the College of Cardinals , appointed by the pope . The role was terminated as a result of the English Reformation .
The role of national protectorships within the College developed during the fifteenth century , due to developments in the emergence of national monarchies and Renaissance diplomacy . Cardinal protectors of Roman Catholic religious orders date back farther to the thirteenth century . According to King Henry VIII , the cardinal protector " indueth as it were our owne Person , for the defence of Us and our Realme in al matiers [ in the Curia ] ... touching the same " . The cardinal protector represented the monarch in consistory , especially in cases where the right of investiture was divided between the pope and the monarch , and also led the English diplomatic corps in Rome .
Although earlier cardinals had filled similar roles , " the existence of national protectorships was first openly and regularly recognized only " by Pope Julius II . The terms ' cardinal protector ' and ' cardinal procurator ' were " used very loosely and sometimes interchangeably during the fifteenth century " . The earliest reference to a ' cardinal protector ' of England dates from 1492 , but according to Wilkie , this results from a confusion between this office and that of cardinal procurator .
Unlike other national cardinal protectors , the cardinal protectors of England , Scotland , and Ireland were generally chosen exclusively by the pope . The cardinal was " imposed from above , rather than chosen " and often had no direct relationship with the governments of these countries . The English cardinal protector played a large role in English ecclesiastical appointments , and a substantial role in similar appointments in Scotland and Ireland .
= = History = =
= = = Piccolomini ( 1492 – 1503 ) = = =
Francesco Piccolomini , the future Pope Pius III , was the first cardinal protector of England , elevated on the initiative of King Henry VII , and also the first officially approved cardinal protector of " any nation whatever " . Henry VII viewed good relations with Rome as a protection against domestic and foreign enemies and sent Christopher Urswick , his " almoner and trusted councillor " to Rome after receiving a bull of dispensation to marry Elizabeth of York . When Henry VII first sought a cardinal protector in 1492 , he feared that many of the English bishops would support his Yorkist opponents ( to whom they owed their appointments ) .
A variety of other disagreements existed , such as the papal income tax and the refusal of the pope to create John Morton , the archbishop of Canterbury , a cardinal ; Innocent VII had passed over Morton in his first consistory , despite creating two French cardinals . Nor had John Sherwood , the English ambassador in Rome , been created a cardinal in 1484 , despite the request of King Richard III . Piccolomini 's creation as cardinal protector was requested by Henry VII in a letter congratulating the newly elected Pope Alexander VI , and was confirmed in a response which was probably written by Giovanni Gigli .
Piccolomini was already the protector of the Camaldese Benedictines and was close to German princes , although he was not the German protector in any official sense , and his protectorship of England is " the first official one of any cardinal which can be firmly established " . Henry VII did not object to Piccolomini 's German connections , even viewing them as an asset against the French .
= = = Castellesi ( 1503 – 1504 ) = = =
The appointment of Adriano Castellesi as cardinal on 31 May 1503 " eclipsed England 's cardinal protector " , with appointments to the English sees thereafter being referred through Castellesi instead of through Piccolomini . Piccolomini was himself elected as Pope Pius III on 22 September 1503 , only to die less than a month later , on 18 October ; Castellesi did not vote for him and Piccolomini was chosen for his perceived neutrality rather than for his English connections . According to the account of Castellesi , Pius III acknowledged him as his de facto successor as protector .
Castellesi was a favourite of Pope Alexander VI , which became a liability during the reign of Pope Julius II . During Julius II 's reign , Castellesi , " although neither requesting nor mentioning the office of protector of England , certainly presented himself to Henry VII as the cardinal responsible for English affairs in the Curia " . In an attempt to secure his status against the intrigues of Silvestro Gigli , Castellesi donated his residence , the Palazzo Giraud Torlonia on the present Via della Conciliazione , to Henry VII . In 1504 , Henry VII named six official members of his embassy , headed by Castellesi , and also including Sir Gilbert Talbot , Richard Beere , Robert Sherborne , Silvestro Gigli , and Edward Scott .
Paris de Grassi , the master of papal ceremonies , referred to Castellesi as " Regis Protector " in his notes of a meeting between the embassy and the pope .
= = = della Rovere ( 1504 – 1508 ) = = =
A letter from Julius II to Henry VII dated 6 July 1504 , remarks that the king had chosen the pope 's cardinal @-@ nephew Galeotto della Rovere as cardinal protector ; the letter does not mention Castellesi. della Rovere 's selection was likely arranged by Gigli . Castellesi was compensated by being promoted to the wealthier See of Bath and Wells . Castellesi lost favour with the king and fled Rome until the death of Julius II .
Rovere died on 11 September 1508 , leaving England without a cardinal protector . Sherbone and Hugh Inge were back in England ; Scott was dead ; Gigli was in England as nuncio . The " only man on whose loyalty the king could truly rely " was Christopher Fisher , who was a " single , bumbling amateur " compared to the more seasoned curial diplomats who surrounded him . Henry VII himself died on 21 April 1509 .
Another cardinal @-@ nephew , Sisto della Rovere , who received the vice @-@ chancellorship and all the benefices of his half @-@ brother , was not explicitly named as protector , although he wrote to Henry VII stating his intent to " maintain his brother 's friendships " . Henry VIII replied to Sisto that he considered his friendship especially valuable , asserting that Sisto had been close to his father . There is no evidence that Sisto was offered the protectorship .
= = = Aldiosi ( 1509 – 1510 ) = = =
Cardinal Francesco Adiosi may have become cardinal protector , but this appointment " cannot be exactly established " as his only surviving letters to England do not mention the protectorate . Adiosi is explicitly mentioned as protector in a 1509 letter from Christopher Bainbridge ( the first English curial cardinal since the death of Adam Easton in 1397 ) , by which point Adiosi and go @-@ between Girolamo Bonvisio were on the " brink of disgrace " .
Bonvisio disclosed the contents of his discussions with the king to a French agent and confessed his being employed by Aldiosi under threat of torture ; by this point Adiosi was no longer protector . According to an 6 April 1510 letter from the Venetian ambassador , the king dismissed Adiosi as protector and gave the post to Sisto della Rovere . There is no direct evidence that Sisto ever received the official title before he died in March 1517 . Until the death of Julius II , Bainbridge " filled the vacuum , real or in effect , in the protectorship of England " .
Castellesi returned to Rome on the death of Julius II on 21 February 1513 for the papal conclave , 1513 ; although Castellesi " tactually " voted for Bainbridge on the second ballot , the two inevitably came into conflict as " rival representatives of England " . The lack of consistorial records , which would list which cardinals referred the nominations of which bishops , are missing for this period , making it impossible to assess the extent of Bainbridge 's role .
= = = Medici ( 1514 – 1523 ) = = =
In 1514 , Gigli ( as the agent of Wolsey and Henry VIII ) arranged for another cardinal @-@ nephew Giulio de 'Medici ( future Pope Clement VII ) to be cardinal protector of England . Medici 's letter of appointment makes no reference to Sisto della Rovere . A 8 February 1514 letter from Pope Leo X to Henry VIII of England flatters the king for having elevated the pope 's cardinal @-@ nephew and cousin as protector . The pope 's brother Giuliano de ' Medici was also made a Knight of the Garter ( just as Guidobaldo II della Rovere had been made when della Rovere had been made protector ) .
Bainbridge was " short @-@ circuited " by the appointment of Medici , although he continued to play a role until his death on 14 July 1514 . Gigli was accused of having played a role in the death of Bainbridge and Medici was charged with examining the facts , concluding that Gigli was innocent . The period between Piccolomini and Medici ( from 1503 to 1514 ) is one where the role of the protector was not well @-@ defined . The importance of the office increased significantly with the appointment of Medici in 1514 , due in no small part to the friendship between Medici and Wolsey . According to Wilkie , " its importance stemmed from the special relationship of the papacy with England as the most reliable supporter of papal independence " .
Medici accepted the protectorship of France as well in 1516 , meeting Francis I of France personally in Bologna , much to the " discomfiture of England " . Medici was elected Clement VII on 19 November 1523 .
= = = Campeggio ( 1524 – 1539 ) = = =
Lorenzo Campeggio was close to Medici and served as cardinal protector to Germany at the time of Medici 's election . Campeggio received a variety of appointments from Clement VII before Henry VIII chose him as protector on 22 February 1524 ( conditional on the pope 's acceptance of Wolsey as legate for life ) .
Campeggio found his loyalty divided when he was appointed with Wolsey to judge the issue of the requested annulment of Henry VIII of England from Catherine of Aragon , the aunt of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor . Campeggio came out in favour of the legitimacy of the marriage , after considerable delay in travelling and reviewing the canonical evidence . The final sentence in the case was handed down in Rome in 1534 , the same year the English Parliament passed the First Act of Supremacy . Henry VIII was particularly displeased by Campeggio 's " constant company with the emperor " in the years prior to his verdict and Campeggio 's rapidly growing income , having been granted the bishopric of Huesca and Jaca in 1530 , and the bishopric of Mallorca in 1532 , both by Charles V.
In January 1531 , Campeggio was dismissed as cardinal protector , although it did not become public knowledge until May . At first it was unclear whether Henry VIII intended to appoint a successor , with Giovanni Domenico de Cupis emerging as an active candidate in March 1532 . The king favoured Alessandro Farnese ( future Pope Paul III ) , and instructed his ambassadors on 21 March to offer it to Farnese , and then de Cupis or Giovanni del Monte ( future Pope Julius III ) in the event that Farnese declined or was not approved .
Not knowing that Henry VIII had already secretly married the pregnant Anne Boleyn , Clement VII decided to reach out to the monarch by appointing Thomas Cranmer , an outspoken proponent of Henry VIII 's annulment , as archbishop of Canterbury . A threatened excommunication was handed down when Cranmer pronounced Henry VIII 's marriage null and void ; Henry VIII responded by telling Campeggio 's vicar general for Salisbury to stop all revenues from his bishopric until further notice . Henry VIII then claimed the authority to act on behalf of Campeggio in making various ecclesiastical appointments . The fifth session of the Reformation Parliament deprived Campeggio and Girolamo Ghinucci of their English sees ( unless they swore loyalty to the king ) . Unaware of this statute , two days later on 23 March 1534 Campeggio entered Consistory for the final ruling against annulment .
According to Wilkie , " years of cooperation from both popes and cardinal protectors had taught a wilful Henry VIII to expect to have his way over the church of England " . Clement VII died on 25 September before learning of the denial of papal authority on 31 March by the Convocation of Canterbury . In the papal conclave , 1534 , Campeggio was the only cardinal to oppose Farnese 's proposal for non @-@ secret voting and the only cardinal not to kiss the feet of the newly elected Farnese as Paul III .
= = Attempts at reconciliation = =
Many in Rome still thought reconciliation with England was possible , and Paul III elevated two English cardinals , John Fisher ( at the time imprisoned and sentenced to death by Henry VIII ) and Girolamo Ghinucci . The execution of Fisher prompted Paul III to excommunicate and purportedly depose Henry VIII . While Campeggio lived , no attempt was made in Rome to fill any of the thirteen episcopal vacancies in England .
Queen Mary I of England briefly reconciled with Rome and appointed Reginald Pole as archbishop of Canterbury . However , " papal restoration in England was doomed even before it was accomplished " when Mary I married Philip II of Spain . In 1555 , Pope Paul IV named a new cardinal protector , Giovanni Morone , but the queen did not confirm the nomination and Campeggio remained the last cardinal protector " chosen by the crown " .
Meanwhile , loyalty to the pope became a defining feature of the movement for Irish nationalism and bishops appointed by the pope garnered a larger following than the hierarchy of the church of Ireland appointed by the crown . According to Wilkie , " the cardinal protectors had assisted in the loss of England to the papacy , and Ireland remained loyal to the papacy in spite of them " .
= = List of Cardinal protectors = =
Francesco Piccolomini ( future Pope Pius III ) , first cardinal protector of England ( ante 8 February 1492 – 1503 ) , de facto protector of Germany
Adriano Castellesi , de facto protector of England and official protector of Germany
Galeotto Franciotti della Rovere ( 1505 – 11 September 1508 )
Francesco Adiosi ( 1508 – 1510 )
Giulio de 'Medici ( 1514 – 1523 ) ( future Pope Clement VII )
Lorenzo Campeggio ( 1523 – 1534 , died 1539 )
Not confirmed by the crown
Giovanni Morone , ( 1578 – 1579 )
Philip Howard ( 1682 – 1694 )
Filippo Antonio Gualterio ( circa 1717 )
Cardinal Baschi ( circa 4 November 1797 )
Ercole Consalvi ( circa 1817 , acting )
Similar prior offices
Thomas of Jorz , proctor for Kings Edward I and Edward II of England ( 1305 – 1310 )
Ferry de Clugny , employed in Rome by Edward IV of England ( d . 1483 )
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= Mackensen @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Mackensen class was the last class of battlecruisers to be built by Germany in World War I. The design initially called for seven ships , but three of them were redesigned as the Ersatz Yorck class . Of the four ships of the Mackensen class , Mackensen , Graf Spee , and Prinz Eitel Friedrich were launched , and Fürst Bismarck was not — but none were completed , after wartime shipbuilding priorities were redirected towards U @-@ boat — and the ships were broken up in the early 1920s . The lead ship of the class was named for August von Mackensen , a prominent military commander during the war . In response to the Mackensen @-@ class ships , the British Royal Navy laid down the Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers , all but one of which would eventually be cancelled ; the sole survivor , HMS Hood , was completed after the end of the war .
The design of the Mackensens was a much improved version of the previous Derfflinger class . The most significant improvement was a new , more powerful 35 cm ( 14 in ) gun , compared to the 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) gun of the earlier ships . The Mackensen @-@ class ships also featured more powerful engines that gave the ships a higher top speed and a significantly greater cruising range . The Mackensen design provided the basis for the subsequent Ersatz Yorck class , armed with 38 cm ( 15 in ) main @-@ battery guns , after the Battle of Jutland in 1916 made the need for the larger guns clear .
= = Design = =
The fourth and final Naval Law , passed in 1912 , governed the building program of the German navy during World War I. The Imperial Naval Office ( Reichsmarineamt ) decided the Navy should construct one battleship and one battlecruiser every year between 1913 and 1917 , with an additional unit of both types in 1913 and 1916 . Design work on the new class began in 1912 , with construction intended to begin in the 1914 budget year . The question about the main battery for the new battlecruisers was the most pressing ; the previous Derfflinger class was armed with 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , though some consideration had been given to redesigning the last two ships — SMS Lützow and Hindenburg — with 35 cm ( 14 in ) guns .
The 35 cm guns were of course heavier than the 30 @.@ 5 cm guns , but there were problems with enlarging the new ships to accommodate the heavier armament . The Imperial dry docks were deep enough only for ships with a draft of 9 m ( 30 ft ) , and simply accepting an increased displacement on the same hull as the Derfflinger class would entail a reduction in speed . This meant that an increase in displacement would necessitate a longer and wider hull to keep any increases in draft minimal and avoid reducing the speed . The constraints on enlarging the hull were compounded by restrictions on width imposed by the locks of the canal in Wilhelmshaven . As a result , Großadmiral ( Grand Admiral ) Alfred von Tirpitz , the head of the RMA , prohibited a design displacement greater than 30 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 29 @,@ 526 long tons ) .
The initial design was approved on 30 September 1912 , though the heads of the General Navy Department — Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Günther von Krosigk and Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Reinhard Scheer — and the Weapons Department head , Vizeadmiral Gerhard Gerdes , had to submit any revisions they deemed were necessary . The design staff suggested using triple or even quadruple gun turrets to keep the displacement under the 30 @,@ 000 @-@ ton limit . Another suggested alternative was to use six 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns in twin turrets , one forward and two aft ; Wilhelm II accepted that design on 2 May 1913 , though Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet , preferred the 30 @.@ 5 cm gun of the Derfflinger @-@ class ships . As a compromise , the new battlecruisers were to be armed with eight 35 cm ( 13 @.@ 8 inch ) guns .
The question of whether the new ships should be powered entirely by oil @-@ fired boilers was less controversial . The design staff was generally in agreement with the standard practice of using coal @-@ fired boilers for two @-@ thirds of the power plant , with the remainder being oil @-@ fired boilers . Coal @-@ fired boilers were preferred because the coal , stored in the sides of the ship , provided additional protection , particularly for the battlecruisers , which carried less armor than their battleship counterparts . The finalized design was approved on 23 May 1914 .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Mackensen @-@ class ships were 223 m ( 731 ft 8 in ) long and had a beam of 30 @.@ 4 m ( 99 ft 9 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 m ( 30 ft 6 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 4 m ( 27 ft 7 in ) aft . The ships were designed to displace 31 @,@ 000 t ( 30 @,@ 510 long tons ) on a standard load , and up to 35 @,@ 300 t ( 34 @,@ 742 long tons ) fully laden . The Mackensens ' hulls were composed of longitudinal steel frames , over which the outer hull plates were riveted . This was the same type of construction as in the preceding Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruisers , and was intended to save weight compared to the traditional method of construction , which incorporated both longitudinal and transverse frames . The ships ' hulls contained 18 watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 92 percent of the length of the hull . This was significantly greater than the older Derfflinger @-@ class ships , which had a double bottom for only 65 percent of the length of the hull .
Experience with previous battlecruiser designs led to the adoption of a continuous upper deck , which raised the level of the deck aft . This was necessary because the aft decks of earlier designs were usually awash when steaming at high speed , even in calm seas . The ships were also equipped with a bulbous bow to reduce drag on the hull , the first time the feature was used in the German Navy . The ships as designed required a crew of 46 officers and 1 @,@ 140 enlisted sailors . Service as a squadron flagship would increase that number by an additional 14 officers and 62 sailors . The vessels carried a number of small boats , including two picket boats , one barge , two launches , two cutters , and three yawls .
= = = Machinery = = =
The ships of the Mackensen class were equipped with four sets of marine @-@ type turbine engines , each of which drove a three @-@ bladed screw propeller that was 4 @.@ 2 m ( 13 ft 9 in ) in diameter . The turbines mounted in Fürst Bismarck were equipped with Föttinger fluid transmission , while those on the other three ships were two sets of direct @-@ coupled turbines with geared transmissions . The ships had 24 coal @-@ fired marine @-@ type single ended boilers and eight oil @-@ fired marine @-@ type boilers . The power plants were designed to provide 88 @,@ 769 shaft horsepower ( 66 @,@ 195 kW ) and 295 revolutions per minute . Maximum speed was rated at 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . The ships were equipped with a pair of rudders mounted side by side , as opposed to the tandem rudders used on the Derfflinger @-@ class ships .
The ships ' turbines were equipped with Föttinger gears , which significantly improved performance at cruising speeds and provided a corresponding increase in range of about 20 percent . The vessels were designed to store 800 t ( 790 long tons ) of coal and 250 t ( 250 long tons ) of oil in purpose @-@ built storage spaces ; the hull areas between the torpedo bulkhead and the outer wall of the ship were used to store additional fuel . Maximum fuel capacity was 4 @,@ 000 t ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ) of coal and 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) of oil . This was estimated to give a range of up to about 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 14 kn ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . Electrical power on the vessels was provided by eight diesel generators that put out 2 @,@ 320 kilowatts at 220 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
The Mackensens were equipped with a main battery of eight new 35 cm SK L / 45 guns in four twin gun turrets . The turrets were mounted in superfiring pairs fore and aft of the main superstructure . The guns were placed in Drh LC / 1914 mountings , which could elevate to 20 degrees and depress to − 5 degrees . The guns were supplied with a total of 720 armor @-@ piercing shells , or 90 per gun . The weapons were designed to fire 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 323 lb ) shells at a rate of fire of around 2 @.@ 5 shots per minute . The shells were fired with a muzzle velocity of 820 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . As with other heavy German guns , these weapons used a fore propellant charge in a silk bag with a main charge in a brass case . These guns could hit targets out to a maximum distance of 23 @,@ 300 m ( 25 @,@ 500 yd ) .
The ships ' secondary battery consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in armored casemates along the central superstructure . Each gun was supplied with 160 rounds , and had a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 m ( 44 @,@ 300 ft ) , though this was later extended to 16 @,@ 800 m ( 55 @,@ 100 ft ) . The guns had a sustained rate of fire of 7 rounds per minute . The shells were 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 99 @.@ 8 lb ) , and were loaded with a 13 @.@ 7 kg ( 31 @.@ 2 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . The guns were expected to fire around 1 @,@ 400 shells before they needed to be replaced .
The ships were also armed with eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) L / 45 Flak guns in single pedestal mounts . Four were arranged around the rear superfiring main battery turret and the other four around the forward conning tower . The Flak guns were emplaced in MPL C / 13 mountings , which allowed depression to − 10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees . These guns fired 9 kg ( 19 @.@ 8 lb ) shells , and had an effective ceiling of 9 @,@ 150 m ( 30 @,@ 020 ft ) at 70 degrees .
As was standard for warships of the period , the Mackensens were equipped with submerged torpedo tubes . There were five 60 cm ( 24 in ) tubes : one in the bow , and two on each flank of the ship . The torpedoes were the H8 type , which were 9 m ( 30 ft ) long and carried a 210 kg ( 463 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedoes had a range of 8 @,@ 000 m ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) when set at a speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) ; at a reduced speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) , the range increased significantly to 15 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 yd ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The Mackensen @-@ class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor , as was the standard for German warships of the period . Specific figures for the arrangement of the armor layout have not survived , but according to naval historian Erich Gröner " The outfit of Krupp armour was similar to that of the [ preceding ] Derfflinger class " . The figures listed here are those for the Derfflinger class . They had an armor belt of 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thickness in the central citadel of the ship , where the most important parts of the vessel were located . This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces . The belt was reduced in less critical areas , to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) forward and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The belt tapered down to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) at the bow , though the stern was not protected by armor at all . A 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull , several meters behind the main belt . The main armored deck ranged in thickness from 30 mm in less important areas to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in the sections that covered the more critical areas of the ship .
The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor : the sides were 300 mm thick and the roof was 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) . The rear conning tower was less well armored ; its sides were only 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , and the roof was covered with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plate . The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored : the turret sides were 270 mm ( 11 in ) and the roofs were 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) . The 15 cm guns had 150 mm worth of armor plating in the casemates ; the guns themselves had 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) shields to protect their crews from shell splinters .
= = Construction and cancellation = =
Seven ships were originally planned in the class : Mackensen , Graf Spee , Prinz Eitel Friedrich , Ersatz A , and three other vessels . The last three ships were redesigned as the Ersatz Yorck class , leaving four ships to be built to the Mackensen design . The first two ships were ordered on 14 August 1914 , shortly after the outbreak of World War I. Mackensen was funded through the 1914 budget , while funding for Graf Spee came from the war budget . Mackensen — ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Victoria Louise , as a replacement for the old protected cruiser Victoria Louise — was named after Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) August von Mackensen . The ship was laid down on 30 January 1915 at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg , under construction number 240 . She was launched on 21 April 1917 ; at the small launching ceremony , Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) Josias von Heeringen gave the speech and the ship was christened by Mackensen 's wife . Construction was halted about 15 months before she would have been completed . The British mistakenly believed the ship to have been completed , and so they included the ship on the list of vessels to be interned at Scapa Flow instead of the fleet flagship Baden . Mackensen was stricken from the German navy , according to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , on 17 November 1919 . She was sold for scrap and eventually broken up in 1922 at Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
Graf Spee was named for Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee , the commander of the German East Asia Squadron ; he was killed when his squadron was annihilated at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in 1914 . Graf Spee was laid down on 30 November 1915 in the Schichau yards in Danzig ( now Gdańsk , Poland ) , under the provisional name Ersatz Blücher , to replace the large armored cruiser Blücher that had been sunk at the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 . She was launched on 15 September 1917 . At the launching ceremony , Großadmiral Prince Heinrich gave the speech and Spee 's widow Margarete christened the ship . Construction stopped about 12 months away from completion ; Graf Spee was the furthest along of all four ships when work was halted . She too was struck on 17 November 1919 ; on 28 October 1921 the unfinished hull was sold for 4 @.@ 4 million Marks and broken up in Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
Prinz Eitel Friedrich , ordered as Ersatz Freya ( a replacement for SMS Freya ) was named for one of Kaiser Wilhelm II 's sons , Eitel Friedrich . She was laid down on 1 May 1915 at Blohm & Voss under construction number 241 . She was 21 months away from completion when she was launched to clear the slip on 13 March 1920 and was broken up at Hamburg in 1921 . At the launching ceremony , dockyard workers named the ship Noske , after Reichswehr Minister Gustav Noske . Ersatz A , which might have been named Fürst Bismarck for the famous German chancellor Otto von Bismarck , was laid down on 3 November 1915 at the Wilhelmshaven Imperial Shipyard under construction number 25 . She was about 26 months from completion when work ended . She was never launched ; instead , the vessel was broken up on the slip in 1922 .
Experience at the Battle of Jutland led the RMA to conclude that ships with 38 cm guns , heavier armor , and a higher top speed were necessary . The Mackensen design was used as the basis for the Ersatz @-@ Yorck class , which incorporated the larger guns and more armor for the main battery turrets and barbettes . More powerful engines were unavailable to compensate for the extra weight , so the designers were forced to accept a reduced speed . Nevertheless , like the Mackensens , the three ships ordered under the Ersatz @-@ Yorck design were never completed . In response , the British ordered the four Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers , though the British designed the class under the mistaken impression that the Mackensen class would be armed with 38 @.@ 6 cm ( 15 @.@ 2 in ) guns and would be capable of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . Three of the four Admiral @-@ class ships were cancelled ; only HMS Hood was completed after the end of the war .
The primary reason construction halted on the four ships was the shifting of construction materials and manpower from capital ships to U @-@ boats in the last two years of the war . The RMA filed a report dated 1 February 1918 stating that capital ship construction had ground to a halt primarily for this reason .
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= HMS Vanguard ( 23 ) =
HMS Vanguard was a British fast battleship built during World War II and commissioned after the war . She was the only ship of her class and was the biggest , fastest and last of the Royal Navy 's battleships and the final battleship to be launched in the world . Work on the ship 's design commenced before the war because the Royal Navy anticipated being outnumbered by the combined German and Japanese battleships in the early 1940s . The British had enough 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) guns and turrets in storage to allow one ship of a modified Lion @-@ class battleship design to be completed faster than the ships of that class that had already been laid down . Work on Vanguard was started and stopped several times during the war and even after construction had begun , her design was revised several times to reflect war experience . These stoppages and changes prevented her from being completed during the war .
Vanguard 's first task after completing her sea trial at the end of 1946 was , early the next year , to convey King George VI and his family on the first Royal Tour of South Africa by a reigning monarch . While refitting after her return , she was selected for another Royal Tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1948 . This was cancelled due to King George 's declining health and Vanguard briefly became flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet in early 1949 . After her return home in mid @-@ 1949 , she became flagship of the Home Fleet Training Squadron . Throughout her career , the battleship usually served as the flagship of any unit to which she was assigned . During the early 1950s , Vanguard was involved in a number of training exercises with NATO forces . In 1953 she participated in Queen Elizabeth II 's Coronation Review . While she was refitting in 1955 , the Admiralty announced that the ship was going to be put into reserve upon completion of the work . Vanguard was sold for scrap and was broken up beginning in 1960 .
= = Design and description = =
By early 1939 it was clear that the first two Lion @-@ class battleships could not be delivered before 1943 at the earliest and that further battleship construction would be necessary to match the German and Japanese battleships already under construction . The main constraint on the construction of any new battleships was the limited available capacity and the time required to build large @-@ calibre guns and their gun turrets . Using four existing twin 15 @-@ inch mountings offered the possibility of bypassing this bottleneck and allowed the construction of a single fast battleship more quickly than building more Lion @-@ class ships . The turrets were originally built for the battlecruisers Courageous and Glorious during World War I and were removed during the conversions of these ships to aircraft carriers in the 1920s . To save time , the Lion design was modified to accommodate the four turrets , and preliminary design work began in July 1939 . The square or transom stern was retained as it was estimated to improve speed at full power by .33 knots ( 0 @.@ 61 km / h ; 0 @.@ 38 mph ) . This made Vanguard the only British battleship built with a transom stern as the Lions were never finished .
Design work was suspended on 11 September after the start of World War II , but resumed in February 1940 after the First Lord of the Admiralty , Winston Churchill , expressed an interest in the ship . The design was modified to increase protection against shell splinters on the unprotected sides of the ship 's hull , the armour of the secondary armament was increased to resist 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) semi @-@ armour @-@ piercing bombs , and the splinter belt 's thickness fore and aft of the main armour belt was reduced by 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) in compensation . A small conning tower was added aft , and four Unrotated Projectile mounts were added to supplement the six octuple @-@ barrel 2 @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft mounts already planned .
More pressing commitments forced the preliminary design work to be suspended again in June and , when it resumed in October , the design was modified again in light of recent war experience . Greater fuel capacity was added and the armour protection improved , but these changes deepened the design 's draught so that it exceeded the 34 @-@ foot ( 10 @.@ 4 m ) limit of the Suez Canal . The thickness of the main belt was reduced by 1 inch ( 25 mm ) to save weight , but the primary method chosen to reduce the draught was to increase the beam by 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) . This exceeded the width of the docks at Rosyth and Plymouth , which severely limited the number of docks that could handle the ship , but these changes were approved by the Board of Admiralty on 17 April 1941 . The ship had already been ordered on 14 March under the 1940 Emergency War Programme , although the drawings were not turned over to John Brown & Company until ten days later .
Vanguard 's design was revised again , while the ship was under construction in 1942 , to reflect lessons learned from the loss of the King George V @-@ class battleship Prince of Wales and operations with the other battleships . The space between the inboard and outboard propeller shafts was increased from 33 @.@ 5 to 51 @.@ 5 feet ( 10 @.@ 2 to 15 @.@ 7 m ) to prevent a single torpedo from wrecking both shafts , and watertight access trunks were added to all spaces below the deep waterline to prevent progressive flooding through open watertight doors and hatches as happened to Prince of Wales . This change and the relocation of some of the 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 133 mm ) ammunition handling rooms from the lower deck to the middle deck seriously delayed the ship 's completion . The design requirement that the guns of ' A ' turret be capable of firing straight ahead at 0 ° of elevation was sacrificed to allow her freeboard forward to be increased , and her bow was reshaped to make it less prone to shipping water and throwing sea spray in head seas . The ship 's fuel supply was increased from 4 @,@ 400 long tons ( 4 @,@ 500 t ) to 4 @,@ 850 long tons ( 4 @,@ 930 t ) to prevent the fuel shortage problems suffered by King George V and Rodney during their pursuit of the German battleship Bismarck . The Unrotated Projectile mounts were deleted from the design , and the light anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased to a total of 76 two @-@ pounders in one quadruple and nine octuple mounts and 24 Oerlikon 20 mm cannon were also added in 12 twin mounts . Space for these was made available by removing the two floatplanes , the catapult , and their associated facilities .
A proposal was made in 1942 to convert Vanguard to an aircraft carrier . The Director of Naval Construction stated that doing so along the lines of the Audacious class would present no major difficulties , but would require six months to redesign the ship . The proposal was formally rejected on 17 July .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Vanguard had an overall length of 814 feet 4 inches ( 248 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 107 feet 6 inches ( 32 @.@ 8 m ) , and a draught of 36 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 m ) at deep load . She displaced 44 @,@ 500 long tons ( 45 @,@ 200 t ) at standard load and 51 @,@ 420 long tons ( 52 @,@ 250 t ) at deep load . The ship was significantly larger than her predecessors of the class , almost 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) longer , and displaced about 6 @,@ 000 long tons ( 6 @,@ 100 t ) more than the older ships at deep load . Vanguard was overweight by some 2 @,@ 200 long tons ( 2 @,@ 200 t ) , which magnified the difference . The ship had a complete double bottom 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep , and she was divided into 27 main compartments by watertight bulkheads .
The King George V @-@ class ships had been built with almost no sheer to the main deck forwards to allow ' A ' turret to fire straight forward at zero elevation , resulting in a poor sea boat that took a lot of water over the bow . Vanguard 's bow was redesigned as a result of experience with the King George Vs , and a large amount of sheer and flare was applied to the bow . The ship was well regarded as seaworthy , able to keep an even keel in rough seas . At full load , Vanguard had a metacentric height of 8 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) .
As a fleet flagship , her complement was 115 officers and 1 @,@ 860 men in 1947 . Air conditioning was provided for many of the ship 's control spaces , and asbestos insulation was provided on exposed areas of the ship 's sides , decks and bulkheads . Steam heating was provided for her armament , instruments , look @-@ out positions and other equipment to make Vanguard suitable for operations in the Arctic . An Action Information Centre was fitted below the main armour deck with facilities to track aircraft and ships around Vanguard .
= = = Propulsion = = =
To save design time , the four @-@ shaft unit machinery from the Lion @-@ class battleship was duplicated with alternating boiler and engine rooms . Vanguard had four sets of single @-@ reduction geared Parsons steam turbines housed in separate engine rooms . Each set consisted of one high @-@ pressure and one low @-@ pressure turbine , driving a propeller that was 14 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter . The turbines were powered by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers in four boiler rooms at a working pressure of 350 psi ( 2 @,@ 413 kPa ; 25 kgf / cm2 ) and temperature of 700 ° F ( 371 ° C ) . The engines were designed to produce a total of 130 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 97 @,@ 000 kW ) and a speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , but achieved more than 136 @,@ 000 shp ( 101 @,@ 000 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials in July 1946 , when she reached a speed of 31 @.@ 57 knots ( 58 @.@ 47 km / h ; 36 @.@ 33 mph ) . After trials , the three @-@ bladed propellers on the inboard shafts were replaced by five @-@ bladed propellers in an unsuccessful attempt to reduce vibrations of the inboard propeller shafts .
Vanguard was designed to carry 4 @,@ 850 long tons of fuel oil and 427 long tons ( 434 t ) of diesel fuel . With a clean bottom , she could steam at a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) for 8 @,@ 250 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 280 km ; 9 @,@ 490 mi ) . The ship had four 480 @-@ kilowatt ( 640 hp ) turbogenerators and four 450 @-@ kilowatt ( 600 hp ) diesel generators that supplied the common ring main at 220 volts . Their total output of 3 @,@ 720 kilowatts ( 4 @,@ 990 hp ) was the largest of any British battleship .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship 's main armament consisted of eight 42 @-@ calibre BL 15 @-@ inch Mk I guns in four twin hydraulically powered gun turrets designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' and ' Y ' from bow to stern . When the turrets were modernised their maximum elevation was increased to + 30 ° , although the guns were loaded at + 5 ° . They fired 1 @,@ 938 @-@ pound ( 879 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 458 ft / s ( 749 m / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 33 @,@ 550 yards ( 30 @,@ 680 m ) . These guns were also capable of firing the same projectiles while using supercharges which gave a maximum range of 37 @,@ 870 yards ( 34 @,@ 630 m ) . Their rate of fire was two rounds per minute . Vanguard carried 100 shells per gun .
The 15 @-@ inch turrets had been designed when the customary practice was to place the magazine above the shell room , and it was not cost @-@ effective to modify the ammunition hoists to accommodate the opposite arrangement adopted after the Battle of Jutland demonstrated the dangers of exposing the magazines to long @-@ range gunfire . The ship was provided with a powder @-@ handling room above the shell room to mimic the arrangement that turret 's hoists were designed to handle , and another set of hoists moved the propellant charges from the magazines to the powder @-@ handling room . The charges were stowed in cases to reduce their exposure to fire .
The secondary armament consisted of sixteen 50 @-@ calibre QF 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch Mk I * dual purpose guns in eight twin gun mounts . They had a maximum depression of − 5 ° and a maximum elevation of 70 ° . They fired an 80 @-@ pound ( 36 kg ) high @-@ explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 672 ft / s ( 814 m / s ) . The improved 5 @.@ 25 turrets on Vanguard were claimed to be fully automatic , with a power @-@ rammed breech and automatic tracking and elevation under radar control enabling a rate of fire was about 18 rounds per minute . At maximum elevation , the guns had a maximum range of 24 @,@ 070 yards ( 22 @,@ 010 m ) . 391 rounds were provided for each gun .
Short @-@ range air defence was provided by 73 Bofors 40 mm AA guns in a variety of mountings . Vanguard had ten sextuple @-@ barrel power @-@ operated mounts concentrated in the superstructure and stern , a twin @-@ barrel mount on ' B ' turret , and 11 power @-@ operated single mounts on the upper deck and rear superstructure . All mounts could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of + 90 ° . The 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) gun fired a 1 @.@ 97 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 89 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 890 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) to a distance of 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 120 rounds per minute . Space was not available to stow the standard allowance of 1564 rounds per gun , and Vanguard only carried 1269 rounds per gun . Two of the single guns on the quarterdeck were removed in 1949 and five others during a major refit in 1954 . All of her multiple Bofors mounts were removed at this same time .
= = = Fire control = = =
Vanguard was unique among British battleships in having remote power control ( RPC ) for her main , secondary and tertiary guns along with the Admiralty Fire Control Table Mk X for surface fire control of the main armament . There were two director control towers ( DCT ) for the 15 @-@ inch guns , each carrying a " double cheese " Type 274 fire @-@ control radar for range finding and spotting the fall of shot . Each DCT could control all four turrets while ' B ' turret could control ' A ' and ' X ' turrets . ' X ' turret could only control ' Y ' turret . There were four American Mark 37 DCTs for the 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch guns , each carrying the twin domes of Type 275 gunnery radar . Lastly , each Mark VI sextuple 40 mm Bofors mounting was provided with a separate CRBF ( " close range blind fire " ) director fitted with a Type 262 radar , although the ship never mounted her complete outfit of those directors . The STAAG Mk II 40 mm Bofors mounting carried its own Type 262 on the mounting itself . Other radar sets carried were Type 960 air and surface search , Type 293 target indication and Type 277 height finding .
When the 15 @-@ inch gun turrets were modernised , their existing 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinders were replaced by 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) ones in all turrets except for ' A ' and they were fitted for RPC in azimuth only . The turrets were also provided with de @-@ humidifying equipment and insulation to improve their habitability .
= = = Protection = = =
The ship 's armour scheme was based on that of the King George V class with a thinner waterline belt and additional splinter protection . Originally the belt armour was equal to that of the older ships , but it had to be reduced to offset weight increases when the design was modified to reflect wartime experience . The waterline 460 @-@ foot ( 140 @.@ 2 m ) main belt was composed of Krupp cemented armour ( KCA ) 13 inches ( 330 mm ) thick , but increased to 14 inches ( 356 mm ) abreast the magazines . It was 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) high and tapered to a thickness of 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) at the bottom edge of the belt . Fore and aft of the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) transverse bulkheads that closed off the central citadel , the belt continued almost to the ends of the ship . Forward it tapered to a thickness of 2 inches ( 51 mm ) and a height of 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) and aft to the same thickness , but a height of 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) . At the aft end of the steering gear compartment was a 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) transverse bulkhead . After the Battle of the Denmark Strait in 1941 , 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) non @-@ cemented armour bulkheads were added on the sides of the magazines , to protect them from splinters from any hits from plunging shells , that might have penetrated the ship 's side beneath her belt .
When the gun turrets from the World War I @-@ era battlecruisers were modernised , their KCA faceplates were replaced by new ones 13 inches thick , and their roofs were replaced by 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) non @-@ cemented armour plates . Their sides remained 7 – 9 inches ( 180 – 230 mm ) in thickness . The barbettes for the 15 @-@ inch guns were 13 inches thick on the sides , but tapered to 11 – 12 inches ( 279 – 305 mm ) closer to the centreline of the ship . The side and roof armour of the 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch turrets was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick . Their ammunition hoists were protected by armour 2 – 6 inches ( 51 – 152 mm ) thick .
Intended to resist the impact of a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) armour @-@ piercing bomb dropped from a height of 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) , Vanguard 's deck protection was identical to that of the King George V class . It consisted of six @-@ inch non @-@ cemented armour over the magazines that reduced to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) over the machinery spaces . The armour continued forward and aft of the citadel at the lower @-@ deck level . Forward it tapered in steps from five inches down to 2 @.@ 5 inches near the bow . Aft , it protected the steering gear and propeller shafts with 4 @.@ 5 inches of armour before tapering to a thickness of 2 @.@ 5 inches near the stern . Unlike the Germans , French and Americans , the British no longer believed that heavy armour for the conning tower served any real purpose given that the chance of hitting it was very small ; Vanguard 's conning tower was therefore protected with 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour on the face and 2 @.@ 5 inches on the sides and rear . The secondary conning tower aft had 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of armour on its sides .
Vanguard 's underwater protection was enhanced when she was redesigned in 1942 to reflect the lessons learned when Prince of Wales was sunk by Japanese torpedo bombers . It still consisted of a three @-@ layer system of voids and liquid @-@ filled compartments meant to absorb the energy of an underwater explosion . It was bounded on the inside by the 1 @.@ 75 – 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 44 – 38 mm ) torpedo bulkhead . Her enlarged oil tanks reduced the empty spaces that could flood and cause the ship to list and greater provision was made to pump these spaces out . The longitudinal bulkheads of the side protection system were raised one deck higher to further subdivide the spaces behind the waterline armour belt . The side protection system had a maximum depth of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) , but this decreased significantly as the ship narrowed at its ends . Over the length of the citadel , this system was found to be proof against 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) of TNT during full @-@ scale trials .
= = Construction and career = =
Vanguard was laid down on 2 October 1941 by John Brown and Company of Clydebank , Scotland , with the yard number of 567 . After the Japanese invasion of Malaya in December , the ship was given an A1 priority in the hope of finishing her by the end of 1944 and construction of the light cruiser HMS Bellerophon , as well as some merchant shipping , was halted to expedite the ship 's completion . This was unsuccessful , however , due to a shortage of skilled labour . As a result , it was not until 30 November 1944 that the ship was launched . Princess Elizabeth presided over this ceremony , the first ship she ever launched , and was presented with a diamond rose brooch to commemorate the event .
Captain William Gladstone Agnew assumed command on 15 October 1945 . The end of hostilities following Japan 's surrender reduced the need for new warships , and consequently the ship was not commissioned until 12 May 1946 . By this time , a total of £ 11 @,@ 530 @,@ 503 , including £ 3 @,@ 186 @,@ 868 for the modernisation of the main armament , had been spent on producing Vanguard .
After commissioning , the ship spent several months conducting sea trials and training until August , when she began the necessary modifications to serve as a royal yacht for the forthcoming royal tour of South Africa . The Admiral 's suite was reworked into accommodations for the Royal Family and their staff while the anti @-@ aircraft mount on top of ' B ' turret was replaced by a saluting platform . Agnew was promoted to rear @-@ admiral with effect from 8 January 1947 . The alterations were complete by December , and Vanguard made a shakedown cruise into the Central Atlantic and made a port visit to Gibraltar on the return voyage . Initially escorted by the destroyers Orwell , Obedient , Offa , Opportune , and Rotherham , the ship rendezvoused with the Home Fleet on 1 February 1947 to receive a 21 @-@ gun salute led by the battleships Nelson and Duke of York , and the aircraft carrier Implacable . Later that morning , a Sikorsky R @-@ 4 helicopter landed aboard to pick up mail and photographic film .
Vanguard arrived in Cape Town on 17 February , escorted by the South African frigates Good Hope , Transvaal and Natal on the last leg of her voyage . While the Royal Family toured the country on the first visit by a reigning monarch to South Africa , the ship exercised with ships of the South African and Royal Navies stationed there and made port visits to a number of South African cities . She sailed for home on 22 April and made brief visits to Saint Helena and Ascension Island en route . Vanguard arrived in Portsmouth on 11 May , and Captain F. R. Parham relieved the newly promoted Agnew on 29 May . In July , the ship began an overhaul in Devonport , which lasted until August 1948 . While she was refitting , Vanguard was tasked to carry the Royal Family on a tour of Australia and New Zealand , planned for January 1949 . On 31 August , she began a shakedown cruise to the Mediterranean and returned to Devonport on 12 November . Around this time , Vanguard was considered , along with a number of other large warships , for conversion to carry anti @-@ aircraft missiles , but nothing further was done along these lines .
George VI was now too ill for travel , and the Royal Tour was indefinitely postponed later that month . Vanguard became the flagship of Admiral Sir Arthur Power , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet , on 1 March 1949 , and the ship made port visits to Algeria , France , Italy , Cyprus , Libya , Lebanon , Greece and Egypt before she arrived back at Devonport on 21 July . The newly promoted Rear Admiral Parham was relieved by Captain G. V. Gladstone a week later . The ship then became the flagship of the Home Fleet Training Squadron under Rear Admiral Edward Evans @-@ Lombe on 12 November . While returning from a brief training sortie to Gibraltar , Vanguard went to the aid of a small French merchantman whose cargo had shifted in a severe storm on 13 February 1950 . The merchantman , SS Boffa , was taken under tow and the cargo was redistributed . Once the storm had abated , Boffa was able to resume her voyage under her own power . Vanguard reached Weymouth Bay the following day . Later , in March , she fired the salute to Vincent Auriol , the President of France , during his state visit to Great Britain .
On 13 September 1950 Admiral Sir Philip Vian hoisted his flag as Commander in Chief , Home Fleet , on Vanguard and the ship joined the rest of Home Fleet on exercises with the Royal Canadian Navy and the Mediterranean Fleet . On 19 December , Vian transferred his flag to Indomitable . Nearly two months later , on 10 February 1951 , the aircraft carrier collided with Vanguard as the carrier docked at Gibraltar . The hole in the battleship 's stern was not serious , and Vian re @-@ hoisted his flag in Vanguard shortly afterwards . After manoeuvres with Indomitable , during which her aircraft " sank " the battleship , the ship made port visits in Genoa and Villefranche @-@ sur @-@ Mer before returning for a brief refit in Devonport on 14 March . After completing her refit in May , she became flagship of the Home Fleet Training Squadron under Rear Admiral R. M. Dick at the Isle of Portland . Four months later the admiral transferred his flag to the carrier Indefatigable as Vanguard began another refit in preparation to again become the flagship of Home Fleet .
Buckingham Palace announced in November that King George VI was planning to take a short cruise for his health aboard Vanguard , which meant that her Admiral 's suite again had to be modified to accommodate him and his staff . Captain John Litchfield assumed command on 21 December while the ship was still refitting , but the King died on 6 February 1952 before he could make his cruise . A detachment from the ship participated in his funeral procession before she departed for her post @-@ refit shakedown cruise on 22 February . After exercising with Implacable , Indomitable and the fast minelayer Apollo , Vanguard returned home on 29 March . She became flagship of Home Fleet again on 13 May when Admiral Sir George Creasy hoisted his flag . Due to manning and weight problems , Vanguard operated with many of her turrets unmanned and with ammunition carried for only two of the 15 @-@ inch turrets and only starshell ammunition for the 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch guns . She participated in exercises with the Dutch and American navies , before returning to Portsmouth for the holidays . Litchfield was relieved by Captain R. A. Ewing on 19 January 1953 ; the ship departed the next day for a brief refit at Gibraltar . After its completion on 2 March , the ship trained with several of the Royal Navy 's carriers before arriving back at Portsmouth on 25 March . Vanguard participated in Queen Elizabeth 's Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 15 June 1953 . The following September , she participated in NATO 's Exercise Mariner in the Denmark Strait .
Admiral Sir Michael Denny replaced Creasy as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Home Fleet , on 5 January 1954 and Vanguard participated in Exercise Medflex A with Dutch and French ships in March . During the rest of the year she participated in anti @-@ submarine and anti @-@ aircraft exercises as well as making port visits to Oslo and Kristiansand in Norway and Helsingborg in Sweden . She was inspected on 11 July by King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden before returning home later that month . Denny struck his flag on 15 September , and Vanguard sailed to Devonport for a £ 220 @,@ 000 refit 10 days later . The February 1955 Defence Estimates had intended her as the Home Fleet flagship with a role as a Sverdlov @-@ class cruiser killer , but after the appointment of Earl Mountbatten in April 1955 and with Antony Eden replacing Churchill as prime minister , the government decided instead to maintain two extra cruisers in the fleet , and Vanguard was placed in reserve when it was completed its 1955 refit ; she subsequently became the flagship of the Reserve Fleet when Vice Admiral Richard Onslow hoisted his flag on 28 November . While moored in Fareham Creek , during her time in the reserve fleet , waterline shots of Vanguard in Portsmouth Harbour were filmed for the title sequence of the 1957 comedy film Carry on Admiral . Just before decommissioning , scenes for the 1960 film Sink the Bismarck ! were filmed aboard , with Vanguard being used to depict interiors of the bridges , Admiral 's Quarters and gun turrets for Hood , Bismarck and King George V.
On 9 October 1959 the Admiralty announced that Vanguard would be scrapped , as she was considered obsolete and too expensive to maintain . She was decommissioned on 7 June 1960 and sold to the Iron and Steel Corporation of Great Britain for £ 560 @,@ 000 . On 4 August 1960 , when the ship was scheduled to be towed from Portsmouth to the breaker 's yard at Faslane , Scotland , the whole of the Southsea sea front was packed with people who came to see her off . As Vanguard was being towed towards the harbour entrance , she slewed across the harbour and ran aground near the Still & West pub . She was pulled off by five tugboats an hour later , and made her final exit from Portsmouth . Five days later she arrived at Faslane , and by mid @-@ 1962 the demolition process was complete ; she was the last British battleship to be scrapped .
As a part of the scrapping process , sections of 150 @-@ millimetre @-@ thick ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) steel plate were recovered from Vanguard and used for the shielding of the whole body monitor at the Radiobiological Research Laboratory ( now DSTL ) at Alverstoke , Gosport in Hampshire , England .
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= William Edington =
William Edington ( died 6 or 7 October 1366 ) was an English bishop and administrator . He served as bishop of Winchester from 1346 until his death , Keeper of the wardrobe from 1341 to 1344 , treasurer from 1344 to 1356 , and finally as chancellor from 1356 until he retired from royal administration in 1363 . Edington ’ s reforms of the administration — in particular of royal finances — had wide @-@ ranging consequences , and contributed to the English military efficiency in the early stages of the Hundred Years ' War . As bishop of Winchester he was responsible for starting an extensive rebuilding of Winchester Cathedral , and for founding Edington Priory , the church of which still stands today .
= = Royal service = =
Edington 's parents were Roger and Amice of Edington near Westbury , Wiltshire . Though it has been claimed that he was educated at Oxford , there seems to be no support for this . His first patron , however , was the Oxford chancellor Gilbert Middleton , who was also a royal counsellor . When Middleton died in 1331 , Edington entered the service of Middleton ’ s friend , Adam Orleton , bishop of Winchester . Through Orleton , Edington ’ s abilities were brought to the attention of King Edward III , and in 1341 the king named him keeper of the wardrobe . The position was an important one ; the wardrobe functioned as the treasury while the king was on campaign , and Edward strongly resisted any attempts to limit this royal prerogative .
The king must have been impressed by Edington ’ s performance , because in 1344 he made him treasurer of the realm , a position he held for the exceptionally long period of twelve years . This was a job fraught with problems , as the nation was in serious financial difficulties by the mid @-@ 1340s . The treasury was in great debt from the heavy demands of the early stages of the Hundred Years ' War . By then reneging on his debts , the king had lost public confidence , and struggled to obtain new loans . Edington saw the need to bring all royal expenditure under the oversight of the exchequer . This did not entail controlling the king ’ s use of his resources — a move Edward would have resented greatly — but simply attempting to budget all revenues and expenses . By the early 1360s this was largely achieved ; a testimony to the capabilities and energy of Edington as an administrator . In 1356 he was named chancellor , a post he held until his retirement from the national scene in 1363 , possibly for health reasons .
= = Ecclasiastical career = =
Edington also held ecclesiastical benefices . After his education at Oxford he held a succession of rectorates in Northamptonshire : first at Cottingham , then at Dallington , and finally from 1322 at Middleton Cheney .
In 1335 Orleton collated Edington to the rectory of Cheriton , Hampshire , and from 1335 to 1346 he was master of the Hospital of St Cross in Winchester . Also the king was eager to reward his capable servant ; in 1341 he was given the prebend of Leighton Manor ( Lincoln ) , by 1344 he also held that of Netheravon ( Salisbury ) , and by 1345 that of Putston ( Hereford ) . This level of pluralism was not unusual at the time . His greatest preferment , however , came with his papal appointment – on the king ’ s request – to the see of Winchester in 1345 . This was the richest see in England , considered second only to the archbishopric of Milan .
The monks of Winchester had already elected one of their own number , but this was over @-@ ruled , and Edington was consecrated in 1346 . As a bishop he was necessarily much absent , even with the relatively short distance between Westminster and Winchester . He was not entirely detached from his episcopal duties , however : he used the see as a source for extensive nepotism , yet he also initiated wide @-@ ranging building works on the nave of the cathedral . Meanwhile , in 1351 , he founded an Augustinian priory at his birthplace of Edington , in order to have prayers said for himself , his parents and his brother . Although most of the priory has been demolished , the church still stands , as a good example of the transition between the decorated and perpendicular style of church @-@ building .
In May 1366 , as a final sign of royal gratitude , King Edward had Edington elected archbishop of Canterbury . Edington , however , declined on the grounds of failing health . Five months later , on 6 or 7 October 1366 , he died at Bishop 's Waltham . He is buried in Winchester Cathedral , where his effigy can be seen in the chantry chapel he himself had built in the nave .
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= New Zealand national rugby union team =
The New Zealand national rugby union team , commonly called the All Blacks , represent New Zealand in men 's rugby union , which is regarded as the country 's national sport . The side has won the last two Rugby World Cups , in 2011 and 2015 , as well as the inaugural tournament in 1987 . They have a 76 % winning record in test match rugby , and are the only international side with a winning record against every opponent ; and since their international debut in 1903 five nations have defeated New Zealand in test matches . Since the introduction of the World Rugby Rankings in 2003 , New Zealand has held the number one ranking longer than all other teams combined . The All Blacks statistically speaking are the best side to have played the game .
New Zealand competes with Argentina , Australia and South Africa in The Rugby Championship . The All Blacks have won the trophy thirteen times in the competition 's nineteen @-@ year history . They also hold the Bledisloe Cup , which is contested annually with Australia , and the Freedom Cup , contested annually with South Africa . New Zealand have achieved a Grand Slam ( defeating England , Wales , Scotland , and Ireland in one tour ) four times – 1978 , 2005 , 2008 and 2010 .
They have also been named the World Rugby Team of the Year seven times since 2005 . Four All Blacks have won the World Rugby Player of the Year award – Richie McCaw , Dan Carter , Kieran Read , and Brodie Retallick . Fifteen former All Blacks have been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame .
The team 's first match was in 1884 , and their first international match in 1903 against Australia in Sydney . The following year they hosted their first ever home test , a match against a British Isles side in Wellington . This was followed by a tour of Europe and North America in 1905 where the team suffered their first test defeat – to Wales in Cardiff .
New Zealand 's early uniforms consisted of a black jersey with a silver fern and white knickerbockers . By the 1905 tour , they were wearing all black , except for the silver fern , and their name " All Blacks " dates from this time . The team perform a haka – a Māori challenge or posture dance – before each match . The haka performed has traditionally been Te Rauparaha 's Ka Mate , although since 2005 Kapa o Pango is sometimes performed .
= = History = =
= = = Introduction of rugby to New Zealand = = =
Rugby union – almost universally referred to as rugby in New Zealand – was introduced to New Zealand by Charles Monro in 1870 ; Monro discovered the sport while completing his studies at Christ 's College , Finchley , England . The first recorded game in New Zealand took place in May 1870 in Nelson between the Nelson club and Nelson College . The first provincial union , the Canterbury Rugby Football Union , was formed in 1879 , and in 1882 New Zealand 's first internationals were played when New South Wales ( NSW ) toured the country . NSW did not face a New Zealand representative team but played seven provincial sides – the tourists won four games and lost three . Two years later the first New Zealand team to travel overseas toured New South Wales ; where New Zealand won all eight of their games .
A privately organised British team , which later became the British and Irish Lions , toured New Zealand in 1888 . No test matches were played , and the side only played provincial sides . The British players were drawn mainly from Northern England , but there were representatives from Wales and Scotland .
= = = International competition begins = = =
In 1892 , following the canvassing of provincial administrators by Ernest Hoben , the New Zealand Rugby Football Union ( NZRFU ) was formed by the majority of New Zealand 's provincial unions , but did not include Canterbury , Otago or Southland . The first officially sanctioned New Zealand side toured New South Wales in 1893 , where the Thomas Ellison captained team won nine of their ten matches . The following year New Zealand played its first home " international " game , losing 8 – 6 to New South Wales . The team 's first true test match occurred against Australia on 15 August 1903 at the Sydney Cricket Ground in front of over 30 @,@ 000 spectators , and resulted in a 22 – 3 victory .
A representative New Zealand team first toured the British Isles in 1905 . The side is now known as the Originals , as the All Blacks name emerged during this tour when , according to team member Billy Wallace , a London newspaper reported that the New Zealanders played as if they were " all backs " . Wallace claimed that because of a typographical error , subsequent references were to " All Blacks " . This account is most likely a myth – because of their black playing strip , the side was probably referred to as the Blacks before they left New Zealand . Even though the name All Blacks most likely existed before the trip , the tour did popularise it .
The Originals played 35 matches on tour , and their only loss was a 3 – 0 defeat to Wales in Cardiff . The match has entered into the folklore of both countries because of a controversy over whether All Black Bob Deans scored a try which would have earned his team a 3 – 3 draw . In contrast to the success of the Originals on the field , the team did antagonise some in the Home Nations ' rugby establishment ; both administrators and the press complained that the All Blacks did not play the game within the amateur and gentlemanly spirit promoted by the International Rugby Football Board . These complaint continued to dog New Zealand teams until the 1930s .
The success of the Originals had uncomfortable consequences for the amateur NZRFU . In 1907 , a party of professional players was assembled to tour the British Isles and play rugby league – a professional offshoot of rugby union that was played by clubs that split from England 's Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) due to disagreements over financial compensation for players . When the All Golds , as the team came to be known , returned they established rugby league in New Zealand , and a large number of players switched to the professional code . English and Welsh authorities were alarmed by the threat of professionalism to rugby in New Zealand , and in 1908 an Anglo @-@ Welsh side undertook a tour to New Zealand to help promote the amateur values under which they believed sport should be played . The tourists were defeated 2 – 0 in the three @-@ test series by New Zealand , but the Anglo @-@ Welsh did manage to draw the second test 3 – 3 .
= = = Development of a legacy = = =
International rugby was suspended during the First World War , but a New Zealand Services team did compete in inter @-@ services competition known as the King 's Cup . After their departure from Europe the side toured South Africa before their return to New Zealand , and that tour paved the way for a South African team to tour New Zealand in 1921 . The Springboks – as the South African team is known – played New Zealand in a test series that ended all square . New Zealand conducted a return tour to South Africa in 1928 , and the test series was again drawn ; both teams winning two tests each .
The 1924 All Black tourists to the British Isles and France were dubbed the Invincibles because they won every game . However , the team was deprived of a potential Grand Slam when Scotland refused to play them because they were upset the tour was organised through the RFU rather than the IRFB . The first British Isles side since 1908 toured New Zealand in 1930 . Although the Lions won the first test , the home side regrouped and went on to win the series 3 – 1 . New Zealand toured the British Isles again in 1935 – 36 , losing only three games – including two tests – during a 30 @-@ match tour . In one of these losses , Prince Obolensky famously scored two tries to help England to a 13 – 0 win ; their first over New Zealand .
In 1937 , South Africa toured New Zealand and decisively won the test series despite losing the first test ; this 1937 South African team has been described as the best team ever to leave New Zealand . It was not until 1949 that New Zealand next played the Springboks when they toured South Africa with Fred Allen as captain . Although each test against South Africa was very close , New Zealand lost the series 4 – 0 . As part of the tour , a contingent of 26 All Blacks travelled to Rhodesia for two non @-@ test exhibition matches . The Rhodesia side beat the All Blacks 10 – 8 in Bulawayo , and then drew 3 – 3 in the follow up match in Salisbury .
At the same time as an All Black team was touring South Africa , Australia were touring New Zealand . The two tours coincided because Māori players were not able to go to South Africa at the time , meaning the Australians , played against a New Zealand team made up of the best Māori and the reserve non @-@ Māori players , while the South Africans encountered the best pākehā ( non @-@ Māori ) players . On the afternoon of 3 September New Zealand , captained by Johnny Smith , were beaten 11 – 6 by Australia in Wellington . New Zealand then lost their second test 16 – 9 , which gave Australia a Bledisloe Cup series win in New Zealand for the first time . 1949 was an annus horribilis for the All Blacks as they lost all six of their test matches , and the experience of playing two test series simultaneously has not been repeated .
The two consecutive series losses to South Africa made their 1956 tour of New Zealand highly anticipated . New Zealand were captained by Bob Duff and coached by Bob Stuart , and their 3 – 1 series win was their first over the Springboks and the Springboks ' first series loss that century . During the series , New Zealand introduced Don Clarke , and brought prop Kevin Skinner out of retirement to help secure the win . Skinner , a former New Zealand boxing champion , had retired from international rugby , but was convinced to return for the third and fourth tests . One reason for Skinner 's selection was to " sort out " the South African props , while Clarke become known as " The Boot " for his goal kicking .
New Zealand 's 3 – 1 series win over the Lions in 1959 proved to be the start of a dominant period in All Black rugby . This was followed by the 1963 – 64 tour to Britain and Ireland , led by Wilson Whineray , in which New Zealand were deprived of a Grand Slam by a scoreless draw with Scotland . The only loss on this tour was to Newport RFC , who won 3 – 0 at Rodney Parade , Newport on 30 October 1963 . The 1967 side won three tests against the home nations , but was unable to play Ireland because of a foot @-@ and @-@ mouth scare . This tour formed part of New Zealand 's longest winning streak , between 1965 and 1970 , of 17 test victories . This was also the longest test winning streak by any nation at the time ; it would be equalled by the Springboks in 1998 , and surpassed by Lithuania in 2010 . Although the 1966 Lions were defeated 0 – 4 in their New Zealand tour , there was a reversal of fortune five years later when the 1971 Lions , under the captaincy of Welshman John Dawes , beat New Zealand in a test series , which remains the Lions ' only series victory in New Zealand .
The 1972 – 3 tourists narrowly missed a Grand Slam with a draw against Ireland . The tour was notable for the sending home of prop Keith Murdoch , who was alleged to have been involved in a brawl in a Cardiff hotel while celebrating the defeat of Wales .
In 1978 , Graham Mourie captained New Zealand to their first Grand Slam , including a 13 – 12 victory over Wales . That game generated controversy after New Zealand won as the result of a late penalty . Lock Andy Haden had dived out of a line @-@ out in an attempt to earn a penalty , but referee Roger Quittenden insisted the penalty was against Welsh lock Geoff Wheel for jumping off the shoulder of Frank Oliver . New Zealand 's only loss on the tour was the famous 12 – 0 defeat by Irish province Munster at Thomond Park . Later a play which focused on the loss was written by John Breen , called Alone it Stands .
= = = Controversial tours = = =
The 1976 All Blacks tour of apartheid South Africa generated much controversy , and led to the boycott of the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal by 33 African nations after the IOC refused to ban the team . New Zealand again failed to win the test series in South Africa : they did not do so until 1996 , after the fall of apartheid . The 1976 Tour contributed to the Gleneagles Agreement being adopted by the Commonwealth Heads of State in 1977 .
The 1981 South African tour to New Zealand sparked protests against South Africa 's apartheid policy the likes of which had not been seen in New Zealand since the 1951 waterfront dispute . The NZRU had invited the Springboks to tour as the Muldoon government refused to involve politics in sport . Although New Zealand won the test series , two of the tour 's provincial games were cancelled and the whole tour was marred by violence and protest . The third and final test match of the tour is sometimes known as the Flour Bomb test , as an anti @-@ apartheid activist in a Cessna light aircraft dropped leaflets , flares , a parachute @-@ supported banner reading " Biko " and flour bombs into Auckland 's Eden Park throughout the match , felling a New Zealand player . During the tour the country experienced unrest , and the tour had a significant impact on New Zealand society .
The 1985 All Blacks tour to South Africa was cancelled after legal action on the grounds that it would breach the NZRU 's constitution . In 1986 , a rebel tour to South Africa took place that had not been authorised by the NZRU and the team , named the Cavaliers , included many All Blacks . Those that participated in the tour received a ban for two tests from the NZRU when they returned to New Zealand . Allegations that players received payment for the tour were never proved .
= = = Early World Cups = = =
New Zealand hosted and won the inaugural World Cup in 1987 beating France 29 – 9 in the final at Eden Park , Auckland . New Zealand conceded only 52 points and scored 43 tries in six games en route to the title , beating Italy , Fiji , Argentina , Scotland , Wales and France .
By the 1991 World Cup New Zealand were an ageing side , co @-@ coached by Alex Wyllie and John Hart . After beating hosts England in the tournament opener , they struggled during pool matches against the United States and Italy , and won their quarter @-@ final against Canada . They were then knocked out by eventual winners Australia 16 – 6 in their semi @-@ final at Lansdowne Road . In the wake of the tournament , there were many retirements , including coach Wyllie , who had enjoyed an 86 % win rate during 29 tests in charge .
Laurie Mains replaced Wyllie in 1992 , and was given the job of preparing the side for the 1995 event in South Africa . New Zealand were again one of the favourites to take the championship . Their status as favourites was enhanced when a young Jonah Lomu scored four tries against England in the 45 – 29 semi @-@ final win . They managed to take hosts South Africa to extra time in the final , before losing 15 @-@ 12 to Joel Stransky 's drop goal .
= = = Professionalism = = =
The professional era in rugby union began in 1995 , spurred by creation of the SANZAR group ( a combination of South Africa , New Zealand and Australia ) which was formed with the purpose of selling broadcast rights for two new competitions , the domestic Super 12 competition and the Tri @-@ Nations . The first Tri @-@ Nations was contested in 1996 , with New Zealand winning all four of their tests to take the trophy . After a 1996 Tri @-@ Nations match hosted by South Africa , won 29 – 18 by New Zealand , preceded a separate three @-@ match test series between the two sides . Under new coach John Hart and the captaincy of Sean Fitzpatrick , New Zealand won a test series in South Africa for the first time . Fitzpatrick rated the series win higher than the 1987 World Cup victory in which he had participated .
The next three seasons saw mixed results for New Zealand , who won all their Tri @-@ Nations tests in 1997 before losing the title for the first time in 1998 . In 1998 New Zealand lost all five tests in the Tri @-@ Nations and Bledisloe Cup series ( two to South Africa and three to Australia ) , the first time they had lost four tests in succession since 1949 . The following year they suffered their worst test loss , 28 – 7 to Australia in Sydney . At the 1999 World Cup later that year , the All Blacks dominated their pool , handing England a 30 – 16 defeat at Twickenham . They advanced past Scotland 30 – 18 in the quarter @-@ finals to play France at Twickenham . After New Zealand finished the first half 17 – 10 ahead , France then produced a famous half of rugby to which New Zealand had no answer , winning 43 – 31 . Hart subsequently resigned as coach and was replaced by co @-@ coaches Wayne Smith and Tony Gilbert .
Under Smith and Gilbert , New Zealand came second in the 2000 and 2001 Tri @-@ Nations , and in neither season did the side reclaim the Bledisloe Cup – which had been lost in 1998 . Both coaches were replaced by John Mitchell on 3 October 2001 , and he went on to coach New Zealand to victory in both the 2002 and 2003 Tri @-@ Nations , as well as regaining the Bledisloe Cup in 2003 . The All Blacks entered the 2003 World Cup as one of the favourites and dominated their pool , running up wins against Italy , Canada and Tonga , before winning one of the most competitive matches of the tournament against Wales . They defeated South Africa in their quarter @-@ final , a team they had never beaten at the World Cup , 29 – 9 , but lost to Australia 22 – 10 in the semi @-@ final in Sydney . Afterwards , Mitchell had to reapply as coach , but the NZRU instead appointed Graham Henry .
= = = Henry era = = =
Henry 's tenure began with a double victory over 2003 Rugby World Cup winners England in 2004 . The two games had an aggregate score of 72 – 15 , and England were kept try @-@ less . Despite the winning start to Henry 's tenure , the Tri @-@ Nations was a mixed success with two wins and two losses . The competition was the closest ever , bonus points decided the outcome , and New Zealand finishing last . The 2004 season finished with three wins in Europe , including a record 45 – 6 victory over France .
In 2005 New Zealand whitewashed the touring British and Irish Lions during their three @-@ match test series , won the Tri @-@ Nations , and achieved a second Grand Slam over the Home Nations for the first time since 1978 . They went on to sweep the major IRB ( now World Rugby ) awards in which they were named : Team of the Year , Henry was named Coach of the Year , and first five @-@ eighth Dan Carter was Player of the Year . New Zealand were nominated for the Laureus World Sports Award for Team of the Year in 2006 for their 2005 performance . The following year they again took the Tri @-@ Nations Series after winning their first five matches , three against Australia and two against South Africa . They lost their final match of the series against South Africa . They completed their end of year tour unbeaten , with record away wins over France , England and Wales . New Zealand were named 2006 IRB Team of the Year and were nominated for the Laureus World Sports Award for the second time , while flanker Richie McCaw was named IRB Player of the Year for the first time .
The 2007 season started off with two mid @-@ year tests against France . New Zealand won the tests 42 – 11 at Eden Park and 61 – 10 at Westpac Stadium . A third game , against Canada , resulted in a 64 – 13 win , although the game was more competitive than the scoreline indicated . New Zealand 's first Tri @-@ Nations game of 2007 was against the Springboks in Durban , South Africa . New Zealand scored two tries in the final ten minutes of the game to win 26 – 21 . The following week against the Wallabies at the Melbourne Cricket Ground the Wallabies upset New Zealand to win 20 – 15 , New Zealand 's first loss to Australia since 2004 . The All Blacks won their following home games to successfully defend the Tri @-@ Nations Series for 2007 . New Zealand entered the 2007 Rugby World Cup as favourites , and topped their pool , beating Scotland , Italy , Romania and Portugal by at least 40 points . However , they then suffered a defeat by hosts France in the quarter @-@ finals in Cardiff . Following the loss to France coach Graham Henry 's job was reappointed amid vocal debate and comment , despite then Crusaders coach Robbie Deans being a strong contender .
The 2008 season started with three mid @-@ year tests , the first against Ireland at Westpac Stadium , Wellington . The final two games were against England , the first at Eden Park and the second at AMI Stadium in Christchurch . New Zealand played their first Tri @-@ Nations game against South Africa at Westpac Stadium in Wellington winning 19 – 8 but a week later at Carisbrook in Dunedin they lost to South Africa 28 – 30 , ending a 30 @-@ match winning streak at home , their previous loss in New Zealand being against England in 2003 . New Zealand played their next Tri @-@ Nations match on 26 July against Australia at Stadium Australia in Sydney , losing 34 – 19 but a week later against Australia at Eden Park in New Zealand won 39 – 10 . The greatest victory for New Zealand in the 2008 season was beating South Africa 19 – 0 in Cape Town at Newlands Stadium . New Zealand played their final match on 13 September against Australia at Suncorp Stadium in Brisbane winning 28 – 24 and retaining the Bledisloe Cup and the Tri @-@ Nations .
The All Blacks opened the 2009 season with a 22 – 27 loss to France at Carisbrook , but defeated them 14 – 10 in Wellington a week later . On points difference , France won the Dave Gallaher Cup for the first time . A week later the All Blacks defeated Italy 27 – 6 in Christchurch . They finished second in the Tri @-@ Nations Series , behind South Africa who lost only one game , and ended the series with a 33 – 6 win over Australia in Wellington .
In 2010 the All Blacks won the Tri @-@ Nations series for the tenth time after three successive victories against South Africa , also retaining the Bledisloe Cup after consecutive victories against Australia . During 2010 New Zealand were undefeated for 15 test matches . Despite losing the 2011 Tri @-@ Nations after a loss to Australia in Brisbane , but still entered the 2011 Rugby World Cup as one of the favourites . The All Blacks went through their pool matches undefeated , and after defeating Argentina , and then Australia , faced France in the final . The final was played at Eden Park , and New Zealand scored one try and a penalty to narrowly win 8 – 7 . Henry stepped down as coach following the World Cup , and was replaced as head coach by his assistant Steve Hansen .
= = = Hansen era = = =
The Tri @-@ Nations was expanded to include Argentina in 2012 , and subsequently renamed The Rugby Championship . The All Blacks went undefeated in the inaugural tournament , and went through the year unbeaten until their last match of the year , where they lost to England at Twickenham . In 2013 New Zealand hosted France in a three @-@ match series – their first meeting since the 2011 World Cup final . They won all three tests , before going unbeaten in the 2013 Rugby Championship . In November 2013 , New Zealand became the first rugby nation in the professional era to achieve a 100 % record in a calendar year .
The team entered the 2015 Rugby World Cup and again went undefeated in their pool matches . They defeated France in the Quarter @-@ Final , South Africa in the Semi @-@ Final and Australia in the Final to become the first nation to retain their World Champion title and the first to win the Rugby World Cup three times .
= = Jersey = =
The current New Zealand jersey is entirely black ( currently referred to as the ' blackest ' jersey ever created ) except the Adidas logo , the NZRU silver fern on the front and the AIG logo in the lower center ( all of which are darkened from previously ) . The 1884 New Zealand tour to Australia was the first overseas New Zealand rugby tour , and featured clothing very different from today 's jersey . Back then , the team donned a dark blue jersey , with gold fern on the left of the jumper . In 1893 the NZRU stipulated at its annual general meeting that the uniform would be black jersey with a silver fern and white knickerbockers . However historic photographs suggest white shorts may have been used instead during these early years . Sometime between 1897 and 1901 there was a change ; by 1901 the team met NSW in a black jersey , a canvas top with no collar , and a silver fern .
In 2006 , New Zealand wore an embroidered remembrance poppy on their jersey sleeve when playing France during the end @-@ of @-@ year tour . The poppy honours the soldiers who died in the battlefields of Europe . Captain Richie McCaw said " We want to honour the overseas service of New Zealanders . It is an important part of our history as a country and a team . "
During the 2011 Rugby World Cup the All Blacks had an embroidered William Webb Ellis cup on the sleeve of their jerseys with the year ' 1987 ' underneath . This was to signify which year the team had won the tournament . Each of the four teams who had won the competition had the same detailing on their jerseys .
Adidas is paying the NZRFU $ 200 million over nine years , expecting New Zealand to win around 75 % of their matches . Nike also looked at sponsoring New Zealand in 1996 , but went with Tiger Woods instead .
The change kit has traditionally been white with black shorts . After a few years playing with a change kit of grey shirt and black shorts , the NZRU announced a return to the traditional white jersey and black shorts in May 2009 . For the 30 July 2011 Springboks match in Wellington , the All Black jersey introduced a white collar in homage to that sported by the 1987 World Cup @-@ winning team .
In 2012 , the NZRU took the controversial step of allowing American insurance and financial services company , AIG , to promote themselves on the centre @-@ front of the All Black jersey . In return , the NZRU would receive direct financial sponsorship that was not revealed ; the deal was estimated to be worth approximately $ 80 million over five years .
Adidas have been the All Black 's kit suppliers since 1999 , taking over from Canterbury .
= = Haka = =
The All Blacks perform a haka ( Māori challenge ) before each international match . The haka has been closely associated with New Zealand rugby ever since a tour of Australia and the United Kingdom by the 1888 – 89 New Zealand Native football team , though the New Zealand team that toured New South Wales in 1884 may also have performed a haka . The New Zealand native team that toured Britain in 1888 and 1889 used Ake Ake Kia Kaha , and the 1903 team in Australia used a mocking haka , Tupoto koe , Kangaru ! . The 1905 All Blacks began the tradition of using Ka Mate – a haka composed in the 19th century by Ngāti Toa leader Te Rauparaha . The 1924 All Blacks used a specially composed haka Ko Niu Tireni , but later All Blacks reverted to Ka Mate .
In August 2005 , before the Tri @-@ Nations test match between New Zealand and South Africa at Carisbrook stadium in Dunedin , New Zealand performed a new haka , Kapa o Pango , specially composed by Derek Lardelli and intended to reflect the Polynesian @-@ influenced multicultural make @-@ up of contemporary New Zealand . Kapa o Pango was to be performed on special occasions and was not intended to replace Ka Mate . Kapa o Pango concludes with what has been interpreted as a " throat slitting " gesture that led to accusations that Kapa o Pango encourages violence , and sends the wrong message to All Blacks fans . However , according to Lardelli , the gesture represents " drawing vital energy into the heart and lungs " .
In November 2006 , at the Millennium Stadium , Cardiff , New Zealand performed the haka in the dressing room prior to the match – instead of on the field immediately before kick @-@ off – after a disagreement with the Welsh Rugby Union , which had wanted Wales to sing their national anthem after the haka . In 2008 , New Zealand played Munster at Thomond Park . Before the match , Munster 's four New Zealanders challenged their opponents by performing a haka before the All Blacks started theirs . On the same tour , Wales responded by silently refusing to move after New Zealand 's haka , and the two teams simply stared at each other until the referee forced them to start the game .
= = Record = =
= = = Overall = = =
New Zealand have only ever been beaten by five test nations , and they are the only international team to have a winning record against every nation they have played . They have won 416 of their 541 test matches – 76 @.@ 89 % ( see table ) , and have lost at home only 37 times . Since World Rankings were introduced by World Rugby in October 2003 , New Zealand have occupied the number one ranking the majority of the time . In the decade from 2000 to 2009 , New Zealand won 100 tests ( 82 % winning percentage ) . As of the 2016 mid @-@ year rugby union internationals , the All Blacks have won a record 41 consecutive tests at home .
New Zealand 's longest winning streak is 17 test victories , achieved between 1965 and 1970 and again between 2013 and 2014 ; the second winning streak included every test played in 2013 . Their longest unbeaten streak is 23 tests ( from 1987 to 1990 ) with one game being drawn .
Their all @-@ time points record for tests stands at 14 @,@ 483 points for and 7 @,@ 033 against ( updated 25 June 2016 ) . Many national teams ' heaviest defeat occurred against New Zealand – the national teams of France , Ireland , Argentina , Fiji , Samoa , Tonga , Japan , and Portugal have all suffered their greatest defeats at the hands of New Zealand . The All Blacks ' largest test win was 145 – 17 against Japan in 1995 , while their heaviest loss was a 28 – 7 loss to Australia in 1999 .
Below is summary of New Zealand test results , updated 25 June 2016 :
= = = World Cup = = =
New Zealand have won the World Cup three times – ( the only team to have done so ) the 1987 inaugural competition held in New Zealand and Australia , the 2011 tournament also hosted in New Zealand – again defeating France and most recently , defeating Australia in England in 2015 ( making them the first and only team to win back to back World Cups ) . In 1991 , they lost their semi @-@ final to Australia before winning the playoff for third . In 1995 , they reached the final , before losing in extra time to hosts South Africa . They finished in fourth place in 1999 , after losing their semi @-@ final and then the third @-@ place playoff game . In 2003 , New Zealand were knocked out by hosts Australia in their semi @-@ final , before finishing third . The 2007 World Cup saw their worst tournament , being knocked out in the quarterfinals by the host nation France ; until this they were the only team to have reached the semifinals of every tournament . As a result of the poor performance in the 2007 World Cup the NZRU commissioned a 47 @-@ page report to detail the causes of the failure . The All Blacks have never lost a World Cup pool match , and have finished top of their pool in all seven tournaments .
New Zealand holds several World Cup records : most World Cup Matches ( 48 ) , most points in one match ( 145 versus Japan in 1995 ) , most cumulative points over all World Cups ( 2 @,@ 248 ) , most tries overall ( 306 ) , most conversions ( 222 ) and also the record for the most points scored in the first half of a knockout game at the Rugby World Cup ( 29 ) ( against France 2015 ) along with the largest knockout margin ( 49 ) in the same match . Several individual players also hold World Cup records ; Jonah Lomu for most World Cup tries ( 15 over two World Cups ) ( Currently tied with South Africa 's Bryan Habana ) , Marc Ellis with most tries in a match ( 6 versus Japan in 1995 ) , Grant Fox with most points in one tournament ( 126 in 1987 ) , and Simon Culhane with most points in a single game ( 45 versus Japan in 1995 ) .
= = = Tri Nations and The Rugby Championship = = =
New Zealand 's only annual tournament is a competition involving the Southern Hemisphere 's top national teams . From 1996 through 2011 , they competed in the Tri Nations against Australia and South Africa . In 2012 , Argentina joined the competition which was renamed The Rugby Championship . New Zealand 's record of eleven tournament wins ( the most recent in 2014 ) and 50 match wins is well ahead of the other teams ' records . The Bledisloe Cup is also contested between New Zealand and Australia , and the Freedom Cup between New Zealand and South Africa , as part of the Tri Nations and The Rugby Championship .
Updated : 8 August 2015Source : espnscrum.com
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
New Zealand 's 32 @-@ man squad for the 2016 June international test series against Wales . Tom Franklin and TJ Perenara are also included as temporary injury cover for Sam Whitelock and Tawera Kerr @-@ Barlow .
On 31 May 2016 , George Moala was called up to the squad as an injury replacement for Charlie Ngatai .
All squad members play rugby in New Zealand .
Note : Caps correct 25 June 2016
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= Herm =
Herm ( Guernésiais : Haerme ) is one of the Channel Islands and part of the Parish of St Peter Port in the Bailiwick of Guernsey . It is located in the English Channel , north @-@ west of France and south of England . It is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long and under 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) wide ; orientated north @-@ south , with several stretches of sand along its northern coast . The much larger island of Guernsey lies to the west and Jersey to the south @-@ east , and the smaller island of Jethou is just off the south @-@ west coast .
Herm was first discovered in the Mesolithic period , and the first settlers arrived in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages . Many tombs from that period remain today , the majority in the north of the island . The island was annexed to the Duchy of Normandy in 933 , but returned to the English Crown with the division of Normandy in 1204 . It was occupied by Germany in the Second World War and the scene of Operation Huckaback , but was largely bypassed . Herm is currently managed by Herm Island Ltd , formed by Starboard Settlement , who acquired Herm in 2008 , following fears during the sale of the island that the ' identity ' of the island was at threat .
Herm 's harbour is on its west coast . There are several buildings of note in the vicinity including the White House , St Tugual 's Chapel , Fisherman 's Cottage , " The Mermaid " pub and restaurant , and a small primary school with about eight children . During a busy summer season , up to 100 @,@ 000 tourists visit the island , arriving by one of the catamaran ferries operated by the Trident Charter Company . Cars are banned from the island , as are bicycles ; quad bikes and tractors used for staff and luggage transport respectively are allowed .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient history to Middle Ages = = =
Herm was first found in the Mesolithic period ( between 10 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 B.C ) , when hunters were in search of food . In the Neolithic and Bronze ages , settlers arrived ; the remains of chamber tombs have been found on the island , and may be seen today ; specifically on the Common , and the Petit and Grand Monceau ; it has been suggested that the northern end of the island , i.e. the Common , was set apart for burials . After a three @-@ year project by the University of Durham , supported by specialists from the University of Cambridge , the University of Oxford , and the Guernsey museum , they stated that the " density of tombs suggests that the northern end of Herm may have been a place set apart for funerary activity " .
The first records of Herm 's inhabitants in historic times are from the 6th century , when the island became a centre of monastic activity ; the followers of Saint Tugual ( also called Tudwal ) arrived , establishing Saint Tugual 's Chapel . In 709 , a storm washed away the strip of land which connected the island with Jethou .
An important moment in Herm 's political history was in 933 , when the Channel Islands were annexed to the Duchy of Normandy , they remained so until the division of Normandy in 1204 , when they became a Crown Dependency . In 1111 Brother Claude Panton was a hermit in " Erm " and in 1117 the then hermit , Brother Francis Franche Montague is recorded as living on " Erm " . After the annexation , Herm gradually lost its monastic inhabitants , and between 1570 and 1737 the governors of Guernsey used it as a hunting ground ; visiting to shoot , hunt , and fish .
= = = 19th century to the Second World War = = =
In 1810 , an inn was founded ; and during the Industrial Revolution , roads , paths , a harbour , accommodation , a forge , blacksmiths , a brewery , a bakery and a prison were built to cater for the largest number of inhabitants since prehistoric times . Most were quarrymen working in new granite quarries . Several quarries can still be seen at present , such as on the Common . When the Prince and Princess Blücher leased the island from the British government during the First World War , he introduced a colony of Red @-@ necked wallabies to the island , around 60 @-@ 70 in number . They increased up to the First World War , after which they decreased in numbers , and the remaining few were re @-@ captured and put in enclosures .
The German occupation of the Channel Islands during the Second World War essentially by @-@ passed Herm . The island was claimed on 20 July 1940 by the Third Reich , ; a few weeks after the arrival of German troops in Guernsey and Jersey , German soldiers landed on the island to shoot a propaganda film , The Invasion of the Isle of Wight . Herm 's sandy beaches were soon used for practising landings from barges , in preparation for the invasion of England , but otherwise the island saw little of the Germans beyond officers making trips to shoot rabbits . Herm had only a little German construction during the war ; a flak battery was placed on the island for a few weeks , and mines were placed in an area . Occasionally German soldiers would travel to Herm to cut wood for fuel . In April 1945 a German officer , Oberst von Helldorf was exiled to Herm for not displaying sufficient loyalty to the Führer .
= = = = Operation Huckaback = = = =
Operation Huckaback was a British Second World War military operation that was originally designed to be a raid on Herm , Jethou and Brecqhou , but instead became only a raid on Herm undertaken on the night of 27 February 1943 , following an earlier attempt that had been aborted . Ten men of the Small Scale Raiding Force and No. 4 Commando under Captain Patrick Anthony Porteous VC landed 200 yards to the north @-@ west of Selle Rocque on a shingle beach and made several unsuccessful attempts to climb the cliff in front of them . Porteous finally managed to climb up the bed of a stream and pulled the others up with a rope . They later reported that they had found no sign of any Islanders or Germans ( who were supposed to be billeted near the harbour ) . They had failed to make contact with the few civilians on the island whose duties included looking after the sheep .
= = = Since 1945 = = =
In 1949 , the States of Guernsey bought Herm from the Crown because of the " unspoilt island idyll that could be enjoyed by locals and tourists alike " . One of the island 's most influential tenants was Major Peter Wood , who looked after the island from 1949 to 1980 with his wife . The island was run down when he arrived , with the manor hidden in undergrowth , the windows and roofs of the houses having been blown off by a sea mine drifting into the harbour shortly after their arrival , but they created a school , and restored St Tugual 's Chapel . Major Wood 's daughter Pennie Wood Heyworth and her husband Adrian succeeded them ; Major Wood died in 1998 . Their early efforts are recorded in Herm , Our Island Home , written by Major Wood 's wife Jenny Wood .
On 17 May 2008 , the BBC reported that the tenants had put the remaining 40 years of their lease up for sale , with an asking price of £ 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Within four days , there were over 50 potential buyers , which led to fears from residents that the island 's identity would be lost if it was bought by the wrong owner . In September 2008 it was announced that Starboard Settlement , a trust , had acquired the remainder of the lease for considerably less than the asking price . The trust formed a company based in Guernsey , Herm Island Ltd , to manage the island for the trustees .
In 2013 , negotiations for a 21 @-@ year extension to the lease broke down , with the tenant offering £ 440 @,@ 000 and the owner requesting £ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 plus improvements to infrastructure .
= = Geography and geology = =
Herm is only 1 ½ miles long and less than half a mile wide . It is oriented so that its greatest length runs north – south . In the northern part of the island are the Le Petit Monceau and Le Grande Monceau hills . To the north of this is a common , leading to Mouisonniere Beach on the northern coast , with Oyster Point in the northwestern corner and La Pointe du Gentilhomme or Alderney Point at the northeastern corner . To the east of the common is Shell Beach and to the west is The Bear 's Beach , leading down to the harbour . Half of the coastline of the northern part of the island is surrounded by sandy beaches ; the southern half is rocky . Much of Herm 's bedrock is granite . In 2008 , Adrian Heyworth , who was at the time the island 's tenant , said that two or three metres of sand were being lost annually at Alderney Point .
Off the northwestern coast of Herm is the islet of Le Plat Houmet , and beyond that Fondu , which like Herm belongs to Guernsey . In Belvoir Bay on the eastern side of the island are the islets of Mouliere , situated off Frenchman 's Point which is to the northeast of the manor village , and Caquorobert . To the south of this off the southeastern coast is Puffin Bay , which contains the islet of Putrainez near the coast and the islet of Selle Rocque further out to the south . The far southwestern point of the island is Point Sauzebourge , and Bishop 's Cove is just to the north of this . North of the cove and south along the beach from the harbour and White House are the Rosiere Steps , with a quarry and cottage of the same name in the vicinity . The Mouette and Percee reefs are offshore here . Hermetier , along known as Rat 's Island , lies about 250 metres ( 820 ft ) off the western coast between Fisherman 's Beach and The Bear 's Beach , to the north of the harbour , linked by a low causeway from the beach .
The isle of Jethou is around three @-@ quarters of a mile to the southwest beyond Point Sauzebourge . It is possible that in AD 709 a storm washed away the strip of land that connected Jethou to Herm . About 215 metres ( 705 ft ) off the northern coast of Jethou is the islet of Crevichon , which measures about 212 metres ( 696 ft ) by 168 metres ( 551 ft ) , with an area of less than three hectares . To the west , between Herm and Guernsey , lies the channel Little Roussel ( Petit Ruau ) ; between Herm and Sark , to the east , lies the Big Roussel ( Grand Ruau ) . Bréhon Tower , a Victorian @-@ era fortification , is in the Little Roussel between Herm and St Peter Port . The tower was created by Thomas Charles de Putron ( 1806 – 1869 ) using granite from Herm between 1854 and 1856 .
= = Politics = =
Herm is part of the St Peter Port parish of Guernsey but is not part of any canton . It belongs to the Electoral District of Saint Peter Port South . It is rented out to various tenants. and , unlike the largely autonomous islands of Sark and Alderney within the Bailiwick , Herm is administered entirely by the States of Guernsey .
Cars and bicycles are banned from Herm , in order to keep " peace and tranquility " . However , Herm does allow quad bikes and tractors for staff and luggage transport respectively .
= = Economy and services = =
Tourism is Herm 's main source of income . During a busy summer season , up to 100 @,@ 000 tourists visit the island , arriving by one of the Travel Trident catamaran ferries operated by the Trident Charter Company . Money is also made from vegetable growing , livestock and the occasional issue of stamps . The residents in Herm are workers on the island and their families .
There are three volunteer Special Constables resident on the island , trained and supervised by the States of Guernsey Police Service . On Bank Holidays they are augmented by a visiting full @-@ time Constable from Guernsey . Crime rates on the island are low .
There are no medical facilities on Herm and no resident doctor . A small team of first aiders and community first responders is maintained amongst the resident population , and receives regular training from the Guernsey Ambulance and Rescue Service , a private company operating on a charitable basis under the umbrella of the Venerable Order of Saint John . Medical evacuation to hospital in Guernsey , where necessary , is achieved by means of the ambulance launch ' Flying Christine III ' operated by the Guernsey Ambulance and Rescue Service .
A voluntary fire service operates on the island . Herm Fire Brigade operates a tractor @-@ hauled fire tender with a hose @-@ reel , a pump , a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ litre water tank , and basic fire @-@ fighting equipment which they use while waiting for assistance from the Guernsey Fire Brigade , who also provide the Herm volunteers with training and support .
= = Notable landmarks = =
The nondenominational St Tugual 's Chapel dates to the 11th century , but it is believed that there was a place of worship on Herm as far back as the 6th century , although it hasn 't been confirmed whether the chapel was founded by St Tugual himself or his followers at a later date . The current building is Norman and appears to have been a monastery during medieval times . Of particular note is its stained glass windows featuring Noah 's Ark and Guernsey cows and Jesus talking to the fisherman at Herm harbour . In 2010 and 2011 , the chapel was closed for restoration work .
Other buildings on the island include the White House hotel , " The Mermaid " pub and restaurant , and 20 self @-@ catering cottages . The most notable cottages are Fisherman 's Cottage , north of the harbour , and Manor Cottage . There is an obelisk on The Common , in the north of the island . The White House has no clocks , televisions , or phones , which is described as " part of its charm " , and has a customer return rate of 70 % ( i.e. each year , 70 % of customers have been before ) . Herm has no consecrated religious buildings or resident professional clergy , but visiting clergy conducts non @-@ denominational weekly services during the summer months , and monthly services , led by local lay people , are held during the winter .
Sculptor Antony Gormley had a sculpture installed on Herm in 2010 , originally planned to be removed after one year , but it received such a positive reception that it was kept for two years , and removed in 2012 . The statue was number XI ( 11 ) of the Another Time series .
= = Education and culture = =
A number of French / Norman placenames remain , from the period when the island was in the jurisdiction of the Duchy of Normandy . The Herm Island map , published by the tenant of Herm , states that main place names , including the island name itself , have unclear origins , although there is an unofficial Anglicisation of names ; for example , La Pointe du gentilhomme was changed to " Alderney Point " . The primary present language on Herm is English .
Herm has one primary school , with around eight pupils ; they are taught by a teacher who travels from Guernsey daily . Children over nine are schooled in Guernsey , usually as boarders .
Herm has won Britain in Bloom categories several times : in 2002 , 2008 , and 2012 , Herm won the Britain in Bloom Gold Award . The author , Compton Mackenzie , who was the island tenant 1920 @-@ 23 , represented it in Fairy Gold , albeit in a fictional representation .
The northern part of the island was recognised in 2016 as an area of international environmental importance under the Ramsar Convention .
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= Turnin Me On =
" Turnin Me On " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Keri Hilson , taken from her debut album , In a Perfect World .... The song features American rapper Lil Wayne who co @-@ wrote the song alongside Hilson and Zachary Anson Wallace . Production credits are shared between Danja and Polow da Don , who also co @-@ wrote the song . Following the minimal chart success of Hilson 's worldwide lead single " Energy " in the United States , international markets received " Return the Favor " , while " Turnin Me On " was released as the third single in the US .
After experimenting with more pop @-@ oriented music in her previous mentioned songs , Hilson opted for a more urban , hip @-@ hop flavored sound for the song , due her to wanting to keep to her roots . While noting her less than stellar vocals on the track , critics praised Hilson 's sassiness and attitude on the track and complimented Lil Wayne 's verse , which has been called the best surprise rap since Lisa " Left Eye " Lopes on TLC 's " Waterfalls . " The song 's accompanying music video features intricate Aaliyah and " Soldier " -esque choreography , dance scenes such as the Bird Walk , and Hilson being flaunted by men . The scenes are intercut with mirror scenes with younger kids .
The song was a commercial success in the United States , reaching number fifteen on the Billboard Hot 100 , whilst reaching two on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Turnin Me On " received two nominations at the 2009 BET Awards , and a " Song of the Year " nomination at the 2009 Soul Train Music Awards . A leaked remix of the song caused controversy , with rumors that Hilson was taking shots at fellow female R & B singers Beyoncé Knowles and Ciara , however Hilson has fervently denied the rumors that it was a diss . Hilson performed the song as a part of a medley at the 2009 Soul Train Music Awards and BET Awards .
= = Background = =
In June 2008 , Rap @-@ Up originally reported the song as " Turn Off " , while Hilson was playing it at Interscope @-@ Geffen @-@ A & M Records ' second annual " Creme of the Crop " post @-@ BET Awards dinner on June 25 , 2008 . Then an unmastered version of " Turn Off " was leaked online in September 2008 . After selecting the predominantly pop @-@ sounding " Energy " and " Return the Favor " , Hilson selected " Turnin Me On " as In a Perfect World ... ' s third single . When asked in an interview with That Grape Juice if choosing the song was a conscious effort , since the song had a different sound than the previous singles , Hilson responded ,
" Absolutely ! I mean , there ’ s another side of me . I ’ m from Decatur , Georgia and that is a predominantly black neighbourhood with a lot of lower @-@ class and some middle @-@ class neighbourhoods . I guess that is the song that probably properly describes the type of girl I am , in relation to where I ’ m from . So yeah , it was definitely a conscious effort to make sure that I stay close to home on some records . "
= = Composition and critical reception = =
The song is a futuristic @-@ esque R & B , synth @-@ driven , bass @-@ heavy urban song , featuring " bouncy " horn samples . Written in the key of C minor the song is in a " moderate R & B groove " . It is set in common time and Hilson 's vocals span from the low note of G3 to the high note of C5 " " Turnin Me On " is lyrically about physical attraction and composed in a hard @-@ edged tone . " MTV Buzzworthy described the song " as one @-@ part Rihanna ' Umbrella ' and two parts Beyoncé ' Ring the Alarm ' "
Naming it a standout track from In a Perfect World ... Andy Kellman of Allmusic called the song a " coquettish trunk rattler . " Barry Walters of Spin complimented Hilson 's " sassiness " on the song which she " wore well . " MTV Buzzworthy called the Wayne 's verse " the best surprise rap since Lisa ' Left Eye ' Lopes ' verse in TLC 's ' Waterfalls . ' " J.K. Glei of Cincinnati Metromix called the track " playful " and said the track was easily the album 's standout , commenting that Lil Wayne 's cameo " steals the show . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commended the song , calling it " tight . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said called the song " slinky " and said , " the busyness coheres , with Ms. Hilson neatly gliding among the song ’ s many layers . And she may need the crutch ; she is a careful , slight singer . " Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times called the song " impeccably arranged . " After watching the video , a writer for BET Sound Off said after it seemed Hilson and her label were losing faith , that " out of nowhere , Keri got her ish together " , and said , " I ’ m sure she ’ ll regain the steam she lost during her first two singles . " Rap @-@ Up called " Turnin Me On " a standout track from In a Perfect World .... The song received several accolades , as it was nominated for " Viewers ' Choice " and " Best Collaboration " at the 2009 BET Awards . Additionally it was nominated for " Song of the Year " at the 2009 Soul Train Music Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
On the issue date of January 3 , 2010 , " Turnin Me On " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number ninety . In its sixth week on the chart , it reached number thirty @-@ five , giving Hilson her second top forty hit at a solo or featured artist . It later reached number fifteen , where it spent two weeks , becoming Hilson 's biggest hit until the top five hit , " Knock You Down . " Overall , the song had a twenty @-@ two week stint on the Hot 100 . Additionally it charted at twenty @-@ eight on the now defunct Pop 100 , and twenty @-@ five on the Pop Songs chart , reaching the peak after seven weeks . On the week of February 28 , 2009 in its eighteenth week on the chart , it peaked at two on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . It debuted at number eighty in Canada , where it peaked , spending a total of four weeks on the Canadian Hot 100 . The song peaked and debuted at twenty @-@ nine on the New Zealand Singles Chart . It fell to thirty @-@ three the following week , and falling off the next week , completing a two @-@ week stint on the chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for the single was directed by Erik White and shot in Atlanta , Georgia . It premiered on November 19 , 2008 , two weeks before the single was released for airplay or download . It was featured on E ! News on December 15 , 2008 . Rich Boy , Polow da Don , and Leah LaBelle make cameos in the clip . While it was reported that T.I. would appear in the video , a doppelgänger does instead . The video is set almost entirely behind white and black backdrops , besides one club scene . Hilsonperforms choreography such as the Bird Walk , which according to MTV Buzzworthy is Aaliyah @-@ style choreography , while being flaunted by shirtless , muscular men and donning " on " and " off " finger rings . BET Sound Off noted that some of the choreography was similar to Destiny 's Child 's " Soldier . " As Hilson continues to be flaunted and performs additional choreography , which includes crumping @-@ like moves , the scenes are interspersed with younger kids re @-@ enacting the same scenes . Hilson appears alongside a speaker and a group of men dancing before the video cuts to Wayne . In this scene the rapper delivers his verse alongside Hilson in front of a black backdrop and on a couch . Near the end the younger girls and boys are shown performing Hilson and her dancers ' moves , as the latter also continue to be flaunted by men . The video ends with Hilson being turned off by men at a club , with women in the club wearing " off " earrings like on Hilson 's fingers .
MTV Buzzworthy said , " give it up for her sleek biker chick @-@ meets @-@ Park @-@ Slope wardrobe and feel free to ogle / drool over the parade of shirtless dudes who look like they jumped off the cover of Abs Weekly magazine . " The review also complimented " rapper / pants @-@ dropper extraodinaire Lil Wayne " who helped " push her chest @-@ bumpin ' vid into must @-@ see territory . " Although commenting it a " Soldier " knock @-@ off , BET Sound Off blog said , " the visual is pretty entertaining . " Tracey Ford of AOL Boombox said , " the diva makes it perfectly clear how easy it is to turn a woman on and off . " The video ranked at number two on BET : Notarized Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown .
= = Live performances = =
In promoting her album , Hilson performed the song on February 2 , 2009 on 106 & Park . Hilson performed the song on March 17 , 2009 on Dogg After Dark . Lil Wayne joined her to perform the song with " Energy " on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! " Turnin Me On " was performed by Hilson at BET 's Spring Bling 2009 , and at BET 's Rip the Runway 2009 . She performed the song as part of medleys at the 2009 BET Awards as well as the 2009 Soul Train Music Awards .
= = Remixes = =
The official remix of the song features new verses from Hilson & Lil Wayne and an additional verse & intro by R & B singer T @-@ Pain . It was leaked on March 3 , 2009 . The leaked version of the official remix also features background vocals by Polow da Don , which was removed on the final version . The final version of the remix can be found Atlanta DJ Greg Street 's mixtape , " Sertified Worldwide " .
Several remixes for the song were released . Busta Rhymes is featured on one remix , to which BET Sound Off preferred to the original version , commenting , " Not that I don ’ t appreciate Keri and Weezy ’ s version because it ’ s actually a snazzy lil ditty , but Busta ’ s ambiance over Polow ’ s sound scape gives me a different vibe , that ' stand on your desk and mean mug everyone in your office who tells you to turn down your music ' vibe . " In January 2010 , a remix featuring T.I. was released . A MSTRKRFT remix of the original version was released on iTunes .
= = = Diss controversy = = =
On March 3 , 2009 , a remix version of the song , entitled " Turnin ' Me Off " , featuring a new verses from Hilson , Lil Wayne , and an additional by T @-@ Pain surfaced online . In the remix , Hilson takes jabs at two unnamed female entertainers . Referred to as " the remix heard round the industry " , media rumored that Hilson was taking shots at Beyoncé Knowles and Ciara , in lines like " You can dance , she can sing but need to move it to the left .. " , possibly referencing Ciara 's acclaimed dancing ability , and Beyoncé 's hit " Irreplaceable . " The lyrics also point at other possible shots taken toward the artists such as Hilson stating one needs to " go sit down and have babies " and points out several songs written for the other . A BET columnist wrote , " critics couldn 't fathom the purpose or reasoning behind the malicious gesture " , while a writer for BET Sound Off noted that if Hilson or her management intended to engage in this , that it would be " career suicide . "
However in an interview with Hard Knock TV , Hilson denied the claims that the remix was directed at dissing Knowles or Ciara . According to Hilson , Polow da Don gave her the idea to do a " fiery " record . Although she said she was not retracting anything in the song , calling her response a " blanket statement " she said she was not going to feel some sort of way about how other people interpret , and that blatantly dissing anyone was not the energy behind the record . Hilson commented she wanted to address the haters , and all the media speculation about the remarks was something they did not intend to accomplish with the song . She also addressed that the release of the song was not an intentional leak , stating most remixes are meant to be done when a record is hot , and although admitting that while " Turnin Me On " was not " a number one record " , the remix was done three months prior .
While calling into WVEE during their interview with Ciara and Polow da Don , Hilson said ,
" I just want to tell Ciara it ’ s not about you . People are just reading way too far into it . People take things and make it what they want it to be . It wasn ’ t taking shots at nobody . " [ sic ] I just want to let Atlanta know and Ciara know that this is a true leak . I did , and I don 't know if Polow said this on the radio , but I did fight this coming out . I didn 't want this coming out because we played it for people when I did it and that 's what people said it was about ; they started throwing out names . We were like ' No , it 's not about that ' and we tried to let them know what it was really about . But the fact that people brought back names , it was like ok , that wasn 't the reaction we need , so I told Polow , ' let 's not do this and he agreed " .
Ciara happened to call in during the time period and said she was happy of where Hilson was at in her career , to which Hilson responded the same , saying how proud she was , and " watching her from ground zero . " Hilson went on to state she was not jealous of anyone 's career , noting how all female R & B artists are the same , pointing out that " Keyshia ’ s on my album . I ’ ve worked with Ciara many times . I ’ m a fan of Beyoncé ’ s . " When asked exactly who the song is about , Hilson said the targets knew who they were , responding , " It ’ s anybody that ever tried to take me down and didn ’ t want to see me succeed . I ’ m not gonna call their names because I feel I ’ ve addressed it . " She further clarified , commenting " I will say this , my journey has been 12 years long and there have been many people , specifically girls , and it really just isn 't one person , it 's been a lot of people . "
Rumors circulated once again when Ciara released a viral video " Basic Instinct ( U Got Me ) " to kick off promotion for her album of the same name . Ciara addressed claims that remarks in the song were referring to Hilson in an interview with Rap @-@ Up , stating that the song was dedicated to her haters , gave her a chance to express herself , and was about trusting her first instinct on everything .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Songwriting - Keri Hilson , Dwayne Carter , Jamal Jones , Zachary Anson Wallace
Production - Polow da Don , Danja ( additional )
Vocal arrangement and production - Keri Hilson
Recording - Tony Terrebone , Marcella Araica , Njason Schweitzer
Mixing - Marcella Araica
Source
= = Charts = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Release history = =
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= 1999 – 2000 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1999 – 2000 South @-@ West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone season was the first on record in which two storms – Leon – Eline and Hudah – struck Mozambique at tropical cyclone intensity , or with maximum sustained winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The most notable storm of the season was Eline , which was the longest @-@ lasting storm on record in the basin . It lasted for 29 days while traversing the southern Indian Ocean , making the strongest landfall in decades along eastern Madagascar in late February . The storm was the first in a series of three storms that struck the country in early 2000 , along with Gloria in March and Hudah in April . Collectively , the three storms killed at least 316 people . The season started on November 1 , 1999 , and ended for most of the basin on April 30 , 2000 ; for Mauritius and the Seychelles , the season continued until May 15 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the basin ;
Despite the destructive nature of the season , it began later than usual . Cyclone Astride originated toward the end of December , bringing rainfall and gusty winds to northern Madagascar while in the region . In January , cyclones Babiola and Connie both formed east of Madagascar and took southerly tracks . Connie passed near Réunion island , producing 1 @,@ 752 mm ( 69 @.@ 0 in ) of rainfall in the mountainous peaks and killing two people . Eline , the longest lasting storm of the season , struck Mozambique while the country was experiencing its worst flooding in 50 years , collectively causing around 700 deaths and about $ 500 million in damage . The storm also killed 12 people in Zimbabwe and 21 in South Africa . Just two weeks after Eline struck Madagascar , Tropical Storm Gloria affected the same general region , bringing additional deaths and damage . Cyclone Hudah in April was the strongest storm of the season , reaching peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) . It caused three deaths in Mozambique , although its effects were worse in Madagascar , where there were 111 deaths . The final storm of the season was Tropical Storm Innocente , which dissipated on April 24 . In addition to the named storms , there were four unnamed tropical disturbances or storms , as well as one subtropical cyclone that formed in the southern Mozambique Channel .
= = Season summary = =
The Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin during the season . The agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique , which utilized the continuous satellite imagery in the basin since May 1998 . Wind estimates were sustained over 10 minutes , to be converted to 1 ‑ minute winds by dividing by 0 @.@ 88 , as compared to a divisor of 0 @.@ 80 in previous years . Warnings on tropical cyclones in the region were from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E , south of the equator . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center – a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force – also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the region . Beginning this season , the MFR changed their method for labeling tropical disturbances , classifying them sequentially by number . In previous years , the agency labeled disturbances by letter and number of the subsequent unnamed storm .
The season began later than usual , the third consecutive one to do so . There were no indications of tropical cyclogenesis before the middle of December , putting the season among the latest 20 % since 1967 in terms of seasons ' first storms . On December 26 , the MFR utilized the QuikSCAT satellite for the first time in the basin to assess a storm 's intensity . During the season , 14 tropical disturbances formed , which is near average , and they tended to last longer than normal . Eleven of these disturbances became tropical depressions , of which nine attained gale force winds and were named . In addition , four storms reached tropical cyclone intensity , or 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The 9 named storms and 4 tropical cyclones is also the basin average for each category in a given year . There were 61 days in which a storm was active , greater than the median of 48 and more than double than the previous season . In general , storms formed south of 10 ° S , with the exception of the first storm Astride , and most storms generally tracked east to west due to a strong ridge east of Madagascar .
= = Storms = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Astride = = =
On December 23 , a circulation with accompanying convection became evident about 400 km ( 250 mi ) southeast of Diego Garcia , becoming a tropical disturbance . While moving to the south , the thunderstorms organized more , aided by low wind shear , good outflow , warm waters , and its position beneath an anticyclone . Curving west @-@ southwestward due to a ridge to the south , the system intensified into a tropical depression and later Tropical Storm Astride on December 25 . That day , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 03S . The storm developed a large area of convection , prompting the MFR to upgrade it to a severe tropical storm on December 26 , estimating 10 ‑ minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . On December 27 , the JTWC upgraded Astride to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane due to the appearance of an eye feature , estimating 1 ‑ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Later that day , the storm weakened unexpectedly , perhaps related to wind shear from a trough to the south . The convection deteriorated markedly , and the weakening storm turned more to the west @-@ northwest on December 29 due to a weaker ridge . Convection reorganized slightly , although it was dislocated from the center . Early on December 30 , the storm passed about 70 km ( 45 mi ) northeast of Tromelin Island . Curving back to the west , Astride struck northeastern Madagascar between Vohemar and Antsiranana on December 31 as a minimal tropical storm . It emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a tropical depression , and despite forecasts to the contrary , it reintensified into a tropical storm before passing near Mayotte on January 2 . Early the next day , Astride weakened back to tropical depression status before moving ashore eastern Mozambique near Pemba , dissipating soon after .
On Tromelin , Astride brought strong winds , including 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) and gusts to 127 km / h ( 79 mph ) . No damage was reported in Madagascar during the storm 's passage there . When Astride passed just south of Mayotte , it brought gusts to 76 km / h ( 47 mph ) , strong enough to knock over some banana trees and to destroy a stone house . The storm also dropped 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall over 24 hours , including 41 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) in one hour . Heavy rainfall accompanied Astride 's final landfall , penetrating as far inland as Malawi .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Babiola = = =
Toward the beginning of January , the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) remained active across much of the basin , with low pressure and widespread thunderstorms . One such area persisted southeast of Diego Garcia and organized sufficiently to be classified as a tropical disturbance on January 3 . That day , the JTWC issued the first of three tropical cyclone formation alerts , noting the increase in convection . The system moved to the northeast along the southeastern edge of a ridge near the equator , but turned back to the southwest on January 5 . That day , convection increased over the center , after having previously been dislocated due to wind shear . Late on January 5 , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 02S , and on the next day , the MFR upgraded the system to Tropical Storm Babiola . The storm accelerated to the southwest and continued to intensity . An irregular eye formed on January 8 , prompting the MFR to upgrade Babiola to tropical cyclone status . The outflow and the eye became more pronounced after further strengthening , and the cyclone attained peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) on January 9 . The JTWC , by contrast , estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) .
Around the time of peak intensity , Babiola began turning more to the south due to an approaching trough . Late on January 9 , the cyclone passed about 400 km ( 250 mi ) east of Rodrigues . Increased shear weakened the eyewall and convection , and Babiola weakened below cyclone status on January 11 . Early the next day , the JTWC discontinued advisories as the storm was beginning to become extratropical . The MFR followed suit later on January 12 , although the agency continued to track Babiola . The storm shifted south @-@ southwestward on January 13 before resuming its southeast trajectory , influenced by a ridge to the south . On January 14 , the remnants of Babiola passed just west of Île Amsterdam , where gusts reached 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) . Later that day , the storm merged with the trough that had originally turned it to the southeast .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Connie = = =
An area of thunderstorms formed on January 22 east of the northern tip of Madagascar , organizing into a tropical disturbance three days later . By late on January 25 , the MFR upgraded the system to Tropical Storm Connie , and on the same day the JTWC initiated advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 08S . With favorable conditions , Connie gradually organized while initially stationary , later beginning a steady southeast motion on January 26 . The JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane on January 27 , around the same time that the MFR upgraded Connie to tropical cyclone status . The storm 's eye became well @-@ defined as the winds increased , and the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) on January 28 ; on the same day , the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) . Increased shear weakened the storm as it curved southwestward , and late on January 29 Connie passed about 130 km ( 80 mi ) northwest of Réunion . The storm turned to the southeast again and became extratropical on February 1 , dissipating the next day .
While passing northwest of Mauritius , the outer fringes of Connie brought heavy rains peaking at 647 mm ( 25 @.@ 5 in ) over the span of six days , or equivalent to a month 's worth of precipitation . These rains helped relieve extreme drought conditions . The storm also produced gusts of 134 km / h ( 83 mph ) , and one person died after falling off his roof . The storm also brought heavy rainfall to Réunion , totaling 1 @,@ 752 mm ( 69 @.@ 0 in ) , of which 1 @,@ 296 mm ( 51 @.@ 0 in ) occurred in over 24 hours . Wind gusts there reached 155 km / h ( 95 mph ) in Peite France . Many roads across the island were damaged , and about 40 @,@ 000 people lost power , while more than 100 homes were destroyed . Two persons were killed , and 600 people were left homeless . Although the agriculture sector suffered the most significant damages , overall damage was minor .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Damienne = = =
The same monsoon trough that spawned Connie also produced an area of convection southeast of Diego Garcia on January 28 . The circulation slowly organized , and the MFR classified it as a tropical disturbance on January 30 . A nearby trough steered the system southeastward initially and later to the southwest . On January 31 , the system became a tropical depression , and later Moderate Tropical Storm Damienne the next day , reaching peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Also on February 1 , the JTWC initiated warnings on Tropical Cyclone 10S , which estimated 1 ‑ minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Increased wind shear removed the convection on February 2 , causing marked weakening , and prompting the JTWC to discontinue advisories that day . This was despite forecasts of strengthening to near tropical cyclone status . As a weak tropical disturbance , Damienne turned to a rapid westward motion , passing north of Rodrigues and Tromelin . The circulation dissipated on February 7 off the northeast coast of Madagascar .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Leon – Eline = = =
On February 1 , a low @-@ pressure area formed within the monsoon trough to the south of Indonesia , which would eventually become Tropical Cyclone Leon in the Australian basin , as well as Tropical Cyclone 11S according to JTWC . The storm tracked westward across much of the Indian Ocean , fluctuating in strength due to changes in the atmosphere . After crossing 90 ° E , the MFR began tracking the system as Tropical Storm Eline on February 8 . The storm continued westward across the Indian Ocean and intensified greatly as it approached the east coast of Madagascar . Late on February 17 , Eline made landfall near Mahanoro with 10 ‑ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , making it the strongest storm to hit the country in several decades . The storm rapidly weakened over land , but restrengthened in the Mozambique Channel to reach peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . On February 22 , Eline made landfall about 80 km ( 50 mi ) south of Beira , Mozambique near peak intensity and quickly weakened over land . The well @-@ defined circulation moved across southern African , finally dissipating over eastern Namibia on February 29 . Throughout its duration , Leon – Eline lasted 29 days , a record longevity for a storm in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . The track was over 11 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 800 mi ) , or about 25 % of the Earth 's circumference .
Eline struck while Madagascar was in the midst of a cholera epidemic that had killed over 1 @,@ 000 people . The storm directly killed at least 64 people in Madagascar , although Tropical Storm Gloria struck shortly thereafter , compounding upon the damage and making it difficult to discern the individual damage totals . Damage from Eline was estimated at US $ 9 million . Collectively the two storms killed 205 people in the country , destroyed about half of the rice harvest , and left 10 @,@ 000 homeless . In the region around Vatomandry , where Eline made landfall , 65 % of houses were damaged , 90 % of crops were lost , and 75 % of health facilities were wrecked .
Before Eline struck Mozambique , the worst floods since 1951 had affected the nation since January , killing about 150 people . The additional rainfall and flooding from Eline created the country 's worst natural disaster in a century . The combined effects destroyed over 250 @,@ 000 ha ( 620 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields and killed 40 @,@ 000 cattle . Eline 's passage disrupted ongoing relief efforts , with the port in Beira blocked for two weeks due to five sunken ships . High levels along the Limpopo River isolated the town of Xai @-@ Xai , with water levels along the river reaching as high as 11 m ( 36 ft ) above normal in some areas , as well as 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) wide . A dam broke along the river , flooding the town of Chokwe in the middle of the night and trapping several unprepared residents . About 55 people drowned in Sofala Province after rescue helicopters arrived too late to save them . Around 20 @,@ 000 people in the capital city of Maputo lost their homes . In addition to the floods , strong winds blew away many roofs and some entire houses made of mud . The combined effects of the preceding floods and Eline left about 300 @,@ 000 people homeless , about 700 deaths , and damage estimated at $ 500 million ( 2000 USD ) . The cyclone and the floods disrupted much of the economic progress Mozambique had made in the 1990s since the end of its civil war .
Elsewhere in southern Africa , Eline brought strong winds and heavy rainfall when it crossed into eastern Zimbabwe , due to maintaining a well @-@ defined structure . Rivers overflowed their banks in the country , damaging crops and houses while leaving 15 @,@ 000 people homeless . The storm killed 12 people in the country . Flooding from the storm extended southward into Swaziland and South Africa . In the latter country , Eline dropped 503 mm ( 19 @.@ 8 in ) of rainfall in Levubu over three days , causing the Limpopo River to reach its highest level in 15 years . Officials opened dams along the Limpopo River to prevent structural damage , which caused higher levels along the river to the east . At least 21 people died in the country , and about 80 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , forcing many people into churches and schools . Damage in Limpopo Province alone was estimated at $ 300 million ( USD ) . To the north , Eline dropped about 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall in southern Malawi , while gusty winds caused a power outage in Blantyre . Farther west , rainfall rates of 50 – 100 mm ( 2 – 4 in ) were also reported in Botswana .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Felicia = = =
While Eline was making landfall on Madagascar , another area of convection formed to its east on February 17 within the ITCZ . Its structure was similar to a monsoon depression , due to a large circulation with weak winds near the center . However , it was organized enough to be classified as a tropical disturbance on February 18 to the southeast of Diego Garcia . It moved southeastward with increasing convection , prompting the Mauritius Meteorological Service to name it Felicia while still as a tropical depression on February 20 . The convection however remained disorganized , and there were several small circulations within the broad gyre . After turning to the southwest due to a nearby trough , Felicia 's circulation became more compact , as evidenced by a QuikSCAT pass . Outflow increased as wind shear decreased , and Felicia became a moderate tropical storm on February 21 . On the same day , the JTWC initiated advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 12S .
Late on February 22 , the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , while the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . This was based on a 100 km ( 60 mi ) wide eye feature that had developed in the storm 's center . Around the time of peak intensity , Felicia passed about 500 km ( 310 mi ) southeast of Rodrigues . The interaction of the trough and a ridge to the east increased wind shear , causing the storm to weaken . On February 24 , the storm became extratropical while still maintaining a well @-@ defined circulation . It slowed and looped back to the northwest due to a ridge to the south , gradually becoming less defined and dissipating on February 26 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Gloria = = =
On February 27 , a circulation formed within the monsoon trough between Diego Garcia and St. Brandon , displaced due to wind shear , but organized enough for the MFR to track it as Tropical Disturbance 8 . The shear gradually decreased , allowing the thunderstorms to organize as it moved westward . On February 28 , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 15S , and on February 29 the MFR upgraded it to tropical depression status . The depression turned west @-@ northwestward before rounding a ridge and turning to the southwest . The thunderstorms organized into a central dense overcast on March 1 , prompting the MFR to upgrade it to Moderate Tropical Storm Gloria only 150 km ( 95 mi ) from the northeast coast of Madagascar . Gloria continued quickly to the southwest , gradually intensifying and developing an eye feature ; on that basis , the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , or severe tropical storm status , by the time it made landfall 10 km ( 6 mi ) north of Sambava . Operationally , the JTWC upgraded Gloria to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , with 1 ‑ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , although the agency downgraded the storm to the same peak as the MFR . The structure initially remained well @-@ defined , although the circulation became difficult to locate as it progressed through the country . On March 4 , the system exited Madagascar into the Mozambique Channel with scattered thunderstorms slowly reforming . On the next day , the JTWC discontinued advisories , although the MFR continued monitoring the system , labeling it as a tropical disturbance on March 8 . Later that day , Gloria made landfall near Inhambane in southeastern Mozambique before turning to a southward drift , dissipating on March 10 .
As a developing disturbance , Gloria produced winds approaching gale @-@ force on St. Brandon . Similar conditions were reported on Tromelin . When Gloria struck Madagascar , it produced sustained winds of 72 km / h ( 45 mph ) at Antalaha , about 70 km ( 45 mi ) south of Sambava . The storm brought heavy rainfall , with Mananjary reporting a two ‑ day total of 427 mm ( 16 @.@ 8 in ) . The rains from Gloria occurred less than two weeks after Cyclone Leon – Eline struck the country , bringing additional flooding , landslides , and damage . In Sambava , near where Gloria moved ashore , the storm killed 18 people , destroyed hundreds of homes , and damaged a road connecting the area to the capital of Madagascar , Antananarivo . Farther inland , the cyclone killed 40 people at Andapa . Overall , Gloria killed at least 66 people , although the exact toll was initially unknown due to disrupted communications . Before Gloria emerged into the Mozambique Channel , various news outlets noted the potential for the storm to affect storm @-@ ravaged Mozambique . However , minimal rainfall accompanied Gloria 's final landfall . The rains were enough to delay flights for a day , which were transporting relief aid following Eline 's devastating landfall in Mozambique .
= = = Very Intense Tropical Cyclone Hudah = = =
A tropical low formed in the Australian basin on March 24 , moving westward due to a strong subtropical ridge to the south . Despite having intensified enough , the Bureau of Meteorology did not name the system , and on March 25 the system crossed into the South @-@ West Indian Ocean , whereupon it was named Hudah . An eye formed , and the storm intensified into a tropical cyclone on March 27 well to the southeast of Diego Garcia . The structure fluctuated due to dry air , although Hudah was able to intensify steadily on March 31 after conditions became more favorable . The next day , the MFR upgraded it to a very intense tropical cyclone , estimating peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) . By contrast , the JTWC estimated 1 ‑ minute winds of 235 km / h ( 145 mph ) . Cyclone Hudah maintained peak winds until making landfall just southeast of Antalaha , Madagascar on April 2 . It weakened greatly over land , but like Eline it re @-@ intensified over the Mozambique Channel . It re @-@ attained tropical cyclone status on April 5 and reached 10 ‑ minute winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) by the time it made landfall on Mozambique near Pebane , Mozambique on April 8 . It dissipated by the next day .
While in the vicinity , Hudah brought moderate winds to Rodrigues , St. Brandon , and Tromelin . The cyclone affected the same parts of Madagascar that were previously impacted by Eline and Gloria . Waves reached at least 8 m ( 26 ft ) in height along the coast . The storm was considered the worst to affect the Antalaha region in 20 years , where 90 % of homes were destroyed . It was estimated that the storm left at least 100 @,@ 000 people homeless in Madagascar , and there were 111 deaths . In Mozambique , damage was much less than expected , and the storm affected areas farther north in the country than where Eline struck . Heavy rainfall occurred along the coast , but was insufficient to cause river flooding . Strong winds damaged roofs and downed trees , mostly around Pebane , and the storm killed three people .
= = = Subtropical Depression 13 = = =
On April 6 , a cold front exited the southeast coast of Africa into the Mozambique Channel , producing a small circulation on the next day southeast of Mozambique . On April 7 , the system organized into Subtropical Depression 13 and gradually separated from the dissipating cold front . A ridge to the south steered the depression northward as the system became better defined . However , persistent wind shear initially prevented convection from organizing over the center . On April 9 , the depression turned northwestward toward Mozambique as thunderstorms increased , aided by a decrease in wind shear through a shift in the jet stream . The center came very close to the Mozambique coast near Inhambane . Due to the small radius of maximum winds , the coastline was spared from strong gusts , although the system dropped 93 @.@ 8 mm ( 3 @.@ 69 in ) of rainfall in Inhambane over 48 hours .
The storm turned toward the east on April 11 away from land . Convection organized thereafter into an eye feature , but was weaker than thunderstorms in typical tropical cyclones , resulting in its subtropical classification . The MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) on April 12 , noting that the system should have been named , but also that its " structure has had no recent analogue in [ the basin ] . " Meanwhile , the JTWC issued three tropical cyclone formation alerts , but never issued advisories . An increase in wind shear deteriorated the eye feature and the convection , promptly causing weakening . On April 15 , the circulation dissipated off the southwest coast of Madagascar .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Innocente = = =
The final storm of the year had its origins in the Australian basin . An area of convection persisted on April 8 to the southwest of Indonesia , developing a distinct center two days later while moving to the west . However , the thunderstorms were unable to organize due to wind shear . On April 11 , the MFR estimated that the system became a tropical disturbance , although since it was east of 90 ° E the agency did not issue advisories at that time . On the next day , the system crossed into the basin and was classified as Tropical Disturbance 14 . Over the next few days , the convection waxed and waned , with the strongest winds in the northern periphery . On April 14 , the JTWC began tracking the system as Tropical Cyclone 26S . The disturbance maintained a general west @-@ southwest trajectory , influenced by a ridge to the south . After slowing down and encountering a more favorable environment , the system intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Innocente on April 17 , reaching peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Operationally , the MFR upgraded Innocente to storm status a day earlier , only to downgrade and re @-@ upgrade ; it was maintained as a depression during this time . The return of wind shear again caused weakening , beginning on April 18 . A weak circulation persisted for several days , turning to the northwest with brief increases in thunderstorms . On April 24 , Innocente dissipated , although the circulation drew moisture from the south to produce heavy rainfall on Mauritius , peaking at around 400 mm ( 8 in ) .
= = = Other storms = = =
Throughout the latter half of January , thunderstorms persisted in the Mozambique Channel . On January 12 , the MFR classified an area of convection as Tropical Disturbance 3 , although the agency ceased issuing advisories on the next day . Convection persisted , with an associated exposed circulation as of January 22 . Two days later , the MFR issued one bulletin on the system before dropping advisories . The JTWC tracked the system as an area of potential development until January 26 , when the thunderstorms weakened . The disturbance brought heavy rainfall to southwestern Madagascar , which followed a prolonged drought . In Morombe , rainfall over 36 hours accumulated to the average yearly total . This caused flooding and damage to crops and preceded devastating flooding that affected the nation over the subsequent months .
Toward the end of February , the ITCZ produced a large area of convection in the eastern portion of the basin which would spawn two disturbances . On February 29 , Tropical Disturbance 9 formed within the system well to the southeast of Diego Garcia . The convection organized slightly despite easterly wind shear , which left the circulation exposed . On March 1 , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 17S , estimating winds of tropical storm force the next day . The MFR , by contrast , classified it as a tropical depression while moving generally southwestward . The convection weakened on March 3 due to the wind shear , and the circulation steered more to the west @-@ northwest . After nearly dissipating on March 5 , the thunderstorms reorganized , possibly due to influence from the monsoon . It turned back to the east , possibly due to interaction with the approaching Cyclone Norman in the Australian basin . Convection soon after diminished over the depression , and the system dissipated on March 11 near 90 ° E.
On March 1 , Tropical Disturbance 10 formed within the same system that spawned the previous depression , only farther to the west . It also encountered wind shear , preventing much intensification . The system remained nearly stationary and failed to organize more . The MFR issued its last advisory on March 3 . The MFR also issued bulletins on Norman as Tropical Disturbance 11 , which briefly entered the basin on March 10 before dissipating .
= = Storm names = =
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm . A new annual list is used every year so no names are retired .
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= Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia =
Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia ( HHT ) , also known as Osler – Weber – Rendu disease and Osler – Weber – Rendu syndrome , is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder that leads to abnormal blood vessel formation in the skin , mucous membranes , and often in organs such as the lungs , liver , and brain .
It may lead to nosebleeds , acute and chronic digestive tract bleeding , and various problems due to the involvement of other organs . Treatment focuses on reducing bleeding from blood vessel lesions , and sometimes surgery or other targeted interventions to remove arteriovenous malformations in organs . Chronic bleeding often requires iron supplements and sometimes blood transfusions . HHT is transmitted in an autosomal dominant fashion , and occurs in one in 5 @,@ 000 people .
The disease carries the names of Sir William Osler , Henri Jules Louis Marie Rendu , and Frederick Parkes Weber , who described it in the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
= = = Telangiectasias = = =
Telangiectasia ( small vascular malformations ) may occur in the skin and mucosal linings of the nose and gastrointestinal tract . The most common problem is nosebleeds ( epistaxis ) , which happen frequently from childhood and affect about 90 – 95 % of people with HHT . Lesions on the skin and in the mouth bleed less often but may be considered cosmetically displeasing ; they affect about 80 % . The skin lesions characteristically occur on the lips , the nose and the fingers , and on the skin of the face in sun @-@ exposed areas . They appear suddenly , with the number increasing over time .
About 20 % are affected by symptomatic digestive tract lesions , although a higher percentage have lesions that do not cause symptoms . These lesions may bleed intermittently , which is rarely significant enough to be noticed ( in the form of bloody vomiting or black stool ) , but can eventually lead to depletion of iron in the body , resulting in iron @-@ deficiency anemia .
= = = Arteriovenous malformation = = =
Arteriovenous malformation ( AVM , larger vascular malformations ) occur in larger organs , predominantly the lungs ( 50 % ) , liver ( 30 – 70 % ) and the brain ( 10 % ) , with a very small proportion ( < 1 % ) having AVMs in the spinal cord .
Vascular malformations in the lungs may cause a number of problems . The lungs normally " filter out " bacteria and blood clots from the bloodstream ; AVMs bypass the capillary network of the lungs and allow these to migrate to the brain , where bacteria may cause a brain abscess and blood clots may lead to stroke . HHT is the most common cause of lung AVMs : out of all people found to have lung AVMs , 70 – 80 % are due to HHT . Bleeding from lung AVMs is relatively unusual , but may cause hemoptysis ( coughing up blood ) or hemothorax ( blood accumulating in the chest cavity ) . Large vascular malformations in the lung allow oxygen @-@ depleted blood from the right ventricle to bypass the alveoli , meaning that this blood does not have an opportunity to absorb fresh oxygen . This may lead to breathlessness . Large AVMs may lead to platypnea , difficulty in breathing that is more marked when sitting up compared to lying down ; this probably reflects changes in blood flow associated with positioning . Very large AVMs cause a marked inability to absorb oxygen , which may be noted by cyanosis ( bluish discoloration of the lips and skin ) , clubbing of the fingernails ( often encountered in chronically low oxygen levels ) , and a humming noise over the affected part of the lung detectable by stethoscope .
The symptoms produced by AVMs in the liver depend on the type of abnormal connection that they form between blood vessels . If the connection is between arteries and veins , a large amount of blood bypasses the body 's organs , for which the heart compensates by increasing the cardiac output . Eventually congestive cardiac failure develops ( " high @-@ output cardiac failure " ) , with breathlessness and leg swelling among other problems . If the AVM creates a connection between the portal vein and the blood vessels of the liver , the result may be portal hypertension ( increased portal vein pressure ) , in which collateral blood vessels form in the esophagus ( esophageal varices ) , which may bleed violently ; furthermore , the increased pressure may give rise to fluid accumulation in the abdominal cavity ( ascites ) . If the flow in the AVM is in the other direction , portal venous blood flows directly into the veins rather than running through the liver ; this may lead to hepatic encephalopathy ( confusion due to portal waste products irritating the brain ) . Rarely , the bile ducts are deprived of blood , leading to severe cholangitis ( inflammation of the bile ducts ) . Liver AVMs are detectable in over 70 % of people with HHT , but only 10 % experience problems as a result .
In the brain , AVMs occasionally exert pressure , leading to headaches . They may also increase the risk of seizures , as would any abnormal tissue in the brain . Finally , hemorrhage from an AVM may lead to intracerebral hemorrhage ( bleeding into the brain ) , which causes any of the symptoms of stroke such as weakness in part of the body or difficulty speaking . If the bleeding occurs into the subarachnoid space ( subarachnoid hemorrhage ) , there is usually a severe , sudden headache and decreased level of consciousness and often weakness in part of the body .
= = = Other problems = = =
A very small proportion ( those affected by SMAD4 ( MADH4 ) mutations , see below ) have multiple benign polyps in the large intestine , which may bleed or transform into colorectal cancer . A similarly small proportion experiences pulmonary hypertension , a state in which the pressure in the lung arteries is increased , exerting pressure on the right side of the heart and causing peripheral edema ( swelling of the legs ) , fainting and attacks of chest pain . It has been observed that the risk of thrombosis ( particularly venous thrombosis , in the form of deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism ) may be increased . There is a suspicion that those with HHT may have a mild immunodeficiency and are therefore at a slightly increased risk from infections .
= = Genetics = =
HHT is a genetic disorder by definition . It is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner , which means that an affected person carries one abnormal gene with a 50 % chance of passing this gene to offspring . Those with HHT symptoms that have no relatives with the disease may have a new mutation . It seems that carrying two abnormal copies of the gene is not compatible with life , and hence no homozygotes have been described .
Five genetic types of HHT are recognized . Of these , three have been linked to particular genes , while the two remaining have currently only been associated with a particular locus . More than 80 % of all cases of HHT are due to mutations in either ENG or ACVRL1 . A total of over 600 different mutations is known . There is likely to be a predominance of either type in particular populations , but the data are conflicting . MADH4 mutations , which cause colonic polyposis in addition to HHT , comprise about 2 % of disease @-@ causing mutations . Apart from MADH4 , it is not clear whether mutations in ENG and ACVRL1 lead to particular symptoms , although some reports suggest that ENG mutations are more likely to cause lung problems while ACVRL1 mutations may cause more liver problems , and pulmonary hypertension may be a particular problem in people with ACVRL1 mutations . People with exactly the same mutations may have different nature and severity of symptoms , suggesting that additional genes or other risk factors may determine the rate at which lesions develop ; these have not yet been identified .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Telangiectasias and arteriovenous malformations in HHT are thought to arise because of changes in angiogenesis , the development of blood vessels out of existing ones . The development of a new blood vessel requires the activation and migration of various types of cells , chiefly endothelium , smooth muscle and pericytes . The exact mechanism by which the HHT mutations influence this process is not yet clear , and it is likely that they disrupt a balance between pro- and antiangiogenic signals in blood vessels . The wall of telangiectasias is unusually friable , which explains the tendency of these lesions to bleed .
All genes known so far to be linked to HHT code for proteins in the TGF @-@ β signaling pathway . This is a group of proteins that participates in signal transduction of hormones of the transforming growth factor beta superfamily ( the transforming growth factor beta , bone morphogenetic protein and growth differentiation factor classes ) , specifically BMP9 / GDF2 and BMP10 . The hormones do not enter the cell but link to receptors on the cell membrane ; these then activate other proteins , eventually influencing cellular behavior in a number of ways such as cellular survival , proliferation ( increasing in number ) and differentiation ( becoming more specialized ) . For the hormone signal to be adequately transduced , a combination of proteins is needed : two each of two types of serine / threonine @-@ specific kinase type membrane receptors and endoglin . When bound to the hormone , the type II receptor proteins phosphorylate ( transfer phosphate ) onto type I receptor proteins ( of which Alk @-@ 1 is one ) , which in turn phosphorylate a complex of SMAD proteins ( chiefly SMAD1 , SMAD5 and SMAD8 ) . These bind to SMAD4 and migrate to the cell nucleus where they act as transcription factors and participate in the transcription of particular genes . In addition to the SMAD pathway , the membrane receptors also act on the MAPK pathway , which has additional actions on the behavior of cells . Both Alk @-@ 1 and endoglin are expressed predominantly in endothelium , perhaps explaining why HHT @-@ causing mutations in these proteins lead predominantly to blood vessel problems . Both ENG and ACVRL1 mutations lead predominantly to underproduction of the related proteins , rather than misfunctioning of the proteins .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnostic tests may be conducted for various reasons . Firstly , some tests are needed to confirm or refute the diagnosis . Secondly , some are needed to identify any potential complications .
= = = Telangiectasias = = =
The skin and oral cavity telangiectasias are visually identifiable on physical examination , and similarly the lesions in the nose may be seen on endoscopy of the nasopharynx or on laryngoscopy . The severity of nosebleeds may be quantified objectively using a grid @-@ like questionnaire in which the number of nosebleed episodes and their duration is recorded .
Digestive tract telangiectasias may be identified on esophagogastroduodenoscopy ( endoscopy of the esophagus , stomach and first part of the small intestine ) . This procedure will typically only be undertaken if there is anemia that is more marked than expected by the severity of nosebleeds , or if there is evidence of severe bleeding ( vomiting blood , black stools ) . If the number of lesions seen on endoscopy is unexpectedly low , the remainder of the small intestine may be examined with capsule endoscopy , in which the patient swallows a capsule @-@ shaped device containing a miniature camera which transmits images of the digestive tract to a portable digital recorder .
= = = Arteriovenous malformations = = =
Identification of AVMs requires detailed medical imaging of the organs most commonly affected by these lesions . Not all AVMs cause symptoms or are at risk of doing so , and hence there is a degree of variation between specialists as to whether such investigations would be performed , and by which modality ; often , decisions on this issue are reached together with the patient .
Lung AVMs may be suspected because of the abnormal appearance of the lungs on a chest X @-@ ray , or hypoxia ( low oxygen levels ) on pulse oximetry or arterial blood gas determination . Bubble contrast echocardiography ( bubble echo ) may be used as a screening tool to identify abnormal connections between the lung arteries and veins . This involves the injection of agitated saline into a vein , followed by ultrasound @-@ based imaging of the heart . Normally , the lungs remove small air bubbles from the circulation , and they are therefore only seen in the right atrium and the right ventricle . If an AVM is present , bubbles appear in the left atrium and left ventricle , usually 3 – 10 cardiac cycles after the right side ; this is slower than in heart defects , in which there are direct connections between the right and left side of the heart . A larger number of bubbles is more likely to indicate the presence of an AVM . Bubble echo is not a perfect screening tool as it can miss smaller AVMs and does not identify the site of AVMs . Often contrast @-@ enhanced computed tomography ( CT angiography ) is used to identify lung lesions ; this modality has a sensitivity of over 90 % . It may be possible to omit contrast administration on modern CT scanners . Echocardiography is also used if there is a suspicion of pulmonary hypertension or high @-@ output cardiac failure due to large liver lesions , sometimes followed by cardiac catheterization to measure the pressures inside the various chambers of the heart .
Liver AVMs may be suspected because of abnormal liver function tests in the blood , because the symptoms of heart failure develop , or because of jaundice or other symptoms of liver dysfunction . The most reliable initial screening test is Doppler ultrasonography of the liver ; this has a very high sensitivity for identifying vascular lesions in the liver . If necessary , contrast @-@ enhanced CT may be used to further characterize AVMs . It is extremely common to find incidental nodules on liver scans , most commonly due to focal nodular hyperplasia ( FNH ) , as these are a hundredfold times more common in HHT compared to the general population . FNH is regarded as harmless . Generally , tumor markers and additional imaging modalities are used to differentiate between FNH and malignant tumors of the liver . Liver biopsy is discouraged in people with HHT as the risk of hemorrhage from liver AVMs may be significant . Liver scans may be useful if someone is suspected of HHT , but does not meet the criteria ( see below ) unless liver lesions can be demonstrated .
Brain AVMs may be detected on computed tomography angiography ( CTA or CT angio ) or magnetic resonance angiography ( MRA ) ; CTA is better in showing the vessels themselves , and MRA provides more detail about the relationship between an AVM and surrounding brain tissue . In general , MRI is recommended . Various types of vascular malformations may be encountered : AVMs , micro @-@ AVMs , telangiectasias and arteriovenous fistulas . If surgery , embolization , or other treatment is contemplated ( see below ) , cerebral angiography may be required to get sufficient detail of the vessels . This procedure carries a small risk of stroke ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) and is therefore limited to specific circumstances . Recent professional guidelines recommend that all children with suspected or definite HHT undergo a brain MRI early in life to identify AVMs that can cause major complications . Others suggest that screening for cerebral AVMs is probably unnecessary in those who are not experiencing any neurological symptoms , because most lesions discovered on screening scans would not require treatment , creating undesirable conundrums .
= = = Genetic testing = = =
Genetic tests are available for the ENG , ACVRL1 and MADH4 mutations . Testing is not always needed for diagnosis , because the symptoms are sufficient to distinguish the disease from other diagnoses . There are situations in which testing can be particularly useful . Firstly , children and young adults with a parent with definite HHT may have limited symptoms , yet be at risk from some of the complications mentioned above ; if the mutation is known in the affected parent , absence of this mutation in the child would prevent the need for screening tests . Furthermore , genetic testing may confirm the diagnosis in those with limited symptoms who otherwise would have been labeled " possible HHT " ( see below ) .
Genetic diagnosis in HHT is difficult , as mutations occur in numerous different locations in the linked genes , without particular mutations being highly frequent ( as opposed to , for instance , the ΔF508 mutation in cystic fibrosis ) . Sequence analysis of the involved genes is therefore the most useful approach ( sensitivity 75 % ) , followed by additional testing to detect large deletions and duplications ( additional 10 % ) . Not all mutations in these genes have been linked with disease .
Mutations in the MADH4 gene is usually associated with juvenile polyposis , and detection of such a mutation would indicate a need to screen the patient and affected relatives for polyps and tumors of the large intestine .
= = = Criteria = = =
The diagnosis can be made depending on the presence of four criteria , known as the " Curaçao criteria " . If three or four are met , a patient has " definite HHT " , while two gives " possible HHT " :
Spontaneous recurrent epistaxis
Multiple telangiectasias in typical locations ( see above )
Proven visceral AVM ( lung , liver , brain , spine )
First @-@ degree family member with HHT
Despite the designation " possible " , someone with a visceral AVM and a family history but no nosebleeds or telangiectasias is still extremely likely to have HHT , because these AVMs are very uncommon in the general population . At the same time , the same cannot be said of nosebleeds and sparse telangiectasias , both of which occur in people without HHT , in the absence of AVMs . Someone 's diagnostic status may change in the course of life , as young children may not yet exhibit all the symptoms ; at age 16 , thirteen percent are still indeterminate , while at age 60 the vast majority ( 99 % ) have a definite diagnostic classification . The children of established HHT patients may therefore be labeled as " possible HHT " , as 50 % may turn out to have HHT in the course of their life .
= = Treatment = =
Treatment of HHT is symptomatic ( it deals with the symptoms rather than the disease itself ) , as there is no therapy that stops the development of telangiectasias and AVMs directly . Furthermore , some treatments are applied to prevent the development of common complications . Chronic nosebleeds and digestive tract bleeding can both lead to anemia ; if the bleeding itself cannot be completely stopped , the anemia requires treatment with iron supplements . Those who cannot tolerate iron tablets or solutions may require administration of intravenous iron sucrose , and blood transfusion if the anemia is causing severe symptoms that warrant rapid improvement of the blood count .
Most treatments used in HHT have been described in adults , and the experience in treating children is more limited . Women with HHT who get pregnant are at an increased risk of complications , and are observed closely , although the absolute risk is still low ( 1 % ) .
= = = Nosebleeds = = =
An acute nosebleed may be managed with a variety of measures , such as packing of the nasal cavity with absorbent swabs or gels . Removal of the packs after the bleeding may lead to reopening of the fragile vessels , and therefore lubricated or atraumatic packing is recommended . Some patients may wish to learn packing themselves to deal with nosebleeds without having to resort to medical help .
Frequent nosebleeds can be prevented in part by keeping the nostrils moist , and by applying saline solution , estrogen @-@ containing creams or tranexamic acid ; these have few side effects and may have a small degree of benefit . A number of additional modalities has been used to prevent recurrent bleeding if simple measures are unsuccessful . Medical therapies include oral tranexamic acid and estrogen ; the evidence for these is relatively limited , and estrogen is poorly tolerated by men and possibly carries risks of cancer and heart disease in women past the menopause . Nasal coagulation and cauterization may reduce the bleeding from telangiectasias , and is recommended before surgery is considered ; often , several sessions are needed . It may be possible to embolize vascular lesions through interventional radiology ; this requires passing a catheter through a large artery and locating the maxillary artery under X @-@ ray guidance , followed by the injection into the vessel of particles that occlude the blood vessels . The benefit from the procedure tends to be short @-@ lived , and it may be most appropriate in episodes of severe bleeding .
If other interventions have failed , several operations have been reported to provide benefit . One is septal dermoplasty or Saunders ' procedure , in which skin is transplanted into the nostrils , and the other is Young 's procedure , in which the nostrils are sealed off completely .
= = = Skin and digestive tract = = =
The skin lesions of HHT can be disfiguring , and may respond to treatment with long @-@ pulsed Nd : YAG laser . Skin lesions in the fingertips may sometimes bleed and cause pain . Skin grafting is occasionally needed to treat this problem .
With regards to digestive tract lesions , mild bleeding and mild resultant anemia is treated with iron supplementation , and no specific treatment is administered . There is limited data on hormone treatment and tranexamic acid to reduce bleeding and anemia . Severe anemia or episodes of severe bleeding are treated with endoscopic argon plasma coagulation ( APC ) or laser treatment of any lesions identified ; this may reduce the need for supportive treatment . The expected benefits are not such that repeated attempts at treating lesions are advocated . Sudden , very severe bleeding is unusual — if encountered , alternative causes ( such as a peptic ulcer ) need to be considered — but embolization may be used in such instances .
= = = Lung AVMs = = =
Lung lesions , once identified , are usually treated to prevent episodes of bleeding and more importantly embolism to the brain . This is particularly done in lesions with a feeding blood vessel of 3 mm or larger , as these are the most likely to cause long @-@ term complications unless treated . The most effective current therapy is embolization with detachable metal coils . The procedure involves puncture of a large vein ( usually under a general anesthetic ) , followed by advancing of a catheter through the right ventricle and into the pulmonary artery , after which radiocontrast is injected to visualize the AVMs ( pulmonary angiography ) . Once the lesion has been identified , coils are deployed that obstruct the blood flow and allow the lesion to regress . In experienced hands , the procedure tends to be very effective and with limited side effects , but lesions may recur and further attempts may be required . CTA scans are repeated to monitor for recurrence . Surgical excision has now essentially been abandoned due to the success of embolotherapy .
Those with either definite pulmonary AVMs or an abnormal contrast echocardiogram with no clearly visible lesions are deemed to be at risk from brain emboli . They are therefore counselled to avoid scuba diving , during which small air bubbles may form in the bloodsteam that may migrate to the brain and cause stroke . Similarly , antimicrobial prophylaxis is advised during procedures in which bacteria may enter the bloodstream , such as dental work , and avoidance of air bubbles during intravenous therapy .
= = = Liver AVMs = = =
Given that liver AVMs generally cause high @-@ output cardiac failure , the emphasis is on treating this with diuretics to reduce the circulating blood volume , restriction of salt and fluid intake , and antiarrhythmic agents in case of irregular heart beat . This may be sufficient in treating the symptoms of swelling and breathlessness . If this treatment is not effective or leads to side effects or complications , the only remaining option is liver transplantation . This is reserved for those with severe symptoms , as it carries a mortality of about 10 % , but leads to good results if successful . The exact point at which liver transplantion is to be offered is not yet completely established . Embolization treatment has been attempted , but leads to severe complications in a proportion of patients and is discouraged .
Other liver @-@ related complications ( portal hypertension , esophageal varices , ascites , hepatic encephalopathy ) are treated with the same modalities as used in cirrhosis , although the use of transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt treatment is discouraged due to the lack of documented benefit .
= = = Brain AVMs = = =
The decision to treat brain arteriovenous malformations depends on the symptoms that they cause ( such as seizures or headaches ) . The bleeding risk is predicted by previous episodes of hemorrhage , and whether on the CTA or MRA scan the AVM appears to be deep seated or have deep venous drainage . Size of the AVM and the presence of aneurysms appears to matter less . In HHT , some lesions ( high @-@ flow arteriovenous fistulae ) tend to cause more problems , and treatment is warranted . Other AVMs may regress over time without intervention . Various modalities are available , depending on the location of the AVM and its size : surgery , radiation @-@ based treatment and embolization . Sometimes , multiple modalities are used on the same lesion .
Surgery ( by craniotomy , open brain surgery ) may be offered based on the risks of treatment as determined by the Spetzler – Martin scale ( grade I @-@ V ) ; this score is higher in larger lesions that are close to important brain structures and have deep venous drainage . High grade lesions ( IV and V ) have an unacceptably high risk and surgery is not typically offered in those cases . Radiosurgery ( using targeted radiation therapy such as by a gamma knife ) may be used if the lesion is small but close to vital structures . Finally , embolization may be used on small lesions that have only a single feeding vessel .
= = = Experimental treatments = = =
Several anti @-@ angiogenesis drugs approved for other conditions , such as cancer , have been investigated in small clinical trials . The anti @-@ VEGF antibody bevacizumab , for instance , has been used off @-@ label in several studies . In the largest study conducted so far , bevacizumab infusion was associated with a decrease in cardiac output and reduced duration and number of episodes of epistaxis in treated HHT patients . Thalidomide , another anti @-@ angiogenesis drug , was also reported to have beneficial effects in HHT patients . Thalidomide treatment was found to induce vessel maturation in an experimental mouse model of HHT and to reduce the severity and frequency of nosebleeds in the majority of a small group of HHT patients . The blood hemoglobin levels of these treated patients rose as a result of reduced hemorrhage and enhanced blood vessel stabilization .
= = Epidemiology = =
Population studies from numerous areas in the world have shown that HHT occurs at roughly the same rate in almost all populations : somewhere around 1 in 5000 . In some areas , it is much more common ; for instance , in the French region of Haut Jura the rate is 1 : 2351 - twice as common as in other populations . This has been attributed to a founder effect , in which a population descending from a small number of ancestors has a high rate of a particular genetic trait because one of these ancestors harbored this trait . In Haut Jura , this has been shown to be the result of a particular ACVRL1 mutation ( named c.1112dupG or c.1112 _ 1113insG ) . The highest rate of HHT is 1 : 1331 , reported in Bonaire and Curaçao , two islands in the Caribbean belonging to the Netherlands Antilles .
Most people with HHT have a normal lifespan . The skin lesions and nosebleeds tend to develop during childhood . AVMs are probably present from birth , but don 't necessarily cause any symptoms . Frequent nosebleeds are the most common symptom and can significantly affect quality of life .
= = History = =
Several 19th century English physicians , starting with Henry Gawen Sutton ( 1836 – 1891 ) and followed by Benjamin Guy Babington ( 1794 – 1866 ) and John Wickham Legg ( 1843 – 1921 ) , described the most common features of HHT , particularly the recurrent nosebleeds and the hereditary nature of the disease . The French physician Henri Jules Louis Marie Rendu ( 1844 – 1902 ) observed the skin and mucosal lesions , and distinguished the condition from hemophilia . The Canadian @-@ born Sir William Osler ( 1849 – 1919 ) , then at Johns Hopkins Hospital and later at Oxford University , made further contributions with a 1901 report in which he described characteristic lesions in the digestive tract . The English physician Frederick Parkes Weber ( 1863 – 1962 ) reported further on the condition in 1907 with a series of cases . The term " hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia " was first used by the American physician Frederic M. Hanes ( 1883 – 1946 ) in a 1909 article on the condition .
The diagnosis of HHT remained a clinical one until the genetic defects that cause HHT were identified by a research group at Duke University Medical Center , in 1994 and 1996 respectively . In 2000 , the international scientific advisory committee of HHT Foundation International published the now widely used Curaçao criteria . In 2006 , a group of international experts met in Canada and formulated an evidence @-@ based guideline , sponsored by the HHT Foundation International .
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= Gray 's Inn =
The Honourable Society of Gray 's Inn , commonly known as Gray 's Inn , is one of the four Inns of Court ( professional associations for barristers and judges ) in London . To be Called to the Bar and practise as a barrister in England and Wales , an individual must belong to one of these Inns . Located at the intersection of High Holborn and Gray 's Inn Road in Central London , the Inn is both a professional body and a provider of office accommodation ( chambers ) for many barristers . It is ruled by a governing council called " Pension " , made up of the Masters of the Bench ( or " Benchers " ) , and led by the Treasurer , who is elected to serve a three @-@ year term . The Inn is known for its gardens , or Walks , which have existed since at least 1597 .
Gray 's Inn does not claim a specific foundation date ; there is a tradition that none of the Inns of Court claims to be any older than the others . Law clerks and their apprentices have been established on the present site since at least 1370 , with records dating from 1391 . During the 15th and 16th centuries , the Inn grew steadily with great prestige , reaching its pinnacle during the reign of Elizabeth I. The Inn was home to many important barristers and politicians , most notably Francis Bacon , and counted Elizabeth herself as a patron . Thanks to the efforts of prominent members such as William Cecil and Gilbert Gerard , Gray 's Inn became the largest of the four by number , with over 200 barristers recorded as members . During this period , the Inn became noted for the masques and revels that it threw , and William Shakespeare is believed to have performed there at least once .
The Inn continued to prosper during the reign of James I ( 1603 – 1625 ) and the beginning of that of Charles I , when over 100 students per year were recorded as joining . The outbreak of the First English Civil War in 1642 during the reign of Charles I disrupted the systems of legal education and governance at the Inns of Court , shutting down all calls to the Bar and new admissions , and Gray 's Inn never fully recovered . Fortunes continued to decline after the English Restoration , which saw the end of the traditional method of legal education . Although now more prosperous , Gray 's Inn is today the smallest of the Inns of Court .
= = Role = =
Gray 's Inn and the other three Inns of Court remain the only bodies legally allowed to call a barrister to the Bar , allowing him or her to practise in England and Wales . Although the Inn was previously a disciplinary and teaching body , these functions are now shared between the four Inns , with the Bar Standards Board ( a division of the General Council of the Bar ) acting as a disciplinary body and the Inns of Court and Bar Educational Trust providing education . The Inn remains a collegiate self @-@ governing , unincorporated association of its members , providing within its precincts library , dining , residential and office accommodation ( chambers ) , along with a chapel . Members of the Bar from other Inns may use these facilities to some extent .
= = History = =
During the 12th and 13th centuries , law was taught in the City of London , primarily by the clergy . During the 13th century , two events happened that destroyed this form of legal education ; firstly , a decree by Henry III of England on 2 December 1234 that no institutes of legal education could exist in the City of London , and secondly a papal bull was issued in 1254 that prohibited the clergy from teaching the common law , rather than canon law . As a result , the existing system of legal education fell apart . The common lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn , the nearest place to the law courts at Westminster Hall that was outside the City .
= = = Founding and early years = = =
The early records of all four Inns of Court have been lost , and it is not known precisely when each was founded . The records of Gray 's Inn itself are lost until 1569 , and the precise date of founding cannot therefore be verified . Lincoln 's Inn has the earliest surviving records . Gray 's Inn dates from at least 1370 , and takes its name from Baron Grey of Wilton , as the Inn was originally Wilton 's family home ( or inn ) , the Manor of Portpoole . A lease was taken for various parts of the inn by practising lawyers as both residential and working accommodation , and their apprentices were housed with them . From this the tradition of dining in " commons " , probably by using the inn 's main hall , followed as the most convenient arrangement for the members . Outside records from 1437 show that Gray 's Inn was occupied by socii , or members of a society , at that date .
In 1456 Reginald de Gray , the owner of the Manor itself , sold the land to a group including Thomas Bryan . A few months later , the other members signed deeds of release , granting the property solely to Thomas Bryan . Bryan acted as either a feoffee or an owner representing the governing body of the Inn ( there are some records suggesting he may have been a Bencher at this point ) but in 1493 he transferred the ownership by charter to a group including Sir Robert Brudenell and Thomas Wodeward , reverting the ownership of the Inn partially back to the Gray family .
In 1506 the Inn was sold by the Gray family to Hugh Denys and a group of his feoffees including Roger Lupton . This was not a purchase on behalf of the society and after a five @-@ year delay , it was transferred under the will of Denys in 1516 to the Carthusian House of Jesus of Bethlehem ( Sheen Priory ) , which remained the Society 's landlord until 1539 , when the Second Act of Dissolution led to the Dissolution of the Monasteries and passed ownership of the Inn to the Crown .
= = = Elizabethan golden age = = =
During the reign of Elizabeth I , Gray 's Inn rose in prominence , and that period is considered the " golden age " of the Inn , with Elizabeth serving as the Patron Lady . This can be traced to the actions of Nicholas Bacon , William Cecil and Gilbert Gerard , all prominent members of the Inn and confidantes of Elizabeth . Cecil and Bacon in particular took pains to find the most promising young men and get them to join the Inn . In 1574 it was the largest of all the Inns of Court by number , with 120 barristers , and by 1619 it had a membership of more than 200 barristers .
Gray 's Inn , as well as the other Inns of Court , became noted for the parties and festivals it hosted . Students performed masques and plays in court weddings , in front of Queen Elizabeth herself , and hosted regular festivals and banquets at Candlemas , All Hallows Eve and Easter . At Christmas the students ruled the Inn for the day , appointing a Lord of Misrule called the Prince of Purpoole , and organising a masque entirely on their own , with the Benchers and other senior members away for the holiday .
The Gray 's Inn masque in 1588 with its centrepiece , The Misfortunes of Arthur by Thomas Hughes , is considered by A.W. Ward be the most impressive masque thrown at any of the Inns . William Shakespeare performed at the Inn at least once , as his patron , Lord Southampton , was a member . For the Christmas of 1594 , his play The Comedy of Errors was performed by the Lord Chamberlain 's Men before a riotous assembly of notables in such disorder that the affair became known as the Night of Errors and a mock trial was held to arraign the culprit .
Central to Gray 's was the system shared across the Inns of Court of progress towards a call to the Bar , which lasted approximately 12 to 14 years . A student would first study at either Oxford or Cambridge University , or at one of the Inns of Chancery , which were dedicated legal training institutions . If he studied at Oxford or Cambridge he would spend three years working towards a degree , and be admitted to one of the Inns of Court after graduation . If he studied at one of the Inns of Chancery he would do so for one year before seeking admission to the Inn of Court to which his Inn of Chancery was tied — in the case of Gray 's Inn , the attached Inns of Chancery were Staple Inn and Barnard 's Inn .
The student was then considered an " inner barrister " , and would study in private , take part in the moots and listen to the readings and other lectures . After serving from six to nine years as an " inner barrister , " the student was called to the Bar , assuming he had fulfilled the requirements of having argued twice at moots in one of the Inns of Chancery , twice in the Hall of his Inn of Court and twice in the Inn Library . The new " utter barrister " was then expected to supervise bolts ( " arguments " over a single point of law between students and barristers ) and moots at his Inn of Court , attend lectures at the Inns of Court and Chancery and teach students . After five years as an " utter " barrister he was allowed to practice in court — after 10 years he was made an Ancient .
The period saw the establishment of a regular system of legal education . In the early days of the Inn , the quality of legal education had been poor — readings were given infrequently , and the standards for call to the Bar were weak and varied . During the Elizabethan age readings were given regularly , moots took place daily and barristers who were called to the Bar were expected to play a part in teaching students , resulting in skilled and knowledgeable graduates from the Inn .
Many noted barristers , judges and politicians were members of the Inn during this period , including Gilbert Gerard , Master of the Rolls , Edmund Pelham , Lord Chief Justice of Ireland , and Francis Bacon , who served as Treasurer for eight years , supervising significant changes to the facilities of the Inn and the first proper construction of the gardens and walks for which the Inn is noted .
= = = Caroline period and the English Civil War = = =
At the start of the Caroline era , when Charles I came to the throne , the Inn continued to prosper . Over 100 students were admitted to the Inn each year , and except during the plague of 1636 the legal education of students continued . Masques continued to be held , including one in 1634 organised by all four Inns that cost £ 21 @,@ 000 — approximately £ 3 @,@ 170 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms . Before 1685 the Inn counted as members five dukes , three marquises , twenty @-@ nine earls , five viscounts and thirty @-@ nine barons , and during that period " none can exhibit a more illustrious list of great men " .
Many academics , including William Holdsworth , a man considered to be one of the best legal academics in history , maintain that this period saw a decline in the standard of teaching at all the Inns . From 1640 onwards no readings were held , and barristers such as Sir Edward Coke remarked at the time that the quality of education at the Inns of Court had decreased . Holdsworth put this down to three things — the introduction of printed books , the disinclination of students to attend moots and readings and the disinclination of the Benchers and Readers to enforce attendance .
With the introduction of printing , written legal texts became more available , reducing the need for students to attend readings and lectures . However , this meant that the students denied themselves the opportunity to query what they had learnt or discuss it in greater detail . Eventually , students now had a way to learn without attending lectures , they began to excuse themselves from lectures , meetings and moots altogether ; in the early 17th century they developed a way of deputising other students to do their moots for them . The Benchers and Readers did little to arrest the decline of the practice of lecturers and readings , first because many probably believed ( as the students did ) that books were an adequate substitute , and secondly because many were keen to avoid the work of preparing a reading , which cut into their time as practising barristers . These problems were endemic to all the Inns , not just Gray 's Inn .
The outbreak of the First English Civil War led to a complete suspension of legal education , and from November 1642 until July 1644 no Pension meetings were held . Only 43 students were admitted during the four years of the war , and none were called to the Bar . Meetings of Pension resumed after the Battle of Marston Moor but the education system remained dormant . Although Readers were appointed , none read , and no moots were held . In 1646 , after the end of the war , there was an attempt to restore the old system of readings and moots , and in 1647 an order was made that students were required to moot at least once a day . This failed to work , with Readers refusing to read , and the old system of legal education completely died out .
The Caroline period saw a decline in prosperity for Gray 's Inn . Although there were many notable members of the Inn , both legal ( Sir Dudley Digges , Thomas Bedingfield and Francis Bacon , for example ) and non @-@ legal ( including William Juxon , the Archbishop of Canterbury ) , the list could not compare to that of the Elizabethan period . Following the English Restoration , admissions fell to an average of 57 a year .
= = = English Restoration to present = = =
The fortunes of Gray 's Inn continued to decline after the English Restoration , and by 1719 only 22 students were joining the Inn a year . This fall in numbers was partly because the landed gentry were no longer sending sons who had no intention of becoming barristers to study at the Inn . In 1615 , 13 students joined the Inn for every student called to the Bar , but by 1713 the ratio had become 2 @.@ 3 new members to every 1 call .
Over a 50 @-@ year period , the Civil War and high taxation under William III economically crippled many members of the gentry , meaning that they could not afford to allow their sons to study at the Inns . David Lemmings considers it to have been more serious than that , for two reasons ; firstly , Inner Temple and Middle Temple had actually shown an increase in membership following the Restoration , and secondly because Gray 's Inn had previously had far more " common " members than the other Inns . The decrease in the number of gentry at the Inn could therefore not completely explain the large drop in members .
Gray 's Inn was the venue for an early first @-@ class cricket match on Thursday , 2 July 1730 between London and Kent . Kent won the game by an unknown margin . The original source reports " a cricket @-@ match between the Kentish men and the Londoners for £ 50 , and won by the former " , giving the precise location as " a field near the lower end of Gray 's Inn Lane , London " .
In 1733 the requirements for a call to the Bar were significantly revised in a joint meeting between the Benchers of Inner Temple and Gray 's Inn , revisions accepted by Lincoln 's Inn and Middle Temple , although they were not represented . It is not recorded what these changes were , but after a further discussion in 1762 the Inns adopted a rule that any student with a Master of Arts or Bachelor of Laws degree from the universities of Oxford or Cambridge could be called to the Bar after three years as a student , and any other student could be called after five years . An attempt was made to increase the quality of legal education at Gray 's Inn ; in 1753 a barrister , Danby Pickering , was employed to lecture there , although this agreement ended in 1761 when he was called to the Bar .
The 18th century was not a particularly prosperous time for the Inn or its members , and few notable barristers were members during this period . Some noted members include Sir Thomas Clarke , the Master of the Rolls , Sir James Eyre , Chief Justice of the Common Pleas and Samuel Romilly , a noted law reformer . In 1780 the Inn was involved in the case of R v the Benchers of Gray 's Inn , a test of the role of the Inns of Court as the sole authority to call students to the Bar . The case was brought to the Court of King 's Bench by William Hart , a student at the Inn , who asked the court ( under Lord Mansfield ) to order the Inn to call him to the Bar . Mansfield ruled that the Inns of Court were indeed the only organisations able to call students to the Bar , and refused to order the Inns to call Hart .
During the 19th century , the Inns began to stagnate ; little had been changed since the 17th century in terms of legal education or practice , except that students were no longer bound to take the Anglican sacrament before their call to the Bar . In 1852 the Council of Legal Education was established by the Inns , and in 1872 a formal examination for the call to the Bar was introduced . Gray 's Inn itself suffered more than most ; as in the 18th century , the fortunes of its members declined , and many barristers who had been called to the Bar at the Inn transferred to others .
Gray 's Inn was the smallest of the Inns during the early 20th century , and was noted for its connection to the Northern Circuit . During the Second World War , the Inn was badly damaged during the Blitz in 1941 , with the Hall , the Chapel , the Library and many other buildings hit and almost destroyed . The rebuilding of much of the Inn took until 1960 by the architect Sir Edward Maufe . In 2008 Gray 's Inn became the first Inn to appoint " fellows " — elected businesspeople , legal academics and others — with the intent of giving them a wider perspective and education than the other Inns would offer .
= = Structure and governance = =
Gray 's Inn 's internal records date from 1569 , at which point there were four types of member ; those who had not yet been called to the Bar , Utter Barristers , Ancients and Readers . Utter Barristers were those who had been called to the Bar but were still studying , Ancients were those who were called to the Bar and were allowed to practise and Readers were those who had been called to the Bar , were allowed to practise and now played a part in educating law students at the Inns of Chancery and at Gray 's Inn itself . At the time Gray 's Inn was the odd one out amongst the Inns ; the others did not recognise Ancients as a degree of barrister and had Benchers roughly corresponding to the Readers used at Gray 's Inn ( although the positions were not identical ) .
The Inn is run by Pension , its ultimate governing body . The name is peculiar to Gray 's Inn — at Lincoln 's Inn the governing body is called the Council , and at the Inner and Middle Temples it is called the Parliament . The name was used for the governing bodies of three of the Inns of Chancery — Barnard 's Inn , Clement 's Inn and New Inn . In Gray 's Inn the Readers , when they existed , were required to attend Pension meetings , and other barristers were at one point welcome to , although only the Readers would be allowed to speak . Pension at Gray 's Inn is made up of the Masters of the Bench , and the Inn as a whole is headed by the Treasurer , a senior Bencher . The Treasurer has always been elected , and since 1744 the office has rotated between individuals , with a term of one year .
= = = Readers = = =
A Reader was a person literally elected to read — he would be elected to the Pension ( council ) of Gray 's Inn , and would take his place by giving a " reading " , or lecture , on a particular legal topic . Two readers would be elected annually by Pension to serve a one @-@ year term . Initially ( before the rise of the Benchers ) the Readers were the governing body of Gray 's Inn , and formed Pension . The earliest certain records of Readers are from the 16th century — although the Inn 's records only start at 1569 William Dugdale ( himself a member ) published a list in his Origines Juridiciales dating from 1514 . S.E. Thorne published a list dating from 1430 , but this is entirely conjectural and not based on any official records , only reports of " readings " that took place at Gray 's Inn . By 1569 there had certainly been Readers for more than a century .
The English Civil War marked the end of legal education at the Inns , and the class of Readers went into decline . The last Readers were appointed in 1677 , and the position of the Readers as heads of the Inn and members of Pension was taken by the Benchers .
= = = Benchers = = =
A Bencher , Benchsitter or ( formally ) Master of the Bench , is a member of Pension , the governing body of the Honourable Society of Gray 's Inn . The term originally referred to one who sat on the benches in the main hall of the Inn which were used for dining and during moots , and the term originally had no significance . The position of Bencher developed during the 16th century when the Readers , for unknown reasons , decided that some barristers who were not Readers should be afforded the same rights and privileges as those who were , although without a voice in Pension . This was a rare practice and occurred a total of seven times within the 16th century , the first being Robert Flynt in 1549 . The next was Nicholas Bacon in 1550 , then Edward Stanhope in 1580 , who was afforded the privilege because , although a skilled attorney , an illness meant he could never fulfil the duties of a Reader .
The practice became more common during the 17th century — 11 people were made Benchers between 1600 and 1630 — and in 1614 one of the Benchers appointed was explicitly allowed to be a member of Pension . This became more common , creating a two @-@ rank system in which both Readers and Benchers were members of Pension . However far more Readers were appointed than Benchers — 50 between 1600 and 1630 — and it appeared that Readers would remain the higher rank despite this change .
The English Civil War marked the end of legal education at the Inns , although the government attempted to persuade Readers to continue by threatening them with fines . The class of Readers went into decline and Benchers were called as members of Pension instead . In 1679 there was the first mass @-@ call of Benchers ( 22 on one occasion , and 15 on another ) , with the Benchers paying a fine of 100 marks because they refused to read , and modern Benchers pay a " fine " in a continuation of this tradition .
Noted Benchers of Gray 's Inn include Lord Birkenhead and Francis Bacon . Honorary Benchers can also be appointed , although they have no role in Pension , such as Lord Denning , who was appointed in 1979 , and Winston Churchill . Today there are over 300 Benchers in Gray 's Inn , mostly senior barristers and members of the judiciary .
= = = Badge = = =
Gray 's Inn does not possess a coat of arms as such , but instead uses a badge , often displayed on a shield , blazoned either " Azure an Indian Griffin proper segreant " or , more currently , " Sable a griffin segreant or " , i.e. , a gold griffin on a black background . The Inn originally used a form of the coat of arms of the de Grey family , but this was changed at some time around 1600 to the griffin . There is no direct record of why this was done , but it seems likely that the new device was adapted from the arms of the Treasurer Richard Aungier ( d . 1597 ) , for two probable reasons : firstly , because he was a particularly important and prestigious member of the Inn , and secondly , because the griffin would have looked more impressive on occasions such as masques and revels than the plain geometric arms of the de Greys .
The motto around the badge , the date of adoption of which is unknown , is Integra Lex Aequi Custos Rectique Magistra Non Habet Affectus Sed Causas Gubernat , or " Impartial justice , guardian of equity , mistress of the law , without fear or favour rules men 's causes aright " .
= = Buildings and gardens = =
The Inn is located at the intersection of High Holborn and Gray 's Inn Road . It started as a single manor house with a hall and chapel , although an additional wing had been added by the date of the " Woodcut " map of London , drawn probably in the early 1560s . Expansion continued over the following decades , and by 1586 the Pension had added another two wings around the central court . Around these were several sets of chambers erected by members of the Inn under a leasehold agreement whereby ownership of the buildings would revert to the Inn at the end of the lease .
As the Inn grew it became necessary ( for safety purposes ) to wall off the land owned by the Inn , which had previously been open to everyone . In 1591 the " back field " was walled off , but little more was done until 1608 , when under the supervision of Francis Bacon , the Treasurer , more construction work was undertaken , particularly in walling off and improving the gardens and walks . In 1629 it was ordered that an architect supervise any construction and ensure that the new buildings were architecturally similar to the old ones , and the strict enforcement of this rule during the 18th century is given as a reason for the uniformity of the buildings at Gray 's Inn .
During the late 17th century many buildings were demolished , either because of poor repair or to standardise and modernise the buildings at the Inn . Many more were built over the open land surrounding the Inn , although this was controversial at the time ; in November 1672 the Privy Council and Charles II himself were petitioned to order that nothing should be built on the open land , and a similar request was sent to the Lord Chancellor in May 1673 . From 1672 to 1674 additional buildings were constructed in the Red Lyon Fields by Nicholas Barebone , and members of the Inn attempted to sue him to prevent this . After the lawsuits failed members of the Inn were seen to fight with Barebones ' workmen , " wherein several were shrewdly hurt " .
In February 1679 a fire broke out on the west side of Coney Court , necessitating the rebuilding of the entire row . Another fire broke out in January 1684 in Coney Court , destroying several buildings including the Library . A third fire in 1687 destroyed a large part of Holborn Court , and when the buildings were rebuilt after these fires they were constructed of brick to be more resistant to fire than the wood and plaster previously used in construction . As a result , the domestic Tudor style architecture which had dominated much of the Inn was replaced with more modern styles . Records show that prior to the rebuilding in 1687 , the Inn had been " so incommodious " that the " ancients " were forced to work two to a chamber . More of the Inn was rebuilt during that period , and between 1669 and 1774 all of the Inn apart from parts of the Hall and Chapel had been rebuilt .
More buildings were constructed during the 18th and 19th centuries . In 1941 the Inn suffered under The Blitz , which damaged or destroyed much of the Inn , necessitating the repair of many buildings and the construction of more . Today many buildings are let as professional offices for barristers and solicitors with between 265 @,@ 000 square feet ( 24 @,@ 600 m2 ) and 275 @,@ 000 square feet ( 25 @,@ 500 m2 ) of office space available . There are also approximately 60 residential apartments , rented out to barristers who are members of the Inn . The Inn also contains the Inns of Court School of Law , a joint educational venture between all four Inns of Court where the vocational training for barristers and solicitors is undertaken . The current Inn layout consists of two squares — South Square and Gray 's Inn Square — with the remaining buildings arranged around the Walks .
= = = Hall = = =
The Hall was part of the original Manor of Portpoole , although it was significantly rebuilt during the reign of Mary I , and again during the reign of Elizabeth , with the rebuilding being finished on 10 November 1559 . The rebuilt Hall measured 70 feet ( 21 m ) in length , 35 feet ( 11 m ) in width and 47 feet ( 14 m ) in height , and remains about the same size today . It has a hammerbeam roof and a raised dais at one end with a grand table on it , where the Benchers and other notables would originally have sat .
The hall also contains a large carved screen at one end covering the entrance to the Vestibule . Legend says that the screen was given to the Inn by Elizabeth I while she was the Inn 's patron , and is carved out of the wood of a Spanish galleon captured from the Spanish Armada . The Hall was lit with the aid of massive windows filled with the Coats of Arms of those members who became Treasurers . The Benchers ' table is also said to have been a gift from Elizabeth , and as a result the only public toast in the Inn until the late 19th century was " to the glorious , pious and immortal memory of Queen Elizabeth " .
The walls of the Hall are decorated with paintings of noted patrons or members of the Inn , including Nicholas Bacon and Elizabeth I. During the Second World War the Hall was one of those buildings badly damaged during the Blitz . The Treasurers ' Arms and paintings had been moved to a place of safety and were not damaged ; during the rebuilding after the War they were put back in the Hall , where they remain . The rebuilt hall was designed by Edward Maufe , and was formally opened in 1951 by the Duke of Gloucester .
= = = Chapel = = =
The Chapel existed in the original manor house used by the Inn , and dates from 1315 . In 1625 it was enlarged under the supervision of Eubule Thelwall , but by 1698 it was " very ruinous " , and had to be rebuilt . Little is known of the changes , except that the barrister 's chambers above the Chapel were removed . The building was again rebuilt in 1893 , and remained that way until its destruction during The Blitz in 1941 . The Chapel was finally rebuilt in 1960 , and the original stained glass windows ( which had been removed and taken to a safe location ) were restored . The rebuilt Chapel contains " simple furnishings " made of Canadian maple donated by the Canadian Bar Association .
The Inn has had a Chaplain since at least 1400 , where a court case is recorded as being brought by the " Chaplain of Greyes Inn " . During the 16th century the Inn began hiring full @-@ time preachers to staff the Chapel — the first , John Cherke , was appointed in 1576 . A radical Puritan in a time of religious conflict , Cherke held his post for only a short time before being replaced by a Thomas Crooke in 1580 . After Crooke 's death in 1598 Roger Fenton served as preacher , until his replacement by Richard Sibbes , later Master of Catherine Hall , Cambridge , in 1616 . Gray 's Inn still employs a Preacher ; Michael Doe , former Bishop of Swindon and more recently General Secretary of the United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel , was appointed in 2011 .
= = = Walks = = =
The Walks are the gardens within Gray 's Inn , and have existed since at least 1597 , when records show that Francis Bacon was to be paid £ 7 for " planting of trees in the walkes " . Prior to this the area ( known as Green Court ) was used as a place to dump waste and rubble , since at the time the Inn was open to any Londoner . In 1587 four Benchers were ordered by the Pension to " consider what charge a brick wall in the fields will draw unto And where the said wall shalbe fittest to be builded " , and work on such a wall was completed in 1598 , which helped keep out the citizens of London .
In 1599 additional trees were planted in the Walks , and stairs up to the Walks were also added . When Francis Bacon became treasurer in 1608 more improvements were made , since he no longer had to seek the approval of the Pension to make changes . In September 1608 a gate was installed on the southern wall , and various gardeners were employed to maintain the Walks . The gardens became commonly used as a place of relaxation , and James Howell wrote in 1621 that " I hold [ Gray 's Inn Walks ] to be the pleasantest place about London , and that there you have the choicest society " .
The Walks were well @-@ maintained during the reign of William III , although the Inn 's lack of prosperity made more improvements impossible . In 1711 the gardener was ordered not to admit " any women or children into the Walkes " , and in 1718 was given permission to physically remove those he found . At the end of the 18th century Charles Lamb said that the Walks were " the best gardens of any of the Inns of Court , their aspect being altogether reverend and law @-@ abiding " . In 1720 the old gate was replaced by " a pair of handsome iron gates with peers and other proper imbellishments " . The 19th and 20th centuries saw few major changes , apart from the introduction of plane trees into the Walks .
= = = Library = = =
The Library of Gray 's Inn has existed since at least 1555 , when the first mention of it was made in the will of Robert Chaloner , who left some money to buy law books for the Library . The Library was neither a big collection nor a dedicated one ; in 1568 it was being housed in a single room in the chambers of Nicholas Bacon , a room that was also used for mooting and to store the deed chest . The collection grew larger over the years as individual Benchers such as Sir John Finch and Sir John Bankes left books or money to buy books in their wills , and the first Librarian was appointed in 1646 after members of the Inn had been found stealing books .
In 1669 books were bought by the Inn as an organisation for the first time , and a proper catalogue was drawn up to prevent theft . In 1684 a fire that broke out in Coney Court , where the Library was situated , and destroyed much of the collection . While some books were saved , most of the records prior to 1684 were lost . A " handsome room " was then built to house the Library .
The Library became more important during the 18th century ; prior to that it had been a small , little @-@ used collection of books . In 1725 it was proposed by the Pension that " a publick Library be sett up and kept open for ye use of ye society " , and that more books be purchased . The first order of new books was on 27 June 1729 and consisted of " a collection of Lord Bacon 's works " . In 1750 the Under @-@ Steward of the Inn made a new catalogue of the books , and in 1789 the Library was moved to a new room between the Hall and the Chapel . In 1840 another two rooms were erected in which to store books , and in 1883 a new Library was constructed with space to store approximately 11 @,@ 000 books . This was rapidly found to be inadequate , and in 1929 a new Library , known as the Holker Library after the benefactor , Sir John Holker , was opened . The library , although impressive looking , was not particularly useful ; Francis Cowper wrote that :
Though impressive to look at , the new building was something less than a success as a library . The air of spaciousness was produced at the expense of shelf room , and though in the octagon [ at the north end ] the decorative effect of row upon row of books soaring upwards towards the cornice was considerable , the loftiest were totally inaccessible save to those who could scale the longest and dizziest ladders . Further , the appointments were of such surpassing mag @-@ nificence that no ink @-@ pots were allowed in the room for fear of accidents .
The building did not last very long — damage to the Inn during the Blitz completely destroyed the Library and a large part of its collection , although the rare manuscripts , which had been moved elsewhere , survived . After the destruction of much of the Inn 's collection , George VI donated replacements for many lost texts . A prefabricated building in the Walks was used to hold the surviving books while a new Library was constructed , and the new building ( designed by Sir Edward Maufe ) was opened in 1958 . It is similar in size to the old Holker Library , but is more workmanlike and designed to allow for easy access to the books .
= = Notable members = =
Having existed for over 600 years , Gray 's Inn has a long list of notable members and honorary members . Even as the smallest of the Inns of Court it has had members who have been particularly noted lawyers and judges , such as Francis Bacon , The 1st Earl of Birkenhead , Baron Slynn , Lord Bingham of Cornhill , Lord Hoffmann and others . Outside the Bar and judiciary of England and Wales , members have included the clergy ( including five Archbishops of Canterbury ) , industrialists like John Wynne , astronomers such as John Lee , media figures , like Huw Thomas , and members of the Bar and judiciary of other nations , such as Sir Ti @-@ liang Yang ( former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Hong Kong ) , B. R. Ambedkar ( principal architect of the Constitution of India ) and former presidents of Cyprus Spyros Kyprianou , Tassos Papadopoulos , and Glafcos Clerides .
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= Nier ( video game ) =
Nier ( romanized as NieR in the Japanese version ) is an action role @-@ playing video game developed by Cavia and published by Square Enix . It was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in Australia , Europe , Japan and North America in April 2010 . In Japan , the game was released as Nier Gestalt ( Japanese : ニーア ゲシュタルト , Hepburn : Nīa Geshutaruto ) for the Xbox 360 , while an alternate version entitled Nier Replicant ( Japanese : ニーア レプリカント , Hepburn : Nīa Repuricanto ) was released for PlayStation 3 with a younger main character . A version that combined elements from both releases was in development for PlayStation Vita , but was cancelled in March 2011 due to Dragon Quest X taking precedence .
The game is a spin @-@ off from the Drakengard series , and follows the fifth ending of the first game , the events of which have left the planet Earth in a state of decay . Set over one thousand years after this , the game puts the player in control of the titular protagonist Nier , as he attempts to find a cure for an illness , known as the Black Scrawl , to which his daughter Yonah has succumbed . Partnering with a talking book known as Grimoire Weiss , he journeys with two other characters , Kainé and Emil , as he attempts to find a remedy and understand the nature of the creatures known as Shades that stalk the world . The gameplay borrows elements from various video game genres , occasionally switching between them and the main RPG @-@ based gameplay .
The game was developed to appeal both to older players and to players outside Japan , where the developer was based . The music was composed by Keiichi Okabe , head of Monaca , a music composition studio , and has sparked the release of several albums . Nier was released to mixed reception ; reviewers praised the story , characters and soundtrack and were mixed in their opinions of how well the disparate gameplay elements were connected . Criticism was given for the execution of some gameplay elements , particularly the side quests , and was especially pronounced for the graphics , which were regarded as substandard . A sequel titled Nier : Automata is currently being developed by Square Enix and PlatinumGames for the PlayStation 4 , featuring many returning staff .
= = Gameplay = =
Players take control of Nier — a middle @-@ aged man in Nier and Nier Gestalt and a teenaged boy in Nier Replicant — though the character can be renamed by the player . The player directly controls Nier through a third @-@ person perspective to interact with people , objects , and enemies throughout the game . The player can also turn the camera around the characters , which allows for a 360 ° view of the surroundings . The three @-@ dimensional world is divided into areas separated by loading screens , and the player can move freely throughout these areas by walking , running , jumping , and climbing ladders . In specific rooms and buildings , the camera swings to the side and Nier is restricted to moving as in a two @-@ dimensional platforming environment , while during certain battles the camera pulls up to simulate a top @-@ down shoot ' em up or other video game genres .
While traveling the player is frequently attacked by monsters , which include shadowy figures called Shades , large animals , and robots . Defeating these enemies gives the player experience points that can increase Nier 's power , and money that can be used to purchase items . Nier can attack these creatures with either a one- or two @-@ handed sword , or a spear . These weapons can be customized to have greater damage and abilities using materials that can be purchased , dropped from monsters , or scavenged around the world . Multiple different varieties of each weapon type can be acquired . The player can also use magic spells , which require enough energy from a constantly regenerating amount to cast . These spells include projectiles and large shadowy fists , among others ; new spells are acquired in the first half of the game by completing specific battles . In addition to the main plotline , Nier includes numerous side @-@ quests , which give the player experience points and money , as well as fishing and farming segments .
= = Plot = =
The game opens with a prologue during the summer of 2049 in a snowstorm . In a modern , broken @-@ down grocery store , Nier fends off attacks from ethereal monsters to protect his sick young daughter , Yonah . After defeating the monsters , he checks on Yonah , who has begun to cough badly . The game then cuts to 1 @,@ 312 years later , where the player sees what appears to be the same two characters , now living in a village built upon the ruins of an old town . The low @-@ technology village is one of several , and is surrounded by more modern ruins such as the remnants of train tracks and industrial machinery . The areas between towns are filled with monsters known as Shades that attack travelers .
As Yonah 's illness , the Black Scrawl , is terminal , Nier sets out to look for a cure . As he does , Nier finds a talking book , Grimoire Weiss , which suggests that the two team up to use Weiss ' magic and to find a cure for Yonah 's disease . In their search , they encounter Kainé , a hot @-@ tempered and foul @-@ mouthed swordswoman ; and Emil , a blindfolded boy whose eyes petrify anyone they see . After journeying for a time , the village is attacked by a giant shade ; the battle culminates in Yonah being carried away by a master Shade that suddenly appears — the Shadowlord — who carries his own book , Grimoire Noir .
The game then jumps five years forward . Nier and the others are trying to find the parts to a key that they believe will help them locate the Shadowlord and Grimoire Noir . After defeating five Shades and assembling the key , the team go to defeat the Shadowlord . There , Devola and Popola , characters who have been guiding Nier on his quest , appear to try to stop them . They explain that over 1300 years prior , humanity faced extinction due to an incurable disease . In an attempt to survive , they separated their souls from their bodies using Grimoire Noir and Weiss . They created clones resistant to the disease , Replicants , and intended to recombine the souls , or Gestalts , with the Replicant bodies once it had died out ; Devola and Popola were androids set to oversee the project . Over time , the Replicants had begun to form their own identities ; while the Gestalts , or Shades , had grown aggressive to them .
Nier defeats the pair , with Emil sacrificing himself to ensure his friends ' progress . The remaining group then defeats the Shadowlord , and discovers that he is the Gestalt form of the Nier from the prologue . Driven to protect his Yonah , he was the first Gestalt and has combined her with the Replicant Yonah . The original Yonah , however , tells the Gestalt Nier that she can hear the new Yonah inside her , and that she loves the Replicant Nier and deserves the body just as much . She vacates the body , and Nier and Yonah are reunited .
If the player plays the game again , they start just after the five @-@ year skip . They learn about Kainé 's past , including that she is intersex , which along with the death of her parents resulted in her ostracism as a child , and that she is partially possessed by a Shade . The player gains the ability to understand what the shades are saying , including the one possessing Kainé , though in @-@ game Nier , Weiss , and Emil are still unable to . Additional cutscenes are also shown , giving the motivations and backstory behind the Shade bosses that are fought and showing them as sentient people trying to defend their friends against Nier . The ending to the second playthrough shows that Emil survives his sacrifice , and that Gestalt Nier and Yonah are reunited in the afterlife . A third playthrough presents the player with a choice in the ending to save Kainé , who is seen to be dying in agony ; Nier can either kill her to end her suffering , or sacrifice his life for her . The latter choice not only erases all memory of him from the other characters ' minds , shown in a final cutscene , but also deletes all of the player 's saved progress , as if the game had never been played . Moreover , if the player wants to start a new game , they will be unable to enter the same name chosen for the previous playthrough for the Nier character .
= = Development = =
The concept that would become Nier was first proposed following the release of Drakengard 2 and the reveal of seventh generation consoles . The original concept was for a third entry in the Drakengard series . It was intended to be for PlayStation 3 due to the lessening importance of the PlayStation 2 , which Drakengard 2 had been made for . However , as the project evolved , the original ideas were reworked and the game eventually became a spin @-@ off from the main series . Despite this , the game 's director Taro Yoko continues to think of it as the third Drakengard game . Including concept planning , the total development time lasted three years , with two years spent actually developing the game . It was initially a small @-@ scale project , but during planning it grew into a full @-@ fledged role @-@ playing game . Development was handled by Cavia with help from Square Enix , who had previously provided development support for the Drakengard games . Square Enix had minimal input on Yoko 's vision for the game 's atmosphere and story , allowing him high creative control .
Nier is intended to be set 1000 years after the events of Drakengard 's fifth ending . In this scenario , the game 's protagonists Caim and Angelus travel across a dimensional boundary to fight a monstrous beast . After winning the battle and killing the monster , they are shot down by a fighter jet and killed ; the remnants of their bodies cause the Black Scrawl . According to Yoko , after the dark story of Drakengard , Yoko focused on more positive themes of friendship and combined effort . Much of the game was inspired by the September 11 attacks and the War on Terror . Yoko took from it the idea of a terrible event where both sides believed they were doing the right thing , and wanted to show the player multiple perspectives of the same events . The term " Replicant " was coined by Yoko from the 1982 science fiction movie Blade Runner , although Yoko did not cite a particular source for Nier 's name , passing it off as a codename that persisted through development .
The game 's characters were designed by Kimihiko Fujisaka , who had previously worked on the main Drakengard series . Two character designs for the protagonist were created for Nier . The developers believed that the Japanese audience would respond more strongly to a younger protagonist , while non @-@ Japanese audiences would prefer an adult Nier character . Other than changing Nier 's appearance and modifying a few lines of dialogue to fit with Nier being a father rather than a brother to Yonah , the developers made no changes between the two versions ; while it was initially believed that the older Nier was the character 's original design , an interview with Yoko clarified that the young Nier was the original vision . Many characters underwent changes during development , and some needed to be cut : there were originally thirteen Grimoires , with all but three being cut : those that remained were Weiss , Noir and Rubrum . Emil 's character was derived from a female character named Halua , while Kainé was originally a far more feminine type who hid her violent nature . Yonah 's original Japanese name was derived from the Biblical name Jonah : this could not be take verbatim into its localized form due to the name being associated with a man , so the name was changed to " Yonah " . Kainé 's character was made intersexual , since the team felt it fitted in with many other aspects of her gritty backstory . Kainé 's status as an intersexual caused some commotion in western territories , which is something the team did not actively intend . Yoko attributed the original suggestion to female staff members working on the game .
The combat and action elements of Nier were inspired by the God of War series of games , which both Taro and Saito enjoyed . While the games had not been as popular in Japan as in North America , the two felt that the idea of having boss fights with different combat styles than the regular battles was an idea that would appeal to players in both regions . The changing styles , as well as the occasional changes in camera angle and movement , were meant to " accentuate [ the ] gap between real , modern scenery and the fantasy world " as a tie @-@ in to the game 's story . The game was meant to appeal to older players ; it was intended as an action @-@ RPG for an older market than Square Enix 's action @-@ RPG series Kingdom Hearts . This influenced the decision to have a main character in his 30s , as well as more blood and swearing than typical in a Square Enix RPG . The fusion of different gameplay styles was included as a homage to earlier gameplay styles and genres .
Nier was originally intended to be exclusive to the Xbox 360 , but after deciding to also develop the game for PlayStation 3 , the developers decided to further divide the Japanese release of the game . Nier Gestalt would be released for the Xbox 360 , featuring the adult Nier ( as in the international release for both platforms ) , while Nier Replicant , for the PlayStation 3 , would feature the young Nier . The localizations for the game — in English , French , and German — were produced during development so that all of the versions could be released at the same time , and so that Cavia and Square Enix could solicit feedback from North America and Europe on the game so that it would appeal to players outside Japan . Nier was officially unveiled in June 2009 at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 for both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , to be developed by Cavia and published by Square Enix . It was directed by Yoko , and produced by Yosuke Saito of Square Enix . Due to its high violence , the game was given a CERO D rating in Japan .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack to Nier was composed by a collaboration of the studio MoNACA , directed by Keiichi Okabe and including Kakeru Ishihama and Keigo Hoashi , and Takafumi Nishimura from Cavia . Okabe served as the lead composer and as the director for the project as a whole . Okabe was brought onto the project when the concept for the game was first being devised , and worked intermittently on the soundtrack for the next three years until its release . The music for the game was generally composed entirely separately from the development of the game . The music was designed for different motifs to appear in various arrangements throughout the soundtrack , and also to convey a sense of sadness even during the " thrilling " tracks . Okabe was allowed a great deal of freedom regarding what the music was to sound like ; game director Yoko Taro 's main request was that he use a lot of vocal works .
The soundtrack to Nier is largely composed of melancholy acoustic pieces which heavily feature vocals by vocalist Emi Evans ( Emiko Rebecca Evans ) , a singer from England living in Tokyo . She is the singer for the band freesscape , and had previously worked on video games such as Etrian Odyssey . In addition to singing , Evans was asked to write her own lyrics in futuristic languages . The composers gave her preliminary version of songs and the style they wished the language to be in , such as Gaelic or French , and she invented the words . Evans wrote songs in versions of Gaelic , Portuguese , Spanish , Italian , French , English and Japanese , where she tried to imagine what they would sound like after 1000 years of drifting .
Square Enix released a soundtrack album of music from the game , titled Nier Gestalt & Replicant Original Soundtrack , on April 21 , 2010 . The soundtrack album reached number 24 on the Japanese Oricon music charts , and remained on the charts for 11 weeks . As preorder bonuses for Nier Gestalt and Nier Replicant , two mini @-@ albums , Nier Gestalt Mini Album and Nier Replicant Mini Album , were included . An album of arranged music , NieR Gestalt & Replicant 15 Nightmares & Arrange Tracks , was published by Square Enix on December 8 , 2010 . The arranged album reached number 59 on the Oricon music charts , a position it held for a week . Another album , NieR Tribute Album -echo- , was released on September 14 , 2011 , and an album of piano arrangements , Piano Collections Nier Gestalt & Replicant , was published on March 21 , 2012 .
= = Reception = =
In Japan , Nier Gestalt sold over 12 @,@ 500 copies in Japan the week of its release , while Replicant sold over 60 @,@ 000 and was the top @-@ selling video game in Japan that week . Replicant sold over 121 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of May 2010 , and ended the year with over 134 @,@ 000 copies sold .
Nier received mixed reviews . Reviewers criticized the graphics , with Ryan Clements of IGN saying that " one of Nier 's greatest flaws is its visuals , " while GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd bemoaned the " flavorless visuals " and " lifeless environments " . Dustin Quillen of 1UP.com said that the game " looks downright primitive " , while Adriaan den Ouden of RPGamer , who awarded the game a higher score than most , said that " the environments are bland and poorly rendered " . The music and voice acting , however , were praised ; Clements said that " both are quite excellent " , den Ouden called the soundtrack " absolutely fantastic " , Chris Schilling of Eurogamer said that the music was full of " memorable themes " , and one of the four reviewers for the Japanese Weekly Famitsu termed it " a cut above " .
Reviewers were divided in their opinion on the effectiveness of the multiple styles of gameplay presented . Seth Schiesel of The New York Times said that while " there are plenty of games that surpass it in each area , " that Nier pulled all of the styles together into a " coherent , compelling whole " instead of feeling " disjointed " ; he especially praised a section of the game that is presented entirely through text . Patrick Kolan of IGN Australia , however , said that while the different styles were " interesting " and one of the game 's biggest strengths , they suffered from poor execution and cohesion and left the game " with split @-@ personality disorder " . Clements said that " the developers ' ideas sometimes outshine the actual implementation " , while highlighting the gameplay elements as part of what made the game fun . Adriaan den Ouden called out the variety as the best part of the game , likening it to a buffet table , while also acknowledging that none of the sections were " amazing " on their own and could easily be looked upon poorly .
The regular combat was reviewed as solid , if not exceptional , and the sidequests were seen as repetitive , with Quillen saying that " the side quests in Nier are about as numerous as they are totally mindless , " VanOrd calling them " a series of monotonous events , often connected only by long stretches of nothing , " and a Famitsu reviewer saying that they " didn 't see much purpose " to them . Clements said that the combat had " a fair amount of satisfaction " , though players should " not expect anything too extraordinary " , and Kolan termed the combat as " moderately deep " . Critics gave a generally positive review to the plot and characters ; VanOrd liked most of the characters but thought Nier was bland and the story " soggy " , while Schiesel called the story " provocative " and " profound " , saying that it " succeeds at fostering an emotional investment in its characters and in its world " . Quillen said that the plot " takes some fascinating and truly original turns " and that Nier has " a supporting cast of genuinely interesting folks , " and Schilling said that the story made the game " difficult to dislike " . The Famitsu reviewer that viewed the game the most favorably said that he was " blown away " by the multiple endings , and that " nothing like it 's been done in gaming " .
In 2015 , Jeffrey Matulef of Eurogamer characterized Nier as " the rare game that gets better with age " . Despite " poor sales and tepid reviews " , he wrote , the game had acquired a cult following , which he attributed to its " sense of wonder " due to its cryptic storytelling , mashup assortment of game mechanics and melancholy mood .
= = Legacy = =
On May 11 , 2010 , Square Enix released a piece of downloadable content for the game , titled " The World of Recycled Vessel " . The small expansion features a series of fifteen battles with the incarnation of Nier other than the one in the specific version of the game . Nier enters the battles in a dream world accessed through a diary in his house . The expansion offers new costumes and weapons for the game . Square Enix executive producer Yosuke Saito later commented that " a number of things " related to Nier were in progress , and that an announcement could be due in 2011 . The only announcement ended up not being for a new Nier video game , but instead for a live evening concert for Nier 's music titled " Nier Night ~ Evening of Madness " which took place on October 28 , 2011 .
Nier was the last game that Cavia made ; the company was absorbed into its parent company , AQ Interactive , in July 2010 . In March 2011 , there were plans made between Yoko and Takuya Iwasaki , one of the original producers for Drakengard , to develop a port of Nier for the PlayStation Vita at Iwasaki 's company Orca . The port would have incorporated material from both versions of the game . When Orca was chosen to help develop Dragon Quest X , the project was shelved . A number of key staff from Nier 's development , including director Yoko and Okabe , would later reunite to work on a new entry in the Drakengard series from which Nier was spun off . A sequel titled Nier : Automata is being developed by Square Enix and PlatinumGames for the PlayStation 4 for a 2016 release . Yoko , Saito and Okabe returned to their previous roles . Other staff members include producer Atsushi Inaba and artist Akihiko Yoshida .
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= Tulsa , Oklahoma =
Tulsa / ˈtʌlsə / is the second @-@ largest city in the state of Oklahoma and 47th @-@ most populous city in the United States . As of July 2015 , the population was 403 @,@ 505 , an increase of 11 @,@ 599 over that reported in the 2010 Census . It is the principal municipality of the Tulsa Metropolitan Area , a region with 981 @,@ 005 residents in the MSA and 1 @,@ 151 @,@ 172 in the CSA . The city serves as the county seat of Tulsa County , the most densely populated county in Oklahoma , with urban development extending into Osage , Rogers , and Wagoner counties .
Tulsa was settled between 1828 and 1836 by the Lochapoka Band of Creek Native American tribe . For most of the 20th century , the city held the nickname " Oil Capital of the World " and played a major role as one of the most important hubs for the American oil industry .
Once heavily dependent on the oil industry , economic downturn and subsequent diversification efforts created an economic base in the energy , finance , aviation , telecommunications and technology sectors . The Tulsa Port of Catoosa , at the head of the McClellan @-@ Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System , is the most inland river port in the U.S. with access to international waterways . Two institutions of higher education within the city have sports teams at the NCAA Division I level , Oral Roberts University and the University of Tulsa .
It is situated on the Arkansas River at the foothills of the Ozark Mountains in northeast Oklahoma , a region of the state known as " Green Country " . Considered the cultural and arts center of Oklahoma , Tulsa houses two world @-@ renowned art museums , full @-@ time professional opera and ballet companies , and one of the nation 's largest concentrations of art deco architecture . The city has been called one of America 's most livable large cities by Partners for Livable Communities , Forbes , and Relocate America . FDi Magazine in 2009 ranked the city no . 8 in the U.S. for cities of the future . In 2012 , Tulsa was ranked among the top 50 best cities in the United States by BusinessWeek . People from Tulsa are called " Tulsans " .
= = History = =
The area where Tulsa now exists was considered Indian Territory when it was first formally settled by the Lochapoka and Creek tribes in 1836 . They established a home under the Creek Council Oak Tree at the present day intersection of Cheyenne Avenue and 18th Street , and named their new settlement Tallasi , meaning " old town " in the Creek language , which later became " Tulsa " . The area around Tulsa was also settled by members of the other so @-@ called " Five Civilized Tribes " who had relocated to Oklahoma from the Southern United States ; most of modern Tulsa is located in the Creek Nation , with parts located in the Cherokee Nation and Osage Nation .
Although Oklahoma was not yet a state during the Civil War , the Tulsa area did see its share of fighting . Battle of Chusto @-@ Talasah took place on the north side of Tulsa and a number of battles and skirmishes took place in nearby counties .
= = = Incorporation and " Oil Capital " Prosperity = = =
On January 18 , 1898 , Tulsa was officially incorporated and elected its first mayor , Edward Calkins .
Tulsa was a small town near the banks of the Arkansas River in 1901 when its first oil well , named Sue Bland No. 1 , was established . Much of the oil was discovered on land whose mineral rights were owned by members of the Osage Nation under a system of headrights . By 1905 , the discovery of the large Glenn Pool ( located approximately 15 miles south of downtown Tulsa and site of the present @-@ day town of Glenpool ) prompted a rush of entrepreneurs to the area 's growing number of oil fields ; Tulsa 's population swelled to over 140 @,@ 000 between 1901 and 1930 . By 1909 , seven years after the discovery of oil in the area , Tulsa 's population had sprouted to 180 @,@ 000 . Unlike the early settlers of Northeastern Oklahoma , who most frequently migrated from the South and Texas , many of these new oil @-@ driven settlers came to Tulsa from the commercial centers of the East Coast and lower Midwest . This migration distinguished the city 's demographics from neighboring communities ( Tulsa has larger and more prominent Catholic and Jewish populations than most Oklahoma cities ) and is reflected in the designs of early Tulsa 's upscale neighborhoods .
Known as the " Oil Capital of the World " for most of the 20th century , the city 's success in the energy industry prompted construction booms in the popular Art Deco style of the time . Profits from the oil industry continued through the Great Depression , helping the city 's economy fare better than most in the United States during the 1930s .
In the early 20th century , Tulsa was home to the " Black Wall Street " , one of the most prosperous black communities in the United States at the time . Located in the Greenwood neighborhood , it was the site of the Tulsa Race Riot , one of the nation 's worst acts of racial violence and civil disorder , with whites attacking blacks . Sixteen hours of rioting on May 31 and June 1 , 1921 , was only ended when National Guardsmen were brought in by the Governor . An official report later claimed that 23 black and 16 white citizens were killed , but other estimates suggest as many as 300 people died , most of them black . Over 800 people were admitted to local hospitals with injuries , and an estimated 10 @,@ 000 people were left homeless as 35 city blocks , composed of 1 @,@ 256 residences , were destroyed by fire . Property damage was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 8 million . Efforts to obtain reparations for survivors of the violence have been unsuccessful but the city and state re @-@ examined the events in the early 21st century , acknowledging the terrible actions that had taken place .
In 1925 , Tulsa businessman Cyrus Avery , known as the " Father of Route 66 , " began his campaign to create a road linking Chicago to Los Angeles by establishing the U.S. Highway 66 Association in Tulsa , earning the city the nickname the " Birthplace of Route 66 " . Once completed , U.S. Route 66 took an important role in Tulsa 's development as the city served as a popular rest stop for travelers , who were greeted by Route 66 icons such as the Meadow Gold Sign and the Blue Whale of Catoosa . During this period , Bob Wills and his group , The Texas Playboys , began their long performing stint at a small ballroom in downtown Tulsa . In 1935 , Cain 's Ballroom became the base for the group , which is largely credited for creating Western Swing music . The venue continued to attract famous musicians through its history , and is still in operation today .
For the remainder of the mid @-@ 20th century , the city had a master plan to construct parks , churches , museums , rose gardens , improved infrastructure , and increased national advertising . The Spavinaw Dam , built during this era to accommodate the city 's water needs , was considered one of the largest public works projects of the era . In the 1950s , Time magazine dubbed Tulsa as " America 's Most Beautiful City . "
A national recession greatly affected the city 's economy in 1982 , as areas of Texas and Oklahoma heavily dependent on oil suffered the freefall in gas prices due to a glut , and a mass exodus of oil industries . Tulsa , heavily dependent on the oil industry , was one of the hardest hit cities by the fall of oil prices . By 1992 , the state 's economy had fully recovered , but leaders worked to expand into sectors unrelated to oil and energy .
= = = Tulsa in the Twenty @-@ first Century = = =
In 2003 , the " Vision 2025 " program was approved by voters , to enhance and revitalize Tulsa 's infrastructure and tourism industry . The keystone project of the initiative , the BOK Center , was designed to be a home for the city 's minor league hockey and arena football teams , as well as a venue for major concerts and conventions . The multi @-@ purpose arena , designed by famed architect Cesar Pelli , broke ground in 2005 and was opened on August 30 , 2008 .
= = Geography = =
Tulsa is located in the northeastern corner of Oklahoma , 99 miles ( 159 km ) northeast of Oklahoma City ; situated between the edge of the Great Plains and the foot of the Ozarks in a generally forested region of rolling hills . The city touches the eastern extent of the Cross Timbers , an ecoregion of forest and prairie transitioning from the drier plains of the west to the wetter forests of the east . With a wetter climate than points westward , Tulsa serves as a gateway to " Green Country " , a popular and official designation for northeast Oklahoma that stems from the region 's green vegetation and relatively large number of hills and lakes compared to central and western areas of Oklahoma , which lie largely in the drier Great Plains region of the Central United States . Located near the western edge of the U.S. Interior Highlands , northeastern Oklahoma is the most topographically diverse part of the state , containing seven of Oklahoma 's 11 eco @-@ regions and more than half of its state parks . The region encompasses 30 lakes or reservoirs and borders the neighboring states of Kansas , Missouri , and Arkansas . The geographic coordinates of the city of Tulsa are 36 ° 7 ′ 53 ″ N 95 ° 56 ′ 14 ″ W ( 36 @.@ 131294 , − 95 @.@ 937332 ) , with an elevation of 700 feet ( 210 m ) above sea level .
= = = Topography = = =
The city developed on both sides of the prominent Arkansas River , which flows in a wide , sandy @-@ bottomed channel . Its flow through the Tulsa area is controlled by upstream flood control reservoirs , but its width and depth can vary widely throughout the year , such as during periods of high rainfall or severe drought . A low @-@ water dam maintains a full channel at all times in the area adjacent to downtown Tulsa . This portion of the river is known as Zink Lake .
Heavily wooded and with abundant parks and water areas , the city has several prominent hills , such as " Shadow Mountain " and " Turkey Mountain " , which create varied terrain , especially in its southern portions . While its central and northern sections are generally flat to gently undulating , the Osage Hills extension into the northwestern part of the city further varies the landscape . Holmes Peak , north of the city , is the tallest point in the Tulsa Metro area at 1360 ft ( 415 m ) According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 186 @.@ 8 square miles ( 484 km2 ) , of which 182 @.@ 6 square miles ( 473 km2 ) of it is land and 4 @.@ 2 square miles ( 11 km2 ) of it ( 2 @.@ 24 % ) is water .
= = = Cityscape = = =
= = = = Architecture = = = =
A building boom in the early 20th century gave Tulsa one of the largest concentrations of art deco architecture in the United States . Most commonly in the zigzag and streamline styles , the city 's art deco is dotted throughout its older neighborhoods , primarily in downtown and midtown . A collection of large art deco structures such as the Mid @-@ Continent Tower , the Boston Avenue Methodist Church , and the Philtower , have attracted events promoting preservation and architectural interest . In 2001 , Tulsa served as the host city for the International Art Deco Congress , a semiannual event designed to promote art deco architecture internationally .
In addition , the city 's early prosperity funded the construction of a number of elegant Craftsman , Georgian , storybook , Tudor , Greek Revival , Italianate , Spanish revival , and colonial revival homes ( many of which can be found in Tulsa 's uptown and Midtown neighborhoods ) .
Building booms in later half of the twentieth century gave the city a larger base of contemporary architectural styles , including a number of buildings by famed architect Bruce Goff , who lived in Tulsa . South , East and Midtown tulsa are also home to a number of ranch and Mid @-@ Century Modern homes that reflect Tulsa 's prosperous post @-@ war period .
The BOK Tower , built during this period , is the 2nd tallest building in Oklahoma and the surrounding states of Missouri , New Mexico , Arkansas , and Kansas . Tulsa also has the third- , and fourth @-@ tallest buildings in the state , including the Cityplex Tower , which is located in South Tulsa across from Oral Roberts University , far from downtown . One of the area 's unique architectural complexes , Oral Roberts University , is built in a Post @-@ Modern Futuristic style , incorporating bright gold structures with sharp , jetting edges and clear geometric shapes . The BOK Center , Tulsa 's new arena , incorporates many of the city 's most prominent themes , including Native American , art deco , and contemporary architectural styles . Intended to be an architectural icon , the building was designed by César Pelli , the architect of the Petronas Towers in Malaysia .
= = = = Neighborhoods = = = =
Downtown Tulsa is an area of approximately 1 @.@ 4 square miles ( 3 @.@ 6 km2 ) surrounded by an inner @-@ dispersal loop created by Interstate 244 , Highway 64 , and Highway 75 . The area serves as Tulsa 's financial and business district , and is the focus of a large initiative to draw tourism , which includes plans to capitalize on the area 's historic architecture . Much of Tulsa 's convention space is located in downtown , such as the Tulsa Performing Arts Center , the Tulsa Convention Center , and the BOK Center . Prominent downtown sub @-@ districts include the Blue Dome District , the Brady Arts district , the " Oil Capital Historic District " , the Greenwood Historical District , Owen Park Historical Neighborhood , and the site of ONEOK Field , a baseball stadium for the Tulsa Drillers opened in 2010 .
The city 's historical residential core lies in an area known as Midtown , containing upscale neighborhoods built in the early 20th century with architecture ranging from art deco to Greek Revival . The University of Tulsa , the Swan Lake neighborhood , Philbrook Museum , and the upscale shopping districts of Utica Square , Cherry Street , and Brookside are located in this region . A large portion of the city 's southern half has developed since the 1970s , containing low density housing and retail developments . This region , marked by secluded homes and suburban neighborhoods , contains one of the state 's largest shopping malls , Woodland Hills Mall , as well as Southern Hills Country Club , and Oral Roberts University . East of Highway 169 and north of 61st street , a diverse racial makeup marks the eastern portions of the city , with large Asian and Mexican communities and much of the city 's manufacturing industry .
Areas of Tulsa west of the Arkansas River are called West Tulsa , and are marked by large parks , wilderness reserves , and large oil refineries . The northern tier of the city is home to OSU @-@ Tulsa , Gilcrease Museum , Tulsa International Airport , the Tulsa Zoo , the Tulsa Air and Space Museum , and the nation 's third @-@ largest municipal park , Mohawk Park .
= = = = = Walkability = = = = =
A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Tulsa 32nd most walkable of fifty largest U.S. cities .
= = = Climate = = =
Tulsa has a temperate climate of the humid subtropical variety ( Köppen Cfa ) with a yearly average temperature of 60 @.@ 8 ° F ( 16 @.@ 0 ° C ) and an average precipitation of 41 @.@ 0 inches ( 1 @,@ 040 mm ) . As is typical of temperate zones , weather patterns vary by season with occasional extremes in temperature and rainfall .
Primarily in the spring and early summer months , the city is subjected to severe thunderstorms containing large hail , damaging winds , and , occasionally , tornadoes , providing the area with a disproportionate share of its annual rainfall . Severe weather is not limited to this season , however . For instance , on December 5 , 1975 , and on December 24 , 1982 , Tulsa experienced tornadoes . Due to its potential for major flooding events , the city has developed one of the most extensive flood control systems in the nation . A comprehensive flood management plan was developed in 1984 following a severe flood caused by a stalled weather front that dropped 15 in ( 380 mm ) of rain overnight , killing 14 , injuring 288 , and destroying 7 @,@ 000 buildings totaling $ 180 million in damage . In the early 1990s and again in 2000 , the Federal Emergency Management Agency honored Tulsa as leading the nation in flood plain management .
On average , May is the wettest month , averaging 5 @.@ 9 inches of rainfall . Triple @-@ digit temperatures ( ≥ 38 ° C ) are observed on average 11 days per year , sometimes exceeding 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) from July to early September , usually accompanied by high humidity brought in by southerly winds ; The highest recorded temperature recorded was 115 ° F ( 46 ° C ) on August 10 , 1936 . Lack of air circulation due to heat and humidity during the summer months leads to higher concentrations of ozone , prompting the city to release " Ozone Alerts " , encouraging all parties to do their part in complying with the Clean Air Act and United States Environmental Protection Agency standards . The autumn season is usually short , consisting of pleasant , sunny days followed by cool nights . Winter temperatures , while generally mild , dip below 10 ° F ( − 12 ° C ) on 3 nights , and occasionally below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) , the most recent such occurrence being a − 2 ° F ( − 19 ° C ) reading on January 6 , 2014 . Seasonal snowfall averages 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 24 @.@ 4 cm ) , and , as of 2016 , only three winters on record have officially recorded a trace or no snow , the most recent being 1910 – 11 . The lowest recorded temperature was − 16 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) on January 22 , 1930 .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2010 Census , Tulsa had a population of 391 @,@ 906 and the racial and ethnic composition was as follows :
White American : 62 @.@ 6 % ( 57 @.@ 9 % Non @-@ Hispanic Whites , down from 85 @.@ 7 % in 1970 )
African American : 15 @.@ 6 %
Hispanic or Latino ( of any race ) : 14 @.@ 1 % ( 11 @.@ 5 % Mexican , 0 @.@ 4 % Puerto Rican , 0 @.@ 3 % Guatemalan , 0 @.@ 2 % Spanish , 0 @.@ 2 % Honduran , 0 @.@ 2 % Salvadoran )
Some other race : 8 @.@ 0 %
Two or more races : 5 @.@ 9 %
Native American : 5 @.@ 3 %
Asian American : 2 @.@ 3 % ( 0 @.@ 5 % Indian , 0 @.@ 4 % Vietnamese , 0 @.@ 3 % Chinese , 0 @.@ 2 % Hmong , 0 @.@ 2 % Korean , 0 @.@ 2 % Burmese )
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander : 0 @.@ 1 %
As of the 2010 census , there were 391 @,@ 906 people , 163 @,@ 975 households , and 95 @,@ 246 families residing in the city , with a population density of 1 @,@ 991 @.@ 9 inhabitants per square mile ( 769 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . There were 185 @,@ 127 housing units at an average density of 982 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 379 @.@ 2 / km2 ) . Of 163 @,@ 975 households , 27 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 38 @.@ 2 % were married couples living together , 14 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 41 @.@ 9 % were non @-@ families . Of all households , 34 @.@ 5 % are made up of only one person , and 10 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 34 people and the average family size was 3 @.@ 04 .
In the city proper , the age distribution was 24 @.@ 8 % of the population under the age of 18 , 10 @.@ 9 % from 18 to 24 , 29 @.@ 9 % from 25 to 44 , 21 @.@ 5 % from 45 to 64 , and 12 @.@ 9 % who were 65 years of age or older , while the median age was 34 years . For every 100 females there were 93 @.@ 5 males , while for every 100 females over the age of 17 there were 90 @.@ 4 males . In 2011 , the median income for a household in the city was $ 40 @,@ 268 and the median income for a family was $ 51 @,@ 977 . The per capita income for the city was $ 26 @,@ 727 . About 19 @.@ 4 % of the population were below the poverty line . Of the city 's population over the age of 25 , 29 @.@ 8 % holds a bachelor 's degree or higher , and 86 @.@ 5 % have a high school diploma or equivalent .
= = = Metropolitan area = = =
The Tulsa Metropolitan Area , or the region immediately surrounding Tulsa with strong social and economic ties to the city , occupies a large portion of the state 's northeastern quadrant . It is informally known as " Green Country " , a longstanding name adopted the state 's official tourism designation for all of northeastern Oklahoma ( its usage in relation to the Tulsa Metropolitan Area can be traced to the early part of the 20th century ) .
The Census Bureau defines the sphere of the city 's influence as the Tulsa Metropolitan Statistical Area ( MSA ) , spanning seven counties : Tulsa , Rogers , Osage , Wagoner , Okmulgee , Pawnee , and Creek . The 2015 U.S. Census estimate shows the Tulsa MSA to have 981 @,@ 005 residents In 2015 , U.S. Census estimates show the Tulsa @-@ Muscogee @-@ Bartlesville CMSA to have 1 @,@ 151 @,@ 172 residents .
= = Economy = =
= = = Energy industry 's legacy and resurgence = = =
Traditionally , Tulsa 's economy has been led by the energy industry . The United States Oil and Gas Association , formerly the Mid @-@ Continent Oil and Gas Association , was founded in Tulsa on October 13 , 1917 , six months after the entry of the United States into World War I. At the time Tulsa called itself " The Oil Capital of the World " . At its creation , the association worked to provide petroleum to the Allied forces . In the decades since its establishment , the association is recognized as a leading advocate for producers of domestic oil and gas .
Over the city 's history many large oil companies have been headquartered in the city , including Warren Petroleum ( which merged with Gulf Oil in what was then the largest merger in the energy industry ) , Skelly Oil , Getty Oil and CITGO . In addition , ConocoPhillips was headquartered in nearby Bartlesville . Industry consolidation and increased offshore drilling threatened Tulsa 's status as an oil capital , but new drilling techniques and the rise of natural gas has buoyed the growth of the city 's energy sector .
Today , Tulsa is again home to the headquarters of many international oil and gas @-@ related companies , including Williams Companies , SemGroup , ONE Gas , Syntroleum , ONEOK , Laredo Petroleum , Samson Resources , Helmerich & Payne , Magellan Midstream Partners , WPX Energy , and Excel Energy .
= = = Diversification and emerging industries = = =
Tulsa has diversified to capitalize on its status as a regional hub with substantial innovation assets . Products from Tulsa manufacturers account for about 60 % of Oklahoma 's exports , and in 2001 , the city 's total gross product was in the top one @-@ third of metropolitan areas , states , and countries , with more than $ 29 billion in total goods , growing at a rate of $ 250 million each year . In 2006 , Forbes magazine rated Tulsa as second in the nation in income growth , and one of the best cities in the country to do business with . Usually among the lowest in the nation in terms of cost of doing business , the Tulsa Metropolitan Area in 2005 was rated among the five lowest metropolitan areas in the United States for that category .
A number of large financial corporations are headquartered in Tulsa , the largest being the BOK Financial Corporation . They include energy trading operations , asset management firms as well as a range of commercial banks .
The national convenience store chain QuikTrip , fast @-@ casual restaurant chain Camille 's Sidewalk Cafe , and pizza chain Mazzio 's are all headquartered in Tulsa , as is Southern regional BBQ restaurant Rib Crib . Tulsa is also home to the Marshall Brewing Company .
Tulsa is also home to a burgeoning media industry , including PennWell , video game developers 2015 , Inc . , Stephens Media Group , This Land Press , Educational Development Corporation ( the parent publisher of Kane / Miller ) , GEB America , Blooming Twig Books , and a full range of local media outlets including such as Tulsa World and local magazines , radio and television .
Tulsa is also a hub for national construction and engineering companies including Manhattan Construction Company and Flintco .
Tulsa 's primary employer 's are small and medium @-@ sized businesses : there are 30 companies in Tulsa that employ more than 1 @,@ 000 people locally , and small businesses make up more than 80 % of the city 's companies .
During a national recession from 2001 to 2003 , the city lost 28 @,@ 000 jobs . In response , a development initiative , Vision 2025 , promised to incite economic growth and recreate lost jobs . Projects spurred by the initiative promised urban revitalization , infrastructure improvement , tourism development , riverfront retail development , and further diversification of the economy . As of 2007 , employment levels have surpassed pre @-@ recession heights and the city is in a significant economic development and investment surge . This economic improvement is also seen in Tulsa ’ s housing trends which show an average of a 6 % increase in rent in 2010 . Since 2006 , more than 28 @,@ 000 jobs have been added to the city . The unemployment rate of Tulsa in August 2014 was 4 @.@ 5 % .
As the second largest metropolitan area in Oklahoma and a hub for the growing Northeastern Oklahoma @-@ Northwest Arkansas @-@ Southwestern Missouri corridor , city is also home to a number of the region 's most sophisticated law , accounting and medical practices .
Though the oil industry has historically dominated Tulsa 's economy , efforts in economic diversification have created a base in the sectors of aerospace , finance , technology , telecommunications , high tech , and manufacturing . The Tulsa International Airport ( TUL ) and the Tulsa Port of Catoosa , the nation 's most inland seaport , connect the region with international trade and transportation .
Tulsa 's aerospace industry is substantial and growing . An American Airlines maintenance base at Tulsa International Airport is the city 's largest employer and the largest maintenance facility in the world , serving as the airline 's global maintenance and engineering headquarters , while the Tulsa Port of Catoosa and the Tulsa International Airport house extensive transit @-@ focused industrial parks . Tulsa is also home to a division of Lufthansa , the headquarters of Omni Air International , and the Spartan School of Aeronautics .
Tulsa is also part of the Oklahoma @-@ South Kansas unmanned aerial systems ( drone ) industry cluster , a region which awarded funding by the U.S. Small Business Administration to build on its progress as a hub this emerging industry .
= = Culture = =
Though Oklahoma is placed entirely in the Southern United States by the United States Census Bureau , Tulsa is influenced by the nearby Southwest , Midwest , and Southern cultural regions , as well as a historical Native American presence . These influences are expressed in the city 's museums , cultural centers , performing arts venues , ethnic festivals , park systems , zoos , wildlife preserves , and large and growing collections of public sculptures , monuments , and artwork .
= = = Museums and visual culture = = =
Tulsa is home to several internationally renowned museums . Located in the former villa of oil pioneer Waite Phillips in Midtown Tulsa , the Philbrook Museum of Art is considered one of the top 50 fine art museums in the United States , and is one of only five to offer a combination of a historic home , formal gardens , and an art collection . The Museum 's expansive collection includes work by a diverse group of artists including Pablo Picasso , Andrew Wyeth , Giovanni Bellini , Domenico di Pace Beccafumi , Willem de Kooning , William Merritt Chase , Auguste Rodin and Georgia O 'Keeffe . Philbrook also maintains a satellite campus in downtown Tulsa .
In the Osage Hills of Northwest Tulsa , the Gilcrease Museum holds the world 's largest , most comprehensive collection of art and artifacts of the American West , . The museum includes the extensive collection of Native American oilman and famed art collector Thomas Gilcrease with numerous works by Frederic Remington , Thomas Moran , Albert Bierstadt and John James Audubon among the many displayed .
In addition , the city hosts a number of galleries , experimental art @-@ spaces , smaller museums and display spaces located throughout the city ( clustered mostly in downtown , Brookside and the Pearl District ) . Living Arts of Tulsa , in downtown Tulsa , is among the organizations dedicated to promoting and sustaining an active arts scene in the city .
Opened in April 2013 , the Woody Guthrie Center in the Brady Arts District is Tulsa 's newest museum . In addition to interactive state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art museum displays , the Woody Guthrie Center also houses the Woody Guthrie Archives , containing thousands of Guthrie 's personal items , sheet music , manuscripts , books , photos , periodicals , and other items associated with the iconic Oklahoma native . The archives of Guthrie protégé , singer @-@ songwriter Bob Dylan will also be displayed in Tulsa when a new facility is completed .
With remnants of the Holocaust and artifacts relevant to Judaism in Oklahoma , the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art preserves the largest collection of Judaica in the Southwestern and South @-@ Central United States . Other museums , such as the Tulsa Historical Society , the Tulsa Air and Space Museum & Planetarium , the Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame , and the Tulsa Geosciences Center , document histories of the region , while the Greenwood Cultural Center preserves the culture of the city 's African American heritage , housing a collection of artifacts and photography that document the history of the Black Wall Street prior to the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 .
Since 1969 , public displays of artwork in Tulsa have been funded by one percent of its annual city budget . Each year , a sculpture from a local artist is installed along the Arkansas River trail system , while other sculptures stand at local parks , such as an enlarged version of Cyrus Dallin 's Appeal to the Great Spirit sculpture at Woodward Park . At the entrance to Oral Roberts University stands a large statue of praying hands , which , at 60 feet ( 18 m ) high , is the largest bronze sculpture in the world . As a testament to the city 's oil heritage , the 76 @-@ foot ( 23 m ) Golden Driller guards the front entrance to the Tulsa County Fairgrounds .
= = = Performing arts , film and cultural venues = = =
Tulsa contains several permanent dance , theater , and concert groups , including the Tulsa Ballet , the Tulsa Opera , the Tulsa Symphony Orchestra , Light Opera Oklahoma , Signature Symphony at TCC , the Tulsa Youth Symphony , the Heller Theatre , American Theatre Company , which is a member of the Theatre Communications Group and Oklahoma 's oldest resident professional theatre , and Theatre Tulsa , the oldest continuously operating community theatre company west of the Mississippi River . Tulsa also houses the Tulsa Spotlight Theater at Riverside Studio , which shows the longest @-@ running play in America ( The Drunkard ) every Saturday night . Many of the world 's best choreographers have worked with Tulsa Ballet including : Leonide Massine , Antony Tudor , Jerome Robbins , George Balanchine , Paul Taylor , Kurt Jooss , Nacho Duato ( ten works ) , Val Caniparoli who is its resident choreographer ( with seven works and four world premieres ) , Stanton Welch , Young Soon Hue , Ma Cong , Twyla Tharp and many others . In its first international tour in 2002 , Tulsa Ballet was declared by the Portuguese national magazine Semanario “ One of the best in the world . ” The company has received two feature articles in Dance Magazine during the past seven years , has been featured in the New York Times , Pointe Magazine and Dance Europe among others . In March 2008 , Tulsa Ballet was featured on the cover of Pointe magazine- a distinction given to only one ballet company each year . In April 2008 , Tulsa Ballet completed an ambitious $ 17 @.@ 3 million integrated campaign , which was celebrated at the opening of the brand new Studio K ; an on @-@ site , three hundred @-@ seat performance space dedicated to the creation of new works .
Tulsa 's music scene is also famous for the eponymous " Tulsa Sound " which blends rockabilly , country , rock ' n ' roll , and blues and has inspired local artists like J.J. Cale and Leon Russell as well as international superstars like Eric Clapton .
A number of concert venues , dance halls and bars gave rise to the Tulsa Sound but Cain 's Ballroom might be the best known . Cain 's is considered the birthplace of Western Swing , housed the performance headquarters of Bob Wills and the Texas Playboys during the 1930s . The centerpiece of the downtown Brady Arts District , the Brady Theater , is the largest of the city 's five operating performing arts venues that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Its design features extensive contributions by American architect Bruce Goff .
Large performing arts complexes include the Tulsa Performing Arts Center , which was designed by World Trade Center architect Minoru Yamasaki , the Cox Business Center , the art deco Expo Square Pavilion , the Mabee Center , the Tulsa Performing Arts Center for Education , and the River Parks Amphitheater and Tulsa 's largest venue , the BOK Center . Ten miles west of the city , an outdoor amphitheater called " Discoveryland ! " holds the official title of the world performance headquarters for the musical Oklahoma ! .
The city 's film community hosts annual festivals such as the Tulsa United Film Festival and Tulsa Overground Film and Music Festival .
= = = Festivals and cultural events = = =
In addition to the film and music festivals mentioned above , Tulsa is home to a number of cultural events and festivals around the year including Mayfest , the Blue Dome Arts Festival , Tulsa Bluesfest , Juneteenth Blues and Jazz Festival , Jazz on Greenwood Festival , Center of the Universe Festival , Bluegrass and Chili Festival , Tulsa Greek Holiday , Shalomfest , Oktoberfest , Tokyo in Tulsa , Reggaefest , the Oklahoma Scottish Games and more .
The famous literary prize the Helmerich Award is also awarded in Tulsa by members of the Tulsa Library Trust . Famous winners include John Updike , Toni Morrison , Neil Simon , Saul Bellow , Joyce Carol Oates , Michael Chabon and Norman Mailer .
= = = Outdoor attractions = = =
The city 's zoo , the Tulsa Zoo , was voted " America 's Favorite Zoo " in 2005 by Microsoft Game Studios in connection with a national promotion of its Zoo Tycoon 2 computer game . The zoo encompasses a total of 84 acres ( 34 ha ) with over 2 @,@ 600 animals representing 400 species . The zoo is located in 2 @,@ 820 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 140 ha ) Mohawk Park ( the third largest municipal park in the United States ) which also contains the 745 @-@ acre ( 301 ha ) Oxley Nature Center .
On the west bank of the Arkansas River in the suburb of Jenks , the Oklahoma Aquarium is the state 's only freestanding aquarium , containing over 200 exhibits , including a shark tank .
The Tulsa State Fair , operating in late September and early October , attracts over one million people during its 10 @-@ day run , and the city 's Oktoberfest celebration was named one of the top 10 in the world by USA Today and one of the top German food festivals in the nation by Bon Appetit magazine . A number of other cultural heritage festivals are held in the city throughout the year , including the Intertribal Indian Club Powwow of Champions in August ; Scotstfest , India Fest , Greek Festival , and Festival Viva Mexico in September ; ShalomFest in October ; Dia de Los Muertos Art Festival in November ; and the Asian @-@ American Festival in May . The annual Mayfest arts and crafts festival held downtown was estimated to have drawn more than 365 @,@ 000 people in its four @-@ day run in 2012 . On a smaller scale , the city hosts block parties during a city @-@ wide " Block Party Day " each year , with festivals varying in size throughout city neighborhoods . Tulsa has one major amusement park attraction , Big Splash Water Park , featuring multi @-@ story water slides and large wave pools . Until 2006 , the city also hosted Bell 's Amusement Park , which closed after Tulsa County officials declined to renew its lease agreement .
= = Sports = =
Tulsa supports a wide array of sports at the professional and collegiate levels . The city hosts two NCAA Division I colleges and multiple professional minor league sports teams in basketball , baseball , football , hockey , and soccer .
The city also contains one of the nation 's top rated golf courses , Southern Hills Country Club , which is one of only two courses that have hosted seven men 's major championships : three U.S. Opens and four PGA Championships , the most recent in 2007 . The course has held five amateur championships and from 2001 to 2008 the LPGA had a regular tour stop , latterly known as the SemGroup Championship at Cedar Ridge Country Club . In addition , Tulsa has two golf courses designed by famed golf course architect A.W. Tillinghast : the Oaks Country Club and Tulsa Country Club .
The 19 @,@ 199 @-@ seat BOK Center is the centerpiece of the Vision 2025 projects and was completed in August 2008 ; the BOK Center was in the top ten among indoor arenas worldwide in ticket sales for the first quarter of 2009 when it was the home for the city 's WNBA , arena football , and hockey teams . From 1978 to 1984 , the city hosted the Tulsa Roughnecks , who played in the now @-@ defunct North American Soccer League and won that league 's championship in 1983 . Also in 1984 , the city hosted the Oklahoma Outlaws of the now @-@ defunct United States Football League for a single season .
Tulsa has two universities that compete at the NCAA Division I level : the University of Tulsa Golden Hurricane , and the Oral Roberts University Golden Eagles . The University of Tulsa 's men 's basketball program has reached the Sweet Sixteen three times , made an appearance in the Elite Eight in 2000 , won the NIT championship in 1981 and 2001 , and won the inaugural College Basketball Invitational in 2008 . The Tulsa football team has played in 16 bowl games , including the Sugar Bowl ( twice ) and the Orange Bowl . Oral Roberts University 's men 's basketball team reached the Elite Eight in 1974 and won the Mid @-@ Continent Conference title three straight years , from 2005 to 2007 .
The University of Tulsa also boasts one of the nation 's top tennis facilities , the Michael D. Case Tennis Center , which was host to the 2004 and 2008 NCAA tennis championships.The Golden Hurricane Tennis program has string of success , including men 's Missouri Valley championships in 1995 and 1996 , men 's Conference USA championships in 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , and 2011 and women 's Conference USA championships in 2007 , 2008 , 2010 , and 2011 . In 2007 , Tulsa 's top @-@ ranked player Arnau Brugués @-@ Davi ranked as high as # 1 in the nation and a four time All @-@ American , advanced to the quarterfinals of the singles competition at the NCAA Men 's Tennis Championship , improving on his 2006 round of sixteen appearance .
At the secondary level , the Tulsa area is home to several high school athletic programs that are frequently ranked among the best nationally , particularly in football ( e.g. Jenks High School ) .
In 2008 Tulsa funded 39 @.@ 2 million to build a new ballpark in the Greenwood District near downtown for its Class AA Texas League baseball team , the Tulsa Drillers . The ground breaking was held on December 19 , 2008 . ONEOK bought the naming rights for 10 million for the next 25 years . The first game at ONEOK Field was held on April 8 , 2010 . Country music star Tim McGraw threw out the first pitch .
The city 's running and cycling communities support events such as the Tulsa Tough cycling race , the Route 66 Marathon , and the Tulsa Run , which features over 8000 participants annually . Gambling is supported by a community of Indian gaming venues that have been allowed to expand gambling options . In 2005 , compacts between the state and various tribes allowed facilities to offer table card games and slot machines . Another popular gambling draw , Horse racing events are housed by the Fair Meadows Race Track and Will Rogers Downs in nearby Claremore .
In motor sports , Tulsa annually hosts the Chili Bowl indoor race at the Tulsa Expo Center . It is the largest event of its kind worldwide .
= = = Current metro area teams = = =
= = = Metro area collegiate teams = = =
= = Parks = =
The city of Tulsa manages 135 parks spread over 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 ha ) . Woodward Park , a 45 @-@ acre ( 18 ha ) tract located in midtown Tulsa , doubles as a botanical gardens featuring the Tulsa Municipal Rose Garden , with more than 6 @,@ 000 rose plants in 250 varieties , and the Linnaeus Teaching Gardens , which demonstrate the latest and most successful techniques for growing vegetables , annuals , perennials , woody plants and groundcovers . Tulsa River Parks is a series of linear parks that run adjacent to the Arkansas River for about 10 miles ( 16 km ) from downtown to the Jenks bridge . Since 2007 a significant portion of the River Parks area has been renovated with new trails , landscaping and playground equipment . The River Parks Turkey Mountain Urban Wilderness Area on the west side of the Arkansas River in south Tulsa is a 300 @-@ acre area that contains over 45 miles of dirt trails available for hiking , trail running , mountain biking and horseback riding .
= = Government = =
A mayor @-@ council government has been in place in Tulsa since 1989 when the city converted from a city commission government deemed wasteful and less efficient . Since the change , Tulsa mayors have been given more power in accordance with a strong mayoral system and have greater control of a more consolidated array of governmental branches . Plurality voting is used to elect mayors , who serve a term in office of four years . The present mayor of Tulsa is Republican Dewey F. Bartlett , Jr. who won the 2009 election and took office on December 7 , 2009 . Another Tulsa political figure , Jim Inhofe , who now represents Oklahoma in the United States Senate , served as the mayor of Tulsa early in his political career .
A city councilor from each of the city 's nine council districts is elected every two years , each serving a term of two years . Councilors are elected from their own respective districts based on a plurality voting system , and serve on the Tulsa City Council . As a whole , the council acts as the legislative body of city government , which aims to pass laws , approve the city budget , and manage efficiency in city government . In accordance with the mayor @-@ council form of government , the Tulsa City Council and the office of the Mayor coordinate in city government operations . A third body of the government , the city auditor , is elected independently of the city council and mayor to ensure that the auditor can act in an objective manner . The auditor is elected for a term of two years . Phil Wood , a Democrat , held the position for 21 years before being defeated by Republican Preston Doerflinger in the 2009 election . The city serves as the seat of county government for Tulsa County , and lies mostly within Oklahoma 's 1st congressional district , with its far northwestern areas in southern Osage County in Oklahoma 's 3rd congressional district . Municipal and State laws are enforced in Tulsa by the Tulsa Police Department , an organization of 781 officers as of 2012 .
= = = Crime rate = = =
In 2012 , Tulsa 's crime rate were 46 murders , 1 @,@ 106 robberies , and 6 @,@ 045 burglaries , which was a 2 % crime rate . It was reported that Tulsa was ranked highest for some of the most mixed crimes in the state of Oklahoma , although annually Oklahoma City has the highest crimes in the state . According to local Tulsa Police there are reported to be at least 5 @,@ 000 residents connected with local gang ties .
= = Education = =
= = = K @-@ 12 education = = =
The Presbyterian Church ( PCUSA ) established the Presbyterian Mission Day School , a one @-@ story building at what would become 4th Street and Boston Avenue in 1884 . A second story was soon added to accommodate the number of children who were to attend . This school operated until 1889 . When Tulsa incorporated in 1899 , it took over the school and became the first public school . James M. Hall and three other men bought the property with their own funds and held the title until the city could reimburse them .
Tulsa built its first two public schools in 1905 . Construction of more schools began accelerating in 1906 . In December 1907 , control of the public schools passed from the city government to the Tulsa Board of Education .
Tulsa High School opened in 1906 on the same block formerly occupied by the Presbyterian mission school , which had been razed . The new school was a three @-@ story cream colored brick building with a dome . The school was accredited by the North Central Association of Schools and Colleges in 1913 . It proved too small by 1916 , when Tulsa voters approved a bond issue to construct a new high school at Sixth Street and Cincinnati Avenue , which was renamed Central High School . The north half of this facility opened in 1917 , while the south half opened in 1922 . This building remained in this service until 1976 , when it was replaced by a new building on West Edison Street . The old building was taken over by the Public Service Company of Oklahoma .
There are three primary public school districts in the city of Tulsa . Tulsa Public Schools , with nine high schools and over 41 @,@ 000 students , is the second @-@ largest school district in Oklahoma and includes Booker T. Washington High School , a magnet school judged to be the 65th best high school in the United States by Newsweek Magazine in 2008 . Each with one upper high school , Jenks and Union schools are the city 's two other primary districts , covering the southern portion of the city near the towns of Jenks and Broken Arrow . In 2006 , there were more than 90 @,@ 000 students attending Tulsa County 's public schools .
A variety of independent and sectarian schools exist in Tulsa , also . Most , but not all , of the private schools have religious affiliations with various Christian , Jewish or Muslim denominations . The Catholic Diocese of Tulsa supports a system of parochial and diocesan schools , including Bishop Kelley High School , administered by the LaSallians ( French Christian Brothers ) . Another Catholic high school , Cascia Hall Preparatory School , is administered by Augustinians . Holland Hall School is independent but historically affiliated with the Episcopal Church . Riverfield Country Day School is non @-@ sectarian .
= = = Public libraries = = =
The largest library system in the Tulsa Metropolitan Area , the Tulsa City @-@ County Library , contains over 1 @.@ 7 million volumes in 25 library facilities . The library is active in the community , holding events and programs at most branches , including free computer classes , children 's storytimes , business and job assistance , and scholarly databases with information on a variety of topics . The McFarlin Library at the University of Tulsa is a federal depository library holding over three million items . Founded in 1930 , the library is known for its collection of Native American works and the original works of Irish author James Joyce . The Tulsa City @-@ County Library and the University of Tulsa 's Law Library are also federal depository libraries , making Tulsa the only city in Oklahoma with more than two federal depository libraries . The Tulsa City County Library is under renovation . The temporary Librarium in downtown is taking its place until construction is complete .
= = = Higher education = = =
The first institute of higher education was established in Tulsa when Kendall College , a Presbyterian school , moved from Muskogee to Tulsa in 1907 . In 1920 , the school merged with a proposed McFarlin College to become the University of Tulsa ( abbreviated as TU ) . The McFarlin library of TU was named for the principal donor of the proposed college , oilman Robert M. McFarlin .
Tulsa has 15 institutions of higher education , including two private universities : the University of Tulsa , a school founded in 1894 , and Oral Roberts University , a school founded by evangelist Oral Roberts in 1963 .
The University of Tulsa has an enrollment of 4 @,@ 192 undergraduate and graduate students and is ranked 83rd among national doctoral universities in U.S. News and World Report 's 2009 edition of America 's Best Colleges and among the best 123 Western Colleges by the Princeton Review in 2007 , which also ranks it in the top ten schools nationally for quality of life , overall happiness of students , and relationship with the community . In addition to doctoral and masters programs , TU is home to the University of Tulsa College of Law and the Collins College of Business . TU also manages the famous Gilcrease Museum in northwest Tulsa and hosts the Alexandre Hogue Gallery on its main campus .
Oral Roberts University , a charismatic Christian institution with an enrollment of 5 @,@ 109 undergraduate and graduate students , was rated in 2007 by the Princeton Review one of the 123 best in the Western United States and among the West 's top 50 Master 's Universities by U.S. News and World Report in 2005 . Prominent ORU alumni include Kathie Lee Gifford , Joel Osteen and Ryan Tedder .
Both of the state 's flagship research universities have campuses in Tulsa :
Oklahoma State University houses three campuses in the city , the OSU Center for Health Sciences , the OSU College of Osteopathic Medicine , and OSU – Tulsa , accommodating upper @-@ level undergraduate and graduate courses . OSU @-@ Tulsa has an advanced materials research facility and is home to the Oklahoma Center for Poets and Writers .
The University of Oklahoma operates what is known as the OU @-@ Tulsa Schusterman Center , offering bachelors , master 's and doctoral degree programs in conjunction with the main campus in Norman and the OU Health Sciences Center in Oklahoma City . The OU @-@ Tulsa Schusterman Center also houses the OU School of Community Medicine , the first medical school of its kind in the United States .
Rogers State University is the Tulsa area 's only public , undergraduate @-@ focused four @-@ year university , though Tulsa Community College has a partnership allowing students to complete four @-@ year bachelor 's degrees through OU @-@ Tulsa , OSU @-@ Tulsa , LU @-@ Tulsa and NSU @-@ Broken Arrow . The largest community college in Oklahoma , Tulsa Community College ( TCC ) operates four campuses spread across the area as well as a conference center in Midtown . Tulsa also has a Tulsa branch of Langston University , the only historically black college or university in the state , founded in 1897 . Tulsa also has a branch campus of St. Gregory 's University , a Catholic university with its main campus in Shawnee , Oklahoma .
The Spartan School of Aeronautics enrolls 1 @,@ 500 students at its flight programs near Tulsa International Airport and the city 's vocational education is headed by Tulsa Technology Center , the oldest and largest vocational technology institution in the state . Virginia College is a school focusing on career training in Business and office , Health and Medical and Network Engineering and has a campus in Tulsa . The college offers day and night classes , several of which are available online .
Trade schools located in Tulsa include Vatterott College , Oklahoma Technical college , and Tulsa Tech .
= = Media and communications = =
Tulsa 's leading newspaper is the daily Tulsa World , the second most widely circulated newspaper in Oklahoma with a Sunday circulation of 189 @,@ 789 . Urban Tulsa , another large publication , is a weekly newspaper covering entertainment and cultural events . Covering primarily economic events and stocks , the Tulsa Business Journal caters to Tulsa 's business sector . Other publications include the Oklahoma Indian Times , the Tulsa Daily Commerce and Legal News , the Tulsa Beacon , This Land Press , and the Tulsa Free Press . Until 1992 , the Tulsa Tribune served as a daily major newspaper competing with the Tulsa World . The paper was acquired by the Tulsa World that year . Tulsa is also served by television and radio broadcasting networks . All major U.S. television networks are represented in Tulsa . Cable television service in the area is provided by Cox Communications . As in most major American cities , local radio stations in the Tulsa area are controlled by a small handful of large broadcasting companies . The late radio personality Paul Harvey was born in Tulsa and worked at local radio station KVOO in his early career .
Western Swing , a musical genre with roots in Country Music , was made popular at Tulsa 's Cain 's Ballroom . The Tulsa Sound , a variation of Rockabilly , Blues , and Rock ' n ' Roll , was started and largely developed by local musicians J. J. Cale and Leon Russell in the 1960s and 1970s . The Tulsa Sound heavily influenced musicians Eric Clapton and Jimmy Markham . Musicians from Tulsa or that started their musical careers in Tulsa include Garth Brooks , The Gap Band , Hanson , Caroline 's Spine , Ronnie Dunn , Gene Autry , David Gates , Jamie Oldaker , Jim Keltner , Bob Wills , David Cook , Broncho , Tyson Meade , The Damn Quails , and JD McPherson . In 2012 , Tulsa was ranked as having one of the best music scenes outside of New York , Los Angeles and Nashville .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Transportation in Tulsa is aided by Tulsa Transit 's bus network of 97 vehicles and two primary airports , while the Tulsa Port of Catoosa provides transportation of goods and industry through international trade routes . Though internal transportation is largely dependent on automobiles , the city is consistently ranked in the five lowest metropolitan areas for average price of gas at the pump .
= = = = Highways = = = =
Tulsa has an extensive highway system that connects drivers to many cities in the region such as Joplin , Missouri on the Will Rogers Turnpike and Oklahoma City on the Turner Turnpike . Most commuters use the highway system in Tulsa to get to and from work . Highways that run through Tulsa are I @-@ 44 , I @-@ 244 , US @-@ 412 , US @-@ 169 , OK @-@ 66 , US @-@ 64 , US @-@ 75 , OK @-@ 11 , OK @-@ 51 , Creek Turnpike , and Gilcrease Expressway . In 2011 , the Oklahoma Department of Transportation reported that Tulsa 's busiest freeway was US @-@ 169 with about 121 @,@ 500 vehicles daily between 51st and 61st Streets , and its second busiest freeway was OK @-@ 51 with about 104 @,@ 200 vehicles between Memorial and I @-@ 44 . Surrounding Downtown is the Inner Dispersal Loop ( sometimes called the " I @-@ D @-@ L " ) , which connects Downtown with almost all the highways in Tulsa .
= = = = Buses = = = =
Tulsa Transit , the city 's bus operator , runs 97 buses on 19 different routes across Tulsa and in surrounding suburbs such as Broken Arrow , Sand Springs , and Jenks . Tulsa Transit has two stations : one in Midtown Tulsa , and another across from the BOK Center in Downtown . Most routes go through one or both of these stations , facilitating the commute to work and events in downtown or midtown . Buses stop at specific stops such as TCC , OSU @-@ Tulsa , Cityplex Tower , Cox Communications , Hillcrest Medical Center , and many shopping destinations , hotels , and schools . The bus schedules are periodically changed ; votes are taken by Tulsa Transit to help decide what are the best specifics for certain routes .
= = = = Airports = = = =
The Tulsa International Airport , ( which is home to six commercial airlines , four cargo carriers , and one charter airline ) serves more than three million travelers annually with almost 63 departures every day , contributing nearly $ 5 @.@ 3 billion to the economy . In 2007 , the airport completed most of an expansion project , which included larger terminal sizes and the addition of restaurants and shops . In 2011 , the airport opened the newly renovated Concourse B complete with skylights , open gate holds , an average of 76 ways to charge a device per gate , and many more . Concourse A is under renovation . Riverside @-@ Jones airport , a general aviation airport in West Tulsa , saw 335 @,@ 826 takeoffs and landings in 2008 , making it the busiest airport in Oklahoma and fifth busiest general aviation airport in the entire nation . Its operations contribute over $ 3 @.@ 2 million to the economy annually .
= = = = Railways = = = =
There are no mass transit rail lines in Tulsa , though the prospect of passenger rail lines from downtown Tulsa to the suburb of Broken Arrow is being studied . Freight railways bisect the city in every direction , and include BNSF , Union Pacific Railroad , South Kansas and Oklahoma Railroad , and OSRR rail lines . Long distance passenger rail transportation serves Tulsa only through Greyhound bus lines , which provide bus connections to nearby cities with Amtrak stations .
Starting in February 2014 , a limited number of test trips of the Eastern Flyer began to run , connecting the Tulsa and Oklahoma City metros via train on Sundays . This private operation by the Iowa Pacific was at one point scheduled to begin regular daily operations in May 2014 , but the same had not started as of August 2015 .
Tulsa has two static displays of old steam railroad locomotives for free public viewing : the 1917 wood @-@ burning Dierks Forest 207 , a 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 Prairie @-@ type located at the Tulsa State Fairgrounds ; and , the 1942 oil @-@ burning Frisco Meteor 4500 , a Baldwin 4 @-@ 8 @-@ 4 Northern @-@ type at the Route 66 Historical Village .
= = = = Port of Catoosa = = = =
At the head of the McClellan @-@ Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System , the Tulsa Port of Catoosa is the most inland ocean @-@ going port in the United States and connects barge traffic from Tulsa to the Mississippi River via the Verdigris and Arkansas rivers . The facility is one of the largest riverports in the United States and contributes to one of the busiest waterways in the world via its course to the Gulf of Mexico .
= = = Medical facilities = = =
The Saint Francis Health System owns several hospitals with a central location at Saint Francis Hospital in the southern part of the city . The facility contains 700 doctors and 918 beds , and with more than 7 @,@ 000 employees , the network is the second largest healthcare employer in the state . The health system also operates a heart hospital , which was named by General Electric in 2004 one of the most advanced heart hospitals in the nation . St. John Medical Center , located in an 11 @-@ story midtown center , employs nearly 700 doctors . Other networks , such as Hillcrest Health System , operate a number of facilities in varying sizes . Beginning in 2007 , the city elected to renew a five @-@ year contract with EMSA for ambulance service after a period of consideration to switch to the Tulsa Fire Department for providing such services .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
In accordance with the Tulsa Global Alliance , which operates in conjunction with Sister Cities International , an organization that began under President Dwight Eisenhower in 1956 , Tulsa has been given eight international sister cities in an attempt to foster cross @-@ cultural understanding :
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= Alvin C. Graves =
Alvin Cushman Graves ( November 4 , 1909 – July 19 , 1965 ) was an American nuclear physicist who served at the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory and the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II . After the war , he became the head of J ( Test ) Division at Los Alamos , and was director or assistant director of numerous nuclear weapons tests during the 1940s and 1950s . Graves was badly injured in the 1946 laboratory criticality accident in Los Alamos that killed Louis Slotin , but recovered .
= = Early life = =
Alvin Cushman Graves was born on November 4 , 1909 in Washington , DC , the youngest of six children . He was the son of Herbert C. Graves , an engineer with the Coast and Geodetic Survey and member of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace after World War I. Graves attended Eastern High School , and graduated at the top of his class from the University of Virginia in 1931 with a bachelor 's degree in electrical engineering . He attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for a year , but found that jobs were hard to come by during the Great Depression . He received a graduate fellowship to the University of Chicago , where he earned his Ph.D. , writing his thesis on " Packing Fraction Differences Among Heavy Elements " .
At Chicago , Graves met and married Elizabeth Riddle , a physics major there , who was known as " Diz " . Elizabeth Riddle Graves earned her Ph.D. , writing her thesis on " Energy Release from Beryllium @-@ 9 ( Alpha , Alpha ) Lithium @-@ 7 and the Production of Lithium @-@ 7 " . Graves remained at the University of Chicago as a research fellow and an assistant professor until 1939 , when he moved to the University of Texas . Unfortunately , Elizabeth was unable to secure a job there as well due to its anti @-@ nepotism rules .
= = Manhattan Project = =
In 1942 Graves was invited back to the University of Chicago by Arthur H. Compton . Graves had already received a request from the MIT Radiation Laboratory to work on radar , and he asked if he could contribute more to Compton 's project . Compton replied that he could . He joined the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory , and helped build the first nuclear reactor , the Chicago Pile @-@ 1 . Graves , Harold V. Lichtenberger and Warren Nyer formed Enrico Fermi 's " suicide squad " or " liquid @-@ control squad " , assigned to smash 5 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 19 l ; 4 @.@ 2 imp gal ) glass bottles containing a solution of cadmium sulfate over the reactor with hammers if something went wrong . Cadmium is a strong neutron absorber and Fermi hoped that this would halt a runaway nuclear chain reaction , if the reactor control rods proved to be incapable of halting it in the first place .
Graves and Elizabeth moved to work at Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico when it opened in 1943 . He made it a condition of his going to Los Alamos that a job be found there for her . This was probably unnecessary , as someone with her skills — she was one of the few physicists who had experience with a Cockcroft @-@ Walton accelerator — would have been quickly snapped up at Los Alamos . At the time of the Trinity nuclear test in 1945 , Elizabeth was seven months pregnant with her first child . Graves therefore requested that they be assigned to a post far from the blast . They listened to Samuel K. Allison 's countdown to the explosion on the radio , and monitored the radioactive fallout from the test , which took until the afternoon to reach them , with Geiger counters . The child was a healthy daughter , Marilyn Edith .
Graves was badly injured in the 1946 laboratory criticality accident at Los Alamos that killed Louis Slotin . Slotin , who was training Graves to replace him in his position as chief bomb assembler for Los Alamos , was demonstrating the dangerous " tickling the dragon 's tail " test to Graves and several other scientists when the accident occurred . Graves , who was nearest to Slotin , suffered an estimated dose of 390 roentgens , and was given a 50 percent chance of survival . This caused severe radiation poisoning , loss of hair and a zero semen count . After two weeks of hospitalization and a several weeks of convalescence , he seemed to have recovered fully , and in a few months was back at work and skiing vigorously , with only a bald spot on the head to show for the experience . Two years later he fathered a healthy child , their second , a son they named Alvin Palmer .
= = Later life = =
Graves became dismissive of the radiation risks from nuclear testing while serving as test director for the Nevada Test Site shots during the 1950s . He announced that the risks from fallout were " concocted in the minds of weak malingerers . " As a spokesman for the Nevada Test Site , he spoke in local areas around Nevada assuring the population of no danger from the activities there . As the head of the Los Alamos Laboratory 's J ( Test ) Division , he was the scientific director or deputy director of most of the nuclear tests from 1948 through the 1950s , including the Desert Rock exercises which exposed military personnel to radiation , and the Castle Bravo test that irradiated many native islanders and test personnel . Asked to testify before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy on the danger of radiation causing cancer , Graves replied :
The danger is not that this will happen to you . The danger is that it is more likely to happen to you . Maybe the more likely is not very much more likely , but it is still more likely .
Graves was a pillar of the Los Alamos community . He was an active member of the non @-@ denominational Protestant Community Church . With the encouragement of Elizabeth , who played the violin , he learned to play the cello , hoarding his petrol ration stamps so that he could travel to Santa Fe , New Mexico , for lessons . He played in the Los Alamos Symphony , accompanying local performances of Gilbert and Sullivan and Handel 's Messiah . He was chairman of the board of the local bank , and a member of the local school board .
Graves died of a heart attack on July 19 , 1965 while skiing in Del Norte , Colorado , twenty years after the Slotin accident , at the age of 55 . He had suffered from hypertension even before the 1946 accident , and had a minor heart attack in December 1955 . His father had also died of a heart attack . A 1978 follow @-@ up study of the Slotin accident victims suggested that latent systemic damage from the accident contributed to heart failure . He was interred in the Guaje Pines Cemetery in Los Alamos , New Mexico .
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= 1984 European Super Cup =
The 1984 European Super Cup was an association football match between Italian team Juventus and English team Liverpool , which took place on 16 January 1985 at the Stadio Comunale . The match was the annual European Super Cup contested between the winners of the European Cup and European Cup Winners ' Cup . At the time , the European Super Cup was generally a two @-@ legged fixture , but only the first leg ( in Turin ) was played , due to fixture congestion .
Juventus were appearing in the Super Cup for the first time . Liverpool were appearing in the competition for the third time , they had won the competition in 1977 , and lost in 1978 to Belgian team Anderlecht . Juventus won the 1983 – 84 European Cup Winners ' Cup , beating Portuguese team Porto 2 – 1 in the final . Liverpool qualified by winning the 1983 – 84 European Cup . They beat Italian team Roma 4 – 2 in a penalty shootout after the final had finished 1 – 1 .
Watched by a crowd of 55 @,@ 384 , Juventus took the lead in the first half when Zbigniew Boniek scored in the 39th minute . Boniek scored again in the second half to give Juventus a 2 – 0 lead which they held on to until the end of the match to win their first Super Cup . The two clubs met later in the season in the 1985 European Cup Final , which resulted in the death of 39 spectators due to a disaster that occurred prior to kick @-@ off . Juventus won the match 1 – 0 .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
The European Super Cup was founded in the early 1970s , as a means to determine the best team in Europe and serve as a challenge to Ajax , the strongest club side of its day . The proposal by Dutch journalist Anton Witkamp , a football match between the holders of the European Cup and Cup Winners ' Cup , failed to receive UEFA 's backing , given the recent Cup Winners ' Cup winners Rangers had been banned from European competition . Witkamp nonetheless proceeded with his vision , a two @-@ legged match played between Ajax and Rangers in January 1973 . The competition was endorsed and recognised by UEFA a year later .
Juventus qualified for the Super Cup as the reigning European Cup Winners ' Cup winners . They had remained unbeaten throughout the 1983 – 84 European Cup Winners ' Cup , and beat Porto 2 – 1 in the final . It was Juventus ' first appearance in the competition .
Liverpool had qualified for the competition as a result of winning the 1983 – 84 European Cup . They had beaten Roma 4 – 2 in a penalty shootout , after the match had finished 1 – 1 . Liverpool were appearing in their third Super Cup . They won the competition on their first appearance in 1977 , beating German team Hamburg 7 – 1 on aggregate . Their other appearance in 1978 resulted in a defeat to Belgian team Anderlecht .
Traditionally , the Super Cup had been played over two legs , but due to both clubs experiencing fixture congestion , was played as a one @-@ off match in Turin in January 1985 .
= = = Summary = = =
Bad weather in Turin created doubt about whether the match could be completed . However , the referee decided to go ahead with the match . Liverpool were without striker Kenny Dalglish who was suspended . Liverpool struggled to gain a foothold in the match in the first half and were behind when Juventus scored in the 40th minute . A mishit pass by Massimo Briaschi found Zbigniew Boniek whose subsequent shot from the edge of the Liverpool penalty area beat goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar to give Juventus a 1 – 0 lead . Liverpool had a chance to equalise before the end of the first half , but midfielder John Wark put his shot wide of the Juventus goal . Liverpool started the second half without defender Mark Lawrenson who had injured himself during the first half , he was replaced by Gary Gillespie . Liverpool tried to level the match in the second half , but their best chances came from midfielder Ronnie Whelan whose shots from distance did not result in any goals . Juventus extended their lead late in the second half when Boniek scored again . A cross from Briaschi found Boniek , whose shot beat Grobbelaar to extend Juventus ' lead to 2 – 0 . Five minutes later , Juventus nearly extended their lead again . However , striker Paolo Rossi 's shot was saved by Grobbelaar . Juventus held onto their lead to win the match 2 – 0 and win the Super Cup .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
The two sides met again at the end of the season in the 1985 European Cup Final . However , the events of the match were overshadowed by the disaster that occurred before kick @-@ off . Liverpool fans breached a fence separating the two groups of supporters and charged the Juventus fans . The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse , killing 39 people and injuring hundreds . English clubs were banned indefinitely from European competition , with a condition that when the ban was lifted , Liverpool would serve an extra three @-@ year ban . The ban eventually lasted for five years , clubs returning to European competition in the 1990 – 91 season . Juventus won the match 1 – 0 to win the European Cup for the first time .
Liverpool finished second in the First Division during the 1984 – 85 Football League . They were thirteen points behind champions Everton . Juventus finished the 1984 – 85 Serie A in sixth place , seven points behind champions Hellas Verona .
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= Same @-@ sex marriage in Spain =
Same @-@ sex marriage has been legally recognized in Spain since 3 July 2005 . In 2004 , the nation 's newly elected Socialist Party ( PSOE ) government , led by Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero , began a campaign for its legalization , including the right of adoption by same @-@ sex couples . After much debate , a law permitting same @-@ sex marriage was passed by the Cortes Generales ( Spain 's bicameral parliament , composed of the Senate and the Congress of Deputies ) on 30 June 2005 and published on 2 July 2005 . The law took effect the next day , making Spain the third country in the world to allow same @-@ sex couples to marry across the entire country , after the Netherlands and Belgium , and 17 days ahead of the right being extended across all of Canada .
The ratification of this law was not devoid of conflict , despite support from 66 % of the population . Roman Catholic authorities in particular were adamantly opposed , criticising what they regarded as the weakening of the meaning of marriage . Other associations expressed concern over the possibility of lesbians and gays adopting children . Demonstrations for and against the law drew thousands of people from all parts of Spain . After its approval , the conservative People 's Party challenged the law in the Constitutional Court .
Approximately 4 @,@ 500 same @-@ sex couples married in Spain during the first year of the law . Shortly after the law was passed , questions arose about the legal status of marriage to non @-@ Spaniards whose country did not permit same @-@ sex marriage . A ruling from the Justice Ministry stated that the country 's same @-@ sex marriage law allows a Spanish citizen to marry a non @-@ Spaniard regardless of whether that person 's homeland recognizes the partnership . At least one partner must be a Spanish citizen in order to marry , although two non @-@ Spaniards may marry if they both have legal residence in Spain .
The November 2011 general election delivered a landslide victory to the People 's Party , whose leader Mariano Rajoy said that he opposed same @-@ sex marriage , but any decision about repealing the law could be made only after the ruling of the Constitutional Court . On 6 November 2012 , the law was upheld by the Court with 8 support votes and 3 against . Minister of Justice Alberto Ruiz @-@ Gallardón announced that the government will abide the ruling and the law will not be repealed .
= = History = =
During the 1990s and early 2000s , several city councils and autonomous communities had opened registers for civil unions that allowed benefits for unmarried couples of any sex , although the effect was mainly symbolic . Registries were created in 16 out of 17 of Spain 's autonomous communities ; Catalonia ( 1998 ) , Aragon ( 1999 ) , Navarre ( 2000 ) , Castile @-@ La Mancha ( 2000 ) , Valencia ( 2001 ) , Balearic Islands ( 2001 ) , Madrid ( 2001 ) , Asturias ( 2002 ) , Andalusia ( 2002 ) , Castile and León ( 2002 ) , Extremadura ( 2003 ) , Basque Country ( 2003 ) , Canary Islands ( 2003 ) , Cantabria ( 2005 ) , Galicia ( 2008 ) and La Rioja ( 2010 ) , and in both autonomous cities ; Ceuta ( 1998 ) and Melilla ( 2008 ) Spanish law already allowed single people to adopt children ; thus , a same @-@ sex couple could undertake a de facto adoption , but the partner who was not the legal parent had no rights if the relationship ended or the legal parent died . Same @-@ sex marriages were not legal in the autonomous communities , because the Spanish Constitution gives the State sole power to legislate marriage .
The Socialist Party ( PSOE ) manifesto for the 2004 general election included the pledge of amending the Civil Code to legalize same @-@ sex marriage , granting it the same status as heterosexual marriage in order to " ensure full social and legal equality for lesbians and gays " . After the socialists ' victory in the election , the new Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero promised at his inauguration address to bring this change forward : " The moment has finally arrived to end once and for all the intolerable discrimination which many Spaniards suffer because of their sexual preferences . ( ... ) As a result , we will modify the Civil Code to recognize their equal right to marriage with the resulting effects over inheritance , labor rights and social security protection " . On 30 June 2004 , the then Minister of Justice Juan Fernando López Aguilar announced that the Congress of Deputies had provisionally approved a government plan for legislation to extend the right of marriage to same @-@ sex couples . López Aguilar also announced two propositions , introduced by the regional Convergence and Union party of Catalonia : one introduced legal status for both opposite- and same @-@ sex common @-@ law unions ( parejas de hecho , " de facto unions " ) , while the other permitted transgender people to legally change their name and sex designation without the requirement of surgery . The bill regarding same @-@ sex marriage was approved by the Cabinet on 1 October 2004 , submitted to Parliament on 31 December , and passed by the Congress of Deputies on 21 April 2005 . However , it was rejected on 22 June 2005 by the Senate , where the opposition People 's Party held a plurality of the seats . The bill was returned to the lower house , which holds the power to override the Senate , and final approval was given to the bill on 30 June 2005 with 187 " yes " votes , 147 " no " votes , and 4 abstentions .
With the final approval , and enactment of the bill on 2 July 2005 , Spain became the third country in the world to formally legalize same @-@ sex marriages nationwide , after the Netherlands and Belgium .
The first same @-@ sex wedding took place eight days after the bill became law , and was celebrated in the council chamber in the Madrid suburb of Tres Cantos by Carlos Baturín and Emilio Menéndez . The first same @-@ sex marriage between women took place in Barcelona eleven days later .
In spite of these steps toward equal treatment , a legal flaw remained : if children were born within a lesbian marriage , the non @-@ biological mother was not legally regarded as a parent ; she still had to undergo the lengthy financial process of adoption . This right was granted to heterosexual couples ( married or not ) , where a stepfather could declare his wife 's children to be his without further process . On 7 November 2006 , the government amended the law on assisted reproduction , allowing the non @-@ biological mother to be regarded as a parent alongside her female spouse who is the birth @-@ mother .
= = = Ratification of Law 13 / 2005 = = =
The projected bill announced on 30 June 2004 by the Minister of Justice was studied by the General Council of the Judiciary . Although the General Council admitted that the existing discrimination against homosexuals could not be condoned , it was quite critical about extending marriage toward same @-@ sex couples ( including collateral adoption ) . It argued that the extension was not demanded by the Constitution , and that ending discrimination could be achieved through other legal means , such as the extension of civil unions .
Despite this negative report , the government presented the bill to Congress on 1 October 2004 . With the exception of the People 's Party and members of the Democratic Union of Catalonia , the different parliamentary parties favoured the reform . On 21 April 2005 , Congress approved the bill , with 183 " yes " and 136 " no " votes and 6 abstentions ( including a member of the People 's Party ) . The bill to allow same @-@ sex marriage in Spain was short : it added a new paragraph to article 44 of the civil code , saying that Matrimony shall have the same requisites and effects regardless of whether the persons involved are of the same or different sex .
In accordance with constitutional provisions , the text approved by the Congress was then submitted to the Senate for final approval , change or veto . On 21 June 2005 experts were called to the Senate to debate the issue . The expert 's opinions were diverse ; some stated that gay adoption had no effect on a child 's development , except for perhaps a higher tolerance towards homosexuality . However , psychiatrist Aquilino Polaino , called by the People 's Party as an expert , called homosexuality a pathology and emotive disorder . Among other assertions that generated debate , he claimed that " many homosexuals have rape abuse antecedents since childhood " and that homosexuals generally come from families with " hostile , alcoholic and distant " fathers , and mothers who were " over protective " toward boys and " cold " toward girls . Prominent People 's Party members later rejected Polaino 's assertions .
The Senate vetoed the text submitted by the Congress . The veto was proposed by the People 's Party , which held the majority of the seats , and by the Democratic Union of Catalonia , and was approved by 131 " yes " and 119 " no " votes and 2 abstentions . As a result , the text was sent back to the Congress . On 30 June 2005 it was approved by Congress , which , in accordance with the constitutional provisions , overrode the Senate veto . This was achieved with 187 " yes " votes ( including a member of the People 's Party , Celia Villalobos ) , 147 " no " votes , and four abstentions . The veto override implied its approval as law . The vote was held after Zapatero unexpectedly took the floor of parliament to speak in its support , saying We are expanding the opportunities for happiness of our neighbors , our colleagues , our friends and our relatives . At the same time , we are building a more decent society . Mariano Rajoy , the leader of the opposition People 's Party , was denied the opportunity to address parliament after Zapatero 's appearance , and accused Zapatero of dividing Spanish society .
When the media asked King Juan Carlos if he would sign the bill that was being debated in the Cortes Generales , he answered that he was the King of Spain , not of Belgium – a reference to King Baudouin of Belgium , who refused to sign the Belgian law legalising abortion . For the king to withhold his royal assent would effect a veto of the legislation . However , the king gave his royal assent to Law 13 / 2005 on 1 July 2005 , and the law was gazetted in the Boletín Oficial del Estado on 2 July , and came into effect on 3 July . The king received criticism by Carlist and other far right conservatives for signing the legislation .
= = Reactions = =
The bill 's passage was met with concern by Catholic authorities , including Pope John Paul II — who warned of a weakening of family values — and his successor Pope Benedict XVI . Cardinal López Trujillo , president of the Pontifical Council for the Family , said the Church was making an urgent call for freedom of conscience for Catholics and appealing to them to resist the law . He said every profession linked with implementing same @-@ sex marriages should oppose it , even if it meant losing their jobs . Gay rights supporters argued that while the Catholic Church also formally opposed opposite @-@ sex , non @-@ religious marriage , its opposition was not as vocal ; for example , the Church did not object to the marriage of Crown Prince Felipe to Letizia Ortiz , who had divorced from a previous civil marriage . The church was unable to gather enough support to derail the bill , even though 80 % of Spaniards identify as members of the Catholic Faith . Sociologists believe this may be due to the significant increase of liberalism in the realm of individual rights in recent years , where the Church traditionally had most influence , especially on family issues . A poll showed that three quarters of Spaniards believe the church hierarchy is out of touch with social reality . A complementary explanation might be that the Church 's influence on Spaniards declined after the death in 1975 of the dictator General Francisco Franco , whose regime was closely linked to the Church .
Prime Minister Zapatero responded to Church criticism by saying :
There is no damage to marriage or to the family in allowing two people of the same sex to get married . Rather , these citizens now have the ability to organize their lives according to marital and familial norms and demands . There is no threat to the institution of marriage , but precisely the opposite : this law recognizes and values marriage .
Aware that some people and institutions profoundly disagree with this legal change , I wish to say that like other reforms to the marriage code that preceded this one , this law will not generate bad results , that its only consequence will be to avoid senseless suffering of human beings . A society that avoids senseless suffering of its citizens is a better society .
In any case , I wish to express my deep respect to those people and institutions , and I also want to ask for the same respect for all of those who approve of this law . To the homosexuals that have personally tolerated the abuse and insults for many years , I ask that you add to the courage you have demonstrated in your struggle for civil rights , an example of generosity and joy with respect to all the beliefs .
On 19 June 2005 there was a public protest against the law . Protesters — led by People 's Party members , Spanish bishops and the Spanish Family Forum ( Foro Español de la Familia ) — said they had rallied 1 @.@ 5 million people against what they considered an attack on the traditional family and Spanish values ; the Government 's Delegation in Madrid counted 166 @,@ 000 at the same event . Two weeks after this protest , coinciding with Gay Pride Day , FELGT ( Federación Estatal de Lesbianas , Gays , Transexuales y Bisexuales — the Spanish Lesbian , Gay , and Transgender Organization ) estimated two million people marched in favour of the new law ; police sources counted 97 @,@ 000 . Both marches took place in Madrid , at the time governed by the conservative People 's Party .
Spanish bishops also claimed that the government , by extending the right of marriage to same @-@ sex couples , weakened the meaning of marriage , which they defined as an involving a heterosexual couple . The Spanish Family Forum expressed concern over the possibility of gay couples adopting and raising children , and argued that adoption is not a right for the parents , but for the adopted . Gay associations replied that de facto adoption by same @-@ sex couples had existed for a long time in Spain , since many couples were rearing minors adopted by one of the partners . Adoption by same @-@ sex couples was already legal in Navarre ( 2000 ) , the Basque Country ( 2003 ) , Aragon ( 2004 ) , Catalonia ( 2005 ) and Cantabria ( 2005 ) before the same @-@ sex marriage law legalized these adoptions nationwide . Furthermore , in Asturias ( 2002 ) , Andalusia ( 2002 ) and Extremadura ( 2003 ) , same @-@ sex couples could jointly begin procedures to temporarily or permanently take children in care . These associations also argued that there was no scientific basis for the claim that the parents ' sexual orientation would cause developmental problems for their adopted children . This view is officially supported by the Spanish School of Psychology , which also states that homosexuality is not a pathology .
In a 2008 biography , Queen Sofia of Spain revealed that she preferred the term " civil union " to " marriage " for committed same @-@ gender relationships . This and other alleged comments by the queen opened the Spanish monarchy to rare criticism in 2008 , with the Zarzuela palace issuing an apology on behalf of the queen for the " inexact " quotes attributed to her . Antonio Poveda , president of FELGT , said his organization accepted the queen 's apology , but added that there remains ill feelings by the gay community towards the queen over the comments . King Juan Carlos , known to be far more liberal than his wife , was reportedly incensed by the biography , with reporters stating the king will fire palace officials who allegedly approved official royal endorsement of the book .
During the 2011 General Election , People 's Party leader and Prime Minister of Spain Mariano Rajoy stated he also prefers the term " civil union " to marriage for same @-@ sex couples .
= = Opposition court challenges = =
On 21 July 2005 , a judge from the city of Dénia refused to issue a marriage license to a lesbian couple . The judge also filed a constitutional challenge against the same @-@ sex marriage law with the Constitutional Court based on Article 32 of the Constitution that contains the phrase " Men and women have the right to contract marriage with full juridical equality . " In August 2005 , a judge from Gran Canaria refused licenses to three same @-@ sex couples and mounted another constitutional challenge . In December 2005 , the Constitutional Court rejected both challenges owing to both judges ' lack of standing to file them . On 30 September 2005 , the opposition People 's Party decided to initiate a separate constitutional challenge , causing division within the party . The outcome was published on November 6 , 2012 , seven years after the challenge was presented . The Court decided to uphold the same @-@ sex marriage law with 8 support votes and 3 against .
On 27 February 2007 the Spanish Family Forum presented an initiative signed by 1 @.@ 5 million people to legislate marriage as the union of a man and a woman only ( thus effectively prohibiting same @-@ sex marriage ) . The initiative was rejected by the Spanish Congress . On 30 May 2007 , the aforementioned judge of Dénia was condemned by the Disciplinary Committee of the General Council of Judiciary Power ( Comisión Disciplinaria del Consejo General del Poder Judicial -CGPJ- ) to pay 305 euros for refusing to marry a gay couple and was also strictly warned against doing it again . She attributes this action to the " propagandistic machinery " of the government .
= = Residency issues = =
Shortly after the law was passed , questions arose about the legal status of marriage to non @-@ Spaniards after a Spaniard and an Indian national living in Catalonia were denied a marriage license on the grounds that India did not permit same @-@ sex marriage . However , on 22 July another judge in Catalonia married a Spanish woman and her Argentinian national partner ( the first same @-@ sex marriage between women in Spain ) . This judge disagreed with his colleague 's decision and gave preference to the right of marriage over Argentinian law at the time not allowing same @-@ sex marriage .
On 27 July , the Junta de Fiscales de Sala – a body within the Public Prosecutor 's Corp that advises the Minister of Justice 's office – issued an opinion that LGBT Spaniards can marry foreigners from countries that do not permit same @-@ sex marriage . This marriage would be valid according to Spanish law , but did not imply automatic validity according to the foreigner 's national law . A ruling published in the Official State Bulletin stated :
According to the instructions from the Ministry of Justice ( Dirección General de Registros y Notariado ) , Spanish Consulates abroad may carry out the preliminary paperwork for a same @-@ sex marriage . At least one of the marrying partners must be a Spanish citizen , residing in the Consular demarcation . However , the marriage itself can only take place at the Consulate if local laws recognize same @-@ sex marriages ( Spanish consulates in Boston , Brussels , The Hague , Amsterdam , Oslo , Toronto , Montreal , Ottawa , Cape Town , Pretoria , Stockholm , Washington , D.C. , Mexico City , Lisbon , Porto , Reykjavík , Buenos Aires , Rosario , Córdoba and Mendoza , as of August 2010 ) . In all other cases , the partners must marry in Spanish territory . Two non @-@ resident foreigners cannot marry in Spain , as at least one of the partners must be a Spanish resident , although they both may be non @-@ Spanish citizens .
= = Marriage statistics = =
According to the Spanish National Statistics Institute ( INE ) , 27 @,@ 357 same @-@ sex marriages took place up to the end of 2012 : 1 @,@ 275 in 2005 , 4 @,@ 574 in 2006 , 3 @,@ 250 in 2007 , 3 @,@ 549 in 2008 , 3 @,@ 412 in 2009 , 3 @,@ 583 in 2010 , 3 @,@ 880 in 2011 and 3 @,@ 834 in 2012 .
Most same @-@ sex marriages in 2011 took place in : Catalonia , with 886 weddings ( 3 @.@ 33 % of all marriages in the Community for that year ) ; Madrid , 729 ( 2 @.@ 91 % ) ; Andalusia , 484 ( 1 @.@ 71 % ) ; Valencian Community , 436 ( 2 @.@ 58 % ) ; and the Canary Islands , 203 ( 3 @.@ 60 % ) .
= = Notable weddings = =
Since its legalization in 2005 , couples from a cross section of Spanish society have entered into same @-@ sex marriage . Within the first year the law received royal assent , an influential socialist leader and Madrid city councilor Pedro Zerolo married Jesús Santos in January , and popular television presenter Jesús Vázquez married Roberto Cortés in March . In October 2005 , Spain 's prominent anti @-@ terrorism judge Fernando Grande @-@ Marlaska married his fiancé Gorka Gómez . In August 2006 Ourense city councilor and member of the People 's Party Pepe Araujo , whose party originally opposed the law , married his fiancé Nino Crespo . In September 2006 Alberto Linero Marchena and Alberto Sánchez Fernández , both army soldiers assigned to the Morón Air Base near Seville , became Spain 's first military personnel to marry under the new law . In August 2008 , Doña Luisa Isabel Álvarez de Toledo , 21st Duchess of Medina Sidonia and three @-@ time Grandee of Spain ( branded the Red Duchess for her socialist activism ) , became the highest ranking Spanish noble to marry in an articulo mortis ( deathbed ) wedding to longtime companion Liliana Maria Dahlmann , now the Dowager Duchess of Medina Sidonia by right of her late wife . In June 2015 the then mayor of the Basque capital Vitoria , Javier Maroto , announced his engagement to longtime partner Josema Rodríguez . The wedding was held on 18 September 2015 at Vitoria 's city hall . Maroto , a member of the conservative People 's Party 's national board , is known for his views contrary to the stance of his own party pertaining the gay marriage in Spain . Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy , who had challenged the law approving same sex marriage when he was Opposition Leader , attended the wedding celebrations as a guest .
= = Public opinion = =
A poll by the government @-@ run Centre for Sociological Investigations ( Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas ) , published in April 2005 , reported that 66 % of Spaniards favoured legalising same @-@ sex marriage . Another poll taken by Instituto Opina a day before the bill passed placed support of the same @-@ sex marriage bill at 62 @.@ 1 % and support of adoption by same @-@ sex couples at 49 @.@ 1 % . An Instituto Opina poll taken nine months after the bill passed said 61 % agreed with the government 's decision .
On 25 July 2007 the BBVA Foundation published their report Social portrait of Spanish people , which reported that 60 % of Spain 's population support same @-@ sex marriage . This support occurs mainly among the younger population , between 15 and 34 years old ( 75 % ) , people with higher education ( 71 % ) , people not attached to any religion ( 75 @.@ 5 % ) , and those identified by left and centre @-@ left political views ( 71 @.@ 9 % ) . However , only 44 % of the population favor the right of adoption by homosexual couples , in contrast to 42 % opposition .
A May 2013 Ipsos poll found that 76 % of respondents were in favour of same @-@ sex marriage and another 13 % supported other forms of recognition for same @-@ sex couples .
According to the Ifop poll , conducted in May 2013 , 71 % of Spaniards supported allowing same @-@ sex couples to marry and adopt children .
The 2015 Eurobarometer found that 84 % of Spaniards thought that same @-@ sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe , 10 % were against .
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= Roger Norreis =
Roger Norreis ( sometimes Roger Norreys or Roger Norris ; died between 1223 and 1225 ) was a medieval Abbot of Evesham in England . He was a controversial figure installed in several offices against opposition . In his appointment to Evesham he was accused of immoral behaviour and failing to follow monastic rules . In 1202 Norreis became embroiled in a dispute with his monks and his episcopal superior the Bishop of Worcester ; litigation and argumentation lasted until his deposition in 1213 . He then was appointed prior of a subsidiary monastic house of Evesham but was deposed within months then re @-@ appointed to the office five years later .
Norreis has been described by modern historians as being unsuited for the religious positions to which he was appointed and by one of being completely unsuitable to hold any kind of spiritual role . Nevertheless , even his most severe contemporary critic , Thomas of Marlborough , one of his own monks at Evesham , conceded that Norreis was energetic , entertaining , and enterprising ; during his time as abbot of Evesham Abbey he managed to complete the crossing tower of the monastic church . Roger Norreis died between 1223 and 1225 .
= = Background and early career = =
Norreis was a native of northern England and his family was probably of Norse origin . He was a monk at Christ Church Priory , the cathedral chapter of Canterbury Cathedral ; when he became a monk is unknown . In 1187 he was appointed treasurer of the priory , and in that role was sent by the cathedral chapter to King Henry II of England to plead their case against Baldwin of Forde , the Archbishop of Canterbury . The archbishop and his monks were in dispute over Baldwin 's plan to found a collegiate church at Hackington in honour of Thomas Becket which most of the monks opposed because they feared it would diminish the prestige of their priory .
Once Norreis reached the king he was converted to Baldwin 's side , perhaps because of the latter 's appointment of Norreis as the cellarer of Christ Church while the pair were at the king 's court . The monks resisted this appointment , and in September they appealed to the papacy , arguing that the appointment was against the Benedictine Rule . They also captured and held Norreis in custody , telling anyone who enquired after him that he was sick . Norreis escaped in early 1188 by travelling through the sewer and fled to the safety of the archbishop , who was then at Otford . In a mocking reference to his escape route , Norreis was occasionally known as Roger Cloacarius or " Roger the Drain @-@ Cleaner " . Baldwin then tried to have Norreis installed as prior at Christ Church 's dependent priory of St Martin 's , Dover , but the appointment was never confirmed .
= = Prior and abbot = =
King Henry died on 6 July 1189 and his son Richard I was crowned on 3 September . The succession of a new monarch eventually allowed a truce in the dispute between the Canterbury monks and their archbishop , as Henry had been a supporter of the archbishop 's scheme . Before the truce could be hammered out , Baldwin appointed Norreis as prior of Christ Church in October 1189 as another move in the quarrel over the Hackington project . In November the cathedral chapter secured a compromise that included the abandonment of the scheme and Norreis 's dismissal from office . The agreement came at a council held by Richard in late November 1189 at which the monks agreed to let the king settle the dispute over the Hackington project if the archbishop would withdraw Norreis ' appointment . Norreis 's fellow monks considered him a traitor to their cause , and his reputation was that of someone with few morals . He was also known for ingratiating himself with those in power , including the justiciar Geoffrey fitzPeter . Many of the details concerning Norreis ' career at Christ Church come from the works of Gervase of Canterbury , as well as the collection of letters known as the Epistolae Cantuarienses .
Norreis was appointed to the abbacy of Evesham Abbey in 1190 and was blessed as abbot on 13 January 1190 . He owed his appointment to King Richard and to Baldwin 's attempts to make the dismissal from Christ Church look less like a defeat for the archbishop . Norreis also claimed that he received the office in return for unspecified services he rendered to Richard . There was no attempt at an election by the monks , a lack which went against canon law . During his tenure of office , his monks accused him of adultery , excessive drinking , gluttony , setting up favourites , starving the monks , and appropriating monastic property for his own use . A further offence was his habit of wearing secular clothing rather than the monastic robes prescribed by the Benedictine Rule . All these charges come from one of his monks , the historian Thomas of Marlborough , who wrote much of the history of Evesham known as the Chronicon Abbatiae de Evesham . Thomas 's account of Norreis 's rule is biased against the abbot and is a self @-@ aggrandising account of how Thomas single @-@ handedly triumphed over both his and his abbey 's foes . Norreis did manage some good for the abbey , as it was while he was abbot that the crossing tower of the monastic church was completed .
Early in his tenure Norreis appears to have been somewhat circumspect and did not greatly annoy his monks . The change appears to have happened around 1195 , when the monks are first recorded as appealing to higher authority . Because Evesham had traditionally claimed to be exempt from episcopal oversight by the see of Worcester , in which it was located , the monks could only appeal to the papacy or to a papal legate . Hubert Walter , the Archbishop of Canterbury after Baldwin , held a legateship for England until July 1195 and so the monks appealed to him . Walter forced Norreis to make some compromises with his subordinates , but the truce did not last long , and the monks once again complained of their treatment . They were visited by the new Bishop of Worcester John of Coutances some time between 1196 and 1198 , but Norreis succeeded in avoiding any severe sanctions by offering gifts to the bishop . The monks again appealed to Walter in about 1200 , but between the archbishop 's preoccupation with political affairs and Norreis 's promises to reform , no solid changes occurred .
= = Dispute with Mauger and his monks = =
In 1202 the new Bishop of Worcester Mauger attempted to investigate Norreis 's conduct , but under the leadership of Thomas of Marlborough the monastic community refused to allow the bishop to visit , claiming that Evesham was exempt from episcopal visitation and oversight . According to Thomas , Norreis offered to renounce the abbey 's claim to exemption in return for money , but the bishop refused . Norries then fled the monastery , while the monks continued to refuse the bishop and were excommunicated , a sentence that Norreis was spared . Between early September and mid @-@ October the dispute was heard by three ecclesiastical tribunals , Mauger was supported by Eustace , Bishop of Ely , and Giles de Braose , Bishop of Hereford . The monks and Norreis then made common cause , each vowing to stand by the other in resisting Mauger . As well as these two cases , there was a dispute between the monks and the bishop over the ownership of some properties . The monks and Norreis then obtained the right for their case to be heard by papal judge @-@ delegates , but Mauger objected to the fact that the appointed judges were all Benedictine monks , and travelled to Rome to appeal .
In 1203 Norreis , secure in his alliance with his own monks , once again began to exploit the monastery for his own profit and that of his family and friends . His monks became upset at this renewal of their exploitation and sent Thomas , along with other monks , to appropriate the harvest from some lands that had been given by Norreis to a non @-@ member of the community . Norreis protested to King John and to Hubert Walter . Both the king and Walter summoned Thomas to appear before them separately and explain the actions of the monks . Thomas failed to persuade either man and nothing was done about Norreis 's exactions and abuse of his monks .
Norreis went to Rome in the company of Thomas of Marlborough shortly before 1205 to lay the abbey 's case before the papacy . Thomas remained in Italy , but Norreis returned to England in the middle of 1205 . While in Rome , Norreis and Thomas borrowed 400 marks to finance the litigation at the papal curia . Norreis could not repay this sum and for a while was in danger of being imprisoned , but he managed to leave Rome without suffering the fate of one of his companions who was detained for the debt and died while imprisoned . When Norreis made it back to England , Mauger excommunicated the abbot in April 1205 . The monks won a victory on the question of the abbey 's exemption from episcopal visitation in 1206 , but other elements of the quarrel remained unresolved , including that of the disputed churches . Later that year the monks became so annoyed by Norreis 's abuse that they abandoned the abbey and did not return until they secured the abbot 's confirmation of their rights .
With the question of the episcopal exemption decided in Evesham 's favour , the alliance between Norreis and his monks dissolved . The monks again complained of their abbot 's behaviour to the new papal legate , John of Sancta Maria . The legate ordered an investigation , the result being a written agreement between the two parties . Norreis gave gifts to the legate 's nephew , refused to sign the agreement , and took revenge on his opponents by expelling Thomas of Marlborough and his allies from the monastery . Thirty monks followed Thomas into exile , and Norreis pursued them with soldiers who were defeated by the monks . A compromise was eventually reached , Norreis agreeing that the revenues of the abbey would be split with the monks , that officials of the abbey would be appointed by the abbot but with the advice and consent of the monks , and that the abbot would not admit or expel monks without taking the counsel of his monks nor dispose of the monastic property without the consent of his subordinates . Although the issue of the monks ' support was temporarily solved , the issue of the disputed properties between Mauger and the monastery continued . Norreis appears to have been willing to compromise with the bishop , but the monks refused .
The dispute between Norreis and his monks dragged on for years . The interdict of 1207 – 1213 caused further delays , but when it was lifted in 1213 the case against Norreis was finally heard . A papal legate visited the abbey and found that the monks were lacking in food , clothes , and other necessities . The liturgy was not being performed according to the monastic rule because the monks lacked the proper clothing . Charity to the poor had ceased , the monastic buildings were dilapidated , and the monks were forced to beg for their needs . The legate found that the abbot was living well , wearing non @-@ monastic clothes , and enjoying the company of young women in his dwelling , while his monks suffered . Norreis was deposed from the abbacy by the papal legate in 1213 .
= = Later life and death = =
On 27 November 1213 Norreis was appointed the prior of Penwortham Priory , a dependent priory of Evesham , partly to compensate him for the loss of the abbacy and partly to keep him from abandoning monastic life entirely . Norreis was deposed five months later owing to his continued bad morals and behaviour and again went to Rome in a bid to be restored to office . On this occasion he was unable to secure his reinstatement , but in 1218 or 1219 he was restored to Penwortham through the influence of the papal legate Pandulf Verraccio . Norries died on 16 July or 19 July , but there is disagreement over the year of his death . The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography states that he died in 1223 , but the editors of Heads of Religious Houses : England and Wales , 940 – 1216 state he died in either 1224 or 1225 . He was buried at Penwortham .
Thomas of Marlborough , who knew Norreis , wrote that he was " everywhere condemned as the manifest enemy of God " . More modern writers echo the sentiment . John Moorman described Norreis as a man " totally unsuited to the delicate and responsible task of ruling over a company of men and directing the affairs of a wealthy corporation " . David Knowles , a historian of English monasticism , wrote that Norreis was " utterly unworthy to hold spiritual office of any kind " , and that Baldwin 's appointment of him as prior at Christ Church " must always remain a dark stain on the archbishop 's reputation " . Knowles also noted that he was " a man of great practical ability " . Even Thomas of Marlborough noted that Norreis was energetic , entertaining , and full of enterprise .
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= Kill ' Em All =
Kill ' Em All is the debut studio album by the American heavy metal band Metallica , released on July 25 , 1983 , by the independent label Megaforce Records . Kill ' Em All is regarded as a groundbreaking album for thrash metal because of its precise musicianship , which fuses new wave of British heavy metal riffs with hardcore punk tempos . Its musical approach and lyrics were markedly different from rock 's mainstream of the early Eighties and inspired a number of bands who followed in similar manner . The album did not enter the Billboard 200 until 1986 , when it peaked at number 155 , following Metallica 's commercial success with its third studio album Master of Puppets ; the 1988 Elektra reissue peaked at number 120 . Kill ' Em All was critically praised at the time of its release and in retrospect , and was placed on a few publications ' best album lists . It was certified 3 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 1999 for shipping three million copies in the United States . The album generated two singles : " Whiplash " and " Jump in the Fire " .
Metallica began by playing shows in local clubs in Los Angeles . They recorded several demos to gain attention from club owners , and eventually relocated to San Francisco to secure the services of bassist Cliff Burton . The group 's No Life ' til Leather demo ( 1982 ) was noticed by Megaforce label head Jon Zazula , who signed them and provided a small budget of $ 15 @,@ 000 for recording . The album was recorded in May with producer Paul Curcio at the Music America Studios in Rochester , New York . It was originally intended to be titled Metal Up Your Ass , with cover art featuring a hand clutching a dagger emerging from a toilet bowl . The band was asked to change the name because distributors feared releasing an album with such an offensive title and artwork would diminish its chances of commercial success . Metallica promoted the album on the two @-@ month co @-@ headlining Kill ' Em All for One tour with Raven in the United States . Although the initial shipment was 15 @,@ 000 copies in the US , the album sold 60 @,@ 000 copies worldwide by the end of Metallica 's Seven Dates of Hell European tour in 1984 .
= = Background and recording = =
Metallica was formed in 1981 in Los Angeles by drummer Lars Ulrich and vocalist James Hetfield . Before settling on a definitive lineup , Metal Blade Records owner Brian Slagel asked Metallica to record a song for the first edition of his Metal Massacre compilation . Hetfield and Ulrich chose " Hit the Lights " from Hetfield 's previous band Leather Charm , and recorded it with Hetfield 's childhood friend Ron McGovney on bass , and temporary guitarist Lloyd Grant . The band 's first lineup featured Hetfield , Ulrich , McGovney , and guitarist Dave Mustaine , who was acquired through a newspaper advertisement . The band practiced in McGovney 's garage and inquired to play gigs at local clubs . Metallica 's first show was on March 14 , 1982 , at the Radio City in Anaheim . The nine @-@ song setlist consisted of two originals ( " Hit the Lights " and an unfinished version of " Jump in the Fire " from Mustaine 's earlier band Panic ) and covers of new wave of British heavy metal ( NWOBHM ) bands such as Diamond Head , Blitzkrieg , Savage , and Sweet Savage . The gig was notorious because Mustaine had problems with the guitar distortion pedal and broke a string during a song . Metallica 's second gig was March 27 at Hollywood 's Whisky a Go Go , opening for Saxon . Although Mötley Crüe was originally scheduled to open the show , the group canceled because of its growing popularity . Metallica recorded a three @-@ song demo to persuade the venue 's management to allow the band to open for Saxon . Metallica 's third concert was in April , at which was premiered " The Mechanix " , written by Mustaine during his tenure with Panic . Mustaine interacted with the fans at Metallica 's earliest shows because Hetfield was shy .
To get attention from club owners , Metallica recorded the Power Metal demo which featured " Motorbreath " in addition to the already @-@ performed originals . The logo , displaying the band 's name with the first and last letter drawn larger with sharp serifs and italicized , was designed by Hetfield . The No Life ' til Leather demo was recorded in July 1982 , and it created a buzz in the underground tape trading circles . No Life ' til Leather featured a re @-@ recorded version of " Hit the Lights " , which appeared on the second pressing of Metal Massacre , in addition to new songs such as " Phantom Lord " , " Seek & Destroy " , and " Metal Militia " . The recording and mastering was financed by Kenny Kane , owner of the punk label High Velocity , and distributed by Ulrich and his friend Pat Scott . Because of tensions with Mustaine , McGovney left the band in December . Ulrich was impressed by Cliff Burton 's performance with Trauma at The Troubadour and offered to let him join the group . Burton joined on the condition that Metallica would relocate to the San Francisco area . Moving to El Cerrito in February 1983 , the band stayed and rehearsed at Exodus manager Mark Whitaker 's house , which they called the " Metallica Mansion " . Metallica intended to record its debut in Los Angeles on Slagel 's independent label on an $ 8 @,@ 000 budget . Slagel could not afford the record , and Ulrich contacted Jon Zazula , a New Jersey record store owner and promoter of heavy metal bands on the East Coast who had already heard No Life ' til Leather . Metallica took a bus to New Jersey in late March , and upon arrival , allowed Zazula to sell copies of No Life ' til Leather to help him found Megaforce Records , because no label wanted to finance the album 's recording .
Hetfield and Ulrich fired Mustaine on the morning of April 11 , after a gig in New York , because of his drug and alcohol problems , overly aggressive behavior , and clashes with bandmates . On Whitaker 's recommendation , Metallica recruited Kirk Hammett , who played in Exodus and was a one @-@ time student of Joe Satriani . Hammett learned the songs on his flight to New York , and started recording the album with Metallica barely a month later . Metallica met producer Paul Curcio at Music America studios in Rochester , New York , and recorded the album in two weeks . Unable to afford a hotel during the recording sessions , the band members lived in people 's houses in Rochester and at the Music Factory in Jamaica , Queens , where Anthrax held rehearsals . Curcio had set the studio equipment as if he were recording an ordinary rock band . He thought the initial tapes sounded very distorted and tried to compensate by turning down the knobs . Metallica resented Curcio 's involvement because he seemed uninterested and had little impact on the sound . Although Zazula wanted Hammett to replicate Mustaine 's solos , Hammett 's guitar solos on the album were partially based on Mustaine 's original solos , with the first four bars of most solos written by Mustaine before his departure . Despite their differences , Mustaine 's contributions to the early years of Metallica were still acknowledged and he received four co @-@ writing credits on Kill ' Em All . Zazula was not satisfied with the initial mix because he thought the drums were too loud and the guitars were too low in the mix . The remix was done by sound engineer Chris Bubacz , according to Zazula 's instructions .
The final cost for the record was $ 15 @,@ 000 , which nearly bankrupted Zazula . " This was mortgage money I 'm spending , not something I 've got put by I 'm going to invest , " he said later . Zazula had a hard time finding a distributor for the record , but he eventually convinced Relativity Records to distribute the album in the US and Canada , and Music for Nations in Europe . The band initially intended to title the album Metal Up Your Ass with the cover featuring a hand clutching a dagger emerging from a toilet bowl . However , Zazula convinced them to change this as he thought distributors would not stock it . The final cover featured the shadow of a hand letting go of a bloodied hammer . Burton was credited with coming up with the name Kill ' Em All — referring to timid record distributors , saying , " Those record company fuckers ... kill ' em all ! " — as a response to the situation . Ulrich thought Kill ' Em All was a good name , and Zazula agreed . Even though the original title was unused , the band did later release a " Metal Up Your Ass " T @-@ shirt with the proposed artwork . A live bootleg recording of a 1982 performance at the Old Waldorf , titled Metal Up Your Ass ( Live ) , featured the original cover artwork . Original pressings of the album came with an inner sleeve that included pictures and lyrics as well as a silver label on the vinyl . Subsequent pressings had a blank white sleeve and standard album label . The 1988 reissue re @-@ introduced the lyrics and photos . The original release can be distinguished by the words " Bang That Head That Doesn 't Bang " at the top of the back cover . This was dropped from the reissue . The phrase " Bang That Head That Doesn 't Bang " was dedicated to San Francisco fan Ray Burch , known for his headbanging at the band 's early shows .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Kill ' Em All features intricate riffing reminiscent of the NWOBHM bands played at high velocity . The album is considered crucial in the thrash metal genesis because it introduced fast percussion , low @-@ register chords , and shredding leads to the genre . Hammett played some pentatonic patterns in addition to his breakneck solos . Ulrich adopted a double time snare pattern that would become a mainstay on Metallica 's subsequent albums . Hetfield 's vocals evolved from the melodic wail on No Life ' til Leather to a rough @-@ edged bark and the entire band played faster and more accurately on Kill ' Em All . Music writer Joel McIver said Burton 's and Hetfield 's performances were nearly virtuosic , because of the smooth @-@ sounding bass of the former and the precise picking skills of the latter . According to journalist Chuck Eddy , the juvenile lyrical approach to topics such as warfare , violence and life on the road gives the album a " naive charm " . The musical approach on Kill ' Em All was in contrast to the glam metal bands who dominated the charts in the early Eighties . Because of its rebellious nature and Metallica 's street appearance , it appealed to fans who were not into the mainstream of hard rock .
" Hit the Lights " was based on an unfinished Leather Charm song written by Hetfield and Hugh Tanner . Hetfield had brought the majority of the song to Ulrich and the two worked out different arrangements . Performed at 160 beats per minute , " Hit the Lights " opens with fade @-@ in distorted guitars and a short shriek by Hetfield . The song is driven by the 16th note repeated main riff and the continuous eighth note snare drum hits . The lyrics celebrate heavy metal itself and are sung with short and high pitched vocals . The song ends with several lengthy guitar solos by Hammett , who performed cleaner and more melodic version of Mustaine 's leads . " The Four Horsemen " is a revamp of the Mustaine @-@ penned " The Mechanix " , which originally had lyrics about having sex at a gas station . A modified version of his composition with the original lyrics appeared on Megadeth 's debut Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! ( 1985 ) . Although Mustaine told Metallica not to use any of his music , Hetfield wrote lyrics about the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse and added a bridge and cleanly picked guitar solo in the middle . Mustaine said the bridge was inspired by the main riff in Lynyrd Skynyrd 's " Sweet Home Alabama " .
" Motorbreath " was written by Hetfield during his time in Leather Charm and tells about life on the road . The song is based on a four @-@ chord verse and a stop @-@ and @-@ start chorus . The most recognizable parts are Ulrich 's drum rolls in each chorus and the riff that accompanies Hammett 's solos . Because of its speed , the song requires fast picking by the bassist . " Jump in the Fire " was originally written by Mustaine , with lyrics about teenage sexual experience . Hetfield 's revised lyrics for the album were written from Satan 's point of view , describing how the devil watches people killing each other , and is sure they will go to hell for their actions . " Jump in the Fire " was released as a single in the UK in February 1984 to promote a UK tour with Venom . The single featured " Phantom Lord " and " Seek & Destroy " as live tracks , although they are actually studio recordings with fake crowd noise dubbed over them . The single 's cover art features an oil painting titled The Devils of D @-@ Day , created by artist Les Edwards in 1978 .
" ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " is a bass solo by Burton , accompanied on drums by Ulrich . A staple of Burton 's live performances since his high school days in the band Agents of Misfortune , the instrumental track featured Burton 's distinctive " lead @-@ bass " style of playing , incorporating heavy distortion , use of wah @-@ wah pedal and tapping . Bubacz introduces the track as " Bass solo , take one " , informing listeners that the song was recorded in one take . " ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " was the bass solo that Burton was playing when Hetfield and Ulrich first saw him at a gig . Hetfield stated : " We heard this wild solo going on and thought , ' I don 't see any guitar player up there . ' We were both counting the strings and I finally turned to Lars and said , ' Dude , that 's a bass ! ' Cliff was up there on stage with his band Trauma with a wah @-@ wah pedal and his huge mop of red hair . He didn 't care whether people were there . He was looking down at his bass , playing . " " Whiplash " was the album 's first single , issued on August 8 , 1983 . It features a swift rhythm line of straight 16th notes played at about 200 beats per minute . Hetfield and Burton performed with palm muted technique and precise metronomic control . The lyrics celebrate crowd energy and headbanging . Rock journalist Mick Wall wrote that " Whiplash " signified the birth of thrash metal , stating : " If one wishes to identify the very moment thrash metal arrived spitting and snarling into the world , ' Whiplash ' is indisputably it . "
" Phantom Lord " is a lyrical nod to devilry . The song begins with synthesized bass drone and contains a middle section with clean , arpeggiated guitar chords . Written by Mustaine , its central riff is in NWOBHM fashion . " No Remorse " is a mid @-@ tempo song which suddenly accelerates its tempo in the fifth minute . The song is about not feeling any remorse or sense of repentance during battle . " Seek & Destroy " was inspired by Diamond Head 's " Dead Reckoning " and is the first song Metallica recorded during the Kill ' Em All sessions . Hetfield wrote the main riff in his truck outside a Los Angeles sticker factory where he was working . Because of its simple , one @-@ line chorus , the song became a permanent setlist fixture and a crowd singalong . " Metal Militia " , one of the fastest songs on the album , is about heavy metal 's way of life and nonconformity . Mustaine composed the main riff , which emulates a marching army . The song ends with tramping feet and bullet ricochet in a fade @-@ out .
= = Reception = =
Kill ' Em All has received mostly positive reviews . Bernard Doe of Metal Forces described Kill ' Em All as one of the fastest and heaviest albums ever recorded , and remarked that the album is not for the faint @-@ hearted . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune acknowledged it as the " speed metal prototype " , but felt the lyrical replication of Judas Priest and the Misfits kept the album short from becoming a classic . In a retrospective review , Billboard praised Kill ' Em All for changing the face of popular music with its unique combination of punk and metal . AllMusic 's Steve Huey called it " the true birth of thrash " . He praised Hetfield 's highly technical rhythm guitar style and said that the band was " playing with tightly controlled fury even at the most ridiculously fast tempos " . Rob Kemp , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide , credited the album for consolidating the punk rock and heavy metal scenes , but felt that apart from " Seek & Destroy " and " ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " , most of the album had the band " trying to look tough " over enthusiastic but unfinished riff @-@ based songs . Journalist Martin Popoff said Kill ' Em All differentiated from the debuts by Metallica 's Bay Area contemporaries because the fans could identify with Hetfield 's lyrics and the band 's appearance . Spin 's Chuck Eddy considered Kill ' Em All the inception of the " extreme metal mania " of the early 1980s . He noted the album did not receive much critical praise at the time of its release , but said it aged well and opened the doors for the less commercially successful bands . Although McIver credits Venom 's Welcome to Hell ( 1981 ) as the first thrash metal album , he acknowledged Kill ' Em All as a major influence on the flourishing American heavy metal scene . Despite its " less @-@ than @-@ perfect " production , Loudwire 's Jon Wiederhorn said that Kill ' Em All sounds like an " influential slice of history " and stands on the same level as classic albums by Black Sabbath , Iron Maiden , and Judas Priest .
Kill ' Em All was released July 25 , 1983 , by Megaforce with an initial pressing of 15 @,@ 000 copies . Because of the label 's financial restrictions , the album was pressed in batches of 500 copies . Kill ' Em All had sold 17 @,@ 000 copies in the US by the end of the year . Similarly to punk rock acts , Metallica promoted its material through the tape trading network and independent music magazines such as Metal Forces in the UK and Metal Mania in the US . The album did not enter the Billboard 200 chart until 1986 , when it peaked at number 155 following Metallica 's commercial success with its third studio album Master of Puppets . The 1988 re @-@ issue on Elektra Records also charted on the Billboard 200 , peaking at number 120 . It was certified 3 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 1999 for shipping three million copies in the United States . Despite being the lowest selling Metallica studio album , it helped the band establish its image and build a fanbase in its inaugural years .
Kill ' Em All , as the first thrash metal album released in the US , had substantial impact on the emerging scene and inspired numerous bands with its aggression and austere seriousness . Guitarist Kerry King acknowledged Slayer was still finding its sound while Metallica had already determined its image and musical identity . Anthrax guitarist Scott Ian was impressed by the album 's heaviness and songwriting , and said it influenced him as much as the albums by Iron Maiden . Dream Theater 's drummer Mike Portnoy observed that Kill ' Em All surpassed the NWOBHM bands in terms of sheer velocity and cited Burton 's bass solo as the album 's peak . Guitarist Ulf Cederlund of Swedish black metal band Morbid cited " Motorbreath " and " Metal Militia " as songs that influenced him as a young musician . Kill ' Em All was ranked at number 35 on Rolling Stone 's list of The 100 Greatest Albums of the ' 80s . Additionally , the album placed at number 54 on " The 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time " , a list compiled by the same magazine . Kerrang ! listed the album at number 29 among the " 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time " . In 2010 , Consequence of Sound ranked it number 94 among its " Top 100 Albums Ever " .
= = Touring = =
In late June 1983 , Metallica embarked on the two @-@ month Kill ' Em All for One tour with British co @-@ headliners Raven . The tour name melded the titles of the albums the two bands were promoting : Metallica 's Kill ' Em All and Raven 's All for One , both released on Megaforce . The two groups met in Zazula 's home two days before the tour began , and traveled in the same vehicle throughout the tour with five roadies and sound engineer Whitaker . The tour was set to conclude with three shows in San Francisco , thus Hetfield painted " No Life ' til Frisco " on the Winnebago tour bus . The tour had a few poorly attended gigs , such as a performance at the Cheers club in Babylon , New York , attended by some 50 people . After the conclusion of Kill ' Em All for One in early September , Metallica returned to El Cerrito to work on new material . Seven weeks after the tour ended , Metallica booked a number of performances at Bay Area clubs , the first a Halloween gig at the Keystone in Palo Alto . At the Country Club in Reseda , the group debuted " Fight Fire with Fire " and " Creeping Death " , along with an early version of " The Call of Ktulu " , then titled " When Hell Freezes Over " . Three days later , at a gig at The Stone in San Francisco , Metallica premiered " Ride the Lightning " , the title track from the upcoming album . In December , Metallica went on a short tour in the Midwest and eastern United States with a three @-@ man road crew : Whitaker , guitar technician John Marshall , and drum technician Dave Marrs . The January 14 , 1984 concert in Boston was canceled because the band 's equipment was stolen the night before .
In February , Metallica embarked on its first European trek with Twisted Sister , supporting Venom 's Seven Dates Of Hell tour . The tour was sponsored by Metallica 's UK distributor , Music For Nations , who released the " Jump in the Fire " EP for that occasion . The first show was at the Volkshaus in Zurich on February 3 . At the Aardschok Festival in Zwolle on February 11 , Metallica played in front of 7 @,@ 000 people , its largest audience at the time . The tour stretched through countries such as Italy , Germany , France , and Belgium , culminating in two sold @-@ out shows at the Marquee Club in London . After concluding the Seven Dates Of Hell tour , Metallica headed to Sweet Silence Studios in Copenhagen to record its sophomore album Ride the Lightning . By the end of the tour , Kill ' Em All had sold 60 @,@ 000 copies worldwide and Metallica began to gain international recognition .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by James Hetfield .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Metallica = = =
James Hetfield – lead vocals , rhythm guitar
Kirk Hammett – lead guitar
Cliff Burton – bass guitar , backing vocals
Lars Ulrich – drums
= = = Production = = =
Jon Zazula – executive producer
Paul Curcio – producer
Chris Bubacz – engineer
Alex Perialas , Bob Ludwig – mastering
George Marino – remastering
Andy Wroblewski – assistant engineer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= List of Ops ( B ) staff =
Ops ( B ) was a deception planning department within the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) during the Second World War . Established in the United Kingdom in April 1943 , the section was in charge of operational deception planning for the Western Front . Their major contribution was to Operations Cockade and Bodyguard , the latter being the cover plan for their Allied invasion of Normandy in 1944 .
Originally under Colonel J. V. B. Jervis @-@ Read , the department suffered from a lack of authority and resources . In December 1943 , Jervis @-@ Read was replaced by Colonel Noel Wild , a member of the middle eastern ' A ' Force deception department , and expanded dramatically . Wild split the department into Operations and Intelligence sections . Lieutenant Colonel Roger Fleetwood @-@ Hesketh retained charge of the latter , and Wild placed Jervis @-@ Read in command of the former . Fleetwood @-@ Hesketh immediately expanded his staff , bringing in his brother , an MI5 liaison officer and a secretary . The operations section was not expanded until May , with three American officers and Major S. B. D. ( Sam ) Hood ( another ' A ' Force alumnus ) joining the department .
In July 1944 , Wild won a power struggle over who was in charge of deception planning in France ; consequently Ops ( B ) had a much more involved role . He sent Jervis @-@ Read to France at the head of a " Forward " section , accompanied by the American officers Lieutenant Colonel Frederic W. Barnes and Major Alfred ( Al ) J. F. Moody . By the end of October 1944 , all of the American members of the department had returned home , leaving an entirely British staff .
= = John Jervis @-@ Read = =
Brigadier John Vaughan Bruce Jervis @-@ Read OBE was the original head of Ops ( B ) . He had joined the Royal Engineers from university as a second lieutenant in 1933 . By March 1942 , when he was appointed head of the deception section , he held the rank of colonel . His main task was the planning of Operation Cockade . It was not a success , in part due to the complexity of the operation , but also because of the limited resources at his disposal . Lieutenant General Frederick E. Morgan , at that time the most senior officer at SHAEF , the Supreme Commander having yet to be appointed , viewed Colonel Dudley Clarke 's A Force as a " private army " which he would not have duplicated under his command .
In December 1943 Jervis @-@ Read was replaced by Colonel Noel Wild , who reorganised Ops ( B ) . Jervis @-@ Read was made head of the Operations section as his deputy . Following the Allied invasion of France , he became Deputy Assistant Chief of Staff at SHAEF . In 1945 he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) , the citation recognised his work with Ops ( B ) and in France . He retired from the army in 1963 , having attained the rank of brigadier .
= = Noel Wild = =
Colonel Noel Wild was Dudley Clarke 's deputy in Cairo from April 1942 . Toward the end of 1943 , when Ops ( B ) was scheduled for expansion to assist with Bodyguard , a deception cover plan for the D @-@ Day landings , Clarke secretly suggested Wild as the department 's head . In December of that year Wild was sent to London , he believed on leave , where he was assessed for suitability and then appointed to the role .
Under Wild , Ops ( B ) was expanded and divided into two sections – Operations and Intelligence . It received greater power , including control of the information flowing to double agents . Wild used this to help with planning for Operation Fortitude , the major segment of the Bodyguard plan . This situation did not last long ; another ' A ' Force alumnus , Lieutenant Colonel David Strangeways , was brought over to head up R Force , the operational deception unit of the 21st Army Group . Strangeways and Wild clashed on a personal and professional level . Eventually , Strangeways rewrote large portions of the Fortitude South plan , and pushed Ops ( B ) into a more supporting role .
In July 1944 , Wild wrestled control of operational deception planning from Strangeways and others , and sent a portion of the department ( Jervis @-@ Read plus the American officers Barnes and Moody ) to France as the Forward section . He remained in the UK with the rest of the staff as the ' Read ' section .
= = Roger Fleetwood @-@ Hesketh = =
Lieutenant Colonel Roger Fleetwood Hesketh TD , DL , OBE , was the son of Major Charles Hesketh Fleetwood @-@ Hesketh . Like his father , he was educated at Eton and Oxford before becoming a barrister , and later a soldier . Hesketh , then a major , joined Ops ( B ) alongside Jervis @-@ Read as the department 's only intelligence officer . Colonel John Bevan , in setting up the unit , felt that it would only require operational capabilities , and that intelligence would remain with his own London Controlling Section ; but with the arrival of Wild , Hesketh was handed control of an expanded intelligence section , which included his brother , Cuthbert , a civilian secretary and an MI5 liaison officer .
Following the end of the war , Hesketh was sent to Germany , alongside his brother , to search through the files of German intelligence , and question officers . He was then asked to write a history of deception in Western Europe , including the work up to and including Operation Fortitude .
= = Other members = =
Prior to Wild 's arrival , Ops ( B ) had a very small staff – consisting of Jervis @-@ Read , Hesketh and two American officers . From January 1944 , Wild expanded the staff to include liaisons with MI5 , additional American officers and experienced deception staff from ' A ' Force in Cairo .
= = = Operations = = =
= = = Intelligence = = =
= = = = London Gazette = = = =
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 33908 @.@ p . 742 . 3 February 1933 .
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 42989 @.@ p . 4015 . 10 May 1963 .
= = = = War record = = = =
" Recommendation for Award : Order of The British Empire " . The National Archives . 19 April 1945 .
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= No. 1 Operational Conversion Unit RAAF =
No. 1 Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 1 OCU ) was an operational training unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Formed in January 1959 at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , its role was to convert pilots and navigators to the English Electric Canberra bombers flown by Nos. 1 , 2 and 6 Squadrons . The unit 's complement of Canberras included T.4 and Mk.21 dual @-@ control trainers , and Mk.20 bombers . Originally a component of No. 82 Wing , No. 1 OCU became an independent unit at Amberley in April 1968 , its focus being the provision of operationally ready pilots for service with No. 2 Squadron in the Vietnam War . No. 1 OCU was disbanded in June 1971 , following the withdrawal of No. 2 Squadron from South @-@ East Asia . By then the RAAF 's only Canberra unit , No. 2 Squadron ran its own conversion courses before disbanding in 1982 .
= = History = =
During World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) established several operational training units ( OTUs ) to convert recently graduated pilots from advanced trainers to combat aircraft , and to add fighting ability to the flying skills they had already learned . Post @-@ war demobilisation saw the disbandment of these OTUs , and operational conversion of new pilots became the responsibility of front @-@ line squadrons . This practice impacted upon the squadrons ' standard duties , and the advent of the Korean War and introduction of jet aircraft further necessitated more a formal training system . The Air Force 's initial move in this direction was to re @-@ establish No. 2 ( Fighter ) Operational Training Unit at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , in March 1952 ; it was renamed No. 2 ( Fighter ) Operational Conversion Unit in September 1958 .
In December 1953 , No. 82 ( Bomber ) Wing , headquartered at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , took delivery of Australia 's first jet bomber , the English Electric Canberra . Over the next five years , forty @-@ eight Canberras built in Australia by the Government Aircraft Factory ( GAF ) re @-@ equipped all three of the wing 's flying units , Nos. 1 , 2 and 6 Squadrons . During this period , operational training of new bomber aircrew was performed " in @-@ house " by the wing , primarily by No. 6 Squadron . Aside from its adverse effect on regular flying duties , the task was made technically challenging and potentially dangerous by virtue of the Canberra being designed for only one pilot , with a single control column . On 12 January 1959 , No. 1 ( Bomber ) Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 1 OCU ) was formed at Amberley . Coming under the control of No. 82 Wing , its purpose was to convert pilots and navigators to the Canberra , and train them for operations with Nos. 1 , 2 and 6 Squadrons . On establishment , the unit was commanded by Squadron Leader B.F.M. Rachinger , and equipped with Mk.20 bombers and T.4 trainers . The T.4 was a dual @-@ control model with three seats ; the pilot and instructor sat side by side at the front of the cockpit , with the navigator seated behind them . Two of these models had been purchased from Britain . The unit was subsequently allocated Mk.21 trainers ; GAF built seven of these dual @-@ control models by converting five early Mk.20s and two British @-@ built B.2 bombers . Student aircrew underwent bombing and navigation instruction , as well as simulated operations . The first training course graduated in April 1959 .
As well as training , over the course of No. 1 OCU 's existence its aircrews flew operational sorties involving naval cooperation , aerial photography , target towing and radar targeting , and participated in exercises in Malaysia , Papua New Guinea , and New Zealand . During runway upgrades at Amberley in mid @-@ 1962 , the unit was based for a month at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales . Later that year , it briefly maintained a detachment at RAAF Base Townsville , Queensland . On 11 September 1964 , one of its Canberras was intercepted by a Sabre fighter of No. 76 Squadron based at RAAF Base Darwin , Northern Territory , as part of Operation Handover , a little @-@ known contingency plan put into effect during Konfrontasi to guard against possible attack by Indonesian forces following the recent establishment of the Federation of Malaysia . No. 1 OCU suffered a fatal accident on 16 February 1965 , when a Canberra Mk.21 ran off the runway and crashed at Amberley , killing both crew members . The unit was made independent of No. 82 Wing in April 1968 . Its role from then on was to provide trained crews solely for No. 2 Squadron , which was on active duty in the Vietnam War . At the same time , maintenance responsibilities for the Canberras transferred from No. 482 Squadron to No. 1 OCU , along with relevant staff and equipment . Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons effectively ceased operations while their crews underwent conversion to the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C , expected to enter service soon afterwards . Delivery of the F @-@ 111s was delayed , so Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons began operating leased F @-@ 4E Phantoms as an interim strike force in 1970 .
To prepare aircrew for their rotation through No. 2 Squadron in Vietnam , No. 1 OCU students participated in exercises such as Combat Skyspot in August 1968 , which utilised radar controlled by No. 30 Squadron , and Strait Kris in September – October 1969 , in conjunction with the Australian Army . The unit lost two more aircrew when a Canberra M.21 on a training flight crashed near Amberley on 23 March 1970 . From 21 March to 25 April 1971 , four of the unit 's aircraft flew 10 @,@ 000 miles around Australia to conduct seven flying displays as part of the RAAF 's Golden Jubilee celebrations . Having completed thirty @-@ six conversion courses in its twelve years of operation , No. 1 OCU was disbanded on 9 June 1971 , following the withdrawal of No. 2 Squadron from Vietnam . Unit staff were transferred to No. 2 Squadron , which continued to operate the Canberra and carry out its own operational conversion until disbanding in June 1982 . Ten of No. 1 OCU 's fifteen Canberras were put into storage and the remainder , including surviving Mk.21 trainers , were taken on by No. 2 Squadron . When the F @-@ 111C eventually entered service with No. 82 Wing in 1973 , No. 6 Squadron again took responsibility for conversion training , while No. 1 Squadron acted as the lead strike unit . Canberra A84 @-@ 236 , which was allocated to No. 1 OCU in 1968 and 1970 when not in service with No. 2 Squadron in Vietnam , went on display at RAAF Museum , Point Cook , Victoria , in 1982 .
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= Grand Theft Auto V =
Grand Theft Auto V is an open world action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games . It was released on 17 September 2013 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , on 18 November 2014 for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One , and on 14 April 2015 for Microsoft Windows . The game is the first main entry in the Grand Theft Auto series since 2008 's Grand Theft Auto IV . Set within the fictional state of San Andreas , based on Southern California , the single @-@ player story follows three criminals and their efforts to commit heists while under pressure from a government agency . The open world design lets players freely roam San Andreas 's open countryside and fictional city of Los Santos , based on Los Angeles .
The game is played from either a first @-@ person or third @-@ person view and its world is navigated on foot or by vehicle . Players control the three lead protagonists throughout single @-@ player and switch between them both during and outside of missions . The story is centred on the heist sequences , and many missions involve shooting and driving gameplay . A " wanted " system governs the aggression of law enforcement response to players who commit crimes . Grand Theft Auto Online , the online multiplayer mode , lets up to 30 players explore the open world and engage in cooperative or competitive game matches .
Development began soon after Grand Theft Auto IV 's release and was shared between many of Rockstar 's studios worldwide . The development team drew influence from many of their previous projects such as Red Dead Redemption and Max Payne 3 , and designed the game around three lead protagonists to innovate on the core structure of its predecessors . Much of the development work constituted the open world 's creation , and several team members conducted field research around California to capture footage for the design team . The game 's soundtrack features an original score composed by a team of producers who collaborated over several years .
Extensively marketed and widely anticipated , the game broke industry sales records and became the fastest @-@ selling entertainment product in history , earning US $ 800 million in its first day and US $ 1 billion in its first three days . It received widespread critical acclaim , with praise directed at its multiple protagonist design , open world , presentation and gameplay . It caused controversies related to its depiction of women and a mission featuring torture during a hostage interrogation . Considered one of seventh generation console gaming 's most significant titles , it won year @-@ end accolades including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications . It has shipped over 65 million copies and is one of the best @-@ selling video games of all time .
= = Gameplay = =
Grand Theft Auto V is an action @-@ adventure game played from either a first @-@ person or third @-@ person view . Players complete missions — linear scenarios with set objectives — to progress through the story . Outside of missions , players may freely roam the open world . Composed of the San Andreas open countryside area and the fictional city of Los Santos , the world is much larger in area than earlier entries in the series . It may be fully explored after the game 's beginning without restriction , although story progress unlocks more gameplay content .
Players use melee attacks , firearms and explosives to fight enemies , and may run , jump , swim or use vehicles to navigate the world . To accommodate the map 's size , the game introduces vehicle types absent in its predecessor Grand Theft Auto IV , such as fixed @-@ wing aircraft . Auto @-@ aim and a cover system may be used as assistance against enemies in combat . Should players take damage , their health meter will gradually regenerate to its halfway point . Players respawn at hospitals when their health depletes . If players commit crimes while playing , law enforcement agencies may respond as indicated by a " wanted " meter in the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) . Stars displayed on the meter indicate the current wanted level ( for example , at the maximum five @-@ star level , police helicopters and SWAT teams swarm to lethally dispatch players ) . Law enforcement officers will search for players who leave the wanted vicinity . The meter enters a cooldown mode and eventually recedes when players are hidden from the officers ' line of sight ( as displayed on the mini @-@ map ) .
The single @-@ player mode lets players control three characters : Michael De Santa , Trevor Philips and Franklin Clinton — criminals whose stories interconnect as they complete missions . Some missions are completed with only one character and others feature two or three . Throughout single @-@ player , players may switch between the protagonists at will by means of a directional compass on the HUD . The game may switch between characters automatically in single @-@ player missions to complete certain objectives . A character 's compass avatar will flash red if he is in danger and needs help , and flash white if he has a strategic advantage . Though players complete missions as any of the three protagonists , the more difficult heist missions require aid from AI @-@ controlled accomplices with unique skill sets like computer hacking and driving . If an accomplice survives a successful heist , they take a cut from the cash reward and may be available for later missions with improvements to their unique skills . Differentiation in heist mission strategies is encouraged ; in a holdup mission , players may either stealthily subdue civilians with an incapacitating agent or conspicuously storm the venue with guns drawn .
Each character has a set of eight skills that represent their ability in certain areas such as shooting and driving . Though skills improve through play , each character has a skill with expertise by default ( i.e. Trevor 's flying skill ) . The eighth " special " skill determines the effectiveness in performing an ability that is unique to each respective character . Michael enters bullet time in combat , Franklin slows down time while driving , and Trevor deals twice as much damage to enemies while taking half as much in combat . A meter on each character 's HUD depletes when an ability is being used and regenerates when players perform skilful actions ( for example , drifting in vehicles as Franklin or pulling off headshots as Michael ) .
While free roaming the game world , players may engage in context @-@ specific activities such as scuba diving underwater or BASE jumping via parachute . Each character has a smartphone for contacting friends , starting activities and accessing an in @-@ game Internet . The Internet lets players trade in stocks via a stock market . Players may purchase properties such as homes and businesses , upgrade the weapons and vehicles in each character 's arsenal , and customise their appearance by purchasing outfits , haircuts , tattoos and jewellery .
= = Plot = =
Nine years after a botched robbery in Ludendorff , North Yankton , former bank robber Michael Townley lives under witness protection with his family in Los Santos , San Andreas , under the alias Michael De Santa . He meets and befriends gangbanger Franklin Clinton when the latter attempts to fraudulently repossess his son 's car on behalf of a corrupt Armenian car salesman . When Michael discovers his wife Amanda has been sleeping with her tennis coach , he chases the coach to a mansion and destroys it out of anger . The mansion 's owner turns out to be the girlfriend of Mexican drug lord Martin Madrazo , who demands compensation under the threat of further violence . Michael goes back into a life of crime to obtain the money and enlists Franklin as an accomplice . Together , they perform a jewellery shop heist to help pay the debt . Michael 's sole surviving partner in the Ludendorff robbery , Trevor Philips , hears of the jewellery heist and realises that it was Michael 's handiwork . The two reunite after Trevor tracks Michael down in Los Santos .
The personal lives of the protagonists begin to spiral out of control . Michael 's increasingly erratic behavior prompts his family to leave him , and his attempts to make something of himself bring him into conflict with Devin Weston , a self @-@ made billionaire venture capitalist and corporate raider who develops a grudge against him . Weston vows revenge after his lawyer dies in an accident that Michael is blamed for . Franklin rescues his friend Lamar Davis from gangster and former friend Harold " Stretch " Joseph , who repeatedly attempts to kill Lamar to prove himself to his brethren . Trevor 's reckless efforts to consolidate his control over various black markets in Blaine County see him waging war against the San Andreas chapter of The Lost outlaw motorcycle club , a number of Latin American street gangs , rival meth dealers , government @-@ sponsored mercenaries and Triad kingpin Wei Cheng .
Federal Investigation Bureau ( FIB ) government agents Dave Norton and Steve Haines contact Michael and demand that he perform a series of operations with Franklin and Trevor to undermine a rival agency , the International Affairs Agency ( IAA ) . Under Haines ' direction , they attack an armoured convoy carrying funds intended for the IAA and raid a bank containing the payroll for all corrupt police and public officials in Los Santos . As Haines comes under increasing scrutiny for his methods , he forces Franklin and Michael to infiltrate the FIB headquarters and erase any evidence being used against him from their servers . Michael takes the opportunity to wipe any data on his own activities , destroying Haines ' leverage over him . The trio start planning their most daring feat ever : raiding the Union Depository 's gold bullion reserve .
Michael makes amends with his family and they start living together again after returning to Los Santos . Meanwhile , Trevor discovers that a former Ludendorff heist accomplice , Brad Snider , was not in prison as he was led to believe , but killed during the heist and buried in the grave marked for Michael . Trevor 's feelings of betrayal cause friction within the group and threaten to undermine their Union Depository plans . When Michael and Norton , both of whom are betrayed by Haines , are caught in a Mexican standoff between the FIB , IAA and private security firm Merryweather , Trevor aids in their escape , holding that only he has the right to kill Michael . Despite not forgiving Michael , Trevor still wants to perform the Union Depository heist ; the duo agree to part ways afterwards .
The Union Depository heist is completed successfully , but Franklin is approached by two parties separately who demand that he kill Trevor or Michael . Haines and Norton contend that Trevor is a liability , and Weston wants retribution for Michael 's betrayal . Franklin has three choices : kill Michael , kill Trevor or kill neither and face their enemies together . Should Franklin kill either Michael or Trevor , he ceases contact with the survivor and returns to his old life . Should he kill neither , the trio withstand an onslaught from the FIB and Merryweather before going on to kill Haines , Stretch , Cheng and Weston . Michael and Trevor reconcile , and the three cease working together but remain friends .
= = Development = =
Rockstar North began to develop Grand Theft Auto V in 2009 , following Grand Theft Auto IV 's release . Development was conducted by a team of more than 1 @,@ 000 people , including Rockstar North 's core team and staff from parent company Rockstar Games 's studios around the world . The proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) was overhauled for the game to improve its draw distance rendering capabilities . The Euphoria and Bullet software handle additional animation and rendering tasks . Having become familiar with the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 hardware over time , Rockstar found they were able to push the consoles ' graphical capabilities further than in previous games . Analyst estimations place the game 's combined development and marketing budget at more than £ 170 million ( US $ 265 million ) , which would make it the most expensive game ever made at that time .
The open world was modelled on Southern California and Los Angeles , and its design and in @-@ game render constituted much of the game 's early work . Key members of the game world production team took field research trips throughout the region and documented their research with photo and video footage . Google Maps projections of Los Angeles were used by the team to help design Los Santos 's road networks . To reflect and reproduce Los Angeles 's demographic spread , the developers studied census data and watched documentaries about the city . The team considered creating the open world the most technically demanding aspect of the game 's production .
A fundamental design goal from the outset was to innovate on the series 's core structure by giving players control of three lead protagonists instead of one . The idea was first raised during Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas 's development , but contemporaneous hardware restrictions made it infeasible . Having developed two Grand Theft Auto IV episodic expansion packs featuring new protagonists in 2009 , the team wanted to base Grand Theft Auto V around three simultaneously controlled protagonists . The team viewed it as a spiritual successor to many of their previous games ( such as Grand Theft Auto IV , Red Dead Redemption and Max Payne 3 ) , and designed it to improve upon their gameplay mechanics . They sought to improve the action gameplay by refining the shooting mechanics and cover system , and reworked the driving mechanics to correct Grand Theft Auto IV 's difficult vehicle controls .
After an audition process , Ned Luke , Shawn Fonteno and Steven Ogg were selected to portray Michael , Franklin and Trevor , respectively . Their performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology , but dialogue for scenes with characters seated in vehicles was recorded in studios instead . The game is the first in its series to feature an original score , composed by a team of producers collaborating with each other over several years . Licensed music provided by an in @-@ game radio is also used . The team licensed more than 241 tracks shared between fifteen radio stations , with an additional two stations providing talk radio . Some of the tracks were written specifically for the game , such as rapper and producer Flying Lotus 's original work composed for the FlyLo FM radio station he hosts .
The game was first announced by Rockstar Games on 25 October 2011 . They released its debut trailer one week later , with an official press release acknowledging its setting . Journalists noted that the announcement ignited widespread anticipation within the gaming industry , which they owed to the cultural significance of the series . The game missed its original projected Q2 2013 release date , pushed back to 17 September to allow for further polishing . To spur pre @-@ order game sales , Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to make a special edition with extra in @-@ game features . They ran a viral marketing strategy with a website for a fictional religious cult , " The Epsilon Program " , that offered users the chance to feature in the game as members of the cult .
A re @-@ release of the game was announced for Microsoft Windows ( PC ) , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One at E3 2014 . This enhanced version features an increased draw distance , finer texture details , denser traffic , upgraded weather effects , and new wildlife and vegetation . It includes a new on @-@ foot first @-@ person view option , which required the development team to overhaul the animation system to accommodate first @-@ person gameplay . The PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions were released on 18 November 2014 . The PC version , initially scheduled for simultaneous release with the console versions , was delayed until 14 April 2015 . According to Rockstar , it required extra development time for " polish " . The PC version is capable of 60 frames per second gameplay at 4K resolution , and the Rockstar Editor lets players capture and edit gameplay videos .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Initial release = = =
Grand Theft Auto V was released to critical acclaim . Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating in the 0 – 100 range , calculated an average score of 97 out of 100 based on 50 reviews for the PlayStation 3 version and 58 reviews for the Xbox 360 version . The game is Metacritic 's fifth @-@ highest rated , tied with a number of others . Reviewers liked the multiple lead character formula , heist mission design and presentation , but some did not agree on the quality of the story and characters . IGN 's Keza MacDonald called Grand Theft Auto V " one of the very best video games ever made " , and Play considered it " generation @-@ defining " and " exceptional " . Edge wrote that it is a " remarkable achievement " in open world design and storytelling , while The Daily Telegraph 's Tom Hoggins declared it a " colossal feat of technical engineering " .
CNET 's Jeff Bakalar felt that the game encouraged players to engage with all three characters . Edge found that switching players was helpful for avoiding long travel times to mission start points . Because of the switching mechanic , Game Informer 's Matt Bertz noted that players are kept " in the thick of the action " during shootouts . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell wrote that switching added a tactical element to shootouts as characters set up in strategic outposts would cause fewer " shooting gallery " situations than previous instalments . IGN 's MacDonald felt the switching feature gave players more choice in their approach and made missions less predictable .
Giant Bomb 's Jeff Gerstmann considered the heist missions a welcome deviation from series typical mission structure . Eurogamer 's Bramwell likened them to " blockbuster set @-@ pieces " and GameSpot 's Carolyn Petit cited the 1995 film Heat as a stylistic influence on their design . Joystiq 's Xav de Matos felt creativity and methodical approaches were encouraged . Polygon 's Chris Plante likened rapid character switching during heist missions to " film editing , with the player serving as editor , switching rapidly to the most interesting perspective for any moment " . Computer and Video Games 's Andy Kelly felt that overall mission design was more diverse than and lacked the escort errands of its predecessors .
Edge praised the game 's graphical fidelity and absence of load screens . Play complimented the draw distances and weather and lighting systems . Eurogamer 's Bramwell considered the lighting system to be the game 's biggest advancement . Official Xbox Magazine ( OXM ) ' s Mikel Reparaz thought that the game was " probably the Xbox 360 's greatest technical achievement " , and was surprised that the open world could render on the console . Reviewers lauded the open world 's design , some further complimenting the game for streamlining Los Angeles 's geography into a well @-@ designed city space . GameTrailers 's Brandon Jones considered the Los Angeles emulation authentic and the open world " full of voice and personality " . IGN and PlayStation Official Magazine ( OPM ) made favourable comparisons between Los Santos and Grand Theft Auto IV 's Liberty City . OXM 's Reparez felt Los Santos surpassed the " grey and gritty " Liberty City . Reviewers praised the world 's satire of contemporary American culture — OPM 's Joel Gregory opined that " the scathing social commentary is , of course , present and correct " .
Destructoid 's Jim Sterling called the sound design " impeccable " and praised the actors ' performances , original soundtrack and licensed music use . IGN and Giant Bomb commended the music selection and felt that the original score enhanced dramatic tension during missions . GameSpot 's Petit wrote that the score " lends missions more cinematic flavour " . Edge said that the licensed music enhanced the city 's " already remarkable sense of space " and that the original score improved the atmosphere of the gameplay . They summarised the game as " a compendium of everything Rockstar has learnt about the power of game music in the past decade " .
Many reviewers found the land @-@ based vehicles more responsive and easier to control than in previous games . Game Informer 's Bertz explained that " cars have a proper sense of weight , while retaining the agility necessary for navigating through traffic at high speeds " . In addition to the vehicle handling , most reviewers noted the shooting mechanics were tighter than they had been in previous games , but Destructoid 's Sterling felt that in spite of the improvements , auto @-@ aim was " twitchy and unreliable " and cover mechanics " still come off as dated and unwieldy " . Some reviewers felt the game solved a continual problem by adding mid @-@ mission checkpoints .
The story and characters — particularly Trevor — polarised reviewers . Some felt that the narrative was not as well @-@ written as previous Rockstar games and cited Grand Theft Auto IV and Red Dead Redemption 's plot strengths . Others felt that the protagonists ' contrasting personalities gave the narrative tighter pacing . Edge thought the choice to host multiple leads was crucial , writing " what [ at first ] seemed like a gimmick ultimately proves to be the bedrock for the game as a whole " . GamesRadar 's Hollander Cooper thought the game negated inconsistencies in the story of previous entries , whose single lead protagonists had muddled morality . GameSpot 's Petit considered Trevor in particular a " truly horrible , terrifying , psychotic human being — and a terrific character " . Eurogamer 's Bramwell found Trevor " shallow and unconvincing " , and felt that his eccentricities hurt the narrative and overshadowed Michael and Franklin 's character development . Joystiq 's de Matos faulted the protagonists ' lack of likability for him , and found the ambivalence between Michael and Trevor a tired plot device as their conflict grew into a " seemingly endless cycle " . The Escapist 's Greg Tito had difficulty connecting with the characters ' emotions since they acted out of greed with no sense of morality and thus gave players little reason to support them .
= = = Re @-@ release = = =
Grand Theft Auto V 's re @-@ release received critical acclaim . Metacritic calculated an average score of 97 out of 100 based on 66 reviews for the PlayStation 4 version and 14 reviews for the Xbox One version , and 96 out of 100 based on 48 reviews for the PC version . GameRankings assigned an average score of 96 % based on 41 reviews for the PlayStation 4 version , 98 % based on 12 reviews for the Xbox One version and 95 % based on 26 reviews for the PC version .
Game Informer 's Andrew Reiner considered the addition of first @-@ person " another significant breakthrough for the series " in the vein of Grand Theft Auto III 's shift to third @-@ person from Grand Theft Auto 's bird 's @-@ eye view . GameSpot 's Mark Walton found that playing in first @-@ person heightened the impact of Grand Theft Auto V 's violence , which made him reflect on morality and character motivation more than before . VideoGamer.com opined that players feel like inhabitants of the world , rather than " guns attached to a floating camera " . IGN 's Dan Stapleton found the game more immersive in first @-@ person , creating a " surprisingly different experience " . VideoGamer.com praised the " finer details " in first @-@ person animations like camera lean when players take corners on motorcycles , or the navigational instruments in plane cockpits . Reviewers found playing the game more difficult in first @-@ person , but Game Informer 's Reiner preferred the challenge .
GameSpot 's Walton thought the graphics improvements made the open world " even more spectacular " , especially because of improved spatial anti @-@ aliasing . Of the first @-@ person view , he said that " at ground level everything looks bigger and more imposing " because of the improved graphics . IGN 's Stapleton favoured the PlayStation 4 version 's graphics over the Xbox One , but thought both consoles rendered the game well and maintained mostly consistent frame rates . He praised the increased frame rate and graphics options offered in the PC version . VideoGamer.com called the console version 's frame rate so consistent it was " scarcely believable " , although GameSpot 's Walton cited occasional frame rate dips . GameSpot 's Peter Brown opined that the PC version let players " witness the full extent of Rockstar 's admirable handiwork " , but noted that it " retains evidence of its last @-@ gen roots ... with simple geometry " . VideoGamer.com praised the Rockstar Editor 's accessibility on PC but criticised some of its limitations , such as camera angle restrictions . IGN 's Stapleton appreciated the PC version 's customisable controls , and GameSpot 's Brown felt that constant switching between the mouse and keyboard and a gamepad was necessary for " the best experience " . PC Gamer 's Chris Thursten called the game " the most beautiful , expansive and generous " of the series .
On the game 's multiplayer , IGN 's Stapleton reported low player counts in matches , long wait times in lobbies , server disconnection and occasional crashes . " Because of that , " he wrote , " I can 't strongly recommend ... the multiplayer experience alone " . VideoGamer.com found online character progression streamlined by comparison with the original version . According to them , the " grind of just doing PvP until co @-@ op Jobs arrive with regularity " was lost , and newcomers would likely find multiplayer enjoyable and balanced . However , they wrote of frequent server disconnection , especially during load screens . GameSpot 's Walton thought that Grand Theft Auto Online " still suffers from a lack of direction " for its open @-@ ended and frenetic gameplay , but still is fun . Game Informer 's Reiner reported " minimal lag or issues in the expanded firefights and races " .
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = Sales = = =
Within 24 hours of its release , Grand Theft Auto V generated more than $ 800 million in worldwide revenue , equating to approximately 11 @.@ 21 million copies sold for Take Two . The numbers nearly doubled analysts ' expectations for the title . Three days after release , the game had surpassed one billion dollars in sales , making it the fastest selling entertainment product in history . Six weeks after its release , Rockstar had shipped nearly 29 million copies of the game to retailers , exceeding the lifetime figures of Grand Theft Auto IV . On 7 October 2013 , the game became the best @-@ selling digital release on PlayStation Store for PlayStation 3 , breaking the previous record set by The Last of Us , though numerical sales figures were not disclosed . It broke seven Guinness World Records on 8 October : best @-@ selling video game in 24 hours , best @-@ selling action @-@ adventure video game in 24 hours , highest grossing video game in 24 hours , fastest entertainment property to gross $ 1 billion , fastest video game to gross $ 1 billion , highest revenue generated by an entertainment product in 24 hours , and most viewed trailer for an action @-@ adventure video game . A digital version was released on 18 October for the Xbox 360 , which went on to become the highest grossing day @-@ one and week @-@ one release on Xbox Live . As of May 2014 , the game has generated over $ 1 @.@ 98 billion in revenue . As of August 2014 , the game has sold @-@ in over 34 million units to retailers for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . As of 31 December 2014 , the game has shipped 45 million copies to retailers , including 10 million copies of the re @-@ released version for eighth @-@ generation consoles . As of 18 May 2016 , the game has shipped over 65 million copies across all platforms .
In the United Kingdom , the game became the all time fastest @-@ selling , selling more than 2 @.@ 25 million copies in five days . This broke the record set by Call of Duty : Black Ops at two million copies over the same period . It broke the day one record by selling 1 @.@ 57 million copies and generating £ 65 million . In two weeks , the game sold more than 2 @.@ 6 million copies and generated £ 90 million , which accounted for 52 % of games sold September 2013 . After three weeks on sale , it beat Grand Theft Auto IV 's lifetime sales in the United Kingdom . In its fourth week , it became the fastest @-@ selling title to break the three million barrier in the UK , thus overtaking Black Ops II 's lifetime sales . In November 2014 , the game became the best @-@ selling game of all time in the UK , overtaking Black Ops . The game was similarly successful in North America : it was the best selling game in September , representing over 50 % of software sales and boosting overall software sales by 52 % compared to September 2012 .
= = = Awards = = =
Grand Theft Auto V received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications . Prior to its release , it received Most Anticipated Game at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards . The game was review aggregators Metacritic and GameRankings ' highest rated for the year 2013 . The game appeared on several year @-@ end lists of 2013 's best games , receiving wins from independent journalist Tom Chick , CNET , Edge , the 31st Golden Joystick Awards , the 5th Annual Inside Gaming Awards the Spike VGX 2013 Awards , Slant Magazine and Time . It was named the Best Xbox Game by Canada.com , GameSpot , and IGN , and the Best Multiplatform Game by Destructoid . Rockstar Games and Rockstar North won Best Studio and Best Developer from Edge , and the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award at the 10th British Academy Video Games Awards .
Various in @-@ game elements were recognised with awards . Two characters , Trevor Philips and Lamar Davis , received numerous nominations for Best Character , and Lamar won the award from Giant Bomb . The music received awards from Spike VGX , Hardcore Gamer and The Daily Telegraph . Grand Theft Auto Online won Best Multiplayer from GameTrailers and BAFTA , and Best Xbox 360 Multiplayer from IGN . Online was also nominated for Biggest Disappointment by Game Revolution and Hardcore Gamer . Grand Theft Auto V won Best Technical Achievement in the Telegraph Video Game Awards , and Best Technology at the 14th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards . The graphical and artistic design received awards from IGN , The Daily Telegraph and BAFTA , and a nomination at the Game Developers Choice Awards .
The game received numerous other awards . It was awarded the title of Most Immersive Game at the Inside Gaming Awards . The general public voted for the game to receive the User Choice Award at the PlayStation Awards 2013 and the Community Choice award from Destructoid . The game received the Platinum Award at the PlayStation Awards , and was named the Best British Game from BAFTA . At IGN 's Best of 2013 Awards , it received multiple wins , including Best Xbox 360 Graphics , Best Xbox 360 Sound , and Best Action Game on Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 and overall .
= = Grand Theft Auto Online = =
Developed in tandem with the single @-@ player mode , the online multiplayer mode Grand Theft Auto Online was conceived as a separate experience to be played in a continually evolving world . Up to 30 players freely roam across the game world and enter lobbies to complete jobs ( story @-@ driven competitive and cooperative modes ) . The Content Creator toolset lets players create their own parameters for custom jobs , like racetracks and deathmatch weapon spawn points . Players may band together in organised player teams called crews to complete jobs together . Rockstar Games Social Club extends crews formed in Max Payne 3 's multiplayer mode to that of Grand Theft Auto Online . Players may create their own crews and join up to five total . Crews win multiplayer matches to earn experience points and climb online leaderboards .
Grand Theft Auto Online launched on 1 October 2013 , two weeks after Grand Theft Auto V 's release . Many players reported connection difficulties and game freezes during load screens . Rockstar released a technical patch on 5 October in an effort to resolve the issues , but problems persisted the second week following launch as some players reported their character progress as having disappeared . Another technical patch was released on 10 October combating the issues and Rockstar offered a GTA $ 500 @,@ 000 ( in @-@ game currency ) stimulus to the accounts of all players connected to Online since launch as recompense . Because of the widespread technical issues present at launch , many reviewers bemoaned their experience with Grand Theft Auto Online , but generally recognised the open @-@ ended exploration and dynamic content as its strength .
Post @-@ release content is continually added to Grand Theft Auto Online through free title updates . Some updates add new game modes and features , and others feature themed gameplay content , such as the Independence Day Special update that added patriotic @-@ themed content on 1 July 2014 . The widely anticipated Online Heists update launched on 10 March 2015 and suffered some initial technical difficulties due to the increased user load . Shortly after the game 's PC release , some players reported being banned from Grand Theft Auto Online for using field of view and cosmetic mods in single @-@ player . Rockstar stated in their official blog that nobody had been banned from Online for using single @-@ players mods , but that recent updates to the PC version had the " unintentional effect " of making such mods unplayable . They stated that mods are unauthorised and may cause unforeseen technical problems and instabilities .
= = Controversies = =
The game has generated several controversies related to its violence and depiction of women . A mission that requires players to use torture equipment in a hostage interrogation polarised reviewers , who noted its political commentary but felt that the torture sequence was in poor taste . The mission also received criticism from politicians and anti @-@ torture charity groups . The game became subject to widespread online debate over its portrayal of women , particularly in the wake of backlash against GameSpot journalist Carolyn Petit when she claimed the game was misogynistic in her review . After Petit 's review webpage received more than 20 @,@ 000 largely negative comments , many journalists defended her right to an opinion and lamented the gaming community 's defensiveness towards criticism . Television personality Karen Gravano and actress Lindsay Lohan have both filed lawsuits against Rockstar in allegation that characters in the game were based on their likenesses . Australian department store Target pulled the game from their 300 stores following a Change.org petition against depictions of violence toward women in the game .
= = Legacy = =
Critics concurred that Grand Theft Auto V was among seventh generation console gaming 's best and a great closing title before the eighth generation 's emergence . Polygon 's Plante observed that the game would be " a bridge between games ' present and the future " , and declared it " the closure of this generation , and the benchmark for the next " . VideoGamer.com 's Simon Miller considered it " the ultimate swansong for this console cycle " that would " cast a long shadow over the next " . Three days after its release , the game ranked second on IGN 's list of " The Top 25 Xbox 360 Games " . Editor Ryan McCaffrey considered that the scale and detail of the open world succeeded the majority of other Xbox 360 games . He wrote that the game is " a triumph both for gamers and for the medium itself , and it deserves its runaway success " . Hardcore Gamer placed it at number three on their " Top 100 Games of the Generation " list . They cited the game 's improved shooting and driving mechanics over its predecessors . They also considered that the multiple protagonist design " was a welcome change of pace " and could become a benchmark for the eighth generation of gaming . In December 2013 , The Daily Telegraph listed the game among their " 50 best games of the console generation " . They called it a " cultural behemoth " that " will be Rockstar 's lasting legacy " .
In January 2014 , Computer and Video Games ranked the game fourth on their " Games of the Generation 20 @-@ 1 " list . Editor Rob Crossley said that for the first time , Rockstar created an " utterly beautiful " open world . He found that the game did away with Grand Theft Auto IV 's repetitive mission design and focused instead on fun gameplay . In May , IGN ranked it eighth on their list of the " Top 100 Games of a Generation " and called it a " huge , raucous , and wildly ambitious bridge towards the [ eighth ] generation of console gaming " . The next month , it placed at number three on IGN 's list of the " Games of a Generation : Your Top 100 " as voted by the site 's readers . In August , Game Informer ranked it third on their " Top 10 Action Games Of The Generation " list . They compared the game 's quality to that of its predecessor , but thought that its ensemble character set @-@ up , varied missions and multiplayer superseded Grand Theft Auto IV 's placement on the list . They wrote of the story 's absurd drama and the open world 's vastness , and did not " regret a single second " spent playing the game . In November , Edge named it the fifth best game of its generation and commented that " no other game studio is even daring to attempt an open @-@ world game in its tradition because there is simply no possibility of measuring up to [ its ] standards . " In 2015 the publication rated the game the second greatest videogame of all time . It also ranked high on several best game lists determined by the public . It featured eighth on Empire 's list of " The 100 Greatest Video Games Of All Time " , and fifth on Good Game 's " Top 100 Games " list , as voted by the audience of the magazine and show respectively . Grand Theft Auto V was the most tweeted game of 2015 , despite being released over a year earlier .
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= Effects of Hurricane Isabel in Delaware =
The effects of Hurricane Isabel in Delaware resulted in one of only thirteen presidential disaster declarations for the state of Delaware . Hurricane Isabel formed from a tropical wave on September 6 , 2003 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . It moved northwestward , and within an environment of light wind shear and warm waters it steadily strengthened to reach peak winds of 165 mph ( 265 km / h ) on September 11 . After fluctuating in intensity for four days , Isabel gradually weakened and made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on September 18 . It quickly weakened over land and became extratropical over Pennsylvania the next day . The storm 's center remained to the south and west of Delaware , and was about 175 miles ( 280 km ) from Delaware at its closest approach . At that time , Isabel was a strong tropical storm located in central Virginia .
The effects of the hurricane were compounded by flooding caused by the remnants of Tropical Storm Henri days before . Moderate winds of up to 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) downed numerous trees , tree limbs , and power lines across the state , leaving at least 15 @,@ 300 without power . Numerous low @-@ lying areas were flooded due to high surf , strong storm surge , or run @-@ off from flooding further inland . The passage of Hurricane Isabel resulted in $ 40 million in damage ( 2003 USD , ( $ 51 @.@ 5 million 2016 USD ) ) and no casualties in the state .
= = Preparations = =
On September 16 , 44 hours before Hurricane Isabel made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch for the entire coastline of Delaware . The National Hurricane Center also briefly issued a hurricane watch for the coastline . On September 17 , 26 hours before Isabel made landfall , the watches were changed to tropical storm warnings . While over the western Atlantic Ocean as a Category 5 hurricane , forecasters predicted Isabel would move northwestward and within five days be at a position 155 miles ( 250 km ) south @-@ southeast of Lewes as a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) major hurricane . Though located within the cone of uncertainty , all subsequent forecasts predicted a landfall on North Carolina with the hurricane passing to the west of the state .
Governor Ruth Ann Minner declared a state of emergency prior to the arrival of the hurricane . The declaration also included for the activation of the Delaware National Guard to assist in hurricane related duties . Minner mandated residents in 13 low @-@ lying areas of Sussex County to evacuate . In all , 787 people evacuated across the state to seven emergency shelters set up by the American Red Cross . Officials began recommending visitors to leave potentially affected areas by three days before Isabel made landfall . Governor Minner mandated all schools to be closed on the day of the hurricane 's landfall , and recommended all residents in mobile homes to evacuate and for businesses to close . The University of Delaware preemptively canceled classes . The Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry closed for several days in anticipation of the storm . The Delaware Department of Transportation planned to place restrictions on state roads in the event strong wind gusts were recorded .
= = Impact = =
Strong swells from the hurricane produced a moderate storm surge which peaked at 8 @.@ 66 feet ( 2 @.@ 64 m ) in Reedy Point . Tides were only slightly above normal , though high surf on top of the storm surge resulted in beach erosion , particularly in Sussex County . Waves of 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 18 m ) in height were reported near the coastline . The high waters breached dunes south of Bethany Beach , and several locations along Delaware Route 1 were flooded . The large circulation of Isabel produced gusty winds across the state , including a maximum of 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) in Delaware Pilot Tower in the Delaware Bay . Onshore , gusts peaked at 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) in Lewes , where sustained winds of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) were also reported . Precipitation was heavy but sporadic , amounting to a maximum of 1 @.@ 88 inches ( 48 mm ) in Greenwood . Heavy rainfall further inland resulted in moderate to severe river flooding . The Christina River at Cooch 's Bridge crested at 2 @.@ 38 feet ( 0 @.@ 725 m ) above flood stage , and the Red Clay Creek at Wooddale crested at roughly 4 inches ( 100 mm ) above flood stage . Runoff from streams were slowed due to the approaching storm surge from the hurricane .
At the Delaware Breakwater East End Lighthouse in Lewes , strong waves destroyed the lower deck of the lighthouse , while powerful winds blew out the watchroom window . A group of eight volunteers quickly repaired the damage . Moderate wind gusts knocked down numerous trees , tree limbs , and power lines , causing widespread power outages in the state . Conectiv Energy reported the power outage associated with the hurricane as one of the worst in its history . At least 15 @,@ 300 were left without power during the worst of the hurricane , including 2 @,@ 500 in the capital city of Dover . Due to the power outages , only one traffic light north of the city of Wilmington was operational . The strong winds also resulted in the Delaware River and Bay Authority to reduce the speed limit on the Delaware Memorial Bridge to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . 62 roads throughout the state were initially closed due to flooding , downed trees , or downed power lines . Eight roads , including U.S. Route 13A remained closed for several days , primarily due to flooding . Flooding affected the cities of Seaford , Blades , Bayview , and Augustine Beach , with residents in the latter two being forced to evacuate due to severe flooding conditions . Several state parks reported downed trees and damage . Damage in the state totaled $ 40 million ( 2003 USD , $ 44 million 2006 USD ) , and there were no deaths in the state as a result of the storm .
= = Aftermath = =
On September 20 , two days after Hurricane Isabel passed the state , Governor Ruth Ann Minner made a formal request for a federal disaster declaration for the state . Later that day , President George W. Bush issued a federal disaster declaration for Delaware , one of twelve disaster declarations for the state . The declaration allowed for the use of federal disaster funds and emergency resources to help families and businesses recover from the effects of Hurricane Isabel . State and federal officials opened a disaster recovery center in Georgetown and Wilmington to assist individuals who suffered losses from Isabel and the remnants of Tropical Storm Henri just days before . 761 people visited the recovery centers before they closed . One week after the disaster declaration , residents began receiving checks for those who applied for aid . By about two months after the passage of Hurricane Isabel , 659 residents applied for assistance , with slightly over $ 1 million ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 1 million 2006 USD ) being distributed to the victims . 141 loan applications were received , as well . FEMA distributed about $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( $ 3 @.@ 22 million 2016 USD ) in Small Business Administration loans , and also received 183 public assistance loans for repair or replacement of public facilities .
A total of 35 power crews , along with outside contractors , worked to restore power . By two days after the storm , 2 @,@ 000 remained without power in scattered areas . Various locations in the city of Dover were without power for about 30 hours . There , the removal of debris exceeded the capacity of the local landfall , resulting in officials temporarily storing it elsewhere . Over 200 volunteers donated time , food and money to provide hot meals for individuals and families affected by the storm . Support teams provided by county officials transported over 300 tons of ruined accessories from the storm , such as appliances , carpets , and drywall , to local landfills . Qualifying for two NASCAR races in Dover were cancelled due to the hurricane , although the races went on as scheduled .
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= Brooklyn Free School =
The Brooklyn Free School is a private , ungraded , democratic free school in Fort Greene , Brooklyn , founded in 2004 . Students range in age from 4 to 18 years old . The school follows the noncoercive philosophy of the 1960s / 70s free school movement schools , which encourages self @-@ directed learning and protects child freedom of activity . There are no grades , no tests , and classes are non @-@ compulsory . As of 2015 , the school enrolls 80 students and has about 24 graduates .
The school was the first free school in New York City since 1975 . It started in a rented portion of a Park Slope Methodist church , but moved to a brownstone in Fort Greene . Students participate in the design of classes and in the school 's governance , which is done at a weekly Democratic Meeting . Staff and students all have equal votes . The school is funded through sliding @-@ scale tuition , grants , and donations . In 2012 , Lucas Kavner of The Huffington Post called the Brooklyn Free School " arguably New York 's most radical center of learning " .
= = History = =
The Brooklyn Free School was founded in 2004 in Park Slope , Brooklyn , and began its first academic session later that year . Its director , Alan Berger , had been an assistant principal at a Manhattan high school before he left to found the alternative school . He had read about a free school in Woodstock , New York , and was " grabbed ... to the core " . Berger published his idea for the school in the October 2003 issue of the park Slope Food Co @-@ op newsletter . About 170 people showed interest , and a group held biweekly planning sessions until the school opened in the 16th Street Brooklyn First Free Methodist Church 's bottom two floors in 2004 . The original class was thirty students with three teachers . It was the first free school in New York City since the Park Slope Fifteenth Street School closed in 1975 . By November 2012 , the school had moved to a four @-@ floor brownstone in Fort Greene . The school had 42 pupils by November 2006 , 60 by 2012 , and 80 by 2015 . As of 2015 , Lily Mercogliano is the school 's director .
= = Program = =
The school operates under a " noncoercive " philosophy where students are encouraged to develop their own interests and where all learning is self @-@ directed . As such , Brooklyn Free School has no grades , no tests , and no compulsory classes or homework . Students are free to pursue the activities of their interest , such as reading alone or taking a class . Students are free to leave classes as they please . Classes have included philosophy seminars , cheese @-@ tasting , book discussions , business , astrology , psychology , videography , and Tibet . Some classes are taught by volunteers . By law , students are required to attend for 5 @.@ 5 hours a day . Principal Alan Berger contends that the school provides an education better adapted for the Internet era , as one more original , enterprising , and adaptive in the face of a changing economy .
The Brooklyn Free School holds a weekly , mandatory Democratic Meeting on Wednesday mornings . The meeting runs the school , and students and teachers alike have equal votes . Students are not required to pay attention . Meeting topics range from disciplinary grievances to admissions to computer use . A meeting chair is chosen at the beginning of the meeting and the floor is opened for propositions . Anyone wishing to discuss a school issue can call schoolwide meetings .
As of 2015 , the school enrolls about 80 students , about half of whom are African @-@ American or Latino . The school is divided into upper and lower schools , the former ages 11 to 18 and the latter ages 4 to 11 , though they are not physically separated by age . Children apply for admission and visit for a five @-@ day orientation . Students are admitted by unanimous vote of a teacher @-@ parent @-@ student admissions committee . The group first determines whether applicants ' parents support their decision to attend and whether the school can provide for the students ' needs . The school keeps a waiting list .
The school is funded through tuition , grants , and donations . The majority of students come from middle @-@ class families from Brooklyn . The private school has sliding @-@ scale tuition , and less than half pay full tuition . Founding director Alan Berger said that 20 percent paid full tuition in 2012 . In 2015 , about a third paid less than $ 500 in tuition , and another third paid half tuition . The sliding scale 's full tuition is set at $ 22 @,@ 000 .
The school graduated 21 students as of 2012 , and 24 as of 2015 . Students compile their own transcript and nominate themselves for graduation . Some take standardized state and college entrance tests . The majority of Brooklyn Free School graduates continue to college .
= = Reception = =
Lucas Kavner of The Huffington Post wrote in 2012 that the school serves as a model for independent , democratic schools at the forefront of renewed interest in the 1960s / 70s free school movement . He added that critics contend that the school 's environment does not prepare students for real life , and that students from families that cannot hire tutors will suffer disproportionately . The school inspired the Manhattan Free School ( founded in 2008 ) , and , in turn , was inspired by the Albany Free School ( founded in 1969 ) . Kavner called the Brooklyn Free School " arguably New York 's most radical center of learning " .
An article in The New York Times in 2006 wrote that parents hired outside tutors in concern for the school 's academic preparation . A third of the original students left within the 2004 academic year , as did the original teachers .
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= Demons ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Demons " is the twentieth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , and originally aired on May 6 , 2005 on UPN . The episode was written by showrunner Manny Coto and directed by LeVar Burton . " Demons " is the first part of a two part story , concluding with " Terra Prime " .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , the crew returns to Earth to participate in a conference to set up a trade coalition of alien races . While there they discover a plot involving a xenophobic human organisation called " Terra Prime " .
Peter Weller , who later appeared in Star Trek Into Darkness ( 2013 ) , guest starred as John Frederick Paxton , and other guest stars included Harry Groener , who had previously appeared in episodes of both The Next Generation and Voyager . Filming of the episode overlapped with that of several other episodes , and sets included both the standing sets and an alleyway on the Paramount lot which was previously used in the Deep Space Nine episode " Little Green Men " . The critical response to the episode was mostly positive with one reviewer stating that the two @-@ parter posed similar ideological questions to those seen in The Original Series .
= = Plot = =
Enterprise returns to Earth in order to attend the formation of a " Coalition of Planets " . Nathan Samuels , a United Earth government minister , gives a speech , but he fails to mention the contribution they made to get the aliens to work collaboratively . A woman , later identified as Susan Khouri , staggers over to T 'Pol and produces a vial containing a hair follicle , before collapsing and dying from a phaser wound . Back on board Enterprise , Doctor Phlox examines the hair 's DNA , learning it is from the child of Commander T 'Pol and Commander Tucker , but T 'Pol denies ever being pregnant .
Captain Archer meets with Samuels , who is concerned that news of the child will stir xenophobic sentiment . Lieutenant Reed is ordered by Archer to liaise with Harris of Section 31 . He is informed that Khori was a member of Terra Prime , an anti @-@ alien movement . Meanwhile , in the Terra Prime headquarters on the Moon , John Frederick Paxton and Doctor Mercer discuss the child . After Mercer leaves , Paxton sends for Daniel Greaves and tells him to deal with Mercer . On Earth , Archer tells Samuels that he knows that the minister was a former member of Terra Prime and convinces him to provide a case file on Khouri . Meanwhile , Ensign Mayweather gives his reporter ex @-@ girlfriend , Gannet Brooks , a tour of the ship .
On the Moon , Paxton watches footage of Colonel Phillip Green ( " The Savage Curtain " ) . Greaves enters and updates Paxton on the status of the child , and Paxton injects himself in the neck with an unknown substance . Phlox then reports that Khouri 's body contained traces of a substance used in a zero @-@ gravity mining facility . T 'Pol and Tucker volunteer for an away mission to the Moon . Disguised as miners , they are quickly detained after Brooks apparently leaks details of the mission . Paxton reveals that the entire complex is a warp capable ship , and the vessel travels to Mars where it takes control of the verteron array , which normally protects the Earth from comets . He uses the array to fire a warning shot and issue an ultimatum — that all non @-@ humans must immediately leave Earth .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
Showrunner and writer Manny Coto explained that the " demons " in the episode refers to the demons of intolerance that humanity must defeat before they can form the United Federation of Planets . Colonel Philip Green ( the leading villain of World War III in the Star Trek universe ) was originally intended to appear earlier in the season in the episode " Borderland " but the episode was instead re @-@ written to feature Arik Soong after The Next Generation actor Brent Spiner became available ; Green 's appearance was one of several included in season four which linked Enterprise to The Original Series , which included the Mirror Universe and Gorn in " In a Mirror , Darkly " , Organians in " Observer Effect " and the Orions in " Borderland " and " Bound " .
Peter Weller was cast in the role of John Frederick Paxton . Weller had previously appeared in other science fiction productions , including as the main character in the film RoboCop ( 1987 ) . He also played Chuck Taggart in the television series Odyssey 5 , which had been created by Manny Coto . Weller said of the plot of the episode , " The great thing about the whole Star Trek legacy is that they ... metaphorize , they allegorize and they narrate what 's going on the planet today " . He would later go on to gain a role in the movie Star Trek Into Darkness ( 2013 ) . This was the third Star Trek appearance of Harry Groener , who played Nathan Samuels . He had previously portrayed Tam Elbrum in The Next Generation episode " Tin Man " and the Magistrate in the Voyager episode " Sacred Ground " . Eric Pierpoint returned as Harris , whom he had previously played earlier in the season in the episode " Affliction " . Game show host Tom Bergeron made a cameo in the episode as a Coridan Ambassador . He had previously appeared as D 'Marr in the first season episode " Oasis " .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was directed by former Star Trek : The Next Generation actor LeVar Burton , his second of the season , and his ninth and final for the series . Filming began on February 4 , 2005 and completed on February 14 . The first day of shooting overlapped with the filming for the previous episode , " In a Mirror , Darkly " . The first day was spent filming scenes involving Mayweather and Brooks , while the second day overlapped with a re @-@ shoot of the conclusion of the episode " Bound " and inserts for " Affliction " and " Divergence " . The following three days were spent on the standing sets such as the bridge and sickbay , before moving onto the standing cave sets on stage 9 . These had previously been painted white for use in " The Aenar " , and were repainted grey to represent the tunnels on the Moon for " Demons " .
The only exterior location used was an alleyway on the Paramount lot near the soundstages . The alley had previously been used as a location in the Deep Space Nine episode " Little Green Men " . Production moved to the Paramount Theatre on the final day of filming , which hosted the season premieres . It was used to portray the Assembly Hall of Starfleet Command . The footage of Colonel Green was shot later , with a greenscreen placed on the monitor during the filming with Weller .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Demons " was first aired in the United States on UPN on May 6 , 2005 . It received a 2 / 4 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 percent of all households , and 4 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was an increase of the overall audience share compared to the previous episode aired .
Michelle Erica Green at TrekNation described the episode as a " riveting hour of television " . She thought that the episode posed the same types of ideological questions that The Original Series did on occasion and caused her to look forward to the following episode . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " gave the episode a score of three out of four , saying that it was a " pretty good story [ told ] in an exceptionally average way " . Jay Garmon , whilst compiling a list of the best episodes of Enterprise for TechRepublic , listed " Demons " and " Terra Prime " as the third best . He thought that Peter Weller " stole the show " , and that it created a " solid conclusion " to the show despite the following episode , " These Are the Voyages ... "
" Demons " was released on home media in the United States on November 1 , 2005 , as part of the season four DVD box set of Enterprise . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
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= The Bus Uncle =
The Bus Uncle is a Cantonese YouTube viral video clip of a quarrel between two men aboard a bus in Hong Kong on 27 April 2006 . While the older man , who came to be nicknamed the Bus Uncle , scolded the man seated behind him , a nearby passenger used a camera phone to record the entire incident . The resulting six @-@ minute video was uploaded to the Hong Kong Golden Forum , YouTube , and Google Videos . The clip became YouTube 's most viewed video in May 2006 , attracting viewers with its rhetorical outbursts and copious use of profanity by the older man , receiving 1 @.@ 7 million hits in the first 3 weeks of that month .
The video became a cultural sensation in Hong Kong , inspiring vigorous debate and discussion on lifestyle , etiquette , civic awareness and media ethics within the city , eventually attracting the attention of the media around the world .
= = Incident = =
The video depicts the incident that took place on the upper deck of a double decker Kowloon Motor Bus , Route no . 68X en route to Yuen Long , Hong Kong at approximately 11 : 00 pm on 27 April 2006 . It began when a young bespectacled male passenger tapped the shoulder of a middle @-@ aged man in front of him who was chatting on his mobile phone , asking the man to lower his voice . The older man later claimed that when he was tapped on the shoulder , he was under stress from an argument with his girlfriend and was calling the Samaritans . However , the younger man said that he was in fact merely chatting with friends . The older man turned around and started a monologue , ranting about being unnecessarily provoked under stress . The younger man , who seldom talked back , expressed a desire to end the discussion . However , the middle @-@ aged man insisted that the matter was not settled and requested an apology from him . The younger man apologised , reluctantly shook hands , but also warned the older man regarding the use of mother insults . This last warning resulted in more profanities from the older man . The video ends with the older man receiving a phone call .
= = Video = =
The video was shot by a 21 @-@ year @-@ old accountant and part @-@ time psychology student identified as Jon Fong Wing Hang ( Chinese : 方穎恆 ) . In a radio station phone @-@ in on 25 May 2006 , Fong said he recorded the incident on a mobile phone in case the abusive man became violent . He claimed there was a second video yet to be posted online in which the younger man fought back by making fun of " Bus Uncle " with a friend on the phone . However , Fong " told reporters that he often takes videos as a hobby , and had just planned to share this one with friends . " The video clip has English subtitles which , while erroneous in parts , never stray far from the general tenor of the Cantonese version .
The " Bus Uncle " title for the video was coined by members of an Internet forum in reference to the older man in the video . In Hong Kong , it is common to refer to an older man as " Uncle " ( 阿叔 ) , hence the English translation " The Bus Uncle " . Lam 's name appears as part of the title of the original video . Contrary to reports in Western media , the word " Uncle " ( 阿叔 ) was not used .
On 28 May 2006 , this incident was mentioned on the main evening news on TVB , as well as Cable TV news . News of the video clip has penetrated Western media and has been widely syndicated , and reported in prominent international journals in late May 2006 , such as Channel NewsAsia , CNN , and The Wall Street Journal .
= = Characters = =
As the video became well @-@ known , reporters located the " Bus Uncle " near the end of the 68X bus route . He was found to be Roger Chan Yuet Tung ( Chinese : 陳乙東 ; Jyutping : can4 jyut3 dung1 ) , a 51 @-@ year @-@ old restaurant worker who lives in Yuen Long . On 23 May 2006 , 23 @-@ year @-@ old property agent Elvis Ho Yui Hei ( Chinese : 何銳熙 ; Jyutping : ho4 jeoi6 hei1 ) , previously misidentified as " Alvin " or " Elvin " ) called a talk show on Commercial Radio Hong Kong claiming to be the young man involved in the argument .
Chan lives by himself , with rare contact with his family , though he has a girlfriend in Mong Kok . He has been unemployed for more than ten years , living off welfare payments . After his identity was revealed , Chan was criticised for reportedly demanding remuneration for interviews .
Ho often takes long bus rides home , frequently asking passengers to lower their voices so he can nap . Despite being threatened , Ho said he forgave " Bus Uncle " and sympathised with whatever stress the older man was suffering . He said his patience throughout the ordeal was inspired by t 'ai chi ch 'uan .
= = Aftermath = =
Sing Tao Daily reported that Chan visited Ho 's office on 31 May 2006 in Mong Kok to apologise for the dispute and to initiate a business proposal for the duo to hold a " Bus Uncle Rave Party " . Chan was quickly rejected and expelled by Ho , who expressed outrage towards the journalists who arranged the meeting and threatened legal action against the press .
Ming Pao opined that the use of profanity by the " Bus Uncle " and threatening behaviour theoretically contravened the general code of conduct of bus passengers , and that he had violated two public order laws – Section 46 ( 1 ) ( a ) , ( n ) ( ii ) and 57 ( 1 ) of the Road Traffic ( Public Service Vehicles ) Regulations , and Section 17B ( 2 ) of the Public Order Ordinance – which potentially carried financial penalties and imprisonment .
Next Magazine journalists interviewed Chan at his home in Yuen Long , and his interview became the magazine 's cover story on 1 June 2006 . On 7 June 2006 , Chan , who had been hired as a Public Relations officer in the Steak Expert restaurant chain , was physically assaulted while on duty in front of witnesses by three unidentified masked men who then fled the scene . He sustained severe injuries to his eyes and face and was admitted to the emergency department for treatment . The restaurant owner , Mr. Lee , then faced pressure from his wife and daughter to fire Chan due to magazine allegations of Chan 's exploits in a Shenzhen karaoke hostess bar . Chan resigned after the owner 's wife attempted to overdose on drugs , ostensibly in an effort to force the issue .
= = Social impact = =
= = = Effects on popular culture = = =
Some of Chan 's phrases are now frequently used , mimicked , and parodied in Hong Kong , particularly by teenagers . 「 你有壓力 ， 我有壓力 」 ( You have pressure , I have pressure ) , 「 未解決 ！ 」 ( It 's not settled ! ) have become catchphrases on Internet forums , posters , and radio programmes . Various music videos have been created using the catchphrases , including pop , karaoke , rap , dance and disco remixes . There have also been parodies of an apology , " re @-@ enactments " of the incident with video game characters , composite pictures , movie posters , and versions involving Darth Vader and Adagio for Strings . Merchandise such as cartoon T @-@ shirts and mobile phone ringtones have also been produced and sold on the Internet .
In June 2006 , TVB television made a parody of the Bus Uncle video in promoting its coverage of the 2006 FIFA World Cup , featuring its sports commentator Lam Sheung Yee ( 林尚義 ) , whose voice resembles Chan 's , on a bus playing the role of the Bus Uncle . In the advertisement , a passenger sitting behind Lam Sheung Yee ( played by Lam Man Chung ) questions whether Lam Sheung Yee feels pressured for his responsibilities in the upcoming World Cup , which would be his last TV appearance before retirement . Turning around , Lam replies that there is no pressure and emphasises the issue ( i.e. the viewers ' demand for World Cup coverage ) has been resolved . The passenger then offers to shake hands with Lam Sheung Yee , calling for a truce .
In addition , sitcoms of ATV and TVB imitated the video in argument scenes . In episode 67 of the TVB sitcom Welcome to the House ( 高朋滿座 ) , the young bespectacled main character tried to stop a man from talking too loudly on the mobile phone in the cinema . As a result , he was harshly rebuked by the man . Once his family knew about the incident from a video uploaded on the Internet , they taught the character to be more assertive and not to allow himself to be bullied . In the end , he was able to stand up to the same man when they met again in the cinema and remove him from the premises .
= = = Stress in Hong Kong = = =
Although many found the video humorous and entertaining , others warned that it hinted at a more alarming and sinister prognosis of life in stress @-@ filled Hong Kong , particularly inside buses , nicknamed " flying cars of death " and other overcrowded areas . Lee Sing , director of the Hong Kong Mood Disorders Centre at the Chinese University of Hong Kong , warned that Hong Kong 's high @-@ stress working environments are spawning a city @-@ full of " Bus Uncles " . Lee estimated that one of every 50 Hongkongers suffers from intermittent explosive disorder , turning one into a " ticking time bomb " of rage and violence .
Journalism professor and Internet expert Anthony Fung Ying @-@ him also attributed the popularity of the low @-@ resolution video of a " trivial event " to the emotional climate of the city . While other viral videos are favoured by specific demographics , this one spread widely due to its universal expression of " the true feelings of ordinary people . "
On the other hand , Ho Kwok Leung , an applied social science lecturer at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University , held that attention surrounding the video reflected the boring lives of Hong Kong people . With few interesting topics to discuss , they savour the pleasure of spreading information to a vast audience and the creation of Internet memes . Furthermore , the banning of the use of some video catchphrases in certain schools made the incident more appealing . This lifestyle , according to Leung , is fertile ground for the cultivation of a " video clip culture " .
= = = Civic awareness concerns = = =
Ah Nong ( 阿濃 , J : aa3 nung4 , P : Ā Nóng ) , a popular literary figure and artist in Hong Kong , believed that the incident highlighted the apathy of the common Hong Kong people . He emphasised that during the heated exchange between Chan and Ho , not a single bystander came to Ho 's aid . He recalled an incident a few years back where he confronted a man smoking on the lower deck of a bus and was scolded for the rest of the journey . He said it was useless to complain to the bus driver who would not bother to waste his time , let alone the other passengers . Ah Nong argued that in such a society , a person can be accused of wrongdoing despite good intentions .
There was support for Ho 's desire for a lower volume as well as sympathy for the stress felt by the " Bus Uncle . " Others maintained that Chan 's actions were atypical of etiquette in Hong Kong . Apple Tse Ho Yi , minister of the Hong Kong Christian Service , carried out a survey of 506 students over the age of 12 following the incident . Of the respondents who claim they regularly encountered people speaking loudly on the phone on buses , only 47 % said they would intervene by talking to the phone user or alerting the driver . Reasons for inaction include fear , apathy and inability to solve the problem . On civic awareness , the majority of the respondents did not consider chatting loudly on the phone to be wrong . Tse concluded that the current generation of Hong Kong young people have poor civic awareness , and it is natural that disputes often occur due to inconsideration . Speaking about the incident on Commercial Radio , Journalist Chip Tsao described Chan 's behaviour as " noise raping " and said that the incident was a manifestation of underlying social tension as well as the mindset of a " common Hongkonger " . He criticised Ho as being a stereotype of present @-@ day Hong Kong youth – speechless and too weak .
Chan 's placement as runner @-@ up " Person of the Year " announced by Radio Television Hong Kong was seen by Michael DeGolyer of the Hong Kong Standard that it might have struck a chord with the general population . Ng Fung Sheung , a social science lecturer of the City University of Hong Kong , explained that Hong Kong people tend to chat loudly in public places . She attributed this phenomenon to the television screens found in many vehicles and trains , which broadcast programmes at high volumes . She suggested that the government should provide better civic education for the public to make them more considerate of others . When it comes to schools which banned the usage of catch phrases like " I 'm stressed ! " Ng stated that teachers must be able to distinguish whether the students really face pressure or are simply following the trend , and provide guidance if necessary .
= = = Criticism of media ethics = = =
Some denied that any social insight could be gleaned from the video clip , arguing that the frenzy was artificially created by sensationalist newspapers in order to boost circulation and profits . Clement So York @-@ kee , Director of the School of Journalism at the Chinese University of Hong Kong , warned that methods to uncover the incident between Chan and Ho " did not seem to ... [ involve the ] traditional practice of news reporting . " For example , several media outlets offered rewards on unmasking Bus Uncle 's identity . In late May 2006 , a group of journalists and photographers initiated and followed Chan 's second meeting with Ho . After Ho 's refusal , they brought Bus Uncle to a dinner and karaoke session . Although the session was widely reported , many believed it was artificially created news and unworthy of front @-@ page attention .
Ta Kung Pao stated that the Bus Uncle incident tested the professionalism of the Hong Kong mass media , its editorial noting that Chan sought remuneration for interviews and made many extraordinary claims about himself which were published without verification . The editorial concluded by advising journalists not to fabricate news , but instead to emphasise the verifiability of stories and consider carefully whether an incident is newsworthy .
Others held that the frenzy was not the product of a media conspiracy , but rather a reflection of the public 's curiosity and Hong Kong 's competitive consumer @-@ driven media market . The situation also allowed camera phone marketers to highlight the potential comedic value and draw attention away from privacy concerns .
In the aftermath , other such videos appeared including a woman at Hong Kong 's airport who was driven into a hysterical panic after missing her flight . That video was viewed 750 @,@ 000 times in five days .
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= The Monster Ball Tour =
The Monster Ball Tour was the second worldwide concert tour by American singer Lady Gaga . Staged in support of her extended play The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) and comprising a set list of songs from that and her debut album The Fame ( 2008 ) , the tour visited arenas and stadiums from 2009 through 2011 . Described as " the first @-@ ever pop electro opera " by Gaga , the tour was announced in October 2009 after an intended joint concert tour with hip @-@ hop artist Kanye West was suddenly canceled . The Monster Ball Tour commenced four days after the release of The Fame Monster in November 2009 .
A revision of the tour occurred after only a few months of performances , due to Gaga 's concern that the original version was constructed within a very short span of time . The stage of the original show looked like a frame , comparable to that of a hollowed @-@ out television set . Since The Fame Monster dealt with the paranoias Gaga had faced , the main theme of the original shows became human evolution , while elements of the canceled tour with West were still included in some parts . From 2010 onwards , the revamped shows had a New York theme and portrayed a story set in the city , where Gaga and her friends got lost and had to find their way to " the Monster Ball " . Both versions of the show were divided into five segments , with the last being the encore . Each of them featured Gaga in new outfits , singing songs related to the concept of the segment , as they were followed by a video interlude .
The tour received general critical acclaim , with critics praising Gaga 's singing abilities , the theatricality of the show , and her sense of style and fashion . The Monster Ball was a commercial success , with sold @-@ out shows and demand for tickets prompting organizers to add more dates to the itinerary . It ultimately grossed an estimated US $ 227 @.@ 4 million from 200 reported shows and an audience of 2 @.@ 5 million . At the 2010 Billboard Touring Awards , Gaga won the Breakthrough Performer Award , as well as the Concert Marketing & Promotion Award , the latter being an acknowledgment of her partnership with sponsor Virgin Mobile . HBO filmed a special of The Monster Ball Tour during Gaga 's February 2011 shows at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Documenting the whole concert with intersperses of backstage footage , Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden , aired in May and was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on November 21 , 2011 .
= = Background = =
Initially , hip @-@ hop artist Kanye West and Lady Gaga had plans to launch a joint tour in October 2009 , known as " Fame Kills : Starring Lady Gaga and Kanye West " . Amid negative response to his controversial outbursts at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , West declared that he would take a hiatus from his music career . Nevertheless , the complete schedule for Fame Kills was released , with the tour set to begin on November 10 , 2009 , in Phoenix , Arizona . Shortly afterwards , the tour was officially cancelled without any explanation . Gaga addressed the situation at Billboard 's annual Women in Music luncheon , where she cited creative differences as the reason for the tour 's cancellation . In an interview she stated , " [ Kanye ] is going to take a break , but the good news is , I am not . "
After assuring the public that she would be embarking on her own tour , Gaga officially announced The Monster Ball Tour on October 15 , 2009 . It was originally planned to debut in London in early 2010 , but ended up kicking off on November 27 , 2009 , in Montreal . Rapper Kid Cudi and singer Jason Derülo were confirmed as the supporting acts for the tour , with Cudi supporting Gaga from the beginning of the tour , and Derülo joining from December 28 , 2009 . The official poster for the tour featured Gaga in Versace 676 sunglasses and wearing a gyroscope around her called " The Orbit " , which she first wore on the October 3 , 2009 , episode of Saturday Night Live . The contraption was designed by Nasir Mazhar in collaboration with Gaga 's own creative production company , Haus of Gaga . The tour 's sponsor of the American leg was Virgin Mobile USA , who introduced the " Free I.P. " program which offered free show tickets to fans who volunteered their time to homeless youth organizations .
= = Development = =
= = = Original concept = = =
In an interview with Rolling Stone , Gaga explained that she wanted to put together an expensive looking , beautiful show which would be affordable for her fans . She asserted that the tour was a " pop @-@ electro opera " because the theatrics and the story elements interwoven in it were played like an opera . According to her , the design of the show was innovative and forward in terms of creativeness . Gaga wanted to change the shape of the stage and designed one with Haus of Gaga that was " essentially a frame with forced perspective , and the frame is put inside the stage . " The stage had a triangular inset , like a diamond , and everywhere the show took place , the dimensions were measured in such a way that the box fit any stage . " So no matter where I go , my fans get the same experience . So often you go into theaters and there 's ambient light flying in from all sorts of places , and the audience is in different spots , and the stage is in different shapes and lengths and widths and depths , so this is a way for me to control all the light and all of the different elements of the show " , she added .
The show revolved around themes of evolution , as well as her paranoias represented on The Fame Monster . While developing the tour Gaga spoke about original sin and demons inside human beings ; " So we talked about growth , and that led us into this kind of scientific space , and we started talking about evolution and the evolution of humanity and how we begin as one thing , and we become another . " This theme of monsters and evolution played a part in the fashion for the tour , which according to Gaga was " another level from where we were with the Fame Ball . [ ... ] It 's going to be a truly artistic experience that is going to take the form of the greatest post @-@ apocalyptic house party that you 've ever been to . " Although Gaga stated that she was inspired by the things she and West were doing with the Fame Kills tour , she concluded that she did not want to use any of the things that they had designed together . Later , she said that Fame Kills was " the great lost tour " , but confirmed that some of the elements of it were incorporated into The Monster Ball .
In an interview with MTV News , Gaga further described the tour :
" I begin as a cell and I grow and change throughout the show . And it 's also done in what now is becoming my aesthetic , which is , you know , it 's part pop , part performance art , part fashion installation — so all of those things are present ... It 's a story , it 's me battling all my monsters along the way . I 'm playing all the music from The Fame , all the music from The Fame Monster . And the stage that I designed with the Haus [ of Gaga ] is a giant cube that sits . Imagine you were to hollow out a TV and just break the fourth wall on a TV screen . It forces you to look at the center of the TV . It 's my way of saying , ' My music is art . ' "
For the performance of " Paparazzi " , Gaga had collaborated with her Haus of Gaga creative partner Matthew " Matty Dada " Williams . She had a different vision for it in the beginning . Dada thought that Gaga should wear her hair braided , which Gaga had never done before . Dada 's explanation for the concept was the look of Rapunzel , the fairy @-@ tale character . He felt that " it 's something people deeply understand . And when you 're wearing sunglasses on a scaffolding piece with a giant alien dancing behind you , I promised [ to Gaga ] it 's not going to look like Rapunzel . ' "
= = = Revamped concept = = =
In December 2009 , Gaga revealed that she planned to cancel the concept of the original shows of The Monster Ball Tour and start afresh . She felt that the revamp of the show was needed as the original tour was constructed in a very short span of time . Gaga recalled that after West and she split up for this tour , she was unsure if she could get a show together in time , but nevertheless wanted to promote The Fame Monster . Hence she was able to put together " something that , in truth , I never would have done if I had a longer amount of time " . The revamp of the tour was planned from the arena shows in the United Kingdom from February 2010 . " My team thinks I 'm completely psychotic . But I don 't fucking care what they think . [ ... ] Well , just to give you an idea , the stage is about four times the size of the one we 're on now and conceptually , it 's completely different . One thing that has been lost over the past 10 @-@ 15 years , in pop music , is the idea of showbiz . And this is definitely going to bring that back " , clarified Gaga . According to James Montgomery of MTV , the show recalled the film musicals The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) and West Side Story ( 1961 ) , the science @-@ fiction film Metropolis ( 1927 ) , and the television mini @-@ series Angels in America ( 2003 ) .
During an interview with London 's 95 @.@ 8 Capital FM radio station , Gaga further elaborated on the changes in the show . She said that the show was constructed like a piece of musical theater . It also incorporated a number of contemporary and old musical pieces , some of them being re @-@ recorded specifically for the show itself . A new keytar was constructed for the show and was named Emma . The instrument was created by the Haus of Gaga and the singer said , " We have this new instrument that I brought to the Brits tonight , ' Emma ' , which is what I was playing on the stage . She 's a hybrid from all these other instruments . " During an interview on KISS @-@ FM with Ryan Seacrest , on his show On Air with Ryan Seacrest , Gaga explained that the concert tour was still called Monster Ball , but it had become more of a musical and less of a concert . It had a New York theme at its core ; telling a story where Gaga and her friends traveled to the Monster Ball , but got lost .
= = Concert synopsis = =
= = = Pre @-@ revisions = = =
Beginning behind a giant , green , laser lit video screen featuring scrim lights , Gaga appeared in a bulb @-@ covered futuristic silver jeweled jumpsuit with matching eye makeup and mask and sang " Dance in the Dark " as dancers , dressed in white balaclavas and white jumpsuits , moved around her . The video screen , resembling an electric mathematical grid , was eventually lifted during the performance . After the song , Gaga strapped a portable silver jeweled keyboard to herself and began to perform " Just Dance " while emerging from the inside of a white cube on a platform . This was followed by a brief video intermission and Gaga returned onstage in an off @-@ white costume , that resembled an alien ecto @-@ skeleton , while the dancers wore skeletal headgear . She started performing " LoveGame " , which ended with Gaga pointing towards her groin . Flames appeared on the video screens , as she got out of her ecto @-@ skeleton outfit . After stripping down to a silver bodysuit she performed " Alejandro " , and was carried by her crotch by one of her male dancers , and later lowered onto another one of them .
The section was followed by a video interlude featuring snarling dogs and brooding ravens . The performance of " Monster " began with Gaga emerging in a black feathered jacket and performing dance moves reminiscent of Michael Jackson as the backdrops featured a black bird 's wings . She continued with two songs from The Fame Monster titled " So Happy I Could Die " and " Teeth " , after which she removed the feathered dress . Gaga then started performing the song " Speechless " on piano , and continued with an acoustic version of " Poker Face " . Rapper Kid Cudi joined her then to perform his song " Make Her Say " which contains a sample of " Poker Face " . This segment was followed by the performance of " Fashion " and " The Fame " , during which Gaga wore a gold Egyptian styled crown and matching body suit , compared to the garment of a viking . Gaga crawled atop her piano during the follow @-@ up songs " The Fame " and " Money Honey " , after which she returned to the stage , dressed in black vinyl and nearly nude in a red patent leather bikini , to perform " Boys Boys Boys " , backed by a squadron of skinny and shirtless leather boys . During " Poker Face " , she wore a bondage inspired black leather dress with guns hanging from it and a hat made of muzzles , and pumped her hands in the air while performing the song . This was followed by Gaga sitting on a dentist 's chair and spreading her legs during " Paper Gangsta " . Another video interlude followed , displaying arty poses of Gaga in gothic looks .
She returned to the stage while wearing multiple donned braided extensions for " Paparazzi " . Gaga was perched atop a railing and from each of her braids , a dancer was attached on the stage . A backdrop of stars were shown during the performance . The performance ended with the railing taking Gaga high above the stage , where she faked her death . This was followed by " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " as she descended from the top — which signified her rebirth — amidst white lights and mechanical fog . She wore a giant gyroscope around her , akin to " The Orbit " by Haus of Gaga . The last song of the show was " Bad Romance " which she performed in an ' 80s @-@ inspired white power suit with exaggerated high shoulders and high @-@ waisted pants . The show ended with a video of Gaga getting a heart @-@ shaped tattoo on her shoulder , with the word " Dad " in the center of it .
= = = Post @-@ revisions = = =
After revisions , the show was divided into four sections : City , Subway , Forest , Monster Ball and concluded with an encore . It began with a projected video onto a curtain — which contained images of Gaga smoking a cigarette — while a club remix of " Dance in the Dark " played . Surrounded by violet light , her silhouette appeared on the curtain while she performed " Dance in the Dark " . Once the curtain was removed and the chorus reached , the New York cityscape and neon lights were revealed . Gaga gyrated on the set dressed in a " futuristic , angular , glitter ball suit " . After descending from her fire escape , she poked around in the hood of a dilapidated green Rolls Royce while performing " Glitter and Grease " . Upon checking under the vehicle 's bonnet , Gaga revealed a keyboard and began to play the opening notes of " Just Dance " . Gaga then performed " Beautiful , Dirty , Rich " while scaling various pieces of scaffolding and subsequently " The Fame " where she rose from beneath the stage and played her keytar Emma , wearing a giant red cape .
" LoveGame " saw the beginning of the Subway section , with Gaga wearing a translucent nun 's habit , and a skeletal hand . The song was performed with the aid of a gilded subway car and a " disco stick " while her next number " Boys Boys Boys " featured muscly male dancers cavorting in spandex shorts . After a costume change , Gaga burst into " Money Honey " with an extended keytar solo after emerging from beneath the stage as the New York scenery disappeared around her . As she walked towards the Glitter way , Gaga recalls when she was in jail and her friend Beyoncé bailed her out , thus performing the song " Telephone " . A piano is then brought in and Gaga goes into the song " Brown Eyes " , after which she performs " Speechless " . This segment also saw the performance of " You and I " in some of the shows ; the song was later added to Gaga 's second studio album , Born This Way . During this song , she tells the audience about her life as a teen in New York , and how she became who she is today . Gaga and her friends then continue down the Glitter Way , and soon they run into an angel , who plays a tune that summons a twister , taking them closer to the Monster Ball , but landing them in a strange place that they did not know . Gaga sings " So Happy I Could Die " , decked in a white dress , that moves on its own accord .
The third segment begins with Gaga returning on the stage and singing " Monster " , inside a forest with black , thorn @-@ like trees . Her dancers conglomerate around her near the end and Gaga reveals herself to be covered with blood . She then states that the thing she hates more than money is the truth and performs " Teeth " , while introducing her band . Gaga and her friends then find the Eternal Fountain , which pours out red colored liquid and Gaga explains that it bleeds for anyone . She starts singing " Alejandro " while jumping into the fountain and singing , as blood pours over her . Gaga then returns and sings " Poker Face " on the cat @-@ walk . After the performance , she and her friends find themselves in a dark place , and after some dialogue , Gaga 's friends run off , leaving her alone to deal with the Fame Monster , a giant angler fish . Gaga starts singing " Paparazzi " and eventually kills the Fame Monster by shooting sparks from her pyrotechnic bra and underwear . She then leaves for the Monster Ball and after appearing there , meanwhile Fan 's assume the show is over , suddenly Gaga appears on stage and performs " Bad Romance " while standing inside a giant gyroscope . In the 2011 dates , she performed Born This Way . In May 5 – 6 at the last two dates , she performed Judas as an encore .
= = Critical response = =
= = = Original show = = =
The original version of the tour was acclaimed by critics . Jane Stevenson from Toronto Sun gave the concert four out of five stars and said that Lady Gaga came across as a " confident , colourful , and campy performer . [ ... ] Gaga 's success was evident with slick @-@ looking videos , lights , elaborate costumes , dancers , and yes , a band , even if her stage was sometimes left dark as she left to make numerous changes . " T 'Cha Dunlevy for The Gazette noted that the performance was lacking — adding that the show never reached its peak until the end , when Gaga performed the " real rendition " of " Poker Face " and " Bad Romance . " " Better late than never " , Dunlevy concluded . Aedan Helmer from Jam ! magazine said that " At first blush , it might seem the real driving force behind Gaga 's meteoric rise to fame is her hand @-@ picked cadre of costume and set designers — dubbed Haus of Gaga — who seemingly know no bounds when it comes to pushing the envelope of haute couture and the theatre of the absurd . [ ... ] But what really sets Gaga apart from the middling masses of lip @-@ synching Britney clones and Idol wannabes is her pure , unadulterated musical talent . [ ... ] The Lady can sing . " Theatre critic Kelly Nestruck , while writing for The Guardian , said " While The Monster Ball has nothing on the great operas or the golden age of musical theatre , Lady Gaga 's ' electro @-@ pop opera ' is at least twice as entertaining and infinitely fresher than any stage musical written over the last decade . " Lauren Carter from Boston Herald praised the show saying " [ Gaga ] only has two albums under her belt but who cares ? Every song feels like a hit , and Gaga @-@ as @-@ star is already taking on Madonna @-@ like proportions . [ ... ] After [ the show ] at the Wang Theater , fans could justifiably walk away thinking Lady Gaga is crazy , brilliant or both . " Jeremy Adams from Rolling Stone reviewed the performance at Wang Center in Boston and said that " Throughout the evening , Gaga [ .. ] aimed for a kind of pop theatricality that might potentially cement her burgeoning status as performance artist . "
Chris Johnson of Daily Mail complimented the costumes worn in the tour . Aidin Vaziri of San Francisco Chronicle said that " During her 90 @-@ minute performance — not so much a live concert as a meticulously choreographed spectacle — Lady Gaga also evoked Kanye West with the futuristic set , Britney Spears in her heavy @-@ lidded stage movements , Courtney Love with her interminable between @-@ song monologues highlighted by four @-@ letter squelches and — who else ? — Madonna for , oh , just about everything else . " Jim Harrington from San Jose Mercury News felt that the show would have been better technically if around thirty minutes were lessened from it . James Montogomery from MTV reviewed the concert at San Diego and said that " [ Gaga ] powered through and turned the San Diego Sports Arena into a raucous , delightfully raw discotheque . " Writing for the Las Vegas Sun , Joe Brown observed that " Lady Gaga out @-@ Cher @-@ ed Cher , made Cirque du Soleil and Britney 's ' Circus Tour ' look like county fair carnivals , and made New Year 's Eve in Las Vegas anticlimactic . " Los Angeles Times writer Ann Powers avouched that the tour was " an invigoratingly ambitious show , executed with vigor by its star and her expressive dancers . " Jon Pareles from The New York Times said that the tour always provided " something worth a snapshot : a sci @-@ fi tableau , perhaps , or a skimpy , glittery costume . The more her image gets around , the better Lady Gaga does . "
= = = Revamped show = = =
The revamped concerts were also met with critical acclaim . Mark Savage from BBC Online reviewed the first of the revised performances in the United Kingdom . Savage described the concert as a hugely ambitious , terrifyingly loud show , " spread over four acts and held together by a flimsy ' narrative ' about Gaga and her dancer friends trying to get to a party . " He was also impressed that the entire spectacle was put together in just four weeks . MTV 's James Montogomery reviewed the first North American performance of the tour in Montreal , Canada . He said that the tour was " packed with more wattage than an overheated power plant and more costume changes than a thousand Vegas reviews , it 's the kind of show that leaves you with wide eyes , ringing ears , aching limbs and absolutely zero chance of making it to work in the morning . " New York Daily News writer Jim Farber expected that the theatricality of the show might have obscured the songs , but instead felt that Gaga 's voice was perfect and the concert actually " pushed Gaga a long way towards her obvious goal – to be the queen of this pop moment . " Glenn Gamboa from Newsday said that Gaga " built her monster @-@ sized fame on knowing how to create a spectacle and then having the substance to back it up . For every coat made of Kermit the Frog dolls or headdresses that covered her face in red lace , there was a stomping disco anthem or tender piano ballad to match . That back and forth is the centerpiece of her Monster Ball Tour . " Dan Aquilante from the New York Post was critical of the show , calling it " scripted , silly , and tired , right down to Gaga 's patter . " He added that the 15 costumes Gaga wore during the two @-@ hour plus gig were " more successful helping her cement the notion of an erotic and exotic otherworld . " Writing in the Telegram & Gazette , Craig S. Semon was appreciative of the show , calling it " an out @-@ of @-@ this @-@ world blast and end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ world blow @-@ out that must be seen to be believed . "
Rick Massimo , reviewing the concert for The Providence Journal , wrote that as a musical theater , the Monster Ball was not that exciting , but " that leaves the music , and when you lay two hours of her songs end @-@ to @-@ end , it 's easy to see the vision , the intelligence and a serious songwriting talent at work . " Jay N. Miller from The Enterprise was impressed with the show , saying that the music was somewhere between industrial disco and house music with a rock edge , but " always danceable " . Philip Borof from Bloomberg Television reviewed the concert in New York 's Madison Square Garden and found it average , calling the crowd decked in various costumes as the " most entertaining " . Toronto Star 's Ben Rayner appreciated the show , exclaiming " hot damn , that was one hell of a show Gaga brought to the Air Canada Centre Sunday night and suddenly it doesn ’ t seem redundant to add one more voice to the Lady Gaga choir . " Mariel Concepción from Billboard felt that Gaga " may be best known for her gaudy outfits and over @-@ the @-@ top stage shows , but at her hometown headlining debut at Madison Square Garden last night , the pop phenomenon proved she 's a regular girl at heart . " The Seattle Times staff writer Marian Liu declared that as " one of the most anticipated touring acts of the year , [ Gaga ] stimulated the crowd 's senses on Saturday night in a way few artists can . She brought spectacle and backed it up with soul . " The Guardian journalist Alexis Petridis reviewed the opening show of the European leg , and commented that " it takes a certain je ne sais quoi to open your show doing something that looks suspiciously like mime on a rickety metal staircase while wearing an outfit with shoulderpads the size of the deck on a small aircraft carrier . "
= = Commercial reception = =
As soon as the dates for the show were announced , there was high demand for tickets . As sponsor of the North American Monster Ball Tour , Virgin Mobile customers had access to presale tickets . Bob Stohrer , VP of Marketing for Virgin Mobile USA said " We are excited to take our partnership with Lady Gaga and The Monster Ball Tour to another level . [ ... ] We 'll also build on our partnership around combating youth homelessness and continue to enhance the tour experience for fans and our customers . " Shows in the first leg of the tour were sold @-@ out completely , prompting Live Nation Inc. to announce that Gaga will return to the U.S. in February 2011 for another run of U.S. dates . The 2011 dates for the North American Monster Ball Tour were announced as starting from February 19 in Atlantic City , with ten arena dates confirmed through April 18 . Additional shows were announced , and Semi Precious Weapons collaborated with Gaga until the tour ended . Live Nation Entertainment 's global touring division , headed by chairman Arthur Fogel , held the reins as promoter / producer of the Monster Ball tour .
Fogel commented on Gaga 's lack of experience in a tour and said that it was an opportunity for her . " As an artist with that kind of talent and vision emerges , it creates a lot of excitement , and ticket sales worldwide demonstrate that people are really excited to see the show . Over the course of the next many months we 're trying to play to as many people in as many places as possible " , Fogel added . " It 's an across the board home run . " Demands increased and another additional six dates were added to the announced itinerary . The Monster Ball sold out shows in Toronto , Vancouver and San Jose who were compelled to add second dates in each city . In Los Angeles , to ensure that concert goers had the best possible access to tickets , a second performance was announced prior to the onsale of the first shows , and both Staples Center concerts were completely sold out . Billboard estimated that by the time the tour wraps up in 2011 , it would have grossed close to US $ 200 million worldwide .
The ticket money from the final performance at Radio City was donated for the Haiti earthquake relief . Gaga announced on the re @-@ scheduled show at Elliott Hall of Music on January 26 , 2010 , that about US $ 500 @,@ 000 was collected for the relief . At the 2010 Billboard Touring Awards , Gaga won the Breakthrough Performer Award , as well as the Concert Marketing & Promotion Award , the latter being an acknowledgement of her partnership with Virgin Mobile . Billboard also placed The Monster Ball Tour at position four on their Year @-@ end Top 25 Tours of 2010 . They reported that the tour had grossed US $ 116 million from 122 shows , with an audience of 1 @.@ 3 million . By the end of the year , Pollstar announced that the tour had earned a total of US $ 133 @.@ 6 million from 138 shows , making her the only woman to be placed in their list of the Top 10 Tours of 2010 .
The top grosser of The Monster Ball Tour were the two concerts at the Bell Centre in Montreal , which collectively earned over US $ 10 million . By amassing an audience of 111 @,@ 060 from two shows , the performances at the Foro Sol in Mexico City attained the largest audience of the tour . Gaga 's show at the United Center in Chicago became the highest @-@ grossing concert of the third American leg ; it earned an estimated US $ 1 @.@ 8 million from 15 @,@ 845 sold seats at an February 28 , 2011 performance . The largest crowd , however , came from the Nashville market with 14 @,@ 925 present at the Bridgestone Arena performance on April 19 . The tour continued its presence in the Atlanta market on April 18 , 2011 , where she performed to 10 @,@ 864 people at the Arena at Gwinnett Center . The third American leg concluded in Uniondale , New York with a sellout crowd of 13 @,@ 195 at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum on April 23 , 2011 . At the conclusion of 2011 , The Monster Ball Tour grossed over US $ 70 million from 45 shows . By May 2011 , the tour had grossed a total of US $ 227 @.@ 4 million from the 200 reported shows , drawing an audience of 2 @.@ 5 million , making it the highest @-@ grossing tour in history by a debut headlining artist .
= = Broadcast and recordings = =
HBO filmed a special of The Monster Ball Tour during Gaga 's February 21 – 22 , 2011 shows at Madison Square Garden . The special , titled Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden , aired on HBO in May 7 , 2011 and Sky1 on May 21 , 2011 in the United States and the United Kingdom respectively . Prime showed the special in New Zealand on June 2 , 2011 . The special showed the whole of the Monster Ball Tour , and some backstage footage , which was shown in black @-@ and @-@ white . It ended with another black @-@ and @-@ white backstage scene where Gaga and her backup singers perform " Born This Way " a capella .
After its broadcast , the special received critical acclaim ; critics praised Gaga 's performance , but doubted her sincerity during her on @-@ stage rambling and in pre @-@ concert scenes . The special was nominated for five honors at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards : Outstanding Variety , Music or Comedy Special ; Outstanding Directing for a Variety , Music or Comedy Special ; Outstanding Technical Direction , Camerawork , Video Control for a Miniseries , Movie or a Special ; Outstanding Picture Editing for a Special ( Single or Multi @-@ Camera ) ; and Outstanding Lighting Design / Lighting Direction for a Variety , Music or Comedy Special .
A video album was released for the special and includes extra footage like a capella performances and photo gallery . The 5 @.@ 1 surround sound of the release utilized DTS @-@ HD Master Audio and new technology to provide the viewer an optimum experience of watching the live concert . Emphasis was given on the main music and the vocals sung during the concert , while adjusting them against the screaming and the cheering of the crowd . The release was a commercial success , reaching the top of the DVD charts in the United States , France and Italy and the top @-@ ten in other nations . It received double platinum certifications in Australia and France , while in the United Kingdom , it was certified gold .
= = Set list = =
This setlist is representative of the show on July 1 , 2010 . It does not represent all concerts for the duration of the tour .
= = Shows = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits and personnel as per The Monster Ball Tour ( original and revised show ) booklets .
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= James Hogun =
James Hogun ( died January 4 , 1781 ) was an Irish @-@ American military officer who was as one of five generals from North Carolina to serve with the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War . Born in Ireland , Hogan migrated to North Carolina – then a British colony – in 1751 . Settling in Halifax County , he raised a family and established himself as a prominent local figure .
A member of the county 's Committee of Safety , he represented it at the North Carolina Provincial Congress and helped to draft the first Constitution of North Carolina . Initially a major in the 7th North Carolina Regiment , Hogun advanced quickly in rank during 1776 to become the unit 's commanding officer . He participated in the battles of Brandywine and Germantown in 1777 . The Continental Congress promoted Hogun to brigadier general in 1779 , although several congressmen and the North Carolina General Assembly wished to see Thomas Clark of North Carolina promoted instead .
Hogun was in command of North Carolina 's line brigade during the Siege of Charleston in the spring of 1780 , which ended in the surrender of all but one of North Carolina 's regiments of regular infantry as well as more than 5 @,@ 000 Patriot soldiers under Major General Benjamin Lincoln . Hogun was the highest @-@ ranking officer from North Carolina to be captured and imprisoned after the surrender of Charleston , and despite being offered the opportunity to leave internment under a parole that was generally extended to other captured Continental officers , he remained in a British prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp near Charleston . Hogun likely chose imprisonment in order to prevent the British Army from recruiting Continental soldiers for its campaign in the West Indies . He became ill and died in the prison on Haddrel 's Point , a peninsula in Charleston 's harbor .
= = Early life = =
Much of Hogun 's early life remains unknown , due to his relative obscurity until the American Revolutionary War . He immigrated to North Carolina from Ireland , his place of birth , in 1751 , and on October 3 that year he married Ruth Norfleet . The couple had a son , Lemuel . Hogun made his home near the modern @-@ day community of Hobgood in Halifax County .
In 1774 , Hogun became a member of the Halifax County Committee of Safety , which indicated his rise to prominence since arriving in the colony 23 years prior . Between August , 1775 , and November , 1776 , Hogun represented Halifax County in the Third , Fourth , and Fifth North Carolina Provincial Congresses , and demonstrated an interest in military matters . As a delegate , Hogun assisted in drafting the first Constitution of North Carolina .
= = American Revolutionary War = =
= = = Initial command = = =
Hogun was named a major in the 7th North Carolina Regiment in April 1776 , and was given command of the unit on November 26 , 1776 . Initially , the regiment had some difficulty organizing after several of the officers delayed their military work in order to take care of their personal affairs . Hogun was forced to reprimand his officers sharply , threatening them with the loss of their commissions . At the same time , currents of doubt ran through North Carolina , as Loyalists attempted to hinder enlistment of Patriots by spreading rumors about the imminent demise of the Patriot army in the north , and disease that was allegedly ravaging that force .
While commanding his regiment , Hogun fought against the British Army in the battles of Brandywine and Germantown , and was present at Valley Forge in the winter of 1777 – 78 . In 1778 , Hogun was given orders to assist in recruiting the so @-@ called " additional regiments " requested by the Continental Congress from North Carolina , and afterwards was ordered to West Point with the first regiment so recruited . After his arrival , and throughout the late autumn and winter of 1778 – 79 , Hogun 's regiment served on a work detail tasked with building up the fortifications at West Point . Hogun was not satisfied with this task , but his men lacked sufficient weapons to allow them to serve as a combat unit at that time . Approximately 400 muskets had to be requisitioned for the regiment to be fully armed .
= = = Promotion and Philadelphia = = =
In early 1779 , Major General Benedict Arnold , then Commandant of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , requested that General George Washington send him an additional regiment of Continental soldiers to guard the Patriot stores in Philadelphia . Hogun was sent to Arnold with his newly recruited regiment , arriving on or before January 19 , 1779 .
On January 9 , 1779 , while en route to Philadelphia , Hogun was promoted to brigadier general by the Continental Congress . His promotion came about in part as a result of what Thomas Burke , a delegate to the Continental Congress from North Carolina , and a fellow Irishman , termed the " distinguished intrepidity " Hogun had exhibited at Germantown . This caused some controversy , as the North Carolina General Assembly , which was customarily consulted for the promotion of generals from that state , had already nominated Thomas Clark and Jethro Sumner for promotion to the rank of brigadier general . Sumner was promoted , but Clark was passed over in favor of Hogun , who received the support of nine of the thirteen states . Hogun 's surprising victory was due in large part Burke 's lobbying efforts among his colleagues in the Continental Congress . By political conventions governing such matters , Burke was bound by the vote of the North Carolina General Assembly to support the state legislature 's recommendations of Clark and Sumner , but he worked to convince other Congressmen to vote for Hogun over Clark . Hogun was appointed to succeed Arnold as Commandant of Philadelphia on March 19 , 1779 , serving until November 22 that year .
= = = Charleston campaign = = =
In November 1779 , Hogun took command of the North Carolina Brigade , composed of the 1st , 2nd , 3rd , and 4th North Carolina Regiments of the North Carolina Line . Through the winter of 1779 – 80 , Hogun led the brigade of about 700 men from Philadelphia to Charleston , South Carolina , where he was placed under the command of Major General Benjamin Lincoln . The march was arduous , and Hogun 's brigade endured one of the coldest , harshest winters in years .
Hogun 's command arrived at Charleston on March 13 , 1780 , which according to Lincoln gave " great spirit to the Town , and confidence to the Army . " The North Carolinians were immediately put to the task of defending the city , which was threatened with a siege by British General Henry Clinton in early March . Shortly after Hogun 's arrival , many of North Carolina 's militia present in the city began to return home because their enlistment terms ended on or about March 24 . The militiamen had only agreed to serve limited terms , and as they were not under Hogun 's direct command he was powerless to stop them leaving .
Charleston was principally located on a peninsula , and so Lincoln aligned his Continental units in defensive works that barricaded the " neck " of the peninsula , using a line of redoubts , redans , and batteries . These defensive works were connected by a parapet , and commanded from a concrete hornwork jutting out from the defensive line . In front of the fortifications , the Patriot forces dug an 18 @-@ foot @-@ wide moat , and between the moat and parapet they constructed a line of abatis to stall any British assault . When the siege by the British Army began in earnest on April 1 , Hogun and his men were positioned on the right of the Continental Army 's lines , near the Cooper River .
Hogun participated in a council of war on April 20 , 1780 . Several members of the South Carolina Privy Council , a part of the civilian government , threatened to block the Continental Army 's attempts to withdraw from Charleston , if the council of war voted to do so . Although the defending army had only eight to ten days worth of provisions , Lincoln bowed to pressure from civil authorities and delayed evacuation . On April 26 , another council of war at which Hogun was present determined that the British presence on all sides of the city prevented the army 's escape . For the next two weeks , the British and Patriot forces exchanged artillery and rifle fire at all times of day , and the British bombardment whittled down the American breastworks .
On May 8 , Lincoln called another council of war with all his army 's general and field officers and ships ' captains to discuss terms of surrender that had been proposed by Clinton . Of the 61 officers in attendance at that council , 49 , including Hogun , voted to offer terms of capitulation with the British commander . When these were rejected , hostilities continued , and Lincoln called another council of war on May 11 to further discuss terms of capitulation . The council voted to present further terms to Clinton , which he accepted . On May 12 , 1780 , Hogun was among the officers under Lincoln who formally surrendered to the British Army , along with approximately 5 @,@ 000 Continental and militia soldiers . The surrender led to the loss of all but one of the regiments of the North Carolina Line then in existence , depriving the state of all regular , non @-@ militia soldiers . As a brigadier general , Hogun held the highest rank of the approximately 814 Continental soldiers from North Carolina who capitulated at Charleston .
= = = Imprisonment and death = = =
Rather than allowing himself to be paroled , Hogun requested he be taken prisoner , and was interned at the British prison camp at Haddrel 's Point on Point Pleasant , located in what is now Mount Pleasant , South Carolina , across from Sullivan 's Island . Hogun 's decision was based , in part , on his desire to stifle the recruiting efforts of the British , who sought to enlist captured Continental soldiers to serve in the British West Indies . The British , however , held only the officers at Haddrel 's Point , deciding to house the enlisted men in barracks in Charleston .
Officers at Haddrel 's Point were subjected to harsh treatment , barred from fishing to catch much @-@ needed food , and threatened with deportation from South Carolina . Approximately 3 @,@ 300 Patriot soldiers were confined in prison camps around Charleston that were similar to the one at Haddrel 's Point , and many were destined for cramped , unsanitary prison ships . Because of the conditions , many Continental soldiers agreed to join Loyalist regiments , but Hogun and other officers set up courts martial in the camps and attempted to maintain a dignified military structure . Hogun 's health soon declined , and he died in the prison camp on January 4 , 1781 . He was buried in an unmarked grave .
= = Legacy = =
On March 14 , 1786 , the North Carolina legislature granted Hogun 's son , Lemuel , a 12 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 900 ha ; 19 sq mi ) tract near modern @-@ day Nashville , Tennessee , in recognition of his father 's service . The elder Hogun was one of twenty @-@ two Patriot generals who perished during the American Revolutionary War , and one of twelve who died from disease or other non @-@ combat causes . In the early 20th century , North Carolina jurist and historian Walter Clark noted that while the careers of three of North Carolina 's other generals — Brigadier Generals Francis Nash and James Moore , and Major General Robert Howe — were well known to contemporary historians , the story of Hogun 's career as well as that of Jethro Sumner had been neglected .
Hogun 's personal papers appear to have been destroyed while in the possession of his descendants in Alabama during the American Civil War , leaving virtually no surviving correspondence that would shed further light on his life . In 1954 , the North Carolina Highway Historical Marker Program , a division of the North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources , erected a historical marker in Hogun 's honor near his former home in Halifax County .
= = = Publications = = =
Barefoot , Daniel ( 1998 ) . Touring North Carolina 's Revolutionary War Sites . Winston @-@ Salem , NC : John F. Blair . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89587 @-@ 217 @-@ 3 .
Borick , Carl P. ( 2003 ) . A Gallant Defense : The Siege of Charleston , 1780 . Columbia , SC : University of South Carolina Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 57003 @-@ 487 @-@ 7 .
Burrows , Edwin G. ( 2008 ) . Forgotten Patriots : The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War . New York : Basic Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 465 @-@ 00835 @-@ 3 .
Clark , Walter ( 1906 ) . " James Hogun " . In Ashe , Samuel A. Biographical History of North Carolina from Colonial Times to the Present . Volume 4 . Greensboro , NC : C.L. Van Noppen. pp. 196 – 202 . OCLC 4243114 .
Davis , Charles L. ; Bellas , Henry H. ( 1896 ) . A Brief History of the North Carolina Troops on the Continental Establishment in the War of the Revolution , With a Register of Officers of the Same , and A Sketch of the North Carolina Society of the Cincinnati , From its Organization in 1783 to its So @-@ called Dissolution after 1790 . Philadelphia , PA : [ s.n. ] OCLC 3170032 .
Rankin , Hugh F. ( 1988 ) . " Hogun , James " . In Powell , William S. Dictionary of North Carolina Biography . Volume 3 ( H @-@ K ) . Chapel Hill , NC : University of North Carolina Press. pp. 163 – 164 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 1806 @-@ 0 .
Rankin , Hugh F. ( 1971 ) . The North Carolina Continentals . Chapel Hill , NC : University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 1154 @-@ 2 .
Siry , Steven E. ( 2012 ) . Liberty 's Fallen Generals : Leadership and Sacrifice in the American War of Independence . Washington , D.C. : Potomac Books , Inc . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59797 @-@ 792 @-@ 0 .
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= Spongiforma =
Spongiforma is a genus of sponge @-@ like fungi in the Boletaceae family . Newly described in 2009 , the genus contains two species : S. thailandica and S. squarepantsii . The type species S. thailandica is known only from Khao Yai National Park in central Thailand , where it grows in soil in old @-@ growth forests dominated by dipterocarp trees . The rubbery fruit bodies , which has a strong odour of coal @-@ tar similar to Tricholoma sulphureum , consists of numerous internal cavities lined with spore @-@ producing tissue . S. squarepantsii , described as new to science in 2011 , is found in Malaysia . It produces sponge @-@ like , rubbery orange fruit bodies with a fruity or musky odour . These fruit bodies will — like a sponge — resume their original shape if water is squeezed out . The origin of the specific name derives from its perceived resemblance to the cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants . Apart from differences in distribution , S. squarepantsii differs from S. thailandica in its colour , odour , and spore structure .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Spongiforma species have a brain @-@ like to sponge @-@ like form , and grow on the surface of the ground . They do not have a stalk , and lack a layer of outer skin . The small cavities ( locules ) of the fruit body are irregular in outline and measure between 2 and 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 and 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter . They are lined with a smooth , greyish @-@ orange to brown or reddish brown hymenium ( spore @-@ bearing tissue ) , with sterile ridges that range in colour from white to cream . The columella ( a column @-@ like structure extending up into the fruit body ) is poorly developed , pear @-@ shaped , cream @-@ coloured , and attached at the base to white rhizomorphs . The basidiospores are brown to vinaceous @-@ brown in mass , almond @-@ shaped , bilaterally symmetrical , and finely wrinkled . Spores bear a central apiculus ( a region that was once attached to the sterigmata at the end of a basidium ) and a small apical pore . The spores are reddish @-@ brown in water , violet grey in 3 % potassium hydroxide , inamyloid , and cyanophilic ( turning red in the stain acetocarmine ) . The basidia are four @-@ spored , and do not discharge the spores forcibly . Cystidia are common on the sterile locule edges ; they are hyaline ( translucent ) and range in shape from cylindrical to ventricose ( swollen in the middle ) or rostrate ( with a beaklike proboscis ) . The hyphae of the flesh are gelatinous and inamyloid . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The type species S. thailandica was first described scientifically in 2009 by Egon Horak , Timothy Flegel and Dennis E. Desjardin , based on specimens collected in July 2002 in Khao Yai National Park , central Thailand , and roughly three years later in the same location . Before this , S. thailandica had been reported and illustrated in a 2001 Thai publication as an unidentified species of Hymenogaster .
S. squarepantsii was first described scientifically in 2011 in the journal Mycologia , authored by a team headed by Desjardin with Kabir Peay , and Thomas Bruns . The description was based on two specimens collected by Bruns in 2010 in Lambir Hills National Park , in Sarawak , Malaysia . The species was first mentioned in the scientific literature in 2010 in a study of the ectomycorrhizal mushrooms in a tropical dipterocarp rainforest in Lambir Hills , although it was not formally described in this publication .
The genus name Spongiforma refers to the sponge @-@ like nature of the fruit body . The specific epithet thailandica denotes the country in which the type species is found ; the epithet squarepantsii honors the well @-@ known cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants . The unusual epithet garnered the species attention in the popular press .
= = Phylogeny and classification = =
Molecular analysis of the DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer ( IT ) region of S. thailandica showed that the species was part of the Boletineae , one of several lineages of Boletales recognized taxonomically at the level of suborder . The similarity between S. thailandica and S. squarepantsii was confirmed with molecular analysis , which showed a 98 % match between large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences of the two — a value typical of many species in the same genus of Boletaceae . Spongiforma is sister ( sharing a common ancestor ) to the genus Porphyrellus ; Spongiforma and Porphyrellus form a clade that is sister to Strobilomyces . All three genera are members of the Boletaceae family .
The phylogenetic relationships determined by molecular techniques are not consistent with a classification scheme based on similarities in spore morphology . Several bolete taxa have been proposed to accommodate species with reddish @-@ brown to vinaceous @-@ brown , finely wrinkled ( rugulose ) to perforated or punctate spores ; these include Boletus subgenus Tylopilus , Tylopilus subgenus Porphyrellus , Austroboletus , or Porphyrellus . Austroboletus tristis and A. longipes , two species from Southeast Asia , share several spore characteristics with Spongiforma thailandica . All three species have spores with rugulose surfaces , sometimes with minute punctures , and the spores turn purple in potassium hydroxide . Additionally , the pores from the three species share similar surface ornamentation visible with scanning electron microscopy . In contrast to Spongiforma , however , Austroboletus spores do not have an apical pore . Genetic analysis shows that Spongiforma is more closely allied with the smooth @-@ spored Porphyrellus than with the rugulose @-@ punctate @-@ spored Austroboletus .
Relatively few boletes have an apical pore at the distal end of their basidiospores . The dark reddish @-@ brown , smooth spores of Porphyrellus amylosporus are truncate with a thin @-@ walled depression . Some species of Heimioporus have spores with apical pores , but molecular analyses demonstrate that Heimioporus is only distantly related to Spongiforma .
Spongiforma further resembles Austroboletus and Porphyrellus species in the cellular structure of the cap cuticle ( pileipellis ) . The arrangement , known as a trichodermium , features the outermost hyphae emerging roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the surface of the fruit body . The trichodermium comprises chains of short , cylindrical to somewhat moniliform cells ( resembling a string of beads ) with terminal ( end ) cells that are cylindrical to club @-@ shaped . This cellular arrangement is similar to that present in the sterile edges of the tissues that demarcate the locules in Spongiforma . According to Desjardins and colleagues , this may represent vestiges of what was once cap cuticle or peridial tissue in an ancestor . Spongiforma is the only genus of the Boletales that forms above @-@ ground fruit bodies that lack a peridium and have many exposed locules lined with basidia that do not forcibly discharge spores .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Both species of Spongiforma are known only from their original collection locations . S. thailandica was found growing on the ground in an old growth forest in Khao Yai National Park ( Nakhon Nayok Province , Thailand ) , at an elevation of about 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) . The fungus is thought to grow in a mycorrhizal association with Shorea henryana and Dipterocarpus gracilis , species considered to be endangered and critically endangered , respectively , by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Spongiforma squarepantsii was collected from the ground where it was growing solitarily under undetermined dipterocarp trees in Lambir Hills National Park ( Sarawak State , Malaysia ) , northern Borneo . This tropical rainforest receives about 3 @,@ 000 mm ( 120 in ) of rain yearly , with average temperatures ranging from 24 to 32 ° C ( 75 to 90 ° F ) . Spongiforma species have lost the ability to eject their spores forcefully , and have distinctive odours , suggesting that the fungus relies on the activity of animals to help disperse spores . Because the island habitat of the genus restricts gene flow and because the two known species are separated by considerable distance geographically , the authors suggest that other unexplored , isolated tracts of dipterocarp forests between Thailand and Malaysia may contain additional species .
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= CSG International =
CSG International ( CSGI ) is a multinational corporation headquartered in Meridian , Colorado , though the postal designation of Englewood is used in the corporate mailing address . It provides Business Support Systems ( BSS ) software and services , primarily to the telecommunications industry .
CSG was founded by Neal Hansen as a division of First Data in 1982 . It became an independent corporation when it was acquired by CSG Holdings in 1994 for $ 137 million . A contract with Tele @-@ Communications Inc . ( TCI ) , the largest cable TV business at the time , was influential in the company 's growth from $ 80 million in revenue in 1994 to $ 171 million by 1997 . CSG went public in 1996 . A dispute with TCI over pricing led to a $ 120 million arbitration settlement in 2002 with Comcast , who acquired the TCI business . The two continued to do business together and expanded their relationship in 2014 . CSG made more than ten acquisitions in the 2000s , mostly of companies that sold billing , customer service and operations software .
= = Corporate history = =
= = = Early history = = =
CSG International was founded in 1982 by Neal Hansen under the name Cable Services Group ( CSG ) as a division of the payment processing company First Data Corporation . At the time First Data was operated by American Express , which acquired a controlling interest in the company in 1980 . CSG became a part of the American Express Information Services Company , which was formed in 1989 . The CSG group 's first large @-@ scale billing statement processing center , which prints and mails bills to consumers , was established in Omaha in 1990 .
Hansen left the Cable Services Group one year after it was founded to become CEO of Applied Communications , where he met George Haddix . Hansen and Haddix formed CSG Holdings with Morgan Stanley and Trident Investment Group in 1994 , which acquired Cable Services Group that year for $ 137 million . In November 1994 , Cable Services Group was renamed to CSG Systems International .
CSG was the second largest billing services provider for the US cable television industry by 1994 , serving 27 percent of cable TV subscribers . However , according to The International Directory of Company Histories , its profit margins were small and the company was " still in need of a turnaround . " Broadcasting & Cable said CSG had lost direction and become complacent . Haddix and Hansen implemented changes at the company , which prompted 350 out of 500 employees to leave the firm within a few months .
The new CSG International grew quickly . The convergence of phone , internet , on @-@ demand movies , and other services created more complex billing arrangements between telecommunications companies and consumers , which led to more extensive use of billing services providers like CSG . Professional services and international clients , which were previously not a significant portion of revenues , grew to 22 percent of revenues by the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = = Post IPO = = =
In order to pay off debt and raise funding for acquisitions , CSG held an initial public offering in February 1996 , which valued the firm at five @-@ fold its original acquisition price . CSG grew from $ 80 million in annual revenues when it was acquired , to $ 132 @.@ 3 million when it went public in 1996 and $ 171 @.@ 7 million by 1997 .
In the 1990s , Tele @-@ Communications Inc . ( TCI ) and Time Warner scrapped efforts to create internal billing software and hired CSG International . The 15 @-@ year agreement CSG signed with TCI on August 11 , 1997 made CSG the largest vendor in the industry and was the primary contributor to its growth in the ' 90s . By 2001 , the deal was responsible for 45 percent of CSG 's revenue . As part of the deal , CSG also acquired TCI 's internally developed software , SummiTrack , for $ 106 million . CSG 's services to TCI included billing , customer management and payment processing for TCI customers . In October 1997 , CSG International signed its first deal with a utilities company , mc2 .
At the end of 1997 , CSG co @-@ founder George Haddix retired , and former EVP Jack Pogge was appointed President and Chief Operating Officer in his place . In 1999 CSG began constructing a new bill processing center in Florida in a deal with local government , which expanded roads and provided other incentives . In 2002 , CSG acquired the billing software interests of Lucent Technologies for $ 260 million . The deal was estimated to increase CSG 's revenues by 38 percent and its headcount by 65 percent . 200 Lucent employees were laid off as a result of the acquisition . An additional 100 - 150 CSG employees were laid off later that year in response to poor economic conditions .
= = = Recent history = = =
AT & T acquired TCI in 2000 , inheriting its agreement with CSG . AT & T alleged CSG was not abiding by the contract 's terms to provide favorable rates . A legal dispute between the two companies began in 2001 in arbitration court . Before the dispute was resolved , AT & T Broadband was acquired by Comcast , who wanted to use its own billing and customer service vendor . In October 2002 , a judge ruled that CSG owed Comcast a $ 120 million refund and that it had to reduce its prices . The two companies disagreed over whether the ruling would allow Comcast to halt their agreement before the end of its term . CSG and Comcast reached new agreements or extensions in March 2004 and in 2008 . In 2014 its work with Comcast was expanded to cover all of its customer support and billing for residential services .
In March 2005 , co @-@ founder Neal Hansen retired at the age of 64 . Ed Nafus , prior president of the broadband services division , took his place . Nafus was replaced by the current CEO , Peter Kalan , at the end of 2007 .
= = Acquisitions = =
= = Products , software and services = =
CSG International provides software and services for managing customer data , analyzing that data , enterprise security , billing and customer service . For example , customer service representatives may use CSG systems to lookup a consumer 's records and add a new service , or business analysts may mine customer data for trends . According to the company 's website , its four primary product areas are revenue management , content management & monetization , customer interaction management and enterprise security . CSG also prints and mails billing statements to consumers and provides call @-@ center services .
= = = Product history = = =
CSG International originally sold two versions of its billing process outsourcing services . Under new leadership in 1994 , it began developing additional software and providing consulting to in @-@ house billing departments . During this period it developed CSG Work @-@ Force Express , a suite of software products that manage the dispatch of technicians and other logistics at customer sites . Work @-@ Force Express consists of three applications : CSG Workforce Management , CSG TechNet and CSG TechNet CE , which integrate with CSG 's databases and billing systems . It also developed CSG Care Express , which is for creating online self @-@ service portals for consumers to view and pay their bills online .
In the 1990s CSG introduced the ACSR ( Advanced Customer Service Representative ) system . An extension to ACSR called ProfitNow ! was introduced in 2003 . ProfitNow ! used a consumer 's account data to advise customer service representatives on the likelihood of a caller cancelling their service or buying a new product . It was later turned into an online system with a user interface similar to Microsoft Windows at CSG.net. CSG purchased the Kenan FX software from Lucent Technologies in 2002 . Kenan software managed billing and ordering and provided middle @-@ ware to help various customer service and billing products integrate with each other . CSG NextGen was introduced for international markets , with support for multiple languages . In March 2014 , CSG added a cybersecurity suite to its product portfolio , under the name CSG Invotas . In November 2015 the Invotas unit was spun off into a separate entity . Invotas was acquired by FireEye in a transaction that closed February 1 , 2016 .
= = Organization = =
CSG International has four subsidiaries : CSG Systems , CSG Systems Software and CSG Services . Its subsidiaries offer products and services , while the parent company , CSG Systems International Inc. is listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange . As of 2013 , its largest clients were Comcast , DISH and Time Warner , representing 19 , 15 and 11 percent of its revenues respectively . CSG spends approximately 15 percent of its revenues on research and development . Its revenues are about 72 percent from payment processing and related services , 16 percent from software and the remainder for ongoing technical support . 89 percent of revenues are from the Americas .
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= Watermill at Opwetten =
The Watermill at Opwetten ( Dutch : Opwettense watermolen ) is a watermill along the river Kleine Dommel , located on the Opwettenseweg 203 in Opwetten , Nuenen , Gerwen en Nederwetten , in the province of North Brabant , Netherlands . First mentioned in the 11th century , the watermill burned down and was rebuilt in 1764 .
There have been several buildings in the watermill complex . One building was a gristmill and sawmill , while another functioned as oil mill and fulling mill . The mill operated two undershot water wheels , including the largest water wheel in the Netherlands . The gristmill is still in functioning order and is used on a small scale , the building of the former oil and fulling mill now houses a restaurant . A tannery was located in a building in the back and up to 1910 an inn was located in the miller 's house . Vincent van Gogh lived nearby and made several paintings while in the area , including a painting of the mill in 1884 . The watermill was listed as a national monument in 1972 .
= = History = =
The gristmill was built in the early 11th century along the river Kleine Dommel , by monks of a Benedictine monastery in Sint @-@ Truiden , Belgium . In the 14th century the mill was owned by the lords and ladies of the heerlijkheid Cuijk and Mierlo , and was a banmolen ( nl ) , meaning peasants in the locality were obligated to use this mill to grind their wheat .
In 1664 the mill partially burned down . It was rebuilt and , in order to recover from the losses , the miller did not have to pay taxes for the next 15 years . In 1764 another fire destroyed the entire mill , according to an ordenance from the States General after the miller requested assistance . The mill was rebuilt with the addition of a second water wheel . The larger building was a gristmill and the smaller building an oil mill . In 1909 a sawmill was added to the larger building , and for a period the smaller building also acted as a fulling mill .
A plaque placed on the miller 's house in 1973 to celebrate the 100th birthday of miller Gerardus van Hoorn commemorates both fires . Van Hoorn had known the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh , who lived in nearby Nuenen from 1883 until 1885 . Van Gogh painted several paintings around the mill , including an 1884 painting of the mill itself , Water Mill at Opwetten ( F48 ) . In a video interview in 1973 , Van Hoorn said that he had seen Van Gogh paint and had supplied him with bird nests for his paintings .
The mill has had several names and during the first centuries it was known as the Saint Anthony Mill ( Dutch : St. Antoniusmolen ) , named after a nearby chapel dedicated to saint Anthony the Great . From 1726 until it came into the possession of Gerardus van Hoorn in 1916 , the mill was known as Jan 's Mill ( Dutch : Jansmolen ) .
= = Description = =
The Watermill at Opwetten is situated along the river Kleine Dommel . Diverted river water flows along a channel with force to drive two wooden undershot water wheels , connected to two buildings on either side of the channel .
The buildings are made of painted wood on a brick foundation , with tiled roofs , and an extruding hatch covering the main entrance of the higher building . The gristmill , originally used to grind spelt , later ground bread wheat , and then a sawmill was added . It has a water wheel of 9 @.@ 30 metres ( 30 ft 6 in ) in diameter , consisting of 44 paddles of 80 centimetres ( 2 ft 7 in ) width , which makes it the largest water wheel in the Netherlands . The gristmill is still in functioning order , and uses a pair of Cullen millstones from Mayen ( " Cullen " for " Cologne " , where such millstones were marketed from ) , and a pair of cast millstones , both 17 hands in diameter or 1 @.@ 50 metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) . Only some remainders are left of the sawmill , including one of only two watermill circular saws in the Netherlands . Inside the larger mill is a room for the assistants of the miller , where the names of millers and their assistants have been carved in the wood .
The oil mill and fulling mill used a water wheel of 7 @.@ 50 metres ( 24 ft 7 in ) in diameter and used 30 paddles with a width of 30 centimetres ( 1 ft 0 in ) . The oil mill was used to crush and press oil @-@ bearing seeds to extract vegetable oils , and the fullingmill kneaded wool for hours or days in order to make it thicker . Both structures are completely gone , and only two edge stones posted outside remind of its former function as oil mill . It currently houses a restaurant .
= = Modern day = =
The mill was listed as a national monument ( nr 30830 ) on 14 June 1972 . The grounds are freely accessible . The gristmill is operated and open to the public on Sunday afternoon , and the restaurant is open every day of the week except on Mondays . The mill is located on the Opwettenseweg 203 in Nuenen , Gerwen en Nederwetten , in the province of North Brabant , Netherlands . The next mill upstream is the Collse Watermolen on the Kleine Dommel . The next mill downstream is the Hooidonkse Watermolen on the Dommel .
In 2011 , a full @-@ size replica of the mill was built at the Binjiang Park in Nanjing , China . Together with replicas of three other Dutch monuments , it is part of the ' Van Gogh Friendship Park ' , in honour of the relationships between the sister cities of Eindhoven and Nanjing , and the sister provinces of North @-@ Brabant and Jiangsu . The mayor of Nanjing , Ji Jianye , visited the Watermill at Opwetten in 2012 , during his visit to Eindhoven .
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= Entoloma murrayi =
Entoloma murrayi , commonly known as the yellow unicorn Entoloma or the unicorn pinkgill , is a species of fungus in the Entolomataceae family . First described from New England ( USA ) in 1859 , the species is found in eastern North America , Central and South America , and southeast Asia , where it grows on the ground in wet coniferous and deciduous forests . The fungus produces yellow mushrooms that have a characteristic sharp umbo on the top of a conical cap . The mushroom is inedible and may be poisonous . Other similar species can be distinguished from E. murrayi by differences in color , morphology , or microscopic characteristics .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was originally described by Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis in 1859 as Agaricus murrayi , based on collections made in New England . Berkeley and Curtis called it " An extremely pretty species " . Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred the species to Entoloma in 1899 . Synonyms include combinations resulting from generic transfers to Rhodophyllus by Rolf Singer in 1942 , Noleana by R. W. G. Dennis in 1970 , and to Inocephalus by Gordon Rutter and Roy Watling in 1997 . Depending on the authority , these latter three genera are considered either subgenera of Entoloma , or independent genera . In a large @-@ scale molecular phylogenetic analysis of Agaricales species published in 2002 , E. murrayi grouped in a clade together with E. canescens and two Entolomas traditionally classified in Inocephalus – E. quadrata and E. lactifluus . The Dictionary of the Fungi ( 10th edition , 2008 ) lumps Inocephalus and Rhodophyllus into Entoloma .
The specific epithet murrayi honors the original collector , Dennis Murray of Massachusetts . Its common names " yellow unicorn Entoloma " or " unicorn pinkgill " refer to the characteristic sharp umbo at the top of its cap .
= = Description = =
The cap of E. murrayi is bell @-@ shaped to conical , and measures 1 @.@ 3 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter . It features a sharp umbo in the center . The cap color is bright yellow to orange @-@ yellow , but tends to fade in maturity . The gills have a narrowly adnate attachment to the stem , and are well @-@ spaced . Initially yellow , they acquire a pinkish tone as the spores mature . The slender hollow stem is 4 – 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) long and roughly equal in width throughout its length . It is pale yellow , with a fibrous surface , and often twisted with longitudinal striations . Its surface is smooth , and there may be a whitish mycelium at the base . The flesh is thin and pale yellow . The taste and odor of the fruit bodies have been described as either " pleasant " , or indistinct . The mushroom is not edible and may be poisonous .
The spore print is salmon @-@ pink . Spores are smooth , angular ( four @-@ sided ) , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 9 – 12 by 8 – 10 μm . The arrangement of the hyphae in the hymenophore tissue is parallel to interwoven and inamyloid . In the cap cuticle , the hyphae are interwoven radially , or alternatively in somewhat erect bundles . Hyphae of Entoloma murrayi rarely have clamp connections . The cap and gill tissue contain " repository hyphae " ( storage units containing byproducts of metabolism ) that release a watery , yellow @-@ colored liquid when injured . These distinctive hyphae can be seen with light microscopy of both fresh and dried specimens .
= = = Similar species = = =
Characteristic diagnostic features of Entoloma murrayi include the bright yellow coloring , the conical cap , cube @-@ shaped spores , and club @-@ shaped cheilocystidia . Entoloma quadratum is similar in size and morphology , but is colored salmon @-@ orange . E. murrayi has the habit and form of some similarly colored mushrooms in the genus Hygrocybe ( such as Hygrocybe marginata var. concolor ) , but it can be readily distinguished from those by its salmon @-@ pink spore print , non @-@ waxy gills , and the angular shape of its spores . Entoloma luteum is a duller yellow color , with a less distinctly pointed umbo . The South American species E. dennisii , originally misidentified as E. murrayi , can be distinguished from the latter by its less conical cap and considerably smaller spores that measure 5 @.@ 5 – 7 μm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
A saprobic species , Entoloma murrayi derives nutrients by breaking down organic matter . Fruit bodies are found in wet coniferous and deciduous forests , where they grow singly or in small groups on the ground in litterfall or humus , or in moss . Fruiting occurs in the summer and autumn .
In North America , the species is found eastern Canada ( Atlantic Maritime Ecozone ) , the eastern United States ( from Maine south to Alabama and west to the Great Lakes ) , and Mexico . The distribution includes Central and South America , and Southeast Asia . It has also been recorded from Jamaica and the Dominican Republic .
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= 1986 Pacific typhoon season =
The 1986 Pacific typhoon season has no official bounds ; it ran year @-@ round in 1986 , but most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between May and December . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean . Tropical Storms formed in the entire west pacific basin were assigned a name by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . Tropical depressions that enter or form in the Philippine area of responsibility are assigned a name by the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA . This can often result in the same storm having two names .
A total of 32 tropical depressions formed in 1986 in the Western Pacific over an eleven @-@ month time span . Of the 32 , 30 became tropical storms , 19 storms reached typhoon intensity , and 3 reached super typhoon strength . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center considered Vera as two tropical cyclones , when all the warning centers treated Vera as one in real time , while another , Georgette , originated in the Eastern Pacific . Six of the tropical cyclones formed in August , which was the busiest month of the season . Eight tropical cyclones moved through the Philippines this season . Most of the deaths attributed to typhons in 1986 were caused by Peggy and Wayne
= = Summary = =
Of the thirty tropical storms formed in 1986 in the Western Pacific ( from 32 tropical depressions ) , 19 reached typhoon intensity , and three reached super typhoon strength . Broken down by month , one tropical cyclone formed in February , one in April , two in May , three in June , three in July , seven in August , three in September , four in October , six in November , and two forming in December . Vera was considered two tropical cyclones by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center after the fact , though it was operationally treated as one system , and Georgette , was a former Eastern Pacific cyclone . Eight tropical cyclones moved through the Philippines this season , while three struck mainland China , one struck Korea , and one crossed the Japanese coast . Peggy and Wayne accounted for a majority of the death toll this season . Tropical cyclones accounted for 35 percent of the annual rainfall in Hong Kong this year .
= = Storms = =
= = = Typhoon Judy ( Akang ) = = =
The initial disturbance formed within two degrees of the equator within the monsoon trough on January 25 . Over succeeding days , the thunderstorm area increased in size . However , it decreased significantly on January 30 . As the convective area moved slowly westward , it increased in coverage once more , organizing into a tropical depression on February 1 . Moving on a parabolic course east of the Philippines , Judy gained tropical storm status on February 2 , and typhoon strength on February 4 after recurving to the northwest of the subtropical ridge . As westerly winds increased aloft , vertical wind shear weakened Judy back into a tropical storm , which lost tropical characteristics on February 6 . After drifting slightly more east @-@ northeastward , the low pressure area dissipated .
= = = Typhoon Ken ( Bising ) = = =
A tropical disturbance formed along the near equatorial trough on April 20 well to the south of Guam . The system slowly increased in organization , becoming a tropical depression on April 26 . The system quickly developed thereafter , becoming a typhoon on April 27 while moving northward . The system reached its peak intensity on April 28 . The subtropical ridge built to its northwest , steering Ken to the west . South @-@ westerly vertical wind shear led to a weakening trend to begin on April 29 . On April 30 , Ken 's low level circulation was exposed , no longer having any thunderstorms near the center . The remnant low drifted westward , dissipating by May 3 .
= = = Super Typhoon Lola = = =
Forming as a twin cyclone with Namu , which formed in the southern hemisphere , the initial disturbance of Lola developed within the monsoon trough south of Guam . Moving eastward , the system slowly developed becoming a tropical depression , then a tropical storm , on May 17 . Lola moved over Pohnpei , becoming their most destructive cyclone since 1958 . In light of the damage caused by the storm , the island was declared a major disaster area on June 3 by the American government . Continuing to intensify , Lola became a typhoon on May 18 and turned northwest . Rapid intensification continued , with Lola becoming a super typhoon on May 19 . Peaking in intensity on May 20 , Lola recurved to the north and northeast , weakening into a tropical storm on May 23 and evolving into an extratropical cyclone later that day .
= = = Tropical Storm Mac ( Klaring ) = = =
This system moved generally to the east @-@ northeast throughout its life cycle . Forming near Hainan Island on May 21 as a monsoon depression , the initial tropical disturbance moved through the South China sea while slowly organizing . Becoming a tropical depression in the Formosa Strait , Mac quickly became a tropical storm and turned northeast , paralleling the coast of Taiwan . On May 27 , Mac turned back towards the east @-@ northeast as upper level westerly winds increased , causing vertical wind shear which led to Mac weakening into a tropical depression before dissipating on May 29 .
= = = Typhoon Nancy ( Deling ) = = =
A broad area of convection formed to the southeast of Pohnpei in mid June . The convection formed a tropical depression on June 21 to the east of the Philippines . Tropical Storm Nancy was named the next and quickly strengthened into a typhoon with max winds of 75 kn ( 139 km / h ) before striking northeastern Taiwan . After departing the island Nancy weakened to tropical storm strength while moving north through the East China Sea . Nancy passed through the Korea Straits just before turning extratropical and accelerating northeastward into the Sea of Japan . Torrential rains fell throughout South Korea , as a result of flooding 12 people were killed and 22 @,@ 477 acres ( 90 @.@ 96 km2 ) of farmland were destroyed .
= = = Tropical Storm Owen ( Emang ) = = =
Forming as a tropical disturbance southwest of Kosrae on June 21 . Moving west @-@ northwest , the system gradually became better organized . On June 28 , the disturbance had organized into a tropical depression . Recurving east of the Philippines and Taiwan , Owen developed into a tropical storm , reaching its maximum intensity on June 29 . Thereafter , east @-@ northeasterly winds aloft led to vertical wind shear which weakened Owen . While moving north @-@ northeast towards southern Japan , the system devolved into a low level circulation devoid of thunderstorms , and dissipated on July 2 .
= = = Super Typhoon Peggy ( Gading ) = = =
Typhoon Peggy , which developed on July 3 east of the Philippines , steadily strengthened to reach a peak of 130 knots ( 240 km / h ) super typhoon on July 7 . As Peggy continued westward , it slowly weakened , and hit northeastern Luzon on July 9 as a 90 kn ( 170 km / h ) typhoon . A slight weakening of the subtropical ridge brought Peggy more northward , where it hit southeastern China as a 55 kn ( 102 km / h ) tropical storm on the July 11 . In Hong Kong , winds gusted to 78 knots ( 144 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn and rainfall totals reached 449 millimetres ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) at Tai Mo Shan . Peggy 's fury resulted in 333 casualties and US $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 1986 dollars ) in damage from torrential flooding .
= = = Typhoon Roger ( Heling ) = = =
An upper level low retrograded westward across the tropical Pacific ocean beginning on July 4 . On July 8 , a tropical disturbance formed southeast of the upper low southwest of Enewetak Atoll . The system moved westward , slowly organizing . Becoming a tropical depression on July 13 , the small system turned northwest , recurving gradually around a subtropical ridge to its east and northeast . The system strengthened into a tropical storm later on July 13 , and a typhoon on July 14 to the south of Japan . After turning to the northeast , the system began to experience northeasterly vertical wind shear and began to weaken . After passing east of Okinawa , the system began to transition into an extratropical cyclone , a process which completed on July 17 near the southern coast of Japan .
= = = July Tropical Storm = = =
Forming on the South China sea on July 19 , the cyclone moved northwest into mainland China on July 22 , maintaining its circulation as it turned westward before dissipating on July 24 . This system was recognized by the Japanese Meteorological Agency as a tropical storm .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Sarah ( Iliang ) = = =
Developing in the Philippine Sea on July 30 , the system developed as it moved westward , becoming a tropical storm on July 31 . On August 1 , its mid @-@ level circulation center crossed into the South China sea while its surface circulation was left behind east of the Philippines . Sarah 's broad circulation center was difficult to locate until it began moving northeast east of Luzon on August 2 , when it intensified to its peak intensity . As Sarah moved east of Honshu , it evolved into an extratropical cyclone . Fourteen died in Japan due to Sarah .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Georgette = = =
From August 3 to August 4 , Tropical Storm Georgette existed in the Eastern Pacific , but degraded into a tropical wave while moving rapidly westward . Five days later in the Western Pacific , Georgette regenerated into a tropical storm , and became a typhoon on August 10 . At this time , a tropical disturbance was developing to its west , and it became Tropical Storm Tip on the 11th . Tip and Georgette underwent fujiwhara interaction , causing smaller Georgette to loop as the larger storm Tip headed to the north . Georgette weakened to a tropical depression on August 15 , and was absorbed by Tip 's large inflow band on August 16 .
= = = August Tropical Storm = = =
This system formed in the South China sea on August 9 , and moved northwest through Hainan Island into mainland China , dissipating on August 12 . In Hong Kong , winds gusted to 70 knots ( 130 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn and Tai Mo Shan while Tai Po received 343 millimetres ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall from the depression . Extensive flooding occurred on Hainan and western Guangdong Province , killing two people . The Hong Kong Royal Observatory considered this system a tropical depression .
= = = Typhoon Tip = = =
Georgette became a typhoon on August 10 to the east of a tropical disturbance , which developed into Tropical Storm Tip on August 11 . Tip and Georgette underwent the Fujiwhara effect , causing smaller Georgette to loop as the larger storm Tip headed to the north . Georgette became absorbed by Tip 's large inflow band on August 16 . Tip strengthened to a typhoon , and reached a peak intensity of 80 kn ( 150 km / h ) winds before vertical wind shear caused the system to weaken . On August 19 , Tip became extratropical , and persisted as a remnant low for six more days .
= = = Typhoon Vera ( Loleng ) = = =
The most intense and extensive monsoon trough since 1974 spawned a tropical depression on August 15 . It drifted to the southeast , relocating several times in its formative stages . On August 16 it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Vera , and operationally the storm was to continue eastward , continuing to relocate in the broad monsoon trough and becoming a storm again on August 17 after weakening . Post @-@ analysis by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center suggested that the first storm turned to the west and dissipated , and that a new , separate storm formed well to the east on August 17 . However , the Japan Meteorological Agency maintained the system as a single storm .
Vera drifted northward until an upper level ridge forced the storm to the east , providing upper level outflow for Vera to strengthen to a typhoon on August 20 . On August 22 , Vera attained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) before the weakening ridge forced the typhoon to the west , retracing its path it took days before . The typhoon slowly weakened , and hit Okinawa on August 25 as a 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) typhoon . Vera turned to the northeast , hit South Korea on August 28 as a minimal typhoon , and became extratropical on August 29 in the Sea of Japan . A total of 23 people were killed from the storm , with moderate to heavy damage in its path as far north as the Soviet Far East . Damage totalled US $ 22 million ( 1986 dollars ) across South Korea .
= = = Typhoon Wayne ( Miding ) = = =
One of the longest lasting Western Pacific system on record began its long life on August 16 in the South China Sea , having formed from the monsoon trough . It drifted to the southwest , then looped back to the northwest , becoming a tropical storm on August 18 . Wayne turned to the northeast and became a typhoon on August 19 . In Hong Kong , winds gusted to 78 knots ( 144 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn . The typhoon passed offshore of southeastern China and hit western Taiwan on August 22 . Wayne turned back to the south and southwest . Vertical shear caused Wayne to weaken to a depression on August 25 . Wayne turned back to the northeast , rotating around Vera . Once Vera accelerated away , Wayne drifted northeastward through the South China Sea , becoming a tropical storm on August 27 .
Wayne turned southward , becoming a typhoon again on August 30 . Wayne passed close to northern Luzon on September 2 before turning back to the west . Two days later while moving quickly westward through the South China Sea , Wayne reached a peak of 85 knots ( 157 km / h ) winds . During its various passages of Hong Kong , a total of 295 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 6 in ) of rainfall accumulated at Sai Kung . The cyclone hit northern Hainan on September 5 , entered the Gulf of Tonkin , and made its final landfall on northern Vietnam later that day as a 60 knots ( 110 km / h ) tropical storm . The next day , Wayne dissipated over Vietnam , after 85 advisories and being the longest lasting Western Pacific system in history . Wayne brought torrential rains through its path to the Philippines , Taiwan , southeastern China , Hainan Island , and Vietnam . Because of this , 490 fatalities ( most in Vietnam ) , tens of thousands left homeless , and US $ 399 million ( 1986 dollars ) in damage can be attributed to Typhoon Wayne .
= = = September Tropical Storm = = =
Originating in the subtropical west @-@ central Pacific , this large cyclone moved westward to a point south of Japan before becoming a tropical storm . Soon afterward , the system recurved across central Japan on September 2 and evolved into an extratropical cyclone as it returned to the northern Pacific ocean on September 3 . This system was recognized by the Japanese Meteorological Agency as a tropical storm , and the Hong Kong Royal Observatory as a tropical depression .
= = = Typhoon Abby ( Norming ) = = =
Typhoon Abby developed from an area of persistent convection to the southwest of Truk in early August . A tropical depression formed on August 13 to the southeast of Guam and was upgraded to a tropical storm a day after passing south of the island . Abby then steadily intensified to a peak of 95 kn ( 176 km / h ) but weakened before striking Taiwan . Typhoon Abby lashed the island with winds of 85 kn ( 157 km / h ) and heavy rains . Flooding on Taiwan killed 13 people , and agricultural damage totalled $ 81 million ( 1986 USD , $ 173 million 2013 USD ) . After departing Taiwan Abby continued north @-@ northeast before dissipating in the East China Sea .
= = = Typhoon Ben = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed near Majuro on September 15 . The system moved west @-@ northwest , becoming a tropical depression on September 18 and a tropical storm on September 19 . Thirteen perished on a fishing vessel passing by Pagan as Ben passed nearby . Ben turned north @-@ northwest for a day and a half , moving around an upper level cyclone in its vicinity , before resuming a west @-@ northwest track on September 20 . Vertical wind shear , caused by strong north @-@ northeast winds aloft , weakened Ben to minimal tropical storm intensity by September 21 . Ben entered a more favourable environment , achieving typhoon intensity on September 23 before rounding the southwest portion of the subtropical ridge . Ben recurved to the northeast on September 26 , moving well to the east of Japan , as vertical wind shear increased due to strengthening winds aloft from the southwest . Ben subsequently weakened back into a tropical storm on September 30 before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone later that day .
= = = Typhoon Carmen = = =
The initial tropical disturbance was first noted to the east @-@ southeast of Majuro on September 27 . The system tracked north of due west , before consolidating slowly into a tropical depression on September 30 and a tropical storm on October 2 . After passing between Rota and Saipan , Carmen turned northwest and intensified into a typhoon on October 4 . Winds at Rota peaked at 53 knots ( 98 km / h ) as it passed by the island . Heavy rains fell at Guam , where amounts totalled between 254 millimetres ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) and 279 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) . Moving through a break in the subtropical ridge , Carmen rapidly strengthened as it turned north , then northeast , on October 6 when maximum sustained winds reached 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) . As vertical wind shear increased due to strengthening southwest winds aloft , the cyclone weakened into a tropical storm on October 8 , evolving into an extratropical cyclone by October 9 .
= = = Tropical Storm Dom ( Oyang ) = = =
Initially noted as a tropical disturbance in the Philippine Sea on October 2 , the system moved slowly west @-@ northwest to the south of the subtropical ridge , becoming a tropical depression on October 4 . Crossing the Philippines , the depression caused heavy rainfall and flooding as it emerged into the South China sea and developed into a tropical storm on October 9 . Development was slow due to strong upper level winds from the northeast displacing thunderstorms west @-@ southwest of its center . Continuing to track north of due west , Dom made landfall in Vietnam and dissipated as it moved along the Laos / Vietnam border on October 12 . A total of 16 perished and damage totalled US $ 4 million ( 1986 dollars ) in Luzon .
= = = Typhoon Ellen ( Pasing ) = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed just west of the International Dateline within the monsoon trough on October 3 . The system moved westward for nearly a week without significant development . Becoming a tropical depression on October 9 and a tropical storm on October 11 , the cyclone turned to the west @-@ northwest , moving through the central Philippines into the South China sea . Turning more northerly , Ellen intensified to a typhoon while paralleling the west coast of Luzon on October 14 . By October 15 , Ellen 's track became increasingly more westerly due to a building surface high pressure area to its north . Weakening began due to westerly winds aloft and land interaction with China , and Ellen dropped back to tropical storm strength on October 17 . The cyclone moved south of Hong Kong and north of Hainan Island into mainland China on October 19 . In Hong Kong , winds gusted to 78 knots ( 144 km / h ) at Tai Mo Shan . As it neared the border between Vietnam and China , Ellen dissipated on October 20 .
= = = Typhoon Forrest = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed near the International Dateline on October 10 before moving on a parabolic track well east of Asia . A small system , it moved west @-@ northwest and organized into a tropical depression on October 15 , then a tropical storm later in the day . Late on October 16 , Forrest intensified into a typhoon . The next day , the typhoon reached its peak intensity of 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) and passed near the island of Agrihan where one building was left standing and communications were eliminated . Forrest then recurved south @-@ southeast of Iwo Jima . As winds aloft increased out of the west , Forrest slowly weakened , becoming a tropical storm once more on October 20 and evolving into an extratropical cyclone by October 21 .
= = = Tropical Storm Georgia ( Ruping ) = = =
First noted as a tropical disturbance east of Ulithi within the monsoon trough on October 14 , the system moved north of due west . Slowly developing , the system evolved into a tropical depression on October 17 and tropical storm on October 18 . The cyclone reached its peak intensity before it crossed the central Philippines on October 19 and emerged into the South China sea . On October 22 , Georgia made landfall across Vietnam and crossed Laos into Thailand . The system subsequently dissipated by October 23 .
= = = Tropical Depression Susang = = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Herbert ( Tering ) = = =
Forming as a tropical disturbance near the International Dateline on October 29 , the system moved westward at low latitude eventually organizing into a tropical depression on November 3 south of Guam . The system moved north of due west across the central Philippines and emerged into the South China sea before strengthening into a tropical storm on November 9 . Herbert moved westward , making landfall in Vietnam on November 11 before dissipating in Laos on November 12 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ida ( Uding ) = = =
Initially a tropical disturbance between Kosrae and Enewetak on November 6 , the system moved south of west until November 9 , when the system began tracking north of west . The system organized into a tropical depression on November 10 , then tropical storm on November 11 , while moving towards the Philippines . Six days after Herbert , Ida crossed the central portion of the archipelago between November 12 and 13 . Interaction with the islands weakened the system back into a tropical depression before emerging into the South China sea . Strengthening back into a tropical storm on November 14 , Ida transcribed an anticyclonic , or clockwise , loop , weakening back into a tropical depression on November 16 while moving to the south due to strong southwest winds aloft . The depression moved south @-@ southwest before dissipating on November 19 . Two died when a cargo ship sank near Dongsha .
= = = Typhoon Joe ( Weling ) = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed on November 12 south of Guam . Moving west @-@ northwest , the system organized into a tropical depression in the Philippine Sea on November 17 , and then a tropical storm on November 20 . Joe recurved just east of the Philippines due to a weakness in the subtropical ridge , strengthening into a typhoon on November 20 . East of Taiwan , Joe weakened back into a tropical storm due to strong southwest winds aloft on November 23 and then a tropical depression on November 24 . Turning southeast , the remaining low level circulation continued weakening , dissipating on November 25 .
= = = November Tropical Depression = = =
A tropical depression formed in the southern South China sea on November 24 , dissipating the following day without making landfall on any neighbouring land mass . This depression was acknowledged by the Hong Kong Royal Observatory in their year end summary .
= = = Super Typhoon Kim ( Yaning ) = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed south of Majuro on November 27 . The small system developed quickly , becoming a tropical depression later that day , a tropical storm on November 28 , and a typhoon on November 29 . Kim turned northwest later the day due to a weakness in the subtropical ridge , before a strengthening high pressure system to its north forced a more westerly track by December 2 , with Kim becoming a super typhoon soon afterward . The cyclone moved just north of Saipan , knocking out all electricity and water . Damage on the island totalled US $ 15 million ( 1986 dollars ) . Retaining super typhoon intensity into December 3 , the system weakened and turned northwest on December 4 due to another weakness in the subtropical ridge . The high pressure system to its north restrengthened , turning Kim back to the west on December 5 . On December 8 , Kim made a cyclonic , or counter clockwise , loop due to a strong surface high building to its north , which was completed on December 11 . During the loop , Kim weakened back into a tropical storm , with tropical depression status regained by December 12 as Kim moved northwest . The system recurved east of Taiwan , dissipating by December 14 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Lex = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed on November 30 in the wake of Kim near the International Dateline . The system moved west @-@ northwest , developing into a tropical depression and tropical storm on December 4 . Lex remained a tropical storm for one day , before weakening back into a tropical disturbance on December 5 due to vertical wind shear caused by Typhoon Kim and an upper trough nearby from the northwest . The depression passed between Guam and Saipan on December 7 . Lex recurved south of Iwo Jima on December 8 before becoming an extratropical cyclone on December 9 .
= = = Typhoon Marge ( Aning ) = = =
A long tracked system , the initial tropical disturbance which led to Marge was noted near the International Dateline on December 10 . Moving north of due west the disturbance was slow to organize , becoming a tropical depression on December 14 southwest of Enewetak . The system strengthened into a tropical storm on December 15 , and a typhoon by December 17 . Early on December 20 , Marge peaked in intensity before turning south of due west due to a strong surface high to its north . On December 21 , Marge moved into the southern Philippines which accelerated its weakening trend . On December 22 , Marge regained tropical storm status and soon after moving into the South China sea , the cyclone weakened into a tropical depression late on December 23 . The depression moved westward for another day before dissipating on December 24 . Marge 's circulation aided the global journey of the Rutan Voyager aircraft , which went on to circle the Earth on one tank of fuel .
= = = Typhoon Norris ( Bidang ) = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed near the International Dateline on December 17 , and initially moved west @-@ northwest . The system slowly organized , becoming a tropical depression December 21 , and then a tropical storm on December 23 as it turned more to the west due to a strengthening ridge of high pressure to its north . The cyclone steadily strengthened over the next four days , initially hampered by strong east winds aloft . As the storm moved south of Guam , wind gusts to 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) were recorded on the island . Norris became a typhoon on December 27 . Over the next day and half , intensification continued . On December 28 , a strong surface high pressure system turned Norris to the southwest , and led to slow weakening . The cyclone regained tropical storm strength on December 30 while turning more to the west . Norris crossed the southern Philippines on December 31 and January 1 , weakening into a tropical depression as it emerged into the South China sea . Strong southeast winds aloft prevented redevelopment of the depression . Norris ' remnant circulation turned northwest and dissipated on January 2 well to the south of Hong Kong .
= = Storm names = =
During the season 26 named tropical cyclones developed in the Western Pacific and were named by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , when it was determined that they had become tropical storms . These names were contributed to a revised list which started on 1979 .
= = = Philippines = = =
The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration uses its own naming scheme for tropical cyclones in their area of responsibility . PAGASA assigns names to tropical depressions that form within their area of responsibility and any tropical cyclone that might move into their area of responsibility . Should the list of names for a given year prove to be insufficient , names are taken from an auxiliary list , the first 6 of which are published each year before the season starts . Names not retired from this list will be used again in the 1990 season . This is the same list used for the 1982 season . PAGASA uses its own naming scheme that starts in the Filipino alphabet , with names of Filipino female names ending with " ng " ( A , B , K , D , etc . ) . Names that were not assigned / going to use are marked in gray .
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= Cyclone Kesiny =
Tropical Cyclone Kesiny was the first recorded tropical cyclone – the equivalent of a minimal hurricane – to make landfall in the month of May 2002 in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . The final named storm of the busy 2001 – 02 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , Kesiny formed on May 2 from a trough near the equator . Its formation was the result of an increase in the Madden – Julian oscillation , which also contributed to a twin storm in the north Indian Ocean that hit Oman , and another set of storms in northeast and southeast Indian Ocean . Kesiny initially moved to the southeast , but later turned to the southwest due to a strengthening ridge . On May 6 , it intensified into a tropical cyclone , but later weakened and was not expected to re @-@ strengthen . However , Kesiny developed an eye and re @-@ intensified into a tropical cyclone on May 9 , reaching peak winds of 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) before striking Madagascar about 60 km ( 37 mi ) southeast of Antsiranana . It weakened while crossing the country , and after turning to the south it struck the country again before dissipating on May 11 .
Across Madagascar , Cyclone Kesiny dropped heavy rainfall , reaching 891 mm ( 35 @.@ 1 in ) in three days at Toamasina , the second largest city in the country . The rains caused mudslides and flooding in the eastern portion of the country , wrecking the rice and maize crops and leaving 5 @,@ 000 people homeless . At least 33 bridges were destroyed , and many roads were damaged . A total of 33 people were killed , and 1 @,@ 200 people were injured . The cyclone struck in the midst of a political crisis , in which the top two candidates of the Malagasy presidential election in 2001 declared themselves the winner ; the incumbent , who lost , declared Toamasina as the capital city , and the political instability disrupted relief efforts .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late April 2002 , an area of convection , or thunderstorms , persisted to the west @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia in the south @-@ central Indian Ocean , associated with a trough near the equator . The system had a broad circulation , and initially moved slowly to the east @-@ southeast . It developed due to an increase in the Madden – Julian oscillation ( MJO ) , which moved eastward across the Indian Ocean . The same system spawned a disturbance in the northern Indian Ocean that later struck Oman as a tropical cyclone . Such simultaneous systems in opposite hemispheres occasionally occur in the spring or autumn ; in May 2002 , the powerful MJO pulse produced two such sets of storms , later producing a set in the eastern Indian Ocean that became a deep depression that struck Myanmar and Tropical Storm Errol to the southwest of Indonesia . On April 30 , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) classified the system as a zone of disturbed weather . It slowly organized , prompting the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to issue a tropical cyclone formation alert late on May 2 , around the time that MFR classified it as Tropical Disturbance 14 . The thunderstorms became more concentrated around an increasingly well @-@ defined center , and with minimal wind shear , the system strengthened into Tropical Depression 14 on May 3 . That day , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 23S .
Developing rainbands and a central dense overcast , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kesiny early on May 4 . Gradual intensification continued , although initially the convection remained dislocated to the west of the center . The circulation later moved beneath the thunderstorms , and a strengthening ridge turned Kesiny toward the west @-@ southwest . Late on May 5 , a ragged eye began forming within the convection , which was indicative of a strengthening storm . That day , MFR upgraded Kesiny to a severe tropical storm . Early on May 6 , the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , with maximum 1 minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Around that time the outflow became pronounced to the north and south , although a decrease in outflow caused Kesiny to weaken . By May 7 , the circulation was exposed from the convection , and little re @-@ intensification was expected . By that time , the storm was located about 650 km ( 400 mi ) east of the northern tip of Madagascar .
Despite predictions for no further intensification , Kesiny redeveloped convection late on May 8 that organized into a central dense overcast . By early on May 9 , another eye had developed , and the storm quickly intensified into a tropical cyclone , according to MFR . This occurred despite little change in atmospheric conditions , although outflow had improved . Later on May 9 , Kesiny struck northeastern Madagascar about 60 km ( 37 mi ) southeast of Antsiranana , with peak winds of 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) . This made it the first known tropical cyclone on record to make landfall in the month in the basin . While crossing northern Madagascar , the eye quickly dissipated , and the winds decreased . Although re @-@ intensification was expected over the Mozambique Channel , Kesiny remained weak while turning toward the south . On May 10 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression , and subsequently it made a second landfall about 75 km ( 47 mi ) northeast of Mahajanga . Kesiny dissipated on May 11 while inland .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
While moving through Madagascar , the cyclone produced strong winds , with gusts up to 181 km / h ( 112 mph ) reported . Kesiny dropped heavy rainfall , particularly to the southeast of the center in the outer rainbands . In Toamasina , the second largest city in the country , 484 mm ( 19 @.@ 1 in ) of precipitation fell in 24 hours , and 891 mm ( 35 @.@ 1 in ) fell in three days . In northern Madagascar , rainfall totals were around 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , although they occurred outside the typical rainy season . The three @-@ day total of 136 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) in Antsiranana was eight times the average May precipitation , and occurred at the start of harvesting for rice and maize . As a result , over 50 % of each of the crops were destroyed by Kesiny , amounting to thousands of hectares of destroyed crop fields . The rains caused 63 landslides in the area around Toamasina , destroying 16 bridges . The rains caused widespread flooding and mudslides , including in Toamasina . Flooding contaminated water wells , and many areas lost power for at least five days . In Nosy Be , an island offshore northwestern Madagascar , Kesiny capsized a few boats , and killed two people after a house collapsed . About 165 @,@ 000 residents in Toamasina lost both power and water . In Fenoarivo Atsinanana , seven people died , and the cyclone damaged or destroyed 17 bridges . Throughout the country , Kesiny killed at least 33 people , many of whom due to drownings , and 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Overall , about 500 @,@ 000 people were directly affected , and 1 @,@ 200 people were injured .
Cyclone Kesiny struck Madagascar during a period of political strife after the Malagasy presidential election in 2001 . In the election , incumbent president Didier Ratsiraka lost to Marc Ravalomanana , but rejected the results ; after the election , Ratsiraka declared the city of Toamasina as the new capital of the country . The political crisis caused difficulties after the storm in distributing food , and Ratsiraka 's operational center in the city was damaged . During the storm , Toamasina experienced severe flooding , forcing hundreds of residents to evacuate their homes . Emergency volunteers provided water and food to the affected residents . Workers from the World Health Organization and Médecins Sans Frontières ( Doctors Without Borders ) provided medical assistance to residents in Toamasina during the storm . Damaged roads contributed to economic contraction , after trucks were unable to use roads and bridges in the eastern portion of the country . By October , the political crisis had ended , and the government repaired most of the damaged infrastructure . The cost of repairing the roads and bridges was about $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 2002 USD ) , which was paid by a $ 50 million credit from the World Bank Group . Due to poor harvest related to the storm in some areas , the World Food Programme provided 18 @,@ 000 tonnes of food to 394 @,@ 250 residents , beginning in November 2002 at the request of the Malagasy government . After the storm , the government of Norway donated kr1.2 million ( 2002 Norwegian krone , 172 @,@ 000 USD ) for storm relief , and the government of Switzerland provided about $ 33 @,@ 000 ( USD ) .
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= William Stacy =
William Stacy ( February 15 , 1734 – August 1802 ) was an officer of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , and a pioneer to the Ohio Country . Published histories describe Colonel William Stacy 's involvement in a variety of events during the war , such as rallying the militia on a village common in Massachusetts , participating in the Siege of Boston , being captured by Loyalists and American Indians at the Cherry Valley massacre , narrowly escaping a death by burning at the stake , General George Washington 's efforts to obtain Stacy 's release from captivity , and Washington 's gift of a gold snuff box to Stacy at the end of the war .
During Col. William Stacy 's post @-@ war life , he was a pioneer , helping to establish Marietta , Ohio as the first permanent American settlement of the new United States in the Northwest Territory . He was active in the Marietta pioneer community , and served as foreman of the first Grand Jury in the Northwest Territory , an event establishing the rule of law in the territory . At the age of 56 , he ice skated thirty miles up a frozen river , warning two of his sons of a possible Indian attack , which occurred several days later as the Big Bottom massacre and marked the beginning of the Northwest Indian War .
William Stacy 's surname has also been spelled as Stacey , Stacia , and Stacie ; the correct spelling is Stacy . He is often referred to as Colonel Stacy , an abbreviation of his last rank of lieutenant colonel .
= = Early life = =
William Stacy was born in Gloucester , Massachusetts in 1734 and died in Marietta , Ohio in 1802 . Slightly different years of birth and death have been reported . Stacy grew up in Gloucester on the coast of Massachusetts and worked as a shoemaker , a trade learned from his father ; he may also have worked in the seafaring business . William Stacy married Sarah Day in 1754 . Subsequently , during 1757 , they moved away from the coast to New Salem in western Massachusetts , and raised a large family . Stacy took up farming and continued his work as a shoemaker . He also became a commercial banker , loaning money at interest before there were any banks in the area . His customers were from New Salem and other towns in the Province of Massachusetts Bay . By the time of his early middle age , William Stacy was living a comfortable life ; he was successful and widely known . During 1775 , at the age of 41 , William Stacy 's life changed with the onset of friction between the Thirteen Colonies and the British Empire .
= = Opening days of the Revolutionary War = =
William Stacy was an active revolutionary from the beginning of the American Revolutionary War . By one account , he entered service on April 19 , 1775 , the day of the Battles of Lexington and Concord , and the opening day of the war . Another account has William Stacy rallying the militia at his home village of New Salem , in the western portion of the colony , on April 20 , 1775 upon receiving the news of Lexington and Concord . A memorial plaque was dedicated to Colonel Stacy in 1956 on the village common of New Salem . The story reflected on the plaque has been handed down for generations beginning with an early history in 1841 , and was included in the publication of the New Salem Sesquicentennial Committee in 1904 . The inscription on the plaque reads :
The New Salem Bicentennial Commission and town historian later speculated that this event might have occurred earlier , at the time of the Powder Alarm during 1774 . The Powder Alarm was a precursor to the events at Lexington and Concord .
= = Battle of Bunker Hill = =
As the war began , William Stacy served as major in Colonel Benjamin Woodbridge 's regiment of Minutemen , which was organized into Woodbridge 's ( 25th ) Regiment . During the Siege of Boston , Woodbridge 's regiment was based at Cambridge , Massachusetts , near Boston , and participated in the Battle of Bunker Hill , the first large @-@ scale battle of the war . An orderly book shows that on June 13 , 1775 , several days before the battle , Major Stacy was officer of the night guard , while Colonel William Prescott , who would be the primary leader of patriot forces during the battle , was officer of the day . Stacy was recommended for commission on June 16 , the day before the battle . On June 17 , 1775 , Woodbridge 's regiment of 300 soldiers arrived at Bunker Hill and took up positions immediately prior to the battle , and parts of the regiment engaged . A portion of Woodbridge 's regiment joined Colonel Prescott 's regiment at the redoubt and breastwork on the hill , and a company from Woodbridge 's regiment deployed on the right flank .
The defenders on the right flank fought valiantly from behind what cover they could find . The men at the redoubt and breastwork fought until they had no more bullets , finally fighting with the butts of their guns , rocks , and their bare hands . Woodbridge 's regiment " was not commissioned , and there are few details of it , or of its officers , in the accounts of the battle . " Stacy 's disposition is unknown . He later signed an affidavit regarding the guns of a fellow patriot who was killed in action at Bunker Hill . Sergeant Benjamin Haskell ( Haskall ) , also of New Salem and also a co @-@ signer of that same affidavit , was reportedly in the center of the action near General Joseph Warren when Warren was killed during the battle . The New Salem Sesquicentennial Committee paid homage to Stacy , Haskell , and others of that village , proclaiming :
And in those days of darkness and disaster , which , as they come to all nations , will surely again come to us , he will tell us of another Jeremiah Meacham , of more Jeremiah Ballards , of another Benjamin Haskell , of another William Stacy ...
= = Cherry Valley massacre , and prisoner of war = =
Stacy served as lieutenant colonel in Colonel Ichabod Alden 's 7th Massachusetts Regiment during 1777 and 1778 . The regiment was sent to Cherry Valley , New York to protect the local population from Loyalists and American Indians . The Loyalists were organized as Butler 's Rangers , a Loyalist militia in the British Army , led by Colonel John Butler and his son , Captain Walter Butler . The Loyalists operated together with American Indians , including some who were under the leadership of Joseph Brant , a Mohawk leader also known as Thayendanegea .
While serving with Colonel Alden at Cherry Valley during October 1778 , William Stacy was transferred to the 4th Massachusetts Regiment , though remaining with Colonel Alden . During that time period , Lieutenant William McKendry , a quartermaster in Colonel Alden 's regiment , kept a journal with firsthand accounts of the actions at Cherry Valley . One of his lighter notes concerning Colonel Stacy was a journal entry for October 6 , 1778 : " Col. Stacy and Capt. Ballard had a horse race . Col. Stacy won the bet . " However , one month later , Cherry Valley suffered war .
In November 11 , 1778 a mixed force of Loyalists , British soldiers , Mohawk and Seneca under the command of Walter Butler descended on Cherry Valley . Colonel Alden had been warned of their approach , but had dismissed the warnings . He and his command staff , including Stacy , were stationed in a house some 400 yards ( 370 m ) from the fort . McKendry described the attack in his journal : " Immediately came on 442 Indians from the Five Nations , 200 Tories under the command of one Col. Butler and Capt. Brant ; attacked headquarters ; killed Col. Alden ; took Col. Stacy prisoner ; attacked Fort Alden ; after three hours retreated without success of taking the fort . " McKendry identified the fatalities of the massacre as Colonel Alden , thirteen other soldiers , and thirty civilian inhabitants .
It became known as the Cherry Valley massacre and was noted as one of the most horrific frontier massacres of the Revolution . Three months later , in his journal entry for February 12 , 1779 , McKendry describes receiving a report from an Indian of William Stacy in captivity ; Stacy was apparently concerned to reassure his fellow soldiers : " the last he knew of Col. Stacy he was well and in good spirits , and told him not to mind it for it was only the fortune of war . "
Several accounts indicate that during the Cherry Valley massacre or thereafter , Colonel Stacy was stripped naked and tied to a stake , and was about to be tortured and killed , as was the ritual for enemy warriors , but was spared by Joseph Brant . William Stacy was a Freemason ; Joseph Brant was an educated American Indian , and had also become a Freemason . It is reported that Stacy made an appeal as one Freemason to another , thus saving his life . Colonel Stacy was subsequently taken to Fort Niagara , the Loyalist base in New York and held prisoner under Colonel Butler during the summer of 1779 . At Fort Niagara , Molly Brant , the sister of Joseph Brant , was hostile toward Stacy , and wanted Colonel Butler to return custody of Stacy to the Indians . She proclaimed dreams of her and the Indians using Stacy 's head in an Indian football game . Colonel Butler placated Molly Brant with rum and protected his prisoner . Subsequently , from late @-@ 1779 through mid @-@ 1782 , Colonel Stacy was held prisoner at Fort Chambly near Montreal .
As a ranking prisoner @-@ of @-@ war , Colonel Stacy was the subject of high @-@ level correspondence and actions of General George Washington and other leaders of the Continental Army . During April 1780 , General Lafayette , who fought with the Americans during the Revolution , hand @-@ carried a letter from General William Heath to General Washington , describing a reported Loyalist and British strategy concerning Stacy . The strategy was to continue holding Colonel Stacy as a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war , and to use Stacy in a prisoner exchange , should Colonel Butler or another ranking Loyalist officer , Sir John Johnson , be captured by the Continental Army . During September 1780 , General Washington attempted to arrange a prisoner exchange for Colonel Stacy , but was unsuccessful . On November 1 , 1781 , the General Assembly of Massachusetts passed a Resolve urging Governor John Hancock to encourage General Heath to pursue a prisoner exchange for Stacy .
Colonel Stacy was not released from captivity until the end of the war , during August 1782 . General Washington reportedly gave Stacy a gold snuff box as a personal memento after the war . William Stacy 's nephew , Nathaniel Stacy , writes that his first memory of childhood was the return of Col. William Stacy to New Salem after the war .
= = Marietta and the Ohio Country = =
During early 1788 , at about 54 years of age , William Stacy joined with other Revolutionary War officers as a pioneer to the Ohio Country , and was involved in establishing Marietta , Ohio at the confluence of the Ohio and Muskingum rivers as the first permanent American settlement in the Northwest Territory . Colonel Stacy joined this venture as a shareholder in the Ohio Company of Associates , which was formed and led by Gen. Rufus Putnam and Gen. Benjamin Tupper . General Lafayette visited Marietta years later and described these pioneers and former officers : " They were the bravest of brave . Better men never lived . " George Washington commented " I know many of the settlers personally , and there never were men better calculated to promote the welfare of such a community . " Marietta is located in the county of Ohio bearing Washington 's name .
During the settlement of the Ohio Country , two of Colonel Stacy 's sons were with a small group of pioneers attempting to establish a settlement on some good potential farmland known as Big Bottom , upriver from Marietta on the Muskingum River . Colonel Stacy ice skated 30 miles ( 48 km ) up the frozen river in late December 1790 and warned his sons about the danger of a possible Indian attack . His concerns were realized several days later on January 2 , 1791 with the occurrence of the Big Bottom massacre , and the beginning of the Northwest Indian War . Twelve people were killed in the attack , including Stacy 's son John . His son Philemon was taken captive and died later .
William Stacy was a prominent and active member of the pioneer settlement of Marietta . He superintended the construction of a stockade known as Picketed Point to protect the settlers from Indians , he was an officer in the militia , and he was an officer on the first board of police . Additionally , he served as an officer of the township of Marietta , and he owned one of two hand mills in the settlement . William Stacy was a member of the Society of the Cincinnati and an original member of the American Union Lodge No. 1 ( Freemasons ) at Marietta ; the name of this lodge was reportedly suggested by Benjamin Franklin , and the seal engraved by Paul Revere . Stacy was honored with the position of foreman of the first Grand Jury in the Northwest Territory . This was an important event , as this court was the first establishment of civil and criminal law in the pioneer country .
William Stacy lost his wife Sarah to smallpox during March 1790 after 36 years of marriage . He subsequently married Hannah Sheffield during July of that year . " A man highly esteemed for his many excellent qualities , and honored for his services and sufferings in the cause of freedom , " William Stacy died in Marietta in 1802 at 68 years of age . He was buried in Marietta at Mound Cemetery , the site of an ancient American Indian burial mound . Colonel Stacy has good company in his final resting place ; Mound Cemetery reportedly contains the largest number of Revolutionary War officers buried in one location . A new memorial marker was dedicated to William Stacy in 1928 in Mound Cemetery .
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= Donkey Kong Country Returns =
Donkey Kong Country Returns is a 2010 side @-@ scrolling platformer video game developed by Retro Studios and published by Nintendo for the Wii console . The game was released in North America on November 21 , 2010 , in Australia on December 2 , 2010 , in Europe on December 3 , 2010 , and in Japan on December 9 , 2010 . A stereoscopic port of the game , titled Donkey Kong Country Returns 3D , was released for the Nintendo 3DS in Europe and North America on May 24 , 2013 , in Australia on May 25 , 2013 , and in Japan on June 13 , 2013 .
The game 's story focuses on a group of evil creatures called Tikis known as the Tiki Tak Tribe that arrive on Donkey Kong Island , and hypnotize the island 's animals to steal Donkey Kong 's bananas . This forces him to retrieve the hoard with the help of his nephew Diddy Kong . Donkey Kong Country Returns is the series ' first traditional home console installment since Donkey Kong Jungle Beat ( 2005 ) , and also the first Donkey Kong Country entry not to involve video game developer Rare during its development . The game received generally positive reviews , receiving an average score of 87 % on GameRankings and Metacritic , and selling 4 @.@ 96 million copies worldwide by the end of March 2011 .
A sequel , Donkey Kong Country : Tropical Freeze , was released for the Wii U in February 2014 . It received positive reviews from critics with Metacritic giving it an 83 / 100 .
= = Gameplay = =
Players take control of the series 's protagonist Donkey Kong , as well as his friend Diddy Kong in certain situations , with many traditional elements of the Donkey Kong Country series returning , including mine cart levels , the ability to swing between vines and collect bananas , and the golden " KONG " puzzle pieces . New gameplay elements include levels in which the characters and foreground environments appear as silhouettes , spawning several new gameplay mechanics . In single @-@ player mode , players can only play as Donkey Kong , although Diddy Kong rides on Donkey Kong 's back , and Donkey Kong can use Diddy 's jetpack to jump further . Multiplayer mode enables a second player to control Diddy Kong . If a player 's character dies in two @-@ player mode , it can be brought back by using the other character to hit a " DK Barrel " that floats into view , a mechanic similar to the one used in New Super Mario Bros. Wii . To avoid problems arising from differences in the players ' skills , Diddy can hop on Donkey 's back to take on a more passive role , while his jetpack can be used to make his partner 's jumps easier . Both Donkey and Diddy can pound the ground to defeat enemies and unveil secret items .
The game has two control schemes , with the standard system using the Wii Remote in conjunction with the Nunchuk , while a more classical approach requires that the Wii Remote be held sideways . Both methods use motion controls for the " Ground Pound " move . In addition to common series elements like secrets and unlockables , there is also an optional time attack mode . Two animal buddies , Rambi and Squawks , appear and assist Donkey Kong at certain points in the game . The game also utilises the " Super Guide " feature that previously appeared in New Super Mario Bros. Wii and Super Mario Galaxy 2 . If the player loses eight lives in a single level , he or she is given the option to allow a white @-@ colored Donkey Kong named Super Kong to take over and complete the level for them . However , Super Kong will not look for collectible items , nor will he show the player where they are . He also keeps anything he happens to collect , so the player is not rewarded for these items .
After beating Tiki Tong , an additional stage called " The Golden Temple " is unlocked . In order to play the stage , the player has to find objects called " Rare orbs " hidden in each world 's temple . Upon competing the Golden Temple , a new mode is unlocked known as the Mirror Mode . In this mode , the stages are flipped , Donkey Kong only has one unit of health , he cannot use items bought from Cranky Kong , and he cannot get any help from Diddy Kong .
= = Plot = =
The game 's story revolves around creatures known as Tikis , which are new to the series . The different types of Tikis fill the role of the antagonists in the story , replacing the Kremlings from Donkey Kong Country . Cranky Kong , who owns shops throughout the island , is the only Kong family member that appears in addition to Donkey and Diddy . The story begins when a group of evil Tikis known as the Tiki Tak Tribe arrive on Donkey Kong Island after being awoken by a volcanic explosion , and play music to hypnotize the animals on the island to steal Donkey Kong 's bananas . Since Donkey Kong is resistant to the Tiki 's music , he works with Diddy Kong to retrieve his hoard of bananas from the Tikis . Throughout the game , the pair travels through eight worlds to recover their stolen bananas : the Jungle , the Beach , the Ruins , the Cave , the Forest , the Cliff , the Factory , and the Volcano . In each world , they must defeat a Tiki Tak Tribe leader : Kalimba , the Maraca Triplets , Gong , Banjo , Panflute , Xylophone , Accordion ( who hypnotize other animals in the jungle to fight them ) , and Tiki Tong — the Tiki Tak Tribe 's king . After Tiki Tong is defeated , the Kongs are launched into space where they punch down on the Moon which crushes Tiki Tong 's base and sends bananas flying everywhere .
= = Development = =
Development on Donkey Kong Country Returns started in April 2008 , soon after key personnel of Retro Studios had left the company . At that time , Shigeru Miyamoto wanted to create a new Donkey Kong game and , at his request , producer Kensuke Tanabe recommended Michael Kelbaugh , the CEO of Retro Studios , who had previously worked on the Donkey Kong Country series while he was employed at Nintendo of America . Satoru Iwata frequently referred to this turn of events as " fate " in his meetings with Retro Studios , which is why Kelbaugh suggested the homophonous project codename F8 for the game .
Similar to New Super Mario Bros. , the game was developed with the intention to invoke nostalgic feelings in players with its art style and sound , while trying to provide them with new gameplay experiences . Retro tried to make the game " accessible to all players " , but with a " kind of difficulty that made players want to try it again " . The game employs fully polygonal 3D graphics with levels containing three times the amount of textures and polygons that Retro 's Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption offered in a single room . Though Miyamoto initially opposed the idea , simultaneous two @-@ player gameplay was eventually implemented , contrary to the tag @-@ team system of the original series . Tanabe said a partial inspiration for the feature was to make Returns " stand out " compared to the New Play Control ! re @-@ release of Donkey Kong Jungle Beat . Over the course of six months , two @-@ thirds of the game 's tools and engine had to be rewritten by the programmers , the animation and collision systems being subject to the most changes , and while experiments were conducted with underwater levels , they were ultimately omitted as they felt too slow and unfitting to the overall gameplay . Two levels in the game , " Tidal Terror " and " Mangoruby Run " , proved to be the most difficult levels to design and program , each requiring several months of development time . In Returns , Retro tried to use the same camera engine used for the Morph Ball in Metroid Prime , but found it unable to handle the quick and complex movements of the characters , particularly after the implementation of two @-@ player gameplay .
Development accelerated in early 2010 , and the project was " beginning to cohere as a game " around the time of E3 . Donkey Kong Country Returns was officially announced at Nintendo 's press conference held on June 15 , with four playable levels available on the show floor . Although the game was set for release later that year , the team still had 70 levels to create or refine . Around the end of development , Tanabe had lower back pain and needed to take a week off . During that time , assistant producer Risa Tabata took over his duties , and Tanabe decided to keep her in charge for the rest of production . The music , which was inspired by David Wise and Eveline Fischer 's score for the Super NES games in the series , was co @-@ written by Kenji Yamamoto , who had worked on the Prime trilogy . Yamamoto wrote songs to fit the mood of certain levels , and some songs were rewritten if their matching levels were heavily redesigned . Takashi Nagasako voiced both Donkey Kong and Cranky Kong , while Katsumi Suzuki voiced Diddy Kong .
In the January 2015 Nintendo Direct , it was announced that the Wii version of Donkey Kong Country Returns and other Wii games would be released for download on Wii U via Nintendo eShop . Donkey Kong Country Returns was made available on the Nintendo eShop on January 21 , 2015 in Japan , January 22 , 2015 in Europe , and January 23 , 2015 in Australia and New Zealand . On March 31 , 2016 , the digital re @-@ release of Donkey Kong Country Returns was made available for North American Wii U users exclusively as a My Nintendo reward .
= = = Donkey Kong Country Returns 3D = = =
On February 14 , 2013 , Nintendo announced in its Nintendo Direct conference that a port for the Nintendo 3DS , titled Donkey Kong Country Returns 3D , was in development and was released on May 24 , 2013 . The port was developed from the ground up and features stereoscopic 3D graphics . Development efforts of the Nintendo 3DS re @-@ release is courtesy of Monster Games . The 3DS version includes two modes , " Original Mode " which plays the same as the original Wii version , and " New Mode " which introduces a handful of new items to make the game easier , including extra health . The 3DS version also contains an extra world with new levels not present in the original Wii version .
= = Reception = =
Donkey Kong Country Returns received critical acclaim . It has an aggregated score of 87 % on both GameRankings and Metacritic . For its awards for games released in 2010 , IGN gave Returns awards for " Best Retro Design " and " Most Challenging " , then selected the game as the 5th best on the console . Game Informer named it Game of the Month for December 2010 , with reviewer Dan Ryckert hailing it as " one of the best platformers [ they 'd ] ever played " . The publication later picked it as the " Best Platformer " and " Best Wii Exclusive " of 2010 .
IGN 's Craig Harris awarded the game an Editor 's Choice award , stating , " This is an incredibly challenging , old @-@ school throwback that might not set the genre afire with innovation , but in my book , it 's better than the awesome game that inspired it . [ ... ] Rare should be proud that its design is in the right hands . Or just insanely jealous . Either works . " Video game talk show Good Game 's two presenters gave the game a 9 and 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , praising how true the music kept to the style of the original tracks , and that it managed to keep from becoming too complex while still avoiding being over @-@ simplified , saying " If you 're a fan of the old Donkeys , or you just want a great platforming experience , this is worth at least as much as Kong 's golden banana hoard . " X @-@ Play praised the similarity of Returns to previous games in the series , the game 's replay value , and its graphics , but the review criticized the motion controls " that force you to react quickly at bad times , a button press would suffice " and the co @-@ op game play , saying , " If your partner has a penchant for dying , look forward to some short games as he or she will most likely drain the number of lives you both share . " GamesRadar complimented the title for its standout levels and fan service , while criticizing it for levels that are " frustrating , unclear and often misleading way that is unlike any prior Donkey Kong adventure " , and motion controls that make them " question the controls in a platformer " . GameTrailers praised the game 's gameplay and the diversity of the levels , while Giant Bomb claimed , " Retro recaptures most of Donkey Kong 's venerated platforming roots in this fine Wii sequel . "
= = Sales = =
The game debuted third on the Japanese video game charts , with 163 @,@ 310 units sold , and it has sold 638 @,@ 305 copies in Japan as of January 2 , 2011 . In North America , the game debuted at sixth place on the charts , with 430 @,@ 470 units sold . By the end of March 2011 , the game had sold 4 @.@ 96 million copies worldwide . On September 12 , 2013 Nintendo announced that the 3DS version has sold 268 @,@ 000 units in the United States . As of December 31 , 2013 , it has worldwide sales of 1 @.@ 43 million .
Both versions of this game , along with its sequel , were added to the Nintendo Selects label on March 11 , 2016 in North America .
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= 2009 Giro d 'Italia , Stage 12 to Stage 21 =
Stage 12 of the 2009 Giro d 'Italia took place on 21 May ; the race concluded with Stage 21 on 31 May . The second half of the Giro began with a long and challenging individual time trial in Cinque Terre . It was in this time trial that Denis Menchov took the overall lead in the race . This was followed by a flat stage , after which most of the sprinters in the Giro withdrew from the race , as they did not figure to be in contention in the hilly and mountainous stages to follow .
The sixteenth stage was considered to be one of two queen stages , most difficult stages , of this Giro , as it contained many high mountain climbs and the Giro 's most difficult summit stage finish . After the second rest day came an unusual stage , one that was very short in terms of sheer distance but on par with previous mountain stages in terms of difficulty . These stages were won by Carlos Sastre and Franco Pellizotti , respectively , who fought for the third step on the Giro 's podium behind Menchov and previous race leader Danilo Di Luca . Though Sastre went on to win another stage , to Mount Vesuvius , it was Pellizotti who finished the Giro third overall .
The Giro concluded , as it had in 2008 , with another individual time trial , this time in the city of Rome . Despite a dramatic and much @-@ replayed crash in the stage 's final kilometer , Menchov preserved his overall lead through this stage and thus , the conclusion of the Giro , winning his third career Grand Tour .
= = Stage 12 = =
21 May 2009 — Sestri Levante to Riomaggiore , 60 @.@ 6 km ( 37 @.@ 7 mi ) ( individual time trial )
The first individual time trial ( ITT ) of the 2009 Giro was a difficult one , long with quite a lot of climbing . There were two categorized climbs on the course , a quick , intense descent between them and no flat stretches at all . Lance Armstrong , who rode the Giro for the first time in 2009 , described the ITT as " wicked hard " . Reigning Olympic time trial champion Fabian Cancellara called it " crazy " and laughed when asked if he would be a contender for victory . Cancellara was in fact the only rider who was still in the race to this point who did not attempt the time trial , instead abandoning the Giro .
Many riders used normal road race bikes for this stage , as the course is highly atypical for a time trial , with roads that were not flat and straight . Most of those riders altered their road race bikes with the aerodynamic handlebars of a time trial bike , but some , including race leader Danilo Di Luca , did not . The climbs in the stage increased the overall chances for strong climbers who are relatively weak time trialists , such as Damiano Cunego and Gilberto Simoni .
Acqua & Sapone rider Dario Andriotto set the early time to beat . After a while , Yuriy Krivtsov bested his time . Several different riders in succession then posted successively ( but , in the first few cases , marginally ) better times than the best time that had come before them . Alessandro Bertolini , David Millar , Marco Pinotti , Giovanni Visconti , Bradley Wiggins , and Stefano Garzelli were all briefly the stage leader after they crossed the finish line . Bertolini in particular was stage leader for about three minutes , as Millar started just behind him and barely beat his time .
The fourth- and second @-@ to @-@ last riders to leave the starthouse , Levi Leipheimer and Denis Menchov , put up the best rides of the day , with Menchov between 30 seconds and a minute better than Leipheimer at the three intermediate time checks , and 20 seconds better at the line for the stage win . Menchov 's ride propelled him into the pink jersey , while Leipheimer narrowly missed taking enough time out of Di Luca to move past him in the general classification . Di Luca finished sixth on the stage .
A surprising rider to lose considerable time was three @-@ time former world time trial champion Michael Rogers , who was almost three minutes off Menchov 's winning time and slipped from third to sixth in the general classification . Reigning Tour de France champion Carlos Sastre was also unimpressive , 2 ' 18 " behind Menchov , but took advantage of Rogers ' bigger misstep to move up to fifth overall .
= = Stage 13 = =
22 May 2009 — Lido di Camaiore to Florence , 176 km ( 109 mi )
The riders got some respite in this short , flat stage . There were a few short hills in the first 60 km ( 37 mi ) of the stage and one small categorized climb , but after the 60 kilometer mark the course did not so much as undulate , and a sprint finish was the result .
Three riders broke free of the peloton after 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) — Mikhail Ignatiev , Leonardo Scarselli , and Björn Schröder . Their maximum advantage was 5 ' 20 " , but the peloton had no trouble catching them . Ignatiev and Scarselli were absorbed with 32 km ( 20 mi ) left to race , while Schröder fought on alone , being caught at around 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) to go . Despite being seven riders deep in the bunch with under 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to go , Mark Cavendish was able to get a successful leadout from Edvald Boasson Hagen and Mark Renshaw to pick up his third stage win of the Giro . The leadout was so fast that only 21 riders had the same time as the stage winner — another 89 , including each of the top ten in the General classification ( GC ) , were eight seconds back . Cavendish actually missed the start of the stage , after becoming stuck in the race village due to his habit of lining up on the start of the race at the last minute to avoid press . He was picked up by a Rabobank team car , which was also running late , and brought back to the field by them . He went on to win the stage .
= = Stage 14 = =
23 May 2009 — Campi Bisenzio to Bologna , 172 km ( 107 mi )
This was a hilly stage , with four categorized climbs on the course and a finish on a short ( but categorized ) climb as well . Pre @-@ race analysis of the stage expected relentless attacks beginning from the first climb of the day , after 24 km ( 15 mi ) .
Fourteen riders representing twelve teams broke away after 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) . They stayed clear as a group through the four climbs on course before they started to splinter . Danilo Di Luca 's LPR team drove the peloton most of the day , because the finish figured to favor Di Luca more than race leader Denis Menchov or the man in third , Levi Leipheimer . However , one team pulling at the front of the peloton proved to be no match for a 14 @-@ man breakaway working cohesively , and by the time the peloton reached the descent of the fourth climb , the last before the summit finish , it was clear the breakaway would not be caught . The breakaway was still twelve strong as it began the last climb of the day . Andriy Hryvko was the first to attack for the stage win , but he was caught well before the summit , and wound up finishing in the pink jersey group a minute behind the stage winner . The decisive attack came from Simon Gerrans , who no one could match , giving the Cervélo rider the stage win . Leipheimer and Ivan Basso were both dropped from the pink jersey group just before the summit of the climb and the end of the stage , losing three potentially valuable seconds to the other highly placed riders in the GC . Michael Rogers was a further three seconds back of Leipheimer and Basso , causing him to drop from sixth to seventh in the GC .
= = Stage 15 = =
24 May 2009 — Forlì to Faenza , 161 km ( 100 mi )
The peloton faced four categorized climbs in this stage , though none were considered difficult enough to be truly selective . Also on the profile were three uncategorized hills that simply were not as steep . With a 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) flat section at the end of the stage , a breakaway finish was likely .
The day began with 16 riders from 14 teams breaking away , after about 18 km ( 11 mi ) . They attained a maximum advantage of about six minutes , and race leader Denis Menchov 's Rabobank team seemed content to let them go , since no real GC threat was posed : José Serpa was the best placed man in the break , ten minutes back of Menchov . For a while , it seemed that the stage would progress this way to its conclusion , with the breakaway up ahead and the peloton not really chasing very hard .
Things changed when Ivan Basso 's team came forward on the third climb of the day to set a much faster pace in the peloton , and Basso himself attacked and came free , with only Stefano Garzelli holding his wheel . They caught some members of the morning breakaway , as that group also splintered , but were eventually themselves caught . Danilo Di Luca launched an attack on the fourth climb of the day , and for a time he and Menchov were clear of the other GC contenders , but they were also caught — the top seven in the GC were unchanged after this stage .
After the 16 @-@ man leading group began splintering , only two were left out front — Leonardo Bertagnolli and Serge Pauwels . For unclear reasons , Pauwels sat up ( abandoned the breakaway attempt ) in the final kilometers of the stage and left Bertagnolli to take the stage win uncontested . Pauwels joined two behind him who were chasing , as several riders who had been in the pink jersey group but were not overall threats had been allowed to attack on the way into the finish . The pink jersey group finished 1 ' 56 " behind the stage winner , with another 13 riders about 7 minutes back , and the majority of the field between 18 and 26 minutes back , after the peloton had been one cohesive group for close to two @-@ thirds of the stage .
= = Stage 16 = =
25 May 2009 — Pergola to Monte Petrano , 237 km ( 147 mi )
This stage was extremely climbing @-@ intensive , with three categorized high mountains , including a mountaintop finish with a very difficult gradient at Monte Petrano , and a smaller climb about a third of the way into the stage . It also had five short uncategorized hills . Following the alterations to Stage 10 , this was also called the queen stage of the Giro .
A large early breakaway began the stage , for the third day in a row . This breakaway numbered 20 , which after the first category one climb was whittled down to three , as some riders dropped because of the pace and others , from the teams of race leader Denis Menchov and other contenders , were called back by their sporting directors to stay with their team leaders . The three left out front were Yaroslav Popovych , Damiano Cunego , and Gabriele Bosisio . Eventually , Popovych shed his last remaining breakaway mates and for a time appeared poised for the stage win . The pink jersey group absorbed every member of the morning 's breakaway except Popovych and Cunego by the time they began the Monte Petrano climb . Levi Leipheimer , who had previously stated that this was the day he might attack to move up the general classification , was dropped on Monte Petrano and despite the efforts of Lance Armstrong and Janez Brajkovič to pace him back into the pink jersey group , Leipheimer wound up finishing nearly three minutes behind the stage winner , falling from third to sixth in the general classification and effectively eliminating any designs he may have had on the pink jersey . Armstrong had been near the leaders on the climb , but dropped back to help Leipheimer , who would later say that Armstrong saved him " minutes and minutes " by shepherding him to the finish .
Danilo Di Luca tried to attack from the pink jersey group a few times at the foot of the climb , but Menchov answered each time . When Ivan Basso and Carlos Sastre attacked , Menchov and Di Luca let them go , seeming fixed solely on one another . Sastre 's attack proved to be the crucial one , as he seemed quite fresh for having been climbing for over seven hours , staying clear of the pink jersey and blowing past Popovych to claim the stage win . With the time gained on the road as well as bonus seconds at the line , Sastre moved up to third in the overall classification . Menchov outsprinted Di Luca to the finish line , gaining one second on the road and four bonus seconds to slightly pad his lead over Di Luca . Thomas Lövkvist , who had been in the white jersey as best young rider , was dropped very early on in this stage and finished 24 minutes behind the stage winner . He wound up dropping all the way to fifth in the youth classification , with Quick Step rider Kevin Seeldraeyers , 15th overall , assuming the white jersey .
The weather was also a major factor on the day , with the temperature topping out at over 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . It caused riders all throughout the race to lose contact with various groups .
= = Stage 17 = =
27 May 2009 — Chieti to Blockhaus , 83 km ( 52 mi )
After the second rest day , the peloton faced the Giro 's shortest stage . It was originally scheduled to include the highest point in the 2009 Giro , but the route was changed from the published maps due to the amount of snow at the top of the Blockhaus mountain pass , with 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) of climbing replaced by an equivalent addition to the flat section at the beginning of the stage . The first 44 km ( 27 mi ) of this course were almost perfectly flat , followed by a slight increase in gradient for the next 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) , followed by an exceptionally steep final 23 km ( 14 mi ) .
Thomas Voeckler started the day 's breakaway after about 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . Nine riders followed him , and their maximum advantage was just under three minutes , with the chase beginning in earnest very early on this stage due to its short length . Many of the riders in the break were unable to maintain the pace set by Voeckler at the foot of the Blockhaus for very long , as only Voeckler , Félix Cárdenas , and Giuseppe Palumbo were left out front as the climb began . The subsequent attacks from the pink jersey group absorbed the three of them . When Sylwester Szmyd attacked from the pink jersey group as the climb began , Franco Pellizotti followed him and was able to get clear , as Szmyd paced him to sizable gap over the pink jersey group before hitting the wall . Lance Armstrong tried to follow , but could not reach Pellizotti , as Pellizotti decided not to wait for Armstrong and chose to race the climb like a time trial . His strong , steady climb was good for the stage win . Armstrong finished the stage in the third group on the road , along with Levi Leipheimer and Carlos Sastre .
Sastre 's team had been the one setting the pace in the peloton just before the climb , but fell off when Philip Deignan spun out and tumbled off the road into a ditch . Deignan 's bike was damaged and he sustained numerous visible scrapes and bruises , but he managed to continue and finish the stage with the last gruppetto . Sastre himself seemed to be off the form he had had before the rest day , and by virtue of Pellizotti 's stage win and two @-@ minute gap over the reigning Tour de France champion , he fell from third to fifth in the overall classification with Pellizotti moving up to third .
A quartet of riders made the climb in second position on the road behind Pellizotti : race leader Denis Menchov , Danilo Di Luca , Ivan Basso , and Stefano Garzelli . Di Luca rode with a very high cadence in an attempt to separate himself from Menchov , but was unable to until the sprint for the finish line . By virtue of the time bonuses gained for third place as well as the gap on the road , Di Luca closed his deficit to Menchov to under 30 seconds .
= = Stage 18 = =
28 May 2009 — Sulmona to Benevento , 182 km ( 113 mi )
The field faced a climb after just 20 km ( 12 mi ) in this stage , but following a long and technical descent , the course was gently undulating without any other categorized climbs . Due to the absence of climbs , the stage was expected to favor the Giro 's remaining sprinters , but it wound up being contested by a breakaway .
The stage began with the largest successful breakaway of the Giro , 25 riders representing 18 teams . The only teams that missed the break were Milram , Ag2r , Fuji – Servetto , and the team of the race leader , Rabobank . They worked together as a cohesive unit for much of the stage , gaining a maximum six @-@ minute advantage over the peloton . Seven of the 25 broke free with 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) left to race , and they contested a final sprint for the stage win . The first rider to try to take the win was Dries Devenyns , but he was quickly overtaken by Félix Cárdenas , who was in turn passed by Danny Pate . Pate , however , had the breakaway 's most experienced rider , Michele Scarponi , in his slipstream , and it was Scarponi who timed his sprint just right to take the stage win . The high @-@ placed riders in the general classification all finished with the peloton , 3 ' 57 " behind the stage winner , so there was no change to the top ten overall .
It was after this stage , on the eve of the Mount Vesuvius stage , that Danilo Di Luca gave his second positive test for continuous erythropoiesis receptor activator ( CERA ) .
= = Stage 19 = =
29 May 2009 - Avellino to Mount Vesuvius , 164 km ( 102 mi )
The first 151 km ( 94 mi ) of this stage saw rough undulation , with many uncategorized hills , including one at almost 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) in elevation . The final 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) saw a steep climb up to the famous Mount Vesuvius at 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) .
The breakaway on this stage comprised only two riders , both representing ProTour teams that were without a stage victory in this year 's Giro — Mauro Facci of Quick Step and Yuriy Krivtsov of Ag2r – La Mondiale . Their maximum advantage over the peloton was just over seven minutes , but the pink jersey group of overall contenders and their teammates had no trouble catching them , as they did in the little town just before the Mount Vesuvius climb .
Liquigas tried the same tactic they had employed on the Blockhaus , when Franco Pellizotti took the stage win , as Valerio Agnoli was the first to attack and get clear of the pink jersey group . He was joined soon after not by one of his team leaders , Pellizotti or Ivan Basso , but by Lampre – NGC rider Paolo Tiralongo , as the overall contenders did not respond . These two wound up being absorbed by the subsequent attack from Carlos José Ochoa , who drew Basso and Stefano Garzelli with him , as they took an appreciable lead on the pink jersey group . Carlos Sastre attacked solo from the pink jersey group next and quickly passed all other riders on the road , and stayed out front to claim his second stage win of this Giro .
Much as they had in previous stages , race leader Denis Menchov and the man in second place Danilo Di Luca stayed right with one another all through the climb , as Di Luca tried repeatedly to shed Menchov with attacks , but was unable to . Pellizotti , who had also been holding their wheels , took the opportunity with the two of them taking energy out of each other , to come clear and move into third position on the road . Basso , who was up the road , dutifully sat up and waited for his better @-@ placed teammate and paced him to a small gap over Menchov and Di Luca before cracking . It was enough to ensure Pellizotti second on the stage , to keep him third in the overall classification . Di Luca managed to outsprint Menchov to the line and claim 8 bonus seconds to narrow his deficit to 18 seconds , but with only a flat stage and an individual time trial remaining the superior time trialist Menchov had the advantage .
= = Stage 20 = =
30 May 2009 — Naples to Anagni , 203 km ( 126 mi )
This stage was flat , with only a climb to short elevation near the end . A preview predicted a sprint finish , but a late attack decided the stage .
Danilo Di Luca made it clear that he was aiming for the time bonuses available in this stage , both at the finish line and the intermediate sprint . As such , his team worked to bring the morning 's breakaway back well before the end of the stage . Just as he had in the mountains , race leader Denis Menchov stayed right with Di Luca , and the two of them contested the intermediate sprint , with Di Luca 's team trying to give him a successful leadout . They mistimed it , however , and Menchov was able to come around Di Luca and beat him to the line ( Di Luca 's teammate and accomplished sprinter Alessandro Petacchi managed to beat Menchov in the sprint to limit Di Luca 's losses ) . Both Menchov and Di Luca got time bonuses , but Menchov got 4 for second in the sprint and Di Luca 2 for third , padding Menchov 's lead in the overall classification .
The pace in the peloton was more lax after the intermediate sprint , and two riders came clear to form another breakaway . They were caught just before the first lap of the 18 km ( 11 mi ) finishing circuit in Anagni . Another four riders tried to break away for the stage win , but they were caught during the second and final lap . With just over 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to go , Silence – Lotto rider Philippe Gilbert attacked and got a gap , staying away for the stage win . Thomas Voeckler tried to follow , but could not reach Gilbert 's slipstream , finishing 2 seconds behind him . The peloton finished 7 seconds back .
= = Stage 21 = =
31 May 2009 — Rome , 14 @.@ 4 km ( 8 @.@ 9 mi ) ( individual time trial )
The 2009 Giro ended , as it had the previous year , with an individual time trial . The course was flat , though the road did twist in several places .
The winning time was set early on in the stage , by Cervélo TestTeam rider and reigning Lithuanian national time trial champion Ignatas Konovalovas . Konovalovas , the 79th man to leave the starthouse , was one of the last riders to take the course before it started to rain . Garmin 's Bradley Wiggins started his ride not long after , and though he had the best time at the second and third intermediate time checks , he was slowed by the rain he encountered on the last part of the course as well as a stopped Bbox Bouygues Telecom team car attending to Matthieu Sprick , who had crashed .
The rainfall lightened almost as soon as it began , but the top riders in the general classification still faced a course made more difficult by the rain . Most of them rode conservatively , to keep their positions intact rather than aim for the stage win , but Danilo Di Luca did not . Di Luca attacked the course , riding with a high cadence from the outset . He had the best time at the first intermediate time check , but he lost energy and faded away as the course went on , finishing 45 seconds slower than the stage winner .
Giro champion Denis Menchov was the last man to take the course . The rain started again as he and Di Luca were the last ones on course . He was on pace to win the stage , but he dramatically crashed in the final kilometer , with his bike skidding well out in front of him on the wet cobbles . Support staff from his team car gave him a very quick bike change and he was back up in moments , finishing 24 seconds back on the stage to preserve his overall victory in the Giro .
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= Sloatsburg ( Metro @-@ North station ) =
The Sloatsburg Metro @-@ North station serves the residents of Sloatsburg , New York , via Port Jervis Line commuter trains to New York City via Hoboken , 35 @.@ 4 miles ( 57 @.@ 0 km ) away , and Secaucus Junction . The estimated travel time to Hoboken Terminal is about 50 minutes on express trains . It is located just south of a grade crossing and consists of short concrete platforms , and a shelter . There is limited parking available nearby .
Construction of the Sloatsburg station dates back to the 1830s , when the station was built along the Erie Railroad . The station served the line heading to Port Jervis northward , along with a stagecoach to Greenwood Lake three times a day . The station was populated by fishermen on their way to the lake , but has been the site of several accidents . These calamities include a derailed milk train in 1843 and a fatal accident between the train line and several mules and their owner in 1855 . The station became part of Metro @-@ North in 1983 , when the service was created . The station was listed under a revitalization plan in 2005 to help serve its commuters .
= = Location = =
The Sloatsburg Metro @-@ North station is located at the intersection of Municipal Plaza and Mills Street in the village of Sloatsburg , at 41 @.@ 1565 ° N , -74.1913 ° W. It is accessible from the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 87 ) at Interchange 15A , and drivers have to follow the nearby New York State Route 17 to Municipal Plaza , where the station is visible . There are connections to other places , via the Transport of Rockland Route 93 and Short Line Bus Routes 17M and 17MD . However , these are not accessible at the station , but at the nearby State Route 17 ( also known as Orange Turnpike ) . There is also one taxicab service to Sloatsburg called Sammy 's Cab .
= = History = =
The Erie Railroad was constructed through Sloatsburg from 1836 to 1841 , helping with the prosperity of the village , along with its population . The station was also near the Sterlington one , but it never served of great importance . The Sloatsburg station building was built in 1868 as a two @-@ story brick facade with a tin roof . The style of the building , according to the railroad 's 1920 engineering report , is a Type 6A style , with dimensions of 17 ' x 29 @.@ 5 ' x 19 ' . The station was equipped to host as a base for XG Radio from the Suffern Tower ( SF ) in Suffern . The Sloatsburg station served well for the nearby Greenwood Lake , with a stagecoach leaving the station three times day . The stagecoach was mainly inhabited by fishermen on their way to Greenwood Lake .
The station has been the site of several major accidents involving locomotives . In 1843 , the Sloatsburg station was the site of a large accident by train full of milk bottles . On December 31 , 1855 , the railroad 's Cincinnati Express was thrown off the tracks near the Sloatsburg station , when it tried to avoid a countrymen and his four mules , who were crossing the tracks . Three of the mules were killed and mutilated by the train , while the fourth died soon after . There was no damage to the cars or injuries to the passengers . In the early days of August 1856 , a girl by the name of McGraff was injured by an oncoming train near the station after carelessly walking onto the tracks . The parents , who were in a poor state financially , was given $ 45 ( 1856 USD ) in return for their troubles from the Board of Directors in nearby Goshen . On February 21 , 1858 , a train heading southbound experienced an accident when a brakeman , John Freeland , fell off the train and was run over . Freeland 's legs were severed in the incident , and one arm was broken . They hurried Freeland southbound on a nearby train , but died by the time the train reached Paterson , New Jersey towards the hospital .
The station is also close to the original entrance gate to Sloatsburg 's Cappamore Farm . The house in the nearby mountainside was built around 1900 as an estate for Nicholas T. Brown , a local alderman from Paterson , New Jersey . This estate and farm gave a panoramic view of the countryside around Sloatsburg . The house was demolished during the construction of the New York State Thruway in 1956 . The steel bridge over the Ramapo River and the wooden bridge over Sloat 's Millrace were removed as they had become hazardous . Today , all that remains are the stone pillar entranceway , and a walking trail to the nearby Sloat 's Dam . The gateposts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places along with the remaining mill and dam structures since they used the same stonework .
In 2005 , the Metropolitan Transportation Authority announced plans to renovate the train station . This , along the village 's plans to revitalize the entire village of Sloatsburg , was thought to give the bland train station a more traditional look . This would include adding a roof to protect commuters and visitors from the elements , such as rain or snow , handicap @-@ accessible ramps for wheelchairs , better lighting , more seats for people to wait , and a heated shelter . ( A shelter exists , but is not heated ) . The village also wants to use a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from the state to construct a large municipal parking lot near the station . This would get more people to use the station , as because with the lack of facilities , the station is under @-@ used . The preliminary design was made by Jeff Livingston , an architect on the Sloatsburg Revitalization Committee .
= = Station layout , structure , and services = =
The station 's layout is of a large extent a piece of the village itself . Unlike most train stations , where the parking lot is near the station itself , Sloatsburg 's lot is near the locally @-@ named Hardware store on Mills Street . This parking lot has 80 parking spaces , most of which is to handle commuters . There are no meters for use of the parking lot , but riding is only free on weekends . The station has one ticket machine for travelers to use . It accepts debit cards , cash , and credit cards . The station is operated by the village of Sloatsburg instead of Metro @-@ North . There is a shelter and one platform for commuters to use .
The station is on average an hour and 24 minutes from Port Jervis , and 1 hours and 3 minutes from New York City . The Sloatsburg station , along with other nearby stations ( Tuxedo , Harriman , or Suffern ) on the Port Jervis lines also serve numerous hiking trails in Harriman State Park and Bear Mountain State Park .
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= Vyacheslav Molotov =
Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov ( / ˈmɒləˌtɔːfˌ @-@ ˌtɒf , ˈmoʊlə @-@ ˌˈmɔː- / ; Russian : Вячесла ́ в Миха ́ йлович Мо ́ лотов ; 9 March [ O.S. 25 February ] 1890 – 8 November 1986 ) was a Soviet politician and diplomat , an Old Bolshevik , and a leading figure in the Soviet government from the 1920s , when he rose to power as a protégé of Joseph Stalin . Molotov served as Chairman of the Council of People 's Commissars ( Premier ) from 1930 to 1941 , and as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949 and from 1953 to 1956 . He served as First Deputy Premier from 1942 to 1957 , when he was dismissed from the Presidium of the Central Committee by Nikita Khrushchev . Molotov retired in 1961 after several years of obscurity .
Molotov was the principal Soviet signatory of the Nazi – Soviet non @-@ aggression pact of 1939 ( also known as the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact ) , whose most important provisions were added in the form of a secret protocol that stipulated an invasion of Poland and partition of its territory between Germany and the Soviet Union . This effectively marked the beginning of World War II and made the Soviet Union an unofficial ally of Nazi Germany in the period from 1939 until the German invasion in 1941 . During this period , Molotov knew of the Katyn massacre committed by the Soviet authorities . Following the end of World War II ( Great Patriotic War ) , Molotov was involved in negotiations with the Western allies , in which he became noted for his diplomatic skills . He kept his place as a leading Soviet diplomat and politician until 1949 . In March of that year , after losing Stalin 's favour , he lost the foreign affairs ministry leadership to Andrei Vyshinsky . Molotov 's relationship with Stalin deteriorated further , with Stalin complaining about Molotov 's mistakes in a speech to the 19th Party Congress . However , after Stalin 's death in 1953 , Molotov was staunchly opposed to Khrushchev 's de @-@ Stalinisation policy . Molotov defended the policies and legacy of Stalin until his death in 1986 , and harshly criticised Stalin 's successors , especially Khrushchev .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career ( 1890 – 1930 ) = = =
Molotov was born Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Skryabin ( Russian : Вячеслав Михайлович Скря ́ бин ) in the village of Kukarka ( now Sovetsk in Kirov Oblast ) , the son of a shop clerk . Contrary to a commonly repeated error , he was not related to the composer Alexander Scriabin . Throughout his teen years , he was described as " shy " and " quiet " , always assisting his father with his business . He was educated at a secondary school in Kazan , and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party ( RSDLP ) in 1906 , soon gravitating toward that organisation 's radical Bolshevik faction , headed by V. I. Lenin .
Skryabin took the pseudonym " Molotov , " derived from the Russian word молот molot ( hammer ) for his political work owing to the name 's vaguely " industrial " ring . He was arrested in 1909 and spent two years in exile in Vologda . In 1911 he enrolled at St Petersburg Polytechnic . Molotov joined the editorial staff of a new underground Bolshevik newspaper called Pravda , meeting Joseph Stalin for the first time in association with the project . This first association between the two future Soviet leaders proved to be brief , however , and did not result in an immediate close political association .
Molotov worked as a so @-@ called " professional revolutionary " for the next several years , writing for the party press and attempting to better organize the underground party . He moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1914 at the time of the outbreak of World War I. It was in Moscow the following year that Molotov was again arrested for his party activity , this time being deported to Irkutsk in eastern Siberia . In 1916 he escaped from his Siberian exile and returned to the capital city , now called Petrograd by the Tsarist regime , which thought the name St. Petersburg sounded excessively German .
Molotov became a member of the Bolshevik Party 's committee in Petrograd in 1916 . When the February Revolution occurred in 1917 , he was one of the few Bolsheviks of any standing in the capital . Under his direction Pravda took to the " left " to oppose the Provisional Government formed after the revolution . When Joseph Stalin returned to the capital , he reversed Molotov 's line ; but when the party leader Lenin arrived , he overruled Stalin . Despite this , Molotov became a protégé of and close adherent to Stalin , an alliance to which he owed his later prominence . Molotov became a member of the Military Revolutionary Committee which planned the October Revolution , which effectively brought the Bolsheviks to power .
In 1918 , Molotov was sent to Ukraine to take part in the civil war then breaking out . Since he was not a military man , he took no part in the fighting . In 1920 , he became secretary to the Central Committee of the Ukrainian Bolshevik Party . Lenin recalled him to Moscow in 1921 , elevating him to full membership of the Central Committee and Orgburo , and putting him in charge of the party secretariat . He was voted in as a non @-@ voting member of the Politburo in 1921 , and held the office of Responsible Secretary and also married Soviet politician Polina Zhemchuzhina . His Responsible Secretaryship was criticised both by Lenin and Leon Trotsky , with Lenin noting his " shameful bureaucratism " and stupid behaviour . On the advice of Molotov and Nikolai Bukharin the Central Committee decided to reduce Lenin 's work hours . In 1922 , Stalin became general secretary of the Bolshevik Party with Molotov as the de facto Second Secretary . As a young follower Molotov admired Stalin , but was open in criticism of him . Under Stalin 's patronage , Molotov became a member of the Politburo in 1926 .
During the power struggles which followed Lenin 's death in 1924 , Molotov remained a loyal supporter of Stalin against his various rivals : first Leon Trotsky , later Lev Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev and finally Nikolai Bukharin . Molotov became a leading figure in the " Stalinist centre " of the party , which also included Kliment Voroshilov and Sergo Ordzhonikidze . Trotsky and his supporters underestimated Molotov , as did many others . Trotsky called him " mediocrity personified " , whilst Molotov himself pedantically corrected comrades referring to him as ' Stone Arse ' by saying that Lenin had actually dubbed him ' Iron Arse ' . However , this outward dullness concealed a sharp mind and great administrative talent . He operated mainly behind the scenes and cultivated an image of a colourless bureaucrat – for example , he was the only Bolshevik leader who always wore a suit and tie . In 1928 Molotov replaced Nikolai Uglanov as First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party and held that position until 15 August 1929 . In a lengthy address to the Central Committee in 1929 , Molotov told the members that the Soviet government would initiate a compulsory collectivisation campaign to solve the agrarian backwardness of Soviet agriculture .
= = = Premiership ( 1930 – 1941 ) = = =
During the Central Committee plenum of 19 December 1930 , Alexey Rykov , the Chairman of the Council of People 's Commissars ( the equivalent of a Western head of government ) was succeeded by Molotov . In this post , Molotov oversaw the Stalin regime 's collectivisation of agriculture . He followed Stalin 's line by using a combination of force and propaganda to crush peasant resistance to collectivisation , including the deportation of millions of kulaks ( peasants with property ) to labour camps . An enormous number of the deportees died from exposure and overwork . He signed the Law of Spikelets and personally led the Extraordinary Commission for Grain Delivery in Ukraine , which seized a reported 4 @.@ 2 million tonnes of grain from the peasants during a widespread manmade famine ( known in Ukraine as Holodomor ) . Contemporary historians estimate that between seven and eleven million people died , either of starvation or in labour camps , in the process of farm collectivization . Molotov also oversaw the implementation of the First Five @-@ Year Plan for rapid industrialisation .
Sergei Kirov , head of the Party organisation in Leningrad , was killed in 1934 ; some believed his death was ordered by Stalin . Kirov 's death triggered a second crisis , the Great Purge . In 1938 , out of the 28 People 's Commissars in Molotov 's Government , 20 were executed on the orders of Molotov and Stalin . The purges were carried out by Stalin 's successive police chiefs , Nikolai Yezhov was the chief organiser and Kliment Voroshilov , Lazar Kaganovich and Molotov were intimately involved in the processes . Stalin frequently required Molotov and other Politburo members to sign the death warrants of prominent purge victims , and Molotov always did so without question . There is no record of Molotov attempting to moderate the course of the purges or even to save individuals , as some other Soviet officials did . During the Great Purge , he personally approved 372 documented execution lists , more than any other Soviet official , including Stalin . It is known that Molotov was one of few with whom Stalin openly discussed the purges . Although Molotov and Stalin signed a public decree in 1938 that disassociated them from the ongoing Great Purge , in private , and even after Stalin 's death , Molotov supported the Great Purge and the executions carried out by his government .
Despite the great human cost , the Soviet Union under Molotov 's nominal premiership made great strides in the adoption and widespread implementation of agrarian and industrial technology . In a document written by Molotov he noted how cannibalism and starvation were still serious problems even in 1937 in the Soviet Union . Andrey Vyshinsky , the Procurator General , even told Molotov personally of incidents involving mothers eating their newly born children . The rise of Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany precipitated the development of a modern armaments industry on the orders of the Soviet government . Ultimately , it was this arms industry , along with American Lend @-@ Lease aid , which helped the Soviet Union to prevail in World War II ( Great Patriotic War ) . Set against this , the purges of the Red Army leadership , in which Molotov participated , weakened the Soviet Union 's defence capacity and contributed to the military disasters of 1941 and 1942 , which were mostly caused by unreadiness for war . The purges also led to the dismantling of privatised agriculture and its replacement by collectivised agriculture . This left a legacy of chronic agricultural inefficiencies and under @-@ production which the Soviet regime never fully rectified .
Molotov was reported to be a vegetarian and teetotaler by American journalist John Gunther in 1938 . However , Milovan Djilas claimed that Molotov " drank more than Stalin " and did not note his vegetarianism despite attending several banquets with him .
= = = Minister of Foreign Affairs ( 1939 – 1949 ) = = =
In 1939 , following the 1938 Munich Agreement and Hitler 's subsequent invasion of Czechoslovakia , Stalin believed that Britain and France would not be reliable allies against German expansion so instead sought to conciliate Nazi Germany . In May 1939 Maxim Litvinov , the People 's Commissar for Foreign Affairs , was dismissed ; Molotov was appointed to succeed him . Molotov was succeeded in his post as Premier by Stalin .
At first , Hitler rebuffed Soviet diplomatic hints that Stalin desired a treaty ; but in early August 1939 , Hitler authorised Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop to begin serious negotiations . A trade agreement was concluded on 18 August ; and on 22 August , Ribbentrop flew to Moscow to conclude a formal non @-@ aggression treaty . Although the treaty is known as the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact , it was Stalin and Hitler , and not Molotov and Ribbentrop , who decided the content of the treaty . The most important part of the agreement was the secret protocol , which provided for the partition of Poland , Finland , and the Baltic States between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union and for the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia ( then part of Romania , now Moldova ) . This protocol gave Hitler the green light for his invasion of Poland , which began on 1 September . On 5 March 1940 Lavrentiy Beria gave Molotov , along with Anastas Mikoyan , Kliment Voroshilov and Stalin , a note ordering the execution of 25 @,@ 700 Polish officers and anti @-@ Soviets , in what has become known as the Katyn massacre .
Under the terms of the Pact , Hitler was , in effect , given authorisation to occupy two @-@ thirds of Western Poland , as well as Lithuania . Molotov was given a free hand in relation to Finland . In the Soviet @-@ Finnish War that ensued , a combination of fierce Finnish resistance and Soviet mismanagement resulted in Finland losing parts of its territory , but not its independence . The Pact was later amended to allocate Lithuania to the Soviet sphere in exchange for a more favourable border in Poland . These annexations led to horrific suffering and loss of life in the countries occupied and partitioned by the two dictatorships .
In November 1940 Stalin sent Molotov to Berlin to meet Ribbentrop and Adolf Hitler . In January 1941 , the British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden visited Turkey in an attempt to get the Turks to enter the war on the Allies ' side . Though the purpose of Eden 's visit was anti @-@ German rather than anti @-@ Soviet , Molotov assumed otherwise , and in a series of conversations with the Italian Ambassador Augusto Rosso , Molotov claimed that the Soviet Union would soon be faced with an Anglo @-@ Turkish invasion of the Crimea . The British historian D.C. Watt argued that on the basis of Molotov 's statements to Rosso , it would appear that in early 1941 , Stalin and Molotov viewed Britain rather than Germany as the principal threat .
The Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact governed Soviet @-@ German relations until June 1941 when Hitler , having occupied France and neutralised Britain , turned east and attacked the Soviet Union . Molotov was responsible for telling the Soviet people of the attack , when he instead of Stalin announced the war . His speech , broadcast by radio on 22 June , characterised the Soviet Union in a role similar to that articulated for Britain by Winston Churchill in his early wartime speeches . The State Defence Committee was established soon after Molotov 's speech ; Stalin was elected chairman and Molotov was elected deputy chairman . Following the German invasion , Molotov conducted urgent negotiations with Britain and , later , the United States for wartime alliances . He took a secret flight to Glasgow , Scotland , where he was greeted by Eden . This risky flight , in a high altitude Tupolev TB @-@ 7 bomber , flew over German occupied Denmark and the North Sea . From there he took a train to London to discuss with the British government the possibility of opening a second front against Germany . After signing the Anglo @-@ Soviet Treaty of 1942 on 26 May Molotov left for Washington , D.C. , United States . Molotov met with Franklin D. Roosevelt , the President of the United States , and ratified a Lend @-@ Lease Treaty between the USSR and the US . Both the British and the United States government , albeit vaguely , promised to open up a second front against Germany . On his flight back to the USSR his plane was attacked by German fighters , and then later by Soviet fighters .
When Beria told Stalin about the Manhattan Project and its importance Stalin handpicked Molotov to be the man in charge of the Soviet atomic bomb project . However , under Molotov 's leadership the bomb , and the project itself , developed very slowly and Molotov was replaced by Beria in 1944 on the advice of Igor Kurchatov . When Harry S. Truman , the American president , told Stalin that the Americans had created a bomb never seen before , Stalin relayed the conversation to Molotov and told him to speed up development . On Stalin 's orders the Soviet government substantially increased investment in the project .
In a collaboration with Kliment Voroshilov , Molotov contributed both musically and lyrically to the 1944 version of the Soviet national anthem . Molotov asked the writers to include a line or two about peace . Molotov 's and Voroshilov 's role in the making of the new Soviet anthem was , in the words of historian Simon Sebag @-@ Montefiore , acting as music judges for Stalin .
Molotov accompanied Stalin to the Teheran Conference in 1943 , the Yalta Conference in 1945 and , following the defeat of Germany , the Potsdam Conference . He represented the Soviet Union at the San Francisco Conference , which created the United Nations . Even during the period of wartime alliance , Molotov was known as a tough negotiator and a determined defender of Soviet interests . Molotov lost his position of First Deputy Chairman on March 19 , 1946 , after the Council of People 's Commissars was reformed as Council of Ministers . From 1945 to 1947 Molotov took part in all four conferences of foreign ministers of the victorious states in World War II . In general , he was distinguished by an uncooperative attitude towards the Western powers . Molotov , at the direction of the Soviet government , condemned the Marshall Plan as imperialistic and claimed it was dividing Europe into two camps , one capitalist and the other communist . In response , the Soviet Union , along with the other Eastern Bloc nations , initiated what is known as the Molotov Plan . The plan created several bilateral relations between the states of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union ; and later evolved into the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ( CMEA ) .
In the postwar period , Molotov 's power began to decline . A clear sign of Molotov 's precarious position was his inability to prevent the arrest in December 1948 for " treason " of his Jewish wife , Polina Zhemchuzhina , whom Stalin had long distrusted . Molotov never stopped loving his wife , and it is said that he ordered his maids to make dinner for two every evening to remind him that , in his own words , " she suffered because of me " . According to a close collaborator of Molotov , Vladimir Erofeev , at the beginning of 1949 the Israel minister plenipotentiary , Golda Meir , visited the Soviet Union ; she met privately with Polina , who had been her schoolmate in St. Petersburg . Immediately afterward , Polina was arrested and accused of ties with Zionist organisations ; she was kept one year in the Lubyanka , after which she was exiled for three years in an obscure Russian city . Molotov had no communication with her , save for the scant news that Beria , whom he loathed , told him . She was freed immediately after the death of Stalin . According to Erofeev , Molotov said of her : " She 's not only beautiful and intelligent , the only woman minister in Soviet Union ; she 's also a real Bolshevik , a real Soviet person . " In 1949 , Molotov was replaced as Foreign Minister by Andrey Vyshinsky , although retaining his position as First Deputy Premier and membership of the Politburo .
= = = Post @-@ war career ( 1949 – 1976 ) = = =
At the 19th Party Congress in 1952 , Molotov was elected to the replacement for the Politburo , the Presidium , but was not listed among the members of the newly established secret body known as the Bureau of the Presidium ; indicating that he had fallen out of Stalin 's favour . At the 19th Congress , Molotov and Anastas Mikoyan were said by Stalin to have committed grave mistakes , including the publication of a wartime speech by Winston Churchill favourable to the Soviet Union 's wartime efforts . Both Molotov and Mikoyan were falling out of favour rapidly , with Stalin telling Beria , Khrushchev , Malenkov and Nikolai Bulganin that he did not want to see Molotov and Mikoyan around anymore . At his 73rd birthday , Stalin treated both with disgust . In his speech to the 20th Party Congress Khrushchev told the delegates that Stalin had plans for " finishing off " Molotov and Mikoyan in the aftermath of the 19th Congress .
Following Stalin 's death , a realignment of the leadership strengthened Molotov 's position . Georgy Malenkov , Stalin 's successor in the post of Premier , reappointed Molotov as Minister of Foreign Affairs on 5 March 1953 . Although Molotov was seen as a likely successor to Stalin in the immediate aftermath of his death , he never sought to become leader of the Soviet Union . A Troika was established immediately after Stalin 's death , consisting of Malenkov , Beria , and Molotov , but ended when Malenkov and Molotov deceived Beria . Molotov supported the removal and later the execution of Beria on the orders of Khrushchev . The new Party Secretary , Khrushchev , soon emerged as the new leader of the Soviet Union . He presided over a gradual domestic liberalisation and a thaw in foreign policy , shown by the reconciliation with Josip Broz Tito 's government in Yugoslavia , which Stalin had expelled from the communist movement . Molotov , an old @-@ guard Stalinist , seemed increasingly out of place in this new environment , but he represented the Soviet Union at the Geneva Conference of 1955 .
The events which led to Molotov 's downfall began in February 1956 when Khrushchev launched an unexpected denunciation of Stalin at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party . Khrushchev attacked Stalin both over the purges of the 1930s and the defeats of the early years of World War II , which he blamed on Stalin 's overly trusting attitude towards Hitler and the purges of the Red Army . Since Molotov was the most senior of Stalin 's collaborators still alive and had played a leading role in the purges , it became obvious that Khrushchev 's examination of the past would probably result in Molotov 's fall from power . Consequently , he became the leader of an old guard which tried to overthrow Khrushchev .
In June 1956 , Molotov was removed as Foreign Minister , and in June 1957 , was expelled from the Presidium ( Politburo ) following a failed attempt to remove Khrushchev as First Secretary . Although Molotov 's faction initially won a vote in the Presidium , 7 – 4 , to remove Khrushchev , the latter refused to resign unless a Central Committee plenum decided so . In the plenum , which lasted from 22 – 29 June , Molotov and his faction were defeated . Eventually , he was banished as ambassador to the Mongolian People 's Republic . Molotov and his associates were denounced as " the Anti @-@ Party Group " but , notably , were not subject to the physical repressions that marked the Stalin years . In 1960 , he was appointed Soviet representative to the International Atomic Energy Agency , which was seen as a partial rehabilitation . However , after the 22nd Party Congress in 1961 , during which Khrushchev carried out his de @-@ Stalinisation campaign , including the removal of Stalin 's body from Lenin 's Mausoleum , Molotov ( along with Lazar Kaganovich ) was removed from all positions and expelled from the Communist Party . In 1962 , all of Molotov 's party documents and files were erased by the authorities .
In retirement , Molotov remained totally unrepentant about his role during Stalin 's rule . He suffered a heart attack in January 1962 . After the Sino @-@ Soviet split , it was reported that he agreed with the criticisms made by Mao Zedong of the supposed " revisionism " of Khrushchev 's policies . According to Roy Medvedev , Stalin 's daughter Svetlana recalled Molotov 's wife telling her : " Your father was a genius . There 's no revolutionary spirit around nowadays , just opportunism everywhere " and " China 's our only hope . Only they have kept alive the revolutionary spirit " .
= = = Rehabilitation , death , beliefs and legacy = = =
The first signs of a rehabilitation were seen during Leonid Brezhnev 's rule , when information about him was again allowed to be included in Soviet encyclopaedias . His connection , support and work in the Anti @-@ Party Group was mentioned in encyclopaedias published in 1973 and 1974 , but eventually disappeared altogether by the mid @-@ to @-@ late @-@ 1970s . Soviet leader Konstantin Chernenko further rehabilitated Molotov ; in 1984 Molotov was even allowed to seek membership in the Communist Party . A collection of interviews with Molotov from 1985 was published in 1994 by Felix Chuev as Molotov Remembers : Inside Kremlin Politics . Molotov died , during the rule of Mikhail Gorbachev , on 8 November 1986 . He was 96 years old at the time of his death , and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery , Moscow .
Molotov , like Stalin , was pathologically mistrustful of others , and because of it , much crucial information disappeared . As Molotov once said " One should listen to them , but it is necessary to check up on them . The intelligence officer can lead you to a very dangerous position ... There are many provocateurs here , there , and everywhere . " Molotov continued to claim , in a series of published interviews , that there never was a secret territorial deal between Stalin and Hitler during the Nazi @-@ Soviet Pact . Like Stalin , he never recognised the Cold War as an international event . He saw the Cold War as , more or less , the everyday conflict between communism and capitalism . He divided the capitalist countries into two groups , the " smart and dangerous imperialists " and the " fools " . Before his retirement , Molotov proposed establishing a socialist confederation with the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) ; Molotov believed socialist states were part of a bigger , supranational entity . In retirement , Molotov criticised Nikita Khrushchev for being a " right @-@ wing deviationist " .
The Molotov cocktail is a term coined by the Finns during the Winter War , as a generic name used for a variety of improvised incendiary weapons . During the Winter War , the Soviet air force made extensive use of incendiaries and cluster bombs against Finnish troops and fortifications . When Molotov claimed in radio broadcasts that they were not bombing , but rather delivering food to the starving Finns , the Finns started to call the air bombs Molotov bread baskets . Soon they responded by attacking advancing tanks with " Molotov cocktails , " which were " a drink to go with the food . " According to Montefiore , the Molotov cocktail was one part of Molotov 's " cult of personality that the vain Premier surely did not appreciate . "
Winston Churchill in his wartime memoirs lists many meetings with Molotov . Acknowledging him as a " man of outstanding ability and cold @-@ blooded ruthlessness , " Churchill concluded : " In the conduct of foreign affairs , Mazarin , Talleyrand , Metternich , would welcome him to their company , if there be another world to which Bolsheviks allow themselves to go . "
At the end of 1989 , two years before the final collapse of the Soviet Union , the Congress of People 's Deputies of the Soviet Union and Mikhail Gorbachev 's government formally denounced the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , acknowledging that the bloody annexation of the Baltic States and the partition of Poland had been illegal .
In January 2010 a Ukrainian Court of Appeal accused Molotov and other Soviet officials of organizing a man @-@ made famine in Ukraine in 1932 – 33 ( known as Holodomor ) . But the same Court then quashed criminal proceedings against them , because of their deaths .
= = Decorations and awards = =
Hero of Socialist Labour
Four Orders of Lenin ( including 1945 )
Order of the October Revolution
Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Order of the Badge of Honour
Medal " For the Defence of Moscow "
Medal " For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941 – 1945 "
Medal " For Valiant Labour in the Great Patriotic War 1941 – 1945 "
Medal " In Commemoration of the 800th Anniversary of Moscow "
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= Herbie Hewett =
Herbert Tremenheere " Herbie " Hewett ( 25 May 1864 – 4 March 1921 ) was an English amateur cricketer who played for Somerset , captaining the county from 1889 to 1893 , as well as Oxford University and the Marylebone Cricket Club . A battling left @-@ handed opening batsman , Hewett could post a large score in a short time against even the best bowlers . Capable of hitting the ball powerfully , he combined an excellent eye with an unorthodox style to be regarded at his peak as one of England 's finest batsmen .
Hewett was educated at Harrow School , won a Blue at Oxford in 1886 and played for Somerset from 1884 . As an inconsistent middle @-@ order batsman he made little impact during this period . Even so , he was appointed captain of Somerset in 1889 . Over the next two years , his leadership and performances as an opening batsman were instrumental in the county regaining first @-@ class status and admission to the County Championship in 1891 . He remained Somerset captain for a further three seasons , usually opening the batting with Lionel Palairet . In 1892 , they shared a partnership of 346 for the first wicket , of which Hewett scored 201 . The stand remains the county 's highest first @-@ wicket partnership . In that season , Hewett made 1 @,@ 405 runs at an average of more than 35 , and was named as one of the " Five Batsmen of the Year " by Wisden . England did not play any Test matches at home in 1892 , or else Hewett would probably have won a Test cap ; instead his highest accolade was being selected to play for the Gentlemen against the Players at Lord 's in 1894 . A disagreement over whether play should take place on a sodden pitch in the match against the Australians in 1893 led to Hewett 's departure from Somerset at the end of that season .
He played first @-@ class cricket for three more years , during which time he scored centuries against both Oxford and Cambridge Universities , appearing for a variety of amateur and representative sides . Having been selected to captain an " England XI " at Scarborough in 1895 , Hewett was involved in another incident caused by a wet pitch . Feeling insulted by shouts of derision from the crowd , he left the match at lunch @-@ time on the first day . He made only one further first @-@ class appearance : playing for the Marylebone Cricket Club against Oxford University in 1896 . Hewett practised as a barrister , having been called to the Bar at the Inner Temple .
= = Early life = =
Herbert Tremenheere Hewett was born at Norton Court in Norton Fitzwarren , near Taunton on 25 May 1864 , the only son of William Henry and Frances M Hewett . Although he was the couple 's only son , they had at least four daughters ; in 1871 two older sisters , Emily Louisa and Helen G are listed in the census , along with one younger sister , Florance Ethel . By 1891 , Mary W is also listed as a younger sister , although by this date both older sisters are no longer registered at the address nor their father William Henry . He was initially educated at Hillside , Godalming where he was captain of the cricket and rugby teams . On leaving Hillside in 1879 he went to Harrow School . In 1881 he had a trial for the school cricket eleven mainly on the strength of his bowling , having taken all ten wickets for 22 runs in a house match . Hewett was part of the school 's cricket first eleven in 1882 and 1883 , and appeared in the annual contest against Eton College in both years , but did little on either occasion , his highest score being six , made in the first @-@ innings in 1882 . In all matches for Harrow he had a batting average of just 7 @.@ 4 in 1883 and 9 @.@ 5 in 1884 while his bowling average in 1884 was 32 @.@ 10 . Hewett also appeared in the school association football eleven in 1883 . On completion of his studies at Harrow , he attended Trinity College , Oxford . In his reminiscences , W. G. Grace suggests that Hewett " first won some little renown in Public School and ' Varsity cricket , but it was not until he joined Somersetshire that he forced himself to a prominent place in County Cricket . "
= = Oxford and Somerset ( 1884 – 1888 ) = =
After appearing in The Freshman 's Match in 1884 , during which he scored zero and eight and took two wickets , Hewett made little impact in his first season at Oxford and was not selected for the University eleven . His debut in first @-@ class cricket came later that season for Somerset County Cricket Club at Tunbridge Wells , when he was 20 years old . Against Kent in late August , he scored 14 and 0 batting as part of the middle order , and claimed his only two wickets in first @-@ class cricket . He made one other appearance in 1884 , against Lancashire .
In 1885 Hewett played in a trial match at Oxford without success . He did , however , play in four of Somerset 's six first @-@ class matches that summer . In his first game of the season for Somerset , in mid @-@ July , Hewett scored his maiden half @-@ century ; he remained 50 not out in the second @-@ innings of a five @-@ wicket victory over Hampshire . He passed 50 for Somerset on two more occasions during 1885 , and finished the season with 247 runs at a batting average of 35 @.@ 28 , one of seven seasons in which his average was in excess of 30 .
He started the 1886 season well , scoring 151 for his college and 164 not out for Perambulators against Etceteras . An 1893 write @-@ up in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack said : " early in the season of 1886 [ Hewett ] showed signs of the brilliant hitting which has since made him famous " . Although he top @-@ scored in the Seniors Match , he was not selected for the eleven until the university 's third game . He made scores of 49 and 77 in successive matches for Oxford University against Lancashire and gained his Blue , scoring 0 and 7 in the University Match against Cambridge . He finished the season fourth in the Oxford University batting averages with his 160 runs being scored at 22 @.@ 85 , and was described in James Lillywhite 's Cricketers ' Annual as being : " Sometimes a most dashing left @-@ handed hitter , but not at all dependable ; hard @-@ working field . "
Poor results in 1885 saw Somerset lose their first @-@ class status for the following seasons . Somerset played just six matches in 1886 of which Hewett played two , top @-@ scoring with 69 against Devon . An injury to his hand prevented him from playing all but one match for the university in his final year at Oxford , 1887 , when " he would have had a good chance of retaining his place in the University eleven " , according to Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , although he was fit enough to score a century with a broomstick in a college match . During 1887 , in a second @-@ class match for Somerset against Warwickshire , Hewett scored 98 to help Somerset to an innings victory , scoring the first 92 runs in less than an hour , an unusually high rate of scoring .
The next year , 1888 , he scored successive half @-@ centuries for Somerset early in the season against Warwickshire and Staffordshire before making his debut for the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) . Facing Oxford University , Hewett made zero and eight for the London club . The same summer , Hewett was selected to play for an England XI against the touring Australians , and in a ten wicket win for the tourists , he scored 12 and 1 . Between 1884 and 1888 Hewett had limited success at the first @-@ class level , establishing a reputation as a useful , if erratic , hard @-@ hitting middle @-@ order batsman . He played a lot of club cricket , being a regular for Harrow Wanderers , and scoring 201 not out for Senior Common Room against Christ Church in 1888 .
= = Captaining Somerset = =
= = = Second @-@ class county = = =
Hewett 's appearances for Somerset in 1889 were more successful . Having previously appeared in the middle @-@ order , Hewett switched to opening the innings at the start of the season , and took on the captaincy . He scored three half @-@ centuries in the season : two against Warwickshire , and one against Staffordshire . He comfortably headed the Somerset batting with an average of 38 in matches against the other second @-@ class counties . In his history of Somerset cricket , Sunshine , Sixes and Cider , David Foot describes Hewett 's selection policy as captain as being one that was more dependent on the cricketing ability of the player than " of [ the player 's ] social charm and ability to drink into the early hours " — unlike some of his predecessors .
In 1890 , his side were unbeaten against county opposition , winning the " Second @-@ class County Championship " . In an early season first @-@ class appearance for A. J. Webbe 's XI , Hewett scored his maiden first @-@ class century , reaching 114 against Cambridge University . Later in May , for the MCC against Oxford University , he scored 71 . Hewett top @-@ scored with 65 in the second @-@ innings of Somerset 's opening county match of 1890 , and two matches later scored 64 during a first @-@ wicket partnership of 115 with Lionel Palairet against Leicestershire . A string of lower scores followed for just under a month before Somerset hosted Staffordshire at Taunton . Having dismissed the visitors for 43 , Hewett remained 203 not out when he declared the Somerset innings closed , scored in four hours , " a remarkable display of powerful and well @-@ timed hitting " . He did not pass 100 again that season , but came close during the Scarborough Festival , being bowled for 99 in the second @-@ innings for the Gentlemen of England . Hewett led Somerset 's batting averages in 1890 , during which the club won twelve and tied one of their thirteen matches against county opposition . Due to this record the county were admitted to the County Championship for 1891 after a unanimous vote , regaining their first @-@ class status .
While Red Lillywhite assessed him as " a dangerous left @-@ hand bat , very free , but somewhat uncertain ; good point " , after the 1889 season , a year later he was described as " one of the very best left @-@ hand bats in England , hitting hard all round ; excellent point . Captain in 1889 – 1890 , which post he filled with wonderful judgement . " At the end of the 1890 season he was presented with a handsome silver flask by members of Somerset County Cricket Club .
= = = County Championship cricket = = =
Hewett led his side in their first County Championship match starting on 18 May 1891 . Although the club had played first @-@ class cricket a few years earlier , the championship had only been formed the previous season . Their debut in the competition was interrupted by rain and finished a draw ; Hewett top @-@ scored in Somerset 's only innings with 31 . Somerset 's next match was against reigning county champions Surrey . Lionel Palairet , Bill Roe and Sammy Woods were all missing for various reasons , leaving Hewett with a depleted side and only two real bowlers ; Ted Tyler and George Nichols . Surrey reached 449 , and then bowled Somerset out twice , for 37 in each innings . When Surrey travelled to Taunton later that season , most likely expecting an easy win to secure a second consecutive championship , Hewett top @-@ scored for his team with 55 in the first @-@ innings as Somerset reached 194 . Woods , Nichols and Tyler then secured a 40 run first @-@ innings lead for the home side who added another 331 runs in their second @-@ innings , Hewett contributing 42 . The same trio of Somerset bowlers proceeded to bowl the champions out for a second time , the final wicket falling two minutes from the close of play , and their team recorded a 130 @-@ run victory . Hewett had a quiet season with the bat , in addition to his 55 against Surrey he passed 50 on only one other occasion ; against Middlesex two weeks later . He totalled 514 runs during the season at an average of 19 @.@ 76 ; his lowest average when playing eight or more innings in a season .
= = Touring North America = =
Following the close of the 1891 County Championship , Hewett was part of Lord Hawke 's party which toured North America , playing six matches in the United States of America and two in Canada . Sammy Woods wrote that Hewett , along with Charles Wreford @-@ Brown and George Ricketts , became very seasick on the journey there . The first two matches were first @-@ class fixtures against the Gentlemen of Philadelphia . Hewett scored 30 and 49 in the first , an eight wicket loss which Woods blamed on taking place too soon after their arrival , claiming the team " had hardly found our land @-@ legs . " The first match had yielded an aggregate of 861 runs , the second contained only 352 , of which Hewett scored 10 and 29 . His captain , Lord Hawke , was the only other batsman to reach double figures in both innings as the touring side won by four wickets . None of the remaining fixtures on the tour had first @-@ class status , and not all were eleven @-@ a @-@ side contests . Hewett scored 113 against the sixteen man All New York on Staten Island , a match in which he was standing in as captain due to Lord Hawke being ill . Woods rated Hewett , along with Lord Hawke and Brown , as the best batsmen on the tour .
= = Batsman of the Year = =
Hewett 's first three matches of the 1892 season were for representative sides against the universities . He reached double figures in each of his six innings , and scored a half @-@ century for the Gentlemen of England against Cambridge . On returning to Somerset , he did not score a half @-@ century until his third match , making 54 against Oxford University . He passed 50 on twelve occasions during the season , the most during any season of his career . In late August , playing Yorkshire , Hewett scored 201 out of a partnership of 346 , establishing a record for the first wicket in first @-@ class cricket , surpassing W.G. Grace and Bransby Cooper 's 1869 total of 283 . Although their record has since been beaten in first @-@ class cricket , it remains Somerset 's record partnership for the first wicket . Their partnership was described as " Pure grace at one end , sheer force at the other " , in H.S. Altham and E. W. Swanton 's A History of Cricket . At the time , The Daily Telegraph reported that the pair remained together for three and half hours , during which Hewett scored 30 fours .
Hewett finished the season with 1 @,@ 047 runs for Somerset , making him the only batsman in England to score 1 @,@ 000 runs in county matches . In total he scored 1 @,@ 407 first @-@ class runs , the most by any batsman , and was third in the amateur batting averages . He was named as one of the Five Batsmen of the Year by the Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack in 1893 , in which it was claimed that " had it been necessary last August [ 1892 ] to put a representative England eleven into the field , Hewett would undoubtedly have been given a place . " Under Hewett 's captaincy , Somerset won eight , drew three and lost five matches in 1892 , finishing third in the County Championship , which would remain their highest position for over 100 years , until the county were runners @-@ up in the competition in 2001 . The Times praised the county 's achievements during the year , and reserved special praise for Hewett ; " Somerset 's many brilliant feats , and the fine play of Messrs. Hewett and Palairet in particular , were a marked feature of this year 's cricket . " After the close of the County Championship , Hewett appeared in three representative matches , captaining the West to victory over the East , and appearing under the captaincy of W.G. Grace for both the South and the Gentlemen v Players .
= = Departure from Somerset = =
Hewett began the 1893 season in good form , reaching his half @-@ century in each of his first three matches for the county , including a total of 94 against Oxford University in late May . Hewett missed most of the match against Kent shortly after , returning to Taunton due to the death of his brother @-@ in @-@ law , during which time George Wood replaced him as a substitute . In July 1893 , the touring Australians played Somerset at Taunton for the first time since 1882 , when both the ground and the county team were barely established . After the success of the 1892 season , and because talented , Australian @-@ born Sammy Woods was playing for Somerset , the match was eagerly anticipated . Thousands arrived in Taunton for the match , but after overnight torrential rain , the umpires inspected the pitch at 11 : 00 and abandoned play for the day . In his history of the county club , Roebuck suggest that they may have been put under pressure by the Australians or by Hewett himself . The Somerset fans and members were angry at the decision , but the Australians packed picnic baskets and after exchanging strong words with the locals , departed for the Quantock Hills . Hewett , along with Woods and Vernon Hill , arranged to play golf in Minehead . The crowd continued to show their dismay at the decision , and eventually the Somerset officials asked the umpires to take another look at the ground . Woods supported this decision in his reminiscences , claiming that " the decision not to play was premature . " At 14 : 00 , after their second inspection , the umpires retracted their previous decision and announced that play could start . Hewett reacted angrily , and argued unsuccessfully against the decision with the Somerset committee . The Australian players were recalled from their picnic , and play began at 16 : 00 , although neither team particularly wanted to play . Roebuck recorded that " Hewett , in particular , was in high dudgeon and ... he threw away his wicket for 12 runs , having been dropped once . " David Foot offered a more tempered opinion , saying simply that Hewett 's " mind wasn 't on the game . " No play was possible on the second day , and on the third , Australia won the match by six wickets . Hewett felt let down by the Somerset committee , who he felt had undermined his authority , prompting him to say that " if a captain can 't lead at Taunton , this is no place for him . " Although friends thought he was overreacting , he declared that he would resign from the captaincy and the club at the end of the season . Both Foot and Roebuck suggested that Hewett reacted in an over @-@ sensitive and extreme manner , but that his lack of self @-@ control may have limited his long @-@ term captaincy prospects .
In his five further games for Somerset before the end of the season Hewett hit two centuries . He reached 120 runs against Nottinghamshire and against Gloucestershire , on his final appearance for the county , he scored 112 runs in just under two hours ; according to James Lillywhite 's Cricketers ' Annual , it " was a splendid display " . He scored 1 @,@ 092 runs in total during 1893 , of which his 669 for Somerset in the championship were scored at an average of 31 @.@ 85 , topping the county 's batting charts . During his five seasons of first @-@ class cricket for Somerset , he played 51 matches and scored 2 @,@ 592 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 85 .
= = Later cricket career and life = =
After leaving Somerset , Hewett did not continue in county cricket at all , opting to play first @-@ class cricket only for amateur and representative sides . At the tail @-@ end of the 1893 season , he played three times for the South , scoring two half @-@ centuries . In July 1894 , Hewett made the second of his two appearances for the Gentlemen against the Players . Unlike his first appearance , made at Hastings , the match was played at Lord 's Cricket Ground , which was generally considered to be the more prestigious Gentlemen v Players fixture of the season , being the more representative . These matches were keenly contested during the 1890s , and were considered to be second in prestige only to gaining a Test cap . Batting at number three , Hewett scored 12 runs out of the Gentlemen 's total of 254 , before Stanley Jackson and Hewett 's former Somerset colleague , Sammy Woods , bowled the Players out for 108 and 107 . He appeared 11 times in 1894 , scoring 579 runs at an average of 34 @.@ 05 , higher than the previous season . Woods described Hewett as being " in splendid form " when he played , and lamented that he was no longer playing for Somerset . He scored his only century of the season for A. J. Webbe 's XI , reaching 110 after opening the innings against Oxford University . He continued his form with the bat into 1895 , twice scoring centuries for the Gentlemen against the universities , making 109 against Cambridge , and 102 against Oxford . During this season Hewett appeared in his first match for the amateur side I Zingari , who had strong links with both Harrow School and Somerset president Sir Spencer Ponsonby @-@ Fane .
Hewett played all three matches of the 1895 Scarborough Festival ; he opened the innings for the MCC against Yorkshire , and then captained the South in their loss against the North . In the third match , Hewett was named captain of an England XI , a compliment for the former Somerset captain . However , rain meant that the start was delayed . Unlike a couple of years earlier , Hewett was happy to ignore the puddles in the field and start the match at the scheduled time . The umpires disagreed with him , and the crowd , wanting cricket , blamed Hewett for the delay and lack of sport . When he belatedly led his side onto the field , the spectators threw insults at him until the Yorkshire captain , Lord Hawke , shouted " Keep quiet or I 'll think about calling the game off " . Hewett did not bother with such threats , and left the field , got changed and departed from the ground , taking no further part in the game . Fred Spofforth replaced him in the match which the England side went on to win by nine wickets .
During the English winter of 1895 – 96 , Hewett once again toured with Lord Hawke , travelling to South Africa . Arriving too late to take part in the first match of the tour , he then played the next four matches , but was summoned back to England by important business . The tour included three matches against a South African national team which were deemed to be Tests , but by this stage of the tour Hewett had left South Africa , and he thus completed his cricket career without any Test appearances . He played his final first @-@ class match in 1896 , scoring 86 for the MCC against Oxford University . In this match , for unknown reasons , he appeared as " Mr. H Herbert " .
" When Mr ' Herbert ' came in to bat ... many of the spectators in the free seats did not recognise him , but after he had sampled an over or two , an old gentleman , who had shown some knowledge of the game , hit the nail on the head when he remarked : I don 't remember to have seen this Mr ' Erbert ' before but he 's ' class ' . "
He continued to play cricket for the Harrow Wanderers , MCC and I Zingari until 1901 . At the time of the 1901 Census , Hewett was living in Westminster . He was listed as head of the household , the only other resident being a servant .
Hewett practised as a barrister , having trained at the Inner Temple , where he passed at least one exam in 1890 . During the First World War , he served in the Territorial Force Reserve as an Assistant Provost Marshal , an appointment which he held from 7 September 1915 until 24 May 1918 . He died in Hove , Sussex on 4 March 1921 , and his funeral was held in Norton Fitzwarren four days later . His obituary in The Times describes only Hewett 's cricket career , and does not give any details about his later life . It does not mention a spouse or any children . The notice of his funeral in the same paper says : " The whole village [ of Norton Fitzwarren ] was in mourning and among those present at the graveside were Mr H. E. Murray Anderdon , president , and Mr S. M. J. Woods , secretary of the Somerset Cricket Club . "
= = Personality and style = =
When Hewett was named as one of the Five Batsmen of the Year by Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack in 1893 , the publication described him as " the finest left @-@ handed batsman in England " . He played in an unorthodox but attractive fashion , which prompted W.G. Grace to praise " his dashing and fearless hitting " , while remarking that he had an awkward style . In Somerset , Cider and Sixes , David Foot described that he was " possessed of an eagle eye , considerable meat and the ability to make his forcing shots attractive . " In Peter Roebuck 's From Sammy to Jimmy , he offered a similar portrait of Hewett 's batting style , adding that " he saw it as his task to conquer " . Hewett 's batting received praise in H. S. Altham and E. W. Swanton 's A History of Cricket , where he is described as a " singularly determined and venomous " batsman who " hit the ball in unexpected and demoralizing directions . " He frequently scored his runs rapidly , as described by the Reverend R.S. Holmes , who wrote of his batting against Nottinghamshire ; " the Captain scored at his usual rate – three out of four runs notched , represent his pace . Against Surrey he got 61 out of 81 , this time 60 out of the same total . That 's the kind of example every captain should set – a run a minute , or thereabouts . " In summary of the 1892 season The Cricket Annual notes that " the Somerset player , in fact , had established the reputation of being the most punishing batsman and rapid scorer of the day , and on last season 's form no representative eleven could be considered complete without him . " Sammy Woods claimed that Hewett disliked fielding , but offered the view that he was good at point . Woods also related how Hewett would chew on a toothpick , which he always had in his mouth when fielding , when his team was losing .
As evidenced by the manner in which Hewett left Somerset and walked off during the Scarborough Festival of 1895 , he possessed a short fuse . Team @-@ mate Frederic John Poynton characterised his captain as a player who suffered " from a deep , difficult nature , which once upset , took long to recover " . He was a strong leader who was both respected and feared by his colleagues . In 1885 , Somerset County Cricket Club had failed to field eleven players for some of their first @-@ class contests , and in most of their other matches were a poor side . Hewett took on the county captaincy in 1889 , and in his second year led his side unbeaten against fellow county opposition to win the ' Second @-@ class County Championship ' , and gain re @-@ admission to the first @-@ class game . Hewett 's batting and captaincy were aided by the emergence of Woods and Palairet , both of whom were named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year between 1889 and 1893 . In 1891 , Somerset finished joint fifth among the nine first @-@ class counties , while the subsequent year they rose to third . Hewett 's final season at Somerset was the county 's least successful under his captaincy , winning just four of their sixteen matches to finish in eighth .
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= Corbin Sharun =
Corbin Sharun ( born September 6 , 1988 ) is a professional Canadian football defensive back and special teams specialist who is currently a free agent . He was drafted by the Edmonton Eskimos in 2010 , where he played for five seasons . He played college football for the St. Francis Xavier University X @-@ Men and junior football for the Edmonton Wildcats .
= = Early career = =
Sharun was born in Edmonton , Alberta . He played high school football at Strathcona Composite High School as a quarterback , winning three consecutive city championships with the Strathcona Lords . He continued as a quarterback for the X @-@ Men at St. Francis Xavier University from 2006 to 2007 . In his freshman year , Sharun started three games before serving as a backup for the majority of his remaining time there . After discovering his father had colon cancer in early 2008 , Sharun joined the Edmonton Wildcats of the Canadian Junior Football League and switched to the safety position . The Edmonton Sun reported that he took on a defensive role to increase his likelihood of playing professionally . While with the championship @-@ winning Wildcats in 2009 , Sharun was named an All @-@ Canadian . He accumulated 25 tackles , five interceptions ( including one returned for a touchdown ) , and a fumble recovery in his final year with the Wildcats .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Edmonton Eskimos = = =
Sharun was selected by the Edmonton Eskimos in the sixth round of the 2010 CFL Draft before that year 's season with the 43rd overall pick . The Eskimos signed Sharun to a three @-@ year contract with an option for a fourth year on May 4 , 2010 .
Sharun participated in training camp with the Eskimos in 2010 and practiced with the first team as a safety , but was moved to the practice squad when the team was reduced to 46 players . The Eskimos went on to transfer Sharun between the active and practice rosters several times throughout the year . He made his CFL debut on July 11 , 2010 against the Montreal Alouettes , and later recorded his first special teams tackle on August 6 against the Toronto Argonauts . In a game against the Saskatchewan Roughriders on August 28 , Sharun blocked a punt to set up the Eskimos ' only touchdown along the way to scoring 17 unanswered points to win 17 – 14 . In his rookie season , Sharun recorded 16 special teams tackles while playing in 15 regular season games , along with one defensive tackle .
Sharun played in all 18 games throughout the regular season of 2011 . Cementing his role as a special teams player , Sharun made 25 special teams tackles in the regular season , tying the team 's single @-@ season record previously held solely by Bruce Dickinson . His franchise record was later broken by Deon Lacey in 2014 . He recorded the second highest total of special teams tackles in the CFL , leading the West division in that category . Playing against the Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats on July 9 , 2011 , Sharun recorded a career @-@ high four tackles . He made one special teams tackle during the playoffs . The Eskimos finished the season with a winning record of 11 – 7 and finished second in the West division . The Calgary Stampeders lost the West Finals to the BC Lions , eventual Grey Cup champions . Sharun was active in both playoff games .
Sharun played in 13 regular season games and registered 13 special teams tackles during the 2012 season . He was placed on the six @-@ game injured list in October . In a September 7 game against the Stampeders , Sharun caught an unlikely pass from third @-@ string quarterback and holder Matt Nichols following a failed field goal snap and ran 35 yards for both players ' first career touchdown .
In the 2013 CFL , Sharun played in 11 games and recorded 14 special teams tackles , including three total tackles in the September 6 game against the Stampeders . He began the season on the practice roster after being cut when the Eskimos reduced their roster to 46 players , but returned to the active roster on July 12 .
Sharun achieved nine special teams tackles over 13 games during the 2014 season . He also played in two playoff matches , recording an additional tackle . Sharun was placed on the injured list several times during the 2014 season , including a transfer to the six @-@ game injured list in September . Following the 2014 season , Sharun was signed to a contract extension by the Eskimos but was released prior to the start of the regular season in 2015 .
= = = Calgary Stampeders = = =
The Calgary Stampeders signed Sharun to their practice roster on July 28 , 2015 , where he remained for most of the season . He was activated for the West Final following an injury to Karl McCartney . In a loss at the West Final , Sharun made three special @-@ teams tackles against his former team , the Eskimos . On June 19 , 2016 , Sharun was released by the Stampeders .
= = Statistics = =
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= Arab – Khazar wars =
The Arab – Khazar wars were a series of conflicts fought between the armies of the Khazar Khaganate and the Umayyad Caliphate ( as well as its Abbasid successor ) and their respective vassals . Historians usually distinguish two major periods of conflict , the First ( сa . 642 – 652 ) and Second ( ca . 722 – 737 ) Arab – Khazar Wars , but the Arab – Khazar military confrontation involved several sporadic raids and isolated clashes as well , over a period from the middle of the 7th century to the end of the 8th century .
The Arab – Khazar wars were a result of the attempts of the Umayyad Caliphate to secure control of Transcaucasia and the North Caucasus , where the Khazars were already established . The first Arab invasion , in the 640s and early 650s , ended with the defeat of an Arab force led by Abd ar @-@ Rahman ibn Rabiah outside the Khazar town of Balanjar . Hostilities broke out again with the Caliphate in the 710s , with raids back and forth across the Caucasus . Led by the distinguished generals al @-@ Jarrah ibn Abdallah and Maslama ibn Abd al @-@ Malik , the Arabs were able to capture Derbent and even the southern Khazar capital of Balanjar , but this had little impact on the nomadic Khazars , who remained able to launch devastating raids deep into Transcaucasia . In one such raid in 730 , the Khazars inflicted a major defeat on the Umayyad forces at the Battle of Ardabil , killing al @-@ Jarrah , but were in turn defeated the next year and pushed back north . Maslama then recovered Derbent , which became a major Arab military outpost and colony , before being replaced by Marwan ibn Muhammad ( the future caliph Marwan II ) in 732 . A period of relatively localized warfare followed until 737 , when Marwan led north a massive expedition that reached the Khazar capital Atil on the Volga . After securing some form of submission by the khagan , the Arabs withdrew .
The 737 campaign marked the end of large @-@ scale warfare between the two powers , establishing Derbent as the northernmost Muslim outpost and securing Muslim dominance over Transcaucasia . At the same time , the long wars weakened the Umayyad army and contributed to the eventual fall of the dynasty a few years later . Relations between the Muslims of the Caucasus and the Khazars remained largely peaceful thereafter , apart from two Khazar raids in the 760s and in 799 , resulting from failed efforts to secure a marriage alliance between the Arab governors or local princes of the Caucasus and the Khazar khagan . Occasional warfare continued in the region between the Khazars and the local Muslim principalities of the Caucasus until the collapse of the Khazar state in the late 10th century , but the great wars of the 8th century were never repeated .
= = Background and strategic motives = =
The Arab – Khazar wars were part of a long series of military conflicts between the nomadic peoples of the Pontic @-@ Caspian steppe and the more settled regions south of the Caucasus range , dating back to Antiquity . The two great passes over the Caucasus , the Darial Pass ( " Alan Gates " ) in the centre and the Pass of Derbent ( " Caspian Gates " ) had been used as invasion routes since Classical times , and their defence against the destructive raids of the steppe peoples came to be regarded as one of the chief duties of imperial regimes to the south . Thus the shahs of the Sassanid Empire , from Peroz I ( r . 457 – 484 ) to Khosrau I ( r . 531 – 579 ) , built a long line of fortifications from the Caucasus to the Caspian Sea . Derbent itself , which would feature prominently in the Arab – Khazar conflict , was built by the Persians in the early 6th century as a strategic choke @-@ point and gateway ( its name in Persian , Dar @-@ band , means " Knot of the Gates " ) between the north and south . This is reflected in the popular belief among Middle Eastern cultures that Alexander the Great had with divine assistance barred the Caucasus against the hordes of " Gog and Magog " , commonly regarded as an echo of the invasions by the Scythians and the Huns . Eventually , the Khazars would take their place , and early medieval writers came to identify the Khazars with Gog and Magog .
Since the nascent Caliphate regarded itself as the heir of the Sassanid ( and to a lesser extent , Byzantine ) tradition and " civilizational consciousness " , the Arab caliphs also adopted the notion that , in the words of the historian Gerald Mako , it was their duty " to protect the settled , i.e. the civilized world from the northern barbarian " . To this imperative was added the Muslim concept of division of the world into the " House of Islam " ( Dar al @-@ Islam ) and the " House of War " ( Dar al @-@ Harb ) , to which the pagan Turkic nomads were consigned . The two armies consequently represented two different military philosophies . While the Umayyad armies disposed of a sizeable cavalry contingent , both light and heavy , their mainstay was the infantry , to the extent that in battle the Arab cavalry was often limited to skirmishing during the initial phases , before dismounting and fighting on foot . The Khazars on the other hand , although they had adopted elements of the civilizations of the south and possessed towns , remained a largely tribal and semi @-@ nomadic power . Like their Central Asian counterparts , they practiced a highly mobile form of warfare , relying on their highly skilled and hardy cavalry . As the historian Khalid Yahya Blankinship writes , " the Khazars were to prove difficult opponents for the Muslims , perhaps partly because their state was not highly organized and thus did not have a center whose fall would bring about a sudden collapse and rapid surrender " . The eastern Caucasus range became the main theatre of the Arab – Khazar conflict , with the Arab armies aiming to gain control of Derbent ( known in Arabic as Bab al @-@ Abwab , " Gate of Gates " ) and the Khazar cities of Balanjar and Samandar , whose location has yet to be established with certainty by modern researchers . Both of the latter are referred to as Khazar capitals by different Arab writers , and may have functioned as winter and summer capitals respectively . It was only later , under the impact of the Arab attacks , that the Khazars moved their capital further north , to Atil on the mouths of the Volga .
To an extent , the Arab – Khazar wars were also linked to the struggle of the Caliphate against the Byzantine Empire along the eastern fringes of Asia Minor , a theatre of war which adjoined the Caucasus . The Byzantine emperors pursued close relations with the Khazars , which amounted to a virtual alliance for most of the period in question , including such exceptional acts as the marriage of emperor Justinian II ( r . 685 – 695 ; 705 – 711 ) to a Khazar princess in 705 . The possibility of the Khazars linking up with the Byzantines through Armenia was a grave threat to the Caliphate , especially given its proximity to the Umayyad metropolitan province of Syria . This did not materialize , and Armenia was left largely quiet , with the Umayyads granting it wide @-@ ranging autonomy and the Byzantines likewise refraining from active campaigning there . Indeed , given the common threat posed by the Khazar raids , the Umayyads found the Armenians ( and the neighbouring Georgians ) willing allies against the Khazars . Although some Byzantinists , notably Dimitri Obolensky , suggested that the Arab – Khazar wars were motivated by a Muslim desire to outflank the Byzantine defences from the north , this idea is not borne out by the limited nature of the conflict before until the 720s . It is more probable that the Byzantines encouraged the Khazars to attack the Caliphate to relieve the mounting pressure on their own eastern frontier in the early 8th century , as indeed they profited considerably from the diversion of the Muslim armies northwards in the 720s and 730s , resulting in another marriage alliance , between the future emperor Constantine V ( r . 741 – 775 ) and the Khazar princess Tzitzak in 733 .
The issue of control over the northern branch of the Silk Road by the Caliphate has been suggested as a further motive for the conflict , but G. Mako disputes this claim by pointing out that warfare declined at precisely the period of the greatest expansion of traffic along the Silk Road , i.e. after the middle of the 8th century .
= = First conflicts : the First Arab – Khazar War and aftermath = =
The Khazars themselves first campaigned in the Caucasus during the Byzantine – Sassanid War of 602 – 628 , as a subject of the Western Turkic Khaganate . The Turks sacked Derbent and joined the Byzantines in their siege of Tiflis . Their contribution proved decisive for the eventual Byzantine victory in the war . For a few years afterwards , until ca . 632 , the Khazars exercised some control over Caucasian Iberia ( approximately modern Georgia ) , Caucasian Albania ( modern Azerbaijan ) and Adharbayjan ( modern Iranian Azerbaijan ) .
The Khazars and the Arabs came into conflict as a result of the first phase of Muslim expansion : by 640 , the Arabs had reached Armenia , and in 642 , they launched their first raid across the Caucasus under Abd ar @-@ Rahman ibn Rabiah . In 645 / 646 , the Arabs defeated a Byzantine army in Armenia , reinforced with Khazar and Alan contingents . It was followed by an attempt in 651 / 652 to advance onto the Khazar capital , Balanjar , but the Arabs were heavily defeated in a battle before the city , resulting in the death of Abd ar @-@ Rahman 's brother Salman and 4 @,@ 000 Muslim troops . Three years later , the Khazars repelled a retaliatory campaign under Habib ibn Maslama .
Due to the outbreak of the First Muslim Civil War and the Arab priorities on other fronts , the Muslims refrained from repeating an attack on the Khazars until the early 8th century . The Khazars , on their part , only launched a few raids into the Transcaucasian principalities that were loosely under Muslim dominion : in 661 / 662 , they launched a raid into Albania but were defeated by the local prince ; in 683 or 685 ( also a time of civil war in the Muslim world ) , a large @-@ scale raid across Transcaucasia was more successful , capturing much booty and many prisoners .
= = Climax : the Second Arab – Khazar War = =
Relations between the two powers remained relatively quiet until the early years of the 8th century , by which time the stage for a new round of conflict was set : by this time , Byzantine political authority had been marginalized in the Caucasus , and the Caliphate tightened its grip on Armenia after the suppression of a large @-@ scale rebellion in 705 . With Armenia annexed into the Caliphate , the Arabs and the Khazars faced each other for control of the Caucasus . Only the western parts of Transcaucasia , comprising modern Georgia , remained free from direct control by either of the two rival powers . War broke out in 713 / 714 , when the Umayyad general Maslama , a son of the Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 685 – 705 ) , conquered Derbent . Maslama then drove deeper into Khazar territory , trying , without success , to subdue the Huns living north of the Caucasus ( who were Khazar vassals ) . The Khazars opposed him under the general Alp ' , but also launched raids to the south into Albania in response . In 717 , the Khazars raided in force into Adharbayjan , but they were driven back by the Arabs under Hatin ibn al @-@ Nu 'man .
= = = Escalation of the conflict = = =
In 721 / 722 , the main phase of the war began . In the winter of this year , 30 @,@ 000 Khazars launched an invasion of Armenia and inflicted a crushing defeat on the mostly Syrian army of the local governor Mi 'laq ibn Saffar al @-@ Bahrani at Marj al @-@ Hijara in February / March 722 . In response , Caliph Yazid II ( r . 720 – 724 ) sent one of his most celebrated generals , al @-@ Jarrah ibn Abdallah , with 25 @,@ 000 Syrian troops north . Al @-@ Jarrah was swiftly successful in driving the Khazars back across the Caucasus , recovered Derbent and even advanced on Balanjar . The Khazars tried to defend their capital by ringing the citadel with a laager of wagons , but the Arabs broke it apart and stormed the city on 21 August 722 or 723 . Most of Balanjar 's inhabitants were killed or enslaved , but a few managed to flee north . Despite their success , however , the Arabs had not yet defeated the main Khazar army , which like all nomad forces was not dependent on cities for supplies . The continuing threat of the Khazar army forced the Arabs to abandon any attempt to capture Samandar as well , and to retreat to Warthan south of the Caucasus . The sources are obscure on al @-@ Jarrah 's activity in 723 , but he seems to have led another campaign north ( which may indeed be the Balanjar campaign ) . In response , the Khazars raided south of the Caucasus , but in February 724 , al @-@ Jarrah inflicted a crushing defeat on them in a battle between the rivers Cyrus and Araxes that lasted for several days . Al @-@ Jarrah followed up his success by capturing Tiflis and bringing Caucasian Iberia and the lands of the Alans under Muslim suzerainty , becoming the first Muslim commander to campaign through the Darial Pass in the process . This secured the Muslims ' own flank against a possible Khazar attack through the Darial , while conversely it gave the Muslim army a second invasion route into Khazar territory .
In 725 , the new Caliph , Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 724 – 743 ) replaced al @-@ Jarrah with his own brother Maslama , who already held the post of governor of the Jazira . For the time being , Maslama remained in the Jazira and was more concerned with operations against the Byzantines . In his stead , he sent al @-@ Harith ibn Amr al @-@ Ta 'i to the Caucasus front . In 725 , al @-@ Harith was engaged in consolidating Muslim authority in Albania , campaigning along the Cyrus against the regions of al @-@ Lakz and Khasmadan . He was probably also preoccupied with supervising that year 's census . In the next year , however , Barjik , one of the Khazar khagan 's sons , launched a major invasion of Albania and Adharbayjan . The Khazars even laid siege to Warthan , during which they employed mangonels . The use of such advanced siege machines shows , according to K.Y. Blankinship , that the Khazars were " a militarily sophisticated nation , not a mere disorganized pack of barbarians " . Al @-@ Harith was able to defeat them on the banks of the Araxes and drive them back north of the river , but the Arabs ' position was clearly precarious .
This prompted Maslama to take over personally the direction of the Khazar front in 727 , where now he was faced , for the first time , by the khagan himself , as both sides escalated the conflict . Maslama , probably reinforced with more Syrian and Jaziran troops , took the offensive . He recovered the Darial Pass , apparently lost in the period since al @-@ Jarrah 's expedition in 724 , and pushed on into Khazar territory , campaigning there until the onset of winter forced him to return to Adharbayjan . What he achieved in this expedition is unclear , but in the next year , when he repeated his invasion , it ended in what K.Y. Blankinship calls a " near disaster " . Arab sources report that the Arab troops fought for thirty or even forty days in the mud , under continuous rainfall , before scoring a victory against the khagan on 17 September 728 . How great that victory was , however , is open to question , because on his return Maslama was ambushed by the Khazars , whereupon the Arabs simply abandoned their baggage train and fled headlong through the Darial Pass to safety . In the aftermath of this campaign , Maslama was replaced yet again by al @-@ Jarrah al @-@ Hakami . For all his energy , Maslama 's campaigning failed to produce the desired results : by 729 , the Arabs had lost control of northeastern Transcaucasia and been thrust once more into the defensive , with al @-@ Jarrah again having to defend Azerbaijan against a Khazar invasion .
= = = Ardabil and the Arab reaction = = =
In 730 , al @-@ Jarrah returned to the offensive through Tiflis and the Darial Pass . Arab sources report that he reached as far as the Khazar capital , al @-@ Bayda , on the Volga , but modern historians such as Blankinship consider this improbable . The Khazars launched a counterstroke under a certain Tharmach , which forced al @-@ Jarrah to retreat south of the Caucasus once again to defend Albania . It is unclear whether the Khazars came through the Darial Pass or the Caspian Gates , but they managed to move around al @-@ Jarrah 's army at Bardha 'a and lay siege to Ardabil . The city was the capital of Adharbayjan , and the mass of the Muslim settlers and their families , some 30 @,@ 000 in total , lived within its walls . When al @-@ Jarrah learned of this , he led his army in a rapid march south and engaged the Khazars outside the city walls . There , after a three @-@ day battle on 7 – 9 December 730 , al @-@ Jarrah 's army of 25 @,@ 000 was all but annihilated by the Khazars under Barjik . Al @-@ Jarrah also fell and command passed to his brother al @-@ Hajjaj , who was unable to prevent the sacking of Ardabil . The 10th @-@ century historian Agapius of Hierapolis reports that the Khazars took as many as 40 @,@ 000 prisoners from the city , al @-@ Jarrah 's army , and the surrounding countryside . The Khazars raided the province at will , sacking Ganza and attacking other settlements , with some detachments reaching as far as Mosul in the northern Jazira , adjacent to the Umayyad metropolitan province of Syria .
The defeat at Ardabil was a major shock to the Muslims , who for the first time faced an enemy penetrating so deep within the borders of the Caliphate , and Caliph Hisham appointed the veteran military leader Sa 'id ibn Amr al @-@ Harashi to take command against the Khazars . Although the forces he could muster immediately ( including refugees from Ardabil who had to be paid ten gold dinars to be persuaded to fight ) were small , Sa 'id managed to recover Akhlat on Lake Van . From there he moved northeast to Bardha 'a and south again to relieve the siege of Warthan . Near Bajarwan Sa 'id came upon a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Khazar army , which he defeated , killing most of the Khazars , and rescuing the prisoners they had with them . The surviving Khazars fled north , with Sa 'id in pursuit . Despite this success , Sa 'id was relieved of his command in early 731 and even imprisoned for a while as a result of the jealousy of Maslama , whom Hisham re @-@ appointed as governor of Armenia and Adharbayjan . Maslama came to the Caucasus with many Jaziran troops and took to the offensive . He restored the provinces of Albania to Muslim allegiance through exemplary punishment of those who resisted his advance , and reached Derbent , where he found a Khazar garrison . Bypassing the fortress , Maslama advanced north , following the retreating Khazars . Although the details of this campaign in the sources may be confused with that of 728 , it appears that he took Khamzin , Balanjar , and Samandar before being forced to retreat again after a confrontation with the khagan himself , in which Barjik was reportedly killed and the khagan wounded . The Khazars shadowed Maslama 's march south and attacked him near Derbent , but the Arab army dug a trench and defeated them . Taking advantage of his victory , Maslama evicted the Khazars from Derbent by poisoning their water supply and re @-@ founded the city as a military colony , garrisoning it with 24 @,@ 000 mostly Syrian troops . After that he returned with the rest of his army ( mostly the favoured Jaziran and Qinnasrini contingents ) south of the Caucasus for the winter , while the Khazars re @-@ occupied their abandoned towns . Despite the capture of Derbent , Maslama 's record was apparently unsatisfactory for Hisham , who replaced his brother in March 732 with Marwan ibn Muhammad , who would later reign as the last Umayyad caliph in 744 – 750 .
In the summer of 732 , Marwan led 40 @,@ 000 men north into Khazar lands . The accounts of this campaign are confused : Ibn A 'tham records that he reached Balanjar and returned to Derbent with much captured livestock , but the campaign is described in terms strongly reminiscent of Maslama 's expeditions in 728 and 731 , and its veracity is open to doubt . Ibn Khayyat on the other hand reports that Marwan led a far more limited campaign on the country immediately to the north of Derbent and then retired there to spend the winter . Marwan was more active in the south , where he raised Ashot III Bagratuni to the position of presiding prince of Armenia , effectively granting the country broad autonomy in exchange for the service of its soldiers alongside the Caliphate 's armies . This unique concession points , according to Blankinship , to the worsening manpower crisis faced by the Caliphate . At about the same time , the Khazars and Byzantines strengthened their ties and formalized their alliance against their common enemy with the marriage of Constantine V to the Khazar princess Tzitzak .
= = = Final phase of the war = = =
After Marwan 's 732 expedition , a period of quiet set in . Marwan was replaced as governor of Armenia and Adharbayjan in spring 733 by Sa 'id al @-@ Harashi , but he undertook no campaigns at all until 735 , when he lost his sight and resigned . Marwan was then re @-@ appointed to the post , but he too was unable to launch anything but local expeditions until 737 : three fortresses near the Darial Pass and the ruler of a North Caucasian principality , Tuman Shah , were captured in 735 , while another local prince , Wartanis , was defeated and killed in 736 . Blankinship attributes this inactivity to the exhaustion of the Arab armies and draws a parallel with the contemporaneous quiet phase in Transoxiana in 732 – 734 , where the Arabs had also suffered a series of costly defeats at the hands of Turkic nomads . In addition , Agapius and Michael the Syrian record that the Arabs and the Khazars concluded peace , information which Muslim sources ignore or downplay to a tactical ruse by Marwan designed to gain time for his preparations .
The Arabs prepared a massive strike for 737 , however , intended to end the war for good . Marwan apparently went to Damascus in person to persuade Hisham to back this project and was successful : an army 120 @,@ 000 strong was assembled , comprising regular forces of Syria and the Jazira , as well as volunteers for the jihad , Armenian troops under Ashot Bagratuni , and even armed camp followers and servants . The number is clearly an exaggeration , but whatever the real size of Marwan 's army , it was a huge force and certainly the largest ever sent against the Khazars . Marwan first secured his rear by subduing the Armenian factions who were hostile to the Arabs and their client Ashot . He then pushed into Iberia , driving its Chosroid ruler to seek refuge in the fortress of Anakopia on the Black Sea coast , in the Byzantine protectorate of Abkhazia . Marwan laid siege to Anakopia itself , but he was forced to retire due to the outbreak of dysentery among his troops .
Marwan now launched a two @-@ pronged offensive against the Khazars : 30 @,@ 000 men under the governor of Derbent , Asid ibn Zafir al @-@ Sulami , advanced north along the coast of the Caspian Sea , while Marwan himself with the bulk of his forces crossed the Darial Pass . The two armies met at Samandar , and from there Marwan pushed on , reaching , according to some Arab sources , the Khazar capital of Atil ( al @-@ Bayda ' ) on the Volga . Most Arab sources contain few details on the campaign , but Ibn A 'tham reports that Marwan attacked the Slavs living in the region and took 40 @,@ 000 captives . As the Khazars avoided battle , he then sent a detachment of 40 @,@ 000 troops across the Volga under al @-@ Kawthar ibn al @-@ Aswad al- ' Anbari , which surprised the Khazars in a swamp . In the ensuing battle , the Arabs killed 10 @,@ 000 Khazars , including the tarkhan , and took 7 @,@ 000 captive . Thereupon the Khazar khagan himself is said to have requested peace and to have converted to Islam and recognized the Caliph 's authority . Marwan also took with him large numbers of Slav and Khazar captives , whom he resettled in the eastern Caucasus : some 20 @,@ 000 Slavs were settled at Kakheti , according to al @-@ Baladhuri , while the Khazars were resettled at al @-@ Lakz . The Slavs killed their Arab governor and fled north , but Marwan rode after them and killed them .
Marwan 's 737 expedition was the climax of the Arab – Khazar wars , but its actual results were meagre . Although the Arab campaigns after Ardabil may indeed have discouraged the Khazars from further warfare , any recognition of Islam or of Arab supremacy by the khagan was evidently conditional upon the presence of Arab troops deep in Khazar territory , and such presence could not be sustained for long . Furthermore , the credibility of the conversion of the khagan to Islam is disputed : al @-@ Baladhuri 's account , which probably reflects closer the original sources , suggests that it was not the khagan but a minor lord who converted to Islam and was placed in charge of the Khazars at al @-@ Lakz . The conversion of the khagan is also apparently contradicted by the fact that c . 740 the Khazar court embraced Judaism as its official faith , a decision which clearly owed a great deal to the determination of the Khazars to avoid assimilation by and emphasize their independence from the Christian Byzantine and the Muslim Arab empires .
Whatever the true impact of Marwan 's campaigns , warfare between the Khazars and the Arabs ceased for more than two decades after 737 . Arab military activity in the Caucasus continued until 741 , with Marwan launching repeated expeditions against the various princes of the northern Caucasus , most notably Tuman Shah . Nevertheless , these campaigns , according to Blankinship , seem to have been closer to raids , designed to seize plunder and extract tribute to pay for the upkeep of the Arab army , rather than attempts at permanent conquest . Despite the Umayyad success at establishing a more or less stable frontier anchored at Derbent , Blankinship is also critical of the long @-@ term results of the Second Arab – Khazar War : Arab control was in reality limited to the lowlands and coast , and the land itself was too poor to recompense the expenses sustained during the wars . Furthermore , the need to maintain the large garrison at Derbent further depleted the already overstretched Syro @-@ Jaziran army , the main pillar of the Umayyad regime . Eventually , this weakening of the Syrian army would be the major factor in the fall of the Umayyad dynasty during the Muslim civil wars of the 740s and the Abbasid Revolution that followed them .
= = Later conflicts = =
The Khazars resumed their raids on Muslim territory after the Abbasid succession , reaching deep into Transcaucasia . Nevertheless , although by the 9th century the Khazars had re @-@ consolidated their control over Dagestan almost to the gates of Derbent itself , they never seriously attempted to challenge Muslim control of the southern Caucasus .
The first conflict between the Khazars and the Abbasids resulted from a diplomatic manoeuvre by the Caliph al @-@ Mansur ( r . 754 – 775 ) . Attempting to strengthen the Caliphate 's ties with the Khazars , in c . 760 he ordered his governor of Armenia , Yazid al @-@ Sulami , to marry a daughter of the khagan Baghatur . The marriage indeed took place amidst much celebration , but she died in childbirth two years later , along with her infant child . The khagan suspected the Muslims of poisoning his daughter , and launched devastating raids south of the Caucasus in 762 – 764 : under the leadership of a Khwarezmian tarkhan named Ras , the Khazars devastated Albania , Armenia , and Iberia , where they captured Tiflis . Yazid himself managed to escape capture , but the Khazars returned north with thousands of captives and much booty . A few years later , however , in 780 , when the deposed Iberian ruler Nerse tried to induce the Khazars to campaign against the Abbasids and restore him to his throne , the khagan refused . This was probably the result of a brief period of anti @-@ Byzantine orientation in Khazar foreign policy , resulting from disputes between the two powers in the Crimea . During the same period , the Khazars helped Leon II of Abkhazia throw off Byzantine overlordship .
Peace reigned in the Caucasus between Arabs and Khazars until 799 , when the last major Khazar attack into Transcaucasia took place . Chroniclers again attribute this attack to a failed marriage alliance . According to Georgian sources , the khagan desired to marry the beautiful Shushan , daughter of Prince Archil of Kakheti ( r . 736 – 786 ) , and he sent his general Buljan to invade Iberia and capture her . Most of the central region of K 'art 'li was occupied , and Prince Juansher ( r . 786 – 807 ) was taken off into captivity for a few years , but rather than be taken off captive , Shushan committed suicide and the furious khagan had Buljan executed . Arab chroniclers , on the other hand , attribute this to the plans of the Abbasid governor al @-@ Fadl ibn Yahya ( one of the famous Barmakids ) to marry one of the khagan 's daughters , who died on her journey south , while a different story is reported by al @-@ Tabari , whereby the Khazars were invited to attack by a local Arab magnate in retaliation against the execution of his father , the governor of Derbent , by the general Sa 'id ibn Salm . According to the Arab sources , the Khazars then raided as far as the Araxes , necessitating the dispatch of troops under Yazid ibn Mazyad , as the new governor of Transcaucasia , with more forces under Khazim ibn Khuzayma in reserve .
Arabs and Khazars continued to clash sporadically in the North Caucasus in the 9th and 10th centuries , but warfare was localized and of far lower intensity than the great wars of the 8th century . Thus the Ottoman historian Münejjim Bashi records a period of warfare lasting from ca . 901 until 912 , perhaps linked to the Caspian raids of the Rus ' at about the same time , whom the Khazars allowed to pass through their lands unhindered . The Khazar threat receded with the progressive collapse of Khazar power in the 10th century and defeats at the hands of the Rus ' and other Turkic nomads like the Oghuz Turks . The Khazar realm contracted to its core around the lower Volga , and became removed from reach of the Arab Muslim principalities of the Caucasus . Thus Ibn al @-@ Athir 's reports of a war between the Shaddadids of Ganja with the " Khazars " in 1030 probably refers to the Georgians instead . In the end , the last Khazars found refuge among their former enemies . Münejjim Bashi records that in 1064 , " the remnants of the Khazars , consisting of three thousand households , arrived in Qahtan [ somewhere in Dagestan ] from the Khazar territory . They rebuilt it and settled in it " .
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= Aqualung ( Jethro Tull album ) =
Aqualung is the fourth studio album by the rock band Jethro Tull . Released in 1971 , Aqualung , despite the band 's disagreement , is regarded as a concept album featuring a central theme of " the distinction between religion and God " . The album 's " dour musings on faith and religion " have marked it as " one of the most cerebral albums ever to reach millions of rock listeners " . Aqualung 's success marked a turning point in the band 's career , who went on to become a major radio and touring act .
Recorded at Island Records ' studio in London , it was their first album with John Evan as a full @-@ time member , their first with new bassist Jeffrey Hammond and last album featuring Clive Bunker on drums . Something of a departure from the band 's previous work , the album features more acoustic material than previous releases ; and — inspired by photographs of homeless people on the Thames Embankment taken by singer Ian Anderson 's wife Jennie — contains a number of recurring themes , addressing religion along with Anderson 's own personal experiences .
Aqualung has sold more than seven million units worldwide according to Anderson , and is thus Jethro Tull 's best selling album . The album was generally well @-@ received critically , and has been included on several music magazine " best of " lists . The album spawned two singles , " Hymn 43 " and " Locomotive Breath " .
= = Production = =
After an American tour in 1970 , bass player Glenn Cornick was fired from the band , and was replaced with Jeffrey Hammond , an old friend of Ian Anderson 's . Aqualung would be the first recording Hammond would do with the band . It would also mark the first time John Evan had recorded a full album with the band , as his only prior involvement was to overdub several keyboard parts on the previous album , Benefit . The album was one of the first to be recorded at the newly opened studios of Island Records in Basing Street , London . Led Zeppelin were recording their untitled fourth album at the same time . In an interview on the 25th anniversary edition of the album , Tull 's bandleader Ian Anderson said that trying to record in that studio was very difficult , because of its " horrible , cold , echoey " feel . There were two recording studios at the location ; Led Zeppelin worked in the smaller studio while Tull got the larger , which was the main body of a converted church . The orchestrals were arranged by David Palmer , who had worked with the band since 1968 's This Was , and would later join as a keyboard player . Aqualung would be the last Jethro Tull album to include Clive Bunker as a band member , as he retired shortly after recording to start a family .
= = Musical style = =
The songs on the album cover a variety of musical genres , with elements of folk , blues , psychedelia and hard rock . The " riff @-@ heavy " nature of tracks such as " Locomotive Breath " , " Hymn 43 " and " Wind Up " is regarded as a factor in the band 's increased success after the release of the album , with Jethro Tull becoming " a major arena act " and a " fixture on FM radio " according to AllMusic . In a stylistic departure from Jethro Tull 's earlier albums , many of Aqualung 's songs are primarily acoustic . " Cheap Day Return " , " Wond 'ring Aloud " and " Slipstream " are short , completely acoustic " bridges " , and " Mother Goose " is also mostly acoustic . Anderson claims his main inspirations for writing the album were Roy Harper and Bert Jansch .
= = Themes = =
Aqualung has widely been regarded as a concept album , featuring a central theme of " the distinction between religion and God " . The album 's " dour musings on faith and religion " have marked it as " one of the most cerebral albums ever to reach millions of rock listeners " . Academic discussions of the nature of concept albums have frequently listed Aqualung amongst their number .
The initial idea for the album was sparked by some photographs that Anderson 's wife Jennie took of homeless people on the Thames Embankment . The appearance of one man in particular caught the interest of the couple , who together wrote the title song " Aqualung " . The first side of the LP , titled Aqualung , contains several character sketches , including the eponymous character of the title track , and the schoolgirl prostitute Cross @-@ Eyed Mary , as well as two autobiographical tracks , including " Cheap Day Return " , written by Anderson after a visit to his critically ill father .
The second side , titled My God , contains three tracks — " My God , " " Hymn 43 " and " Wind @-@ Up " — that address religion in an introspective , and sometimes irreverent , manner . However , despite the names given to the album 's two sides and their related subject matter , Anderson has consistently maintained that Aqualung is not a " concept album " . A 2005 interview included on Aqualung Live gives Anderson 's thoughts on the matter :
I always said at the time that this is not a concept album ; this is just an album of varied songs of varied instrumentation and intensity in which three or four are the kind of keynote pieces for the album but it doesn 't make it a concept album . In my mind when it came to writing the next album , Thick as a Brick , was done very much in the sense of : ' Whuh , if they thought Aqualung was a concept album , Oh ! Okay , we 'll show you a concept album . ' And it was done as a kind of spoof , a send @-@ up , of the concept album genre . ... But Aqualung itself , in my mind was never a concept album . Just a bunch of songs .
Drummer Clive Bunker believes that the record 's perception as a concept album is a case of " Chinese whispers " , explaining " you play the record to a couple of Americans , tell them that there 's a lyrical theme loosely linking a few songs , and then notice the figure of the Aqualung character on the cover , and suddenly the word is out that Jethro Tull have done a concept album " .
The thematic elements Jethro Tull explored on the album — those of the effects of urbanisation on nature , and of the effects of social constructs such as religion on society — would be developed further on most of the band 's subsequent releases . Ian Anderson 's frustration over the album 's labelling as a concept album directly led to the creation of Thick as a Brick ( 1972 ) , intended to be a deliberately " over the top " concept album in response .
= = = Other songs = = =
" Lick Your Fingers Clean " was recorded for Aqualung , but was not included on the album . The song was drastically re @-@ worked as " Two Fingers " for Tull 's 1974 album , War Child . " Lick Your Fingers Clean " was eventually released in 1988 on the 20 Years of Jethro Tull collection . It was then released as a bonus track on the 1996 and 2011 reissues of Aqualung .
Another song , " Wond 'ring Again " was recorded in early sessions in 1970 and considered for release on the album before Anderson decided to drop it from the final track listing . It was subsequently released on the compilation album , Living in the Past , in 1972 . However , elements of the song — essentially its coda — were included on Aqualung as " Wond 'ring Aloud " . Glenn Cornick played bass on the song and says it is his favourite song he recorded with the band . Cornick also played bass on early studio recordings of " My God " and " a couple of other songs " , though he did not say which they were .
= = Album cover = =
The album 's original cover art by Burton Silverman features a watercolour portrait of a long @-@ haired , bearded man in shabby clothes . The idea for the cover came from a photograph Anderson 's wife took of a homeless man on Thames Embankment , and Anderson later felt it would have been better to have used the photograph rather than commission the painting . Ian Anderson recalls posing for a photograph for the painting , though Silverman claims it was a self @-@ portrait . The artwork was commissioned and purchased by Chrysalis Records head Terry Ellis . Artist Silverman claims the art was only licensed for use as an album cover , and not for merchandising ; and approached the band seeking remuneration for its further use . Silverman and Anderson have different accounts of level of enmity involved in this . The original artwork for both the front and back covers are now privately owned by an unknown family , apparently having been stolen from a London hotel room .
= = Release = =
In April 1971 , Aqualung peaked at number four on the UK Album Chart ; when the CD version was released in 1996 , it reached number 52 . It peaked at No. 7 on the Billboard Music Charts ' North American pop albums chart ; the single " Hymn 43 " hit No. 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The album would go on to sell over seven million copies , and is the band 's best @-@ selling album . Aqualung was one of only two Jethro Tull albums released in quadraphonic sound , the other being War Child ( 1974 ) . The quadraphonic version of " Wind Up " , which is in a slightly higher key , is included on the later CD reissue of the album as " Wind Up ( quad version ) " .
The single " Hymn 43 " was released on 14 August 1971 , and reached number 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts , spending two weeks in the chart . The song was the first single released by the band in the United States . It was later included in the video game Rock Band 2 as downloadable content ; which also featured the album 's title track .
The album was re @-@ released in a fortieth anniversary edition on 31 October 2011 . The release contains a new stereo and 5 @.@ 1 surround remix of the album by British musician and producer Steven Wilson , and comes in two different editions — a " collector 's edition " containing the album on LP and two CDs , as well as DVD and Blu @-@ ray discs and a hardback book ; and a " special edition " containing the two CDs and an abridged version of the book . Justifying the remix , Steven Wilson said : " Jethro Tull 's Aqualung is ... a masterpiece , but was sonically a very poor @-@ sounding record . So , some didn 't rate it as highly as they should have . What we did with Aqualung was really make that record gleam in a way it never gleamed before . I think a lot of people , including myself , have come around to thinking that the album Is a lot better than they even gave it credit for previously . So , there is certainly something very gratifying about being able to polish what was already a diamond and making it shine in a way it never has before " . Additionally , according to mastering engineer Steve Hoffman there were tape stretching problems with the original session mixdown master , implying that many editions of the album used multigeneration copies as their source .
= = Critical reception = =
Aqualung received mixed to favourable reviews from contemporary music critics . Rolling Stone magazine 's Ben Gerson lauded its " fine musicianship " , calling it " serious and intelligent " , although he felt that the album 's seriousness " undermined " its quality . Sounds said that its " taste and variety " made it the band 's " finest " work . Aqualung was voted the 22nd best album of 1971 in The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Robert Christgau , the poll 's creator , was more critical of the album in a 1981 review , and described Anderson 's undeveloped cultural interests and negative views on religion and human behaviour as both boring and pretentious .
In retrospective reviews the album is generally lauded and viewed as a classic . AllMusic 's Bruce Eder called Aqualung " a bold statement " and " extremely profound " . In a review of the album 's 40th anniversary re @-@ release , Sean Murphy of PopMatters said that Aqualung " is , to be certain , a cornerstone of the then @-@ nascent prog @-@ rock canon , but it did — and does — exist wholly on its own terms as a great rock album , period " . Murphy also praised the additional material featured on the release , finding that the new content was " where a great album gets even better " . Steve Harris , the bass player for the heavy metal band Iron Maiden , has called Aqualung " a classic album " , lauding its " fantastic playing , fantastic songs , attitude [ and ] vibe " . Iron Maiden would go on to cover " Cross @-@ Eyed Mary " as the B @-@ side of their 1983 single " The Trooper " .
Aqualung has also been appraised highly in retrospective listings , compiled by music writers and magazines ( see Accolades ) . Even Martin Barre 's solo on the album 's title track was included in Guitarist magazine 's list of " The 20 Greatest Guitar Solos of All Time " at number 20 .
= = Track listing = =
= = = 1971 original release = = =
All songs written and composed by Ian Anderson , except where noted .
Note that original North American Reprise Records pressings of Aqualung contained a slightly edited version of the title song , with its first three seconds ( i.e. , the first repetition of the song 's signature riff ) removed . These pressings correspondingly list the song 's length at 6 : 31 .
= = = 1996 CD release = = =
= = = 2011 40th anniversary release = = =
The 2011 edition was remixed by Steven Wilson and mastered by Peter Mew . The mastering received some criticism , so in April 2016 a new version was released - this time mastered by Wilson .
= = Personnel = =
Jethro Tull
Ian Anderson – vocals , acoustic guitar , flute , producer
Clive Bunker – drums and percussion
Martin Barre – electric guitar , descant recorder
John Evan – piano , organ , mellotron
Jeffrey Hammond ( as " Jeffrey Hammond @-@ Hammond " ) – bass guitar , alto recorder and odd voices ( and backing vocals on " Mother Goose " )
Glenn Cornick – bass guitar ( played with the band at rehearsals for the album in June 1970 , some of which may also have been recording sessions – especially in the early versions of " My God " and " Wondring Again / Wondring Aloud " – although he is not credited on the album )
Additional personnel
John Burns – recording engineer
David Palmer – orchestral arrangements and conduction
Burton Silverman – album artwork
Terry Ellis - executive producer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Accolades = =
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= Vought F6U Pirate =
The Vought F6U Pirate was the Vought company 's first jet fighter , designed for US Navy during the mid @-@ 1940s . Although pioneering the use of turbojet power as the first naval fighter with an afterburner and composite material construction , the aircraft proved to be underpowered and was judged unsuitable for combat . None were ever issued to operational squadrons and they were relegated to development , training and test roles before they were withdrawn from service in 1950 .
= = Design and development = =
A specification was issued by the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics ( BuAer ) for a single @-@ seat , carrier @-@ based fighter powered by a Westinghouse 24C ( later J34 ) axial turbojet on 5 September 1944 . Chance Vought was awarded a contract for three V @-@ 340 ( company designation ) prototypes on 29 December 1944 .
The XF6U was a small aircraft with tricycle landing gear and with straight wings and tail surfaces . The wings were short enough that they did not need to fold . In order to fit more aircraft into crowded hangars , the nose gear could be retracted and the aircraft 's weight would rest on a small wheel attached by the ground crew . This raised the tail up so that it could overlap the nose of the aircraft behind it , allowing more aircraft to fit into available hanger space . The turbojet engine was mounted in the rear of the fuselage and was fed by ducts in each wing root .
The most unusual feature of the aircraft was its use of " Metalite " for its skin . This was made of balsa that was sandwiched between two thin sheets of aluminum . " Fabrilite " was also used for the surfaces of the vertical stabilizer and rudder ; this was similar to Metalite , but used fiberglass instead of aluminum . Two fuel tanks were fitted in the center of the fuselage . The forward tank , ahead of the wing , contained 220 US gallons ( 830 l ; 180 imp gal ) and the rear tank , 150 US gallons ( 570 l ; 120 imp gal ) . These were supplemented by two jettisonable 140 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 530 l ; 120 imp gal ) tip tanks . The cockpit was well forward and was provided with a bubble canopy which gave the pilot good visibility . He was provided with a Mk 6 lead @-@ computing gyro gunsight . Underneath the cockpit were four 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) M3 autocannon . Their 600 rounds of ammunition were carried behind the pilot . The empty casings of the two upper guns were retained in the aircraft , while those from the two lower guns were ejected overboard .
After a company @-@ wide contest to name the aircraft , the initial prototype received the name Pirate and made its first flight on 2 October 1946 . Flight testing revealed severe aerodynamic problems , mostly caused by the airfoil section and thickness of the wing . The vertical stabilizer also had to be redesigned to smooth out the airflow at the intersection of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers . Other changes included the addition of dive brakes on the sides of the fuselage and the replacement of the Metalite panels near the engine 's exhaust with stainless steel ones .
The first XF6U @-@ 1 prototype was powered by a Westinghouse J34 @-@ WE @-@ 22 turbojet with 3 @,@ 000 lbf ( 13 @.@ 34 kN ) thrust , one third of the weight of the aircraft . To help improve the underpowered aircraft 's performance , the third prototype , which first flew on 10 November 1947 , was lengthened by 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) to use a Westinghouse J34 @-@ WE @-@ 30 afterburning engine of 4 @,@ 224 lbf ( 18 @.@ 78 kN ) thrust , the first United States Navy fighter to have such a powerplant .
= = Operational history = =
In 1947 , before the flight testing of the prototypes was completed , 30 production aircraft were ordered . They incorporated an ejection seat and a redesigned vertical stabilizer as well as two auxiliary fins , one towards the tip on each side of the tailplane in an attempt to improve the directional stability of the aircraft . The fuselage was lengthened to fit additional equipment and the wing had fillets added at the rear junction with the fuselage .
During the production run , the Navy decided to move the Chance Vought factory from Stratford , Connecticut to a much larger facility in Dallas , Texas which had been vacant since the end of World War II ; this badly disrupted the production of the Pirate . The airframes were built in Stratford and trucked to Dallas where government @-@ furnished equipment , such as the engines and afterburners , were installed . The completed aircraft were then taxied around the new plant 's airfield , but the runway was deemed too short to handle jets . The aircraft had to be disassembled and trucked to an abandoned airfield at Ardmore , Oklahoma with a runway long enough for acceptance testing .
The first production F6U @-@ 1 performed its initial flight on 29 June 1949 , and 20 of the aircraft were provided to VX @-@ 3 , an operational evaluation squadron based at Naval Air Station Patuxent River in Maryland . The judgment from the evaluation was that the Pirate was unacceptable for operational use . Naval aviators disparagingly called the F6U the " groundhog " . On 30 October 1950 , BuAer informed Vought of the Navy 's opinion of the Pirate in terms both bureaucratic and scathing : " The F6U @-@ 1 had proven so sub @-@ marginal in performance that combat utilization is not feasible . "
The aircraft ended up being used primarily to develop arresting gear and barriers , but were used operationally for a short time by at least one Texas @-@ based United States Naval Reserve squadron as they transitioned to jets . Between them , the 30 production aircraft had only a total of 945 hours of flight time , only 31 @.@ 5 hours each . Some aircraft flew only six hours which was enough for little more than their acceptance flight and the flight to their ultimate disposition .
= = Variants = =
XF6U @-@ 1 : Three prototypes , two with an Westinghouse J34 @-@ WE @-@ 22 turbojet engine ( BuNo 33532 , 33533 ) , one with an J34 @-@ WE @-@ 30 with afterburner ( BuNo 33534 ) .
F6U @-@ 1 : Afterburner @-@ equipped production version , 30 built ( BuNo 122478 @-@ 122507 ) , 35 cancelled .
F6U @-@ 1P : Conversion of one F6U @-@ 1 ( BuNo 122483 ) for photo @-@ reconnaissance .
= = Operators = =
United States
United States Navy
VX @-@ 3
= = Survivors = =
Although the F6U had a very short operational career , one example remains intact ( 122479 , Vought production number 2 ) and has undergone restoration by the Vought Aircraft Heritage Foundation , at the Vought plant in Grand Prairie , Texas . As of 2012 , the aircraft is currently at the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola Florida .
= = Specifications ( F6U @-@ 1 ) = =
Data from The Complete Book of Fighters
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 37 ft 7 in ( 11 @.@ 46 m )
Wingspan : 32 ft 10 in ( 10 m )
Height : 12 ft 11 in ( 3 @.@ 39 m )
Wing area : 203 @.@ 4 ft ² ( 18 @.@ 9 m ² )
Empty weight : 7 @,@ 320 lb ( 3 @,@ 320 kg )
Loaded weight : 12 @,@ 900 lb ( 5 @,@ 850 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Westinghouse J34 @-@ WE @-@ 30A turbojet
Dry thrust : 3 @,@ 150 lbf ( 14 @.@ 0 kN )
Thrust with afterburner : 4 @,@ 224 lbf ( 18 @.@ 78 kN )
Performance
Maximum speed : 596 mph ( 517 kn , 959 km / h )
Range : 1 @,@ 170 mi ( 1 @,@ 020 nmi , 1 @,@ 880 km )
Service ceiling : 46 @,@ 260 ft ( 14 @,@ 100 m )
Rate of climb : 8 @,@ 060 ft / min ( 40 @.@ 95 m / s )
Wing loading : 63 @.@ 4 lb / ft ² ( 304 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 327
Armament
Guns : 4 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) M3 cannon under the nose
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= 2009 flu pandemic =
The 2009 flu pandemic or swine flu was an influenza pandemic , and the second of the two pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus ( the first of them being the 1918 flu pandemic ) , albeit in a new version . First described in April 2009 , the virus appeared to be a new strain of H1N1 which resulted when a previous triple reassortment of bird , swine and human flu viruses further combined with a Eurasian pig flu virus , leading to the term " swine flu " .
Unlike most strains of influenza , H1N1 does not disproportionately infect adults older than 60 years ; this was an unusual and characteristic feature of the H1N1 pandemic . Even in the case of previously very healthy people , a small percentage will develop pneumonia or acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ) . This manifests itself as increased breathing difficulty and typically occurs 3 – 6 days after initial onset of flu symptoms . The pneumonia caused by flu can be either direct viral pneumonia or a secondary bacterial pneumonia . In fact , a November 2009 New England Journal of Medicine article recommends that flu patients whose chest X @-@ ray indicates pneumonia receive both antivirals and antibiotics . In particular , it is a warning sign if a child ( and presumably an adult ) seems to be getting better and then relapses with high fever , as this relapse may be bacterial pneumonia .
= = History = =
Initially called an " outbreak " , widespread H1N1 infection was first recognized in the state of Veracruz , Mexico , with evidence that the virus had been present for months before it was officially called an " epidemic " . The Mexican government closed most of Mexico City 's public and private facilities in an attempt to contain the spread of the virus ; however , it continued to spread globally , and clinics in some areas were overwhelmed by infected people . In late April the World Health Organization ( WHO ) declared its first ever " public health emergency of international concern , " or PHEIC , and in June the WHO and the U.S. CDC stopped counting cases and declared the outbreak a pandemic .
Despite being informally called " swine flu " , the H1N1 flu virus cannot be spread by eating pork or pork products ; similar to other influenza viruses , it is typically contracted by person to person transmission through respiratory droplets . Symptoms usually last 4 – 6 days . Antivirals ( oseltamivir or zanamivir ) were recommended for those with more severe symptoms or those in an at @-@ risk group .
The pandemic began to taper off in November 2009 , and by May 2010 , the number of cases was in steep decline . On 10 August 2010 , the Director @-@ General of the WHO , Margaret Chan , announced the end of the H1N1 pandemic , and announced that the H1N1 influenza event has moved into the post @-@ pandemic period . According to the latest WHO statistics ( as of July 2010 ) , the virus has killed more than 18 @,@ 000 people since it appeared in April 2009 , however they state that the total mortality ( including deaths unconfirmed or unreported ) from the H1N1 strain is " unquestionably higher " . Critics claimed the WHO had exaggerated the danger , spreading " fear and confusion " rather than " immediate information " . The WHO began an investigation to determine whether it had " frightened people unnecessarily " . A flu follow @-@ up study done in September 2010 , found that " the risk of most serious complications was not elevated in adults or children . " In an 5 August 2011 PLoS ONE article , researchers estimated that the 2009 H1N1 global infection rate was 11 % to 21 % , lower than what was previously expected . However , by 2012 , research showed that as many as 579 @,@ 000 people could have been killed by the disease , as only those fatalities confirmed by laboratory testing were included in the original number , and meant that many of those without access to health facilities went uncounted . The majority of these deaths occurred in Africa and Southeast Asia . Experts , including the WHO , have agreed that an estimated 284 @,@ 500 people were killed by the disease , much higher than the initial death toll .
= = Classification = =
The initial outbreak was called the " H1N1 influenza " , or " Swine Flu " by American media . It is called the pandemic H1N1 / 09 virus by the WHO , while the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention refer to it as " novel influenza A ( H1N1 ) " or " 2009 H1N1 flu " . In the Netherlands , it was originally called " Pig Flu " , but is now called " New Influenza A ( H1N1 ) " by the national health institute , although the media and general population use the name " Mexican Flu " . South Korea and Israel briefly considered calling it the " Mexican virus " . Later , the South Korean press used " SI " , short for " swine influenza " . Taiwan suggested the names " H1N1 flu " or " new flu " , which most local media adopted . The World Organization for Animal Health proposed the name " North American influenza " . The European Commission adopted the term " novel flu virus " .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The symptoms of H1N1 flu are similar to those of other influenzas , and may include fever , cough ( typically a " dry cough " ) , headache , muscle or joint pain , sore throat , chills , fatigue , and runny nose . Diarrhea , vomiting , and neurological problems have also been reported in some cases . People at higher risk of serious complications include those aged over 65 , children younger than 5 , children with neurodevelopmental conditions , pregnant women ( especially during the third trimester ) , and those of any age with underlying medical conditions , such as asthma , diabetes , obesity , heart disease , or a weakened immune system ( e.g. , taking immunosuppressive medications or infected with HIV ) . More than 70 % of hospitalizations in the U.S. have been people with such underlying conditions , according to the CDC .
In September 2009 , the CDC reported that the H1N1 flu " seems to be taking a heavier toll among chronically ill children than the seasonal flu usually does . " Through 8 August 2009 , the CDC had received 36 reports of paediatric deaths with associated influenza symptoms and laboratory @-@ confirmed pandemic H1N1 from state and local health authorities within the United States , with 22 of these children having neurodevelopmental conditions such as cerebral palsy , muscular dystrophy , or developmental delays . " Children with nerve and muscle problems may be at especially high risk for complications because they cannot cough hard enough to clear their airways " . From 26 April 2009 , to 13 February 2010 , the CDC had received reports of the deaths of 277 children with laboratory @-@ confirmed 2009 influenza A ( H1N1 ) within the United States .
= = = Severe cases = = =
The World Health Organization reports that the clinical picture in severe cases is strikingly different from the disease pattern seen during epidemics of seasonal influenza . While people with certain underlying medical conditions are known to be at increased risk , many severe cases occur in previously healthy people . In severe cases , patients generally begin to deteriorate around three to five days after symptom onset . Deterioration is rapid , with many patients progressing to respiratory failure within 24 hours , requiring immediate admission to an intensive care unit . Upon admission , most patients need immediate respiratory support with mechanical ventilation .
A November 2009 CDC recommendation stated that the following constitute " emergency warning signs " and advised seeking immediate care if a person experiences any one of these signs :
In adults :
Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath
Pain or pressure in the chest or abdomen
Sudden dizziness
Confusion
Severe or persistent vomiting
Low temperature
In children :
Fast breathing or working hard to breathe
Bluish skin color
Not drinking enough fluids
Not waking up or not interacting
Being so irritable that the child does not want to be held
Flu @-@ like symptoms which improve but then return with fever and worse cough
Fever with a rash
Being unable to eat
Having no tears when crying
Research later indicated that the severe flu effects in healthy young and middle @-@ aged adults are caused by an excessive immune response .
= = = Complications = = =
Most complications have occurred among previously healthy individuals , with obesity and respiratory disease as the strongest risk factors . Pulmonary complications are common . Primary influenza pneumonia occurs most commonly in adults and may progress rapidly to acute lung injury requiring mechanical ventilation . Secondary bacterial infection is more common in children . Staphylococcus aureus , including methicillin @-@ resistant strains , is an important cause of secondary bacterial pneumonia with a high mortality rate ; streptococcus pneumoniae is the second most important cause of secondary bacterial pneumonia for children and primary for adults . Neuromuscular and cardiac complications are unusual but may occur .
A United Kingdom investigation of risk factors for hospitalisation and poor outcome with pandemic A / H1N1 influenza looked at 631 patients from 55 hospitals admitted with confirmed infection from May through September 2009 . 13 % were admitted to a high dependency or intensive care unit and 5 % died ; 36 % were aged < 16 years and 5 % were aged ≥ 65 years . Non @-@ white and pregnant patients were over @-@ represented . 45 % of patients had at least one underlying condition , mainly asthma , and 13 % received antiviral drugs before admission . Of 349 with documented chest x @-@ rays on admission , 29 % had evidence of pneumonia , but bacterial co @-@ infection was uncommon . Multivariate analyses showed that physician @-@ recorded obesity on admission and pulmonary conditions other than asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) were associated with a severe outcome , as were radiologically confirmed pneumonia and a raised C @-@ reactive protein ( CRP ) level ( ≥ 100 mg / l ) . 59 % of all in @-@ hospital deaths occurred in previously healthy people .
Fulminant ( sudden @-@ onset ) myocarditis has been linked to infection with H1N1 , with at least four cases of myocarditis confirmed in patients also infected with A / H1N1 . Three out of the four cases of H1N1 @-@ associated myocarditis were classified as fulminant , and one of the patients died . Also , there appears to be a link between severe A / H1N1 influenza infection and pulmonary embolism . In one report , five out of 14 patients admitted to the intensive care unit with severe A / H1N1 infection were found to have pulmonary emboli .
An article published in JAMA in September 2010 challenged previous reports and stated that children infected in the 2009 flu pandemic were no more likely to be hospitalised with complications or get pneumonia than those who catch seasonal strains . Researchers found that about 1 @.@ 5 % of children with the H1N1 swine flu strain were hospitalised within 30 days , compared with 3 @.@ 7 % of those sick with a seasonal strain of H1N1 and 3 @.@ 1 % with an H3N2 virus .
= = Diagnosis = =
Confirmed diagnosis of pandemic H1N1 flu requires testing of a nasopharyngeal , nasal or oropharyngeal tissue swab from the patient . Real @-@ time RT @-@ PCR is the recommended test as others are unable to differentiate between pandemic H1N1 and regular seasonal flu . However , most people with flu symptoms do not need a test for pandemic H1N1 flu specifically , because the test results usually do not affect the recommended course of treatment . The U.S. CDC recommend testing only for people who are hospitalized with suspected flu , pregnant women and people with weakened immune systems . For the mere diagnosis of influenza and not pandemic H1N1 flu specifically , more widely available tests include rapid influenza diagnostic tests ( RIDT ) , which yield results in about 30 minutes , and direct and indirect immunofluorescence assays ( DFA and IFA ) , which take 2 – 4 hours . Due to the high rate of RIDT false negatives , the CDC advises that patients with illnesses compatible with novel influenza A ( H1N1 ) virus infection but with negative RIDT results should be treated empirically based on the level of clinical suspicion , underlying medical conditions , severity of illness and risk for complications , and if a more definitive determination of infection with influenza virus is required , testing with rRT @-@ PCR or virus isolation should be performed . Rhonda Medows of the Georgia Department of Community Health states that the rapid tests are incorrect anywhere from 30 % to 90 % of the time and warns doctors in her state not to use them because they are wrong so often . The use of RIDTs has also been questioned by researcher Paul Schreckenberger of the Loyola University Health System , who suggests that rapid tests may actually pose a dangerous public health risk . Nikki Shindo of the WHO has expressed regret at reports of treatment being delayed by waiting for H1N1 test results and suggests , " [ D ] octors should not wait for the laboratory confirmation but make diagnosis based on clinical and epidemiological backgrounds and start treatment early " .
On 22 June 2010 , the CDC announced a new test called the " CDC Influenza 2009 A ( H1N1 ) pdm Real @-@ Time RT @-@ PCR Panel ( IVD ) " . It uses a molecular biology technique to detect influenza A viruses and specifically the 2009 H1N1 virus . The new test will replace the previous real @-@ time RT @-@ PCR diagnostic test used during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic , which received an emergency use authorization from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in April 2009 . Tests results are available in four hours and are 96 % accurate .
= = Cause = =
The virus was found to be a novel strain of influenza for which extant vaccines against seasonal flu provided little protection . A study at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published in May 2009 found that children had no preexisting immunity to the new strain but that adults , particularly those older than 60 , had some degree of immunity . Children showed no cross @-@ reactive antibody reaction to the new strain , adults aged 18 to 60 had 6 – 9 % , and older adults 33 % . While it has been thought that these findings suggest the partial immunity in older adults may be due to previous exposure to similar seasonal influenza viruses , a November 2009 study of a rural unvaccinated population in China found only a 0 @.@ 3 % cross @-@ reactive antibody reaction to the H1N1 strain , suggesting that previous vaccinations for seasonal flu and not exposure may have resulted in the immunity found in the older U.S. population .
It has been determined that the strain contains genes from five different flu viruses : North American swine influenza , North American avian influenza , human influenza and two swine influenza viruses typically found in Asia and Europe . Further analysis has shown that several proteins of the virus are most similar to strains that cause mild symptoms in humans , leading virologist Wendy Barclay to suggest on 1 May 2009 , that the initial indications are that the virus was unlikely to cause severe symptoms for most people .
The virus is currently less lethal than previous pandemic strains and kills about 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 03 % of those infected ; the 1918 influenza was about one hundred times more lethal and had a case fatality rate of 2 – 3 % . By 14 November 2009 , the virus had infected one in six Americans with 200 @,@ 000 hospitalisations and 10 @,@ 000 deaths – as many hospitalizations and fewer deaths than in an average flu season overall , but with much higher risk for those under 50 . With deaths of 1 @,@ 100 children and 7 @,@ 500 adults 18 to 64 , these figures " are much higher than in a usual flu season " .
In June 2010 , scientists from Hong Kong reported discovery of a new swine flu virus which is a hybrid of the pandemic H1N1 virus and viruses previously found in pigs . It is the first report of a reassortment of the pandemic virus , which in humans has been slow to evolve . Nancy Cox , head of the influenza division at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , has said , " This particular paper is extremely interesting because it demonstrates for the first time what we had worried about at the very onset of the pandemic , and that is that this particular virus , when introduced into pigs , could reassort with the resident viruses in pigs and we would have new gene constellations . And bingo , here we are . " Pigs have been termed the mixing vessel of flu because they can be infected both by avian flu viruses , which rarely directly infect people , and by human viruses . When pigs become simultaneously infected with more than one virus , the viruses can swap genes , producing new variants which can pass to humans and sometimes spread amongst them . " Unlike the situation with birds and humans , we have a situation with pigs and humans where there 's a two @-@ way street of exchange of viruses . With pigs it 's very much a two @-@ way street " .
= = = Transmission = = =
Spread of the H1N1 virus is thought to occur in the same way that seasonal flu spreads . Flu viruses are spread mainly from person to person through coughing or sneezing by people with influenza . Sometimes people may become infected by touching something – such as a surface or object – with flu viruses on it and then touching their face . " Avoid touching your eyes , nose or mouth . Germs spread this way " .
The basic reproduction number ( the average number of other individuals whom each infected individual will infect , in a population which has no immunity to the disease ) for the 2009 novel H1N1 is estimated to be 1 @.@ 75 . A December 2009 study found that the transmissibility of the H1N1 influenza virus in households is lower than that seen in past pandemics . Most transmissions occur soon before or after the onset of symptoms .
The H1N1 virus has been transmitted to animals , including swine , turkeys , ferrets , household cats , at least one dog and a cheetah .
= = Prevention = =
The H1N1 vaccine was initially in short supply and in the U.S. , the CDC recommended that initial doses should go to priority groups such as pregnant women , people who live with or care for babies under six months old , children six months to four years old and health @-@ care workers . In the UK , the NHS recommended vaccine priority go to people over six months old who were clinically at risk for seasonal flu , pregnant women and households of people with compromised immunity .
Although it was initially thought that two injections would be required , clinical trials showed that the new vaccine protected adults " with only one dose instead of two " , and so the limited vaccine supplies would go twice as far as had been predicted . Health officials worldwide were also concerned because the virus was new and could easily mutate and become more virulent , even though most flu symptoms were mild and lasted only a few days without treatment . Officials also urged communities , businesses and individuals to make contingency plans for possible school closures , multiple employee absences for illness , surges of patients in hospitals and other effects of potentially widespread outbreaks .
In February 2010 , the CDC 's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices voted for " universal " flu vaccination in the U.S. to include all people over six months of age . The 2010 – 2011 vaccine will protect against the 2009 H1N1 pandemic virus and two other flu viruses .
= = = Public health response = = =
On 27 April 2009 , the European Union health commissioner advised Europeans to postpone nonessential travel to the United States or Mexico . This followed the discovery of the first confirmed case in Spain . On 6 May 2009 , the Public Health Agency of Canada announced that their National Microbiology Laboratory ( NML ) had mapped the genetic code of the swine flu virus , the first time that had been done . In the U.K. , the National Health Service launched a website , the National Pandemic Flu Service , allowing patients to self @-@ assess and get an authorisation number for antiviral medication . The system was expected to reduce the burden on general practitioners .
U.S. officials observed that six years of concern about H5N1 avian flu did much to prepare for the current H1N1 flu outbreak , noting that after H5N1 emerged in Asia , ultimately killing about 60 % of the few hundred people infected by it over the years , many countries took steps to try to prevent any similar crisis from spreading further . The CDC and other U.S. governmental agencies used the summer lull to take stock of the United States ' response to H1N1 flu and attempt to patch any gaps in the public health safety net before flu season started in early autumn . Preparations included planning a second influenza vaccination program in addition to that for seasonal influenza , and improving coordination between federal , state and local governments and private health providers . On 24 October 2009 , U.S. President Obama declared swine flu a national emergency , giving Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius authority to grant waivers to requesting hospitals from usual federal requirements .
= = = Vaccines = = =
By 19 November 2009 , doses of vaccine had been administered in over 16 countries . [ 1 ] A 2009 review by the U.S. National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) concluded that the 2009 H1N1 vaccine has a safety profile similar to that of seasonal vaccine . [ 2 ]
In 2011 , a study from the US Flu Vaccine Effectiveness Network estimated the overall effectiveness of all pandemic H1N1 vaccines at 56 % . A CDC study released 28 Jan 2013 , estimated that the Pandemic H1N1 vaccine saved roughly 300 lives and prevented about 1 million illnesses in the US . The study concluded that had the vaccination program started 2 weeks earlier , close to 60 % more cases could have been prevented . The study was based on an effectiveness in preventing cases , hospitalizations , and deaths of 62 % for all subgroups except people over 65 , for whom the effectiveness was estimated at 43 % . The effectiveness was based on European and Asian studies and expert opinion . [ 3 ] The delay in vaccine administration demonstrated the shortcomings of the world 's capacity for vaccine @-@ production , as well as problems with international distribution . Some manufacturers and wealthy countries had concerns regarding liability and regulations , as well as the logistics of transporting , storing , and administering vaccines to be donated to poorer countries .
= = = Accusations of conflict of interest = = =
In January 2010 , Wolfgang Wodarg , a German deputy who trained as a physician and now chairs the health committee at the Council of Europe , claimed major firms had organised a " campaign of panic " to put pressure on the World Health Organisation ( WHO ) to declare a " false pandemic " to sell vaccines . Wodarg said the WHO 's " false pandemic " flu campaign is " one of the greatest medicine scandals of the century " . He said that the " false pandemic " campaign began last May in Mexico City , when a hundred or so " normal " reported influenza cases were declared to be the beginning of a threatening new pandemic , although he said there was little scientific evidence for this . Nevertheless , he argued that the WHO , " in cooperation with some big pharmaceutical companies and their scientists , re @-@ defined pandemics " , removing the statement that " an enormous amount of people have contracted the illness or died " from its existing definition and replacing it by stating simply that there has to be a virus , spreading beyond borders and to which people have no immunity .
The WHO responded by stating that they take their duty to provide independent advice seriously and guarded against interference from outside interests . Announcing a review of the WHO 's actions , spokeswoman Fadela Chaib stated : " Criticism is part of an outbreak cycle . We expect and indeed welcome criticism and the chance to discuss it " . In March 2010 , the Council of Europe launched an enquiry into " the influence of the pharmaceutical companies on the global swine flu campaign " , and a preliminary report is in preparation .
On 12 April 2010 , Keiji Fukuda , the WHO 's top influenza expert , stated that the system leading to the declaration of a pandemic led to confusion about H1N1 circulating around the world , and he expressed concern that there was a failure to communicate in regard to uncertainties about the new virus , which turned out to be not as deadly as feared . WHO Director @-@ General Margaret Chan has appointed 29 flu experts from outside the organization to conduct a review of WHO 's handling of the H1N1 flu pandemic . She has told them , " We want a frank , critical , transparent , credible and independent review of our performance " .
In June 2010 , Fiona Godlee , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the BMJ , published an editorial which criticised the WHO , saying that an investigation had disclosed that some of the experts advising WHO on the pandemic had financial ties with drug companies which were producing antivirals and vaccines . Margaret Chan , Director @-@ General of the WHO , replied stating , " Without question , the BMJ feature and editorial will leave many readers with the impression that WHO 's decision to declare a pandemic was at least partially influenced by a desire to boost the profits of the pharmaceutical industry . The bottom line , however , is that decisions to raise the level of pandemic alert were based on clearly defined virological and epidemiological criteria . It is hard to bend these criteria , no matter what the motive " . In August 2010 , the Daily Mail printed an article stating that " a third of the experts advising the World Health Organisation about the swine flu pandemic had ties to drugs firms " and that of the 20 members of the Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies , which advised the British Government on swine flu , 11 had done work for the pharmaceutical industry or were linked to it through their universities .
= = = Infection control = = =
= = = = Travel precautions = = = =
On 7 May 2009 , the WHO stated that containment was not feasible and that countries should focus on mitigating the effect of the virus . They did not recommend closing borders or restricting travel . On 26 April 2009 , the Chinese government announced that visitors returning from flu @-@ affected areas who experienced flu @-@ like symptoms within two weeks would be quarantined .
U.S. airlines had made no major changes as of the beginning of June 2009 , but continued standing practices which include looking for passengers with symptoms of flu , measles or other infections , and relying on in @-@ flight air filters to ensure that aircraft were sanitised . Masks were not generally provided by airlines and the CDC did not recommend that airline crews wear them . Some non @-@ U.S. airlines , mostly Asian , including Singapore Airlines , China Eastern Airlines , China Southern Airlines , Cathay Pacific and Aeromexico , took measures such as stepping up cabin cleaning , installing state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art air filters and allowing in @-@ flight staff to wear face masks .
According to studies conducted in Australia and Japan , screening individuals for influenza symptoms at airports during the 2009 H1N1 outbreak was not an effective method of infection control .
= = = = Schools = = = =
U.S. government officials have been especially concerned about schools because the H1N1 flu virus appears to disproportionately affect young and school @-@ age people , between six months and 24 years of age . The H1N1 outbreak led to numerous precautionary school closures in some areas . Rather than closing schools , the CDC recommended that students and school workers with flu symptoms should stay home for either seven days total , or until 24 hours after symptoms subsided , whichever was longer . The CDC also recommended that colleges should consider suspending fall 2009 classes if the virus began to cause severe illness in a significantly larger share of students than the previous spring . They also urged schools to suspend rules , such as penalties for late papers or missed classes or requirements for a doctor 's note , to enforce " self @-@ isolation " and prevent students from venturing out while ill ; schools were advised to set aside a room for people developing flu @-@ like symptoms while they waited to go home and to have ill students or staff and those caring for them use face masks .
In California , school districts and universities were on alert and worked with health officials to launch education campaigns . Many planned to stockpile medical supplies and discuss worst @-@ case scenarios , including plans to provide lessons and meals for low @-@ income children in case elementary and secondary schools closed . University of California campuses stockpiled supplies , from paper masks and hand sanitizer to food and water . To help prepare for contingencies , University of Maryland School of Medicine professor of pediatrics James C. King Jr. suggested that every county should create an " influenza action team " to be run by the local health department , parents and school administrators . By 28 October 2009 , about 600 schools in the United States had been temporarily closed , affecting over 126 @,@ 000 students in 19 states .
= = = = Workplace = = = =
Fearing a worst @-@ case scenario , the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services ( HHS ) , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) developed updated guidance and a video for employers to use as they developed plans to respond to the H1N1 outbreak . The guidance suggested that employers consider and communicate their objectives , such as reducing transmission among staff , protecting people who are at increased risk of influenza @-@ related complications from becoming infected , maintaining business operations , and minimising adverse effects on other entities in their supply chains .
The CDC estimated that as much as 40 % of the workforce might be unable to work at the peak of the pandemic due to the need for many healthy adults to stay home and care for an ill family member , and advised that individuals should have steps in place should a workplace close down or a situation arise that requires working from home . The CDC further advised that persons in the workplace should stay home sick for seven days after getting the flu , or 24 hours after symptoms end , whichever is longer .
In the UK , the Health and Safety Executive ( HSE ) also issued general guidance for employers .
= = = = Facial masks = = = =
The U.S. CDC does not recommend use of face masks or respirators in non @-@ health care settings , such as schools , workplaces , or public places , with a few exceptions : people who are ill with the virus when around other people , and people who are at risk for severe illness while caring for someone with the flu . There has been some disagreement about the value of wearing facial masks , some experts fearing that masks may give people a false sense of security and should not replace other standard precautions . Masks may benefit people in close contact with infected persons , but it is unknown whether they prevent H1N1 flu infection . Yukihiro Nishiyama , professor of virology at Nagoya University 's School of Medicine , commented that the masks are " better than nothing , but it 's hard to completely block out an airborne virus since it can easily slip through the gaps " .
According to mask manufacturer 3M , masks will filter out particles in industrial settings , but " there are no established exposure limits for biological agents such as swine flu virus " . However , despite the lack of evidence of effectiveness , the use of such masks is common in Asia . They are particularly popular in Japan , where cleanliness and hygiene are highly valued and where etiquette obligates those who are sick to wear masks to avoid spreading disease .
= = = = Quarantine = = = =
During the height of the fear of a pandemic , some countries initiated or threatened to initiate quarantines of foreign visitors suspected of having or being in contact with others who may have been infected . In May 2009 , the Chinese government confined 21 U.S. students and three teachers to their hotel rooms . As a result , the US State Department issued a travel alert about China 's anti @-@ flu measures and warned travellers against travelling to China if ill . In Hong Kong , an entire hotel was quarantined with 240 guests ; Australia ordered a cruise ship with 2 @,@ 000 passengers to stay at sea because of a swine flu threat . Egyptian Muslims who went on the annual pilgrimage to Mecca risked being quarantined upon their return . Russia and Taiwan said they would quarantine visitors with fevers who come from areas where the flu was present . Japan quarantined 47 airline passengers in a hotel for a week in mid @-@ May , then in mid @-@ June India suggested pre @-@ screening " outbound " passengers from countries thought to have a high rate of infection .
= = = = Pigs and food safety = = = =
The pandemic virus is a type of swine influenza , derived originally from a strain which lived in pigs , and this origin gave rise to the common name of " swine flu " . This term is widely used by mass media . The virus has been found in American hogs , and Canadian as well as in hogs in Northern Ireland , Argentina , and Norway . Leading health agencies and the United States Secretary of Agriculture have stressed that eating properly cooked pork or other food products derived from pigs will not cause flu . Nevertheless , on 27 April , Azerbaijan imposed a ban on the importation of animal husbandry products from the entire Americas . The Indonesian government also halted the importation of pigs and initiated the examination of 9 million pigs in Indonesia . The Egyptian government ordered the slaughter of all pigs in Egypt on 29 April 2009 .
= = Treatment = =
A number of methods have been recommended to help ease symptoms , including adequate liquid intake and rest . Over @-@ the @-@ counter pain medications such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen do not kill the virus ; however , they may be useful to reduce symptoms . Aspirin and other salicylate products should not be used by people under 19 with any flu @-@ type symptoms because of the risk of developing Reye 's Syndrome .
If the fever is mild and there are no other complications , fever medication is not recommended . Most people recover without medical attention , although those with pre @-@ existing or underlying medical conditions are more prone to complications and may benefit from further treatments .
People in at @-@ risk groups should be treated with antivirals ( oseltamivir or zanamivir ) as soon as possible when they first experience flu symptoms . The at @-@ risk groups include pregnant and post partum women , children under two years old , and people with underlying conditions such as respiratory problems . People who are not in an at @-@ risk group who have persistent or rapidly worsening symptoms should also be treated with antivirals . People who have developed pneumonia should be given both antivirals and antibiotics , as in many severe cases of H1N1 @-@ caused illness , bacterial infection develops . Antivirals are most useful if given within 48 hours of the start of symptoms and may improve outcomes in hospitalised patients . In those beyond 48 hours who are moderately or severely ill , antivirals may still be beneficial . If oseltamivir ( Tamiflu ) is unavailable or cannot be used , zanamivir ( Relenza ) is recommended as a substitute . Peramivir is an experimental antiviral drug approved for hospitalised patients in cases where the other available methods of treatment are ineffective or unavailable .
To help avoid shortages of these drugs , the U.S. CDC recommended oseltamivir treatment primarily for people hospitalised with pandemic flu ; people at risk of serious flu complications due to underlying medical conditions ; and patients at risk of serious flu complications . The CDC warned that the indiscriminate use of antiviral medications to prevent and treat influenza could ease the way for drug @-@ resistant strains to emerge , which would make the fight against the pandemic that much harder . In addition , a British report found that people often failed to complete a full course of the drug or took the medication when not needed .
= = = Side effects = = =
Both medications have known side effects , including lightheadedness , chills , nausea , vomiting , loss of appetite and trouble breathing . Children were reported to be at increased risk of self @-@ injury and confusion after taking oseltamivir . The WHO warn against buying antiviral medications from online sources , and estimate that half the drugs sold by online pharmacies without a physical address are counterfeit .
= = = Resistance = = =
In December 2012 , 2010 , the World Health Organization ( WHO ) reported 314 samples of the 2009 pandemic H1N1 flu tested worldwide have shown resistance to oseltamivir ( Tamiflu ) . This is not totally unexpected as 99 @.@ 6 % of the seasonal H1N1 flu strains tested have developed resistance to oseltamivir . No circulating flu has yet shown any resistance to zanamivir ( Relenza ) , the other available anti @-@ viral .
= = = Effectiveness of antivirals questioned = = =
On 8 December 2009 , the Cochrane Collaboration , which reviews medical evidence , announced in a review published in BMJ that it had reversed its previous findings that the antiviral drugs oseltamivir ( Tamiflu ) and zanamivir ( Relenza ) can ward off pneumonia and other serious conditions linked to influenza . They reported that an analysis of 20 studies showed oseltamivir offered mild benefits for healthy adults if taken within 24 hours of onset of symptoms , but found no clear evidence it prevented lower respiratory tract infections or other complications of influenza . Their published finding relates only to its use in healthy adults with influenza ; they say nothing about its use in patients judged to be at high risk of complications ( pregnant women , children under five and those with underlying medical conditions ) , and uncertainty over its role in reducing complications in healthy adults may still leave it as a useful drug for reducing the duration of symptoms . The drugs might eventually be demonstrated to be effective against flu @-@ related complications ; in general , the Cochrane Collaboration concluded " Paucity of good data " .
Some specific results from the BMJ article include : " The efficacy of oral oseltamivir against symptomatic laboratory confirmed influenza was 61 % ( risk ratio 0 @.@ 39 , 95 % confidence interval 0 @.@ 18 to 0 @.@ 85 ) at 75 mg daily ... The remaining evidence suggests oseltamivir did not reduce influenza related lower respiratory tract complications ( risk ratio 0 @.@ 55 , 95 % confidence interval 0 @.@ 22 to 1 @.@ 35 ) " . Notice especially the wide range for this second result .
= = Epidemiology = =
While it is not known precisely where or when the virus originated , analyses in scientific journals have suggested that the H1N1 strain responsible for the 2009 outbreak first evolved in September 2008 and circulated amongst humans for several months before being formally recognised and identified as a novel strain of influenza .
= = = Mexico = = =
The virus was first reported in two U.S. children in March 2009 , but health officials have reported that it apparently infected people as early as January 2009 in Mexico . The outbreak was first detected in Mexico City on 18 March 2009 ; immediately after the outbreak was officially announced , Mexico notified the U.S. and World Health Organization , and within days of the outbreak Mexico City was " effectively shut down " . Some countries cancelled flights to Mexico while others halted trade . Calls to close the border to contain the spread were rejected . Mexico already had hundreds of non @-@ lethal cases before the outbreak was officially discovered , and was therefore in the midst of a " silent epidemic " . As a result , Mexico was reporting only the most serious cases which showed more severe signs different from those of normal flu , possibly leading to a skewed initial estimate of the case fatality rate .
= = = United States = = =
The new strain was first identified by the CDC in two children , neither of whom had been in contact with pigs . The first case , from San Diego County , California , was confirmed from clinical specimens ( nasopharyngeal swab ) examined by the CDC on 14 April 2009 . A second case , from nearby Imperial County , California , was confirmed on 17 April . The patient in the first confirmed case had flu symptoms including fever and cough on clinical examination on 30 March , and the second on 28 March .
The first confirmed H1N1 / 09 pandemic flu death , which occurred at Texas Children 's Hospital in Houston , Texas , was of a toddler from Mexico City who was visiting family in Brownsville , Texas , before being air @-@ lifted to Houston for treatment .
= = = Data reporting and accuracy = = =
Influenza surveillance information " answers the questions of where , when , and what influenza viruses are circulating . It can be used to determine if influenza activity is increasing or decreasing , but cannot be used to ascertain how many people have become ill with influenza " . For example , as of late June 2009 , influenza surveillance information showed the U.S. had nearly 28 @,@ 000 laboratory @-@ confirmed cases including 3 @,@ 065 hospitalisations and 127 deaths ; but mathematical modelling showed an estimated 1 million Americans currently had the 2009 pandemic flu , according to Lyn Finelli , a flu surveillance official with the CDC . Estimating deaths from influenza is also a complicated process . In 2005 , influenza only appeared on the death certificates of 1 @,@ 812 people in the US . The average annual US death toll from flu is , however , estimated to be 36 @,@ 000 . The CDC explains : " [ I ] nfluenza is infrequently listed on death certificates of people who die from flu @-@ related complications " and hence , " Only counting deaths where influenza was included on a death certificate would be a gross underestimation of influenza 's true impact " .
Influenza surveillance information on the 2009 H1N1 flu pandemic is available , but almost no studies attempted to estimate the total number of deaths attributable to H1N1 flu . Two studies were carried out by the CDC ; the later of them estimated that between 7 @,@ 070 and 13 @,@ 930 deaths were attributable to H1N1 flu from April to 14 November 2009 . During the same period , 1642 deaths were officially confirmed as caused by H1N1 flu . The WHO state that total mortality ( including deaths unconfirmed or unreported ) from H1N1 flu is " unquestionably higher " than their own confirmed death statistics .
The initial outbreak received a week of near @-@ constant media attention . Epidemiologists cautioned that the number of cases reported in the early days of an outbreak can be very inaccurate and deceptive , due to several causes , among them selection bias , media bias and incorrect reporting by governments . Inaccuracies could also be caused by authorities in different countries looking at differing population groups . Furthermore , countries with poor health care systems and older laboratory facilities may take longer to identify or report cases . " [ E ] ven in developed countries the [ numbers of flu deaths ] are uncertain , because medical authorities don 't usually verify who actually died of influenza and who died of a flu @-@ like illness " . Joseph S. Bresee ( the CDC flu division 's epidemiology chief ) and Michael Osterholm ( director of the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy ) have pointed out that millions of people have had H1N1 flu , usually in a mild form , so the numbers of laboratory @-@ confirmed cases were actually meaningless , and in July 2009 , the WHO stopped keeping count of individual cases and focused more on major outbreaks .
= = = Followup = = =
A Wisconsin study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in September 2010 , reported that findings showed that the 2009 H1N1 flu was no more severe than the seasonal flu . " The risk of most serious complications was not elevated in adults or children " , the study 's authors wrote . " Children were disproportionately affected by 2009 H1N1 infection , but the perceived severity of symptoms and risk of serious outcomes were not increased . " Children infected in the 2009 H1N1 flu pandemic were no more likely to be hospitalized with complications or get pneumonia than those who catch seasonal strains . About 1 @.@ 5 % of children with the H1N1 swine flu strain were hospitalized within 30 days , compared with 3 @.@ 7 % of those sick with a seasonal strain of H1N1 and 3 @.@ 1 % with an H3N2 virus .
CDC illness and death estimates from April 2009 to April 2010 , in the US are as follows :
CDC estimates that between 43 million and 89 million cases of 2009 H1N1 occurred between April 2009 and 10 April 2010 . The mid @-@ level in this range is about 61 million people infected with 2009 H1N1 .
CDC estimates that between about 195 @,@ 000 and 403 @,@ 000 H1N1 @-@ related hospitalizations occurred between April 2009 and 10 April 2010 . The mid @-@ level in this range is about 274 @,@ 000 2009 H1N1 @-@ related hospitalizations .
CDC estimates that between about 8 @,@ 870 and 18 @,@ 300 2009 H1N1 @-@ related deaths occurred between April 2009 and 10 April 2010 . The mid @-@ level in this range is about 12 @,@ 470 2009 H1N1 @-@ related deaths .
It is often stated that about 36 @,@ 000 die from the seasonal flu in the U.S. each year , and this is frequently understood as an indication that the H1N1 strain was not as severe as seasonal influenza . The 36 @,@ 000 estimate was presented in a 2003 study by CDC scientists published in the Journal of the American Medical Association but only refers to a period from 1990 – 91 through 1998 – 99 . During those years , the number of estimated deaths ranged from 17 @,@ 000 to 52 @,@ 000 , with an average of about 36 @,@ 000 . The JAMA study also looked at seasonal influenza @-@ associated deaths over a 23 @-@ year period , from 1976 – 77 and 1998 – 99 . During that period , estimates of respiratory and circulatory influenza @-@ associated deaths ranged from about 5 @,@ 000 to about 52 @,@ 000 , with an average of about 25 @,@ 000 . While the 36 @,@ 000 number is often cited , it 's important to note that during that decade , influenza A ( H3N2 ) was the predominant virus during most of the seasons , and H3N2 influenza viruses are typically associated with higher death rates . CDC believes that the range of deaths over the past 31 years ( ~ 3 @,@ 000 to ~ 49 @,@ 000 ) is a more accurate representation of the unpredictability and variability of flu @-@ associated deaths . The annual toll from seasonal influenza in the US is more accurately estimated at 3000 – 49 @,@ 000 deaths per year . So the H1N1 pandemic estimated mortality of 8 @,@ 870 to 18 @,@ 300 , places it in the mid @-@ range of estimates .
The 2009 pandemic caused hospitals around the country to make significant preparations in terms of hospital surge capacities , especially within the emergency department and among vulnerable populations . In many cases , hospitals were relatively successful in making sure that those patients most severely affected by the influenza strain were able to be seen , treated , and discharged in an efficient manner . A proper case @-@ study of the preparation , planning , mitigation , and response efforts during the Fall of 2009 is that of the Children 's Hospital of Philadelphia ( CHOP ) . For example , CHOP took several steps to increase the emergency department ( ED ) surge capacity response abilities through careful planning and mitigation efforts . To increase ED capacity and response , CHOP used portions of the main lobby area as an ED waiting room ; several of the region 's hospital @-@ based outpatient facilities were in use during evening and weekend hours for non @-@ emergency cases ; the ED 's 24 @-@ hour short @-@ stay unit was utilized to care for ED patients in a longer @-@ term capacity ; non @-@ board certified physicians ( in pediatric emergency medicine ) and inpatient @-@ unit medical nurses were utilized for ED patient care ; hospital units normally utilized for other medical or therapeutic purposes were transformed into ED patient rooms ; and rooms normally used for only one patient were expanded to at least a capacity of 2
= = Comparisons to other pandemics and epidemics = =
Annual influenza epidemics are estimated to affect 5 – 15 % of the global population . Although most cases are mild , these epidemics still cause severe illness in 3 – 5 million people and 250 @,@ 000 – 500 @,@ 000 deaths worldwide . On average 41 @,@ 400 people die of influenza @-@ related illnesses each year in the United States , based on data collected between 1979 and 2001 . In industrialised countries , severe illness and deaths occur mainly in the high @-@ risk populations of infants , the elderly and chronically ill patients , although the H1N1 flu outbreak ( like the 1918 Spanish flu ) differs in its tendency to affect younger , healthier people .
In addition to these annual epidemics , Influenza A virus strains caused three global pandemics during the 20th century : the Spanish flu in 1918 , Asian flu in 1957 , and Hong Kong flu in 1968 – 69 . These virus strains had undergone major genetic changes for which the population did not possess significant immunity . Recent genetic analysis has revealed that three @-@ quarters , or six out of the eight genetic segments , of the 2009 flu pandemic strain arose from the North American swine flu strains circulating since 1998 , when a new strain was first identified on a factory farm in North Carolina , and which was the first @-@ ever reported triple @-@ hybrid flu virus .
The 1918 flu epidemic began with a wave of mild cases in the spring , followed by more deadly waves in the autumn , eventually killing hundreds of thousands in the United States and 50- 100 million worldwide . The great majority of deaths in the 1918 flu pandemic were the result of secondary bacterial pneumonia . The influenza virus damaged the lining of the bronchial tubes and lungs of victims , allowing common bacteria from the nose and throat to infect their lungs . Subsequent pandemics have had many fewer fatalities due to the development of antibiotic medicines which can treat pneumonia .
The influenza virus has also caused several pandemic threats over the past century , including the pseudo @-@ pandemic of 1947 ( thought of as mild because although globally distributed , it caused relatively few deaths ) , the 1976 swine flu outbreak and the 1977 Russian flu , all caused by the H1N1 subtype . The world has been at an increased level of alert since the SARS epidemic in Southeast Asia ( caused by the SARS coronavirus ) . The level of preparedness was further increased and sustained with the advent of the H5N1 bird flu outbreaks because of H5N1 's high fatality rate , although the strains currently prevalent have limited human @-@ to @-@ human transmission ( anthroponotic ) capability , or epidemicity .
People who contracted flu before 1957 appeared to have some immunity to H1N1 flu . Daniel Jernigan , head of flu epidemiology for the U.S. CDC , has stated : " Tests on blood serum from older people showed that they had antibodies that attacked the new virus ... That does not mean that everyone over 52 is immune , since Americans and Mexicans older than that have died of the new flu " .
In June 2012 , a model based study was published finding that the number of deaths related to the H1N1 influenza may have been fifteen times higher than the reported laboratory confirmed deaths . According to their findings , 80 % of the respiratory and cardiovascular deaths were in people younger than 65 years and 51 % occurred in southeast Asia and Africa . The researchers believe that a disproportionate number of pandemic deaths might have occurred in these regions and that their research suggests that efforts to prevent future influenza pandemics needs to effectively target these regions .
A WHO supported 2013 study estimated that the 2009 global pandemic respiratory mortality was ~ 10 @-@ fold higher than the World Health Organization 's laboratory @-@ confirmed mortality count ( 18 @.@ 631 ) . Although the pandemic mortality estimate was similar in magnitude to that of seasonal influenza , a marked shift toward mortality among persons < 65 y of age occurred , so that many more life @-@ years were lost . Between 123 @,@ 000 and 203 @,@ 000 pandemic respiratory deaths were estimated globally for the last 9 mo of 2009 . The majority ( 62 % – 85 % ) were attributed to persons under 65 y of age . The burden varied greatly among countries . There was an almost 20 @-@ fold higher mortality in some countries in the Americas than in Europe . The model attributed 148 @,@ 000 – 249 @,@ 000 respiratory deaths to influenza in an average pre @-@ pandemic season , with only 19 % in persons < 65 y .
= = = Europe = = =
Health @-@ EU Portal EU response to influenza
2009 influenza A ( H1N1 ) pandemic . European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control ( ECDC ) .
Summaries of the pandemic . European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control ( ECDC ) .
European Commission – Public Health EU coordination on Pandemic ( H1N1 ) 2009 .
UK National Pandemic Flu Service
Official UK government information on swine flu from Directgov
Human / Swine A / H1N1 Influenza Origins and Evolution – Analysis of genetic data for the origin and evolution of swine flu virus .
= = = North America = = =
Health Canada flu portal
Pan @-@ American Health Organization ( PAHO ) Swine Influenza portal
H1N1 Influenza ( Flu ) portal at the US Centers for Disease Control ( CDC )
US Government swine , avian and pandemic flu portal
Medical Encyclopedia Medline Plus : Swine Flu
Swine Flu Outbreak , Influenza Virus Resource – Sequences and related resources ( GenBank , NCBI )
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= Blyth Power Station =
Blyth Power Station ( also known as Cambois Power Station ) refers to a pair of now demolished coal @-@ fired power stations , which were located on the Northumberland coast in North East England . The two stations were built alongside each other on a site near Cambois in Northumberland , on the northern bank of the River Blyth , between its tidal estuary and the North Sea . The stations took their name from the town of Blyth on the opposite bank of the estuary . Blyth A Power Station was built and opened first but had a smaller generating capacity than its sister station , Blyth B Power Station , which was built to its west four years later . The power stations ' four large chimneys were a landmark of the Northumberland skyline for over 40 years ; the A Station 's two chimneys each stood at 140 metres ( 460 ft ) ; the B Station 's two chimneys were taller , at 170 metres ( 560 ft ) each .
Construction of the B Station began shortly after the A station was completed . The stations were built during a period in which there were great advances in power station technology , and in the scale of production , which led to them having a variety of intermediate generator set sizes along with a mix of design styles . Blyth A had a generating capacity of 480 megawatts ( MW ) and the B Station 1 @,@ 250 MW . Their combined capacity of 1 @,@ 730 MW briefly made Blyth Power Station the largest electricity generation site in England , until Ferrybridge C Power Station came into full operation in 1966 . The stations were capable of generating enough electricity to power 300 @,@ 000 homes .
The A Station first generated electricity in 1958 , a year after the creation of the Central Electricity Generating Board , and the stations operated until 2001 . They were operated by the successors of the CEGB , including National Power , following the privatisation of the UK 's power industry . After their closure in 2001 , the stations were demolished over the course of two years , ending with the demolition of the stations ' chimneys on 7 December 2003 . As of 2009 , the site is still covered in debris from the demolition . RWE Npower have proposed the construction of a clean coal @-@ fired power station on the site . However , as of November 2009 , these plans have been postponed .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Following the Second World War the demand for electricity increased in the United Kingdom . In North East England , this led to the construction of two new power stations at Stella , along with the expansion of stations at Dunston and Billingham , to meet the demand for power quickly . At Blyth , a larger and more efficient plant was planned , consisting of six 100 megawatts ( MW ) generating units . This increased to six 120 MW units , before increasing again in the final proposal for an A station consisting of four 120 MW units and a B station consisting of two 275 MW units and two 350 MW units . This gave the A and B stations generating capacities of 480 MW and 1 @,@ 250 MW respectively . The Blyth Power Stations were to be an experiment , using a variety of generating set sizes at a time when engineers were trying to standardise power station plant and layout . Blyth was the first in the UK to use generating sets larger than the then standard 30 MW and 60 MW . The station 's location was chosen because of its position within the super grid , rather than to be near a load centre .
The site chosen for the construction of the power stations was close to the coal mining town of Cambois . Ordnance Survey maps as far back as 1860 show that before building work began the land had been used as open farmland , with fields of varying shapes and sizes .
= = = Construction = = =
Permission for Blyth A Power Station to be built was granted in February 1955 , and its construction took place between 1955 and 1960 . The station 's first unit went into operation in December 1958 , and the A Station was fully operational by June 1960 . Its four 120 MW sets were the first commissioned in Britain of what became for a time that standardised size . The construction of the B Station began on 4 December 1961 . Its first unit was commissioned in December 1962 , and the rest of the station was fully operational by September 1966 . The station had a total generating capacity of 1 @,@ 730 MW , the highest of any site in the UK until later in the same year , when Ferrybridge C Power Station came into full operation . Blyth B was the first power station in Britain to have 275 MW sets installed . Its two 350 MW sets were an intermediate stage toward the 500 MW standard , so very few of the 350 MW sets were ever commissioned in the UK . Both of the stations were designed by L J Couves & Partners . They were engineered by Merz & McLellan and built by the Cleveland Bridge Company .
= = Design and specification = =
The large 98 @-@ hectare ( 240 @-@ acre ) site was separated by Bedlington @-@ Cambois Road , with the stations ' main buildings , admin blocks and ash dock to the south of the road , and coal storage area and railway sidings to the north . The ground to the south of this road consisted of a 21 @-@ metre ( 69 ft ) thick layer of boulder clay , overlaying sandstone and coal . The main foundations of the buildings were spread out , giving a load of about 2 @.@ 3 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 264 long tons ; 2 @.@ 535 short tons ) per square foot .
Each of the stations featured large boiler houses , turbine halls , switch houses , flue gas cleaning plant and a pair of concrete chimneys . Blyth A 's chimneys stood at 140 metres ( 460 ft ) and Blyth B 's chimneys stood at 170 metres ( 560 ft ) , major landmarks on the South East Northumberland skyline . Each chimney weighed approximately 17 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 16 @,@ 730 long tons ; 18 @,@ 740 short tons ) . The prominence and large scale of the buildings in the surrounding flat rural area , was the subject of much contemporary architectural debate . Blyth A 's turbine hall was 120 metres ( 390 ft ) long by 37 metres ( 121 ft ) wide , and 26 metres ( 85 ft ) high . It was built from a reinforced concrete frame , clad with brickwork . It housed four 120 MW Metropolitan @-@ Vickers 3 @,@ 000 rpm turbo generators , each connected to a Babcock & Wilcox boiler , situated in the boiler house . Each boiler and generator set operated independently , with no connections to other sets . Coal fed into the boilers was pulverised by a Babcock & Wilcox pulveriser , fed by a coal bunker with a capacity of 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ; 2 @,@ 205 short tons ) . Each pulveriser was capable of pulverising 15 tonnes ( 14 @.@ 76 long tons ; 16 @.@ 53 short tons ) of coal an hour , sufficient to keep its associated boiler at full output . The boiler house was 110 metres ( 360 ft ) long by 28 metres ( 92 ft ) wide and 48 metres ( 157 ft ) high . It was built from a steel frame with aluminium cladding . The A station 's design was an unusual mix of styles ; the brick construction of the turbine hall was a style used more often in the 1950s , while the aluminium and glass cladding boiler house was a construction style used more in the 1960s . The A Station housed two control rooms , each of which served two generating sets and contained the controls to operate boilers , turbo generators and auxiliary plant . The A Station 's switchgear was provided by A. Reyrolle & Company .
Blyth B 's turbine hall was 206 metres ( 676 ft ) long by 51 metres ( 167 ft ) wide and 30 metres ( 98 ft ) high . It housed two 275 MW and two 350 MW English Electric 3 @,@ 000 rpm turbo generators , each connected to a Clarke Chapman & Co boiler , situated in the boiler house . The boiler house was 206 metres ( 676 ft ) long by 32 metres ( 105 ft ) wide and 52 metres ( 171 ft ) high . The coal fed into the boilers was pulverised by a Babcock & Wilcox pulveriser . Each pulveriser was capable of pulverising 40 tonnes ( 39 @.@ 37 long tons ; 44 @.@ 09 short tons ) of coal an hour , and two pulverisers fed each boiler . Both the turbine hall and boiler house were built from a steel frame , clad with aluminium and glazing . The roofs of the B Station 's buildings were made from a lightweight aluminium decking . The B Station 's switchgear was provided by A. Reyrolle & Company and by M & C Switchgear . The volume of Blyth B 's main buildings represented 0 @.@ 76 cubic metres ( 27 cu ft ) / kW of installed capacity , while Blyth A 's building volume represented 0 @.@ 74 cubic metres ( 26 cu ft ) / kW .
= = Operations = =
= = = Coal transportation = = =
The stations burned a mix of bituminous and anthracite coal . They consumed 51 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 50 @,@ 190 long tons ; 56 @,@ 220 short tons ) of coal per week and had a peak consumption of 70 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 68 @,@ 890 long tons ; 77 @,@ 160 short tons ) per week during the winter . They were well positioned to use coal from the Northumberland and County Durham coal fields . All of the coal used in the stations was brought to them via rail transport from UK coal stocks . Trains delivered coal to the station using the North Blyth Branch of the Blyth and Tyne Railway . The stations ' coal handling facility was fitted with a Merry go Round ( MGR ) coal delivery system in 1981 , after high capacity rapid discharge waggons became the British Rail standard . This system involved the trains slowly passing over a hopper and automatically discharging their cargo through doors underneath the train . Because of site space restrictions , a balloon loop track layout could not be constructed , so instead of being able to move continuously , trains arriving on site had to pull onto a reception track ; the locomotive would then uncouple and recouple at the opposite end , before slowly moving over the unloading track hopper and discharging the coal and eventually leaving site . Towards the end of the station 's operation , coal was more frequently brought in by road . All coal was delivered to and stored in a large open area to the north of the power stations . This had a tarmac barrier underneath it to prevent downward contamination . The coal was brought from the storage area to the station using a system of conveyor belts , which travelled over the Bedlington @-@ Cambois Road separating the two sites , before being integrated to feed both stations as necessary .
= = = Cooling system = = =
Water is essential to a thermal power station , to create the steam to turn the steam turbines and generate electricity . Water used in the power station at Blyth was extracted from the Blyth Harbour tidal basin at the ash dock . Once used in the station , the hot water had to be cooled before it could be discharged . Condensers were used to convert steam from the turbines back into water . The stations ' condensers were of twin two @-@ pass design and had a total cooling surface of 70 @,@ 000 square feet ( 6 @,@ 500 m2 ) . Condensed water was then extracted by two duty pumps . The water then passed through a drains cooler . The cooled waste water was discharged into the sea off Cambois beach below low tide level .
= = = Ash removal = = =
Pulverised Fuel Ash ( PFA ) and Furnace Bottom Ash ( FBA ) were byproducts produced through the burning of coal in the station . Bottom ash was removed from ash hoppers at the bottom of the boilers by high pressure water jets . It then travelled to ash settling ponds via sluiceways . For much of the station 's life , the station was served by a series of barges , which took the ash to dump 4 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) out into the North Sea . Two barges provided this service over the years ; Sir Fon and MVA . The barges were loaded by silos situated at a special dock to the east of the stations . However , dumping in the sea stopped in 1992 when the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships prevented further dumping in the North Sea . From then on FBA was sold to the construction industry , while PFA was either dried for sale , or was disposed of at a licensed landfill on @-@ site .
= = Closure and demolition = =
= = = Closure = = =
In 1989 , Blyth A won a place in the Guinness Book of Records by setting the world record for total running hours in a plant of its size , when all four generating units achieved 200 @,@ 000 running hours . With the privatisation of the UK 's electricity supply industry in 1990 , the station passed into the ownership of National Power . In 1991 , the two 275 MW units at Blyth B ( units 5 & 6 ) were decommissioned on the grounds of economy , despite the station having been modernised in the early 1980s . This decommissioning resulted in 260 job losses .
During the 1990s , the station became one of the UK 's least efficient power stations . In 1998 , plans were announced to use the station as a test @-@ bed for clean coal technology , but the plans did not come to fruition . In 1999 , then owners Innogy decided to take Blyth A out of operation , while Blyth B began operating only at times of peak demand , because the stations had become surplus to their generating needs . From 1 April 2000 onwards the station was taken out of service for the summer months , because of the low demand for electricity at that time of year . However , staff were retained to maintain the station . Innogy then began looking for a buyer for the station , to decide the site 's future . They had been in talks with American based NRG Energy , over a £ 410 million purchase of the station , along with the Killingholme Power Station in North Lincolnshire . There had also been rumours that a deal had been made to convert the station into a waste @-@ to @-@ energy plant . However , any plans to save the station fell through and the generation of electricity at the station ceased on 31 January 2001 , after 43 years of operating , resulting in the loss of 131 jobs .
At the time of its closure , Blyth Power Station was the oldest coal @-@ fired power station in Britain . The station long outlived its life expectancy of 25 years . The length of time that the station was in use is partly due to its value in the National Grid , as a " charge " near to a major node in the system .
Shortly after its closure , a joint proposal was made by the British Army and the Ministry of Agriculture to burn the carcasses of animals slaughtered during the 2001 foot @-@ and @-@ mouth crisis in portable incinerators at the station . The station was proposed because of its high chimneys , but strong opposition from local residents and Members of Parliament , along with the proximity of over 100 @,@ 000 people living within 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) of the site , meant that the proposal was quickly rejected .
= = = Demolition = = =
The demolition contract for the station was won by London @-@ based company Brown & Mason . Before the demolition of the stations ' main structures , it was required that they be decommissioned . This involved the removal of hazardous materials and contaminants , to keep in line with Health & Safety at Work regulations . Oils and chemicals were removed for re @-@ use or disposal and storage tanks were flushed out . Methanol was removed from hydrogen production plants on site , along with bottled propane used for welding . The remaining coal in the coal storage area was dispatched to operating power stations in other parts of the country . The landfill site where ash waste from the station was dumped was topsoiled . Asbestos used in the stations was removed prior to the demolition of the stations ' structures .
The stations were demolished between 2001 and 2003 . The smaller buildings and structures were first to be demolished . One worker was killed during the demolition work , in May 2001 , crushed underneath an electrical connection box which fell from a wall . On 31 October 2001 , the ash silo which stood at the ash dock was toppled using explosives to demolish the stilts the structure stood on . The silo was then dismantled by bulldozers . All of the smaller structures had been removed by July 2002 . On 11 July 2002 , the A Station 's boiler house was demolished . The 61 @-@ metre ( 200 ft ) high coal conveyor belt was demolished on 6 February 2003 . The station 's precipitators were demolished on 27 March and 17 April 2003 . On 1 May 2003 , the B Station 's bunker bay building was demolished , and on 22 May 2003 , the stations air heater was demolished . A fire started at the station on 17 June 2003 , when a bunker caught fire after hot cutting equipment set fire to coke remnants . All of the larger structures had been demolished by July 2003 . It was planned for the stations ' chimneys to be demolished in October 2003 , but that had to be postponed due to the complexity of the demolition . However , at noon on 7 December 2003 , the four chimneys , each weighing 17 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 16 @,@ 730 long tons ; 18 @,@ 740 short tons ) , were demolished using a total of 150 kilograms ( 330 lb ) of the industrial explosive Gelemex . The demolition is thought to have been the biggest chimney demolition in 50 years .
= = Present and future uses of the site = =
Since Innogy was taken over by RWE in 2002 , the site has been owned by RWE Npower . The only substantial structures remaining are the National Grid and NEDL substations . These buildings will continue to remain and there are plans to extend the National Grid substation . The rest of the power station site is unused brownfield land . The site of the main station buildings is currently covered in crushed concrete , left over from the demolition process . Underground workings , such as tunnels and culverts , also still exist on the site . The coal storage area to the north has been tarmaced and ash settling ponds have been filled with concrete . Some ash mounds are still situated to the east of the site .
= = = Clean coal power station = = =
In May 2007 , Npower announced plans to build a new £ 2 billion clean coal power station on the site . The proposed station would have generated electricity using three 800 MW advanced supercritical steam , high @-@ efficiency coal @-@ fired units , giving the station a total generation capacity of 2 @,@ 400 MW . This was one of two new coal @-@ fired stations proposed by Npower in the UK . The site was chosen because of its readily available proximity to the national grid , its rail and port links , and its position next to the North Sea , which is useful for both cooling water , and as a potential CO2 storage site , where CO2 could be piped to oil and gas wells , and saline aquifers .
The station would have had an efficiency of 46 % , which in comparison to conventional subcritical coal @-@ fired power stations , equates to a reduction in carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) of 23 % per unit of electricity generated . The station would have utilised pollution abatement and gas cleaning systems , including selective catalytic reduction , to remove nitrogen oxide , and Flue @-@ gas desulphurisation , to remove sulphur dioxide . The station would also have been able to allow the installation of Carbon Capture and Storage ( CCS ) technology , when it becomes technically and commercially viable . There was also a possibility that the station may have co @-@ fired biomass , and cogenerated heat as a combined heat and power plant .
Coal was expected to be able to be delivered to the station by rail , as well as by ship to the Port of Blyth . The station 's coal storage area would have stored a minimum 45 days worth of coal supply . All of the station 's pulverised fuel ash ( PFA ) may have been sold to the construction industry , transported to which in dry dust tankers . Unsold PFA and furnace bottom ash would be taken to a landfill site by road .
Fifteen hundred jobs would have been created during the station 's construction , and more than 200 full @-@ time jobs would have been available once the station was operating .
The Environmental Assessment Scoping Report for the proposed station was submitted to the Department of Trade and Industry in 2007 , and the application for the development was to be made to the Secretary of State for Business , Enterprise and Regulatory Reform once the Environmental Impact Assessment was completed . A contract had already been signed with the Shaw Group to design and engineer the station . If Npower had been granted permission to build the new station , construction work would have begun in 2010 , and the station was expected to be fully commissioned by 2014 . It would have been one of the most efficient coal @-@ fired power stations of its size in the UK .
Blyth Valley Council said the proposal did not fit with regeneration plans in the area . Residents living in the area voiced opinions that the land should be redeveloped for other purposes , rather than continue to be used as an industrial site . The MP for Wansbeck , Denis Murphy , stated that , although the project would have benefits for the area , he still had concerns . Ronnie Campbell , the MP for Blyth Valley , claimed he would welcome the development as long as it did not have an adverse effect on the overall regeneration of the area . On 5 June 2008 , Npower reopened the original gatehouse at the entrance to the power station 's site , to provide a " drop @-@ in " centre for the public to find out more about the proposed plans .
In August 2009 , following a visit to Cambois from Minister of State for Energy at the Department of Energy and Climate Change Joan Ruddock , it was revealed that the government were determined to go ahead with four new coal @-@ fired power stations . She stated that they had no scepticism about CCS technology , with a competition having been started between the big energy companies to create a viable form of the technology , set to end in 2014 . However this meant the station may not have been completed until 2020 .
Despite this support , RWE announced in November 2009 that they have postponed their plans for the new power station . They are not yet going make a formal planning application for the plant , saying that the time is not right for such a huge investment . Dave Carlton , RWE 's project manager , has said that they " see the site as an important one , both for RWE npower and in terms of the UK ’ s future power generation ” , and so RWE npower have retained the site for a possible future power station . Malcolm Reid of People Against New Coal Stations , a group opposed to the power station development , said :
" We would now like to see Northumberland County Council re @-@ designate the Cambois site for green , clean technology , to match what is happening at the New and Renewable Energy Centre ( NaREC ) in Blyth . It is a perfect area for a factory for offshore wind turbines and housing development . If Cambois is re @-@ designated then the prospect of the area being regenerated rises colossally . "
= = = Wind turbine factory = = =
In April 2010 , Malcolm Reid proposed the station 's site as a possible location for a £ 80 million Siemens wind turbine factory . The factory would create 700 jobs and up to 1 @,@ 500 further jobs in the supply chain if built . He has said the site would be perfect for the factory because of its close proximity to NaREC and the site 's existing deep dock facilities . The factory is likely to be built either in Blyth or on Humberside .
= = Social and cultural impact = =
The power stations had very few television and film appearances :
In 1991 , the site was used as a shooting location for the sci @-@ fi horror film Alien 3 . Various locations in the North East of England were used in shooting the film , and the power station provided the location for some shots of the planet surface .
During the latter stages of the stations ' demolition , a documentary was made . The documentary was included in the Channel Five television programme The Demolition Squad .
Despite the small amount of media usage of the power stations , their four chimneys were still a strong landmark within the south east Northumberland landscape . They could be seen from as far south as 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) away at Callerton , in Newcastle upon Tyne , and over an 13 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 2 mi ) stretch of coast , from Seaton Sluice up to Newbiggin @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea . This is mostly because the stations were constructed in a largely flat , rural area .
In 1995 , the site was considered for scheduling by English Heritage , because of its national importance as a good example of a late 20th @-@ century power station . It was also important because of its use as a testing ground for various generating sizes , from which came success in the UK 's electricity industry . However , by then the station 's buildings were in poor condition and it would have been financially difficult to ensure their long term preservation . Instead , it was decided a comprehensive study and photographic record of the station would be commissioned .
Due to the closure of Blyth Power Stations , along with the power stations at Dunston and Stella in the 1980s and 1990s respectively , the northern part of North East England has become heavily dependent upon the National Grid for electrical supply . However , there are still two large power stations at Hartlepool and Wilton in the south of the region .
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= Pope Pius XII =
Pope Pius XII ( Italian : Pio XII ) , born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli ( Italian pronunciation : [ euˈdʒɛːnjo maˈriːa dʒuˈzɛppe dʒoˈvanni paˈtʃɛlli ] ; 2 March 1876 – 9 October 1958 ) , reigned as Pope from 2 March 1939 to his death in 1958 . Before his election to the papacy , Pacelli served as secretary of the Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs , papal nuncio to Germany ( 1917 – 1929 ) , and Cardinal Secretary of State , in which capacity he worked to conclude treaties with European and Latin American nations , most notably the Reichskonkordat with Nazi Germany , with which most historians believe the Vatican sought to protect the Church in Germany while Adolf Hitler sought the destruction of " political Catholicism " . A pre @-@ war critic of Nazism , Pius XII lobbied world leaders to avoid war and , as Pope at the outbreak of war , issued Summi Pontificatus , expressing dismay at the invasion of Poland , reiterating Church teaching against racial persecution and calling for love , compassion and charity to prevail over war .
While the Vatican was officially neutral during the war , Pius XII maintained links to the German Resistance , used diplomacy to aid the victims of the war and lobby for peace and spoke out against race @-@ based murders and other atrocities . The Reichskonkordat of 1933 and Pius 's leadership of the Catholic Church during World War II remain the subject of controversy — including allegations of public silence and inaction about the fate of the Jews . After the war Pius XII advocated peace and reconciliation , including lenient policies towards Axis and Axis @-@ satellite nations . The Church experienced severe persecution and mass deportations of Catholic clergy in the Eastern Bloc . Pius XII was a staunch opponent of Communism and of the Italian Communist Party . Pius XII explicitly invoked ex cathedra papal infallibility with the dogma of the Assumption of Mary in his 1950 Apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus . His magisterium includes almost 1 @,@ 000 addresses and radio broadcasts . His forty @-@ one encyclicals include Mystici corporis , the Church as the Body of Christ ; Mediator Dei on liturgy reform ; and Humani generis on the Church 's positions on theology and evolution . He eliminated the Italian majority in the College of Cardinals in 1946 .
In 1954 , Pius XII began to suffer from ill health , which would continue until his death in 1958 . The embalming of his body was mishandled , with effects that were evident during the funeral . He was buried in the Vatican grottos and was succeeded by Pope John XXIII .
In the process toward sainthood , his cause for canonization was opened on 18 November 1965 by Pope Paul VI during the final session of the Second Vatican Council . He was made a Servant of God by Pope John Paul II in 1990 and Pope Benedict XVI declared Pius XII Venerable on 19 December 2009 .
= = Early life = =
Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli was born on 2 March 1876 in Rome into a family of intense Catholic piety with a history of ties to the papacy ( the " Black Nobility " ) . His parents were Filippo Pacelli ( 1837 – 1916 ) and Virginia ( née Graziosi ) Pacelli ( 1844 – 1920 ) . His grandfather , Marcantonio Pacelli , had been Under @-@ Secretary in the Papal Ministry of Finances and then Secretary of the Interior under Pope Pius IX from 1851 to 1870 and helped found the Vatican 's newspaper , L 'Osservatore Romano in 1861 . His cousin , Ernesto Pacelli , was a key financial advisor to Pope Leo XIII ; his father , Filippo Pacelli , a Franciscan tertiary , was the dean of the Roman Rota ; and his brother , Francesco Pacelli , became a lay canon lawyer and the legal advisor to Pope Pius XI , in which role he negotiated the Lateran Treaty in 1929 , the pact with Benito Mussolini , bringing an end to the Roman Question .
Together with his brother Francesco and his two sisters , Giuseppina and Elisabetta , he grew up in the Parione district in the centre of Rome . Soon after the family had moved to Via Vetrina in 1880 he began school at the convent of the French Sisters of Divine Providence in the Piazza Fiammetta . The family worshipped at Chiesa Nuova . Eugenio and the other children made their First Communion at this church and Eugenio served there as an altar boy from 1886 . In 1886 too he was sent to the private school of Professor Giuseppe Marchi , close to the Piazza Venezia . In 1891 Pacelli 's father sent Eugenio to the Liceo Ennio Quirino Visconti Institute , a state school situated in what had been the Collegio Romano , the premier Jesuit university in Rome .
In 1894 , aged 18 , Pacelli began his theology studies at Rome 's oldest seminary , the Almo Collegio Capranica , and in November of the same year , registered to take a philosophy course at the Jesuit Pontifical Gregorian University and theology at the Pontifical Roman Athenaeum S. Apollinare . He was also enrolled at the State University , La Sapienza where he studied modern languages and history . At the end of the first academic year however , in the summer of 1895 , he dropped out of both the Capranica and the Gregorian University . According to his sister Elisabetta , the food at the Capranica was to blame . Having received a special dispensation he continued his studies from home and so spent most of his seminary years as an external student . In 1899 he completed his education in Sacred Theology with a doctoral degree awarded on the basis of a short dissertation and an oral examination in Latin .
= = Church career = =
= = = Priest and Monsignor = = =
While all other candidates from the Rome diocese were ordained in the Basilica of St. John Lateran , Pacelli was ordained a priest on Easter Sunday , 2 April 1899 alone in the private chapel of a family friend the Vice @-@ Regent of Rome , Mgr Paolo Cassetta . Shortly after ordination he began postgraduate studies in canon law at Sant 'Apollinaire . He received his first assignment as a curate at Chiesa Nuova . In 1901 he entered the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs , a sub @-@ office of the Vatican Secretariat of State .
Monsignor Pietro Gasparri , the recently appointed undersecretary at the Department of Extraordinary Affairs , had underscored his proposal to Pacelli to work in the ' Vatican 's equivalent of the Foreign office ' by highlighting the ' necessity of defending the Church from the onslaughts of secularism and liberalism throughout Europe . ' Pacelli became an apprendista , an apprentice , in Gasparri 's department . In January 1901 he was also chosen , by Pope Leo XIII himself , according to an official account , to deliver condolences on behalf of the Vatican to King Edward VII of the UK after the death of Queen Victoria .
By 1904 Pacelli received his doctorate . The theme of his thesis was the nature of concordats and the function of canon law when a concordat falls into abeyance . Promoted to the position of minutante , he prepared digests of reports that had been sent to the Secretariat from all over the world and in the same year became a papal chamberlain . In 1905 he received the title domestic prelate . From 1904 until 1916 , he assisted Cardinal Pietro Gasparri in his codification of canon law with the Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs . According to John Cornwell , " the text , together with the Anti @-@ Modernist Oath , became the means by which the Holy See was to establish and sustain the new , unequal , and unprecedented power relationship that had arisen between the papacy and the Church . "
In 1908 , Pacelli served as a Vatican representative on the International Eucharistic Congress , accompanying Rafael Merry del Val to London , where he met Winston Churchill . In 1911 , he represented the Holy See at the coronation of King George V. Pacelli became the under @-@ secretary in 1911 , adjunct @-@ secretary in 1912 ( a position he received under Pope Pius X and retained under Pope Benedict XV ) , and secretary of the Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs in February 1914 . On 24 June 1914 , just four days before Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated in Sarajevo , Pacelli , together with Cardinal Merry del Val , represented the Vatican when the Serbian Concordat was signed . Serbia 's success in the First Balkan War against Turkey in 1912 had increased the number of Catholics within greater Serbia . At this time Serbia , encouraged by Russia , was challenging Austria @-@ Hungary 's sphere of influence throughout the Balkans . Pius X died on 20 August 1914 . His successor Benedict XV named Gasparri as secretary of state and Gasparri took Pacelli with him into the Secretariat of State , making him undersecretary . During World War I , Pacelli maintained the Vatican 's registry of prisoners of war and worked to implement papal relief initiatives . In 1915 , he travelled to Vienna to assist Monsignor Raffaele Scapinelli , nuncio to Vienna , in his negotiations with Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria regarding Italy .
= = = Archbishop and Papal Nuncio = = =
Pope Benedict XV appointed Pacelli as nuncio to Bavaria on 23 April 1917 , consecrating him as titular Bishop of Sardis and immediately elevating him to archbishop in the Sistine Chapel on 13 May 1917 . After his consecration , Eugenio Pacelli left for Bavaria . As there was no nuncio to Prussia or Germany at the time , Pacelli was , for all practical purposes , the nuncio to all of the German Empire .
Once in Munich , he conveyed the papal initiative to end the war to German authorities . He met with King Ludwig III on 29 May , and later with Kaiser Wilhelm II and Chancellor Bethmann @-@ Hollweg , who replied positively to the Papal initiative . However , Bethmann @-@ Hollweg was forced to resign and the German High Command , hoping for a military victory , delayed the German reply until 20 September .
Sister Pascalina later recalled that the Nuncio was heartbroken that the Kaiser turned " deaf ear to all his proposals " . She later wrote , " Thinking back today on that time , when we Germans still all believed that our weapons would be victorious and the Nuncio was deeply sorry that the chance had been missed to save what there was to save , it occurs to me over and over again how clearly he foresaw what was to come . Once as he traced the course of the Rhine with his finger on a map , he said sadly , ' No doubt this will be lost as well . ' I did not want to believe it , but here , too , he was to be proved right . "
For the remainder of the Great War , Pacelli concentrated on Benedict 's humanitarian efforts especially among Allied POWs in German custody . In the upheaval following the Armistice , a disconcerted Pacelli sought Benedict XV 's permission to leave Munich , where Kurt Eisner had formed the Bavarian Soviet Republic , and he left for a while to Rorschach , and a tranquil Swiss sanatorium run by nuns . Monsignor Schioppa , the uditore , was left in Munich .
" His recovery began with a ' rapport ' " with the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Sister Pascalina Lehnert — she would soon be transferred to Munich when Pacelli " pulled strings at the highest level " .
When he returned to Munich , following Eisner 's assassination by an anti @-@ Semitic extreme nationalist , Count Anton von Arco auf Valley , he informed Gasparri @-@ using Schioppa 's eye @-@ witness testimony of the chaotic scene at the former royal palace as the trio of Max Levien , Eugen Levine , and Towia Axelrod sought power : " the scene was indescribable [ - ] the confusion totally chaotic [ - ] in the midst of all this , a gang of young women , of dubious appearance , Jews like the rest of them hanging around [ - ] the boss of this female rabble was Levien 's mistress , a young Russian woman , a Jew and a divorcée [ - ] and it was to her that the nunciature was obliged to pay homage in order to proceed [ - ] Levien is a young man , also Russian and a Jew . Pale , dirty , with drugged eyes , vulgar , repulsive ... " John Cornwell alleges that a worrying impression of anti @-@ Semitism is discernible in the ' catalogue of epithets describing their physical and moral repulsiveness ' and Pacelli 's " constant harping on the Jewishness of this party of power usurpers " chimed with the " growing and widespread belief among Germans that the Jews were the instigators of the Bolshevik revolution , their principal aim being the destruction of Christian civilization " . Also according to Cornwell , Pacelli informed Gasparri that " the capital of Bavaria , is suffering under a harsh Jewish @-@ Russian revolutionary tyranny "
According to Sister Pascalina Lehnert , the Nuncio was repeatedly threatened by emissaries of the Bavarian Soviet Republic . Once , in a violation of international law , the Bavarian Revolutionary Government attempted to confiscate the Nunciature 's car at gunpoint . Despite their demands , however , Pacelli refused to leave his post .
After the Munich Soviet Republic defeated and toppled by Freikorps and Reichswehr troops , the Nuncio focused on , according to Lehnert , " alleviating the distress of the postwar period , consoling , supporting all in word and deed . "
Pacelli was appointed Apostolic Nuncio to Germany on 23 June 1920 , and — after the completion of a Bavarian concordat — his nunciature was moved to Berlin in August 1925 . Many of Pacelli 's Munich staff stayed with him for the rest of his life , including his advisor Robert Leiber and Sister Pascalina Lehnert — housekeeper , cook friend , and adviser for 41 years . In Berlin , Pacelli was Dean of the Diplomatic Corps and active in diplomatic and many social activities . He was aided by the German priest Ludwig Kaas , who was known for his expertise in Church @-@ state relations and was a full @-@ time politician , politically active in the Catholic Centre Party , a party he led following Wilhelm Marx 's resignation in October 1928 . While in Germany , he travelled to all regions , attended Katholikentag ( national gatherings of the faithful ) , and delivered some 50 sermons and speeches to the German people . In Berlin he lived in the Tiergarten quarter and threw parties for the official and diplomatic elite . Paul von Hindenburg , Gustav Stresemann , and other members of the Cabinet were regular guests .
In post @-@ war Germany , in the absence of a nuncio in Moscow , Pacelli worked also on diplomatic arrangements between the Vatican and the Soviet Union . He negotiated food shipments for Russia , where the Church was persecuted . He met with Soviet representatives including Foreign Minister Georgi Chicherin , who rejected any kind of religious education , the ordination of priests and bishops , but offered agreements without the points vital to the Vatican .
Despite Vatican pessimism and a lack of visible progress , Pacelli continued the secret negotiations , until Pius XI ordered them to be discontinued in 1927 . Pacelli supported German diplomatic activity aimed at rejection of punitive measures from victorious former enemies . He blocked French attempts for an ecclesiastical separation of the Saar region , supported the appointment of a papal administrator for Danzig and aided the reintegration of priests expelled from Poland . A Prussian Concordat was signed on 14 June 1929 . Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , the beginnings of a world economic slump appeared , and the days of the Weimar Republic were numbered . Pacelli was summoned back to Rome at this time — the call coming by telegram when he was resting at his favourite retreat , the Rorschach convent sanatorium . He left Berlin on 10 December 1929 . David Dalin wrote " of the forty @-@ four speeches Pacelli gave in Germany as papal nuncio between 1917 and 1929 , forty denounced some aspect of the emerging Nazi ideology . " In 1935 he wrote a letter to the bishop of Cologne describing the Nazis as " false prophets with the pride of Lucifer . " and as " bearers of a new faith and a new Evangile " who were attempting to create " a mendacious antimony between faithfulness to the Church and the Fatherland " . Two years later at Notre Dame in Paris he named Germany as " that noble and powerful nation whom bad shepherds would lead astray into an ideology of race . "
= = = Cardinal Secretary of State and Camerlengo = = =
Pacelli was made a Cardinal @-@ Priest of Santi Giovanni e Paolo on 16 December 1929 by Pope Pius XI , and within a few months , on 7 February 1930 , Pius XI appointed him Cardinal Secretary of State , responsible for foreign policy and state relations throughout the world . In 1935 , Pacelli was named Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church .
As Cardinal Secretary of State , Pacelli signed concordats with a number of countries and states . Immediately on becoming Cardinal Secretary of State , Pacelli and Ludwig Kaas took up negotiations on a Baden Concordat which continued until the spring and summer of 1932 . Papal fiat appointed a supporter of Pacelli and his concordat policy , Conrad Gröber , the new Archbishop of Freiburg , and the treaty was signed in August 1932 . Others followed : Austria ( 1933 ) , Germany ( 1933 ) , Yugoslavia ( 1935 ) and Portugal ( 1940 ) . The Lateran treaties with Italy ( 1929 ) were concluded before Pacelli became Secretary of State . Roman Catholicism had become the sole recognized religion ; the powerful democratic Catholic Popular Party , in many ways similar to the Centre Party in Germany , had been disbanded , and in place of political Catholicism the Holy See encouraged Catholic Action , ' an anaemic form of clerically dominated religious rally @-@ rousing . ' It was permitted only so long as it developed " its activity outside every political party and in direct dependence upon the Church hierarchy for the dissemination and implementation of Catholic principles . ' Such concordats allowed the Catholic Church to organize youth groups , make ecclesiastical appointments , run schools , hospitals , and charities , or even conduct religious services . They also ensured that canon law would be recognized within some spheres ( e.g. , church decrees of nullity in the area of marriage ) .
As the decade began Pacelli wanted the Centre Party in Germany to turn away from the socialists . In the summer of 1931 he clashed with Catholic chancellor Heinrich Bruning , who frankly told Pacelli he believed that he " misunderstood the political situation in Germany and the real character of the Nazis . " Following Bruning 's resignation in May 1932 Pacelli , like the new Catholic chancellor Franz von Papen , wondered if the Centre Party should look to the Right for a coalition , " that would correspond to their principles ' . He made many diplomatic visits throughout Europe and the Americas , including an extensive visit to the United States in 1936 where he met President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who appointed a personal envoy — who did not require Senate confirmation — to the Holy See in December 1939 , re @-@ establishing a diplomatic tradition that had been broken since 1870 when the pope lost temporal power .
Pacelli presided as Papal Legate over the International Eucharistic Congress in Buenos Aires , Argentina from 10 – 14 October 1934 , and in Budapest from 25 – 30 May 1938 . At this time , anti @-@ semitic laws were in the process of being formulated in Hungary . Pacelli made reference to the Jews " whose lips curse [ Christ ] and whose hearts reject him even today " . This traditional adversarial relationship with Judaism would be reversed in Nostra aetate issued during the Second Vatican Council . According to Joseph Bottum , Pacelli in 1937 " warned A. W. Klieforth , the American consul to Berlin , that Hitler was " an untrustworthy scoundrel and fundamentally wicked person " ; Klieforth wrote that Pacelli " did not believe Hitler capable of moderation , and ... fully supported the German bishops in their anti @-@ Nazi stand . " A report written by Pacelli the following year for Roosevelt and filed with Ambassador Joseph Kennedy declared that the Church regarded compromise with the Third Reich as " out of the question " .
Historian Walter Bussmann argued that Pacelli , as Cardinal Secretary of State , dissuaded Pope Pius XI — who was nearing death at the time — from condemning the Kristallnacht in November 1938 , when he was informed of it by the papal nuncio in Berlin . Likewise the draft encyclical Humani generis unitas ( " On the Unity of the Human Race " ) , which was ready in September 1938 but , according to those responsible for an edition of the document and other sources , it was not forwarded to the Holy See by the Jesuit General Wlodimir Ledochowski . The draft encyclical contained an open and clear condemnation of colonialism , racial persecution and antisemitism .
Historians Passelecq and Suchecky have argued that Pacelli learned about its existence only after the death of Pius XI and did not promulgate it as Pope . He did use parts of it in his inaugural encyclical Summi Pontificatus , which he titled " On the Unity of Human Society . " His various positions on Church and policy issues during his tenure as Cardinal Secretary of State were made public by the Holy See in 1939 . Most noteworthy among the 50 speeches is his review of Church @-@ State issues in Budapest in 1938 .
= = = Reichskonkordat and Mit brennender Sorge = = =
The Reichskonkordat was an integral part of four concordats Pacelli concluded on behalf of the Vatican with German States . The state concordats were necessary because the German federalist Weimar constitution gave the German states authority in the area of education and culture and thus diminished the authority of the churches in these areas ; this diminution of church authority was a primary concern of the Vatican . As Bavarian Nuncio , Pacelli negotiated successfully with the Bavarian authorities in 1925 . He expected the concordat with Catholic Bavaria to be the model for the rest of Germany . Prussia showed interest in negotiations only after the Bavarian concordat . However , Pacelli obtained less favorable conditions for the Church in the Prussian concordat of 1929 , which excluded educational issues . A concordat with the German state of Baden was completed by Pacelli in 1932 , after he had moved to Rome . There he also negotiated a concordat with Austria in 1933 . A total of 16 concordats and treaties with European states had been concluded in the ten @-@ year period 1922 – 1932 .
The Reichskonkordat , signed on 20 July 1933 , between Germany and the Holy See , while thus a part of an overall Vatican policy , was controversial from its beginning . It remains the most important of Pacelli 's concordats . It is debated , not because of its content , which is still valid today , but because of its timing . A national concordat with Germany was one of Pacelli 's main objectives as secretary of state , because he had hoped to strengthen the legal position of the Church . Pacelli , who knew German conditions well , emphasized in particular protection for Catholic associations ( § 31 ) , freedom for education and Catholic schools , and freedom for publications .
As nuncio during the 1920s , he had made unsuccessful attempts to obtain German agreement for such a treaty , and between 1930 and 1933 he attempted to initiate negotiations with representatives of successive German governments , but the opposition of Protestant and Socialist parties , the instability of national governments and the care of the individual states to guard their autonomy thwarted this aim . In particular , the questions of denominational schools and pastoral work in the armed forces prevented any agreement on the national level , despite talks in the winter of 1932 .
Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor on 30 January 1933 and sought to gain international respectability and to remove internal opposition by representatives of the Church and the Catholic Centre Party . He sent his vice chancellor Franz von Papen , a Catholic nobleman and member of the Centre Party , to Rome to offer negotiations about a Reichskonkordat . On behalf of Pacelli , Prelate Ludwig Kaas , the outgoing chairman of the Centre Party , negotiated first drafts of the terms with Papen . The concordat was finally signed , by Pacelli for the Vatican and von Papen for Germany , on 20 July and ratified on 10 September 1933 . Father Franziscus Stratman , senior Catholic chaplain at Berlin University wrote " The souls of well @-@ disposed people are in a turmoil as a result of the tyranny of the National Socialists , and I am merely stating a fact when I say that the authority of the bishops among innumerable Catholics and non @-@ Catholics has been shaken by the quasi @-@ approval of the National Socialist movement " . Bishop Preysing cautioned against compromise with the new regime , against those who saw the Nazi persecution of the church as an aberration that Hitler would correct .
Between 1933 and 1939 , Pacelli issued 55 protests of violations of the Reichskonkordat . Most notably , early in 1937 , Pacelli asked several German cardinals , including Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber to help him write a protest of Nazi violations of the Reichskonkordat ; this was to become Pius XI 's 1937 encyclical , Mit brennender Sorge . The encyclical was written in German and not the usual Latin of official Roman Catholic Church documents . Secretly distributed by an army of motorcyclists and read from every German Catholic Church pulpit on Palm Sunday , it condemned the paganism of the National Socialism ideology . Pius XI credited its creation and writing to Pacelli . It was the first official denunciation of Nazism made by any major organization and resulted in persecution of the Church by the infuriated Nazis who closed all the participating presses and " took numerous vindictive measures against the Church , including staging a long series of immorality trials of the Catholic clergy . " On 10 June 1941 , the pope commented on the problems of the Reichskonkordat in a letter to the Bishop of Passau , in Bavaria : " The history of the Reichskonkordat shows , that the other side lacked the most basic prerequisites to accept minimal freedoms and rights of the Church , without which the Church simply cannot live and operate , formal agreements notwithstanding " .
= = = Relation with the Media = = =
Cardinal Pacelli gave a lecture entitled " La Presse et L 'Apostolat " at the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas , Angelicum on April 17 , 1936 .
= = Papacy = =
= = = Election and coronation = = =
Pope Pius XI died on 10 February 1939 . Several historians have interpreted the conclave to choose his successor as facing a choice between a diplomatic or a spiritual candidate , and they view Pacelli 's diplomatic experience , especially with Germany , as one of the deciding factors in his election on 2 March 1939 , his 63rd birthday , after only one day of deliberation and three ballots . He was the first cardinal Secretary of State to be elected pope since Clement IX in 1667 . He was one of only two men known to have served as Camerlengo immediately prior to being elected as pope ( the other being Pope Leo XIII ) . According to rumours , he asked for another ballot to be taken to ensure the validity of his election . After his election was indeed confirmed , he chose the name Pius XII in honour of his immediate predecessor .
His coronation took place on 12 March 1939 . Upon being elected pope he was also formally the Grand Master of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem , prefect of the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office , prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Oriental Churches and prefect of the Sacred Consistorial Congregation . There was however a Cardinal @-@ Secretary to run these bodies on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis .
Pacelli took the same papal name as his predecessor , a title used exclusively by Italian Popes . He was quoted as saying , " I call myself Pius ; my whole life was under Popes with this name , but especially as a sign of gratitude towards Pius XI . " On 15 December 1937 , during his last consistory , Pius XI strongly hinted to the cardinals that he expected Pacelli to be his successor , saying " He is in your midst . " He had previously been quoted as saying : " When today the Pope dies , you 'll get another one tomorrow , because the Church continues . It would be a much bigger tragedy , if Cardinal Pacelli dies , because there is only one . I pray every day , God may send another one into one of our seminaries , but as of today , there is only one in this world . "
= = = Appointments = = =
After his election , he made Luigi Maglione his successor as Cardinal Secretary of State . Cardinal Maglione , a seasoned Vatican diplomat , had reestablished diplomatic relations with Switzerland and was for many years nuncio in Paris . Yet , Maglione did not exercise the influence of his predecessor Pacelli , who as Pope continued his close relation with Monsignors Montini ( later Pope Paul VI ) and Domenico Tardini . After the death of Maglione in 1944 , Pius left the position open and named Tardini head of its foreign section and Montini head of the internal section . Tardini and Montini continued serving there until 1953 , when Pius XII decided to appoint them cardinals , an honor which both turned down . They were then later appointed to be Pro @-@ Secretary with the privilege to wear Episcopal Insignia . Tardini continued to be a close co @-@ worker of the Pope until the death of Pius XII , while Montini became archbishop of Milan , after the death of Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster .
Pius XII slowly eroded the Italian monopoly on the Roman Curia ; he employed German and Dutch Jesuit advisors , Robert Leiber , Augustin Bea , and Sebastian Tromp . He also supported the elevation of Americans such as Cardinal Francis Spellman from a minor to a major role in the Church . After World War II , Pius XII appointed more non @-@ Italians than any Pope before him . American appointees included Joseph P. Hurley as regent of the nunciature in Belgrade , Gerald P. O 'Hara as nuncio to Romania , and Monsignor Muench as nuncio to Germany . For the first time , numerous young Europeans , Asians and " Americans were trained in various congregations and secretariats within the Vatican for eventual service throughout the world . "
= = = Consistories = = =
Only twice in his pontificate did Pius XII hold a consistory to create new cardinals , in contrast to Pius XI , who had done so 17 times in as many years . Pius XII chose not to name new cardinals during World War II , and the number of cardinals shrank to 38 , with Dennis Joseph Dougherty of Philadelphia being the only living U.S. cardinal . The first occasion on 18 February 1946 — which has become known as the " Grand Consistory " — yielded the elevation of a record 32 new cardinals , almost 50 percent of the College of Cardinals and reaching the canonical limit of 70 cardinals . In the 1946 consistory , Pius XII , while maintaining the maximum size of the College of Cardinals at 70 , named cardinals from China , India , the Middle East and increased the number of Cardinals from the Americas , proportionally lessening the Italian influence .
In his second consistory on 12 January 1953 , it was expected that his closest co @-@ workers , Msgrs . Domenico Tardini and Giovanni Montini would be elevated and Pius XII informed the assembled cardinals that both of them were originally on the top of his list , but they had turned down the offer , and were rewarded instead with other promotions . The two consistories of 1946 and 1953 brought an end to over five hundred years of Italians constituting a majority of the College of Cardinals .
With few exceptions , Italian prelates accepted the changes positively ; there was no protest movement or open opposition to the internationalization efforts .
= = Church reforms = =
= = = Liturgy reforms = = =
In his encyclical Mediator Dei , Pius XII links liturgy with the last will of Jesus Christ .
But it is His will , that the worship He instituted and practiced during His life on earth shall continue ever afterwards without intermission . For he has not left mankind an orphan . He still offers us the support of His powerful , unfailing intercession , acting as our " advocate with the Father . " He aids us likewise through His Church , where He is present indefectibly as the ages run their course : through the Church which He constituted " the pillar of truth " and dispenser of grace , and which by His sacrifice on the cross , He founded , consecrated and confirmed forever .
The Church has , therefore , according to Pius XII , a common aim with Christ himself , teaching all men the truth , and offering to God a pleasing and acceptable sacrifice . This way , the Church re @-@ establishes the unity between the Creator and his creatures . The sacrifice of the altar , being Christ 's own actions , convey and dispense divine grace from Christ to the members of the Mystical Body .
Bishop Carlos Duarte Costa , a long @-@ time critic of Pius XII 's policies during World War II and an opponent of clerical celibacy and the use of Latin as language of the liturgy , was excommunicated by Pius XII on 2 July 1945 .
The numerous reforms of Pius XII show two characteristics . Renewal and rediscovery of old liturgical traditions , such as the reintroduction of the Easter Vigil , and a more structured atmosphere within the Church buildings .
= = = Canon Law reforms = = =
Decentralized authority and increased independence of the Uniate Churches were aimed at in the Canon Law / Corpis Iuris Canonici ( CIC ) reform . In its new constitutions , Eastern Patriarchs were made almost independent from Rome ( CIC Orientalis , 1957 ) Eastern marriage law ( CIC Orientalis , 1949 ) , civil law ( CIC Orientalis , 1950 ) , laws governing religious associations ( CIC Orientalis , 1952 ) property law ( CIC Orientalis , 1952 ) and other laws . These reforms and writings of Pius XII were intended to establish Eastern Orientals as equal parts of the mystical body of Christ , as explained in the encyclical Mystici corporis .
= = = Priests and religious = = =
With the Apostolic constitution Sedis Sapientiae , Pius XII added social sciences , sociology , psychology and social psychology , to the pastoral training of future priests . Pius XII emphasised the need to systematically analyze the psychological condition of candidates to the priesthood to ensure that they are capable of a life of celibacy and service . Pius XII added one year to the theological formation of future priests . He included a " pastoral year " , an introduction into the practice of parish work .
Pius XII wrote in Menti Nostrae that the call to constant interior reform and Christian heroism means to be above average , to be a living example of Christian virtue . The strict norms governing their lives are meant to make them models of Christian perfection for lay people . Bishops are encouraged to look at model saints like Boniface , and Pope Pius X. Priests were encouraged to be living examples of the love of Christ and his sacrifice .
= = Theology = =
Pius XII explained the Catholic faith in 41 encyclicals and almost 1000 messages and speeches during his long pontificate . Mediator Dei clarified membership and participation in the Church . The encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu opened the doors for biblical research . His magisterium was far larger and is difficult to summarize . In numerous speeches Catholic teaching is related to various aspects of life , education , medicine , politics , war and peace , the life of saints , Mary , the Mother of God , things eternal and contemporary . Theologically , Pius XII specified the nature of the teaching authority of the Church . He also gave a new freedom to engage in theological investigations .
= = = Theological orientation = = =
Biblical Research
The encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu , published in 1943 , emphasized the role of the Bible . Pius XII freed biblical research from previous limitations . He encouraged Christian theologians to revisit original versions of the Bible in Greek and Hebrew . Noting improvements in archaeology , the encyclical reversed Pope Leo XIII 's encyclical , which had only advocated going back to the original texts to resolve ambiguity in the Latin Vulgate . The encyclical demands a much better understanding of ancient Jewish history and traditions . It requires bishops throughout the Church to initiate biblical studies for lay people . The Pontiff also requests a reorientation of Catholic teaching and education , relying much more on sacred scriptures in sermons and religious instruction .
The role of theology
This theological investigative freedom does not , however , extend to all aspects of theology . According to Pius , theologians , employed by the Church , are assistants , to teach the official teachings of the Church and not their own private thoughts . They are free to engage in empirical research , which the Church generously supports , but in matters of morality and religion , they are subjected to the teaching office and authority of the Church , the Magisterium . " The most noble office of theology is to show how a doctrine defined by the Church is contained in the sources of revelation , ... in that sense in which it has been defined by the Church . " The deposit of faith is authentically interpreted not to each of the faithful , not even to theologians , but only to the teaching authority of the Church .
= = = Mariology and the Dogma of the Assumption = = =
World Consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary
As a young boy and in later life , Pacelli was an ardent follower of the Virgin Mary . He was consecrated as a bishop on 13 May 1917 , the very first day of the apparitions of Our Lady of Fátima . He consecrated the world to the Immaculate Heart of Mary in 1942 , however , in the second " secret " of Our Lady of Fátima and the letters received from several bishops from Portugal based on the revelations of Lucia Santos in 1929 , Our Lady expressly , and specifically asked for the consecration of Russia , not " the world " . His remains were to be buried in the crypt of Saint Peter 's Basilica on the feast day of Our Lady of Fátima , 13 October 1958 .
The dogma of the Assumption of Our Lady
On 1 November 1950 , Pius XII defined the dogma of the Assumption of Mary , namely that she " having completed the course of her earthly life , was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory . " The dogma was preceded by the 1946 encyclical Deiparae Virginis Mariae , which requested all Catholic bishops to express their opinion on a possible dogmatization . On 8 September 1953 , the encyclical Fulgens corona announced a Marian year for 1954 , the centennial of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception . In the encyclical Ad caeli reginam he promulgated the Queenship of Mary feast . Mystici corporis summarizes his mariology .
= = = Social teachings = = =
Medical theology
Pius XII delivered numerous speeches to medical professionals and researchers . He addressed doctors , nurses , midwives , to detail all aspects of rights and dignity of patients , medical responsibilities , moral implications of psychological illnesses and the uses of psycho pharmaca . He also took on issues like the uses of medicine in terminally ill persons , medical lies in face of grave illness , and the rights of family members to make decisions against expert medical advice . Pope Pius XII often reconsidered previously accepted truth , thus he was first to determine that the use of pain medicine in terminally ill patients is justified , even if this may shorten the life of the patient , as long as life shortening is not the objective itself .
Family and sexuality
Pope Pius XII developed an extensive theology of the family , taking issue with family roles , sharing of household duties , education of children , conflict resolution , financial dilemmas , psychological problems , illness , taking care of older generations , unemployment , marital holiness and virtue , common prayer , religious discussions and more . He accepted the rhythm method as a moral form of family planning , although only in limited circumstances , within the context of family .
Theology and science
To Pius XII , science and religion were heavenly sisters , different manifestations of divine exactness , who could not possibly contradict each other over the long term Regarding their relation , his advisor Professor Robert Leiber wrote : " Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors prematurely . He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo " .
Evolution
In 1950 , Pius XII promulgated Humani generis which acknowledged that evolution might accurately describe the biological origins of human life , but at the same time criticized those who " imprudently and indiscreetly hold that evolution ... explains the origin of all things " . Catholics must believe that the human soul was created immediately by God . Since the soul is a spiritual substance it is not brought into being through transformation of matter , but directly by God , whence the special uniqueness of each person .. " Fifty years later , Pope John Paul II , stating that scientific evidence now seemed to favour the evolutionary theory , upheld the distinction of Pius XII regarding the human soul . " Even if the human body originates from pre @-@ existent living matter , the spiritual soul is spontaneously created by God . "
= = = Encyclicals , writings and speeches = = =
Pius XII issued 41 encyclicals during his pontificate — more than all his successors in the past 50 years taken together — along with many other writings and speeches . The pontificate of Pius XII was the first in Vatican history that published papal speeches and addresses in vernacular language on a systematic basis . Until then , papal documents were issued mainly in Latin in Acta Apostolicae Sedis since 1909 . Because of the novelty of it all , and a feared occupation of the Vatican by the German Wehrmacht , not all documents exist today . In 1944 , a number of papal documents were burned or " walled in " , to avoid detection by the advancing German army . Insisting that all publications must be reviewed by him on a prior basis to avoid any misunderstanding , several speeches by Pius XII , who did not find sufficient time , were never published or appeared only once issued in the Vatican daily , Osservatore Romano .
Several encyclicals addressed the Eastern Catholic Churches . Orientalis Ecclesiae was issued in 1944 on the 15th centenary of the death of Cyril of Alexandria , a saint common to Eastern Christianity and Latin Churches . Pius XII asks for prayer for better understanding and unification of the Churches . Orientales omnes Ecclesias , issued in 1945 on the 350th anniversary of the reunion , is a call to continued unity of the Ruthenian Church , threatened in its very existence by the authorities of the Soviet Union . Sempiternus Rex was issued in 1951 on the 1500th anniversary of the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon . It included a call to oriental communities adhering to Miaphysite theology to return to the Catholic Church . Orientales Ecclesias was issued in 1952 and addressed to the Eastern Churches , protesting the continued Stalinist persecution of the Church . Several Apostolic Letters were sent to the bishops in the East . On 13 May 1956 , Pope Pius addressed all bishops of the Eastern Rite . Mary , the mother of God , was the subject of encyclical letters to the people of Russia in Fulgens corona , as well as a papal letter to the people of Russia .
Pius XII made two substantial interventions on the media . His 1955 discourse The Ideal Movie , originally given in two parts to members of the Italian cinema industry , offered a " sophisticated analysis of the film industry and the role of cinema in modern society . " Compared to his predecessor 's teaching , the encyclical Miranda Prorsus ( 1957 ) shows a " high regard for the importance of cinema , television , and radio . "
= = = Feasts and devotions = = =
In 1958 , Pope Pius XII declared the Feast of the Holy Face of Jesus as Shrove Tuesday ( the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday ) for all Roman Catholics . The first medal of the Holy Face , produced by Sister Maria Pierina De Micheli , based on the image on the Shroud of Turin had been offered to Pius XII who approved the medal and the devotion based on it . The general devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus had been approved by Pope Leo XIII in 1885 before the image on the Turin Shroud had been photographed .
= = Canonisations and beatifications = =
Pope Pius XII canonized numerous people , including Pope Pius X — " both were determined to stamp out , as far as possible , all traces of dangerous heterodoxy " — and Maria Goretti . He beatified Pope Innocent XI . The first canonizations were two women , the founder of a female order , Mary Euphrasia Pelletier , and a young housekeeper said to have stigmata , Gemma Galgani . Pelletier had a reputation for opening new ways for Catholic charities , helping people in difficulties with the law , who had been neglected by the system and the Church . Galgani was a woman in her twenties whose virtue became model by her canonization .
= = World War II = =
Pius XII lobbied world leaders to prevent the outbreak of World War II and then expressed his dismay that war had come in his October 1939 Summi Pontificatus encyclical . He followed a strict public policy of Vatican neutrality for the duration of the conflict mirroring that of Pope Benedict XV during World War I , but preached against selfish nationalism and , through the use of diplomacy , sermons and radio broadcasts and the creation of the Vatican Information Service , Pius worked to ameliorate the suffering of the victims of the war . He permitted local churches to assess and formulate responses to the Nazis , and instructed them to provide discreet aid to Jews .
In 1939 , Pius XII turned the Vatican into a centre of aid which he organized from various parts of the world . At the request of the Pope , an information office for prisoners of war and refugees operated in the Vatican under Giovanni Battista Montini , which in the years of its existence from 1939 until 1947 received almost 10 million ( 9 @,@ 891 @,@ 497 ) information requests and produced over 11 million ( 11 @,@ 293 @,@ 511 ) answers about missing persons .
McGoldrick ( 2012 ) concludes that during the war :
Pius XII had genuine affection for Germany , though not the criminal element into whose hands it had fallen ; he feared Bolshevism , an ideology dedicated to the annihilation of the church of which he was head , but his sympathies lay with the Allies and the democracies , especially the United States , into whose war economy he had transferred and invested the Vatican 's considerable assets .
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
= = = = Summi Pontificatus = = = =
Summi Pontificatus was the first papal encyclical issued by Pope Pius XII , in October 1939 and established some of the themes of his pontificate . During the drafting of the letter , the Second World War commenced with the German / Soviet invasion of Catholic Poland — the " dread tempest of war is already raging despite all Our efforts to avert it " . The papal letter denounced antisemitism , war , totalitarianism , the attack on Poland and the Nazi persecution of the Church .
Pius XII reiterated Church teaching on the " principle of equality " — with specific reference to Jews : " there is neither Gentile nor Jew , circumcision nor uncircumcision " . The forgetting of solidarity " imposed by our common origin and by the equality of rational nature in all men " was called " pernicious error " . Catholics everywhere were called upon to offer " compassion and help " to the victims of the war . The Pope declared determination to work to hasten the return of peace and trust in prayers for justice , love and mercy , to prevail against the scourge of war . The letter also decried the deaths of noncombatants .
Following themes addressed in Non abbiamo bisogno ( 1931 ) ; Mit brennender Sorge ( 1937 ) and Divini redemptoris ( 1937 ) , Pius wrote against " anti @-@ Christian movements " and needing to bring back to the Church those who were following " a false standard ... misled by error , passion , temptation and prejudice , [ who ] have strayed away from faith in the true God " . Pius wrote of " Christians unfortunately more in name than in fact " having shown " cowardice " in the face of persecution by these creeds , and endorsed resistance :
Who among " the Soldiers of Christ " – ecclesiastic or layman – does not feel himself incited and spurred on to a greater vigilance , to a more determined resistance , by the sight of the ever @-@ increasing host of Christ 's enemies ; as he perceives the spokesmen of these tendencies deny or in practice neglect the vivifying truths and the values inherent in belief in God and in Christ ; as he perceives them wantonly break the Tables of God 's Commandments to substitute other tables and other standards stripped of the ethical content of the Revelation on Sinai , standards in which the spirit of the Sermon on the Mount and of the Cross has no place ?
Pius wrote of a persecuted Church and a time requiring " charity " for victims who had a " right " to compassion . Against the invasion of Poland and killing of civilians he wrote :
[ This is an ] " Hour of Darkness " ... in which the spirit of violence and of discord brings indescribable suffering on mankind ... The nations swept into the tragic whirlpool of war are perhaps as yet only at the " beginnings of sorrows " ... but even now there reigns in thousands of families death and desolation , lamentation and misery . The blood of countless human beings , even noncombatants , raises a piteous dirge over a nation such as Our dear Poland , which , for its fidelity to the Church , for its services in the defense of Christian civilization , written in indelible characters in the annals of history , has a right to the generous and brotherly sympathy of the whole world , while it awaits , relying on the powerful intercession of Mary , Help of Christians , the hour of a resurrection in harmony with the principles of justice and true peace .
With Italy not yet an ally of Hitler in the war , Italians were called upon to remain faithful to the Church . Pius avoided explicit denunciations of Hitlerism or Stalinism , establishing the " impartial " public tone which would become controversial in later assessment of his pontificate : " A full statement of the doctrinal stand to be taken in face of the errors of today , if necessary , can be put off to another time unless there is disturbance by calamitous external events ; for the moment We limit Ourselves to some fundamental observations . "
= = = = Invasion of Poland = = = =
In Summi Pontificatus , Pius expressed dismay at the killing of non @-@ combatants in the Nazi / Soviet invasion of Poland and expressed hope for the " resurrection " of that country . The Nazis and Soviets commenced a persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland . In April 1940 , the Vatican advised the US government that its efforts to provide humanitarian aid had been blocked by the Germans and that the Holy See had been forced to seek indirect channels through which to direct its aid . Michael Phayer , a critic of Pius XII , assesses his policy as having been to " refuse to censure " the " German " invasion and annexation of Poland . This , Phayer wrote , was regarded as a " betrayal " by many Polish Catholics and clergy , who saw his appointment of Hilarius Breitinger as the apostolic administrator for the Wartheland in May 1942 , a " implicit recognition " of the breakup of Poland ; the opinions of the Volksdeutsche , mostly German Catholic minorities living in occupied Poland , were more mixed . Phayer argues that Pius XII — both before and during his papacy — consistently " deferred to Germany at the expense of Poland " , and saw Germany — not Poland — as critical to " rebuilding a large Catholic presence in Central Europe " . In May 1942 , Kazimierz Papée , Polish ambassador to the Vatican , complained that Pius had failed to condemn the recent wave of atrocities in Poland ; when Cardinal Secretary of State Maglione replied that the Vatican could not document individual atrocities , Papée declared , " when something becomes notorious , proof is not required . " Although Pius XII received frequent reports about atrocities committed by and / or against Catholics , his knowledge was incomplete ; for example , he wept after the war on learning that Cardinal Hlond had banned German liturgical services in Poland .
There is well known case of Jewish Rabbis , who seeking support against the persecution of the Third Reich in the Generalgouvernement ( German @-@ occupied Polish zone ) complained to the representatives of the Church . An attempt to intervene with the German authorities resulted but not as was expected : Germany responded arresting rabbis and deporting them to the death camp . Drawing conclusions Church in Poland abandoned this kind of " help " with the words and concentrated on the organization of practical help in the underground , with huge international support orchestrated by Pope Pius XII and his Holy See . In consequence Pope was informed in details by both Polish Church people and Polish Underground about atrocities committed in Poland by German Third Reich . Those intelligence materials ware used by Pius XII on March 11 , 1940 during a formal audience of Von Ribbentrop ( Hitler 's foreign affairs adviser ) when Pope was " [ [ .. ] ] listing the date , place , and precise details of each crime " as described by Joseph L. Lichten after others .
= = = = Early actions to end conflict = = = =
With Poland overrun , but France and the Low Countries yet to be attacked , Pius continued to hope for a negotiated peace to prevent the spread of the conflict . The similarly minded US President Franklin D. Roosevelt re @-@ established American diplomatic relations with the Vatican after a seventy @-@ year hiatus and dispatched Myron C. Taylor as his personal representative . Pius warmly welcomed Roosevelt 's envoy and peace initiative , calling it " an exemplary act of fraternal and hearty solidarity ... in defence against the chilling breath of aggressive and deadly godless anti @-@ Christian tendencies " . American correspondence spoke of " parallel endeavours for peace and the alleviation of suffering " . Despite the early collapse of peace hopes , the Taylor mission continued at the Vatican .
According to Hitler biographer John Toland , following the November 1939 assassination attempt by Johann Georg Elser , Hitler said Pius would have wanted the plot to succeed : " he 's no friend of mine " . In the spring of 1940 , a group of German generals seeking to overthrow Hitler and make peace with the British approached Pope Pius XII , who acted as an interlocutor between the British and the abortive plot . According to Toland , Munich lawyer , Joseph Muller , made a clandestine trip to Rome in October 1939 , met with Pius XII and found him willing to act as intermediary . The Vatican agreed to send a letter outlining the bases for peace with England and the participation of the Pope was used to try to persuade senior German Generals Halder and Brauchitsch to act against Hitler .
Pius warned the Allies of the planned German invasion of the Low Countries in 1940 . In Rome in 1942 , US envoy Myron C. Taylor , thanked the Holy See for the " forthright and heroic expressions of indignation made by Pope Pius XII when Germany invaded the Low countries " . After Germany invaded the Low Countries during 1940 , Pius XII sent expressions of sympathy to the Queen of the Netherlands , the King of Belgium , and the Grand Duchess of Luxembourg . When Mussolini learned of the warnings and the telegrams of sympathy , he took them as a personal affront and had his ambassador to the Vatican file an official protest , charging that Pius XII had taken sides against Italy 's ally Germany . Mussolini 's foreign minister claimed that Pius XII was " ready to let himself be deported to a concentration camp , rather than do anything against his conscience . "
When in 1940 , the Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop led the only senior Nazi delegation permitted an audience with Pius XII and asked why the Pope had sided with the Allies , Pius replied with a list of recent Nazi atrocities and religious persecutions committed against Christians and Jews , in Germany , and in Poland , leading the New York Times to headline its report " Jews Rights Defended " and write of " burning words he spoke to Herr Ribbentrop about religious persecution " . During the meeting , Ribbentrop suggested an overall settlement between the Vatican and the Reich government in exchange for Pius XII instructing the German bishops to refrain from political criticism of the German government , but no agreement was reached .
At a special mass at St Peters for the victims of the war , held in November 1940 , soon after the commencement of the London Blitz bombing by the Luftwaffe , Pius preached in his homily : " may the whirlwinds , that in the light of day or the dark of night , scatter terror , fire , destruction , and slaughter on helpless folk cease . May justice and charity on one side and on the other be in perfect balance , so that all injustice be repaired , the reign of right restored .... " Later he appealed to the Allies to spare Rome from aerial bombing , and visited wounded victims of the Allied bombing of 19 July 1943 .
= = = = Widening conflict = = = =
Unsuccessfully , Pius attempted to dissuade the Italian Dictator Benito Mussolini from joining Hitler in the war . In April 1941 , Pius XII granted a private audience to Ante Pavelić , the leader of the newly proclaimed Croatian state ( rather than the diplomatic audience Pavelić had wanted ) . Pius was criticised for his reception of Pavelić : an unattributed British Foreign Office memo on the subject described Pius as " the greatest moral coward of our age . " The Vatican did not officially recognise Pavelić 's regime . Pius XII did not publicly condemn the expulsions and forced conversions to Catholicism perpetrated on Serbs by Pavelić ; however , the Holy See did expressly repudiate the forced conversions in a memorandum dated 25 January 1942 , from the Vatican Secretariat of State to the Yugoslavian Legation . The pope was well @-@ informed of Catholic clergy involvement with the Ustaše regime , even possessing a list of clergymembers who had " joined in the slaughter " , but decided against condemning the regime or taking action against the clergy involved , fearing that it would lead to schism in the Croatian church or undermine the formation of a future Croatian state . Pius XII elevated Aloysius Stepinac — a Croatian archbishop convicted of collaborating with the Ustaše — to the cardinalate . Phayer agrees that Stepinac 's was a " show trial " , but states " the charge that he [ Pius XII ] supported the Ustaša regime was , of course , true , as everyone knew " , and that " if Stepinac had responded to the charges against him , his defense would have inevitably unraveled , exposing the Vatican 's support of the genocidal Pavelić . "
In 1941 , Pius XII interpreted Divini Redemptoris , an encyclical of Pope Pius XI , which forbade Catholics to help communists , as not applying to military assistance to the Soviet Union . This interpretation assuaged American Roman Catholics who had previously opposed Lend @-@ Lease arrangements with the Soviet Union .
In March 1942 , Pius XII established diplomatic relations with the Japanese Empire and received ambassador Ken Harada , who remained in that position until the end of the war .
In June 1942 , diplomatic relations were established with the Nationalist government of China . This step was envisaged earlier , but delayed due to Japanese pressure to establish relations with the pro @-@ Japanese Wang Jingwei government . The first Chinese Minister to the Vatican , Hsieh Shou @-@ kang , was only able to arrive at the Vatican in January 1943 , due to difficulties of travel resulting from the war . He remained in that position until late 1946 .
The Pope employed the new technology of radio and a series of Christmas messages to preach against selfish nationalism and the evils of modern warfare and offer sympathy to the victims of the war . Pius XII 's 1942 Christmas address via Vatican Radio voiced concern at human rights abuses and the murder of innocents based on race . The majority of the speech spoke generally about human rights and civil society ; at the very end of the speech , Pius XII mentioned " the hundreds of thousands of persons who , without any fault on their part , sometimes only because of their nationality or race , have been consigned to death or to a slow decline " . According to Rittner , the speech remains a " lightning rod " in debates about Pius XII . The Nazis themselves responded to the speech by stating that it was " one long attack on everything we stand for .... He is clearly speaking on behalf of the Jews .... He is virtually accusing the German people of injustice toward the Jews , and makes himself the mouthpiece of the Jewish war criminals . " The New York Times wrote that " The voice of Pius XII is a lonely voice in the silence and darkness enveloping Europe this Christmas .... In calling for a ' real new order ' based on ' liberty , justice and love , ' ... the pope put himself squarely against Hitlerism . " Historian Michael Phayer claims , however , that " it is still not clear whose genocide or which genocide he was referring to " . Speaking on the 50th anniversary of Pius 's death in 2008 , the German Pope Benedict XVI recalled that the Pope 's voice had been " broken by emotion " as he " deplored the situation " with a " clear reference to the deportation and extermination of the Jews . "
Several authors have alleged a plot to kidnap Pius XII by the Nazis during their occupation of Rome in 1943 ( Vatican City itself was not occupied ) ; British historian Owen Chadwick and the Jesuit ADSS editor Rev. Robert Graham each concluded such claims were an invention of British wartime propagandists . However , in 2007 , subsequent to those accounts , Dan Kurzman published a work which he maintains establishes that the plot was a fact .
= = = = Final stages = = = =
As the war was approaching its end in 1945 , Pius advocated a lenient policy by the Allied leaders in an effort to prevent what he perceived to be the mistakes made at the end of World War I. In August 1944 , he met British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , who was visiting Rome . At their meeting , the Pope acknowledged the justice of punishing war criminals , but expressed a hope that the people of Italy would not be punished , preferring that they be made " full allies " in the remaining war effort .
= = = Holocaust = = =
During the Second World War , after Nazi Germany commenced its mass executions of Jews in occupied Soviet territory , Pius XII employed diplomacy to aid victims of the Holocaust and directed his Church to provide discreet aid to Jews . Upon his death in 1958 , among many Jewish tributes , the Chief Rabbi of Rome Elio Toaff , said : " Jews will always remember what the Catholic Church did for them by order of the Pope during the Second World War . When the war was raging , Pius spoke out very often to condemn the false race theory . " This is disputed by commentator John Cornwell , who in his book , Hitler 's Pope , argues that the pope was weak and vacillating in his approach to Nazism . Cornwell asserts that the pope did little to challenge the progressing holocaust of the Jews out of fear of provoking the Nazis into invading Vatican City .
In his 1939 Summi Pontificatus first papal encyclical , Pius reiterated Catholic teaching against racial persecution and antisemitism and affirmed the ethical principles of the " Revelation on Sinai " . At Christmas 1942 , once evidence of mass executions of Jews had emerged , Pius XII voiced concern at the murder of " hundreds of thousands " of " faultless " people because of their " nationality or race " and intervened to attempt to block Nazi deportations of Jews in various countries . Upon his death in 1958 , Pius was praised emphatically by the Israeli Foreign Minister , and other world leaders . But his insistence on Vatican neutrality and avoidance of naming the Nazis as the evildoers of the conflict became the foundation for contemporary and later criticisms from some quarters . His strongest public condemnation of genocide was considered inadequate by the Allied Powers , while the Nazis viewed him as an Allied sympathizer who had dishonoured his policy of Vatican neutrality . Hitler biographer John Toland , while scathing of Pius 's cautious public comments in relation to the mistreatment of Jews , concluded that the Allies ' own record of action against the Holocaust was " shameful " , while " The Church , under the Pope 's guidance , had already saved the lives of more Jews than all other churches , religious institutions and rescue organizations combined ... " .
In 1939 , the newly elected Pope Pius XII appointed several prominent Jewish scholars to posts at the Vatican after they had been dismissed from Italian universities under Fascist leader Benito Mussolini 's racial laws . In 1939 , the Pope employed a Jewish cartographer , Roberto Almagia , to work on old maps in the Vatican library . Almagia had been at the University of Rome since 1915 but was dismissed after Benito Mussolini 's antisemitic legislation of 1938 . The Pope 's appointment of two Jews to the Vatican Academy of Science as well as the hiring of Almagia were reported by The New York Times in the editions of 11 November 1939 and 10 January 1940 .
Pius later engineered an agreement — formally approved on 23 June 1939 — with Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas to issue 3 @,@ 000 visas to " non @-@ Aryan Catholics " . However , over the next 18 months Brazil 's Conselho de Imigração e Colonização ( CIC ) continued to tighten the restrictions on their issuance , including requiring a baptismal certificate dated before 1933 , a substantial monetary transfer to the Banco do Brasil , and approval by the Brazilian Propaganda Office in Berlin . The program was cancelled 14 months later , after fewer than 1 @,@ 000 visas had been issued , amid suspicions of " improper conduct " ( i.e. , continuing to practice Judaism ) among those who had received visas .
In April 1939 , after the submission of Charles Maurras and the intervention of the Carmel of Lisieux , Pius XII ended his predecessor 's ban on Action Française , an organisation described by some authors as virulently antisemitic and anti @-@ Communist .
Following the German / Soviet invasion of Poland , the Pope 's first encyclical , Summi Pontificatus reiterated Catholic teaching against racial persecution and rejected antisemitism , quoting scripture singling out the " principle of equality " — with specific reference to Jews : " there is neither Gentile nor Jew , circumcision nor uncircumcision " and direct affirmation of the Jewish Revelation on Sinai . The forgetting of solidarity " imposed by our common origin and by the equality of rational nature in all men " was called " pernicious error " . Catholics everywhere were called upon to offer " compassion and help " to the victims of the war . The Pope declared determination to work to hasten the return of peace and trust in prayers for justice , love and mercy , to prevail against the scourge of war . The letter also decried the deaths of noncombatants .
Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Maglione received a request from Chief Rabbi of Palestine Isaac Herzog in the spring of 1940 to intercede on behalf of Lithuanian Jews about to be deported to Germany . Pius called Ribbentrop on 11 March , repeatedly protesting against the treatment of Jews . In 1940 , Pius asked members of the clergy , on Vatican letterhead , to do whatever they could on behalf of interned Jews .
In 1941 , Cardinal Theodor Innitzer of Vienna informed Pius of Jewish deportations in Vienna . Later that year , when asked by French Marshal Philippe Pétain if the Vatican objected to antisemitic laws , Pius responded that the church condemned antisemitism , but would not comment on specific rules . Similarly , when Philippe Pétain 's regime adopted the " Jewish statutes " , the Vichy ambassador to the Vatican , Léon Bérard ( a French politician ) , was told that the legislation did not conflict with Catholic teachings . Valerio Valeri , the nuncio to France was " embarrassed " when he learned of this publicly from Pétain and personally checked the information with Cardinal Secretary of State Maglione who confirmed the Vatican 's position . In June 1942 , Pius XII personally protested against the mass deportations of Jews from France , ordering the papal nuncio to protest to Pétain against " the inhuman arrests and deportations of Jews " . In September 1941 , Pius XII objected to a Slovak Jewish Code , which , unlike the earlier Vichy codes , prohibited intermarriage between Jews and non @-@ Jews . In October 1941 , Harold Tittmann , a US delegate to the Vatican , asked the pope to condemn the atrocities against Jews ; Pius replied that the Vatican wished to remain " neutral , " reiterating the neutrality policy which Pius invoked as early as September 1940 .
In 1942 , the Slovak chargé d 'affaires told Pius that Slovak Jews were being sent to concentration camps . On 11 March 1942 , several days before the first transport was due to leave , the chargé d 'affaires in Bratislava reported to the Vatican : " I have been assured that this atrocious plan is the handwork of ... Prime Minister ( Tuka ) , who confirmed the plan ... he dared to tell me — he who makes such a show of his Catholicism — that he saw nothing inhuman or un @-@ Christian in it ... the deportation of 80 @,@ 000 persons to Poland , is equivalent to condemning a great number of them to certain death . " The Vatican protested to the Slovak government that it " deplore ( s ) these ... measures which gravely hurt the natural human rights of persons , merely because of their race . "
On 18 September 1942 , Pius XII received a letter from Monsignor Montini ( future Pope Paul VI ) , saying , " the massacres of the Jews reach frightening proportions and forms . " Later that month , Myron Taylor , U.S. representative to the Vatican , warned Pius that the Vatican 's " moral prestige " was being injured by silence on European atrocities , a warning which was echoed simultaneously by representatives from the United Kingdom , Brazil , Uruguay , Belgium , and Poland . Myron C. Taylor passed a US Government memorandum to Pius on 26 September 1942 , outlining intelligence received from the Jewish Agency for Palestine which said that Jews from across the Nazi Empire were being systematically " butchered " . Taylor asked if the Vatican might have any information which might " tend to confirm the reports " , and if so , what the Pope might be able to do to influence public opinion against the " barbarities " . Cardinal Maglione handed Harold Tittmann a response to the letter on 10 October . The note thanked Washington for passing on the intelligence , and confirmed that reports of severe measures against the Jews had reached the Vatican from other sources , though it had not been possible to " verify their accuracy " . Nevertheless , " every opportunity is being taken by the Holy See , however , to mitigate the suffering of these unfortunate people " . In December 1942 , when Tittmann asked Cardinal Secretary of State Maglione if Pius would issue a proclamation similar to the Allied declaration " German Policy of Extermination of the Jewish Race " , Maglione replied that the Vatican was " unable to denounce publicly particular atrocities . " Pius XII directly explained to Tittman that he could not name the Nazis without at the same time mentioning the Bolsheviks .
Following the Nazi / Soviet invasion of Poland , Pius XII 's Summi Pontificatus called for the sympathy of the whole world towards Poland , where " the blood of countless human beings , even noncombatants " was being spilled . Pius never publicly condemned the Nazi massacre of 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 Poles , overwhelmingly Roman Catholic ( including 2 @,@ 935 members of the Catholic clergy ) , In late 1942 , Pius XII advised German and Hungarian bishops to speak out against the massacres on the Eastern Front . In his 1942 Christmas Eve message , he expressed concern for " those hundreds of thousands , who ... sometimes only by reason of their nationality or race , are marked down for death or progressive extinction . On 7 April 1943 , Msgr. Tardini , one of Pius XII 's closest advisors , advised Pius XII that it would be politically advantageous after the war to take steps to help Slovak Jews .
In January 1943 , Pius XII declined to denounce publicly the Nazi discrimination against the Jews , following requests to do so from Władysław Raczkiewicz , president of the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , and Bishop Konrad von Preysing of Berlin . According to Toland , in June 1943 , Pius XII addressed the issue of mistreatment of Jews at a conference of the Sacred College of Cardinals and said : " Every word We address to the competent authority on this subject , and all Our public utterances have to be carefully weighed and measured by Us in the interests of the victims themselves , lest , contrary to Our intentions , We make their situation worse and harder to bear " .
On 26 September 1943 , following the German occupation of northern Italy , Nazi officials gave Jewish leaders in Rome 36 hours to produce 50 kilograms ( 110 lb ) of gold ( or the equivalent ) threatening to take 300 hostages . Then Chief Rabbi of Rome Israel Zolli recounts in his memoir that he was selected to go to the Vatican and seek help . The Vatican offered to loan 15 kilos , but the offer proved unnecessary when the Jews received an extension . Soon afterward , when deportations from Italy were imminent , 477 Jews were hidden in the Vatican itself and another 4 @,@ 238 were protected in Roman monasteries and convents . Eighty percent of Roman Jews were saved from deportation . Phayer argues that the German diplomats in Rome were the " initiators of the effort to save the city 's Jews " , but holds that Pius XII " cooperated in this attempt at rescue " , while agreeing with Zuccotti that the pope " did not give orders " for any Roman Catholic institution to hide Jews .
On 30 April 1943 , Pius XII wrote to Bishop Graf von Preysing of Berlin to say : " We give to the pastors who are working on the local level the duty of determining if and to what degree the danger of reprisals and of various forms of oppression occasioned by episcopal declarations ... ad maiora mala vitanda ( to avoid worse ) ... seem to advise caution . Here lies one of the reasons , why We impose self @-@ restraint on Ourselves in our speeches ; the experience , that we made in 1942 with papal addresses , which We authorized to be forwarded to the Believers , justifies our opinion , as far as We see .... The Holy See has done whatever was in its power , with charitable , financial and moral assistance . To say nothing of the substantial sums which we spent in American money for the fares of immigrants . "
On 28 October 1943 , Ernst von Weizsäcker , the German Ambassador to the Vatican , telegraphed Berlin that " ... the Pope has not yet let himself be persuaded to make an official condemnation of the deportation of the Roman Jews .... Since it is currently thought that the Germans will take no further steps against the Jews in Rome , the question of our relations with the Vatican may be considered closed . "
In March 1944 , through the papal nuncio in Budapest , Angelo Rotta , the pope urged the Hungarian government to moderate its treatment of the Jews . The pope ordered Rotta and other papal legates to hide and shelter Jews . These protests , along with others from the King of Sweden , the International Red Cross , the United States , and Britain led to the cessation of deportations on 8 July 1944 . Also in 1944 , Pius appealed to 13 Latin American governments to accept " emergency passports " , although it also took the intervention of the U.S. State Department for those countries to honor the documents . The Kaltenbrunner Report to Hitler , dated 29 November 1944 , against the backdrop of the 20 July 1944 Plot to assassinate Hitler , states that the Pope was somehow a conspirator , specifically naming Eugenio Pacelli ( Pope Pius XII ) , as being a party in the attempt .
Jewish orphans controversy
In 2005 , Corriere della Sera published a document dated 20 November 1946 on the subject of Jewish children baptized in war @-@ time France . The document ordered that baptized children , if orphaned , should be kept in Catholic custody and stated that the decision " has been approved by the Holy Father " . Nuncio Angelo Roncalli ( who became Pope John XXIII , and was recognized by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among the Nations ) ignored this directive . Abe Foxman , the national director of the Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) , who had himself been baptized as a child and had undergone a custody battle afterwards , called for an immediate freeze on Pius 's beatification process until the relevant Vatican Secret Archives and baptismal records were opened . Two Italian scholars , Matteo Luigi Napolitano and Andrea Tornielli , confirmed that the memorandum was genuine although the reporting by the Corriere della Sera was misleading , as the document had originated in the French Catholic Church archives rather than the Vatican archives and strictly concerned itself with children without living blood relatives who were supposed to be handed over to Jewish organizations .
= = Post @-@ World War II = =
After World War II Pope Pius XII focused on material aid to war @-@ torn Europe , an internal internationalization of the Roman Catholic Church , and the development of its worldwide diplomatic relations . His encyclicals , Evangelii praecones and Fidei donum , issued on 2 June 1951 and 21 April 1957 , respectively , increased the local decision @-@ making of Catholic missions , many of which became independent dioceses . Pius XII demanded recognition of local cultures as fully equal to European culture . Though his language retained old conceptions – Africa , for example , merited special attention since the church there worked ' to forward her work among the heathen multitudes ' - in 1956 he expressed solidarity with the ' non @-@ Europeans who aspire to full political independence . ' Continuing the line of his predecessors , Pius XII supported the establishment of local administration in Church affairs : in 1950 , the hierarchy of Western Africa became independent ; in 1951 , Southern Africa ; and in 1953 , British East Africa . Finland , Burma and French Africa became independent dioceses in 1955 .
In the immediate aftermath of the war , Pius XII elevated a number of high @-@ profile resistors of Nazism to the College of Cardinals in 1946 , among them the German Bishops Joseph Frings of Cologne , August von Galen of Münster and Konrad von Preysing of Berlin . From elsewhere in the liberated Nazi Empire Pius selected other resistors : Dutch Archbishop Johannes de Jong ; Hungarian Bishop József Mindszenty ; Polish Archbishop Adam Stefan Sapieha ; and French Archbishop Jules @-@ Géraud Saliège . In 1946 and 1953 , respectively , he named as cardinals Thomas Tien of China and Valerian Gracias of India – the first indigenous Catholics of their respective nations to sit in the College of Cardinals . Italian Papal diplomat Angelo Roncalli ( later Pope John XXIII ) and Polish Archbishop Stefan Wyszyński were others among those elevated in 1953 .
A German contingent dominated his inner circle at this period – the German Jesuits Robert Leiber , Wilhelm Hentrich and Ivo Zeiger . His personal confessor Augustin Bea was a German Jesuit and Mother Pascalina Lehnert and the other German speaking sisters of the papal household added to this element . The American bishop Aloisius Muench wrote in November 1948 that Pius XII was ' more interested in affairs of the Church in Germany than in any other part of the Church ' and resolved to make the postwar German crisis a top priority - ' its refugee crisis , poverty , hunger and disease , the fate of prisoners @-@ of @-@ war and accused war criminals , the disruption to the internal organization and communal life of German Catholicism , and Germany 's uncertain political future.'
He was concerned too about the potential spread of Communism in Western Europe and the Americas . As he sought to secure resources from abroad to aid post @-@ war recovery , believing deprivation fuelled political agitation , so he also sought to influence Italian politics . In January 1948 , Luigi Gedda , of Italy 's Catholic Action movement , was called to the Vatican as the campaign for the first parliament of Italy 's post @-@ fascist republic was underway . The Communists and Socialists seemed headed for victory and Pius XII wanted Catholic Action , an organization of Catholic laity , to mobilise the Catholic vote against parties of the Left . In July 1949 he approved a controversial move by the Holy Office to threaten with excommunication anyone with known Communist affiliations . A group of Jesuits around the journal La Civilta Cattolica , active in Vatican circles , further spread alarm that fifth columns of Soviet Communism were active in Western Europe poised to exploit popular discontent to aid Soviet expansionism .
Pius XII was rather distrustful of Alcide de Gasperi and Italy 's Christian Democrats , considering the party indecisive and fractious – reformist currents within it particularly , which tended to the moderate Left – represented by the Sicilian priest Luigi Sturzo for example – he considered too accommodating to the Left . On the eve of the 1952 local elections in Rome , in which again the Communist and Socialist parties threatened to win out , he used informal connections to make his views known . Pius XII stated that the war against communism was a holy war and excommunicated members of the Communist Party . Having decided to encourage the Christian Democrats to consider a political alliance with the Rightist parties as part of an anti @-@ left coalition , he asked the Jesuit , Father Riccardo Lombardi , to speak with de Gasperi to consider such an alliance – an electoral alliance with those even of monarchist and neo @-@ fascist tendencies -including the Italian Social Movement . Adopting a domino theory he warned that , " If the Communists win in Rome , in Italy , it will cast a shadow on the entire world : France would become Communist , and then Spain and then all of Europe ' . de Gasperi rejected the idea as politically dangerous to the long term fortunes of a centrist Catholic party .
= = Later life , illness and death = =
= = = Late years of Pope Pius XII = = =
The last years of the pontificate of Pius XII began in late 1954 with a long illness , during which he considered abdication . Afterwards , changes in his work habit became noticeable . The Pope avoided long ceremonies , canonizations and consistories and displayed hesitancy in personnel matters . He found it increasingly difficult to chastise subordinates and appointees such as his physician , Riccardo Galeazzi @-@ Lisi , who , after numerous indiscretions was excluded from Papal service for the last years , but , keeping his title , was able to enter the papal apartments to make photos of the dying Pope , which he sold to French magazines . Pius underwent three courses of cellular rejuvenation treatment administered by Dr. Paul Niehans , the most important in 1954 when Pacelli was gravely ill . Side @-@ effects of the treatment included hallucinations , from which the Pope suffered in his last years . " These years were also plagued by horrific nightmares . Pacelli 's blood @-@ curdling screams could be heard throughout the papal apartments . "
Pius XII often elevated young priests as bishops , such as Julius Döpfner ( 35 years ) and Karol Wojtyla ( later Pope John Paul II , 38 years ) , one of his last appointees in 1958 . He took a firm stand against pastoral experiments , such as " worker @-@ priests " , who worked full @-@ time in factories and joined political parties and unions . He continued to defend the theological tradition of Thomism as worthy of continued reform , and as superior to modern trends such as phenomenology or existentialism .
= = = Illness and death = = =
Following his 1954 illness , Pope Pius XII still addressed lay people and groups about a wide range of topics . Sometimes he answered specific moral questions , which were addressed to him . To professional associations he explained specific occupational ethics in light of Church teachings . Robert Leiber helped him occasionally with his speeches and publications . Cardinal Augustine Bea SJ was his personal confessor . Sister Pasqualina was for forty years his " housekeeper , muse and lifelong companion " .
Pius XII died on 9 October 1958 of acute heart failure brought on by a sudden myocardial infarction in Castel Gandolfo , the papal summer residence . His doctor Gaspanini said afterwards : " The Holy Father did not die because of any specific illness . He was completely exhausted . He was overworked beyond limit . His heart was healthy , his lungs were good . He could have lived another 20 years , had he spared himself . "
= = = Botched embalming = = =
Pius XII 's physician , Dr. Riccardo Galeazzi @-@ Lisi , reported that the pontiff 's body was embalmed in the room where he died using a novel process invented by Dr. Oreste Nuzzi .
Pope Pius XII did not want the vital organs removed from his body , demanding instead that it be kept in the same condition " in which God created it " . According to Galeazzi @-@ Lisi , this was the reason why he and Professor Nuzzi , an embalmer from Naples , used a novel embalming approach invented by Nuzzi . In a controversial press conference , Galeazzi @-@ Lisi described in great detail the embalming of the body of the late pontiff . He claimed to have used the same system of oils and resins with which the body of Jesus Christ was preserved .
Galeazzi @-@ Lisi asserted that the new process would " preserve the body indefinitely in its natural state " However , whatever chance the new embalming process had of efficaciously preserving the body was obliterated by intense heat in Castel Gandolfo during the embalming process . As a result , the body decomposed rapidly and the viewing of the faithful had to be terminated abruptly . Galeazzi @-@ Lisi reported that heat in the halls , where the body of the late Pope lay in state , caused chemical reactions which required it to be treated twice after the original preparation . Swiss Guards stationed around Pius XII 's body were reported to have become ill during their vigil .
= = = Funeral = = =
His funeral procession into Rome was the largest congregation of Romans as of that date . Romans mourned " their " pope , who was born in their own city , especially as a hero in the time of war . Cardinal Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli ( later to be Pope John XXIII ) wrote in his diary on 11 October 1958 that probably no Roman emperor had enjoyed such a triumph , which he viewed as a reflection of the spiritual majesty and religious dignity of the late Pius XII .
The late pope lay in state on a bier surrounded by four Swiss Guards , and was then placed in the coffin for burial . Pius XII was buried in the grottos beneath St. Peter 's Basilica in a simple tomb in a small chapel .
= = Cause for canonisation = =
The Testament of Pope Pius XII was published immediately after his death . Pope Pius XII 's cause of canonization was opened on 18 November 1965 by Pope Paul VI during the final session of the Second Vatican Council . In May 2007 , the congregation recommended that Pius XII should be declared Venerable . Pope Benedict XVI did so on 19 December 2009 , simultaneously making the same declaration in regard to Pope John Paul II .
For Venerable status The Congregation for the Causes of Saints certifies the " heroic virtues " of the candidate . Making Pius XII Venerable met with various responses , most centred on the papal words and actions during World War II . Benedict 's signature on the Decree of Heroic Virtue was regarded by some as a public relations blunder , though acceptance of Pius XII as a saviour of Europe 's Jews is regarded as ' proof of fidelity to the Church , the pope and the Tradition ' by neoconservative Catholic groups . On the other hand , Rabbi Marvin Hier , founder and dean at the Simon Wiesenthal Center said , " ... there would be a great distortion of history " if Pius XII were canonized . Rabbi Jeremy Lawrence , the head of Sydney 's Great Synagogue , said : " How can one venerate a man who ... seemed to give his passive permission to the Nazis as the Jews were prised from his doorstep in Rome ? " A counterpoint to such comments is the case of Israel Zolli , the Chief Rabbi in Rome from 1939 to 1945 , who became a Catholic and took the name of Eugenio in honor of Pius XII .
Father Peter Gumpel , the relator of the Pius XII 's cause for canonization , claims that there are already several miracles attributable to Pius XII , including " one quite extraordinary one " .
On 1 August 2013 , an anonymous " source who works for the Congregation for the Causes of Saints " said Pope Francis is considering canonization without a miracle , " us [ ing ] the formula of scientia certa " .
Pope Francis also announced his intention in January 2014 to open the Vatican Secret Archives to scholars so that an evaluation to the late pontiff 's role in the war can be determined before canonization . This has been met with praise by the Jewish community . However , it was said that it could take up to a year to gather all the documents and then analyze them .
On 26 May 2014 on his way back from the Holy Land to Vatican City , Pope Francis stated that the late pope would not be beatified because the cause has stalled . The pope said that he checked the progress of the cause for the controversial pope and said that there were no miracles attributed to his intercession which was the main reason that the cause halted .
Father Peter Gumpel stated , on a 12 January 2016 documentary on the late pope , that there was consultation of the Vatican Secret Archives which were carried out in secret ; in short it means that there are no controversies surrounding the late pontiff that could impede the potential beatification . In that same documentary , the cause 's vice @-@ postulator Marc Lindeijer stated that several miracles attributed to the late pope are reported to the postulation every year but the individuals ' related to the healings do not come forward to enact diocesan proceedings of investigation . Lindeijer explained that this was the reason that the cause has stalled in the past as none have come forward to assist the postulation in their investigations .
= = = Potential miracle = = =
Reports from 2014 indicate a potential miracle from the United States of America attributed to the intercession of the late pope that was reported to the postulation . The miracle pertains to a male plagued with severe influenza and pneumonia that could have proven to be fatal ; the individual was said to have been healed in full after a novena to Pius XII .
= = Views , interpretations and scholarship = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
During the war , Time magazine credited Pius XII and the Catholic Church for " fighting totalitarianism more knowingly , devoutly and authoritatively , and for a longer time , than any other organised power " . During the war he was also praised editorially by the New York Times for opposing Nazi anti @-@ Semitism and aggression . According to Paul O 'Shea , " The Nazis demonised the Pope as the agent of international Jewry ; the Americans and British were continually frustrated because he would not condemn Nazi aggression ; and the Russians accused him of being an agent of Fascism and the Nazis . "
On 21 September 1945 , the general secretary of the World Jewish Council , Dr. Leon Kubowitzky , presented an amount of money to the pope , " in recognition of the work of the Holy See in rescuing Jews from Fascist and Nazi persecutions . " After the war , in the autumn of 1945 , Harry Greenstein from Baltimore , a close friend of Chief Rabbi Herzog of Jerusalem , told Pius XII how grateful Jews were for all he had done for them . " My only regret " , the pope replied , " is not to have been able to save a greater number of Jews . "
Pius XII was also criticised during his lifetime . Leon Poliakov wrote in 1950 that Pius XII had been a tacit supporter of Vichy France 's anti @-@ Semitic laws , calling him " less forthright " than Pope Pius XI either out of " Germanophilia " or the hope that Hitler would defeat communist Russia .
After Pius XII 's death on 9 October 1958 many Jewish organisations and newspapers around the world paid tribute to his legacy . At the United Nations , Golda Meir , Israel 's Foreign Minister , said , " When fearful martyrdom came to our people in the decade of Nazi terror , the voice of the Pope was raised for the victims . The life of our times was enriched by a voice speaking out on the great moral truths above the tumult of daily conflict . " The Jewish Chronicle ( London ) stated on 10 October that " Adherents of all creeds and parties will recall how Pius XII faced the responsibilities of his exalted office with courage and devotion . Before , during , and after the Second World War , he constantly preached the message of peace . Confronted by the monstrous cruelties of Nazism , Fascism and Communism , he repeatedly proclaimed the virtues of humanity and compassion " . In the Canadian Jewish Chronicle ( 17 October ) , Rabbi J. Stern stated that Pius XII " made it possible for thousands of Jewish victims of Nazism and Fascism to be hidden away ... " In the 6 November edition of the Jewish Post in Winnipeg , William Zukerman , the former American Hebrew columnist , wrote that no other leader " did more to help the Jews in their hour of greatest tragedy , during the Nazi occupation of Europe , than the late Pope " . Other prominent Jewish figures , such as Israeli Prime Minister Moshe Sharett and Chief Rabbi Isaac Herzog expressed their public gratitude to Pius XII .
= = = Early historical accounts = = =
Some early works echoed the favourable sentiments of the war period , including Polish historian Oskar Halecki 's Pius XII : Eugenio Pacelli : Pope of peace ( 1954 ) and Nazareno Padellaro 's Portrait of Pius XII ( 1949 ) .
Pinchas Lapide , a Jewish theologian and Israeli diplomat to Milan in the 1960s , estimated controversially in Three Popes and the Jews that Pius " was instrumental in saving at least 700 @,@ 000 but probably as many as 860 @,@ 000 Jews from certain death at Nazi hands . " Some historians have questioned this often cited number , which Lapide reached by " deducting all reasonable claims of rescue " by non @-@ Catholics from the total number of European Jews surviving the Holocaust . A Roman Catholic scholar , Kevin Madigan , has interpreted this and other praise from prominent Jewish leaders , including Golda Meir , as less than sincere , an attempt to secure Vatican recognition of the State of Israel .
= = = The Deputy = = =
In 1963 , Rolf Hochhuth 's controversial drama Der Stellvertreter . Ein christliches Trauerspiel ( The Deputy , a Christian tragedy , released in English in 1964 ) portrayed Pope Pius XII as a hypocrite who remained silent about the Holocaust . The depiction is described as lacking " credible substantiation " by the Encyclopædia Britannica . Books such as Dr. Joseph Lichten 's A Question of Judgment ( 1963 ) , written in response to The Deputy , defended Pius XII 's actions during the war . Lichten labelled any criticism of the pope 's actions during World War II as " a stupefying paradox " and said , " no one who reads the record of Pius XII 's actions on behalf of Jews can subscribe to Hochhuth 's accusation . " Critical scholarly works like Guenter Lewy 's controversial The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany ( 1964 ) also followed the publication of The Deputy . Lewy 's conclusion was that " the Pope and his advisers — influenced by the long tradition of moderate anti @-@ Semitism so widely accepted in Vatican circles — did not view the plight of the Jews with a real sense of urgency and moral outrage . For this assertion no documentation is possible , but it is a conclusion difficult to avoid " . In 2002 the play was adapted into the film , Amen .. An article on La Civilità Cattolica in March 2009 indicated that the accusations that Hochhuth 's play made widely known originated not among Jews but in the Communist bloc . It was on Moscow Radio , on 2 June 1945 , that the first accusation directly against Pius XII of refusing to speak out against the exterminations in Nazi concentration camps . It was also the first medium to call him " Hitler 's Pope " .
A former high @-@ ranking KGB officer , Securitate General Ion Mihai Pacepa stated in 2007 that Hochhuth 's play and numerous publications attacking Pius XII as a Nazi sympathizer were fabrications that were part of a KGB and Eastern bloc Marxist secret services disinformation campaign , named Seat 12 , to discredit the moral authority of the Church and Christianity in the west . Pacepa indicated that he was involved in contacting eastern bloc agents close the Vatican in order to fabricate the story to be used for the attack against the wartime pope .
= = = Actes = = =
In the aftermath of the controversy surrounding The Deputy , in 1964 , Pope Paul VI authorized Jesuit scholars to access the Vatican State Department Archives , which are normally not opened for seventy @-@ five years . Original documents in French and Italian , Actes et documents du Saint Siège relatifs à la Seconde Guerre Mondiale , were published in eleven volumes between 1965 and 1981 . The volumes were edited by Four Jesuits : Angelo Martini , Burkhart Schneider , Robert Graham and Pierre Blet . Blet also published a summary of the eleven volumes .
= = = Hitler 's Pope and The Myth of Hitler 's Pope = = =
In 1999 , British author John Cornwell 's Hitler 's Pope criticised Pius XII for his actions and inactions during the Holocaust . Cornwell argued that Pius XII subordinated opposition to the Nazis to his goal of increasing and centralising the power of the Papacy . Further , Cornwell accused Pius XII of anti @-@ Semitism . The Encyclopædia Britannica described Cornwell 's depiction of Pius XII as anti @-@ Semitic as lacking " credible substantiation " . Kenneth L. Woodward stated in his review in Newsweek that " errors of fact and ignorance of context appear on almost every page . " Paul O 'Shea summarized the work by saying it was " disappointing because of its many inaccuracies , selective use of sources , and claims that do not bear any scrutiny . However , [ Cornwell ] has rendered a service by insisting Pacelli be re @-@ examined thoroughly and placed firmly within the context of his times " . Five years after the publication of Hitler 's Pope , Cornwell stated : " I would now argue , in the light of the debates and evidence following Hitler 's Pope , that Pius XII had so little scope of action that it is impossible to judge the motives for his silence during the war , while Rome was under the heel of Mussolini and later occupied by Germany " .
Cornwell 's work was the first to have access to testimonies from Pius XII 's beatification process as well as to many documents from Pacelli 's nunciature which had just been opened under the 75 @-@ year rule by the Vatican State Secretary archives . Susan Zuccotti 's Under His Very Windows : The Vatican and the Holocaust in Italy ( 2000 ) and Michael Phayer 's The Catholic Church and the Holocaust , 1930 – 1965 ( 2000 ) and Pius XII , The Holocaust , and the Cold War ( 2008 ) provided further critical , though more scholarly analysis of Pius 's legacy . Daniel Goldhagen 's A Moral Reckoning and David Kerzer 's The Pope Against the Jews denounced Pius , while Ralph McInery and José Sanchez wrote more nuanced critical assessments of Pius XII 's pontificate .
In specific riposte to Cornwell 's criticism , American Rabbi and historian , David Dalin , published The Myth of Hitler 's Pope : How Pope Pius XII Rescued Jews from the Nazis in 2005 . He reaffirmed previous accounts of Pius having been a saviour of thousands of Europe 's Jews . In a review of the book , another Jewish scholar — Churchill biographer , Martin Gilbert — wrote that Dalin 's work was " an essential contribution to our understanding of the reality of Pope Pius XII 's support for Jews at their time of greatest danger . Hopefully , his account will replace the divisively harmful version of papal neglect , and even collaboration , that has held the field for far too long " . Dalin 's book also argued that Cornwell and others were liberal Catholics and ex @-@ Catholics who " exploit the tragedy of the Jewish people during the Holocaust to foster their own political agenda of forcing changes on the Catholic Church today " and that Pius XII was responsible for saving the lives of many thousands of Jews .
A number of other scholars replied with favourable accounts of Pius XII , including Margherita Marchione 's Yours Is a Precious Witness : Memoirs of Jews and Catholics in Wartime Italy ( 1997 ) , Pope Pius XII : Architect for Peace ( 2000 ) and Consensus and Controversy : Defending Pope Pius XII ( 2002 ) ; Pierre Blet 's Pius XII and the Second World War , According to the Archives of the Vatican ( 1999 ) ; and Ronald J. Rychlak 's Hitler , the War and the Pope ( 2000 ) . Ecclesiastical historian William Doino ( author of The Pius War : Responses to the Critics of Pius XII ) , concluded that Pius was " emphatically not silent " . Other important works challenging the negative characterization of Pius 's legacy were written by Eamon Duffy , Clifford Longley , Cardinal Winning , Michael Burleigh , Paul Johnson , and Denis Mack Smith .
In his 2003 book , A Moral Reckoning , Daniel Goldhagen , asserted that Pius XII " chose again and again not to mention the Jews publicly .... [ In ] public statements by Pius XII ... any mention of the Jews is conspicuously absent . " In a review of Goldhagen 's book , Mark Riebling counters that Pius used the word " Jew " in his first encyclical , Summi Pontificatus , published on 20 October 1939 . " There Pius insisted that all human beings be treated charitably — for , as Paul had written to the Colossians , in God 's eyes " there is neither Gentile nor Jew . " In saying this , the Pope affirmed that Jews were full members of the human community — which is Goldhagen 's own criterion for establishing ' dissent from the anti @-@ Semitic creed . ' "
In Pius XII , The Hound of Hitler , Catholic journalist Gerard Noel , dismissed accusations that Pius was " anti @-@ semitic " or " pro @-@ Nazi " , but accused him of " silence " based on fear of retaliation and wrote that " Hitler played the Pope with consummate expertise " . Gerald Steinacher 's Nazis on the Run accused Pius of turning a blind eye to the activities of Vatican priests assisting " denazification through conversion " - which , he said , helped ex @-@ Nazi anticommunists to escape justice .
Any accusations of Pope Pius XII about not speaking openly against crimes and atrocities committed by Third Reisch - not only on Jews - should take into account testimony like this of one Berlin Jewish couple , Mr. and Mrs. Wolfsson : " None of us wanted the Pope to take an open stand . We were all fugitives , and fugitives do not wish to be pointed at . The Gestapo would have become more excited and would have intensified its inquisitions . If the Pope had protested , Rome would have become the center of attention . It was better that the Pope said nothing . We all shared this opinion at the time , and this is still our conviction today . " . There ware examples when Church reaction to Nazi brutality only intensified SS persecutions of both : Jews and the Church .
= = = International Catholic @-@ Jewish Historical Commission = = =
In 1999 , in an attempt to address some of this controversy , the International Catholic @-@ Jewish Historical Commission ( Historical Commission ) , a group of three Catholic and three Jewish scholars was appointed , respectively , by the Holy See 's Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews ( Holy See 's Commission ) and the International Jewish Committee for Interreligious Consultations ( IJCIC ) , to whom a preliminary report was issued in October 2000 .
The Commission did not discover any documents , but had the agreed @-@ upon task to review the existing Vatican volumes , that make up the Actes et Documents du Saint Siege ( ADSS ) The Commission was internally divided over the question of access to additional documents from the Holy See , access to the news media by individual commission members , and , questions to be raised in the preliminary report . It was agreed to include all 47 individual questions by the six members , and use them as Preliminary Report . In addition to the 47 questions , the commission issued no findings of its own . It stated that it was not their task to sit in judgment of the Pope and his advisors but to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the papacy during the Holocaust .
The 47 questions by the six scholars were grouped into three parts : ( a ) 27 specific questions on existing documents , mostly asking for background and additional information such as drafts of the encyclical Mit brennender Sorge , which was largely written by Eugenio Pacelli . ( b ) Fourteen questions dealt with themes of individual volumes , such as the question how Pius viewed the role of the Church during the war . ( c ) Six general questions , such as the absence of any anti @-@ communist sentiments in the documents . The disagreement between members over additional documents locked up under the Holy See 's 70 year rule resulted in a discontinuation of the Commission in 2001 on friendly terms . Unsatisfied with the findings , Dr. Michael Marrus , one of the three Jewish members of the Commission , said the commission " ran up against a brick wall .... It would have been really helpful to have had support from the Holy See on this issue . "
Peter Stanford , a Catholic journalist and writer , wrote , regarding Fatal Silence : the pope , the resistance and the German occupation of Rome ( written by Robert Katz ; ISBN 0 @-@ 297 @-@ 84661 @-@ 2 ; Weidenfeld & Nicolson , 2003 ) :
[ The Vatican ] still refuses to open all its files from the period — which seems to me to be a conclusive admission of guilt — but Katz has winkled various papers out of God 's business address on earth to add to the stash of new information he has uncovered in America in the archives of the Office of Strategic Services . From this we learn that , although Pius 's defenders still say that he paid a golden ransom in a vain effort to save Rome 's Jews from transportation to the death camps , the most he did was indicate a willingness to chip in if the Jews could not raise the sum demanded . He also shows that no individual Jews were spared , as is often claimed , after Pius personally intervened with the Nazis . Moreover , Katz reveals that those who did escape the Nazi round @-@ up and found sanctuary in church buildings in Rome did so in the face of explicit opposition from the Vatican . The real heroes and heroines were the priests and nuns who refused to bow to Pius 's officials and hand over the desperate people whom they were hiding . The main problem with writing about Pius 's wartime is that in effect , he did nothing . Facing the murders of six million people , he remained silent . As Jews were taken away from the ghetto that sat right alongside St Peter 's , he may have agonised , but he did not intervene . When he did raise his voice with the German occupiers , it was either to ensure that the Vatican City state would not be compromised — that is to say , he would be safe — or to emphasise his own neutrality in a conflict which , for many , became a battle between good and evil . His unrealistic hope was that the Catholic Church could emerge as the peacemaker across Europe . Instead , both the American and British leaderships , as Katz shows , regarded the papacy as tainted by its association with Nazism and irrelevant in the post @-@ 1945 reshaping of the continent . Both had urged Pius to speak up against the Holocaust and so drew their own conclusions about him . Far from being a saint , then , he was at best a fool , perhaps an anti @-@ Semite and probably a coward .
Katz 's book also discusses how the Pope 's view of the anti @-@ Nazi resistance — as harbingers of Communism — meant he chose not to intervene in the Ardeatine Caves Massacre .
= = = Recent developments = = =
Two important and recent studies are worth mentioning here . In The Real Odessa . How Peron Brought the Nazi War Criminals to Argentina ( 2002 ) , the Argentine journalist , Uki Goñi described how the Argentinean government dealt with war criminals that entered Argentina . However , during his research Goñi accidentally stumbled on documents of the British Foreign Office about the involvement of Vatican personnel in the smuggling of war criminals , the so @-@ called post @-@ war " ratlines " . Goñi found out that the British Envoy D 'Arcy Osborne had intervened with Pope Pius XII to put an end to these illegal activities . Furthermore , he discovered " that the Pope secretly pleaded with Washington and London on behalf of notorious criminals and Nazi collaborators " . Suzanne Brown @-@ Fleming 's The Holocaust and Catholic Conscience . Cardinal Aloisius Muench and the Guilt Question in Germany ( 2006 ) underlines Goñi 's findings . In her remarkable study , Brown @-@ Fleming clearly demonstrated how Pius XII intervened on behalf of rather vicious German war criminals ( e.g. Otto Ohlendorf ) . Brown @-@ Fleming 's main source was the archive of Pope Pius XII 's representative in post @-@ war Germany , Cardinal Aloisius Muench . Then , Phayer 's Pius XII , The Holocaust , and the Cold War ( 2008 ) makes use of many documents that have recently come to light thanks to Bill Clinton 's 1997 executive order declassifying wartime and postwar documents , many of which are currently at the US National Archives and Holocaust Memorial Museum . These documents include diplomatic correspondence , American espionage , and even decryptions of German communications . Relevant documents have also been released by the Argentine government and the British Foreign Office and other information sources have become available , including the diary of Bishop Hurley . These documents reveal new information about Pius XII 's actions regarding the Ustaše regime , the genocides in Poland , the finances of the wartime church , the deportation of the Roman Jews , and the ratlines for Nazis and fascists fleeing Europe . According to Phayer , " the face of Pope Pius that we see in these documents is not the same face we see in the eleven volumes the Vatican published of World War II documents , a collection which , though valuable , is nonetheless critically flawed because of its many omissions " .
A special conference of scholars on Pius XII on the 50th anniversary of his death was held in Rome on 15 – 17 September 2008 , by Pave the Way Foundation , a nonsectarian organisation founded by Gary Krupp , a Jewish American , which promotes interfaith cooperation . Pope Benedict XVI held on 19 September 2008 a reception for the conference participants , where he praised Pius XII as a pope who made every effort to save Jews during the war . A second conference was held from 6 – 8 November 2008 by the Pontifical Academy of Life .
On 9 October 2008 , the 50th anniversary of Pius XII 's death , Benedict XVI celebrated pontifical Mass in his memory . Shortly before and after the Mass , dialectics continued between the Jewish hierarchy and the Vatican as Rabbi Shear Yeshuv Cohen of Haifa addressed the Synod of Bishops and expressed his disappointment towards Pius XII 's " silence " during the war .
On 16 June 2009 , the Pave the Way Foundation announced that it would release of 2 @,@ 300 pages of documents in Avellino , Italy , dating from 1940 to 1945 , which the organisation claims show that Pius XII " worked diligently to save Jews from Nazi tyranny " ; the organisation 's founder , Krupp has accused historians of harbouring " private agendas " and having " let down " the public . The foundation 's research led to the publication of the book Pope Pius XII and World War II : the documented truth , authored by Krupp ; the book reproduces 225 pages of the new documents produced by the foundation 's research .
On 17 September 2009 , Pave the Way Foundation nominated Pius XII to be listed as Righteous Among the Nations at the Yad Vashem Holocaust Memorial . The foundation 's efforts produced some 3 @,@ 000 original documents and photos on the life of Pius XII and his work to save Jews during World War II .
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= Glenn T. Seaborg =
Glenn Theodore Seaborg ( / ˈsiːbɔːrɡ / ; April 19 , 1912 – February 25 , 1999 ) was an American chemist whose involvement in the synthesis , discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . His work in this area also led to his development of the actinide concept and the arrangement of the actinide series in the periodic table of the elements .
Seaborg spent most of his career as an educator and research scientist at the University of California , Berkeley , serving as a professor , and , between 1958 and 1961 , as the university 's second chancellor . He advised ten US Presidents – from Harry S. Truman to Bill Clinton – on nuclear policy and was Chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission from 1961 to 1971 , where he pushed for commercial nuclear energy and the peaceful applications of nuclear science . Throughout his career , Seaborg worked for arms control . He was a signatory to the Franck Report and contributed to the Limited Test Ban Treaty , the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty . He was a well @-@ known advocate of science education and federal funding for pure research . Toward the end of the Eisenhower administration , he was the principal author of the Seaborg Report on academic science , and , as a member of President Ronald Reagan 's National Commission on Excellence in Education , he was a key contributor to its 1983 report " A Nation at Risk " .
Seaborg was the principal or co @-@ discoverer of ten elements : plutonium , americium , curium , berkelium , californium , einsteinium , fermium , mendelevium , nobelium and element 106 , which , while he was still living , was named seaborgium in his honor . He also discovered more than 100 atomic isotopes and is credited with important contributions to the chemistry of plutonium , originally as part of the Manhattan Project where he developed the extraction process used to isolate the plutonium fuel for the second atomic bomb . Early in his career , he was a pioneer in nuclear medicine and discovered isotopes of elements with important applications in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases , most notably iodine @-@ 131 , which is used in the treatment of thyroid disease . In addition to his theoretical work in the development of the actinide concept , which placed the actinide series beneath the lanthanide series on the periodic table , he postulated the existence of super @-@ heavy elements in the transactinide and superactinide series .
After sharing the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan , he received approximately 50 honorary doctorates and numerous other awards and honors . The list of things named after Seaborg ranges from his atomic element to an asteroid . He was a prolific author , penning numerous books and 500 journal articles , often in collaboration with others . He was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the person with the longest entry in Who 's Who in America .
= = Early life = =
Glenn Theodore Seaborg was born in Ishpeming , Michigan , on April 19 , 1912 , the son of Herman Theodore ( Ted ) and Selma Olivia Erickson Seaborg . He had one sister , Jeanette , who was two years younger . His family spoke Swedish at home . When Glenn Seaborg was a boy , the family moved to Los Angeles County , California , settling in a subdivision called Home Gardens , later annexed to the City of South Gate , California . About this time he changed the spelling of his first name from ' Glen ' to " Glenn " .
Seaborg kept a daily journal from 1927 until he suffered a stroke in 1998 . As a youth , Seaborg was both a devoted sports fan and an avid movie buff . His mother encouraged him to become a bookkeeper as she felt his literary interests were impractical . He did not take an interest in science until his junior year when he was inspired by Dwight Logan Reid , a chemistry and physics teacher at David Starr Jordan High School in Watts .
Seaborg graduated from Jordan in 1929 at the top of his class and received a bachelor of arts ( AB ) degree in chemistry at the University of California , Los Angeles , in 1933 . He worked his way through school as a stevedore and a laboratory assistant at Firestone . Seaborg took his PhD in chemistry at the University of California , Berkeley , in 1937 with a doctoral thesis on the " Interaction of Fast Neutrons with Lead " , in which he coined the term " nuclear spallation " .
Seaborg was a member of the professional chemistry fraternity Alpha Chi Sigma . As a graduate student in the 1930s Seaborg performed wet chemistry research for his advisor Gilbert Newton Lewis , and published three papers with him on the theory of acids and bases . Seaborg studied the text Applied Radiochemistry by Otto Hahn , of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin , and it had a major impact on his developing interests as a research scientist . For several years , Seaborg conducted important research in artificial radioactivity using the Lawrence cyclotron at UC Berkeley . He was excited to learn from others that nuclear fission was possible — but also chagrined , as his own research might have led him to the same discovery .
Seaborg also became an expert in dealing with noted Berkeley physicist Robert Oppenheimer . Oppenheimer had a daunting reputation , and often answered a junior man 's question before it had even been stated . Often the question answered was more profound than the one asked , but of little practical help . Seaborg learned to state his questions to Oppenheimer quickly and succinctly .
= = Pioneering work in nuclear chemistry = =
Seaborg remained at the University of California , Berkeley , for post @-@ doctoral research . He followed Frederick Soddy 's work investigating isotopes and contributed to the discovery of more than 100 isotopes of elements . Using one of Lawrence 's advanced cyclotrons , John Livingood , Fred Fairbrother , and Seaborg created a new isotope of iron , iron @-@ 59 ( Fe @-@ 59 ) in 1937 . Iron @-@ 59 was useful in the studies of the hemoglobin in human blood . In 1938 , Livingood and Seaborg collaborated ( as they did for five years ) to create an important isotope of iodine , iodine @-@ 131 ( I @-@ 131 ) , which is still used to treat thyroid disease . ( Many years later , it was credited with prolonging the life of Seaborg 's mother . ) As a result of these and other contributions , Seaborg is regarded as a pioneer in nuclear medicine and is one of its most prolific discoverers of isotopes .
In 1939 he became an instructor in chemistry at Berkeley , was promoted to assistant professor in 1941 and professor in 1945 . University of California , Berkeley , physicist Edwin McMillan led a team that discovered element 93 , which he named neptunium in 1940 . In November , he was persuaded to leave Berkeley temporarily to assist with urgent research in radar technology . Since Seaborg and his colleagues had perfected McMillan 's oxidation @-@ reduction technique for isolating neptunium , he asked McMillan for permission to continue the research and search for element 94 . McMillan agreed to the collaboration . Seaborg first reported alpha decay proportionate to only a fraction of the element 93 under observation . The first hypothesis for this alpha particle accumulation was contamination by uranium , which produces alpha @-@ decay particles ; analysis of alpha @-@ decay particles ruled this out . Seaborg then postulated that a distinct alpha @-@ producing element was being formed from element 93 .
In February 1941 , Seaborg and his collaborators produced plutonium @-@ 239 through the bombardment of uranium . In their experiments bombarding uranium with deuterons , they observed the creation of neptunium , element 93 . But it then underwent beta @-@ decay , forming a new element , plutonium , with 94 protons . Plutonium is fairly stable , but undergoes alpha @-@ decay , which explained the presence of alpha particles coming from neptunium . Thus , on March 28 , 1941 , Seaborg , physicist Emilio Segrè and Berkeley chemist Joseph W. Kennedy were able to show that plutonium ( then known only as element 94 ) was fissile , an important distinction that was crucial to the decisions made in directing Manhattan Project research . In 1966 , Room 307 of Gilman Hall on the campus at the Berkeley , where Seaborg did his work , was declared a U.S. National Historic Landmark .
In addition to plutonium , he is credited as a lead discoverer of americium , curium , and berkelium , and as a co @-@ discoverer of californium , einsteinium , fermium , mendelevium , nobelium and seaborgium . He shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951 with Edwin McMillan for " their discoveries in the chemistry of the first transuranium elements . "
= = Scientific contributions during the Manhattan Project = =
On April 19 , 1942 , Seaborg reached Chicago and joined the chemistry group at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the Manhattan Project at the University of Chicago , where Enrico Fermi and his group would later convert uranium @-@ 238 to plutonium @-@ 239 in a controlled nuclear chain reaction . Seaborg 's role was to figure out how to extract the tiny bit of plutonium from the mass of uranium . Plutonium @-@ 239 was isolated in visible amounts using a transmutation reaction on August 20 , 1942 , and weighed on September 10 , 1942 , in Seaborg 's Chicago laboratory . He was responsible for the multi @-@ stage chemical process that separated , concentrated and isolated plutonium . This process was further developed at the Clinton Engineering Works in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , and then entered full @-@ scale production at the Hanford Engineer Works , in Richland , Washington .
Seaborg 's theoretical development of the actinide concept resulted in a redrawing of the Periodic Table of the Elements into its current configuration with the actinide series appearing below the lanthanide series . Seaborg developed the chemical elements americium and curium while in Chicago . He managed to secure patents for both elements . His patent on curium never proved commercially viable because of the element 's short half @-@ life , but americium is commonly used in household smoke detectors and thus provided a good source of royalty income to Seaborg in later years . Prior to the test of the first nuclear weapon , Seaborg joined with several other leading scientists in a written statement known as the Franck Report ( secret at the time but since published ) unsuccessfully calling on President Truman to conduct a public demonstration of the atomic bomb witnessed by the Japanese .
= = Professor and Chancellor at the University of California , Berkeley = =
After the conclusion of World War II and the Manhattan Project , Seaborg was eager to return to academic life and university research free from the restrictions of wartime secrecy . In 1946 , he added to his responsibilities as a professor by heading the nuclear chemistry research at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory operated by the University of California on behalf of the United States Atomic Energy Commission . Seaborg was named one of the " Ten Outstanding Young Men in America " by the U.S. Junior Chamber of Commerce in 1947 ( along with Richard Nixon and others ) . Seaborg was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1948 . From 1954 to 1961 he served as associate director of the radiation laboratory . He was appointed by President Truman to serve as a member of the General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission , an assignment he retained until 1960 .
Seaborg served as chancellor at the University of California , Berkeley , from 1958 to 1961 . His term coincided with a relaxation of McCarthy @-@ era restrictions on students ' freedom of expression that had begun under his predecessor , Clark Kerr . In October 1958 , Seaborg announced that the University had relaxed its prior prohibitions on political activity on a trial basis , and the ban on communists speaking on campus was lifted . This paved the way for the Free Speech Movement of 1964 @-@ 65 .
Seaborg was an enthusiastic supporter of Cal 's sports teams . San Francisco columnist Herb Caen was fond of pointing out that Seaborg 's surname is an anagram of " Go Bears " , a popular cheer at UC Berkeley . Seaborg was proud of the fact that the Cal Bears won their first and only National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) basketball championship in 1959 , while he was chancellor . The football team also won the conference title and played in the Rose Bowl that year . He served on the Faculty Athletic Committee for several years and was the co @-@ author of a book , Roses from the Ashes : Breakup and Rebirth in Pacific Coast Intercollegiate Athletics ( 2000 ) , concerning the Pacific Coast Conference recruiting scandal , and the founding of what is now the Pac @-@ 12 , in which he played a role in restoring confidence in the integrity of collegiate sports .
Seaborg served on the President 's Science Advisory Committee ( PSAC ) during the Eisenhower administration . PSAC produced a report on " Scientific Progress , the Universities , and the Federal Government " , also known as the " Seaborg Report " , in November 1960 , that urged greater federal funding of science . In 1959 , he helped found the Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory with Clark Kerr .
= = Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission = =
After appointment by President John F. Kennedy and confirmation by the United States Senate , Seaborg was chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) from 1961 to 1971 . His pending appointment by President @-@ elect Kennedy was nearly derailed in late 1960 when members of the Kennedy transition team learned that Seaborg had been listed in a U.S. News & World Report article as a member of " Nixon 's Idea Men " . Seaborg said that as a lifetime Democrat he was baffled when the article appeared associating him with outgoing Vice President Richard Nixon , a Republican whom Seaborg considered a casual acquaintance .
While chairman of the AEC , Seaborg participated on the negotiating team for the Limited Test Ban Treaty ( LTBT ) , in which the US , UK , and USSR agreed to ban all above @-@ ground test detonations of nuclear weapons . Seaborg considered his contributions to the achievement of the LTBT as one of his greatest accomplishments . Despite strict rules from the Soviets about photography at the signing ceremony , Seaborg sneaked a tiny camera past the Soviet guards to take a close @-@ up photograph of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev as he signed the treaty .
Seaborg enjoyed a close relationship with President Lyndon Johnson and influenced the administration to pursue the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty . Seaborg was called to the White House in the first week of the Nixon Administration in January 1969 to advise President Richard Nixon on his first diplomatic crisis involving the Soviets and nuclear testing . He clashed with Nixon presidential adviser John Ehrlichman over the treatment of a Jewish scientist , Zalman Shapiro , whom the Nixon administration suspected of leaking nuclear secrets to Israel .
Seaborg published several books and journal articles during his tenure at the Atomic Energy Commission . He predicted the existence of elements beyond those on the periodic table , the transactinide series and the superactinide series of undiscovered synthetic elements . While most of these theoretical future elements have extremely short half @-@ lives and thus no expected practical applications , he also hypothesized the existence of stable super @-@ heavy isotopes of certain elements in an island of stability . Seaborg served as chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission until 1971 .
= = Return to California = =
Following his service as Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission , Seaborg returned to UC Berkeley where he was awarded the position of University Professor . At the time , there had been fewer University Professors at UC Berkeley than Nobel Prize winners . He also served as Chairman of the Lawrence Hall of Science where he became the principal investigator for Great Explorations in Math and Science ( GEMS ) working with director Jacqueline Barber . Seaborg served as at the University of California , Berkeley , from 1958 to 1961 , and served as President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1972 and as President of the American Chemical Society in 1976 .
In 1980 , he transmuted several thousand atoms of bismuth into gold at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory . His experimental technique , using nuclear physics , was able to remove protons and neutrons from the bismuth atoms . Seaborg 's technique would have been far too expensive to enable routine manufacturing of gold , but his work was close to the mythical Philosopher 's Stone .
In 1983 , President Ronald Reagan appointed Seaborg to serve on the National Commission on Excellence in Education . The commission produced a report " A Nation at Risk : The Imperative for Educational Reform " , which focused national attention on education as a national issue germane to the federal government . In 2008 , Margaret Spellings wrote that
A Nation at Risk delivered a wake up call for our education system . It described stark realities like a significant number of functionally illiterate high schoolers , plummeting student performance , and international competitors breathing down our necks . It was a warning , a reproach , and a call to arms .
Seaborg lived most of his later life in Lafayette , California , where he devoted himself to editing and publishing the journals that documented both his early life and later career . He rallied a group of scientists who criticized the science curriculum in the state of California , which he viewed as far too socially oriented and not nearly focused enough on hard science . California Governor Pete Wilson appointed Seaborg to head a committee that proposed changes to California 's science curriculum despite outcries from labor organizations and others .
= = Personal life = =
In 1942 , Seaborg married Helen Griggs , the secretary of physicist Ernest Lawrence . Under wartime pressure , Seaborg had moved to Chicago while engaged to Griggs . When Seaborg returned to accompany Griggs for the journey back to Chicago , friends expected them to marry in Chicago . But , eager to be married , Seaborg and Griggs impulsively got off the train in the town of Caliente , Nevada , for what they thought would be a quick wedding . When they asked for City Hall , they found Caliente had none — they would have to travel 25 miles ( 40 km ) north to Pioche , the county seat . With no car , this was no easy feat , but one of Caliente 's newest deputy sheriffs turned out to be a recent graduate of the Cal Berkeley chemistry department and was more than happy to do a favor for Seaborg . The deputy sheriff arranged for the wedding couple to ride up and back to Pioche in a mail truck . The witnesses at the Seaborg wedding were a clerk and a janitor . Glenn Seaborg and Helen Griggs Seaborg had six children , of whom the first , Peter Glenn Seaborg , died in 1997 . The others were Lynne Seaborg Cobb , David Seaborg , Steve Seaborg , Eric Seaborg , and Dianne Seaborg .
Seaborg was an avid hiker . Upon becoming Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1961 , he commenced taking daily hikes through a trail that he blazed at the headquarters site in Germantown , Maryland . He frequently invited colleagues and visitors to accompany him , and the trail became known as the " Glenn Seaborg Trail . " He and his wife Helen are credited with blazing a 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) trail in the East Bay area near their home in Lafayette , California . This trail has since become a part of the American Hiking Association 's cross @-@ country network of trails . Seaborg and his wife walked the trail network from Contra Costa County all the way to the California – Nevada border .
Seaborg was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1972 and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society ( ForMemRS ) of London in 1985 . He was honored as Swedish @-@ American of the Year in 1962 by the Vasa Order of America . In 1991 , the organization named " Local Lodge Glenn T. Seaborg No. 719 " in his honor during the Seaborg Honors ceremony at which he appeared . This lodge maintains a scholarship fund in his name , as does the unrelated Swedish @-@ American Club of Los Angeles .
Seaborg kept a close bond to his Swedish origin . He visited Sweden every so often , and his family were members of the Swedish Pemer Genealogical Society , a family association open for every descendant of the Pemer family , a Swedish family with German origin , from which Seaborg was descended on his mother 's side .
On August 24 , 1998 , while in Boston to attend a meeting by the American Chemical Society , Seaborg suffered a stroke , which led to his death six months later on February 25 , 1999 , at his home in Lafayette .
= = Honors and awards = =
During his lifetime , Seaborg is said to have been the author or co @-@ author of numerous books and 500 scientific journal articles , many of them brief reports on fast @-@ breaking discoveries in nuclear science while other subjects , most notably the actinide concept , represented major theoretical contributions in the history of science . He held more than 40 patents – among them the only patents ever issued for chemical elements , americium and curium , and received more than 50 doctorates and honorary degrees in his lifetime . At one time , he was listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as having the longest entry in Marquis Who 's Who in America . In February 2005 , he was posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame . His papers are in the Library of Congress .
The American Chemical Society @-@ Chicago Section honored him with the Willard Gibbs Award in 1966 . The element seaborgium was named after Seaborg by Albert Ghiorso , E. Kenneth Hulet , and others , who also credited Seaborg as a co @-@ discoverer . It was named while Seaborg was still alive , which proved controversial . He influenced the naming of so many elements that with the announcement of seaborgium , it was noted in Discover magazine 's review of the year in science that he could receive a letter addressed in chemical elements : seaborgium , lawrencium ( for the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory where he worked ) , berkelium , californium , americium . Seaborgium is the only element to have been officially named after a living person , though the name oganesson has been proposed for element 118 , after Yuri Oganessian .
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= The Statue ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Statue " is the sixth episode of the second season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld , and the show 's 11th episode overall . In the episode , protagonist Jerry Seinfeld ( Jerry Seinfeld ) inherits some old possessions of his grandfather . One of these is a statue , resembling one that his friend George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) broke when he was ten years old . When Jerry sees the statue in the house of Ray ( Michael D. Conway ) , the man who cleaned his apartment , he believes Ray stole the statue . Jerry struggles to get back at Ray , as his friend Elaine Benes ( Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) is editing a book written by Ray 's girlfriend .
The episode was written by Larry Charles and directed by Tom Cherones . The character of Jerry 's neighbor Kramer ( Michael Richards ) is developed in this episode , as he goes undercover as a cop to retrieve the statue . Charles was interested in the development of Kramer , as he felt George and Jerry had their counterparts in co @-@ creators Larry David and Seinfeld . Richards enjoyed how his character acted in the episode and encouraged Charles to continue exploiting the Kramer character . " The Statue " first aired on NBC on April 11 , 1991 in the United States and was watched by over 23 million American homes . It received mixed responses from critics .
= = Plot = =
Jerry inherits some old possessions of his grandfather Irving . Among them is a statue that looks just like one George 's family had , until George broke it . Jerry promises that George can have it , but leaves it in his apartment for a few days . Kramer takes a few of Irving 's old clothes , including a hat which he believes makes him look like Joe Friday of Dragnet . Elaine persuades Jerry to have his apartment cleaned by her client Rava 's ( Nurit Koppel ) boyfriend Ray ( Michael D. Conway ) . Jerry is very impressed by the quality of the cleaning ; but when he and Elaine visit Rava , Jerry notices a statue with a vivid similarity to the one he inherited , and believes Ray stole it . He calls Kramer to check his apartment , and when Kramer cannot find the statue there , Jerry ’ s suspicion is confirmed .
Jerry , Elaine , George and Kramer discuss the situation and Kramer urges Jerry to do something about it , but Elaine argues that Rava will no longer let her edit her book if Jerry does this . Jerry calls Ray and has lunch with him , while George sits in the next booth and eavesdrops on their conversation . Jerry and George asks him about the statue , but Ray gets offended and leaves when he hears their opinion . Elaine and Rava get into an argument about Jerry 's accusation , and Elaine is no longer allowed to edit Rava 's book . Without notifying anybody , Kramer dresses up in Irving 's old clothes and goes to Ray 's apartment , pretending to be a cop , and recovers the statue , despite Ray 's protests . Kramer returns the statue to a grateful George . But while George is holding the statue , Kramer gives him a friendly pat on the back , causing George to drop the statue , which breaks when it hits the floor . The episode ends without ever revealing whether or not Ray had in fact stolen the statue from Jerry 's apartment .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode contained a number of references to pop culture . George explains that he broke the original statue when he was using it as a microphone , singing the song " MacArthur Park " , by Jimmy Webb ; in early drafts of the script , George broke it while singing Eddie Cochran 's " Summertime Blues " . The episode also contained numerous references to the 1960s television crime drama Dragnet , . This was because Larry Charles , who wrote the episode , watched a lot of reruns of the show when he was writing for Seinfeld . The cop Kramer pretends to be when he retrieves the statue was inspired by Joe Friday , the central character of Dragnet . Finland is also mentioned multiple times , as Rava is from there . At the end of the episode Kramer states " Well , lets put it this way , I didn 't take them to The People 's Court " , a reference to the judicial television show .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Larry Charles and directed by Tom Cherones , who directed all of the episodes in Season 2 . " The Statue " was the second episode Charles wrote for the show , though it was the first to be aired . Charles was mostly interested in the development of the Kramer character , as he felt " Jerry and George were so well @-@ defined through Larry [ David ] and Jerry , that there was less room for me to , sort of , expand on those personas . But Kramer was very unformed at the beginning of the show and it gave me an area of creativity to , sort of , expand upon . So I spent a lot of time with Kramer because he was a character that I could have an impact on in the future of the show " . Richards enjoyed how his character evolved and , after the filming of the episode , went to Seinfeld , Charles and David and said " we should keep going that way . " He cites this episode , as well as " The Revenge " ( in which Kramer puts concrete in a washing machine ) , as episodes that really defined the character .
The first read @-@ through of the episode was held on January 23 , 1991 , the same night the second season premiered . " The Statue " was filmed in front of a live audience six days later . A few scenes were changed prior to filming ; in an early draft of the script Elaine sat next to George eavesdropping on Jerry and Ray 's conversation . She would wear a floppy hat to look inconspicuous and would complain about it , stating that she looks like one of the Cowsills , a singing group that was active between the 1960s and 1970s . The same scene initially featured George admitting that he spied on Ray a day earlier , showing Ray pictures of him in a bar . Ray would reply that it was his day off and asks why George is not at work , to which George replies that he should be getting back and leaves . In the original script , Elaine and Rava would argue over who is a better person : Jerry or Ray .
Writer 's assistant Karen Wilkie can be seen in the audience during Seinfeld 's stand @-@ up comedy act . Nurit Koppel portrayed Rava , at the time she was known for her appearance in the CBS television movie Sweet Bird of Youth ( 1989 ) as well as a guest appearance on the NBC crime drama Hunter . Jane Leeves , who would later appear as Marla the Virgin in season four and season nine also auditioned for the part , she also went on to star in the popular NBC sitcom Frasier ( 1993 – 2004 ) . In the script , Ray Thomas ' description was , " although he carries cleaning equipment , he also carries the air of a pretentious mannerly , affected actor " . Various actors auditioned for the part , among which were Hank Azaria , Michael D. Conway and Tony Shalhoub , who had also auditioned for the part of Kramer . Conway was eventually cast for the part . Norman Brenner , who worked as Richards ' stand @-@ in on the show for all its nine seasons , appears as an extra ; he appears in the background when Jerry and Ray talk at Monk 's Cafe .
= = Reception = =
First broadcast in the United States on NBC on April 11 , 1991 , " The Statue " gained a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 1 and an audience share of 26 . This means that 16 @.@ 1 % of American households watched the episode , and that 26 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . Nielsen estimated that over 23 million people watched the episode 's initial broadcast , making it the tenth most @-@ watched program of the week it was broadcast in .
The episode received mixed reactions from critics . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , critics Mary Kaye Schilling and Mike Flaherty stated " Even Seinfeld 's bit players must have some grounding in reality — you need to love to hate them . Ultimately , there 's no redeeming comic payoff to Rava 's and Ray 's weirdness " . Flaherty and Schilling graded the episode with a C- . Colin Jacobson of the DVD Movie Guide called the episode 's storyline " fairly pedestrian " , but felt the performances of Conway and Koppel saved the episode .
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= Pinkeye ( South Park ) =
" Pinkeye " is the seventh episode in the first season of the American animated television series South Park . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on October 29 , 1997 . In " Pinkeye " , Kenny is killed and , through a freak accident , he is brought back to life as a zombie and starts terrorizing South Park residents , who believe the rise of the living dead is an epidemic of " pinkeye " .
The episode was written by series co @-@ founders Trey Parker and Matt Stone , along with writer Philip Stark . The episode was the first of a new slate of South Park episodes Parker and Stone made after Comedy Central agreed to permanently pick up the show . The duo were not happy with the episode , particularly the ending , and were surprised by the positive response it received from fans . Parker said he also wanted the episode to convey , in part , that Halloween is a positive holiday for children .
" Pinkeye " received generally positive reviews and has been described as one of the classic episodes of South Park . It was viewed by 1 @.@ 75 million households the week it aired , an unusually high amount for Comedy Central at the time . The episode introduced the recurring character Principal Victoria when Cartman dresses as Adolf Hitler . Victoria removes Cartman 's costume and attempts to dress him as a ghost , but inadvertently makes Cartman resemble a member of the Ku Klux Klan . The costumes initially worried Comedy Central executives , but the negative feedback received was minimal .
= = Plot = =
Stan , Kyle , Cartman , and Kenny are waiting for the school bus as usual when the Mir Space Station lands and kills Kenny . Kenny 's body is taken to the local morgue . One of the men at the morgue accidentally leaves a bottle of Worcestershire sauce open and its contents mix with the embalming fluid , turning Kenny into a zombie . Kenny bites the two men and leaves in the middle of the night .
The next day Kenny rejoins his friends , who are dressed up for a Halloween costume contest . Stan is dressed as Raggedy Andy ( since Wendy would be going as Raggedy Ann , thus making a pair ) , Kyle wears a Chewbacca mask , and Cartman is dressed as Hitler , much to the fury of Kyle , who is Jewish . A zombified Kenny joins the boys , but they fail to notice that he is a zombie . At school , Kyle gets more annoyed after discovering that the other students ( as well as Mr. Hat ) are also dressed as Chewbacca , while Mr. Garrison is dressed as Marilyn Monroe . Worst of all , Wendy is dressed as Chewbacca ; she explains that she changed costumes because they would have looked stupid as the Raggedy couple and she figured Stan would realize it too . A stubborn Kyle decides to make a new costume so he can win the prize , two tons of candy . Both Chef ( dressed as Evel Knievel ) and Principal Victoria are annoyed to see Cartman dressed as Hitler . Victoria makes him a " ghost " costume but he ends up looking more like a Ku Klux Klan member , which annoys Chef even more . At the contest , which is judged by Tina Yothers , Wendy ( despite wearing the same costume as the other students ) wins the candy , much to the fury of Kyle , who is now dressed as the Solar System . Stan wins the worst costume and everyone laughs at him , leaving him humiliated .
Meanwhile , thanks to Kenny , the two men are mistakenly diagnosed to have " pinkeye " , but they turn into zombies and go around biting other people , turning them into zombies . Back home , Chef , who sees the outbreak on TV , tries to warn both the doctor and Mayor McDaniels ( who is having sex with Officer Barbrady ) , but his pleas are ignored . The boys go trick @-@ or @-@ treating ( Kyle now dressed as a vampire ) , not noticing the outbreak , and abandon Kenny , who continues to eat people . They arrive at Chef 's home , and Chef tells them what is really going on before taking them to the morgue to stop the outbreak . After discovering the hotline number on the Worcestershire sauce bottle , the boys and Chef are attacked by the zombies with Chef becoming the next victim and acting like Michael Jackson in parody of Thriller . Stan and Cartman kill the other zombies with chainsaws and Stan hesitates to kill a zombified Wendy . After Kyle discovers he has to kill the original zombie ( after being told complicatedly by the hotline lady ) , he slices Kenny in half , killing him . The spell is broken and all the zombies turn back to normal . Stan makes up with Wendy and they are about to kiss but he ends up puking on her , leaving her disgusted .
The episode ends with the boys mourning at Kenny 's grave and deciding to go home to eat candy as well as look at photos of Liane Cartman , who is on the cover of a porn magazine , much to the fury of Cartman claiming she was young and needed the money ; Stan says the photos were taken a month ago , infuriating Cartman even more . Kenny returns as a zombie again , but a statue lands on him , followed by an airplane .
= = Production = =
Comedy Central originally ordered only six episodes of South Park for the first season 's initial run . However , when the show proved to be a success , they requested an additional seven , the first ones of which creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone had to produce quickly . " Pinkeye " was the first of those new seven episodes to be produced . It was also the first South Park Halloween episode . The script was written by Parker , Stone and writer Philip Stark , and was directed by Parker and Stone , who made the pinkeye a major element of the plot because they associate the illness with the elementary school experience . Parker said , " Pinkeye is just such a huge part of your life when you 're in third grade . Pinkeye is the thing every third grader gets and it 's just such a bizarre thing . " In writing the episode , Parker said he wanted to convey his belief that Halloween is a positive holiday , especially for children : " Halloween 's a great thing . That was part of what we wanted ( to say ) . I think kids having this kind of mythology is great . "
" Pinkeye " was the first South Park episode to feature a cold open , or an opening scene jumping right into the story before the opening credits are shown . In all previous episodes , and the majority of those following it , the episode starts after the opening credits and follows a three @-@ act model , more in the style of a short film than a traditional television episode . " Pinkeye " was the first episode in which Kenny 's death was a key element of the episode and a catalyst of the plot , rather than a throwaway gag . It was also the first time Kenny died multiple times : once in the beginning , once as a zombie and once at the end when he is resurrected a second time . The blood featured in the episode was deliberately designed to look primitive as a reference to The Spirit of Christmas , the 1995 animated short film by Parker and Stone that served as a precursor to South Park , in which the blood was literally drawn with a Sharpie marker . For the final scene when Kenny comes back to life a second time , the dramatic music was inserted at the last moment by Parker with a synthesizer .
Parker and Stone had trouble deciding how to resolve the episode and bring the zombie characters back to life . Although they ultimately settled on having Kyle kill the " main zombie " to bring back the others , Parker did not feel the resolution made sense and described it as a deus ex machina . Parker said of the ending , " This was another big one of those episodes where we were sort of ( like ) , ' How do we get out of this one ? ' " Parker also described the ending of the episode as " a bloodbath , ( which ) is what a good zombie movie should be " . " Pinkeye " was the first South Park episode Parker and Stone felt unsatisfied with once production was complete . Parker said , " We were pretty bummed out , and we kind of thought , well , we 're going to have a bad episode go on the air , and hopefully it won 't alienate too many people , and we 'll try to get our viewers back for Thanksgiving . But we were totally wrong , people totally loved it . "
Stone said he felt the episode solidified major characteristics embodied by the Chef character , particularly the fact that he is one of the only adults in South Park who always understands the truth of any given situation and believes the children almost all of the time . Stone said , " It 's like the parents are all nuts that live in the town . The boys are kind of the most sane and Chef is really the only one in town who believes the kids when they say ( something ) is happening , when the kids are actually right and it 's the town that 's crazy . " " Pinkeye " was also the first episode in which Liane Cartman , Eric Cartman 's mother , was portrayed as a promiscuous woman who was previously a crack whore and is willing to engage in pornographic sex for money ; during the episode , she is mentioned and actually featured on the cover of " Crack Whore Magazine " , much to Cartman 's shock and dismay .
= = Release = =
Before its release on Comedy Central , " Pinkeye " was shown at the first annual New York Comedy Film Festival at New York Film Academy on October 26 , 1997 . Out of about 50 films shown in the festival , " Pinkeye " was chosen as the final exhibition to close the festival . Parker and Stone appeared on The Daily Show with Craig Kilborn on October 27 , to promote the episode and the first season in general . In its original American television broadcast , " Pinkeye " received a Nielsen Rating of 3 @.@ 8 , meaning the episode was seen by about 1 @.@ 75 million households . Television journalists said the rating was unusually high for Comedy Central standards ; the network averages a 0 @.@ 6 rating ( 276 @,@ 000 households ) during prime time , and prior to South Park , the channel 's highest rating was a 2 @.@ 7 ( 1 @.@ 24 million households ) for the second season premiere of Absolutely Fabulous . In 2000 , The Museum of Television & Radio in Beverly Hills , California held a three @-@ month horror festival called " Monster in the Box : Horror on Television " , which included " Pinkeye " in its selection of classic or excellent horror @-@ related television comedy episodes . It also included The Munsters episode " Munster Masquerade " and The Simpsons episode " Treehouse of Horror V " .
" Pinkeye " was released , along with 11 other episodes , in a three @-@ DVD set in November 1998 . It was included in the second volume , which also included the episodes " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " , " Death " and " Damien " . " Pinkeye " was also one of six episodes included on a 1998 VHS called " South Park Festival Special " , which included " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " , " Merry Christmas , Charlie Manson ! " , " Mr. Hankey 's Christmas Classics " , " Korn 's Groovy Pirate Ghost Mystery " , and " Starvin ' Marvin " . The episode , along with the other twelve from the first season , was also included in the DVD release " South Park : The Complete First Season " , which was released on November 12 , 2002 . Parker and Stone recorded commentary tracks for each episode , but they were not included with the DVDs due to " standards " issues with some of the statements ; Parker and Stone refused to allow the tracks to be edited and censored , so they were released in a CD completely separate from the DVDs .
= = Cultural references = =
" Pinkeye " included the first appearance of Principal Victoria , the principal of South Park Elementary . Her appearance is based on Comedy Central executive Debbie Liebling , who served as a South Park producer at the time of the episode 's broadcast . Unlike Liebling , however , Principal Victoria spoke with a thick Minnesotan accent ; the voice was chosen simply because it was an accent voice actress Mary Kay Bergman could do particularly well .
Cartman dresses like Adolf Hitler , the leader of the Nazi Party ; Cartman occasionally says " Sieg Heil " , a common phrase previously used in Nazi Germany . Comedy Central had reservations about the idea and sought ideas for other possible costumes , but Parker and Stone insisted it had to be the Hitler costume . Once the episode aired , however , the two received very few letters from upset viewers over the costume ; Parker attributed this to the fact that people were becoming more familiar with the Cartman character , and thus recognized that most of what he said and did was usually wrong . More than Hitler , however , Comedy Central executives were worried about the use of Chewbacca costumes throughout the episode because of George Lucas ' well @-@ known tendency to file lawsuits against unauthorized Star Wars references or parodies . The channel contacted his production company , Lucasfilm , about the episode and was asked to send a copy of the episode to them for review . The voice used by the supposedly actual Adolf Hitler in the educational video shown to Cartman is based on Monty Python alum John Cleese 's Hitler impression , which both Parker and Stone particularly praised .
Actress and singer Tina Yothers , best known for her role in the television series Family Ties , is featured in the episode as a celebrity judge in the school 's costume judging contest . About one year after the episode aired , Stone met Yothers at a venue where she was performing with her band . Stone was uncomfortable because it was the first time he had met a celebrity the show previously mocked , but Yothers said she was a big fan of the show and enjoyed her parody appearance . She used a clip of Kyle saying " Up yours , Tina Yothers " from the episode as an introductory sound clip to introduce her band 's shows .
Kenny is turned into a zombie after a mortician accidentally knocks Worcestershire sauce , a fermented liquid condiment , into his embalming fluid . Parker and Stone originally planned to have a Dr Pepper fall into the embalming fluid ( in a belated response to that product 's slogan " Dr Pepper , What 's the Worst That Could Happen ? " ) , but it was changed after the soft drink company objected to that use of their product .
The episode features a parody of the Michael Jackson song " Thriller " , as well as the music video . When Chef becomes a zombie , he is dressed like Jackson from the " Thriller " video , and he and the other zombies dance in a similar way . Chef also shouts " Oh " the same way Jackson often did during music performances . The song Chef sings is extremely similar to the actual " Thriller " song , but Parker said they deliberately made it " ( just ) different enough that we can 't get sued " . Stan is ridiculed for his likeness to Raggedy Andy , based on the rag doll character by children 's writer Johnny Gruelle ; Stan 's girlfriend Wendy was originally supposed to dress as Raggedy Ann with Stan , but she instead chose to dress as Chewbacca . When Cartman later dons a " ghost " costume , it resembles a costume from the Ku Klux Klan , the militant white supremacy organization . Parker and Stone said they feel Klan jokes are particularly funny because the concept of KKK is so stupid . Stone said , " Dressing up like ghosts to scare black people is just stupid . Stupidly funny . " The zombie @-@ version of Kenny is said to resemble Edward James Olmos , the American actor who played Lt. Martin Costillo in Miami Vice .
= = Reception = =
" Pinkeye " has been described as one of the classic episodes of South Park . In " Doug Pratt 's DVD @-@ Video Guide " , Pratt , a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor , calls " Pinkeye " his favorite episode of the first season of South Park : " We like it primarily because the subject – a horror satire – seems ideally suited for the show 's irreverent attitude . " Eric Mink of the New York Daily News complimented the episode , which he felt illustrated many of the outrageous and shocking elements that had made South Park so popular . He said the episode was particularly notable for its graphic violence : " Most sitcoms would have a problem doing an episode in which one regular character slices another regular character in half with a chainsaw . Not South Park . " Mike Higgins of The Independent said this episode helped " cement ( Eric Cartman 's ) position as one of the great , obnoxious characters of the Nineties " , particularly through his Adolf Hitler Halloween costume .
Matt Roush of USA Today said of the episode , " Absurdly nihilistic and savagely derisive ... South Park 's twisted take on a holiday special will delight anyone who favors SweeTarts over candy corn . " Kevin M. Williams of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times described the episode as " a Halloween @-@ themed tour de force of crudeness , a wild romp with blood , brains and gore . " Vijay Ramanavarapu of The Plain Dealer said the episode was " very offensive " , particularly for its mockery of Kyle for his Judaism . The Baltimore Sun also described the episode as offensive and said of it , " Looking for sophisticated humor , finely honed satire and superior animation in your cartoons ? Then stay far away from Comedy Central tonight . "
RealSouthPark.com , a 1999 website that examined real @-@ life people and places that may have inspired South Park episodes , suggested the settings in " Pinkeye " may have been inspired by a supposedly haunted hotel in Fairplay , Colorado , a Park County town that serves as the basis for the South Park location within the show . In a review of the site , however , The Australian suggested the interpretation was unlikely , since the hotel is rumored to be haunted by ghosts , not zombies .
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= Korn =
Korn ( stylized as KoЯn ) is an American nu metal band from Bakersfield , California , formed in 1993 . The band 's current lineup includes founding members Jonathan Davis ( vocals , bagpipes ) , James " Munky " Shaffer ( guitar ) , Brian " Head " Welch ( guitar , backing vocals ) , and Reginald " Fieldy " Arvizu ( bass ) , with the addition of Ray Luzier ( drums ) , who replaced the band 's original member , David Silveria in 2007 . Korn was originally formed by three of the members of the band L.A.P.D.
Korn released their first demo album , Neidermayer 's Mind , in 1993 . The band later went on to release their self @-@ titled debut album in 1994 , followed by Life Is Peachy in 1996 . The band experienced mainstream success with Follow the Leader ( 1998 ) and Issues ( 1999 ) , both of which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 . The band 's mainstream success continued with Untouchables ( 2002 ) , Take a Look in the Mirror ( 2003 ) and See You on the Other Side ( 2005 ) .
A compilation album , Greatest Hits Vol . 1 , was released in 2004 , spanning a decade of singles and concluding the band 's recording contract with Immortal Records and Epic Records . They signed to Virgin Records , releasing See You on the Other Side in 2005 , and an untitled album in 2007 . Korn 's other recent albums , Korn III : Remember Who You Are ( 2010 ) and The Path of Totality ( 2011 ) , were released via Roadrunner Records , with the latest album The Paradigm Shift ( 2013 ) being released via Prospect Park and Caroline Records .
As of 2012 , Korn had sold around 35 million copies worldwide . Twelve of the band 's official releases have peaked in the top ten of the Billboard 200 , eight of which have peaked in the top five . Seven official releases are certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , two are certified double platinum , one is certified triple platinum , one is certified five times platinum and two are certified Gold . Korn has released seven video albums and thirty @-@ nine music videos . The band has released forty @-@ one singles , twenty @-@ eight of which have charted . Korn has earned two Grammy Awards out of seven nominations and two MTV Video Music Awards out of eleven nominations .
= = History = =
= = = Early years and formation ( 1989 – 93 ) = = =
Before Korn was formed , three of the original members of the band were associated with the band L.A.P.D. – James Shaffer , Reginald Arvizu , and David Silveria . Originally consisting of Richard Morrill , James Shaffer , and Reginald Arvizu , David Silveria joined when he was 16 . When the band moved from Bakersfield , California to Los Angeles , Silveria dropped out of high school and Shaffer stayed in Bakersfield . When Shaffer reunited with the band , they found a manager and released an EP entitled Love and Peace Dude in 1989 through Triple X Records . L.A.P.D. released their first full @-@ length studio album on May 3 , 1991 which consisted of eleven tracks . The album was entitled Who 's Laughing Now . After releasing two albums , L.A.P.D. broke up . They were also briefly known as Creep , recording a demo with a singer named Corey until Shaffer , Arvizu , and Silveria enlisted Brian Welch and Jonathan Davis to form the band that went on to become Korn .
When thinking of a band name , someone suggested " corn " , but the band rejected that name , so Shaffer had the idea to spell the name with both a " K " instead of a " C " , and a backwards " R " , so the band 's name would appear as " KoЯn " . The logo was designed by vocalist Jonathan Davis . Silveria explained , " the music makes the name , because Korn 's a dumb name . But once we get established , it makes the name cool . "
Korn rented a studio from Jeff Creath , called Underground Chicken Sound , in Huntington Beach , California . While they were recording at Underground Chicken Sound , a crowd had been loitering outside the studio . The band began playing a prelude to a later song , " Clown " , resulting in a larger crowd gathering . Arvizu said the crowd gathered because it sounded so " different . " Korn started performing at gigs in the summer of 1993 , with members saying that touring was a " pain @-@ in @-@ the @-@ ass . " While in Huntington Beach , the band was spotted by Epic Records A & R employee Paul Pontius . Pontius would describe Korn 's sound as " the new genre of rock . " In 1993 , Korn released their first demo album , Neidermayer 's Mind . The album had very limited printing , and was not well received by critics or the public . It was released to record companies and to people who filled out a flyer given out at gigs they played for free with Biohazard and House of Pain . With this demo , Korn pioneered the nu metal sound .
= = = Korn ( 1994 – 96 ) = = =
By May 1994 , Korn began recording their debut album with Ross Robinson . It was finished recording by the end of June 1994 . On October 11 , 1994 , Korn released a self – titled album through Immortal Records , an Epic imprint label , which peaked at number one on the Heatseekers Albums chart , and would eventually reach number seventy @-@ two on the Billboard 200 in February 1996 . The album received positive reviews by critics , and it is said to have established the new wave of metal . As well as sparking the nu metal genre , the album also started record producer Ross Robinson 's music career . It also influenced other bands , such as Slipknot , Coal Chamber and Limp Bizkit .
After Korn finished recording the album , they began touring with Biohazard and House of Pain . Their record company gave them enough money for their own tour bus . Korn 's first gig was in Atlanta . About halfway through the tour , the tour bus that their record company gave them stopped working , and Korn had to find a new one . Their first tour was not very successful in promoting the album . The band went on tour with Sick of It All in January 1995 . Later that year , Korn was chosen , alongside Deftones , as direct support for Ozzy Osbourne . The self @-@ titled album went gold in the midst of the tour . It was eventually certified two @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Aside from touring , Korn released four singles . " Blind " was released on August 1 , 1994 , and " Shoots and Ladders " was released on October 31 , 1995 . The latter received a Grammy nomination in 1997 for Best Metal Performance . " Need To " was also released in 1995 , on April 8 . The fourth and final single , " Clown " , was released on February 2 , 1996 . " Blind " was the only single to chart , peaking at number fifteen on the Canadian RPM Alternative 30 .
= = = Life Is Peachy ( 1996 – 97 ) = = =
After the success of their debut , Korn decided to enter the studio again for a second album . By then , the band had created a large fan base , and the expectations for their follow @-@ up album were high . They went back into the studio in early April 1996 at Indigo Ranch Studios , Malibu , California .
The album was released October 15 , 1996 , and despite minimal radio airplay and television attention , Life Is Peachy debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , and peaked at number one in New Zealand . The album sold 106 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Jon Pareles from The New York Times said that the band was " Mad at everybody , including themselves . " The album was certified double platinum in the United States , platinum in Australia , and gold in Canada .
The first single , " No Place to Hide " , spawned a Grammy nomination for Best Metal Performance . " A.D.I.D.A.S. " was released as the second single on March 4 , 1997 . It became the band 's first charting single on Billboard , peaking at number thirteen on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart . The third single , " Good God " , was released on July 14 , 1997 . The band gained more popularity after co @-@ headlining the Lollapalooza music festival in 1997 with Tool . However , Korn was forced to stop touring after Shaffer was diagnosed with viral meningitis . A promotional disc was released in 1997 to promote both the band and the Life Is Peachy Tour featuring Incubus and The Urge , and included three live tracks .
= = = Follow the Leader ( 1998 – 99 ) = = =
Prior to the release of the band 's third album , Korn produced a weekly online TV show , KornTV , which documented the making of the record and featured special guests such as porn star Ron Jeremy , Limp Bizkit and 311 . The project also gave fans the chance to call in and ask the band questions , an approach that represented one of the first times a band utilized the Internet in such a way . Korn released their third album , Follow the Leader , on August 18 , 1998 , which featured a number of guest vocalists such as Ice Cube , Pharcyde member Tre Hardson , Fred Durst of Limp Bizkit , and actor Cheech Marin on the hidden track " Earache My Eye " ( written by Marin himself ) .
Korn launched a political campaign @-@ style tour to promote the release of Follow the Leader . The tour took the group , on a chartered jet , all over North America to help promote Follow the Leader . They talked to fans and answered questions during special " fan conferences " , which were organized at every stop along the tour route , and signed autographs . Jim Rose of the Jim Rose Circus hosted the entire " Kampaign " tour .
The album was considered by band members a complete success , debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 with at least 268 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release , and , among other singles , spawning two of their biggest singles : " Got the Life " and " Freak on a Leash " . They both exposed Korn to a wider , mainstream audience , with the music videos being mainstays on MTV 's Total Request Live . " Got the Life " was the show 's very first " retired " video , with " Freak on a Leash " also reaching retirement several months later .
" Freak on a Leash " won a Grammy for Best Music Video , Short Form , and received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance . The video also earned nine MTV Video Music Awards nominations for Video of the Year , Best Rock Video , Breakthrough Video , Best Direction , Best Special Effects , Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography , Best Editing , and Viewer 's Choice . It eventually won two awards , one being for Best Rock Video and the other for Best Editing . " Freak on a Leash " failed to enter the Billboard Hot 100 , although it did manage to peak at number six on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart . Follow the Leader is considered by members of Korn to be the band 's most commercially – successful album , being certified five @-@ times Platinum by the RIAA , and having sold almost ten million copies worldwide .
= = = Issues ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
The band 's fourth album , Issues , produced by Brendan O 'Brien , was released on November 16 , 1999 , featuring cover art designed by Alfredo Carlos , who won a contest held for the fans by MTV . Issues was released during a week of many highly anticipated records . It debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with more at least 573 @,@ 000 copies sold , keeping Dr. Dre 's second album 2001 and All the Way ... A Decade of Song by Céline Dion from hitting number one .
To celebrate the album 's release , the band performed the record in its entirety in front of a live audience at New York 's historic Apollo Theater and broadcast the concert simultaneously across many radio stations . This performance marked the first performance by a rock band since Buddy Holly in the late 1950s . This special event featured the New York Police Department marching drum and bagpipe band conducted by Richard Gibbs as well as a group of back @-@ up singers to enhance the more melodic choruses Davis used on the album . A snippet of " Falling Away from Me " was featured on RealVideo with a brief interpretive dance by bassist Reginald Arvizu , and also featured on their official website as an MP3 file , although its release was against the advice of its attorneys and corporate establishment . The album was also promoted by the band 's highly successful Sick and Twisted Tour .
A little before Korn 's album Issues was released , the band appeared on an episode of South Park , titled " Korn 's Groovy Pirate Ghost Mystery " , in which the first single from Issues , " Falling Away from Me " , was premiered . The single became Korn 's first entry on the Billboard Hot 100 , reaching number ninety @-@ nine . " Make Me Bad " was released as the album 's second single in February 2000 , peaking at number fourteen on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart . A third single , " Somebody Someone " , followed with more moderate success . Music videos were filmed for all three singles , with long @-@ time friend Fred Durst directing " Falling Away from Me " , and Martin Weisz directing a concept video for " Make Me Bad " , as well as a performance @-@ based video for " Somebody Someone " , which featured the use of CGI effects . Every video was a staple on Total Request Live , two of which made it to retirement . Issues was described by Stephen Thomas Erlewine to be less hip hop @-@ oriented than Follow the Leader . It was certified three @-@ times Platinum , following up the success of Follow the Leader .
= = = Untouchables ( 2002 – 03 ) = = =
On June 11 , 2002 , Korn re @-@ emerged into the media with their fifth album , Untouchables . It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 with 434 @,@ 000 in sales . The band has blamed music piracy for the drop in sales , as an unmastered version of the album had leaked three months prior to its official release date . On April 2 , 2002 , the Opie and Anthony Show began airing songs from Untouchables . After playing a few songs , the broadcasters received a cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter from Sony Music Entertainment . Opie and Anthony said " The reason for the premature premiere was to infuriate a rival New York station , which disallows their in @-@ studio guests to appear on ' The Opie and Anthony Show . ' " The release of this album was preceded by a show at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York , a day prior to the album 's release , broadcast digitally throughout movie theatres in the United States .
The album contained experiments and styles never previously attempted by Korn . AllMusic related : " The band is far more experimental this time out , delivering Helmet @-@ like ringing guitars that melt and morph into each other , a mix of Metallica @-@ esque blastbeats and tight funk drumming from the constantly improving David Silveria , and memorable riffs that take the shape of dark sound structures and offer more than just a collection of chords . " The first two music videos from Untouchables , " Here to Stay " and " Thoughtless " , were directed by the Hughes Brothers . " Here to Stay " earned Korn a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance . " Here to Stay " peaked at number seventy @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = = Take a Look in the Mirror ( 2003 – 05 ) = = =
Due to the album Untouchables leaking onto the Internet , Take a Look in the Mirror was released on a Friday , November 21 , 2003 – four days earlier than its original release date . The album therefore received a weekend 's worth of sales , which resulted in a poor showing on the Billboard 200 . During its first full week , Take a Look in the Mirror soared ten places from number nineteen to number nine , increasing the album 's total sales to 179 @,@ 000 . It is the first album self @-@ produced by Korn . The band explained that they wanted fans to hear the music as it should be . The album presented different styles and themes compared to previous albums . Lead vocalist Jonathan Davis related : " The whole album is about love , hate and my hate of people and just losing my mind . The previous albums I did , I think the last three , I was coming from a place of hurt . And I just finally got to the point where I 'm done hurting and I 'm just pissed off about it now . It 's turned back to just sheer hate and anger . And it definitely comes across on the album . " MTV News said that Davis convinced his fans that they " will be shocked , particularly with the album 's second track , ' Break Some Off , ' which he called ' brutal ' . " Korn released the single " Did My Time " on July 22 , 2003 , which was used to promote the film but did not appear on the soundtrack to Lara Croft Tomb Raider : The Cradle of Life due to unspecified legal issues . The single debuted and peaked at number thirty @-@ eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Korn 's first and only top @-@ forty hit in the United States . " Did My Time " gave Korn another Grammy nomination in the Best Metal Performance category .
Korn released their greatest hits album , Greatest Hits Vol . 1 , on October 5 , 2004 . The album debuted at number four on Billboard , selling more than 129 @,@ 000 copies . This album assembles choice tracks from six Korn studio albums released between 1994 and 2003 . The first single was a cover of the song " Word Up ! " , originally composed by Cameo . The single peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart . Special editions of Greatest Hits Vol . 1 included a DVD titled Korn : Live at CBGB featuring seven select songs from their November 24 , 2003 show at CBGB .
In early 2005 , Brian Welch announced that he would be quitting the band . In front of a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 , in three services at Valley Bible Fellowship in Bakersfield , California , said " I was addicted to methamphetamines and tried everything ... rehab , stuff on the Internet , but nothing helped me kick it . I was trying on my own to quit and couldn 't do it . I wanted to die . No one knew what I was going through . I could not quit . Church was my last shot . I would sit in church high [ on drugs ] . I would wonder why people would go up to the front after the service . But one day it was for me . I said [ to God ] , ' Show me how to quit . ' " In a 2013 interview with Rolling Stone , Head described his final moments in the band as very tense ; " the last year I was in the band , we were gonna kick out the bass player , Fieldy , and this guy 's girlfriend couldn 't be on this side of the stage because there were fights with another wife in the band . And obviously the drugs – it 's no secret I was into the drugs , so crazy stuff , like having to finish our blow right before we got to the border because they were gonna come check to see if we had anything . " Following his departure from Korn , Welch released two autobiographies , a solo album , and formed a band , Love and Death , who released a debut album in 2013 .
= = = See You on the Other Side ( 2005 – 07 ) = = =
Upon completing their record deal with Sony , Korn partnered with EMI and signed to Virgin Records . As part of this innovative arrangement , Virgin paid Korn $ 25 million upfront in exchange for a share in the profits of their next two studio albums , including tours and merchandising . Virgin also received a 30 percent stake in the band 's licensing , ticket sales and other revenue sources .
The band 's first album for Virgin , See You on the Other Side , was released on December 6 , 2005 , and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , scanning close to 221 @,@ 000 copies . The album managed to stay in the top half of the Billboard 200 for thirty @-@ four consecutive weeks . The first single from the album , " Twisted Transistor " , was accompanied by a music video directed by Dave Meyers in which hip hop artists Xzibit , Lil Jon , Snoop Dogg , and David Banner portray Korn . " Twisted Transistor " peaked at number sixty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot 100 . The second single , " Coming Undone " , was released in February 2006 , peaking at number seventy @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 . The music video was directed by Little X. See You on the Other Side was certified Platinum in the United States , and by mid @-@ 2007 , the album had sold over 2 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide .
Korn held a press conference at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery on January 13 , 2006 , announcing the See You on the Other Side Tour . 10 Years and Mudvayne were selected to open all dates of the trek , which kicked off in their hometown of Bakersfield , on what Mayor Harvey Hall officially declared as " Korn Day " , February 24 . The resurrection of their Family Values Tour was announced on April 18 , 2006 , which featured co @-@ headliners Deftones , Stone Sour , Flyleaf , and the Japanese metal group Dir En Grey on the main stage . Korn and Evanescence co @-@ headlined the 2007 edition , with Atreyu , Flyleaf , Hellyeah , and Trivium rounding out the main stage .
While promoting See You on the Other Side in Europe , Jonathan Davis was diagnosed with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura , a blood platelet disorder that hospitalized him for the weekend and prevented him from performing at the renowned Download Festival . Despite the illness , the band still performed , with guest singers including Corey Taylor of Slipknot and Stone Sour fame , Trivium 's Matt Heafy , Skindred 's Benji Webbe and Avenged Sevenfold 's M. Shadows . This led to Korn canceling the rest of their European bill for 2006 , including the Hellfest Summer Open Air . It was originally unknown to the public what his ailment was , but the singer revealed in a letter to fans that he was " dangerously low on blood platelets and at a high risk of death from a hemorrhage if the problem was not treated " .
In early December 2006 it was announced that founding drummer David Silveria would be taking an indefinite " temporary hiatus " from the band . Korn then performed at the MTV studios in Times Square on December 9 , 2006 , for the MTV Unplugged series , which was broadcast on February 23 , 2007 , through MTV.com and on March 2 , 2007 , across North American , South American , European and Asian MTV stations . Korn played a 14 @-@ song acoustic set complete with guest appearances by The Cure and Amy Lee of Evanescence . The performance was eventually cut down to 11 songs for the album , two of which did not air on MTV . Sales of nearly 51 @,@ 000 brought MTV Unplugged : Korn to number nine in its first week out .
= = = Untitled album ( 2007 – 08 ) = = =
Korn 's untitled album was released on July 31 , 2007 , debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 with 123 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . The album was certified gold by the RIAA . It concluded Korn 's deal with Virgin Records , and features touring keyboardist Zac Baird . Drumming duties were left up to Terry Bozzio , and Bad Religion 's Brooks Wackerman , as David Silveria went on a hiatus . Joey Jordison from Slipknot played drums during Korn 's live shows until the permanent addition of Ray Luzier ( Army of Anyone , David Lee Roth ) . This confirmed David 's departure . " Evolution " and " Hold On " were released as singles to promote the untitled album . The former peaked at number seven on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart . A third single , " Kiss " , had a limited release in April 2008 . Korn covered the song " Kidnap the Sandy Claws " in 2008 , which was originally performed by Paul Reubens , Catherine O 'Hara , and Danny Elfman . It was released on Nightmare Revisited .
Ubisoft reported in October 2008 that Korn had " written and recorded an original song inspired by Ubisoft 's Haze video game , simply entitled " Haze " , which was released on April 22 , 2008 . Korn also released a live DVD , Live at Montreux 2004 , one of their performances with former guitarist Brian Welch on May 12 , 2008 .
= = = Korn III : Remember Who You Are ( 2009 – 11 ) = = =
In a YouTube video , bassist Reginald " Fieldy " Arvizu affirmed that a charity song titled " A Song for Chi " would be released , featuring Slipknot guitarist Jim Root , Clint Lowery of Sevendust , drummer Dave McClain of Machine Head and former Korn guitarist Brian " Head " Welch , among many other musicians . The song was intended to raise money for Deftones bassist Chi Cheng , who fell into a comatose state following a car accident in November 2008 .
Along with the announcement of the Ballroom Blitz Tour in March 2010 , the title for the new album was revealed as Korn III : Remember Who You Are . Later that month , Munky announced that Korn has officially signed to Roadrunner Records . Jonathan Davis later confirmed the record deal : " We 're going to go to Roadrunner . [ It is ] real exciting for us , too , because they 're one of the last record companies to let you do what you want to do . " Davis continued , " All the great bands around are on that label and everything seems to just work out right and it seems like a good home for us right now . " The lead single , " Oildale ( Leave Me Alone ) " , was made available for streaming in May 2010 . " Oildale ( Leave Me Alone ) " was simultaneously released to radio stations , and became a top @-@ ten hit on the Billboard Active Rock and Mainstream Rock airplay charts . A music video , directed by Phil Mucci , received an exclusive premiere on MTV2 .
Korn III : Remember Who You Are was released on July 13 , 2010 . It debuted and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 with 63 @,@ 000 purchases reported . A second single , " Let the Guilt Go " , was released that same month , and managed to peak in the top twenty on the Billboard Active Rock chart . " Pop a Pill " was scheduled to be the third single from Korn III : Remember Who You Are , but plans were scrapped by Roadrunner Records due to unsatisfactory results with previous singles . Korn co @-@ headlined the Music as a Weapon V tour with Disturbed in late 2010 and early 2011 . The tour also featured supporting acts Sevendust and In This Moment .
= = = The Path of Totality ( 2011 – 12 ) = = =
Korn 's tenth studio album , The Path of Totality , was released on December 6 , 2011 . It was the second and final studio album for Roadrunner Records . The album features contributions from Skrillex , 12th Planet , Excision , Downlink , Kill the Noise , Noisia , and various other EDM artists . The Path of Totality debuted and peaked at number ten on the Billboard 200 with 55 @,@ 000 copies scanned . " Get Up ! " was premiered as the lead single via Spin in April 2011 . The single managed to peak at number eight on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart . 150 @,@ 000 digital copies of " Get Up ! " have been purchased in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan . The second single , " Narcissistic Cannibal " , was released in October 2011 , with its music video being directed and produced by Alexander Bulkley of ShadowMachine Films . " Narcissistic Cannibal " peaked at number seventeen on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 .
After a stint of festival appearances , Korn promoted The Path of Totality during a headlining tour of the same name . Korn split their show into three sections . The band kicked off by playing " rare " songs from their first two albums , including the b @-@ side " Proud " , which was previously included on the soundtrack to the 1997 film I Know What You Did Last Summer . They followed with a different stage set up , playing several of their new songs . The setlist ended with hit singles and an encore . Other appearances came from Dope D.O.D. , Datsik and Downlink . A special album release performance filmed and recorded at the Hollywood Palladium was issued in various formats through Shout ! Factory in September 2012 . The Path of Totality won Album of the Year at the 2012 Revolver Golden Gods Awards . This was Korn 's first victory at the Golden Gods Awards , a ceremony that celebrates the best in hard rock and heavy metal music . Korn was also inducted into the Kerrang ! Hall of Fame during the 2011 Kerrang ! Awards .
= = = The Paradigm Shift and The Serenity of Suffering ( 2012 – present ) = = =
On July 18 , 2012 , Jonathan Davis told Billboard.com that Korn was getting ready to start recording their eleventh studio album that would be released independently . It was also announced that their next album would not contain any dubstep influences like The Path of Totality . Guitarist James " Munky " Shaffer stated in an interview with the Phoenix New Times that the new album would be heavier , with more aggressive " in @-@ your @-@ face " guitars and vocals . He went on to say that he would be using new recording techniques in the studio to give his riffs a fresh approach .
In November 2012 , Mudvayne bassist Ryan Martinie toured Korn as a temporary replacement for Reginald Arvizu , who stayed at home during his wife 's pregnancy .
In January 2013 , guitarist Brian " Head " Welch was confirmed to return to the band to play a number of festival shows , including Rock on the Range , Rock am Ring , Rock im Park and the Download Festival . His status in the band was initially thought to be temporary and for touring purposes only . Ray Luzier later announced at the Sabian show during NAMM that Welch would be joining Korn for the whole tour . Later in that month , techno artist Beta Traxx confirmed he was working on a new Korn song for their upcoming album , which he commented would sound " like the past and the future at the same time . " It was also confirmed by Ray Luzier that Don Gilmore would be producing the upcoming album . On February 12 , 2013 , The BK Entertainment Group updated their clients list and confirmed that Korn has signed to their management 's independent label ; Prospect Park Productions . Later , On June 1 , 2013 Caroline Records added Korn to their roster confirming that the band have been signed on to a contract with the label ; they are partnered with Korn 's management Prospect Park . On February 18 , 2013 , Korn posted a photo showing Head as part of the line up , which escalated rumors that he was in the process to rejoin Korn permanently . This was confirmed by Head himself in May , when it was also confirmed that he had been recording as part of the band for their upcoming album .
Fieldy has said of the album " Right now , I will tell you this ... we 've done something we 've never done before . Normally if we do a new Korn record , we 'll normally put 12 or 13 songs and that 's how many we make . This time we 've made 20 @-@ plus songs , and we 'll put the best of what we have on there , whatever the numbers end up being . We have so many to choose from , I think it 's going to be a little extra special this time . " Munky later confirmed this by saying that the band completed 25 songs and 15 of them would be put on the album . Head later elaborated that musically this was Korn 's best album .
Korn 's eleventh studio album , The Paradigm Shift , was released on October 8 , 2013 . Their first single , " Never Never " was set to be released August 12 , 2013 . The band recorded an episode of Guitar Center Sessions for DirecTV on September 11 , 2013 which is scheduled to premiere November 1 , 2013 on DirecTV Audience Channel . Korn will also be the latest act to be inducted into the world @-@ famous Hollywood Rockwalk on October 8 , 2013 . The band brought back their Family Values Tour as a one @-@ day festival , on October 5 , 2013 . The venue and line up were revealed on September 3 , 2013 . The music video for " Spike In My Veins " was released on February 6 , 2014 . The band performed the entirety of their self @-@ titled debut album on several occasions during 2015 . They are in the process of writing new songs for a twelfth studio album . Guitarist Head has described the music on the new album as " heavier than anyone 's heard us in a long time " .
On July 14 , 2016 guitarist James " Munky " Shaffer revealed to Metal Hammer that Corey Taylor of Slipknot / Stone Sour would make a guest appearance on the new album . He also revealed Nick Raskulinecz as the producer of the album . On July 16 , 2016 Korn premiered a new song , " Rotting In Vain " , at Chicago Open Air Festival .
= = Style , influences and legacy = =
The band has stated that their primary influences include Metallica , Nirvana , Led Zeppelin , Alice in Chains , Sepultura , Faith No More , Red Hot Chili Peppers , Soundgarden , Duran Duran , Fear Factory , Cathedral , Living Color , Helmet , Rage Against the Machine , Slayer , Pink Floyd , Primus , Tool , Ministry , Mr. Bungle , Biohazard , Nine Inch Nails , Pantera , Beastie Boys , Black Sabbath , N.W.A , Anthrax , and Jane 's Addiction . Much of their work has been inspired by hip hop music , as suggested in the cover song of Ice Cube 's " Wicked " , and " All in the Family " .
Korn are identified as the pioneers of nu metal music , a form of alternative metal music which began in the mid @-@ 1990s . While generally considered an alternative metal and nu metal band , the band has also been labeled as heavy metal , grunge metal , hard rock , rap metal , funk metal , groove metal and industrial metal . Their debut album mixed metal , funk , hip @-@ hop , groove , and dissonance . Their lyrics focus on pain and personal alienation rather than traditional heavy metal themes . In Nu @-@ metal : The Next Generation of Rock & Punk , Korn was marked as the third biggest nu metal band in the world .
There have been controversies and arguments over the band being heavy metal or not . In 2015 , lead singer Jonathan Davis commented , " Yeah , we ’ re heavy and downtuned , but metal , to me , is like Judas Priest and Iron Maiden , that ’ s metal man . I always thought of us as a funk band . "
The band 's debut album warranted a Parental Advisory label because of the album 's lyrics . Many of Korn 's first works are based on early experiences . The song " Daddy " was described by lead singer Jonathan Davis : " When I was a kid , I was being abused by somebody else and I went to my parents and told them about it , and they thought I was lying and joking around . They never did shit about it . They didn 't believe it was happening to their son .... I don 't really like to talk about that song . This is as much as I 've ever talked about it ... " " Kill You " was written about Davis 's experiences as a child with his step mother . Follow the Leader marked the first album where the majority of the lyrics did not have origins relating to early occurrences , with songs like " Justin " and " Pretty " written about incidents occurring during adulthood .
Bassist Reginald Arvizu plays his instrument using both the techniques of fingerstyle and slapping . Jonathan Davis was said by Doug Small to be " the eye of the storm around which the music of Korn rages . " Small described the band as " a basket @-@ case full of contradictions . " Although the band virtually had no support by television or by radio broadcasting in its first four years , Korn would go on to influence Pleymo , Adema , Limp Bizkit , Linkin Park , Evanescence , P.O.D. , Cold , Machine Head , Staind , Seether , One Minute Silence , Flyleaf , Kittie , Endo , Taproot , Crazy Town , Otep , Hoobastank , Five Pointe O , Deftones , Lacuna Coil , Chris Volz , Videodrone , Theory of a Deadman , Thousand Foot Krutch , Breaking Benjamin , Papa Roach , Sevendust , Nonpoint , Saliva , Drowning Pool , Spineshank , Trust Company , Ill Nino , Shinedown , Coal Chamber , Three Days Grace , Flymore , Trapt , Molotov , Hollywood Undead and other bands . Korn also created a fan @-@ base described by both Doug Small and Eaton Entertainment as extremely loyal .
Korn 's debut album is said to have established the nu metal genre . Bands such as Coal Chamber and Limp Bizkit were inspired by the album 's " churning rage , emphasising similar grooves and song structures " and " the sound 's hip – hop elements . " Slipknot , Machine Head , and Sepultura were also inspired by Korn 's debut album . The album launched the career of record producer Ross Robinson , who later produced albums such as Three Dollar Bill , Yall by Limp Bizkit , Sepultura 's Roots and Slipknot 's first two albums .
= = Controversy = =
Prior to the release of 1998 's Follow the Leader , Gretchen Plewes , a Zeeland , Michigan high school assistant principal , said in an interview for a Michigan newspaper that Korn 's music is " indecent , vulgar , obscene and intends to be insulting " after giving a student , Eric VanHoven , a one @-@ day suspension for wearing a shirt with the Korn logo on it . WKLQ was filmed giving away hundreds of free Korn T @-@ shirts , which were donated by the band , outside the school . Ottawa County policemen helped hand out shirts as well . Korn filed a cease and desist order against Plewes and the school district for their comments . They also threatened a multimillion @-@ dollar lawsuit , but both actions were dropped due to the band members ' personal lives .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Korn ( 1994 )
Life Is Peachy ( 1996 )
Follow the Leader ( 1998 )
Issues ( 1999 )
Untouchables ( 2002 )
Take a Look in the Mirror ( 2003 )
See You on the Other Side ( 2005 )
Untitled album ( 2007 )
Korn III : Remember Who You Are ( 2010 )
The Path of Totality ( 2011 )
The Paradigm Shift ( 2013 )
The Serenity of Suffering ( 2016 )
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= Kajol =
Kajol Devgan ( née Mukherjee ) ( born 5 August 1974 ) , known mononymously as Kajol , is an Indian film actress who predominantly works in Hindi cinema . Born into the Mukherjee @-@ Samarth family , she is the daughter of actress Tanuja and late filmmaker Shomu Mukherjee . Through her Bollywood career , Kajol has established herself as one of the most popular actresses in India . She is the recipient of numerous accolades , including six Filmfare Awards , among twelve nominations , and along with her late aunt Nutan , holds the record for most Best Actress wins at Filmfare , with five . In 2011 , the Government of India awarded her with the Padma Shri , the fourth highest civilian honour of the country .
Kajol made her acting debut with the unsuccessful romantic drama Bekhudi ( 1992 ) , while still in school . She quit her studies to pursue acting , and had her first commercial successes with the thriller Baazigar ( 1993 ) . She subsequently rose to prominence by playing the lead female role in several romantic dramas , including Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge ( 1995 ) , Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya ( 1998 ) , Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha ( 1998 ) , Kuch Kuch Hota Hai ( 1998 ) , and Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( 2001 ) . Kajol also garnered critical acclaim for playing against type in the 1997 mystery film Gupt : The Hidden Truth and the 1998 psychological thriller Dushman . Following a sabbatical from full @-@ time acting in 2001 , Kajol returned to films with the 2006 romantic thriller Fanaa , and continued working infrequently thereafter , playing leading roles in the dramas U Me Aur Hum ( 2008 ) , My Name Is Khan ( 2010 ) , We Are Family ( 2010 ) , and the comedy @-@ drama Dilwale ( 2015 ) . She , thus , established herself as one of India 's most successful actresses .
In addition to acting in films , Kajol is a social activist and is noted for her work with widows and children , for which she received the Karmaveer Puraskaar in 2008 . She has featured as a talent judge for Zee TV 's reality show , Rock @-@ N @-@ Roll Family and holds a managerial position at Devgn Entertainment and Software Ltd . Kajol has been married to actor Ajay Devgan since 1999 with whom she has two children .
= = Early life and background = =
Kajol was born in Mumbai to the Mukherjee @-@ Samarth film family of Bengali @-@ Marathi descent . Her mother , Tanuja , is an actress , while her father Shomu Mukherjee was a film director and producer . Shomu died in 2008 after suffering cardiac arrest . Kajol 's younger sister , Tanishaa Mukherjee is also an actress . Her maternal aunt was actress Nutan and her maternal grandmother , Shobhna Samarth , and great grandmother , Rattan Bai , were both involved in Hindi cinema . Her paternal uncles , Joy Mukherjee and Deb Mukherjee , are film producers , while her paternal grandfather , Sashadhar Mukherjee , was a filmmaker . Kajol 's cousins Rani Mukerji , Sharbani Mukherjee and Mohnish Behl are also Bollywood actors ; whereas another cousin of hers , Ayan Mukerji is a director .
Kajol describes herself as being " extremely mischievous " as a child . She added that she was very stubborn and impulsive from a very young age . Her parents separated when she was young ; but according to Tanuja , Kajol was not affected by the split as " we never argued in front of [ her ] " . In the absence of her mother , Kajol was looked after by her maternal grandmother , who " never let me feel that my mother was away and working " . According to Kajol , her mother inculcated a sense of independence in her at a very young age . Growing up between two separate cultures , she inherited her " Maharashtrian pragmatism " from her mother and her " Bengali temperament " from her father .
Kajol studied at the St Joseph Convent boarding school in Panchgani . Apart from her studies , she participated in extra @-@ curricular activities , such as dancing . It was in school that she began to form an active interest in reading fiction , as it helped her " through the bad moments " in her life . At the age of sixteen , she began work on Rahul Rawail 's film Bekhudi , which according to her was a " big dose of luck " . She initially intended to return to school after shooting for the film during her summer vacations . However , she eventually dropped out of school to pursue a full @-@ time career in film . On not completing her education , she quoted , " I don 't think I am any less well @-@ rounded because I didn 't complete school " .
= = Career = =
= = = 1992 – 96 : Debut and breakthrough = = =
Kajol made her acting debut at the age of seventeen in the 1992 romantic drama Bekhudi alongside debutante Kamal Sadanah and her mother Tanuja , who in the film also played her mother . Kajol played Radhika , a girl who falls in love with Sadanah 's character despite her parents ' wish for her to marry another man . Although the film turned out to be a box office flop , Kajol 's performance was noticed and she was signed for Baazigar ( 1993 ) , a thriller by Abbas @-@ Mustan , which emerged as a major commercial success . Inspired from the Hollywood film A Kiss Before Dying , the film co @-@ starred Shah Rukh Khan , Shilpa Shetty and Siddharth Ray , and saw Kajol portray the leading role of Priya Chopra , a girl who falls in love with her sister 's murderer . The film marked the first of her many collaborations with Khan .
In 1994 , Kajol featured in the melodrama Udhaar Ki Zindagi , as the granddaughter of the characters played by Jeetendra and Moushumi Chatterjee . The film , which was a remake of the hit Telugu film , Seetharamaiah Gari Manavaralu , failed to do well at the box @-@ office . However , Kajol received praise for her performance and won the BFJA Award for Best Actress . She subsequently starred in and earned public recognition with Yash Raj Films 's hit romantic drama Yeh Dillagi , alongside Akshay Kumar and Saif Ali Khan . The film , which was an unofficial remake of the Hollywood film Sabrina , narrated the story of a chauffeur 's daughter who becomes a model , and engages in a love triangle between two brothers . The success of Yeh Dillagi proved a breakthrough for Kajol and her performance in the film fetched her a first Best Actress nomination at the annual Filmfare Awards .
In 1995 , Kajol starred in two major commercial successes — Rakesh Roshan 's Karan Arjun and Aditya Chopra 's Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge — both opposite Shah Rukh Khan . The former was a melodramatic thriller , based on the concept of reincarnation , in which she played Sonia Saxena , a supporting character who forms the love interest of Khan . The film eventually emerged as the second @-@ highest grossing film of the year in India . She justified playing a minor role in the film by saying , " I did Karan Arjun because I wanted to know how it feels to be an ornament . I had nothing to do in the film except look good " . Kajol 's next three releases that year — Taaqat , Hulchul and Gundaraj — failed to do well commercially ; the latter two were her earliest collaborations with her future @-@ husband , the actor Ajay Devgn .
Kajol 's fifth and final release of the year , the romance Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge , was not only the biggest commercial success of 1995 , but also one of the most successful films of all time in India . The film , which earned a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 23 billion ( US $ 18 million ) at the time of release , has been continuously running in Mumbai ever since . Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge was also a major critical success ; it won ten Filmfare Awards , and Kajol 's performance as Simran Singh , a young Non @-@ resident Indian from London who falls for Shah Rukh Khan 's character was praised , earning her a first Filmfare Award for Best Actress . In 2005 , Indiatimes Movies ranked the movie amongst the 25 Must See Bollywood Films , citing it as a " trendsetter of sorts " . In that same year 's retrospective review by Rediff , Raja Sen stated that Kajol was " wisely picked ... to play Simran , the real @-@ as @-@ life actress bringing warmth and credulity to the initially prudish and reluctant Simran . Not to mention the on @-@ screen chemistry that has become the stuff of legend . " In 1996 , Kajol starred in Vikram Bhatt 's action drama Bambai Ka Babu , opposite Saif Ali Khan and Atul Agnihotri . Upon release , the film emerged as a major critical and commercial disaster .
= = = 1997 – 98 : Widespread success = = =
In 1997 , her portrayal of Isha Diwan , a psychopath serial killer and obsessive lover , in Gupt : The Hidden Truth , was lauded by critics and proved to be a major turning point in her career . She explained that playing Diwan was the " toughest role " of her career as it was " difficult to play a mean character " . In an interview with The Hindu , director Rajiv Rai quoted , " [ I ] tapped the versatile artistry in Kajol in Gupt ! [ She ] had a complex role and she certainly brought a rare finesse to her etching of that character in the film " . The suspense thriller , which co @-@ starred Bobby Deol and Manisha Koirala , also emerged as a major commercial success . Kajol eventually became the first actress to be nominated in and win the Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role .
Following a leading role opposite Saif Ali Khan and Aditya Pancholi in Sanjay Gupta 's box office flop , the reincarnation romance Hameshaa , Kajol starred as an aspiring nun in Rajiv Menon 's Tamil film - the romantic drama Minsaara Kanavu - opposite Arvind Swamy and Prabhu Deva . Kajol revealed that she found dancing alongside Prabhu Deva difficult and it " took me 20 retakes and 30 rehearsals " to get the steps right . Her performance met with appreciation with The Indian Express reviewing , " Kajol is full of beans and fits into her character with commendable ease . Hers is perhaps one of the most expressive faces of the present . " The film was dubbed in Hindi as Sapnay and released in Northern India . The original Tamil version was a box @-@ office success , but the dubbed version emerged as a commercial failure . Her next release was Indra Kumar 's romantic comedy Ishq alongside Aamir Khan , Juhi Chawla and Ajay Devgn , in which she played Kajal , a poor girl in love with a rich boy , played by Devgn . Upon release , the film emerged as a major commercial success , with critical praise directed to the performances of the four leads .
In 1998 , Kajol established herself as a leading actress of contemporary Hindi cinema by featuring in three of the top @-@ grossing productions of the year . Her first release that year was Sohail Khan 's romantic comedy Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya , in which she played Muskaan Thakur , a naive village girl who falls in love with a rich boy ( played by Salman Khan ) , but faces difficulties in convincing her elder brother about her relationship . The film not just emerged as a box office hit , but also garnered positive comments from critics , as did Kajol 's performance . In her next release , the psychological thriller Dushman , Kajol played the dual roles of twin sisters , Sonia and Naina Saigal , alongside Sanjay Dutt and Ashutosh Rana . Directed by Tanuja Chandra and written by Mahesh Bhatt , the film revolves around Naina avenging the rape and murder of her sister , and won Kajol critical appreciation with reviewer Sukanya Verma writing , " Kajol is in superb form , both as the opinionated career @-@ minded twin who is murdered , and as the avenger . Even she must have preferred less glycerine and more restraint . " Despite underperforming at the box @-@ office , Dushman proved to be a major critical success . For her performance , Kajol won her first Screen Award for Best Actress and received a Best Actress nomination at Filmfare .
She next starred opposite Ajay Devgn in Anees Bazmee 's romantic comedy Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha , a remake of the Hollywood hit French Kiss . In the film , she played the comic role of Sanjana , a clumsy woman who travels from Paris to India in search of her philandering fiancé , however , falls for another man , played by Devgn . A review from Planet Bollywood noted , " Kajol , like usual , is brilliant in her role as Sanjana . She makes you cry , laugh , get angry , and smile all within the two and a half hour movie . Her acting is on par with Meg Ryan in the English flick " . The film emerged as a " super @-@ hit " commercially and fetched Kajol a second Best Actress nomination at Filmfare that year .
However , her biggest success that year was her final release , Karan Johar 's directorial debut , the romance Kuch Kuch Hota Hai . Co @-@ starring Shah Rukh Khan , her cousin Rani Mukerji and Salman Khan , the film emerged as an all @-@ time blockbuster in both India and overseas with a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) . Kajol played Anjali Sharma , an unattractive fun @-@ loving tomboy , who later transforms into a feminine and beautiful girl , and is secretly in love with her best friend , played by Shah Rukh Khan . A review carried by The Times of India wrote , " Kajol is almost mesmeric as Anjali , the firebrand youngster who doesn 't know whether she should settle for best girl or basketball buddy . [ ... ] Kajol with her baggy apparel , her bouncy bob cut and her boyish banter is absolutely riveting . " She eventually won her second Best Actress award at the 44th Filmfare Awards ceremony and first Zee Cine Award for Best Actress for her performance in the film . Filmfare included Kajol 's work in both Dushman and Kuch Kuch Hota Hai in their listing of Indian cinema 's " 80 Most Iconic performances " .
= = = 1999 – 2001 : Career fluctuations and reinvented success = = =
In 1999 , post her marriage with Ajay Devgn , Kajol featured in a supporting role alongside him and Mahima Chaudhry in Prakash Jha 's drama Dil Kya Kare . She played Nandita Rai , the other woman in the life of Anant Kishore , played by Devgn . In an interview with Filmfare she explained , " The only reason , I agreed to play my character was because it had shades of grey . I would have probably refused the wife 's role . Because I felt it had nothing for me to do . " Upon release , the film met with largely negative reviews . Critic Sharmila Taliculam , however , described Kajol as " the only person who gives her role a semblance of sanity " . Commercially too , the film failed to do well . However , her next release , Satish Kaushik 's woman 's film , the drama Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain , emerged as a critical and commercial success . Starring alongside Anil Kapoor , Kajol received another Best Actress nomination at the Filmfare ceremony for her portrayal of Megha , the deceived wife of Kapoor 's character . The film met with wide media coverage for being one of the few woman @-@ centered films to emerge as a commercial success in India .
Kajol 's third and final release of 1999 was the critically and commercially unsuccessful romantic drama Hote Hote Pyar Ho Gaya , alongside Jackie Shroff , Atul Agnihotri and Ayesha Jhulka . The following year , she featured alongside her husband once again , in his home @-@ production Raju Chacha . The children 's film , with a production cost of ₹ 300 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 5 million ) was described as the " most expensive Bollywood film ever " , at the time . Upon release , the film met with negative reviews and flopped at the box @-@ office . Kajol 's first release of 2001 was Rahul Rawail 's comedy film Kuch Khatti Kuch Meethi , where she played the double role of Tina and Sweety Khanna , twin sisters who are separated at birth . The film was a major commercial failure and fetched negative reviews from critics . Writing for Rediff.com , Savera R Someshwar criticised Kajol 's decision to star in the film ; termed her as a " glamorous prop " and described her performance as " uninspiring " .
Later that year , she played a leading role in Karan Johar 's family drama Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... , which was a blockbuster in India and the top @-@ grossing Indian production of all @-@ time in the overseas market until 2006 . Also featuring Amitabh Bachchan , Jaya Bachchan , Shah Rukh Khan , Hrithik Roshan and Kareena Kapoor in prominent roles , Kajol played the role of Anjali Sharma , a young Punjabi woman from Delhi 's Chandni Chowk area , who falls for the rich Rahul Raichand , played by Khan . Kajol , faced initial difficulties while filming for her scenes , as she was required to speak in Punjabi , a language she wasn 't fluent in . However , she learnt the right pronunciation and diction with the help of producer , Yash Johar and the crew members . Her comic @-@ dramatic performance met with unanimous critical acclaim and won her several awards , including her third Filmfare Award and her second Screen Award in the Best Actress category . Taran Adarsh labelled her as " first @-@ rate " and predicted that her " Punjabi dialect will win her immense praise " . The Hindu wrote , " Kajol ... steals the thunder from under very high noses indeed . With her precise timing and subtle lingering expression , she is a delight all the way . "
Following the success of Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... , Kajol took a sabbatical from full @-@ time acting . In an interview with The Times of India she revealed , " I 'm not quitting films , I 'm just being selective . Fortunately , I 'm in a position where I can pick and choose . " She added that the reason behind the break was to concentrate on her marriage and " start a family " .
= = = 2006 – 10 ; 2015 : Comeback and recent work = = =
Kajol returned to films in 2006 with Kunal Kohli 's romantic thriller Fanaa , opposite Aamir Khan . She , however , refused to term Fanaa as her " comeback film " because , " I never retired . I had just taken a break " . The film emerged as a major box @-@ office success with a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) . She portrayed the role of Zooni Ali Beg , a blind Kashmiri girl who unwittingly falls in love with a terrorist , played by Khan . Both the film as well as Kajol 's performance were well received , with reviewer Sudish Kamat calling her the " only reason to watch the film " and adding , " Kajol performs like she never took a break from celluloid and peps up the film with her presence . " A review carried by Bloomberg noted , " [ Kajol ] still has the ability to light up the screen with ease , making her one of the few leading ladies who can more than match Khan 's method @-@ driven prowess . " Her work in Fanaa fetched Kajol a fourth Filmfare Award and second Zee Cine Award in Best Actress category .
After the success of Fanaa , Kajol worked intermittently through the rest of the decade . She next starred in her husband 's directorial debut , the drama U Me Aur Hum ( 2008 ) as Piya , a woman suffering from Alzheimer 's disease . Devgn described Kajol 's participation in the project by saying , " She is always thorough with the nitty @-@ gritties of her character before she begins shooting . Since the screenplay work happened at home , Kajol was present for all the sittings and even gave her inputs . " Upon release , the film performed moderately well at the box @-@ office and earned positive critical reviews for her performance . Udita Jhunjhunwala noted , " Kajol completely comes into her own here as an ailing woman unaware of her vulnerability and delicate situation . She is superb . " Raja Sen added , " [ Kajol ] can span through happy @-@ breezy with her eyes closed , and so the first half doesn 't even pose her a challenge , but when Alzheimer 's strikes Piya and she begins to forget all that matters in her life , Kajol raises the bar strikingly high . " The following year , Kajol received another Best Actress nomination at the Filmfare Awards ceremony .
Kajol was next cast opposite Shah Rukh Khan in Karan Johar 's My Name Is Khan , a counter @-@ terrorism drama based on the ethnic profiling and discrimination faced by American Muslims post the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks My Name Is Khan released in February 2010 to highly positive reviews and emerged as an international success with a worldwide gross of ₹ 2 billion ( US $ 30 million ) . Kajol 's portrayal of Mandira , a divorced , Hindu single mother who marries a Muslim autistic man was praised by critics , with Rajeev Masand observing , " Bringing emotional depth to what is essentially Rizwan 's story , Kajol is immensely likeable as Mandira , using her eyes to convey volumes , topping the performance off with a powerful breakdown scene that literally puts her through the wringer . " Kajol won her fifth Best Actress award at the Filmfare for the film , thereby sharing the record for the most Best Actress wins with her aunt , Nutan .
She next starred alongside Kareena Kapoor and Arjun Rampal in Siddharth Malhotra 's moderately successful family drama We Are Family , an official adaptation of the Hollywood tearjerker Stepmom ( 1998 ) . Kajol played the role of Maya , a character originally played by Susan Sarandon , and which she described as " a control freak " , believing it " is something which every woman would identify with . " While reviewing the film for Hindustan Times , critic Mayank Shekhar stated , " The premise is stuff dry tissues are made for . Yet , the pathos here is produced not from moments , but from performances alone : a stunning Kajol 's in particular . She appears superior to Susan Sarandon , I suspect . " New York Times 's Rachel Saltz wrote , " The always appealing Kajol knows how to play melodrama without being melodramatic , and her naturalism gives the movie a genuine emotional kick . " Her final release of the year was Toonpur Ka Super Hero , a live @-@ action / animated film , opposite Ajay Devgn . In an interview with The Express Tribune , Kajol mentioned that it was difficult to work on the film . She added , " Dubbing and shooting was equally frustrating . You had to keep so many things in mind and there were a few action sequences too where I had to do action in front of a green space , so I was smiling , scowling , laughing – all in the wrong places ! " The film was a critical and commercial failure and fetched Kajol mostly negative reviews for playing a role that provided her with " no scope " to perform .
After another five @-@ year absence from the screen , Kajol starred with Shah Rukh Khan for the seventh time ( alongside Varun Dhawan and Kriti Sanon ) in Rohit Shetty 's comedy @-@ drama Dilwale ( 2015 ) . She portrayed Meera Dev Malik , the daughter of a mafia don who falls in love with a man from her rival family . Reviewers were generally negative about the film , however , Kajol 's performance received a mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reception . Suhani Singh of India Today wrote : " Kajol is a radiant presence on the screen and delivers what 's expected out of her - which is not much . " Dilwale emerged as a major commercial success and garnered Kajol another Filmfare Award for Best Actress nomination .
= = Off @-@ screen work = =
= = = Managerial work = = =
In 1999 , following the launch of Ajay Devgn 's production company , Devgan Films ( now renamed Devgn Entertainment and Software Ltd ) , Kajol worked towards building a website for the company . In 2000 , she launched an online portal , Cineexplore for the production company . She explained , " The portal takes into account every aspect of film @-@ making . My role is that of a supervisor . I just have to overlook the proceedings . We have our hands in everything . We are making software for TV and music videos . " She , however , clarified that she wasn 't involved in the production aspect of the company , but participated in supervising and " overseeing everything " . She was named a part @-@ time member of Prasar Bharati in 2016 .
= = = Stage performance and television = = =
In 1998 , Kajol participated in a concert tour entitled Awesome Foursome alongside Shahrukh Khan , Juhi Chawla , and Akshay Kumar . After travelling across United Kingdom , Canada and the United States of America , Kajol refused to participate in any more world tours , as she couldn 't handle " the stress " .
In 2008 , Kajol featured as a talent judge , alongside her husband , Ajay Devgn and mother , Tanuja , in Zee TV 's family reality show , Rock @-@ N @-@ Roll Family . She described her experience of working in television by saying , " Working on television is much , much tougher than films . But television has a great connect with a live audience which is a refreshing change for us actors . "
= = = Social work = = =
Kajol has been actively involved in several philanthropic endeavours related to women and children . According to her , " every child deserves education " , as " education is the basis of society " . In 2008 , she was awarded with the Karmaveer Puraskaar , for her contribution in the field of social service .
Kajol is involved with Shiksha , an NGO that works in the field of children 's education . In 2009 , she launched the Shiksha 2009 campaign , to support the cause . In 2011 , Kajol participated in a fashion show organised by the Cancer Patients Aid Association , to generate funds for the organisation . Kajol is the international goodwill ambassador and patron of The Loomba Trust — a charity organisation devoted to supporting widows and their children around the world , particularly in India . Speaking about the issue , she said : " It 's sad to know that widows are still considered a blight in our society . There are widows who are still not marriageable . I strongly feel for them and take it as a social responsibility to eradicate the issue . "
In 2012 , Kajol was appointed as the brand ambassador of Pratham , a charity organisation for children . In April , she featured in a short film about education and literacy , with the children of Hanuman Basti Primary School in Mumbai , for the organisation .
= = Personal life = =
Kajol began dating fellow actor , Ajay Devgn , in 1994 , while filming for Gundaraj . Members of the media , however , labelled them as an " unlikely pair " due to their contrasting personalities . Devgn explained their relationship by saying , " We never resorted to the usual ' I Love you ' routine . A proposal never happened . We grew with each other . Marriage was never discussed , but it was always imminent " . They subsequently got married on 24 February 1999 in a traditional Maharashtrian style ceremony at the Devgan house . The wedding was subject to wide media scrutiny , as certain members of the media criticised Kajol 's decision to settle down at the " peak of her career " . Kajol , however , maintained that she would not quit films , but would cut down on the amount of work that she did .
Following her marriage , Kajol moved in with Devgn and his parents at the latter 's ancestral house in Juhu . While media members speculated about a lack of compatibility between her in @-@ laws and her , Kajol clarified that they were " like parents to me " and encouraged her to continue working in films . Tabloids have often romantically linked Devgn with other Bollywood actresses , and have reported about an imminent divorce . Refuting the rumours , Kajol stated , " I don 't believe in those rumours because I know the way this industry functions . [ ... ] You cannot continue a marriage without the basic trust . Frankly , I don 't care for such talk . "
In 2001 , Kajol was pregnant with her first child . However , due to an ectopic pregnancy , she suffered from a miscarriage . On 20 April 2003 , Kajol gave birth to a daughter , Nysa . Seven years later , on 13 September 2010 , she gave birth to a son , Yug . She described motherhood as " fab " and added that her kids brought out " the best in her " .
= = In the media = =
Film critic Sukanya Verma has described Kajol as a " contrasting personality " . She wrote , " Think Kajol , think emotions . Either she is the firebrand or the emotional sensitive types . [ And sometimes ] she is pure , wicked fun . " Initially termed by journalists as " an impulsive and impetuous brat " , Kajol has defied the stereotypical image of a Hindi film heroine in several ways . Journalist Kaveree Bamzai elaborated , " She hardly looks into the mirror , barely even glances at the set monitor , usually the crutch of every insecure actor , puts on make @-@ up only under extreme duress , and [ ... ] never watches her old movies . "
Kajol has often been criticised in the media for " her lack of interest in maintaining her appearance by means of slimming , grooming , jewellery or fashion " . Filmfare labelled her as an " unconventional beauty " and added , " Not one to abide by the trending norms , Kajol set her own rules in the ' 90s , a time when individuality didn 't work for most heroines . " .
After portraying leading roles in a series of family dramas , Kajol showed versatility as an actress with Gupt , and was subsequently noted in the media for her unconventional approach in selecting projects . Her acting style has been described as being " natural " . According to the The Hindu , " What Kajol abounds in is talent and a felicity for expression . Kajol does not act out her scenes and deliver her lines ; she inhabits her characters . " Furthermore , unlike most of her contemporaries , Kajol has had a successful career post @-@ marriage and motherhood . Certain members of the media , however , attribute her success to her friendship with Karan Johar , Aditya Chopra and Shahrukh Khan , who " still find central roles for her in their movies " .
Kajol featured in Box Office India 's Top Actresses list for five consecutive years ( 1995 – 99 ) . In 2001 and 2006 , following the commercial success of Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... and Fanaa , respectively , Kajol featured in Rediff 's annual Top Bollywood actresses listing . In 2007 , Kajol occupied the ninth spot in Rediff 's listing of the Best Bollywood Actresses . Ever . In 2011 , the Government of India honoured her with the Padma Shri for her contribution to Indian Cinema .
In 2006 , Kajol was one of the four Bollywood actors , alongside Priyanka Chopra , Hrithik Roshan and Shahrukh Khan , whose miniature dolls were launched in the United Kingdom , under the name of " Bollywood Legends " . In 2010 , Kajol and her My Name is Khan co @-@ star , Shahrukh Khan , became the first Indian actors to be invited by NASDAQ to open the American stock exchange . In 2012 , Kajol was placed at the fourth position by NDTV in the listing of " The most popular actresses of all time " , behind actresses Madhuri Dixit , Sridevi and Meena Kumari . The same year , she was featured by Yahoo.com as one of the ten most iconic beauties of Hindi cinema .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Kajol has received six Filmfare Awards , including five Best Actress awards for Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge ( 1995 ) , Kuch Kuch Hota Hai ( 1998 ) , Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( 2001 ) , Fanaa ( 2006 ) and My Name Is Khan ( 2010 ) , and a Best Villain award ( also known as Filmfare Award for Best Performance In a Negative Role ) for Gupt : The Hidden Truth ( 1997 ) . In 2011 , she was awarded Padma Shri , the fourth @-@ highest Indian civilian award , by the Government of India for her contributions to the arts .
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= Banksia telmatiaea =
Banksia telmatiaea , commonly known as swamp fox banksia or rarely marsh banksia , is a shrub that grows in marshes and swamps along the lower west coast of Australia . It grows as an upright bush up to 2 m ( 7 ft ) tall , with narrow leaves and a pale brown flower spike , which can produce profuse quantities of nectar . First collected in the 1840s , it was not published as a separate species until 1981 ; as with several other similar species it was previously included in B. sphaerocarpa ( Fox Banksia ) .
The shrub grows amongst scrubland in seasonally wet lowland areas of the coastal sandplain between Badgingarra and Serpentine in Western Australia . A little studied species , not much is known of its ecology or conservation biology . Reports do suggest , however , that it is pollinated by a variety of birds and small mammals . Like many members of series Abietinae , it has not been considered to have much horticultural potential and is rarely cultivated .
= = Description = =
B. telmatiaea grows as an upright bush up to 2 m ( 7 ft ) high . It has hairy stems and branchlets , and straight , narrow leaves from 1 ½ to 3 cm ( ½ – 1 in ) long and about a millimetre ( 1 ⁄ 16 in ) wide . The leaves have a green upper surface and white hairy undersurface . The new growth is pale brown , later turning green .
Flowers occur in " flower spikes " , inflorescences made up of hundreds of flower pairs densely packed around a woody axis . Arising from short lateral branchlets off stems older than four years of age , the inflorescence of B. telmatiaea is roughly oval to cylindrical , with a height of 3 – 5 cm ( 1 – 2 in ) and diameter of 4 – 7 cm ( 11 ⁄ 2 – 23 ⁄ 4 in ) . It contains between 500 and 900 golden brown to pale brown flowers , each of which consists of a tubular perianth made up of four fused tepals , and one long wiry style . The styles are hooked rather than straight , and are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but break free at anthesis . The species generally flowers from April to August , although flowers have been observed as late as November . They take five to six weeks to develop from bud , then reach anthesis over a period of two weeks . The flowers produce unusually large quantities of nectar ; indeed some flowers produce so much that it drips to the ground .
The fruiting structure is a stout woody " cone " , with a hairy appearance caused by the persistence of old withered flower parts . Up to 70 woody follicles , each of which contains a single seed , may be embedded in the cone . As with other Banksia species , only a small proportion of flowers go on to form follicles ; in the case of B. telmatiaea , the proportion is around 4 % for those " cones " that set some fruit . However , about 80 % of fruiting structures set no fruit at all . According to John K. Scott , " there [ is ] no obvious reason on the basis of morphology of pollination for this lack of seed set " .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Discovery and naming = = =
B. telmatiaea was first collected around 1840 by Ludwig Preiss and James Drummond . For many years it was included in B. sphaerocarpa , but by 1980 it was recognised as a distinct species . In recognition of its distinctness from , yet affinity with , B. sphaerocarpa , it was for a time informally referred to as Banksia aff . Sphaerocarpa . It was eventually published by Alex George in his 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) , based on a specimen collected by him on the Brand Highway about 45 km ( 28 mi ) north of Regans Ford on 14 May 1969 , and labelled " A. S. George 9309 " . He found it most closely resembled B. leptophylla , but regarded its preference for swampy rather than sandy soils and winter flowering as worthy of warranting species status . George gave it the specific name telmatiaea from the Greek stem telmat- / τελματ- ( " the mud of a pond " ) , in reference to its swampy habitat . Thus the full name for the species is Banksia telmatiaea A.S.George. Common names for B. telmatiaea include swamp fox banksia and marsh banksia .
= = = Infrageneric placement = = =
George placed B. telmatiaea in subgenus Banksia because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike , section Oncostylis because it has hooked styles , and series Abietinae because its inflorescence is roughly spherical . He considered its closest relative to be B. leptophylla ( Slender @-@ leaved Banksia ) , which differs from B. telmatiaea in having longer leaves and larger flowers ; yet in his arrangement he placed it between B. scabrella ( Burma Road Banksia ) and B. laricina ( Rose @-@ fruited Banksia ) .
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published the results of a cladistic analysis of morphological characters of Banksia . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . B. ser . Abietinae was found to be very nearly monophyletic , and so retained . It further resolved into four subclades , so Thiele and Ladiges split it into four subseries . B. telmatiaea appeared in the third of these :
This clade became the basis of B. subser . Leptophyllae , which Thiele defined as containing those species with " indurated and spinescent common bracts on the infructescence axes , and densely arachnose seedling stems . " In accordance with their cladogram , their arrangement placed B. telmatiaea next to B. scabrella .
Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement was not accepted by George , and was largely discarded by him in his 1999 arrangement . B. ser . Abietinae was restored to George 's 1981 circumscription , and all of Thiele and Ladiges ' subseries were abandoned . However , B. telmatiaea was moved in the phyletic order to between B. grossa ( Coarse Banksia ) and B. leptophylla , thus better according with the affinity with B. leptophylla claimed by George in 1981 .
The placement of B. telmatiaea in George 's 1999 arrangement may be summarised as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Banksia
B. sect . Banksia ( 9 series , 50 species , 9 subspecies , 3 varieties )
B. sect . Coccinea ( 1 species )
B. sect . Oncostylis
B. ser . Spicigerae ( 7 species , 2 subspecies , 4 varieties )
B. ser . Tricuspidae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Dryandroideae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Abietinae
B. sphaerocarpa ( 3 varieties )
B. micrantha
B. grossa
B. telmatiaea
B. leptophylla ( 2 varieties )
B. lanata
B. scabrella
B. violacea
B. incana
B. laricina
B. pulchella
B. meisneri ( 2 subspecies )
B. nutans ( 2 varieties )
B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )
Since 1998 , Austin Mast has been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae . His analyses suggest a phylogeny that is very different from George 's arrangement . With respect to B. telmatiaea , Mast 's results accord closely with Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement , inferring a polytomous clade consisting of B. leptophylla , B. telmatiaea , B. scabrella and B. lanata , with B. grossa ( Coarse Banksia ) as the nearest outgroup :
Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement of Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. telmatiaea is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
B. telmatiaea grows only in the Swan Coastal Plain , Geraldton Sandplains and Jarrah Forest biogeographic regions , inland from the coast but never east of the Darling Scarp . It occurs from Hill River near Badgingarra in the north , to Serpentine in the south . Most populations occur north of Moore River or south of Cannington , there being only a few scattered populations in between .
The species favours lowland areas that are seasonally wet but never inundated , such as the margins of swamps and marshes . For example , in the Yule Brook Botany Reserve , where parallel sand ridges cross a clay flat , B. telmatiaea occurs neither in the lowest parts of the flat , where seasonal inundation occurs ; nor on the tops of the ridges , where the drainage is good ; but it is one of the most abundant plants of intermediate habitats , on ridge slopes and in higher areas of the clay flat .
Favoured soils are deep grey sandy loams or shallower sand overlying claypan . Associated vegetation is typically scrubland or shrubland , although moisture @-@ loving trees such as B. littoralis ( Swamp Banksia ) or Melaleuca preissiana ( Moonah ) may also be present , sometimes in sufficient numbers to form a low open woodland .
= = Ecology = =
Like most other Proteaceae , B. telmatiaea has proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These roots are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient @-@ poor soils , such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia .
Unlike many Banksia species , B. telmatiaea lacks a lignotuber , so plants are killed by bushfire . However , it is adapted to release its aerial seed bank following a bushfire , and so regenerates rapidly . This behaviour , known as serotiny , makes B. telmatiaea dependent upon a suitable fire regime for successful regeneration ; indeed , excessive fire frequency may be one reason why B. telmatiaea does not occur further south , despite suitable habitat throughout southwest Australia . Unlike most serotinous Banksia species , the seeds of B. telmatiaea are not released immediately after the passage of a bushfire . The follicles open straight away , but at first the seeds are blocked from falling out by the winged seed separator . If moistened , these wings close up , and as they dry they open out again , levering the seeds out of position , making it possible for them to fall . This adaptation ensures that seeds are released only after the first rains following a bushfire .
Four species of bird have been observed visiting the flowers of B. telmatiaea : the red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) , silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis ) , New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) and the brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta ) . The introduced European honeybee ( Apis mellifera ) is also commonly observed , and visits by ants and Hylaeus plasterer bees have been recorded . Visits by nectarivorous mammals have not been directly observed , but their involvement in pollination is certain , as their scats have often been found on inflorescences , and studies of other Banksia species have consistently demonstrated their involvement . Moreover , a number of characteristics of the B. telmatiaea spike are purported to be adaptations to pollination by nocturnal mammals : the strong , musky odour , the occurrence of inflorescences hidden within the foliage close to the ground , the large amounts of nectar produced , and the pattern of nectar production , which peaks at dawn and dusk . This last adaptation is thought to favour visits by birds and mammals , which feed in the morning and evening respectively , as opposed to insects , which are most active during the day .
Reproductive success is strongly affected by insects that infest the flower spikes and fruiting structures . Infestation of the flower spikes is not as severe as in other Banksia species : one study found less than 10 % of B. telmatiaea inflorescences to be infested , compared to over 50 % for B. attenuata ( Candlestick Banksia ) , B. littoralis and B. menziesii ( Menzies ' Banksia ) , and over 90 % for B. grandis ( Bull Banksia ) . Also , whereas other species were attacked by a range of insects , the inflorescence of B. telmatiaea was attacked only by the tortrix moth Arotrophora arcuatalis ( Banksia Boring Moth ) , which burrows into the woody axis , rendering the spike barren . On the other hand , the same study observed heavy infestation of fruiting structures , with over 90 % of spikes with follicles found to contain at least one larva of an unidentified species of moth of the genus Xylorycta . These larvae burrow from follicle to follicle to eat the seed , resulting in 100 % seed loss for infested spikes .
B. telmatiaea is one of five Banksia species , all closely related to B. sphaerocarpa , that have highly unusual flower nectar . Whereas other Banksia species produce nectar that is clear and watery , the nectar of these species is pale yellow initially , but gradually becomes darker and thicker , changing to a thick , olive @-@ green mucilage within one to two days of secretion . In the case of B. telmatiaea , it eventually becomes " an almost black , gelatinous lump adhering to the base of the flowers " . This unusual nectar was first noted in 1980 by Byron Lamont , who attributed its transformation to the cyanobacteria that he observed feeding off the nectar sugars . Noting that many of these cyanobacteria had heterocysts , he speculated that they aid the plant by fixing atmospheric nitrogen , which is then washed off the flower heads by rain , and absorbed by the proteoid root mat . This purported symbiosis was investigated in 1985 , but no evidence of nitrogen fixing was found . Further investigations in 1996 suggested that the discolouration is not caused by cyanobacteria or other microorganisms in the nectar , but is rather " a chemical phenomenon of plant origin " . As of February 2007 , the cause was still unknown . Chemical analysis of B. telmatiaea nectar has shown it to have a normal nectar sugar composition , albeit dominated by sucrose .
= = Conservation = =
B. telmatiaea is a fairly secure species , as most populations are of more than 100 plants , and 26 % of known plants are in conservation reserves . Its proximity to Perth suggests that land clearing for urban development could pose a threat , and in 1988 The Banksia Atlas recommended that " the species should continue to be monitored since land clearing could change the situation greatly , particularly amongst its northern populations . " It is also known to be susceptible to dieback caused by the introduced plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi , a soil @-@ borne water mould that causes root rot ; in fact it is so reliably susceptible that it used as an indicator species for the presence of the disease . An assessment of the potential impact of climate change on this species found that severe change is likely to lead to extinction ; but under less severe change scenarios the distribution may actually grow , depending on how effectively it can migrate into newly habitable areas .
In 1987 , George applied the Rare or Threatened Australian Plants ( ROTAP ) criteria to the species , determining it to have a conservation status of " 3R " : a rare species found only in small populations , but not considered endangered or vulnerable . Western Australia 's Department of Parks and Wildlife do not consider it to be rare , however , and have not included it on their Declared Rare and Priority Flora List .
= = Cultivation = =
B. telmatiaea is rarely cultivated . It grows fairly quickly , but tends to become untidy as it ages . The flower spikes , though attractive , occur within the bush where they are usually obscured by foliage . In its natural habitat it flowers prolifically over several months , but according to George it may be reluctant to flower in cultivation . It tolerates light pruning not below the green foliage . George recommends a sunny position in poorly drained soil , preferably with moisture in winter . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take around 14 days to germinate .
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= Monster ( Kanye West song ) =
" Monster " is a song by American hip hop recording artist Kanye West , released as the third single from his fifth studio album , My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) . The track features rappers Jay @-@ Z , Rick Ross , Nicki Minaj , and singer Justin Vernon of indie folk group Bon Iver . All five credited performers have writing credits on the posse cut , with the production handled by West and Mike Dean . Lyrically the song expresses often disturbing , horror film influenced concepts , with some comparing the track 's eerie aesthetic to the Michael Jackson song " Thriller " . The song contains an atmospheric , drum @-@ heavy composition , notable for featuring no samples .
Originally released through West 's GOOD Friday initiative , a weekly free music giveaway started by the rapper to promote My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , the song was later confirmed to be featured on the album , and was released as a digital download on October 23 . The song received acclaim from music critics , and was listed amongst the best tracks of 2010 by publications , with NME placing it at number 53 on its list of the " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " . The song was applauded for its funky , bombastic beat , with West 's and Minaj 's contributions to the song receiving particularly positive notices .
The song debuted and peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at position 18 . The track was promoted with a music video directed by Jake Nava . The music video had several references to horror films and featured extensive horror imagery , with zombies , decapitated corpses and heavily atmospheric cinematography . The music video was widely controversial , being banned from MTV . The video has been criticized for its negative sexual portrayal of women , and the content of the video was described as weird and disturbing in nature .
= = Background = =
To promote his upcoming fifth album , West launched GOOD Fridays , a weekly free music giveaway . The intention was to release a free new song every Friday for a few months , and the weekly tracks generally featured various rappers from his label , GOOD Music , and other artists he usually collaborated with . In the first week West released onto his website a remix of the album 's first single , " Power " , and " Monster " was released on the second week . The song was promptly removed from his website and replaced with another track , with " Monster " being uploaded as a digital single onto iTunes . West announced that " Monster " was actually intended for his collaborative album Watch the Throne with Jay @-@ Z. West 's announcement failed to surface however , and the song actually appeared on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy and was released as the album 's third single .
= = = Recording = = =
Following some media controversies , West chose to record his fifth studio My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy in a reclusive manner in Oahu , Hawaii . Like the majority of the album , " Monster " was composed there . Rapper Rick Ross was invited to Hawaii to work with West , because West was set to produce the song " Live Fast , Die Young " , which appeared on Teflon Don , an album by Ross . While Ross was there with West in his recording studio , he actually walked in on West while recording another song . Ross was not initially intended to be featured on West 's album , however Ross was so impressed with what he heard he decided to record a quick , though short verse .
Ross had the concept of the song explained to him by West , which according to Ross , blew him away in presentation . West was so impressed by Ross that he invited him back to his studio during the final stages of the album , where he also appeared on " Devil in a New Dress " . While Ross was there , both Jay @-@ Z and Minaj were recording their verses . Ross expressed his admiration for Minaj , who impressed him during the recording . He stated that what he had observed had earned him respect for Minaj , who called the recording process a " moment of history " .
Minaj expressed excitement when approached to collaborate on the song , and she had contributed 32 bars to the track . Her main inspiration behind working on the track was the possibility of meeting Jay @-@ Z , with whom she was obsessed since a young age . According to her , she literally couldn 't have a conversation without quoting a line by him , and it was a dream come true to collaborate with the artist . Minaj had recorded her lines around four months before the lyrics finally appeared on the song . Minaj described both Jay @-@ Z and West as " icons " , and stated that she was blessed to be working with them . In an interview with Rap @-@ Up , Minaj mused " never in a billion years would 've thought that I would 've not only been on a song with one of them but both them " .
Justin Vernon 's involvement on the song stemmed from being approached by West directly . West first got into contact with Vernon when he directly phoned him , with the intention of sampling his song " Woods " . The two talked on the phone for about 40 minutes , where West explained some of the concepts for the project , and invited him down to his studio in Hawaii . West is a big admirer of Bon Iver 's album For Emma , Forever Ago , and was impressed with Vernon 's unique use of auto @-@ tune . The two artists became friends while playing games of basketball together , and West introduced him to Jeff Bhasker , one of his main producers .
Vernon was sampled on another song from the album , " Lost in the World " and appears on vocals on " Monster " . While there during recording sessions , he had reportedly recorded 10 tracks . He watched Minaj record her verse , and he too , expressed admiration for Minaj 's performance on the song , however he noted that initially he had no idea who she was . Vernon described the process as highly artistic , stating that the fourteen @-@ hour day recording schedule allowed for a lot of fun and creativity . West , talking about recording the song with Vernon , stated that he was " similar to me , where he just does shit just so people would be like , ' Oh shit , how did you do that ? How did that happen ? ' He 's just a really cool guy to be around . ”
= = Composition = =
" Monster " has been described as brooding , disturbing , creepy and the " weirdest A @-@ list event @-@ rap posse cut in recent memory . " The song begins with an ominous , distorted vocal roar , sung by Justin Vernon of Bon Iver , with Vernon declaring " I shoot the lights out " , which sets up the dark atmosphere of the track . The intro of the song is followed by a brief verse given by Ross , delivered in the rapping style of boom bap . In a deep voice , Ross asserts the lines " bitch , I 'm a monster , no good bloodsucker , fat motherfucker , now look who 's in trouble , " over the eerie production featured during the beginning . Following the introduction by Ross , West then provides the song 's hook , singing " everybody know / I 'm a motherfuckin ' monster " in a heavily distorted manner . West then launches into a full verse . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Thomas Conner stated that West rhymes “ esophagus ” with “ sarcophagus ” , commenting that it was surely a hip @-@ hop first .
Jay @-@ Z appears on the song after West 's verse , and raps in a more forceful , sinister flow . During his verse , Jay @-@ Z references several different horror characters , including the Sasquatch , Godzilla , King Kong , the Loch Ness Monster , goblins , ghouls and zombies . Lyrically Jay @-@ Z discusses his discontent at former associates , and concludes his verse by admitting that his achilles ' heel is " love " . Minaj is the final rapper to appear on the song , who delivers her lines in an urgent , energetic manner . Minaj 's delivery has been described as surreal , changing delivery in mid @-@ line . The song ends in a spooky , hoarse vocal riff delivered by Vernon , reminiscent of the track " Thriller " . An extended vocal riff , described as " scatchy " closes the track . Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan summarized the content of the song , writing :
Rick Ross drops by to say hi , keeping his appearance so brief that I can 't help but wonder what he 's even doing here . Justin Vernon inexplicably bookends the thing , pushing his falsetto into Antony range on the outro and muttering befuddling lyrics that have nothing to do with the rest of the song . All this over the straight @-@ up funkiest beat Kanye West has made in years , a rippling electro push @-@ pull that adds an effortless strut to his recent progged @-@ out chilliness . But all that other stuff fades into the background when Nicki Minaj shows up . [ ... ] She 's a whirlwind of energy , showing her full repertoire of nutso voices and kicking the living fuck out of the beat , sounding like she 's having an absolute blast the whole time . "
The song heavily features bombastic tribal drums , and paranoia @-@ inducing strings that create a feeling of tension . The beat of " Monster " has been described as a " hyperventilating death rattle " by The Washington Post 's Chris Richards , commenting that the song was permeated with dark , urgent @-@ sounding moans . The chorus of the song has two separate meanings ; on the surface , it appears that West is bragging about his abilities as a rapper , while also making a comment on the media 's reception of him , with lines like " gossip , gossip , nigga just stop it , everybody knows I ’ m a muthafuckin ’ monster " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Monster " has received acclaim from music critics , who praised Minaj 's verse and rapping style , and West handling the production . Becky Bain of Idolator stated that while the song featured five distinct artists , Minaj actually had the brightest appearance on the song . Sara D. Anderson of AOL gave the song a positive review , complimenting each artist on their contribution . Chris Ryan of MTV positively reviewed West , Jay @-@ Z and Minaj as the stand out rappers in the song , stating " on car stereos , computers and in clubs all over , nothing got more burn than ' Monster , ' his new beastly posse cut . Kanye spits about his presence being a present to us all , Jay @-@ Z comes through with what might be his strongest verse in years , and that 's where Nicki comes in , more than holding her own against the bad boys . " Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal reported that Minaj gave the verse of her life , and applauded the contributions by Ross , who added a " hallucinatory tone " to the song . Another Pitchfork writer , Tom Breihan mused that the track contained the " straight @-@ up funkiest beat " West has made in years , while commenting that Minaj was the best in show .
The Village Voice 's Sean Fennessey commented that " Monster " was the track that announced Minaj 's " brilliance " to most people , stating that when the posse cut " crept up the Hot 100 , the song became more than track six — it became an essential part of this album ’ s story , delivered months early . " Alex Denney of NME mused that the track " proves a riotous bit of respite " and features West " sending up his rep with a self @-@ mocking diatribe about drowning his pain in a blizzard of blow jobs and mass adulation while Nicki Minaj sets the dials to ‘ ridiculous ’ with a fire @-@ breathing , raga @-@ inflected verse . " Embling of Tiny Mix Tapes felt that with " super @-@ sized cipher cuts " like " Monster " and " So Appalled " , West balanced out some of the darker moments of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , and that the song contained heavy " shit @-@ talking . " Slant Magazine 's Cole Matthew also commented that posse cuts " Monster " and " So Appalled " were amongst the hardest tracks ever produced by West .
IGN 's Chad Grischow mused that the track featured great guest appearances from Jay @-@ Z and Minaj , going as far as saying that Minaj 's performance " clears up what all the hype is about for anyone still unsure " . Robert Christgau of MSN Music stated that West perfectly acknowledged his status as a rapper , and noted that his persona seems to be aware that his " bling @-@ and @-@ sex brag is about to get blown away by padrone Jay @-@ Z 's ' all I see is these niggaz I made millionaires / Millin about ' and pink @-@ haired Nicki Minaj 's ' bitch from Sri Lanka @-@ Willy Wonka @-@ watch the queen conquer ' trifecta . " David Amidon of PopMatters praised the production of the song , and stated that the track features " glass @-@ shattering bass " . Nitsuh Abebe of New York declared that Minaj gave one of the best verses of the year .
Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club praised the guest picks on the album , musing that West trades verses with the " few superstars fit to breathe his rarified air , including Jay @-@ Z , Rick Ross , and Nicki Minaj , who single @-@ handedly justifies her deafening buzz with her verse on the song . " Kitty Empire of The Guardian praised West 's performance on the song describing it as " brilliant " , but also noted that on the particular song Minaj and Jay @-@ Z were superior to him , citing Minaj 's verse as her career 's best . Dan Vidal of URB stated that West milks the potential of his guest rappers to the most impressive degree , reporting that Jay @-@ Z 's generally relaxed performance was " with a fiery growl on " and that it " features Nicki Minaj going even more bonkers with her flow than we ’ re accustomed to . " Sputnikmusic 's Channing Freeman echoed the consensus about Minaj stating that her verse was the most memorable part of the song , though felt that Bon Iver 's appearance didn 't add up to much .
= = = Accolades = = =
The song was named the " Collaboration of the Year " 2010 by HipHopDX . Minaj 's verse for the song was named " Verse of the Year " by the same website . Rolling Stone ranked it number 10 on its list of the Best Singles of 2010 . Rap @-@ Up declared the song the third best of 2010 . MTV News declared the track the 14th best of the year , with other West singles " Power " and " Runaway " making the top 10 . In October 2011 , NME placed it at number 53 on its list " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " , with the site 's staff stating that while West had a good performance on the song , it was " star turns from Jay @-@ Z ( channeling his world @-@ weary hip hop legend who just needed a cuddle ) and Nicki Minaj ( a show stealing turn from the heir apparent who was battling herself as much as the haters ) that took this track over . " In 2013 , Complex Magazine gave Minaj 's Monster verse the title " Best Rap Verse of the Past 5 Years " . In January 2011 , The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll named " Monster " the sixth @-@ best single of 2010 ; West 's other singles " Power " and " Runaway " were ranked at numbers five and four , respectively on the same poll , with their parent album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ranked the best album of 2010 as well . It was ranked at number 69 by Rolling Stone on their list of " 100 Greatest Hip @-@ Hop songs of all time " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Monster " was sent out to radio on September 21 , and it was released to the iTunes Store on October 23 , 2010 around Halloween . It spent five weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 18 on the chart . The song also appeared within the top 30 on both the Billboard Hot Rap Songs and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts . The song also appeared on the UK Singles Chart at position 146 . " Monster " was certified platinum on March 31st , 2014 .
= = Live performances = =
The song was performed at Jay @-@ Z 's and Eminem 's " Home & Home " concert in the new Yankee Stadium , during Jay @-@ Z 's portion of the performance . Both Minaj and West joined Jay @-@ Z at the concert and performed the song together as a group , though Ross was absent . After joining Jay @-@ Z during the performance , West remained on stage and performed his own singles , including the remixed version of " Power " , " Can 't Tell Me Nothing " and " Good Life " . West wore exactly the same outfit he did for his 2010 MTV Video Music Awards performance and his subsequent Saturday Night Live performance ; a red suit accessorized with his gold Egyptian god Horus necklace and red Louis Vuitton shoes . During a live performance in New York , West joined Ross and performed " Devil in a New Dress " and " Monster " .
Minaj performed the song live at Britney Spears ' Femme Fatale Tour as one of the final songs in her setlist . On one occasion , West performed the track alongside Minaj on the tour , on August 2 , 2011 at the Nassau Coliseum in Long Island , New York , as a surprise guest . During his set at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , West performed " Monster " during the first half of his setlist . The performance was accompanied by Vernon who provided his vocal hook on the song . West 's performance was described as " one of the most memorable performances in Coachella history . " The song was performed by West and Jay @-@ Z during their Watch the Throne Tour . Minaj has also performed her verse on the European and American legs of her debut concert tour , the Pink Friday Tour . She has also rapped her verse on her Pink Friday : Reloaded Tour .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
An unfinished version of a music video , directed by Jake Nava leaked online before the official release on December 30 , 2010 . West was annoyed at the leak of the video , and nearly shelved the video altogether . A finalized version of the video was officially released on June 4 , 2011 on West 's official website . A promotional trailer for the music video was released online . When released , the video came with a disclaimer , stating " the following content is in no way to be interpreted as misogynistic or negative towards any groups of people . It is an art piece and it shall be taken as such . "
The music video is inspired by horror films and extensively features gothic and horror related imagery , including references to Michael Jackson 's Thriller . The video features references to horror cult films such as Saw and American Psycho and the supposedly haunted painting The Hands Resist Him . The Hand Resists Him is a painting created by artist Bill Stoneham in 1972 , depicting a young boy and female doll standing in front of a glass paneled door against which many hands are pressed . The painting became famous for apparently being haunted . The painting is referenced during a scene in the video where West attempts to hold a door closed , from the monsters outside attempting to enter . The video features mostly naked corpse looking models , some of which are decapitated . West 's role in the video is similar to Doctor Frankenstein , with the video set in a castle . Jay @-@ Z appears in the video dressed in a tuxedo , standing in front of a nude corpse in a darkly @-@ lit library . The video contains two versions of Minaj ; a vampire version who is dressed in a gothic inspired outfit ( representing her alter ego Roman Zolanski ) , and a pink @-@ haired version ( representing her alter ego Barbie ) which the other half tortures during the video . Zombies also appear in the video , with hanging corpses and blood @-@ splattered furniture .
= = = Reception = = =
HitFix 's Melinda Newman called the video both " chilling " and " raw " and stated that the video captured the concept of the song well , expressing that it was a " brutal reveal of West ’ s psyche " . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly stated that the video should have been more creative and called it offensive , stating that Minaj 's appearance was the best part . Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone commented that the video was morbid , comparing it to " Thriller " , though noted that " instead of dancing zombies , he gives us undead , barely dressed and occasionally dismembered models " . Perpetua called Minaj 's appearance " cameo of the year " describing her appearance in the video :
" She switches up her delivery repeatedly over the course of 31 bars , veering between cartoonish sweetness and unhinged villainy . She dramatizes the jarring dynamic shifts in the clip by appearing as a fanged dominatrix torturing a far more innocent version of herself in a neon pink wig and frilly white dress . It 's a brilliant visual take on a breathtakingly badass verse , but really , they could 've just focused in on her incredible facial expressions and called it a day . She 's just that entertaining to watch . "
The music video for Monster was widely controversial , being banned on MTV . Ta @-@ Nehisi Coates of The Atlantic questioned " what would have become of John Mayer , had he cut a video with dead black women strewn about and invoked black women throughout his lyrics in the manner Kanye does " and labeled the video both racist and sexist in nature . However , Brandon Soderberg of Spin argues that the video was simply a " surreal response to hip @-@ hop misogyny " and a " knowing provocation " , and commented that the video was in fact inspired by horror films .
Daphne Bramham of the Vancouver Sun commented that " what 's entertaining about women in lingerie hanging by their necks on chains ? What 's artful about images of drugged , unconscious women about to be sexually assaulted ? " Mikhail Lyubansky of the Huffington Post had a negative opinion of the video , stating that the video " not @-@ so @-@ subtly suggests that complete female passivity , lifelessness , and even death are erotic " , and interpreted the message of the video as being that " for women , what 's sexually desirable is passivity , lifelessness , and death . " The release of the video was received by American activist Ann Simonton with an internet petition seeking the preemptive removal of the full video from broadcast or promotion , criticizing the video as glorifying sexual violence against women .
= = Personnel = =
Produced by Kanye West
Additional Production by Mike Dean and Plain Pat
Recorded by Andrew Dawson , Anthony Kilhoffer and Mike Dean at the Avex Recording Studio , Honolulu
Mixed by Mike Dean at Electric Lady Studios and Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank - Assisted by Gaylord Holomalia , Christian Mochizuki and Pete Bischoff
Background Vocals : Justin Vernon
Piano : Jeff Bhasker
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= John Northcott =
Lieutenant General Sir John Northcott KCMG , KCVO , CB , KStJ ( 24 March 1890 – 4 August 1966 ) was an Australian Army general who served as Chief of the General Staff during the Second World War , and commanded the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in the Occupation of Japan . He was the first Australian @-@ born Governor of New South Wales .
Northcott joined the Australian Army as a reservist in 1908 , before becoming a regular officer in 1912 . On duty in Tasmania when the Great War broke out in 1914 , he joined the 12th Infantry Battalion , a unit from that state . He was wounded in the landing at Gallipoli on Anzac Day and invalided to Egypt , the United Kingdom , and ultimately Australia , taking no further part in the fighting . After the war , Northcott served on a series of staff posts . He attended the Staff College , Camberley and Imperial Defence College and also spent time overseas as an exchange officer with the British Army and as a military attaché in the United States and Canada .
During World War II , Northcott was attached to the British 7th Armoured Division in the Middle East to study armoured warfare , returning to Australia in December 1941 to organise the new 1st Armoured Division . In March 1942 , he assumed command II Corps . In September 1942 , he was appointed Chief of the General Staff . As General Sir Thomas Blamey 's principal non @-@ operational subordinate , he was responsible for administering and training the wartime army . After the war , he served as commander of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in the post @-@ war Occupation of Japan . He retired from the Army in 1946 to become the Governor of New South Wales .
= = Early life = =
John Northcott was born on 24 March 1890 at Creswick , Victoria , the eldest son of a storekeeper , John Northcott , and his wife Elizabeth Jane , née Reynolds . Northcott was educated at Dean State School , Grenville College , Ballarat and the University of Melbourne . While at school , he served in the Australian Army Cadets . He was commissioned as second lieutenant in the 9th Light Horse , a Militia unit , on 14 August 1908 , and was promoted to lieutenant on 31 October 1910 and captain on 31 July 1911 . On 16 November 1912 , he was granted a commission as a lieutenant in the Administrative and Instructional Staff of the regular forces , then known as the Permanent Military Forces ( PMF ) , retaining the rank of honorary captain until he was promoted to that rank in the PMF on 1 June 1918 .
= = First World War = =
Northcott was assigned to staff of the 6th Military District , the military district covering the state of Tasmania , where he was serving when the First World War broke out in August 1914 . His initial task was assisting with the raising of Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) units in Tasmania . He joined the AIF as a lieutenant on 24 August 1914 and was appointed adjutant of the 12th Infantry Battalion , which was forming at Anglesea Barracks near Hobart . He was promoted to captain in the AIF on 18 October 1914 .
Northcott embarked for Egypt from Hobart with the 12th Infantry Battalion on the transport A2 , HMAT Geelong on 20 October 1914 . This was one of the first battalions ashore in the landing at Anzac Cove on the first Anzac Day , 25 April 1915 . Northcott 's part in the battle was brief , for that day he was wounded in the chest by a Turkish bullet . He lay amongst a pile of dead bodies until the evening , when he was found to be alive . He was evacuated to Alexandria and later to England . While recuperating , he was joined by his fiancée , Winifred Mary Paton , who had travelled to England to be with him . The two were married at the parish church in Oxted on 14 September 1915 . He returned to Australia on 30 December 1915 and took no further part in the fighting , it being " a rigid rule that no regular officer once invalided to Australia could again go overseas " . His AIF appointment was terminated on 30 September 1916 and he was posted to the 5th Military District , the military district covering the state of Western Australia .
= = Between the wars = =
Northcott was granted the honorary rank of major on 1 January 1919 , and the brevet rank on 1 January 1920 , but this was not made substantive until 1 October 1923 . He attended the Staff College , Camberley from 1924 to 1926 . On returning to Australia , Northcott served as Staff Officer , and later Director , Stores and Transport , at Army Headquarters in Victoria Barracks , Melbourne . He was appointed a Member ( fourth class ) of the Royal Victorian Order on 8 July 1927 for coordinating the transport for the 1927 six @-@ month Royal Tour of the Duke and Duchess of York ( later George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother ) that year to open the Old Parliament House , Canberra .
Northcott served on the staff of the 4th Division from 17 September 1931 to 31 January 1932 and then with the 3rd Division from 1 February to 22 November 1932 . He returned to England as an exchange officer with the British Army , where he served the staff of the 44th ( Home Counties ) Infantry Division . He attended the Imperial Defence College in 1935 . He was one of only six Australian Army officers to attend this prestigious course between 1928 and 1939 , the others being John Lavarack , Henry Wynter , Vernon Sturdee , Sydney Rowell and William Bridgeford . Frederick Shedden , later Secretary of the Department of Defence , also attended this course . Northcott was given the brevet rank of lieutenant colonel on 1 July 1935 , which was made substantive on 1 January 1936 . He attended the Senior Officers ' School at Sheerness in 1936 , and was seconded to the Committee of Imperial Defence . He then served as an Australian defence attaché in the United States and Canada from September 1936 to June 1937 . He was promoted to the brevet rank of colonel on 1 July 1937 and substantive rank on 13 October 1939 . He served on the staff of the 4th Division until 1 September 1939 , when he became Director of Military Operations and Intelligence .
= = Second World War = =
Northcott was promoted to the local rank of major general on 13 October 1939 , when he was appointed Deputy Chief of the General Staff . He accompanied Richard Casey to the Dominions ' Conference in London in later that year as his military adviser . For his service as Deputy Chief of the General Staff , he was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 1 January 1941 .
On 26 January 1940 , Northcott became acting Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) following the death of Lieutenant General Ernest Ker Squires . In August , his successor , General Sir Brudenell White , died in an air crash and Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee succeeded him . The post of commander of the 8th Division thereby became available but Northcott was excluded from consideration because his knowledge was vital to the new CGS . When the commander of the 9th Division , Major General Henry Wynter , fell ill in January 1941 , Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Blamey asked for Northcott to replace him , but Northcott was involved in organising the 1st Armoured Division and the appointment instead went to Brigadier Leslie Morshead .
Northcott joined the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) as a major general on 1 September 1941 and was given the AIF serial number VX63396 . He was attached to the British 7th Armoured Division in the Middle East to study armoured warfare , returning to Australia in December 1941 to organise the new 1st Armoured Division . The job was a challenging one that some of his subordinates felt that Northcott was not up to , given his lack of command experience . In March 1942 , Northcott found out from The Herald newspaper that he was to be promoted to command II Corps . " This is what they do to me " , was his comment , " just as my first tank is coming down the road " . The new post came with a promotion to the temporary rank of lieutenant general on 6 April 1942 , which became substantive on 12 December 1945 . Northcott was succeeded as commander by Major General Horace Robertson , an officer with a distinguished combat record in the desert .
However , on 10 September 1942 , Northcott was appointed Chief of the General Staff . Formerly , the Army had been controlled by the Military Board . This ceased to function on 30 July 1942 , with its responsibilities being assumed by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Blamey . The Adjutant General , Major General Victor Stantke , the Quartermaster General , Major General James Cannan and the Master @-@ General of the Ordnance , Major General Leslie , who would formerly have been members of the board , now came under the Lieutenant General Administration ( LGA ) , Lieutenant General Henry Wynter . This left the CGS with responsibility for the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the Army . His job also involved liaison with Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) and the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , and he frequently had to represent Blamey in meetings with the Minister for the Army , Frank Forde .
Northcott spent much of his time from 1943 on in a long battle with the government over the number of men and women allocated to the Army . He attempted to do so without Blamey being dragged into a political fight but this proved to be impossible . In September 1944 , the government reduced the Army 's monthly intake of women from 925 to 500 , while it only received 420 out of 4 @,@ 020 men allocated to the three services . Such a meagre allocation was below what the Army needed to maintain its strength , and formations had to be disbanded . Blamey took up the matter with Prime Minister John Curtin , and managed to get a more satisfactory monthly allocation of 1 @,@ 500 men per month out of 3 @,@ 000 allocated to the three services .
The relationship between Northcott as Chief of the General Staff and Blamey as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief bore some similarities to the one between the RAAF 's Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , and Air Vice Marshal William Bostock , the commander of the RAAF forces in the field , but Blamey was senior to Northcott , both in rank and in the Army 's command structure . The relationship could still have been a delicate one , but in the event it was characterised by none of the rancour and rivalry that marred the wartime administration of the RAAF . In late 1943 , Blamey sought to appoint Northcott as his deputy , but the government turned down his request , on the advice of General Douglas MacArthur , who did not want another officer who was answerable both to himself and the Australian Government . However , when Blamey travelled to Washington , D.C. and London in April 1944 , he arranged for Northcott to act as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief in his absence . After Wynter 's death in February 1945 , the post of LGA was abolished and the CGS again became responsible for administration .
= = British Commonwealth Occupation Force = =
At the end of World War II , Sturdee was again invited to become CGS . He made it a condition of his acceptance that Northcott be given the appointment of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in Japan . Sturdee felt that Northcott had missed out on opportunities for active service through his being CGS and saw the BCOF post as a just reward for that service .
Northcott headed the BCOF from December 1945 until June 1946 . As such , he negotiated the Northcott @-@ MacArthur agreement with General of the Army Douglas MacArthur , which governed the terms and conditions under which the BCOF would occupy part of Japan . The BCOF would serve under American command , with American policy being followed . Northcott was offered , and accepted , the post of Governor of New South Wales in April 1946 . He remained in Japan until June though , because Prime Minister Ben Chifley wanted the changeover to coincide with his own visit to Japan in May , and because he needed to obtain consent of the other governments concerned for the appointment of Lieutenant General Horace Robertson as Northcott 's successor . Northcott 's lack of experience in command once again showed , and his command was again overhauled by Robertson .
= = Governor of New South Wales = =
On 1 August 1946 , Northcott became the first Australian @-@ born , and one of the longest @-@ serving , Governors of New South Wales . As such , he gave patronage and support to many charitable organisations and to youth , church and citizens ' groups . Blamey was unable to secure a knighthood for Northcott for his military service , it being Australian Labor Party policy not to award knighthoods at that time .
In April 1949 Northcott took part in an event of historic importance at Sydney 's famous Australia Hotel , being the venue of the first successful television demonstration in Australia . Northcott was televised in the hotel 's ballroom as he opened the demonstration .
Northcott was made a Knight of the Venerable Order of St John of Jerusalem in December 1946 , a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George for his services as governor in 1950 , and a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1954 for his work with the Royal Tour of Queen Elizabeth II . He was a freemason who , during his term as governor , was Viceregal Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of New South Wales .
Northcott was Administrator of the Commonwealth in the absence of the governor @-@ general from 19 July to 14 December 1951 , and again from 30 July to 22 October 1956 . While occupying that office , he held the honorary rank of general . He was awarded honorary degrees of Doctor of Letters by the University of Sydney in 1952 and the University of New England in 1956 , and Doctor of Science by the New South Wales University of Technology in 1956 . He retired in July 1957 . In April 1964 , Northcott and Forde represented Australia at General MacArthur 's funeral in Washington , D.C.
= = Death and legacy = =
Survived by his two daughters , Sir John died on 4 August 1966 in his home at Wahroonga , New South Wales . He was accorded a state funeral with military honours and was cremated . Like most governors of New South Wales , his papers are in the State Library of New South Wales . In 1968 the Electoral district of Northcott in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly was dedicated in his name and existed until redistribution and abolition in 1999 . In his military career , Northcott was both highly regarded and successful staff officer , as commander of the 1st Armoured Division , II Corps and BCOF he was " noted neither for innovation nor conspicuous success " , especially when compared with Robertson who " possessed the ebullience and flair that Northcott lacked " . While governor , Northcott was patron of the New South Wales Society for Crippled Children . He continued to take an active in its affairs for the rest of his life . In 1995 , this charity changed its name to The Northcott Society in his honour . In 2004 , it became Northcott Disability Services , providing case to people of all ages with disabilities . He is also remembered through Cranbrook School , Sydney by having one of the houses named after him , Northcott House .
He was a long @-@ standing Freemason , and served as Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory .
= = Honours = =
= = = Honorary military appointments = = =
1 August 1946 – 3 July 1957 : Honorary Air Commodore of No. 22 Squadron , Royal Australian Air Force .
1 August 1946 – 3 July 1957 : Honorary Colonel of the 1st / 15th Royal New South Wales Lancers .
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= Fatboy ( EastEnders ) =
Arthur " Fatboy " Chubb ( also credited as Fat Boy ) is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders and its Internet spin @-@ off EastEnders : E20 , played by Ricky Norwood . He made his first appearance in EastEnders on 5 January 2010 before appearing in the spin @-@ off . Fatboy is one of four main characters in the first series of E20 and makes cameo appearances in the second and third series . He was created by the EastEnders : E20 writing team during a BBC summer school in August 2009 . He frequently uses London street slang and is described as brash , confident , caring , a hustler and a womaniser . Critics have called him zany , an asset to the show , authentic , a cliché , and yet to serve a purpose , with Stuart Heritage from The Guardian calling for him to be axed . Norwood won the Best Newcomer award at the 2010 Inside Soap Awards and Most Popular Newcomer at the 2011 National Television Awards for his portrayal of Fatboy , and has been nominated for two further awards . In 2014 , Norwood was temporarily suspended from the soap for two months after a tape of improper conduct involving Norwood leaked onto the internet . In November 2015 , the character lost his nickname and was simply credited as Arthur Chubb from 20 November onwards .
On 16 October 2015 , it was announced that Norwood was to leave EastEnders at the end of his contract . Details of when or how Fatboy would leave were not revealed but Norwood filmed his final scenes later that month . He departed on 24 December 2015 , but was killed off @-@ screen in the next episode .
= = Storylines = =
Fatboy first appears in EastEnders at Lucy Beale 's ( Melissa Suffield ) party , where he gets pleasure from watching a fight between two girls , and asks other girls to play Twister with him but nobody will . In EastEnders : E20 , he helps his friend Mercy Olubunmi ( Bunmi Mojekwu ) with a project to encourage more young people to the church , but his ideas leave them both humiliated . They meet Leon Small ( Sam Attwater ) and Zsa Zsa Carter ( Emer Kenny ) and start squatting in a flat . Fatboy tells Zsa Zsa and Leon both his parents were killed in a drive @-@ by shooting . He finds out Mercy is pregnant and accuses Leon of being the father . During an argument , Mercy reveals that Fatboy 's parents are alive , angering Zsa Zsa , who throws Fatboy 's laptop out of the window . On their last night in the flat , he arranges a party but leaves before the police arrive . Knowing they can no longer stay there , he invites Zsa Zsa , Mercy and Leon to stay at his house in Wanstead , but Mercy decides to go home to her grandmother .
After several weeks , Leon and Fatboy return to Walford to look for Zsa Zsa , who has run away . They eventually settle in and make new friends . Zsa Zsa finds three dates for Fatboy , but none of them are genuine . Fatboy borrows Darren Miller 's ( Charlie G. Hawkins ) ice cream van to practice for his driving test , which he fails , but he buys the van from Darren . He helps Whitney Dean ( Shona McGarty ) sell T @-@ shirts but sells them to Mo Harris ( Laila Morse ) , who has been asked by Becca Swanson ( Simone James ) to buy them so she can sell them for a greater profit . Becca insists she did not know they were Whitney 's and then flirts with Fatboy . However , he later humiliates her by designing T @-@ shirts for her that show a mirror image of the word " chav " . He finally passes his driving test and DJs for Ronnie Mitchell ( Samantha Womack ) at R & R nightclub . Fatboy , Leon , Zsa Zsa , Whitney , Lucy and Lucy 's brother Peter ( Thomas Law ) go to Hampshire and he attends a party with Peter while the others spend time in the woods . He is reunited with Mercy but a fight breaks out so they escape and drive back to Fatboy 's uncle 's home . Peter hits something with the van and the next day they fear it was Leon , as he is missing . However , Leon turns up and they realise Lucy wanted to turn everyone against him , so they play a trick on her in revenge . Fatboy is then shocked to discover that Mercy is planning to move back to Nigeria . He realises that neither Mercy nor her grandmother Grace ( Ellen Thomas ) want to leave London , and convinces them to stay .
During a party at the community centre , Fatboy smuggles in alcohol and kisses Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) , angering her husband Lucas ( Don Gilet ) , who throws Fatboy out and begins angrily preaching to him . This causes Fatboy to argue with Mercy . During the argument , Mercy pushes him and he falls onto a tree in the Square 's gardens planted in memory of Lucas 's ex @-@ wife Trina ( Sharon Duncan Brewster ) , snapping it . Fatboy enlists the help of Mercy , Leon and Zsa Zsa to replace it , but as they dig it up , they uncover a dead body , that of Denise 's ex @-@ husband Owen Turner ( Lee Ross ) , who Lucas murdered eight months previously . The next day , Fatboy comforts Mercy and to cheer her up , they play rounders . However , they smash Dot Branning 's ( June Brown ) window and she makes Fatboy fix it . He does a bad job so she insists he pay for a professional , asking Fatboy to wait in her house for the professional to arrive . While he waits , he plays dominoes with Dot 's husband Jim ( John Bardon ) and when Dot returns , she is impressed with Fatboy 's politeness when he offers to clean the new window and make her a cup of tea .
Leon obtains two tickets to a music festival in France and plans to take Zsa Zsa , but he tells Fatboy he slept with Glenda Mitchell ( Glynis Barber ) , leaving Fatboy unsure of what to do as he does not want to hurt Zsa Zsa . He tells Mercy , who then tells Zsa Zsa , who dumps Leon and takes Fatboy 's van to France . Leon decides to go to France anyway , leaving Fatboy sad at the loss of two of his best friends , however , Leon and Fatboy stay in contact . He joins the local church choir but fears he will be unable to perform at their event as he felt pressured into joining by Dot and cannot sing very well . Mercy tells him he should just mime , but then Dot and the choir leader Edward Bishop ( Frank Barrie ) decide to give Fatboy a solo . Fatboy is unable to go through with it and walks out of the performance , so Kim Fox ( Tameka Empson ) takes over . At a New Year 's Eve party , Fatboy kisses Mercy to put Kim off flirting with him .
Fatboy gets a month 's trial on the market with his own stall , starting a repair business . He reveals that his father , Ashley Chubb ( Colin Mace ) , has lost his job and his parents have split up . Ashley arrives in Walford , asking for his son 's help , as he has spent Fatboy 's inheritance on alcohol . Ashley then moves into Albert Square . Fatboy grows jealous when he sees Mercy with Seb Parker ( Tommy Bastow ) , and assumes they are having sex . Mercy reveals she may face exportation as her visa has expired , and Fatboy tells Ashley he is in love with Mercy . Ashley reports Mercy to the UK Border Agency so that Fatboy will forget about her , and she decides to leave before she has been asked to . Fatboy and Mercy say an emotional goodbye , but Fatboy stops her taxi and proposes marriage , realising she can stay in the country if they are married . Mercy agrees but Grace is opposed to the plan until she realises that Fatboy loves Mercy . Kim points out that Fatboy seems embarrassed about getting married and that Mercy does not seem to love him , and admits to fancying Fatboy . Fatboy then tells Kim why he is really marrying Mercy , but also that he wants to be married for real .
Mercy learns that she can stay in the UK but feels guilty about the deception , so decides to go back to Nigeria anyway . Fatboy loses his market stall but gets a job selling cars for Max Branning ( Jake Wood ) . He discovers Mercy is leaving , so tries to stop her from leaving but is unable to , and they say an emotional goodbye . Fatboy is distraught over his loss , and eventually decides to move in with Dot . He helps Dot to track down her half sister Rose Cotton ( Polly Perkins ) and helps Whitney when her former pimp , Rob Grayson ( Jody Latham ) tracks her down . Fatboy feels put out when Rose and Cora Cross ( Ann Mitchell ) both move in with Dot . Mercy 's sister Faith Olubunmi ( Modupe Adeyeye ) then arrives in Walford to tell Fatboy that Mercy has had their marriage annulled . Fatboy starts a relationship with Faith ( as seen in series 3 of EastEnders : E20 ) but it soon ends . Following this , Fatboy develops feelings for his friend Whitney Dean ( Shona McGarty ) , though Whitney is involved with Tyler Moon ( Tony Discipline ) . When Whitney and Tyler 's relationship breaks down , Fatboy admits his feelings for Whitney and the pair start a relationship . Fatboy buys a car for Whitney , but she is initially angry , saying she doesn 't want to be owned . However , Whitney relents and accepts the gift . Fatboy notices that Tyler continues to want Whitney , and so warns him off . However , after Whitney gets angry at Lucy ( now Hetti Bywater ) for dancing with Fatboy , Lucy convinces Tyler to talk to her . They accidentally get locked in a bathroom and Fatboy assumes Whitney has cheated on him , so ends the relationship . Fatboy later visits Tyler , who shows Fatboy that the bathroom door sticks , and Tyler says that he is happy for Fatboy and Whitney as a couple . However , Whitney soon feels smothered by Fatboy 's affection , and when he is about to take Whitney away on holiday , she refuses , and when they kiss she says it is like kissing a friend . She admits that she wants Tyler , and Fatboy is heartbroken . He later punches Tyler . He then becomes a regular DJ at R & R , and gets a job at the local fast food restaurant , McKlunkies . However , he is sacked when he stands up to his manager , Nico Papadopoulos ( Aykut Hilmi ) after taking advice from Alfie Moon ( Shane Richie ) . Alfie feels bad so offers Fatboy a job at The Queen Victoria public house , collecting glasses .
When Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) gets unwanted attention from a man at a party , Fatboy defends her and they end up having sex after Fatboy escorts her home . The next morning , an embarrassed Denise tells him it was a mistake , but he cannot stop thinking about her , and eventually plucks up the courage to go to her house , where she is unable to resist him . However , the relationship ends , and Fatboy then starts a relationship with Poppy Meadow ( Rachel Bright ) after they realise they have feelings for one another . Fatboy is forced out of his home but allows Joey Branning ( David Witts ) to move in with Poppy instead of asking to move in himself . Eventually , Fatboy and Poppy both go to lodge with their friend , Dot . Dot is suspicious when food starts going missing and it is later revealed that Fatboy is a sleepwalker . Poppy suspects Fatboy of having an affair when she sees text messages from " Chloe " ( Siobhan Athwal ) and then sees them together , and prepares to leave , but Fatboy reveals that she is his colleague and he has started working at McKlunkies again .
Fatboy and Poppy 's relationship turns sour when Poppy suggests that they should buy a house together . Fatboy eventually pulls himself together and tells her that they haven 't been together long enough yet . She then ends their relationship and Fatboy moves in with Tamwar . Fatboy later suggests to Poppy that they rent a flat to begin with and take it from there . The couple reunite with a romantic kiss . However , when Denise feels uncomfortable with the way her new fiancée Ian Beale ( Adam Woodyatt ) is currently treating her , she gets comfort from Fatboy and the pair are unable to resist each other . When Poppy finds out that they shared a kiss , they realise that they are not right for each other and Poppy returns to go and live with her mum . Upset by the couple 's break @-@ up , Fatboy gently tells Dot that her and Poppy are still friends . He supports Dot when he learns that her son Nick Cotton ( John Altman ) dies and is surprised by the arrival of her estranged grandson , Charlie Cotton ( Declan Bennett ) . When Fatboy is told that he is no longer needed at The Queen Vic , he accepts a job at Ian 's restaurant as a waiter . Denise feels awkward and confesses the truth to Ian , but doesn 't mention Fatboy 's name . Fatboy spends time away from Walford caring for his uncle when he falls ill , and , on his return , Dot suggests that he finds a new place to live , due to Charlie moving in with her and her only being allowed one lodger by council regulations . When Charlie 's son is born , Fatboy is unsuccessful in persuading Charlie to take the baby home . He follows Charlie home and discovers that Nick is alive . When Charlie later moves out , Fatboy moves back in with Dot . On Ladies ' Night at the Vic , Fatboy consoles Denise when their kiss during the engagement party is revealed . Tina visits Sonia Fowler ( Natalie Cassidy ) to find Fatboy with her .
Fatboy begins running the car lot when Charlie leaves Walford . His friendship with Donna Yates ( Lisa Hammond ) grows and they have a one @-@ night stand , but , feeling it is making their friendship weird , he rejects her afterwards despite her thinking she might have deeper feelings for him . Things between them are awkward , and when Donna 's foster brother Vincent Hubbard ( Richard Blackwood ) finds out , he confronts Fatboy and locks him a cupboard . He returns the next day to find that Fatboy has not been discovered , and from how scared Fatboy is , realises something is wrong . Fatboy opens up about the fact his mother used to lock him up for extended periods of time , which led to him assuming the comedic persona of ' Fatboy ' . Vincent convinces him to use his real name , Arthur , again , and gives him a job as DJ at his bar The Albert as long as he no longer puts on a false persona , starting with admitting to Donna that he will now be showing his true self to her . Over the coming weeks , Fatboy gets tangled in Vincent 's vendetta against the Mitchell family and trying to kill Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) . Fatboy repeatedly tries to convince Vincent to stop , and interrupts Vincent when as he is about to throttle Phil . Fed up with his interference , Vincent threatens Fatboy with violence against Dot if he does not leave Walford forever . Fatboy tells Dot that he is going to see his father for Christmas , and shares a final dinner with her before saying goodbye . He confronts Vincent one last time , demanding that he stay away from Dot , and leaves Walford .
The next day , Vincent discovers Ronnie planned to have him killed and crushed in a car , but asked for the car 's driver to be killed , assuming it would be Vincent , but Vincent finds the car and discovers Fatboy is dead . It is later revealed that Vincent 's mother , Claudette Hubbard ( Ellen Thomas ) , knew that Vincent would be killed if he was driving , so sent Fatboy instead .
= = Creation and development = =
Fatboy is one of four characters created for the first series of the EastEnders online spin @-@ off EastEnders : E20 who also appear in the main show , along with Zsa Zsa , Leon and Mercy . Fatboy , along with the other characters from E20 , was created by the show 's thirteen writers during a summer school run by the BBC in August 2009 . Open auditions for the cast were held at Theatre Royal Stratford East . Norwood 's casting was announced on 25 November 2009 , on which he said " I am so excited to be on the show . It 's an honour to now be part of a show that has been on in my house for as long as I have been alive . I am born and bred in the East End — a stone 's throw from the real Albert Square . It feels like a homecoming . I love being part of a cast that feels like family and can 't wait to have a scene in The Vic . " Kenny , who was also one of the writers , said a character like Fatboy would not have appeared in EastEnders had he not been written by young people . Norwood stated in 2013 that being from east London and playing a character from east London meant that he could " bring the truth to that character from the knowledge I have . [ I can ] try and bring the truth out of that instead of doing it from an outside perspective . "
Although his co @-@ stars Attwater and Kenny were axed from the cast in May 2010 , Norwood revealed his contract had been extended to December 2010 , saying that the producers saw " some future in Fatboy " . In January 2011 it was reported that due to the character 's popularity , producers were planning to expand Fatboy 's family and were in the process of casting his father , Ashley Chubb . An EastEnders insider is reported to have said " Fatboy has been a real hit with viewers and the bosses have decided that it 's now time to bring in his dad so people can see what Fatboy is really all about . " Norwood 's contract was once again renewed in late 2013 for another year , by the new executive prodicer Dominic Treadwell @-@ Collins , who promised " juicy storylines " for the character . One source from the programme said " Fatboy is a popular character and appeals to all ages . He 's not had a decent storyline for a while but always provides much @-@ needed humour in Albert Square . [ ... ] He ’ s got some good stuff coming up and is an important member of the cast . "
= = = Characterisation = = =
When the character was announced , he was described as a hustler who sees everything as an opportunity , and has created several personas since the age of seven to hide his real self . Norwood expanded on this , saying " when he was in school and the register was being read out and it got to his name it would be ' Chubb ! ' and all the kids in school would start taking the mickey out of it . What he did was create something even more ridiculous to take away from that . He took the mickey out of himself and took the power away from those that were taking the mickey out of him . [ ... ] For the same reason most kids put on a front , it 's to protect himself from the world . He doesn 't like his real name so he tried to create something that would get away from that and Fatboy was that creation . The street and the slang stuff is not something that is far away from him , it is still from the area that he lives in . Fatboy was someone he adopted to put a brave face on , to put a mask on himself , to protect Arthur from the world . " Before adopting the " Fatboy " persona , he would adopt personas of men he saw on television , and Norwood said Fatboy was " an awkward kind of child " . Fatboy comes from a wealthy background , and gets what he wants from his parents , with whom he has a good relationship , but hustles to hide the fact . He often wears clothing brand Ed Hardy , and his speech has , according to Norwood , a " unique rhythm " . Norwood is able to make viable changes to the script to make it sound more authentic .
Norwood said the character 's introduction was " trying to bring the street to Albert Square " and that the street slang the character uses is what he grew up with himself . He described the character in an interview with entertainment website Digital Spy as " [ wanting ] to be a gangsta at times , a caring person , a player , a womaniser , the businessman ... There are so many things that he wants to be and that shifts depending on the situation , " adding that he is quick to solve problems and always has a plan . Additionally , a profile for the character on the official EastEnders website calls him brash , a wheeler @-@ dealer , confident and a loveable soft @-@ touch .
Norwood said in January 2011 that Fatboy has developed over time and is continuing to develop , with more sides to his personality being shown . Fatboy 's caring side is shown in several EastEnders scenes , most notably his friendship with Dot , and a scene where Fatboy and Mercy bring a cake to Kat Moon ( Jessie Wallace ) after her child dies of cot death . Although Norwood said in January 2011 that Fatboy will always be a joker , he felt it was good to show Fatboy 's softer , more intelligent side , saying that the character 's " street " side drops quickly when he is around Dot and Mercy . Norwood said that Fatboy wants to improve himself , but fears that showing his caring side in London will get him beaten up .
= = = Relationship with Mercy Olubunmi = = =
In April 2011 , Mercy faces deportation to Nigeria , and Fatboy plans to save her by proposing . Norwood revealed that Mercy is shocked by the proposal , adding " Mercy thinks he 's lost his marbles , but soon comes round to the idea . Fatboy reckons that this isn 't about his feelings , it 's all about keeping her in the UK . Of course , he 's also hoping that if she stays , maybe she 'll end up liking him in the way he likes her . [ ... ] You can get into a lot of trouble for [ trying to fool immigration officials ] , [ b ] ut all Fatboy can think is , ' How can I save Mercy ? ' She 's the girl he loves . " Although Fatboy is in love with Mercy , he does not believe that Mercy sees him as more than a friend and may call off the wedding if he tells her . He does not think of the consequences , such as imprisonment . Norwood revealed that Fatboy has known Mercy since they were nine years old and he had feelings for her when EastEnders : E20 started , as he was upset when she got pregnant by someone else . He said that Fatboy would be heartbroken when Mercy leaves . Norwood told Inside Soap that the wedding creates more problems for the characters , rather than solving all their problems . The fact that they try so hard to prove they are genuine makes it " very hard for them to be friends . " The wedding episode sees Fatboy have a dream come true , but at the same time it is a nightmare for him . Knowing the wedding is a sham he is " waiting for that monster to appear " . Ashley turns up and is annoyed that Fatboy has kept the wedding a secret , and of this , Norwood stated : " When [ Ashley ] finds out what has happened he is pretty shocked . He tries to make Fatboy see the consequences of his actions , but Fatboy doesn 't want to hear it — his dad has already betrayed him when it comes to Mercy . " Mercy is shocked to learn that Fatboy did not tell her that Ashley reported her . Although Norwood concluded that Fatboy " will go to the ends of the earth to make this marriage work " .
= = = Relationship with Denise Fox = = =
In October 2012 , it was confirmed by Daniel Kilkelly that a new storyline would see Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) and Fatboy spend the night together after he rescues her when she gets unwanted attention from a man . Norwood , who plays Fatboy , told Inside Soap , " Right now , I don 't think Fatboy is looking for love - but he 's happy to be swept off his feet by Denise , who 's this hot older woman he never imagined he could be with . " Denise is a scorching woman - she 's got a dynamite body and a beautiful smile . She 's way out of his league , but there is a lot of chemistry between them . I think they 'd make a really good couple . That would be cool . Fatboy may be young , but he 's got an old soul and he 's not just some young boy messing about . There is potential there if Denise could see it , but because of the age thing , I think she might worry that people were saying things about her . Right now , she 's just enjoying herself . " Norwood added that while the pair 's relationship was sexual , a serious future for them could be possible . They met for an afternoon of passion on 16 October 2012 but ended the affair a few days later when Denise told him that she will think of it as a ' great memory ' . In January 2014 , Denise and Fatboy kiss passionately during her engagement party to Ian Beale in The Queen Victoria .
= = = Relationship with Poppy Meadow = = =
In November 2012 , Fatboy starts a relationship with his friend Poppy Meadow ( Rachel Bright ) . This was teased by executive producer Lorraine Newman when it was announced Poppy was to become a full @-@ time character . She said , " We 'll see Poppy become involved in a relationship very soon , which is progressing very well in the material we 're working on at the moment . " Digital Spy said of the relationship that " viewers will have to wait and see who she falls for and how things pan out as the new plot develops " . It was confirmed that Fatboy would be Poppy 's new relationship when they kiss in 22 November 's episode . The pair " grow close " after Poppy 's sister Tansy Meadow Daisy Wood @-@ Davis visits and Fatboy acts as Poppy 's " high @-@ flying " businessman boyfriend to help Poppy look good in front of Tansy . Bright said of the relationship : " It 's really sweet . I don 't think Poppy or Fatboy realised they liked each other as they 've been friends for a while . She 's unsure at first because she doesn 't want to ruin a friendship . She 's also been unlucky in love , so she 's a little bit wary . But I think she can trust Fatboy . I think the pair of them need love . "
In December 2012 , it was announced that Fatboy and Poppy would have a BBC Red Button special episode , after Poppy decides to spend Christmas with Fatboy . The story continues on the Red Button . Bright said , " Poppy spends the day with Fatboy . She is under pressure to go back to her family , but realises she doesn 't want that . [ She ] and Fatboy have a romantic day , but you don 't see anything on screen [ in the Christmas episode ] because it is dominated by the Brannings . There will be an interactive section where viewers can press the red button and see a ten @-@ minute film of how Poppy and Fatboy spent their day . "
In January 2013 , Norwood told Amy Duncan from Metro that the relationship with Poppy was " needed for Fatboy " as he had so far been unlucky in love and " to find somebody that liked him as much as he liked her has been a great boost for him and it 's definitely put an extra spring in his step . " He noted a comedy aspect of their relationship , calling it " quite sweet " and " funny " . He opined that it would be " excellent " if they were to marry , saying their wedding would be " crazy " .
= = = Departure = = =
On 16 October 2015 , it was announced Norwood had been axed from EastEnders after nearly six years in the role of Fatboy , after show bosses chose to write the character out . It was revealed that Norwood would be filming his final scenes in the upcoming weeks and producers had chosen to keep details surrounding Fatboy 's exit underwraps . A show spokesperson said : " We can confirm that Ricky will be leaving EastEnders . We wish him all the best for the future " whilst a show insider commented : " Ricky is a great guy and very popular on set . He 's leaving the show as it 's the end of Fatboy 's storyline , but everyone wishes him well for the future . " Fatboy 's last appearance was on 24 December 2015 .
On 7 December 2015 , the show 's executive producer , Dominic Treadwell @-@ Collins , said that " Someone will die on Christmas Day that we haven 't revealed to anyone , so that will be a surprise . " This turned out to be Fatboy , who died in a case of mistaken identity in the episode shown on 26 December 2015 . This was not well @-@ received by fans and many set up petitions to bring the character back .
= = Other appearances = =
Fatboy appears in extra content on the official EastEnders : E20 website . In one video , Fatboy gives his top ten tips for surviving life in Albert Square . Another features him recording a video on his mobile phone for Mercy , in which he admits he once thought he would end up in a romantic relationship with her . In other videos , he is filmed on a webcam singing along to the Destiny 's Child hit " Bootylicious " and catches Leon posing , threatening to post the video on the Internet . In August 2010 , an official account on the social networking site Twitter was created for Fatboy , along with three characters from series 2 of EastEnders : E20 . Posts on Twitter revealed Fatboy has sold a fake ID to Naz Mehmet ( Emaa Hussen ) but the photo looked nothing like her and the age was wrong .
Fatboy makes cameo appearances in series 2 of E20 , where his argument with Naz continues in episode 1 , and she steals back her money . Fatboy attends a dance audition , and witnesses Asher Levi ( Heshima Thompson ) bribing Skolla ( Tony Adigun ) to let Asher 's brother Sol ( Tosin Cole ) through even though he failed his audition . Asher threatens Fatboy with a knife , telling him that he saw nothing . In episode 5 Fatboy attends callbacks for the dance group , and in episode 7 , he dances with the group again and helps break up a fight between Asher and Sol . In episode 10 , Fatboy attends the dance @-@ off between Skolla 's crew and Flawless . He also appears in series 3 . In episode 1 , when Faith Olubunmi is homeless , she asks Fatboy if she can stay with him but he refuses .
Fatboy also appears in " East Street " , a charity crossover episode between EastEnders and Coronation Street , broadcast on 19 November 2010 as part of the BBC One telethon for the children 's charity Children in Need . In the non @-@ canon episode , Fatboy is in Walford 's café while Denise Johnson and Gail McIntyre ( Helen Worth ) from Coronation Street argue over their similar storylines . Fatboy says Gail is the winner after saying she has been in prison . He also appears in scenes in The Queen Victoria .
In " All I Want for Christmas " , a mini @-@ episode shown on the BBC Red Button service on 27 December 2012 , Fatboy appears with his girlfriend Poppy , in which they are shown getting drunk on Christmas Eve , and having dinner on Christmas Day . Poppy is sick with food poisoning the next day , so Fatboy leaves her to look after herself . The next she is well again and Fatboy makes it clear that he wants sex with Poppy , as it would be their first time together . Poppy decides to spend the rest of Christmas with her family , and while she is gone , Fatboy buys food and gifts , but gives them to a homeless man who tells him Christmas is about love , not material things . As Poppy is about to leave with her sister Tansy Meadow ( Daisy Wood @-@ Davis ) , Fatboy stops the car . He later tells her he wants to wait to have sex with her and says he loves her , and she says it back to him .
Fatboy also appears in the third episode of the online spin @-@ off Tamwar Tales – The Life of an Assistant Market Inspector , titled " Fatboy " , which was first shown on 8 August 2013 . In the episode , Tamwar Masood ( Himesh Patel ) tries to get Fatboy to turn his music down but they end up doing the Harlem Shake . Their full Harlem Shake dance was also posted online separately , prior to the spin @-@ off .
= = Reception = =
In April 2010 , six main characters were axed from EastEnders by executive producer Bryan Kirkwood . Fatboy was not one of them , but Stuart Heritage from The Guardian felt that he should have been , calling him " A wodge of irritating comic relief [ ... ] who is yet to serve a purpose other than making me genuinely dislike young people . [ ... ] He must go , preferably in a scene where he falls down the world 's largest flight of stairs . " Heritage later called Fatboy an " obnoxiously two @-@ dimensional dubstep @-@ fixated stock [ character ] transparently modelled on Jar Jar Binks . " A writer for the website Watch With Mothers called the character an asset to EastEnders , expressing pleasure that the show was trying to appeal to younger viewers , while another called him irritating and zany . A writer for The Northern Echo wondered if Fatboy , along with Leon and Zsa Zsa , brought a new injection of life into the soap or took away screen time from more established characters , and Caroline Fitton , writing for the Daily Mail , felt that Fatboy 's style of talking was a bit of a cliché . Grace Dent from The Guardian changed her opinion of Fatboy over time , saying :
Fatboy has won my heart . What began as horrified staring at this huge , bug @-@ eyed child in a fluoro Ed Hardy hoodie , the Venn diagram meeting point of Jar Jar Binks and Dappy from N @-@ Dubz , has now shifted to deep love . I love Fatboy 's " wheels " , ie a retired , graffiti @-@ splattered ice @-@ cream van . I love his simple approach to life : making money , " checkin out batty " , eating jollof rice . Get rich or die trying ( though by " die " , I really mean " get sulked at by Dot Branning and refused a last @-@ minute service wash " ) . I love how much Fatboy infuriates old @-@ fart viewers with the uncomfortable truth that he 's actually quite authentic . [ ... ] Without Fatboy , EastEnders right now is a wholly compelling , yet dark place .
Julie Emery from Heat criticised Fatboy 's fashion sense , especially from the episode broadcast on 12 May 2011 , saying " We know clashing prints are soooooo this season , but really , Fatboy , they do nothing for you . And while we 're at it , stop wearing that tinny ' F ' round your neck , for flip 's sake . You 're not a gangster rapper , and anyway your real name 's Arthur . " Emery also said the storyline where Fatboy asks Mercy to marry him so she can stay in the country sounded " somewhat familiar " , as Coronation Street was featuring a similar storyline at the same time . Amy Duncan from the Metro said Fatboy was one of her favourite young characters in EastEnders and said that , with Poppy , he " bring [ s ] some much @-@ needed light into the soap " . Vicky Prior from the Metro said that Fatboy " is easily one of the best characters in EastEnders , able to interact seamlessly with other characters , both young and old . "
Norwood has received four award nominations for his portrayal of Fatboy . In May 2010 , he received a nomination in the " Best Soap Newcomer " category at the 14th TVChoice Awards , and in July he was nominated for " Best Newcomer " at the 2010 Inside Soap Awards , which he went on to win in September . In September 2010 , he was nominated in the newcomer category of the 16th National Television Awards , which he won in January 2011 . In May 2011 , he was nominated for " Best Newcomer " at the 2011 British Soap Awards .
Following the character 's death , " # Fatboy " trended on social network Twitter , with viewers saying that the character should not have been killed off and some voicing their beliefs that the character is not really dead . A petition was set up online asking for Tradwell @-@ Collins to revive the character ; as of 30 December 2015 , the petition received 2 @,@ 780 signatures .
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= The Final Cut ( album ) =
The Final Cut is the twelfth studio album by the English progressive rock band Pink Floyd , released on 21 March 1983 by Harvest Records in the United Kingdom and internationally and on 2 April 1983 in the United States by Columbia Records . It is Pink Floyd 's last studio album to include founding member , bass guitarist and songwriter Roger Waters , and their only album on which he alone is credited for writing and composition . It is also the only Pink Floyd album that does not feature keyboardist Richard Wright .
Waters originally planned The Final Cut as a soundtrack album for the 1982 film Pink Floyd – The Wall . With the onset of the Falklands War , he rewrote it as a concept album , exploring what he considered the betrayal of his father , who died serving in the Second World War . Waters sings most of the lyrics ; lead guitarist David Gilmour provides vocals on only one track . The packaging , also designed by Waters , reflects the album 's war theme . Although it reached the top of the UK Albums Chart , the album received mixed reviews .
Recorded in eight British studios from July to December 1982 , with an accompanying short film released in the same year , production of The Final Cut was dominated by interpersonal conflict . Waters left the band in 1985 and The Final Cut remains the last Pink Floyd studio album he worked on .
= = Background = =
The Final Cut was originally planned as a soundtrack album for the 1982 film Pink Floyd – The Wall . Under its working title Spare Bricks , it would have featured new music or songs re @-@ recorded for the film , such as " When the Tigers Broke Free " and " Bring the Boys Back Home " , respectively . Bass guitarist , vocalist , and primary songwriter Roger Waters also planned to record a small amount of new material for the album , further expanding The Wall 's narrative .
As a result of the Falklands War , Waters changed direction and wrote new material . He saw British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher 's response to Argentina 's invasion of the islands as jingoistic and unnecessary , and dedicated the new album — provisionally titled Requiem for a Post @-@ War Dream — to his father , Eric Fletcher Waters . A second lieutenant of the 8th Royal Fusiliers , Eric Waters died during the Second World War at Aprilia in Italy , on 18 February 1944 . Gilmour was unimpressed by Waters ' apparent politicising and the new creative direction prompted arguments between the two . Several pieces of music considered for but not used on The Wall , including " Your Possible Pasts " , " One of the Few " , " The Final Cut " and " The Hero 's Return " , had initially been set aside for Spare Bricks , and although Pink Floyd had often re @-@ used older material in their work , Gilmour felt the songs were not good enough for a new album . He wanted to write new material , but Waters remained doubtful as Gilmour had lately contributed little to the band 's repertoire .
The Final Cut was about how , with the introduction of the Welfare State , we felt we were moving forward into something resembling a liberal country where we would all look after one another ... but I 'd seen all that chiselled away , and I 'd seen a return to an almost Dickensian society under Margaret Thatcher . I felt then , as now , that the British government should have pursued diplomatic avenues , rather than steaming in the moment that task force arrived in the South Atlantic .
I 'm certainly guilty at times of being lazy , and moments have arrived when Roger might say , " Well , what have you got ? " And I 'd be like , " Well , I haven 't got anything right now . I need a bit of time to put some ideas on tape . " There are elements of all this stuff that , years later , you can look back on and say , " Well , he had a point there . " But he wasn 't right about wanting to put some duff tracks on The Final Cut . I said to Roger , " If these songs weren 't good enough for The Wall , why are they good enough now ? "
The album 's working title was changed to The Final Cut , a reference to William Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar : " This was the most unkindest cut of all " . " When the Tigers Broke Free " was issued as a single on 26 July 1982 , with " Bring the Boys Back Home " on the B @-@ side . The single was labelled " Taken from the album The Final Cut " but was not included on that album until the 2004 CD reissue .
= = Concept and storyline = =
The Final Cut is an anti @-@ war concept album , whose lyrics explore what Waters regards as the betrayal of fallen British servicemen — such as his father — who during the Second World War sacrificed their lives in the spirit of a post @-@ war dream . This post @-@ war dream was that their victory would usher in a more peaceful world , whose leaders would no longer be so eager to resolve disputes by resorting to war . The album 's lyrics are critical of Thatcher , whose policies and decisions Waters regarded as an example of this betrayal . She is referred to as " Maggie " throughout the album .
The opening track , " The Post War Dream " , begins with a recorded announcement that the replacement for the Atlantic Conveyor , a ship lost during the Falklands campaign , will be built in Japan . Waters ' lyrics refer to his dead father , the loss of Britain 's shipbuilding industry to Japan , and Margaret Thatcher , before moving on to " Your Possible Pasts " , a rewritten version of one of the songs rejected for The Wall . In " One of the Few " , another rejected song , the schoolteacher from The Wall features as the main character , presented as a war hero returned to civilian life . He is unable to relate his experiences to his wife , and in " The Hero 's Return " is tormented by the loss of one of his air crew . " The Gunner 's Dream " discusses the post @-@ war dream of a world free from tyranny and the threat of terrorism ( a reference to the Hyde Park bombing ) and is followed in " Paranoid Eyes " by the teacher 's descent into alcoholism .
The second half of the album deals with various war @-@ related issues . While " Southampton Dock " is a lament to returning war heroes and other soldiers heading out to a likely death , " Not Now John " addresses society 's ignorance of political and economic problems . " Get Your Filthy Hands Off My Desert " deals with Waters ' feelings about war and invasion , and " The Fletcher Memorial Home " ( the title is a nod to Waters ' father ) reflects a fantastical application of " the final solution " on a gathering of political leaders including Leonid Brezhnev , Menachem Begin and Margaret Thatcher . The album 's titular song deals with the aftermath of a man 's isolation and sexual repression , as he contemplates suicide and struggles to reconnect with the world around him . The album ends with " Two Suns in the Sunset " , a song that portrays a nuclear holocaust ; the final result of a world obsessed with war and control .
= = Recording = =
American composer Michael Kamen , who had contributed to The Wall , oversaw the orchestral arrangements . He also stood in for absent keyboardist Richard Wright , co @-@ produced , and mediated between Waters and Gilmour . James Guthrie was employed as the studio engineer and co @-@ producer , while Mason 's drumming was supplemented by Ray Cooper , and when unable to perform the complex timing changes required of him , replaced on " Two Suns in the Sunset " by Andy Newmark . It was Mason who suggested the repeated reprises of " Maggie , what have we done " be rendered instrumental rather than sung . Raphael Ravenscroft was hired to play the saxophone . Recording took place in the latter half of 1982 across eight studios , including Gilmour 's home studio at Hookend Manor , and Waters ' Billiard Room Studios at East Sheen . The other venues were Mayfair Studios , Olympic Studios , Abbey Road Studios , Eel Pie Studios , Audio International and RAK Studios .
Tensions soon became apparent , and while Waters and Gilmour initially worked together , playing the video game Donkey Kong in their spare time , the two eventually chose to work separately . Co @-@ engineer Andy Jackson worked with Waters on the vocals , and Guthrie worked with Gilmour on the guitars . They would occasionally meet to discuss the work that had been completed and while this method was not in itself unusual , Gilmour began to feel strained , sometimes barely maintaining his composure . Kamen too felt pressured ; Waters had never been a confident vocalist and on one occasion , after repeated studio takes , Waters noticed him writing on a notepad . Losing his temper , he demanded to know what Kamen was doing , only to find that the pianist had been writing " I Must Not Fuck Sheep " repeatedly .
Like previous Pink Floyd albums , The Final Cut used sound effects combined with advances and innovations in audio recording technology . Mason 's contributions were almost entirely limited to recording sound effects for the experimental Holophonic system , an audio processing technique used to add an enhanced three @-@ dimensional effect to the recordings ( The Final Cut is the second album ever to feature this technology ) . The technique is featured on " Get Your Filthy Hands Off My Desert " , allowing the sound of an explosion to surround the listener . Sound effects from earlier Floyd albums are also evident ; the wind from Meddle is re @-@ used , as are parts of The Dark Side of the Moon , Wish You Were Here , Animals and The Wall .
After months of poor relations , and following a final confrontation , Gilmour was removed from the credit list as producer , but would still be paid his production royalties . Waters later admitted that he was also under significant pressure and that early in the production of The Final Cut he believed he would never record with either Gilmour or Mason again . He may have threatened to release the album as a solo record , although Pink Floyd were contracted to EMI and such a move would have been unlikely . Mason kept himself distant , dealing with his own marital problems .
In a June 1987 interview , Roger Waters recalled the making of the album :
The Final Cut was absolutely misery to make , although I listened to it of late and I rather like a lot of it . But I don 't like my singing on it . You can hear the mad tension running through it all . If you 're trying to express something and being prevented from doing it because you 're so uptight ... It was a horrible time . We were all fighting like cats and dogs . We were finally realising – or accepting , if you like – that there was no band . It was really being thrust upon us that we were not a band and had not been in accord for a long time . Not since 1975 , when we made Wish You Were Here . Even then there were big disagreements about content and how to put the record together ... But making The Final Cut was misery . We didn 't work together at all . I had to do it more or less single @-@ handed , working with Michael Kamen , my co @-@ producer . That 's one of the few things that the ' boys ' and I agreed about . But no one else would do anything on it .
= = Packaging = =
Storm Thorgerson , a founder member of Hipgnosis ( designers of most of Pink Floyd 's previous artwork ) , was passed over for the cover design . Instead , Waters created the cover himself , using photographs taken by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Willie Christie . The front cover shows a Remembrance poppy and four Second World War medal ribbons against the black fabric of the jacket or blazer on which they are worn . From left to right the medals are the 1939 – 45 Star , the Africa Star , the Defence Medal , and the Distinguished Flying Cross .
The poppy is a recurring design theme . The interior gatefold featured three photographs , the first depicting an outdoor scene with an outstretched hand holding three poppies and in the distance , a soldier with his back to the camera . Two more photographs show a welder at work , his mask emblazoned with the Japanese Rising Sun Flag , and a nuclear explosion ; a clear reference to " Two Suns in the Sunset " . The album 's lyrics are printed on the gatefold . Side one of the vinyl disc carries an image of a poppy field and on side two , a soldier with a knife in his back lies face down amongst the poppies , a dog beside him . The back cover features a photograph of a soldier stood upright and holding a film canister , with a knife protruding from his back ( the film canister and knife may reflect Waters ' tumultuous relationship with The Wall film director Alan Parker ) .
= = Release and reception = =
The Final Cut was released in the UK on 21 March 1983 and in the US on 2 April . It reached number one in the UK , something that The Dark Side of the Moon and The Wall had each failed to do . It was less successful in America , peaking at number six on the Billboard album charts . Issued as a single , " Not Now John " reached the UK Top 30 , with its chorus of " Fuck all that " bowdlerised to " Stuff all that " .
Although it enjoyed a degree of commercial success , the album received mixed reviews . Melody Maker deemed it " a milestone in the history of awfulness " , and the NME 's Richard Cook wrote : " Like the poor damned Tommies that haunt his mind , Roger Waters ' writing has been blown to hell ... Waters stopped with The Wall , and The Final Cut isolates and juggles the identical themes of that elephantine concept with no fresh momentum to drive them . " Robert Christgau opined : " it 's a comfort to encounter antiwar rock that has the weight of years of self @-@ pity behind it " , and awarded the album a C + grade . More impressed , Rolling Stone 's Kurt Loder viewed it as " essentially a Roger Waters solo album ... a superlative achievement on several levels " . Dan Hedges of Record also approved , writing : " On paper it sounds hackneyed and contrived – the sort of thing that was worked into the ground by everyone from P. F. Sloan to Paul Kantner . In Pink Floyd 's case , it still works , partially through the understatement and ingenuity of the music and the special effects ... but mostly through the care Waters has taken in plotting out the imagery of his bleak visions . "
With over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units shipped in the United States , the Recording Industry Association of America certified The Final Cut Platinum in May 1983 . It was given double Platinum certification in 1997 . Despite these achievements , The Final Cut was the lowest @-@ selling Pink Floyd studio album in the United States and worldwide since Meddle . Gilmour claimed that this relative commercial failure supported his assertion that much of the material on the album was weak . Waters responded :
It 's absolutely ridiculous to judge a record solely on sales . If you 're going to use sales as the sole criterion , it makes Grease a better record than Graceland . Anyway , I was in a greengrocer 's shop , and this woman of about forty in a fur coat came up to me . She said she thought it was the most moving record she had ever heard . Her father had also been killed in World War II , she explained . And I got back into my car with my three pounds of potatoes and drove home and thought , good enough .
The album 's release was accompanied by a short film , also titled The Final Cut . It features four of the album 's songs : " The Gunner 's Dream " , " The Final Cut " , " The Fletcher Memorial Home " and " Not Now John " . Produced by Waters and directed by brother @-@ in @-@ law Willie Christie , it features Waters talking to a psychiatrist named A. Parker @-@ Marshall , while Alex McAvoy , who played the teacher in Pink Floyd – The Wall , also appears .
The Final Cut was released on compact disc in 1983 . A remastered and repackaged CD was issued by EMI in Europe and on Capitol Records in the US in 2004 ; this included an extra song , the previously released " When the Tigers Broke Free " . In 2007 , a remastered version was released as part of the Oh , by the Way boxed set , packaged in a miniature replica of the original gatefold LP sleeve .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
With no plans to tour the album , Waters and Gilmour instead turned to separate solo projects . Gilmour recorded and toured About Face in 1984 , using it to express his feelings on a range of topics from the murder of musician John Lennon to his relationship with Waters – who also began to tour his new solo album , The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking . Mason released his second solo album , Profiles , in August 1985 .
In 1985 , faced with a potentially ruinous lawsuit from his record company and fellow band members , Waters resigned . He believed that Pink Floyd was a " spent force " . He applied to the High Court to prevent the Pink Floyd name from ever being used again . His lawyers discovered that the partnership had never been formally confirmed , and Waters returned to the High Court in an attempt to gain a veto over further use of the band 's name . Gilmour 's team responded by issuing a press release affirming that Pink Floyd would continue to exist ; he later told a Sunday Times reporter that " Roger is a dog in the manger and I 'm going to fight him ... "
Waters wrote to EMI and Columbia declaring his intention to leave the group , asking them to release him from his contractual obligations . With a legal case pending , he dispensed with manager Steve O 'Rourke and employed Peter Rudge to manage his affairs . He later contributed to the soundtrack for When the Wind Blows and then recorded his second solo album , Radio K.A.O.S.
Owing to the combination of Pink Floyd 's partial breakup and Waters ' dominance on the project , The Final Cut is sometimes viewed as a de facto Waters solo album . The personal quality assigned to the lyrics are related to Waters ' struggle to reconcile his despair at the changing social face of Britain , and also the loss of his father during the Second World War . Gilmour 's guitar solos on " Your Possible Pasts " and " The Fletcher Memorial Home " are , however , sometimes considered the equal of his best work on The Wall . More recent reviews of the album have weighed its importance alongside the band 's breakup . Writing for AllMusic , Stephen Thomas Erlewine said " with its anger , emphasis on lyrics , and sonic textures , it 's clear that it 's the album that Waters intended it to be . And it 's equally clear that Pink Floyd couldn 't have continued in this direction ... " , Stylus Magazine wrote : " It 's about pursuing something greater even when you have all the money that you could ever want . And either failing or succeeding brilliantly . It 's up to you decide whether this record is a success or a failure , but I 'd go with the former every time . " Rachel Mann of The Quietus said " flawed though it is , The Final Cut remains a tremendous album " and " still has something fresh to say " . Mike Diver of Drowned in Sound was less generous : " Rays of light are few and far between , and even on paper the track titles – including ' The Gunner 's Dream ' and ' Paranoid Eyes ' – suggest an arduous listen . Q Magazine once compiled a top ten list of depressing records , and this was on it . Enough said , I think . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Roger Waters .
All lead vocals performed by Roger Waters , except " Not Now John " by David Gilmour and Waters .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Burlesque : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack =
Burlesque : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album to the film of the same name by American recording artists Christina Aguilera and Cher . It was released on November 19 , 2010 by Screen Gems , Inc and RCA Records .
Burlesque soundtrack comprises ten songs , eight performed by Aguilera and two performed by Cher . The album is inspired by jazz music style , in contrast to Aguilera 's previous release Bionic ( 2010 ) but similar to her 1920s , 1930s and 1940s @-@ influenced album Back to Basics ( 2006 ) . Upon its release , the album received generally favorable reviews from music critics . It won a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song at the 2011 ceremony for " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " by Cher .
Burlesque peaked at number eighteen on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart and reached the top ten of several national record charts . As of August 2014 , the album has sold 707 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The soundtrack spawned three promotional singles : " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " ( performed by Cher ) , " Express " and " Show Me How You Burlesque " ( performed by Aguilera ) .
= = Background = =
In early May 2010 , Aguilera announced that she would embark on the supporting concert tour for her sixth studio album , Bionic . However , her management team announced shortly afterwards that the tour was postponed due to Aguilera 's promotion for her first feature film , Burlesque ( 2010 ) , in which she starred alongside Cher . Aguilera reported that she would reschedule the tour in 2011 , though the tour never happened .
Burlesque was released in November 2010 . The film was met with mixed reviews from critics , who criticized it for being " campy and clichéd " , yet praised Aguilera 's acting debut . The accompanying soundtrack , Burlesque : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack , comprises ten songs : eight performed by Aguilera and two performed by Cher . It was Cher 's first major release since her compilation Gold in 2005 . Producer Tricky Stewart stated that the collaboration with Aguilera on Burlesque soundtrack was " a crazy opportunity different from anything [ he ] ' ve ever done before " . Danja was looking forward to working with Aguilera on the soundtrack , however it was not done .
= = Composition = =
Burlesque : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack comprises ten songs : eight performed by Aguilera and two performed by Cher . The soundtrack has a " brassy , jazzy " sound inspired by jazz , in contrast to Aguilera 's last electronic music @-@ inspired studio album Bionic ( 2010 ) but similar to her fifth 1920s , 1930s and 1940s @-@ influenced studio album Back to Basics ( 2006 ) . Four of the songs performed by Aguilera are cover versions , two of Etta James ' works : " Something 's Got a Hold on Me " and " Tough Lover " , a cover version of Marlene Dietrich 's " Guy What Takes His Time " , and a dance version of " The Beautiful People " by Marilyn Manson , including the " unmistakable " drum beats and guitar riff in the original version . " I Am a Good Girl " " sticks to the sassy swing of a bygone musical era " , while " Express " has the similar musical style to Aguilera 's previous single " Lady Marmalade " and lyrically evokes sexual theme as Aguilera " seductively " sings , " Show a little leg / You gotta shimmy your chest " . The uptempo number " Show Me How You Burlesque " has a " modern sounding " dance production , but " lack of melody and strong hooks " . The power ballad " Bound to You " , co @-@ written by Sia Furler , has the same musical style to " You Lost Me " which was also co @-@ written by Furler from Bionic , features Aguilera 's strong vocal delivery .
The two songs performed by Cher are : " Welcome to Burlesque " and " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " . " Welcome to Burlesque " was described as " a ' Cabaret ' -style oompah that shows both skill and humor " . The power ballad " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " features Cher 's powerful vocals .
= = Promotion = =
In August 2010 , a video containing a scene from the film featuring Aguilera performing " Something 's Got a Hold on Me " was released onto YouTube . Later in early November , a clip featuring Aguilera performing " But I Am a Good Girl " from the movie was also released . On November 17 , 2010 , Aguilera performed the track " Bound to You " on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . On November 19 , 2010 , she performed " Something 's Got a Hold on Me " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show . Aguilera performed " Express " at the American Music Awards of 2010 on November 21 , 2010 . The following day , Aguilera performed " Something 's Got a Hold on Me " on Conan . On November 23 , 2010 , Aguilera performed " Show Me How You Burlesque " and " Beautiful " during the season finale of the eleventh season of U.S. television dancing competition Dancing with the Stars .
" You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " performed by Cher was the first song to be released from Burlesque . On November 24 , 2010 , a digital remix extended play of " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " was released via iTunes Stores worldwide . On December 7 , the digital remix version of the song was purchased for sales onto iTunes Stores . In the United States , the single impacted adult contemporary radio stations on January 15 , 2011 . " Express " and " Show Me How You Burlesque " performed by Aguilera were the two next singles from the soundtrack , respectively : " Express " impacted Australian contemporary hit radio stations on December 6 , 2010 , while " Show Me How You Burlesque " was made available for digital sales on February 4 , 2011 .
= = Critical response = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave the soundtrack three out of five stars , commenting that " some of this stuff is quite good " . Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson provided a mixed review , writing that the soundtrack " seems to indicate her efforts are coming from a similarly era @-@ straddling psychological place " . Jim Farber from New York Daily News criticized Aguilera for her " vocals offer the same distracting loop @-@ de @-@ loops and showy tics " , but complimented Cher that she " balances both aspects ideally " . A reviewer from Blogcritics labelled the album a " grab bag of tracks that don 't really add up to cohesive album " . Leah Greanblatt from Entertainment Weekly gave the album a " B " score , naming it a " shamelessly diva @-@ fied mix of balladry , Broadway cabaret , and backroom boogie @-@ woogie " and complimented on its musical departure from Aguilera 's previous studio album Bionic . In a positive review , Billboard editor Kerri Mason praised Burlesque as " a campy celebration of diva @-@ dom and an over @-@ the @-@ top , triple @-@ threat performance " . James Wigney of The Advertiser praised Aguilera 's " vocal gymnastics " , but was mixed towards Cher 's numbers on the soundtrack . Maura Johnston from The Village Voice named " The Beautiful People ( from Burlesque ) " as the thirteenth worst song of 2010 , calling it " an interesting failure . "
= = Commercial performance = =
On the US Billboard 200 , Burlesque debuted and peaked at number eighteen during the week of November 28 , 2010 , selling 63 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , having sold 707 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of September 2014 . On the Australian ARIA Albums Chart , the soundtrack peaked at number two . It was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association in 2015 for selling over 70 @,@ 000 copies . Burlesque peaked at number 16 on the Canadian Albums Chart and was certified gold by the Music Canada for shipments of 40 @,@ 000 units in the region . The soundtrack also gained commercial success on several record charts : peaking at number five in Austria and New Zealand , and number eight in Switzerland .
= = Track listing = =
All songs performed by Christina Aguilera , except two , which are performed by Cher .
Notes
Source :
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
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= Rùm =
Rùm ( Scottish Gaelic pronunciation : [ rˠuːm ] ) , a Scottish Gaelic name often anglicised to Rum , is one of the Small Isles of the Inner Hebrides , in the district of Lochaber , Scotland . For much of the 20th century the name became Rhum , a spelling invented by the former owner , Sir George Bullough , because he did not relish the idea of having the title " Laird of Rum " .
It is the largest of the Small Isles , and the 15th largest Scottish island , but is inhabited by only about thirty or so people , all of whom live in the village of Kinloch on the east coast . The island has been inhabited since the 8th millennium BC and provides some of the earliest known evidence of human occupation in Scotland . The early Celtic and Norse settlers left only a few written accounts and artefacts . From the 12th to 13th centuries on , the island was held by various clans including the MacLeans of Coll . The population grew to over 400 by the late 18th century but was cleared of its indigenous population between 1826 and 1828 . The island then became a sporting estate , the exotic Kinloch Castle being constructed by the Bulloughs in 1900 . Rùm was purchased by the Nature Conservancy Council in 1957 .
Rùm is mainly igneous in origin , and its mountains have been eroded by Pleistocene glaciation . It is now an important study site for research in ecology , especially of red deer , and is the site of a successful reintroduction programme for the white @-@ tailed sea eagle . Its economy is entirely dependent on Scottish Natural Heritage , a public body that now manages the island , and there have been calls for a greater diversity of housing provision . A Caledonian MacBrayne ferry links the island with the mainland town of Mallaig .
= = Etymology and placenames = =
Haswell @-@ Smith ( 2004 ) suggests that Rum is " probably " pre @-@ Celtic , but may be Old Norse rõm @-@ øy for " wide island " or Gaelic ì @-@ dhruim ( pronounced [ iˈɣɾɯim ] ) meaning " isle of the ridge " . Ross ( 2007 ) notes that there is a written record of Ruim from 677 and suggests " spacious island " from the Gaelic rùm . Mac an Tàilleir ( 2003 ) is unequivocal that Rùm is " a pre @-@ Gaelic name and unclear " . The origins are therefore speculative , but it is known for certain that George Bullough changed the spelling to Rhum to avoid the association with the alcoholic drink rum . However , the " Rhum " spelling is used on a Kilmory gravestone dated 1843 . In 1991 the Nature Conservancy Council of Scotland ( the forerunner to Scottish Natural Heritage ) reverted to the use of Rum without the h .
In the 13th century there may be references to the island as Raun @-@ eyja and Raun @-@ eyjum and Dean Munro writing in 1549 calls it Ronin . Seafaring Hebrideans had numerous taboos concerning spoken references to islands . In the case of Rùm , use of the usual name was forbidden , the island being referred to as Rìoghachd na Forraiste Fiadhaich — " the kingdom of the wild forest " .
The island was cleared of its indigenous population prior to being mapped by the Ordnance Survey , so it is possible that many place names are speculative . Nonetheless , the significant number of Norse @-@ derived names that exist eight centuries after Viking political control ended indicate the importance of their presence on the island . Of the nine hamlets that were mapped in 1801 , seven of the names are of Norse origin .
= = Geography = =
Rùm is the largest of the Small Isles , with an area of 10 @,@ 463 hectares ( 40 @.@ 40 sq mi ) . It had a population of only 22 in the 2001 census , making it one of the most sparsely populated of all Scottish islands . There is no indigenous population ; the residents are a mixture of employees of Scottish Natural Heritage and their families , together with a number of researchers and a school teacher . There are a variety of small businesses on the island including accommodation providers , artists and crafters , three newly created crofts are being worked ( as of 2012 ) with the introduction of sheep back to the island , along with pigs and poultry . Most of the residents live in the village of Kinloch , in the east of the island , which has no church or pub , but does have a village hall and a small primary school . It also has a shop and post office , which is run as a private business . There is a summer teashop open .
Kinloch is at the head of Loch Scresort , the main anchorage . Kilmory Bay lies to the north . It has a fine beach and the remains of a village , and has for some years served as the base for research into red deer ( see below ) . The area is occasionally closed to visitors during the period of the deer rut in the autumn . The western point is the A 'Bhrideanach peninsula , and to the southwest lie Wreck Bay , the cliffs of Sgorr Reidh and Harris Bay . The last is the site of the Bullough 's mausoleum . The family decided the first version was inadequate and dynamited it . The second is in the incongruous style of a Greek temple . Papadil ( Old Norse : " valley of the hermit " ) near the southern extremity has the ruins of a lodge built and then abandoned by the Bulloughs .
An 1801 map produced by George Langlands identified nine villages : Kilmory to the north at the head of Glen Kilmory , Samhnan Insir just to the north between Kilmory and Rubha Samhnan Insir , Camas Pliasgiag in the northeast , " Kinlochscresort " , ( the modern Kinloch ) , Cove ( Laimhrige at Bagh na h @-@ Uamha in the east ) , Dibidil in the southeast , Papadil in the south , Harris in the southwest and Guirdil at the head of Glen Shellesder in the northwest .
The island 's relief is spectacular , a 19th @-@ century commentator remarking that " the interior is one heap of rude mountains , scarcely possessing an acre of level land " . This combination of geology and topography make for less than ideal agricultural conditions , and it is doubtful that more than one tenth of the island has ever been cultivated . In the 18th century average land rental values on Rùm were a third those of neighbouring Eigg , and only a fifth of Canna 's .
Mean rainfall is high at 1 @,@ 800 millimetres ( 71 in ) at the coast and 3 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 120 in ) in the hills . Spring months are usually the driest and winter the wettest , but any month may receive the highest level of precipitation during the year .
= = Climate = =
As with the rest of the British Isles and Scotland , Rùm features a strongly maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters .
There is a MetOffice weather station at Kinloch providing long term climate observations .
= = Geology = =
The main range of hills on Rùm are the Cuillin , usually referred to as the " Rùm Cuillin " , in order to distinguish them from the Cuillin of Skye . They are rocky peaks of basalt and gabbro , similar in many ways to their better @-@ known namesakes . Geologically , Rùm is the core of a deeply eroded volcano that was active in the Paleogene era some 66 - 23 million years ago , and which developed on a pre @-@ existing structure of Torridonian sandstone and shales resting on Lewisian gneiss . Two of the Cuillin are classified as Corbetts : Askival and Ainshval , ( Old Norse for " mountain of the ash trees " and " hill of the strongholds " respectively ) and Rùm is the smallest Scottish island to have a summit above 762 metres ( 2 @,@ 500 ft ) . Other hills include Hallival , Trollaval ( ' mountain of the trolls ' ) , Barkeval , and Sgurr nan Gillean ( Gaelic : " peak of the young men " ) in the Cuillin and Ard Nev , Orval , Sròn an t @-@ Saighdeir and Bloodstone Hill in the west . It is likely that only the higher peaks remained above the Pleistocene ice sheets as nunataks .
Hallival and Askival are formed from an extraordinary series of layered igneous rocks created as olivine and feldspar crystals accumulated at the base of a magma chamber . The chamber eventually collapsed , forming a caldera . There are swarms of near @-@ vertical dykes of basalt on the northwest coast between Kilmory and Guirdil , created by basaltic magma forcing its way into fissures in the pre @-@ existing rock . The western hills , although less elevated than the Cuillin , exhibit a superb collection of periglacial landforms including boulder sheets and lobes , turf @-@ banked terraces , ploughing boulders and patterned ground . On Orval and Ard Nev the weathered basalt and granophyre has been sorted by frost heaving into circles 50 centimetres in diameter and weathering on Barkeval has produced unusual rock sculptures . On Sròn an t @-@ Saighdeir there are large sorted granite boulder circles 2 – 3 metres across on the flat summit and sorted stripes on the slopes . Lava flowing away from the volcanic centre formed Bloodstone Hill , gas bubbles leaving holes in the structure that were then filled with green agate flecked with red . There are some outcrops of the pre @-@ volcanic Lewisian gneiss near Dibidil in the southeast corner of the island , and more extensive deposits of sandstone in the north and east .
= = Prehistory = =
Farm Fields , a site near Kinloch , provides some of the earliest known evidence of human occupation in Scotland . Carbonized hazelnut shells found there have been dated to the Mesolithic period at 7700 @-@ 7500 BC . At this time the landscape was dominated by alder , hazel and willow scrub . A beach site above Loch Scresort has been dated to between 6500 and 5500 BC . The presence of this hunter @-@ gatherer community may have been to take advantage of the local supplies of bloodstone , a workable material for the making of tools and weapons . There is a shell @-@ midden at Papadil in the south and evidence of tidal fish traps at both Kinloch and Kilmory .
Examination of peat cores and pollen records indicates that soil erosion ( suggesting clearance of woodland for agricultural purposes ) was taking place in 3470 BC and that evidence of arable cultivation by Neolithic communities exists from 2460 BC . As the climate became damper , peat expanded at the expense of woodland , and post @-@ glacial sea level changes left raised beaches around the coastline 18 – 45 metres above the present coastline , especially between Harris and A 'Bhrideanach . There are prehistoric fort sites at Kilmory , Papadil and Shellesder of uncertain date .
= = History = =
= = = Early Christian period = = =
St Beccan of Rùm may have lived on the island for four decades from 632 AD , his death being recorded in the Annals of Ulster in 677 . He is known to have been conservative on doctrinal matters and surviving examples of his poetry suggest a passionate personality . He wrote of Columba :
In scores of curraghs with an army of wretches he crossed the long @-@ haired sea .
He crossed the wave @-@ strewn wild region ,
Foam flecked , seal @-@ filled , savage , bounding , seething , white @-@ tipped , pleasing , doleful .
Simple stone pillars has been found at Kilmory and Bagh na h @-@ Uamha ( ' bay of the cave ' ) that may date from this period .
= = = Norse rule = = =
The Norse held sway in the Small Isles from 833 until the Treaty of Perth in 1266 . The Macsorley clan held tutelage in the later period of Norse rule from at least 1240 , and possibly a century earlier . The only direct evidence of a Norse presence on Rùm to date is a piece of carved narwhal ivory unearthed at Bagh na h @-@ Uamh in 1940 .
= = = Medieval Scots rule = = =
By 1346 the island was chartered to John of Islay , the Scots Lord of the Isles . It is possible that during the early medieval period the island was used as a hunting reserve by the nobility ( hence the ' taboo name ' referred to above ) . John of Fordun indicates that Rùm was " with excellent sport , but few inhabitants " and " a wooded and hilly island " in 1380 . Two hundred years later Skene noted that
Romb is ane Ile of small profit , except that it conteins mony deir , and for sustentation thairof the same is permittit unlabourit , except twa townis . It is ... all hillis and waist glennis , and commodious only for hunting of deir ... and will raise 6 or 7 men .
At the same time the much smaller nearby island of Muck was able to " raise " 16 able men and in 1625 there were only three villages on Rùm , suggesting the population was being deliberately constrained . Substantial stone walls built to funnel deer into pens that may date from this period still exist in the western glens . During the 13th century Rùm became part of the estates of the powerful Clann Ruaidhrí for a brief period and then passed into the hands of Clanranald .
= = = 16th century = = =
By the mid @-@ 16th century , and probably a century earlier , the island was in the possession of the MacLeans of Coll . This transfer may have occurred by extortion , Allan MacRuarie of Clanranald having been held prisoner on Coll for 9 months . In 1549 Munro noted that although the island " pertained " to Coll it " obeys instantlie " to the Macleans of Duart , a situation that continued for some time . In 1588 the Small Isles suffered an armed invasion by Lachlan Maclean of Duart and his band of cutthroats , including up to one hundred Spaniards shipwrecked in the aftermath of the English defeat of the Armada . He burnt and put the isles to the sword , sparing neither women nor children . At a later date a report received by King James VI indicated that Clanranald had re @-@ occupied the island , but despite these temporary setbacks the island remained in Maclean of Coll 's hands for three centuries or more .
= = = 17th and 18th centuries = = =
By the late 17th century Rùm 's status as a hunting reserve went into decline and population numbers started to rise . Black cattle were raised for export to the mainland , fish caught and barley and potatoes grown . More unusually , goats were kept by the inhabitants , the hair being sent to Glasgow and made into wigs for export to America . The economy was in no small part dependent on the bounty of the sea . Edward Clarke visiting in 1797 dined on :
.... milk , oatcakes and Lisbon wine . I was surprised to find wine of that species , and of a superior quality in such a hut , but they told us it was part of the freight of some unfortunate vessel wrecked near the island .
This largesse notwithstanding , conditions were primitive . There was no permanent minister and when one visited he was obliged to conduct sermons in the open air , there being no church . Nor was there a mill , and leather was tanned with willow bark and dressed with sea shells due to the lack of lime . The nearby smaller island of Muck was valued for land rental the same as the whole of Rùm at this time , again indicating the poverty of agriculture on Rùm . The growing population of Rùm 's demands on the land led to the extermination of the native red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) during the latter half of the 18th century .
James Boswell and Samuel Johnson met with MacLean of Coll at Talisker on Skye during their 1773 excursion to the Hebrides . Boswell reported that :
After dinner he and I walked to the top of Prieshwell , a very high rocky hill , from whence there is a view of Barra , the Long Island , Bernera , the Loch of Dunvegan , part of Rùm , part of Rasay , and a vast deal of the Isle of Skye . Col , though he had come into Skye with an intention to be at Dunvegan , and pass a considerable time in the island , most politely resolved first to conduct us to Mull , and then to return to Skye . This was a very fortunate circumstance ; for he planned an expedition for us of more variety than merely going to Mull . He proposed we should see the islands of Egg , Muck , Col , and Tyr @-@ yi . In all these islands he could shew us every thing worth seeing .
In the event , poor weather prevented the travellers visiting the Small Isles en route to Mull .
= = = 19th century = = =
By 1801 there were nine hamlets on the island , and its economy received a temporary boost from the kelp industry . The wooded island of five hundred years before was now essentially treeless outside of Kinloch village .
In 1825 the entire island was leased to Dr Lachlan Maclean , a relative of Hugh Maclean of Coll , and its inhabitants ( then numbering some 450 people ) were given a year 's notice to quit their homes , which essentially meant an enforced leaving of the island . ( Most of the population of Rùm were tenant farmers , paying rent to the island 's owner ; in law they neither owned the land they worked nor the houses in which they lived . ) On 11 July 1826 , about 300 of the inhabitants boarded two overcrowded ships — the Highland Lad and the Dove of Harmony — bound for Cape Breton in Nova Scotia , Canada . Their passage was paid by Dr Lachlan and by Maclean of Coll . The remaining population followed them in 1827 on the St. Lawrence , along with some 150 inhabitants from the island of Muck , another of Maclean of Coll 's properties . These evictions were part of a wider event that came to be known as the Highland Clearances , during which people whose culture had existed there for millennia were forced to emigrate .
In 1827 , when giving evidence to a government select committee on emigration , an agent of Maclean of Coll was asked " And were the people willing to go ? " " Some of them " , came the reply , " Others were not very willing , they did not like to leave the land of their ancestors " . Years later an eyewitness , a local shepherd , was more forthcoming in his description of the events : " The people of the island were carried off in one mass , for ever , from the sea @-@ girt spot where they were born and bred ... The wild outcries of the men and heart @-@ breaking wails of the women and children filled all the air between the mountainous shore of the bay " .
Dr Lachlan turned Rùm into a sheep farm , with its population replaced by some 8 @,@ 000 blackface sheep , but the price of mutton and wool was in decline . In 1839 Lachlan was forced to relinquish his tenancy of Rùm , bankrupt , penniless and , in the words of a Cape Breton letter from 1897 , " much worse off than the comfortable people he turned out of Rùm 13 years previously " . The same letter described Lachlan as " the Curse and Scourge of the Highland Crofters " .
In 1844 the visiting geologist , Hugh Miller , wrote :
The single sheep farmer who had occupied the holdings of so many had been unfortunate in his speculations , and had left the island : the proprietor , his landlord seemed to have been as little fortunate as his tenant , for the island itself was in the market ; and a report went current at the time that it was on the eve of being purchased by some wealthy Englishman , who purposed converting it into a deer forest . How strange a cycle !
MacLean of Coll sold the island to the Marquess of Salisbury in 1845 , who converted it into a sporting estate . The island was then owned by the Campbell family from 1870 to 1888 , when John Bullough , a cotton machinery manufacturer and self @-@ made millionaire from Accrington in Lancashire , acquired the island , and continued to use it for recreational purposes . The estate 's prospectus for the 1888 sale described Rùm as " the most picturesque of the islands which lie off the west coast of Scotland " and " as a sporting estate it has at present few equals " . It gave its population as between 60 and 70 , all either shepherds or estate workers and their families . There were no crofts on the island . When Bullough died in 1891 he was buried on Rùm , in a rock @-@ cut mausoleum under an octagonal stone tower . This was later demolished and his sarcophagus moved into an elaborate mausoleum modelled as a Greek temple . He was succeeded in the ownership of Rùm by his son , George Bullough .
= = = 20th century = = =
George Bullough ( later Sir George ) , built Kinloch Castle in 1900 using sandstone quarried at Annan in Dumfries and Galloway ( some sources say the stone was from Arran ) .
At this time there were about 100 people employed on the estate . Fourteen under @-@ gardeners , who were paid extra to wear kilts , worked on the extensive grounds that included a nine @-@ hole golf course , tennis and squash courts , heated turtle and alligator ponds and an aviary including birds of paradise and humming birds . Soil for the grounds was imported from Ayrshire and figs , peaches , grapes and nectarines were grown in greenhouses . The interior boasted an orchestrion that could simulate the sounds of brass , drum and woodwind , an air @-@ conditioned billiards room , and a jacuzzi . This opulence could not be sustained indefinitely . The Bullough finances gradually declined in the 1920s , and their interest in , and visits to Rùm decreased . Sir George died in France in July 1939 — he was interred in the family mausoleum on Rùm . His widow continued to visit Rùm as late as 1954 . She died in London in 1967 , aged 98 , and was buried next to her husband in the Rùm mausoleum . In 1957 Lady Bullough had sold the whole island , save for the mausoleum , but including the castle and its contents , to the Nature Conservancy Council ( now Scottish Natural Heritage ) for the " knock @-@ down price of £ 23 @,@ 000 " on the understanding that it would be used as a national nature reserve .
= = = Overview of population trends = = =
Source : Rixson ( 2001 ) unless otherwise stated
= = Ecology = =
Rùm is an important study site for research in ecology and numerous academic papers have been produced based on work undertaken on the island . In addition to its status as nature reserve , Rùm was designated a Biosphere Reserve from 1976 to 2002 , a Site of Special Scientific Interest in 1987 , and has seventeen sites scheduled as nationally important ancient monuments .
= = = Red deer = = =
The red deer population has been the subject of research for many years , recently under the leadership of Tim Clutton @-@ Brock of the University of Cambridge . These efforts are based at the remote bay of Kilmory in the north of the island . It has been important in the development of sociobiology and behavioural ecology , particularly in relation to the understanding of aggression through game theory .
= = = Ponies , goats and cattle = = =
The island has small herds of ponies , feral goats ( Capra hircus ) and Highland cattle . The pony herd , which now numbers about a dozen animals , was first recorded on the island in 1772 , and in 1775 they were described as being " very small , but a breed of eminent beauty " . They are small in stature , averaging only 13 hands in height and all have a dark stripe down their backs and zebra stripes on their forelegs . These features have led to speculation that they may be related to primitive northern European breeds , although it is more likely that they originate from the western Mediterranean . It is sometimes claimed that they are descended from animals that travelled with the Spanish Armada , although it is probable that they arrived by more conventional means . The goat stocks were improved for stalking in the early 20th century and acquired a reputation for the size of their horns and the thickness of their fleeces . The flock of about 200 spends most of its time on the western sea cliffs . The native cattle were re @-@ introduced in 1970 , having been absent since the 19th century clearances . The herd of 30 grazes in the Harris area from September to June , and further north in Glen Shellesder in the summer months .
= = = Other fauna = = =
Rùm is also noted for its bird life . The population of 70 @,@ 000 Manx shearwaters is one of the largest breeding colonies in the world . These migrating birds that spend their winters in the South Atlantic off Brazil , and return to Rùm every summer to breed in underground burrows high in the Cuillin Hills . White @-@ tailed sea eagles were exterminated on the island by 1912 and later became extinct in Scotland . A programme of reintroduction began in 1975 , and within ten years 82 young sea eagles from Norway had been released . There is now a successful breeding population in the wild .
There are brown trout , European eel and three @-@ spined stickleback in the streams , and salmon occasionally run in the Kinloch River . The only amphibian found on Rùm is the palmate newt and the only reptile native to Rùm is the common lizard . Invertebrates are diverse and have been studied there since 1884 , numerous species of damsel fly , dragonfly , beetle , butterflies , moths etc. having been recorded . Several rare upland species are found on the ultrabasic slopes of Barkeval , Hallival and Askival including the ground beetles Leistus montanus and Amara quenseli . The midge ( Culicoides impunctatus ) , a biting gnat , occurs in " unbelievable numbers " .
In October 2006 the popular Autumnwatch series on BBC television showed coverage of the deer rut at Kilmory Bay .
A 1 @.@ 5 hectare patch of brown earth soil at the abandoned settlement of Papadil is home to a thriving population of earthworms , which are rare in the elsewhere poor soil of the island . Some individuals of Lumbricus terrestris have reached tremendous sizes , with the largest weighing 12 @.@ 7 grams . This is speculated to be due to the good quality soil , and absence of predators .
= = = Flora = = =
A tree nursery was established at Kinloch in 1960 in order to support a substantial programme of re @-@ introducing twenty native species including silver birch , hawthorn , rowan and holly . The forested area , which consists of over a million re @-@ introduced native trees and shrubs , is essentially confined to the vicinity of Kinloch and the slopes near this site surrounding Loch Scresort and on nearby Meall á Ghoirtein . The island 's flora came to widespread attention with the 1999 publication of the book A Rum Affair by Karl Sabbagh , a British writer and television producer . The book told of a long @-@ running scientific controversy over the alleged discovery of certain plants on Rùm by botanist John William Heslop @-@ Harrison — discoveries that are now considered to be fraudulent . Heslop Harrison is widely believed to have placed many of these plants on the island himself to provide evidence for his theory about the geological development of the Hebridean islands . Nonetheless , the native flora offers much of interest . There are rare arctic sandwort and alpine pennycress , endemic varieties of the heath spotted @-@ orchid and eyebright , as well as more common species such as sundew , butterwort , blue heath milkwort and roseroot . A total of 590 higher plant and fern taxa have been recorded .
= = Economy , transport and culture = =
The entire island is owned and managed as a single estate by Scottish Natural Heritage ( SNH ) . As noted above , the island has a transient population comprising employees of SNH and their families , researchers , and a teacher . Until recently SNH have been opposed to the development of the island as a genuine community , but there has been a change in approach since the beginning of 2007 . Di Alexander , development manager for the Highlands Small Communities Housing Trust has said : " It has been clear for many years that the small community on Rùm needs to increase and diversify its housing supply away from exclusively SNH @-@ tied housing . Even a couple of new rented houses could make such a difference to the community 's wellbeing . "
Surprisingly perhaps , on an 10 @,@ 500 hectares ( 26 @,@ 000 acres ) estate with a population less than thirty , an issue has been lack of land for building . However , an SNH spokesman has stated " Once we are clear what the trust 's priorities are , we will release the land " . The Prince 's Regeneration Trust , which is drawing up a conservation plan for Kinloch Castle , may also make proposals for renewable energy generation on the island .
In 2008 a " Rùm Task Group " , chaired by Lesley Riddoch , was created to generate proposals for advancing community development opportunities . It reported to Mike Russell MSP the Minister for Environment in the Scottish Government , and in June a plan was announced to establish a locally @-@ run trust with the aim of reintroducing crofting settlements to the area around Kinloch village . In December it was announced that £ 250 @,@ 000 of land and buildings are likely to be placed into community ownership , subject to a ballot of the electorate in January 2009 .
A Caledonian MacBrayne ferry , MV Lochnevis , links Rùm and the neighbouring Small Isles of Canna , Eigg and Muck , to the mainland port of Mallaig some 17 miles ( 27 km ) and 1 ½ hours sailing time away . The Lochnevis has a landing craft @-@ style stern ramp allowing vehicles to be driven onto and off the vessel at a new slipway constructed in 2001 . However , visitors are not normally permitted to bring vehicles to the Small Isles . During the summer months the islands are also served by Arisaig Marine 's ferry MV Sheerwater from Arisaig , 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Mallaig .
The best anchorage is Loch Scresort , with other bays offering only temporary respites from poor weather . Robert Buchanan writing in the 19th century described it as :
As sweet a little nook as ever Ulysses mooned away a day in , during his memorable voyage homeward . Though merely a small bay , about a mile in breadth , and curving inland for a mile and a half , it is quite sheltered from all winds save the east , being flanked to the south and west by Haskeval and Hondeval , and guarded on the northern side by a low range of heathery slopes . In this sunny time , the sheep are bleating from the shores , the yacht lies double , yacht and shadow , and the bay is painted richly with the clear reflection of the mountains .
In the summer of 2002 a reality TV programme titled Escape from Experiment Island was filmed on the island . This short @-@ lived show ( 6 episodes ) was produced by the BBC in conjunction with the Discovery Channel . The show was to piggyback on the success of Junkyard Wars by having the teams build vehicles to escape from the island .
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= Lloyd Kenyon , 1st Baron Kenyon =
Lloyd Kenyon , 1st Baron Kenyon PC SL KC ( 5 October 1732 – 4 April 1802 ) was a British politician and barrister , who served as Attorney General , Master of the Rolls and Lord Chief Justice . Born to a country gentleman , he was initially educated in Hanmer before moving to Ruthin School aged 12 . Rather than going to university he instead worked as a clerk to an attorney , joining the Middle Temple in 1750 and being called to the Bar in 1756 . Initially almost unemployed due to the lack of education and contacts which a university education would have provided , his business increased thanks to his friendships with John Dunning , who , overwhelmed with cases , allowed Kenyon to work many , and Lord Thurlow who secured for him the Chief Justiceship of Chester in 1780 . He was returned as the Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Hindon the same year , serving repeatedly as Attorney General under William Pitt the Younger . He effectively sacrificed his political career in 1784 to challenge the ballot of Charles James Fox , and was rewarded with a baronetcy ; from then on he did not speak in the House of Commons , despite remaining an MP .
On 27 March 1784 he was appointed Master of the Rolls , a job to which he dedicated himself once he ceased to act as an MP . He had previously practised in the Court of Chancery , and although unfamiliar with Roman law was highly efficient ; Lord Eldon said " I am mistaken if , after I am gone , the Chancery Records do not prove that if I have decided more than any of my predecessors in the same period of time , Sir Lloyd Kenyon beat us all " . On 9 June 1788 , Kenyon succeeded Lord Mansfield as Lord Chief Justice , and was granted a barony . Although not rated as highly as his predecessor , his work " restored the simplicity and rigor of the common law " . He remained Lord Chief Justice until his death in 1802 .
= = Early life and education = =
Kenyon was born on 5 November 1732 in Gredington , Flintshire to Lloyd Kenyon , a country gentleman and Justice of the peace , and his wife Jane Eddowes . He was initially educated at a school in Hanmer – it was written that " no man ever set out on his career with fewer advantages " than Kenyon . When he was 12 he was sent to Ruthin School , where he learnt French and Latin , and was considered one of the best students at the school . His knowledge of Greek was non @-@ existent , and his scientific training minor ; " he was said to have believed to his dying day that the sun goes around the earth " . As a second son , he had initially considered joining the clergy , but instead decided on the law and spent 5 years working as a clerk to Mr W.J. Tomkinson , an attorney . He proved to be an excellent clerk , becoming a " rapid and accurate conveyancer " . Originally happy with the idea of being a simple attorney , after the death of his older brother it was instead assumed he would become a barrister , and Kenyon joined the Middle Temple in November 1750 . In February 1755 he left Tomkinson 's practice and moved to London , where he was called to the Bar on 10 February 1756 .
= = Career as a barrister = =
Without the education or connections that a university education would have provided he was almost entirely unemployed for several years . Kenyon instead lived off an £ 80 allowance from his father , and money from his richer relatives , spending the time watching Lord Mansfield conduct cases at the Court of King 's Bench . His early business was almost entirely conveyancing , and to make extra money he began to attend the Welsh Circuit , where Tomlinson 's contacts allowed him to pick up some small cases . After several years of this he also began attending quarter sessions at Oxford , Stafford and Shrewsbury , " where he was more successful " . While his work slowly began to increase , his main rise was due to his friendship with John Dunning , at the time a similarly near @-@ unemployed barrister . In 1762 one of the leaders of the Northern Circuit died , and his work was given to Dunning ; as he found himself with too many cases , he gave many to Kenyon . In 1767 , for example , Kenyon dealt with 20 of Dunning 's cases . As a result of his speedy and efficient work attorneys began to employ him directly , and within 10 years he was making £ 3 @,@ 000 a year just from opinions .
Kenyon 's next rise came about as a result of his introduction to the Duke of Richmond , who was struggling with Sir James Lowther for the control of several Parliamentary constituencies . Kenyon went with Richmond to Carlisle and Cockermouth as his lawyer , and secured the constituencies for Richmond ; as a result , Richmond chose to employ Kenyon as his lawyer from then onwards . In 1780 he successfully defended Lord George Gordon for high treason , assisted by Thomas Erskine , and the resulting fame was enough to propel him further up the ranks of his profession and within the political sphere . At the same time he became friends with Lord Thurlow , and when the holder of the Chief Justiceship of Chester died that year , Thurlow ensured that it was given to Kenyon . The rise of Kenyon 's work in the Court of Chancery was also attributed to his friendship with Thurlow , who as Lord Chancellor was the head of the Court .
= = Political career = =
When Parliament was dissolved in 1780 , Thurlow ensured that Kenyon was returned as a Member of Parliament for Hindon . In April 1782 , on the formation of the Rockingham government , Kenyon was made Attorney @-@ General for England and Wales , despite having never sat in the lower office of Solicitor @-@ General or spoken in Parliament . As Attorney General he spoke on only one subject , on 18 June 1782 , in regards to the amount of money owed to the Exchequer by the Paymaster of the Forces . This provoked the opposition of Charles James Fox , whose father , Lord Holland , had profited greatly by that office ; Kenyon 's programme could have ruined Fox by making him liable for refunding his father 's profits as Paymaster . On the death of Rockingham Kenyon continued in his post under the Shelburne Ministry , but left office in April 1783 when that government fell to the Fox @-@ North Coalition . He instead allied himself with William Pitt the Younger , leading the opposition to the first Act of the new government and strongly supporting an opposition bill to reform the Exchequer . When the new government was dismissed on 19 December and Pitt took control , Kenyon was again made Attorney @-@ General . He again took the lead on the issue of the Paymaster of the Forces , and commanded that Richard Rigby , Paymaster until 1782 , " do deliver to the House an account of the balance of all public money remaining in his hands on the 13th day of November last " , something Rigby complained was against common practice .
In 1784 Thomas Sewell died , and , as was tradition , Kenyon succeeded him as Master of the Rolls on 27 March . Initially intending to withdraw from Parliament , Kenyon was persuaded to remain as an MP and Attorney General to increase Pitt 's majority . Having purchased the seat of Tregony he " was resolved to go the whole hog " , and became one of the strongest and most visible supporters of Pitt . With his contacts in Wales , he secured votes for several ministerial candidates in Welsh constituencies . In an attempt to have Charles James Fox removed as an MP he had Fox 's ballot challenged ; while this backfired , he was awarded with a baronetcy for the effective sacrifice of his political career . As a result of this controversy he stated that " legislation was a task to which he had by no means thought himself equal " , and stayed silent in Parliament for the rest of his life .
= = Judicial career = =
Having withdrawn from politics , Kenyon instead switched his focus to his job as Master of the Rolls . As a judge of the Court of Chancery he was required to deal with cases of equity ; though he was almost entirely unfamiliar with the Roman law it was based on , he had previously practised in the Chancery . He was not considered as good as his successor , Sir William Grant , but Lord Eldon wrote that " I am mistaken if , after I am gone , the Chancery Records do not prove that if I have decided more than any of my predecessors in the same period of time , Sir Lloyd Kenyon beat us all " . With the retirement of Lord Mansfield as Lord Chief Justice , Kenyon succeeded him on 9 June 1788 , and was made Baron Kenyon of Gredington , in the county of Flint .
Kenyon 's appointment was initially greeted with caution by his fellow barristers , who worried that , as he had practised in a court of equity rather than a court of common law , he might be unfamiliar with the area covered by his new posting in the Court of King 's Bench . Despite this , he was noted as an excellent judge , although one who suffered from an " excess of zeal " in moral issues . One of his flaws was his defective education ; he was too proud to avoid exhibiting his ignorance . He was particularly noted for using Latin incorrectly , leading George III to say " My Lord ... it would be well if you would stick to your good law and leave off your bad Latin " . As a judge , Kenyon over @-@ ruled the principles that a court of law could not consider trusts or a pecuniary legacy ; it was said that he " restored the simplicity and rigor of the common law " . After nearly one and a half decades as a judge , Kenyon died on 4 April 1802 in Bath .
= = Personal life = =
In 1773 he married his cousin , Mary Kenyon , with whom he had three sons ; Lloyd , who predeceased him , George , and Thomas . Kenyon was noted by John Campbell , 1st Baron Campbell as " a man of wonderful quickness of perception , of considerable intellectual nimbleness , of much energy of purpose , and of unwearied industry " , although Campbell noted that , thanks to Kenyon 's lack of a university education , he knew only " the corner of jurisprudence which he professionally cultivated ; he had not even the information generally picked up by the clever clerk of a country attorney " . He was noted as arrogant , despising things he did not understand and condemning any opinions he disagreed with regardless of his knowledge of them . He never attempted to reform the judicial system , and " his habits of sordid parsimony brought discredit on the high station which he filled " . Despite this , as a judge he was seen as " profound in legal erudition , patient in judicial discrimination , and of the most determined integrity " .
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= The Boat Race 1891 =
The 48th Boat Race took place on 21 March 1891 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford went into the race leading 24 – 22 in the event overall . In total , eight rowers who were participating had previous Boat Race experience . Umpired by former Oxford rower Frank Willan , pre @-@ race favourites Oxford won by half @-@ a @-@ length in a time of 21 minutes 48 seconds . It was Oxford 's narrowest winning margin since the 1867 race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the boat clubs of University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , as of 2014 it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by one length in the previous year 's race , and held the overall lead , with 24 victories to Cambridge 's 22 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by Arthur Middleton Hutchinson ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1881 and 1882 races ) while Oxford 's coach was R. C. Lehmann , former president of the Cambridge Union Society and captain of the 1st Trinity Boat Club . Although Lehmann had rowed in the trials eights for Cambridge , he was never selected for the Blue boat .
The umpire for the race for the third year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 3 @.@ 75 lb ( 77 @.@ 7 kg ) , 7 @.@ 75 pounds ( 3 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw four former Blues return to the boat , in Gilbert Francklyn , Edmund Towers Fison , John Friend Rowlatt and Cambridge University Boat Club president Gerard Elin . Oxford 's crew contained four rowers with Boat Race experience , including Guy Nickalls who was rowing in his fourth consecutive race , this year alongside his brother Vivian . The Dark Blues also featured cox John Pemberton Heywood @-@ Lonsdale for the third time in a row .
Four of the Oxford crew were studying at Magdalen College while five of the Cambridge crew had matriculated to Trinity Hall . Two rowers were registered as non @-@ British , F. Wilkinson for Oxford and Edward Wason Lord for Cambridge both hailed from Australia . Wilkinson was forced to leave the Oxford crew during practice as he suffered from influenza ; he was considered sufficiently fit to return to the crew but , according to Drinkwater , " never found his real form again " .
= = Race = =
Oxford were pre @-@ race favourites , and won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . The race commenced at 11 : 09 a.m. , in a northerly wind , and despite being outrated by Cambridge , the Dark Blues took an early lead and were a quarter of a length ahead as the crews passed Craven Steps . Just before the Mile Post , Oxford 's lead was around half a length , but Cambridge pushed on to take the lead by Hammersmith Bridge . Oxford responded and held a marginal lead as the crews passed The Doves pub , and the boats exchanged the lead several times along Chiswick Reach .
The Dark Blues took the lead and were three @-@ quarters of a length up at Barnes Bridge . Elin increased Cambridge 's stroke rate ; Charles Kent , the Oxford stroke responded and although the bend in the river favoured the Dark Blues , Cambridge closed the gap . However , it was too late to stop Oxford taking the victory . The Dark Blues passed the finishing post with a half @-@ length lead in a time of 21 minutes 48 seconds . It was their second consecutive victory and the narrowest winning margin since the 1867 race , taking the overall record to 25 – 22 in Oxford 's favour .
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= Deimatic behaviour =
Deimatic behaviour in animals means any pattern of threatening or startling behaviour , such as suddenly displaying conspicuous eyespots , so as to scare off or momentarily distract a predator , thus giving the prey animal an opportunity to escape . The term deimatic or dymantic originates from the Greek root δειματόω ( deimatόo ) , meaning ' to frighten ' .
Deimatic display occurs in widely separated groups of animals , including moths , butterflies , mantises and phasmids among the insects . In the cephalopods , different species of octopuses , squids , cuttlefish and the paper nautilus are deimatic .
Displays are classified as deimatic or aposematic by the responses of the animals that see them . Where predators are initially startled but learn to eat the displaying prey , the display is classed as deimatic , and the prey is bluffing ; where they continue to avoid the prey after tasting it , the display is taken as aposematic , meaning the prey is genuinely distasteful . However , these categories are not entirely mutually exclusive . It is possible for a behaviour to be both deimatic and aposematic , if it both startles a predator and indicates the presence of antipredator adaptations .
Vertebrates including several species of frog put on warning displays ; some of these species have poison glands . Among the mammals , deimatic displays are found in species with strong defences , such as in foul @-@ smelling skunks and spiny porcupines . Such displays are often combined with warning coloration . Thus these displays in both frogs and mammals are at least in part aposematic .
= = In insects = =
Deimatic displays are made by insects including the praying mantises ( Mantidae ) and stick insects ( Phasmatodea ) . While undisturbed , these insects are usually well camouflaged . When disturbed by a potential predator , they suddenly reveal their hind wings , which are brightly coloured . In mantises , the wing display is sometimes reinforced by showing brightly coloured front legs , and accompanied by a loud hissing sound created by stridulation . For example , the grasshopper Phymateus displays red and yellow areas on its hind wings ; it is also aposematic , producing a distasteful secretion from its thorax . Similarly the threat display of the walking stick phasmid ( Peruphasma schultei ) is not a bluff : the insect sprays defensive dolichodial @-@ like monoterpene chemical compounds at attackers .
Among moths with deimatic behaviour , the eyed hawkmoth ( Smerinthus ocellatus ) displays its large eyespots , moving them slowly as if it were a vertebrate predator such as an owl . Among butterflies , the peacock butterfly Inachis io is a cryptic leaf mimic with wings closed , but displays 4 conspicuous eyespots when disturbed , in a display effective against insectivorous birds ( flycatchers ) .
An experiment by the Australian zoologist A.D. Blest demonstrated that the more an eyespot resembled a real vertebrate eye in both colour and pattern , the more effective it was in scaring off insectivorous birds . In another experiment using peacock butterflies , Blest showed that when the conspicuous eyespots had been rubbed off , insectivorous birds ( yellow buntings ) were much less effectively frightened off , and therefore both the sudden appearance of colour , and the actual eyespot pattern , contribute to the effectiveness of the deimatic display .
Some noctuid moths , such as the large red underwing ( Catocala nupta ) , are cryptic at rest , but display a flash of startlingly bright colours when disturbed . Others , such as many species of genus Speiredonia and Spirama , look threatening while at rest . Also saturniid moths of the genera Attacus and Rothschildia display snake heads , but not from the frontal position .
Many arctiid moths make clicks when hunted by echolocating bats ; they also often contain unpalatable chemicals . Some such as dogbane tiger moths ( Cycnia tenera ) have ears and conspicuous coloration , and start to make clicks when echolocating bats approach . An experiment by Canadian zoologists John M. Ratcliffe and James H. Fullard , using dogbane tiger moths and northern long @-@ eared bats ( Myotis septentrionalis ) , suggests the signals in fact both disrupt echolocation and warn of chemical defence . The behaviour of these insects is thus both deimatic and aposematic .
= = In arachnids = =
Both spiders and scorpions are venomous , so their threat displays can be considered generally aposematic . However , some predators such as hedgehogs and spider @-@ hunting wasps ( Pompilidae ) actively hunt arachnids , overcoming their defences , so when a hedgehog is startled by , for instance , the sounds made by a scorpion , there is reason to describe the display as deimatic .
Spiders make use of a variety of different threat displays . Some such as Argiope and Pholcus make themselves and their webs vibrate rapidly when they are disturbed ; this blurs their outline and perhaps makes them look larger , as well as more difficult to locate precisely for an attack . Mygalomorphae spiders such as tarantulas exhibit deimatic behaviour ; when threatened , the spider rears back with its front legs and pedipalps spread and fangs bared . Some species , such as the dangerous Indian ornamental tree spider ( Poecilotheria regalis ) have bright colouring on the front legs and mouthparts which are shown off in its threat display when it " rears up on its hind legs , and brandishes the fore limbs and palpi in the air " .
Scorpions perform threat displays ; when provoked , they spread their pincers and in some cases raise their abdomens , their tails standing near @-@ erect with the sting ready for immediate use . Some scorpions in addition produce deimatic noises by stridulating with the pedipalps and first legs .
= = In cephalopods = =
Deimatic behaviour is found in cephalopods including the common cuttlefish Sepia officinalis , squid such as the Caribbean reef squid ( Sepioteuthis sepioidea ) and bigfin reef squid ( Sepioteuthis lessoniana ) , octopuses including the common octopus Octopus vulgaris and the Atlantic white @-@ spotted octopus ( Octopus macropus ) , and the paper nautilus ( Argonauta argo ) . Deimatic cephalopod displays involve suddenly creating bold stripes , often reinforced by stretching out the animal 's arms , fins or web to make it look as big and threatening as possible .
For example , in the common cuttlefish the display consists of flattening the body , making the skin pale , showing a pair of eyespots on the mantle , dark eye rings , and a dark line on the fins , and dilating the pupils of the eyes . The common octopus similarly displays pale skin and dark eye rings with dilated pupils , but also curls its arms and stretches out the web between the arms as far as possible , and squirts out jets of water . Other octopuses such as Atlantic white @-@ spotted octopus turn bright brownish red with oval white spots all over in a high contrast display . The paper nautilus can rapidly change its appearance : it suddenly withdraws the shining iridescent web formed by its first pair of arms from its shell .
= = In vertebrates = =
Among vertebrates , the Australian frilled lizard ( Chlamydosaurus kingii ) has a startling display in which wide semicircular frills on either side of the head are fanned out ; the mouth is opened wide exposing the gape ; the tail is waved over the body , and the body is raised , so that the animal appears as large and threatening as possible .
Frogs such as Physalaemus nattereri , Physalaemus deimaticus , and Pleurodema brachyops have deimatic behaviour . These animals inflate themselves with air and raise their hind parts to appear as large as possible , and display brightly coloured markings and eyespots to intimidate predators . Seven species of frogs in the genus Pleurodema have lumbar glands ( making the animals distasteful ) ; these glands are usually boldly contrasted in black as a further warning .
Non @-@ bluffing ( aposematic ) displays occur in mammals which possess powerful defences such as spines or stink glands , and which habitually warn off potential predators rather than attempting escape by running . The lowland streaked tenrec ( Hemicentetes semispinosus ) raises the spines on its head and back when confronted by a predator , and moves its head up and down . Porcupines such as Erethizon erect their long sharp quills and adopt a hunched , head @-@ down posture when a predator is nearby . The spotted skunk ( Spilogale putorius ) balances on its front legs , its body raised vertically with its bold pelage pattern conspicuously displayed , and its tail ( near the scent glands ) raised and spread out .
= = Deimatic or aposematic ? = =
In a study of the rattling made by rattlesnakes of different species , the Canadian zoologists Brock Fenton and Lawrence Licht found that the sounds are always similar : they have rapid onset ( starting suddenly , and reaching full volume in a few milliseconds ) ; they consist of a ' broadband ' mixture of frequencies between 2 kHz and 20 kHz , with little energy either in the ultrasonic ( above 20 kHz ) or in the rattlesnakes ' hearing range ( below 700 Hz ) ; and the frequencies do not change much with time ( the rattling after 2 minutes having a similar spectrum to that at onset ) . There was no clear difference in the sounds made by the different species measured : Crotalus horridus , Crotalus adamanteus , Crotalus atrox , Crotalus cerastes , Crotalus viridis and Sistrurus catenatus . This pattern implies that the rattling " could serve as a general attention @-@ getting device " , which " is designed as a deimatic or startle display " . Its similarity to the " broadband , harsh sounds " used as warning calls by birds and mammals may enhance its effectiveness . Since rattlesnakes can barely hear the sound , it is unlikely to serve as any form of communication to other snakes of the same species . Finally , the sounds are not in themselves loud enough to cause pain and hence keep predators away .
Fenton and Licht note that the effect of a rattlesnake 's rattling could be deimatic ( startle ) in inexperienced animals , whether predators or large animals that might injure the snake by stepping on it , but aposematic ( a warning signal ) in animals that are aware of the rattle 's meaning . They refer to the work of Fenton and his colleague David Bates on the responses of the big brown bat , Eptesicus fuscus , to the defensive clicks made by moths in the family Arctiidae , which includes the garden tiger moth , Arctia caja . This family includes large , furry , bitter @-@ tasting or poisonous moths . They found that while sounds can startle inexperienced bats , after a few trials the bats ignored the sounds if the prey was edible ; but the same sounds can warn experienced bats of bitter @-@ tasting prey ( an honest signal ) .
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= Jean Michel Jarre =
Jean Michel Jarre ( born Jean @-@ Michel André Jarre , pronounced : [ ʒɑ ̃ miʃɛl ɑ ̃ dʁe ʒaʁ ] ; 24 August 1948 ) is a French composer , performer , and music producer . He is a pioneer in the electronic , ambient , and new @-@ age genres , and known as an organiser of outdoor spectacles of his music featuring lights , laser displays , and fireworks .
Jarre was raised in Lyon by his mother and grandparents , and trained on the piano . From an early age he was introduced to a variety of art forms , including those of street performers , jazz musicians , and the artist Pierre Soulages . He played guitar in a band , but his musical style was perhaps most heavily influenced by Pierre Schaeffer , a pioneer of musique concrète at the Groupe de Recherches Musicales .
His first mainstream success was the 1976 album Oxygène . Recorded in a makeshift studio at his home , the album sold an estimated 12 million copies . Oxygène was followed in 1978 by Équinoxe , and in 1979 Jarre performed to a record @-@ breaking audience of more than a million people at the Place de la Concorde , a record he has since broken three times . More albums were to follow , but his 1979 concert served as a blueprint for his future performances around the world . Several of his albums have been released to coincide with large @-@ scale outdoor events , and he is now perhaps as well known as a performer as he is as a musician .
As of 2004 Jarre had sold an estimated 80 million albums . He was the first Western musician officially invited to perform in the People 's Republic of China , and holds the world record for the largest @-@ ever audience at an outdoor event .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life , influences , and education = = =
Jean Michel Jarre was born in Lyon on 24 August 1948 , to France Pejot , a French Resistance member and concentration camp survivor , and Maurice Jarre , a composer . When Jarre was five , his parents split up and his father moved to America , leaving him with his mother . He did not see his father again until reaching the age of 18 . For the first eight years of his life , Jarre spent six months each year at his maternal grandparents ' flat on the Cours de Verdun , in the Perrache district of Lyon . Jarre 's grandfather was an oboe player , engineer and inventor , designing an early audio mixer used at Radio Lyon . He also gave Jean Michel his first record player . From his vantage point high above the pavement , the young French boy was able to watch street performers at work , an experience he later cited as proving influential on his art .
Jarre struggled with classical piano studies , although he later changed teachers and worked on his scales . A more general interest in musical instruments was sparked by his discovery at the Saint @-@ Ouen flea market , where his mother sold antiques , of a Boris Vian trumpet violin . He often accompanied his mother to Le Chat Qui Pêche ( The Fishing Cat ) , a friend 's Paris jazz club , where saxophonists Archie Shepp and John Coltrane , and trumpet players Don Cherry and Chet Baker were regular performers . These early jazz experiences suggested to him that music may be " descriptive , without lyrics " . He was also influenced by the work of French artist Pierre Soulages , whose exhibition at the Musée d 'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris he attended . Soulages ' paintings used multiple textured layers , and Jarre realised that " for the first time in music , you could act as a painter with frequencies and sounds . " He was also influenced by classical , modernist music ; in a 2004 interview for The Guardian , he spoke of the effect that a performance of Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring had upon him :
This is where Stravinsky created it in 1913 , and it was a huge shock . I also saw the last concert by the great Arabic singer Om Khalsoum . She is the goddess , the Maria Callas of the Orient . Then I heard " Georgia on My Mind " by Ray Charles , and I realised that music can talk to your tummy . I was so impressed by the organic sensuality coming from Ray Charles 's music – there was no intellectual process and it was great .
As a young man he earned money by selling his paintings , exhibiting some of his works at the Lyon Gallery – L 'Œil écoute , and by playing in a band called Mystère IV . While he studied at the Lycée Michelet , his mother arranged for him to take lessons in harmony , counterpoint and fugue with Jeannine Rueff of the Conservatoire de Paris . In 1967 he played guitar in a band called The Dustbins , who appear in the film Des garçons et des filles . He mixed instruments including the electric guitar and the flute , and tape effects and other sounds . More experimentation followed in 1968 , when he began to use tape loops , radios and other electronic devices , but joining the Groupe de Recherches Musicales ( GRM ) in 1969 , then under the direction of Pierre Schaeffer ( " father " of musique concrète ) , proved hugely influential . Jarre was introduced to the Moog modular synthesizer and spent time working at the studio of influential German composer Karlheinz Stockhausen in Cologne .
In the kitchen of his flat on Rue de la Trémoille , near the Champs @-@ Élysées , he set up a small recording studio . It included his first synthesiser , an EMS VCS 3 , and an EMS Synthi AKS , each linked to Revox tape machines . For a 1969 exposition at the Maison de la Culture ( Cultural House ) in Reims , Jarre wrote the five @-@ minute song " Happiness Is a Sad Song . " His first commercial release was in 1969 with La Cage / Erosmachine , a mixture of harmony , tape effects and synthesisers .
= = = 1970s = = =
In 1971 Jarre was commissioned by choreographer Norbert Schmucki to perform a ballet called AOR ( in Hebrew , " the light " ) , at the Palais Garnier . He also composed music for ballet , theatre , advertisements and television programs , as well as music and lyrics for artists like Patrick Juvet and Christophe . Jarre composed the soundtrack for Les Granges Brûlées and in 1972 wrote music for the International Festival of Magic . That year he also released his first solo album , Deserted Palace , and from 1973 – 74 wrote music for Françoise Hardy and Gérard Lenorman , as well as writing lyrics for Christophe and directing Christophe 's Olympia show .
Jarre 's 1976 low budget solo album Oxygène , recorded at his home studio , made him internationally famous . It comprises six numbered synthesiser tracks that make strong use of melody , rather than rhythm or dissonance . A Scully eight @-@ track recorder was used to record instruments like the Eminent 310 ( with an Electro @-@ Harmonix Small Stone phaser on its string pads ) and the Korg Minipops drum machine . Liberal use of echo was used on the various sound effects generated by the VCS3 synthesiser . Jarre 's ARP 2600 synthesiser , previously used on his collaborations with Christophe , also featured , as did his EMS VCS 3 .
Oxygène initially proved difficult to sell . Jarre was turned down by several record companies , until another of Schaeffer 's students , Hélène Dreyfus , persuaded her husband to publish the album on his label , Disques Motors . The first pressing of 50 @,@ 000 copies was promoted through hi @-@ fi shops , clubs and discos , and by April 1977 the album had sold 70 @,@ 000 copies in France . When interviewed in Billboard magazine , Dreyfus 's director Stanislas Witold said " In a sense we 're putting most of our bets on Jean Michel Jarre . He is quite exceptional and we 're sure that by 1980 he will be recognised worldwide . " Oxygène has since sold an estimated 12 million copies , the best @-@ selling French record of all time . It reached number 2 in the UK , number 65 in Canada [ 1 ] , and broke the top 100 in the US . It also contains his most recognisable single , " Oxygène IV " , which reached number 4 in the UK single charts .
Jarre 's follow @-@ up album , Équinoxe , was released in 1978 . It was composed with sequencers , particularly on the bass , and features a more baroque and classical style than Oxygène , with more emphasis on melodic development . Though its sales were still very healthy , it had less of an impact than Oxygène , but the following year Jarre held a large open @-@ air concert on Bastille Day , at the Place de la Concorde . The free outdoor event set a new world record for the largest number of spectators ever at an open @-@ air concert , drawing more than 1 million spectators . The crowds were so large that Jarre 's wife , Charlotte Rampling , found it difficult to access the venue . Although it was not the first time he had performed in concert ( Jarre had already played at the Paris Opera Ballet ) , the 40 minute @-@ long event , which used projections of light , images and fireworks , served as a blueprint for Jarre 's future concerts . Its popularity helped create a surge in sales — a further 800 @,@ 000 records were sold between 14 July and 31 August 1979 — and introduced the Frenchman to Francis Rimbert , who now works for Jarre on a full @-@ time basis .
= = = 1980 – 1984 = = =
By the time Les Chants Magnétiques was released on 20 May 1981 , Oxygène and Équinoxe had achieved global sales of about 6 million units . In its first two months the new album sold a reported 200 @,@ 000 units in France alone . The album uses sounds from the Fairlight CMI , a new instrument of which Jarre was an early pioneer . Its digital technology allowed him to continue his earlier sonic experimentation in new ways .
The album 's release coincided with Jarre 's first foreign tour . In 1981 the British Embassy gave Radio Beijing copies of Oxygène and Équinoxe , which became the first pieces of foreign music to be played on Chinese national radio in decades . The republic invited Jarre to become the first western musician to play there , with The Concerts in China . The performances were scheduled to run from 18 October to 5 November 1981 . The first , in Beijing , was initially attended mostly by officials , but before the concert began technicians realised that not enough power was available to supply the stage and auditorium . Chinese officials solved the problem by temporarily cutting power to the surrounding districts . The stadium was almost full when the concert began , but as Beijing 's buses stopped running at about 10 o 'clock , about half the audience left before it finished . To boost the audience attendance for the second night , Jarre and his production team purchased some of the concert tickets and gave them to children on the streets ( Jarre originally wanted the concerts to be free , but the Chinese authorities decided to charge between £ 0 @.@ 20 and £ 0 @.@ 50 per ticket ) . The event was notable for its lack of audience involvement ; the Chinese were apparently unmoved by both the music and the light show , and applause was muted . The second venue , in Shanghai , was a different matter . Jarre actively encouraged audience participation by stepping into the crowd , which became much more exuberant than that in Beijing . Recordings of the concerts , which featured one of Jarre 's signature electronic instruments , the laser harp , were released as a double @-@ disc LP in 1982 .
Musique pour Supermarché was created for a planned performance at the " Supermarché " art exhibition . Jarre allowed Radio Luxembourg to broadcast it uninterrupted , in its entirety , before he auctioned off a single vinyl print on 5 July 1983 , at the Hôtel Drouot in Paris . The sale raised about 70 @,@ 000 francs , and in protest at the " silly industrialisation of music " , Jarre promised to burn the original tapes in the presence of a bailiff . Parts of the destroyed album were reworked into works in subsequent releases ( including Diva and Blah Blah Café from Zoolook , and sections of the Fifth Rendez @-@ Vous ) . Both Music for Supermarkets and Zoolook make heavy use of the Fairlight CMI 's ability to sample audio . Zoolook features snippets of words and speech from languages across the globe . Laurie Anderson provided the vocals for the track " Diva " . A long list of musicians , including Adrian Belew and Marcus Miller , also made significant contributions . The album was somewhat less successful than Jarre 's previous works , reaching only number 47 in the UK album charts .
I 've always been involved in ethnic music , though I thought the way a lot of people have been using ethnic music was a little superficial . Sometimes it works , like the Brian Eno stuff , it worked the first time , but for me what was more interesting was not making a particular statement about recording in Africa or in China , but taking some sounds and having exactly the same attitude as when you were in front of a Moog 55 or a modular system , replacing the oscillators with a bank of actors or people , treating them through the Fairlight or the EMS synth , and establishing an orchestration using only voices .
= = = 1985 – 1989 = = =
In 1985 , Jarre was invited by the musical director of the Houston Grand Opera to perform a concert celebrating Texas 's 150th anniversary on 5 April 1986 . Although he was busy with other projects and was at first unimpressed by the proposal , on a later visit to the city , he was immediately impressed by the visual grandeur of the city 's skyline and agreed to perform . Also , 1985 marked the 25th anniversary of the foundation of the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center ; and NASA asked Jarre to integrate the anniversary into the concert .
Rendez @-@ Vous was created over a period of about two months and , as with Zoolook , contains elements of his 1983 album Musique pour Supermarché . Its three movements represent Houston 's development , from a rural economy to its role as a leader in space technology . Baroque in style , the album uses a mixture of French horns , trombones , and violins ; and it features heavy use of the Elka Synthex , notably so on " Third Rendez @-@ Vous " , a track Jarre often performs using a laser harp . Jarre worked with several Houston @-@ based astronauts , including Bruce McCandless II and Ronald McNair , an accomplished musician who was to have played the saxophone on " Rendez @-@ Vous VI " , recorded in the weightless environment of space . The live performance was curtailed by McNair 's death in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on 28 January 1986 . Consideration was given to the cancellation of the concert ; but McCandless contacted Jarre and urged him to proceed , in memory of the shuttle 's crew . McNair 's saxophone piece was recorded by Kirk Whalum and retitled " Ron 's Piece " .
I remember just before take @-@ off , Ron calling me in Paris saying " Everything 's ready , see you in a week 's time , watch me on television for the take @-@ off " ... I will really , keep always , the bit of Ron 's smile and Ron 's face in my heart .
About 2 @,@ 000 projectors shone images onto buildings and giant screens up to 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) high , transforming the city 's skyscrapers into spectacular backdrops for an elaborate display of fireworks and lasers . Rendez @-@ vous Houston entered the Guinness Book of Records for its audience of over 1 @.@ 5 million , beating his earlier record , set in 1979 . The display was so impressive that a nearby freeway was blocked by passing vehicles , forcing the authorities to close it for the duration of the concert . Several months later he performed to an audience of about a million at his home city of Lyon , in celebration of a visit by Pope John Paul II . Watching from Lyon Cathedral , the Pope began the concert with a good @-@ night blessing , a recording of which appears on Cities in Concert – Houston / Lyon .
In 1988 Jarre released Revolutions . The album spans several genres , including symphonic industrial , Arabian inspired , light guitar pop and ethnic electro jazz . A two @-@ hour concert called Destination Docklands was planned for September 1988 , to be held at the Royal Victoria Dock in east London . Close to the heart of London , the location was chosen in part for its desolate environment , but also because Jarre thought the architecture was ideally suited for his music . Early in 1988 Jarre met with local officials and members of the community , but Newham Borough Council expressed their fears about the event 's safety and delayed their decision on whether to allow the concert to proceed until 12 September eventually rejecting the licence application . The local fire service were also concerned about access in the event of a fire . Site work continued as Jarre 's team searched for alternative locations in which to stage the concert , but following improvements to both on and off @-@ site safety Jarre eventually won conditional approval on 28 September to stage two separate performances , on the 8th and 9 October .
The floating stage on which Jarre and his musicians performed was built on top of four large barges . Large purpose @-@ built display screens were built , and one of the buildings to be used as a backdrop was painted white . One large mirror ball being transported to the event fell onto the roadside , causing a degree of confusion as some people mistook it for a fallen satellite . World War II searchlights were installed , to illuminate the sky and surrounding architecture . Along with thousands in the surrounding streets and parks , 200 @,@ 000 people watched Jarre and guests such as guitarist Hank Marvin perform in less than ideal conditions . Inclement weather had threatened to break the stage from its moorings , putting paid to the original plan to float the stage across the Royal Victoria Dock . Wind speeds were so high that television cameras were blown over . On the second evening the audience , which included Diana , Princess of Wales , was soaked by rain and wind .
= = = 1990s = = =
In 1990 Jarre released En Attendant Cousteau ( Waiting for Cousteau ) , inspired by the French oceanographer Jacques @-@ Yves Cousteau . On Bastille Day 1990 he performed a concert at La Défense in Paris , attended by a record @-@ breaking audience of about two million people , again beating his earlier world record . He later promoted a concert near the Pyramids of Teotihuacan in Mexico , to be held during the solar eclipse of 11 July 1991 . However , with only weeks to go , important equipment had not arrived and the sinking in the Atlantic Ocean of a cargo ship containing the purpose @-@ built pyramidal stage and other technical equipment made staging the concert impossible . Jarre 's disappointment was such that he " could not cope with Mexican food for two years " . About two years later he released Chronologie , an album which was largely influenced by the techno @-@ music scene . From a technical standpoint the album is a reversion to a concept seen in Jarre 's Oxygène / Équinoxe period , where a grandiose overture precedes more rhythmic sections . The album features Jarre 's traditional collection of instruments like the ARP 2600 and Minimoog , as well as newer synthesisers such as the Roland JD @-@ 800 and the Kurzweil K2000 .
In the state of mind I did Chronologie , it 's quite close to what I did for Oxygène , using a lot of the old synthesizers of the ' 70s , like the Moog synthesizer — which I consider to be the Stradivarius of electronic music — mixed with the digital sound and the beat of the dance scene of the ' 90s . In a sense , Chronologie is a kind of mixture between the sounds of the ' 70s and the sounds of the ' 90s .
Chronologie was performed at a series of 16 performances across Europe called Europe in Concert . These were on a smaller scale than his previous concerts , featuring a miniature skyline , laser imaging and fireworks . Locations included Lausanne , Mont St Michel , London , Manchester , Barcelona , Seville and the Versailles Palace near Paris . A concert was also held in Hong Kong in March 1994 , to mark the opening of the city 's new stadium . Jarre performed many of his most well @-@ known hits at the Concert for Tolerance on Bastille Day in 1995 , celebrating the 50th anniversary of the United Nations . The Eiffel Tower was specially lit for the occasion , prompting the installation of a more permanent display . The following December he created the website " A Space for Tolerance " , which featured music from En Attendant Cousteau , played while the user browsed a variety of " visual worlds " .
In 1997 Jarre returned to the analogue synthesisers of the 1970s with Oxygène 7 – 13 , dedicated to his mentor at the GRM , Pierre Schaeffer , who had died two years before . Eschewing digital techniques developed in the 1980s , in an interview for The Daily Telegraph he said :
The excitement of being able to work on sounds in a tactile , manual , almost sensual way is what drew me to electronic music in the first place ... The lack of limitations is very dangerous . It is like the difference for a painter of getting four tubes with four main colours or being in front of a computer with two million colours . You have to scan the two million colours and when you arrive to the last one you have obviously forgotten the first one . In the Eighties we became archivists and everything became rather cold as a result .
In September that year he set his fourth record for the largest ever outdoor concert audience with a performance at the Moscow State University , celebrating the 850th anniversary of Moscow . The event was viewed by an audience of about 3 @.@ 5 million . The funeral of Diana , Princess of Wales , had taken place on the same day , and the Frenchman therefore dedicated " Souvenir of China " to her memory , before observing a minute 's silence . Another large scale concert followed on 31 December 1999 , in the Egyptian desert near Giza . The Twelve Dreams of the Sun celebrated the new millennium and offered a preview of his next album , Métamorphoses . The show featured performances from more than 1 @,@ 000 local artists and musicians , and was based on ancient Egyptian mythology about the journey of the sun and its effect upon humanity .
= = = 2000s = = =
Jarre released his first vocal album , Métamorphoses , in 2000 . It was mixed on an early version of Pro Tools , a digital audio workstation designed to record , edit and play back digital audio . Métamorphoses marks a departure from Jarre 's earlier work . Sound effects used include radio interference from mobile phones , and Macintalk , a Macintosh program used to generate lyrics on the track " Love , Love , Love " . Contributors included Laurie Anderson , who had also appeared on Zoolook , Natacha Atlas and Sharon Corr .
Looking back , I enjoyed the album , [ Oxygène 7 – 13 ] but after I finished it I knew that I had to make a fresh start . I had to go somewhere completely different . Metamorphoses is like a blank page for me , a new beginning .
It was followed first in 2001 by Interior Music , created for use by the audio @-@ visual company Bang & Olufsen , and which did not receive a commercial release , then by 2002 's Sessions 2000 , a set of experimental synth @-@ jazz pieces distinct from his previous work . Sessions was well received by Billboard Magazine , which said " He 's created a deeply nuanced soundscape that invites repeated listening . " A concert in September 2002 at a wind farm near Aalborg in Denmark proved problematic when 22mm of rain fell on the venue , causing long delays for spectators . It also marked a change in direction in Jarre 's live concerts ; from Rendez @-@ vous Houston onwards he had been accompanied by a full complement of live musicians , but at Aalborg he was accompanied only by the Klarup Girls Choir , Francis Rimbert , Safri Duo and the Aalborg Symphonic Orchestra .
In 2003 he released Geometry of Love , commissioned by Jean @-@ Roch as a soundtrack for his ' V.I.P. Room ' nightclub in France . It contains a mix of ' electro @-@ chill ' music , with touches of his more traditional style . In October 2004 he returned to China to open its " Year of France " cultural exchange . Jarre gave two performances , the first at the Meridian Gate of the Forbidden City , and the second in Tiananmen Square . More than 15 @,@ 000 spectators watched the concert at the Meridian Gate , and each concert was transmitted live to television viewers across the country . Jarre collaborated with musician Chen Lin . Accompanying his traditional musical repertoire , 600 projectors shone coloured light and images across various screens and objects .
In September 2004 , Jarre released AERO , both a DVD and a CD in one package . Purportedly the world 's first album released for 5 @.@ 1 systems , with it being fully " constructed " in 5 @.@ 1 surround sound , it contains re @-@ recorded versions of some of his most famous tracks , including tracks from Oxygène and Équinoxe . Accompanying the audio , the DVD features a visual image of Anne Parillaud 's eyes , recorded in real time as she listened to the album . Jarre used the minimalist imagery to reinforce the audio content of the DVD . The CD was mixed in super @-@ stereo .
In his role of UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador , Jarre performed a concert named Water for Life in Morocco , on 16 December 2006 , to celebrate the year of desertification in the world . The performance was in front of the Erg Chebbi Dunes of Merzouga , in the Sahara . A free event , it was attended by about 25 @,@ 000 people . Images of water and the environment were projected onto nine vertical screens , held in place by sand which was watered to keep it hard . Several permanent drinking fountains were built on the site , along with a permanent electricity installation . Jarre was accompanied by over 60 Moroccan artists .
Jarre released Téo & Téa on 26 March 2007 . He described the two computer @-@ generated characters in the video clip of the title track as being " like twins " , one female , one male . The album is supposed to describe the different stages of a loving relationship , and explores the idea that the length of such relationships is unpredictable . Its release demonstrated a move away from virtual instruments and computers that Jarre had been using up to that point ; he instead chose to use a simplified range of devices , including several new prototype instruments . The album 's cover was inspired by the David Lynch film Wild at Heart .
In August 2007 Jarre signed for EMI France . He released an anniversary package containing a special live recording of his classic work , Oxygène , in 3D DVD , live CD and normal 2D DVD formats in November 2007 , named Oxygène : New Master Recording . A first for Jarre , the album was recorded live , without tape or hard disk playback , with help from Francis Rimbert , Claude Samard , and Dominique Perrier . The album also contains three extra tracks not found on either the original or remake , which form links between the main movements . Jarre plans to integrate the original analog synthesizers from Oxygène into his next album , and is building a new private recording studio on the outskirts of Paris . In the same year Disques Dreyfus released The Complete Oxygène , containing the original versions of Oxygène and Oxygène 7 – 13 , and remixes of tracks from Oxygène 7 – 13 .
… there are several Eminent String Machines that make up one of the main Oxygene string sounds . Having four of us meant I had to multiply the number of instruments , and finding the equipment was quite a headache , especially as I tried , as much as I could , to avoid using instruments produced after Oxygène . There are one or two exceptions but 95 percent of the instruments are of that time . For me it was really important for the radicalism of the process .
Jarre performed 10 concerts ( Oxygène Live ) in Paris , from 12 – 26 December 2007 , held in the Théâtre Marigny , a small 1000 @-@ seat theatre in the Champs @-@ Élysées . Later in 2008 Jarre performed several concerts to celebrate the 30th anniversary of Oxygène , in theatres in Europe . Following one such performance at the Royal Albert Hall Jarre met Brian May , who proposed he create a concert in Tenerife for the International Year of Astronomy , but a lack of sponsorship meant that the concert did not take place .
In 2009 he was selected as the artistic director of the World Sky Race , and also accepted a role as Goodwill Ambassador for the International Year of Astronomy . In 2009 he started an indoor tour in arenas throughout Europe .
= = = 2010s = = =
On 1 March 2010 , Jean Michel Jarre started the second leg of his 2009 – 10 Indoors tour ; on 10 June , he was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award by Mojo magazine .
On 30 May 2011 , Essentials & Rarities , double CD set , was released . This was the last Jarre work to be released by Disques Dreyfus . The Essentials disc is a compilation of some of his most famous works . The Rarities disc includes pieces recorded in the years prior to the release of Oxygène . After this release , Jarre recovered sole intellectual property rights over his work , which had previously been owned by Francis Dreyfus Music .
On 1 July 2011 , Jarre performed a large @-@ scale concert in Monaco to celebrate the marriage of Prince Albert and his bride Charlene . During the last quarter of 2011 he concluded a tour schedule that had lasted for almost 3 years . He used the same format for a later concert at Carthage during the city 's 2013 musical festival .
In June 2013 , Jarre was elected as president of the Confédération Internationale des Sociétés d ´ Auteurs et Compositeurs ( CISAC )
In Spring 2015 , Jarre released the first music from a new studio album , released in October 2015 , following around four years of work . The album , Electronica 1 : The Time Machine ( working title : E @-@ Project ) , comprises a number of collaborations with a number of other artists . The first of these to be released was the collaboration with Gesaffelstein entitled Conquistador , followed by Glory , with M83 . The track was also featured as part of the soundtrack of a short film entitled EMIC . Other collaborations on the album include Zero Gravity , with the late Edgar Froese and Tangerine Dream ( with a remix by Above and Beyond ) ; Vince Clarke for Automatic ( parts 1 and 2 ) ; Armin van Buuren for Stardust , John Carpenter for " A Question Of Blood " . , Little Boots for If .. ! and Pete Townshend for Travelator , Pt . 2 . The album became Jarre 's first album in over 25 years to make the UK Top 10 at # 8 .
In 2016 , Electronica 2 : The Heart of Noise was released with 15 more collaborators . Musicians like Pet Shop Boys , Hans Zimmer , Yello and Gary Numan are part of that album . One track ( 8 " Exit " ) includes speech by Edward Snowden .
On 11 April 2016 , it was revealed that Jarre is also currently working in collaboration with British virtual band Gorillaz .
= = Personal life = =
Jarre is fluent in French and English and has been married three times . He was married to Flore Guillard from 20 January 1975 until 1977 ; their daughter Émilie Charlotte was born in 1975 ( or 1976 ) and became a fashion model . He met his second wife Charlotte Rampling at a dinner party in St Tropez in 1976 . Both were in failing marriages , but they each obtained a divorce ( Rampling was married to New Zealander Bryan Southcombe ) . The two married , Jarre gaining custody of his daughter Émilie Charlotte , and Rampling her son Barnaby . Together they have a son , David .
In 1995 photographs in Hello ! magazine showed Jarre apparently romantically involved with 31 @-@ year @-@ old secretary Odile Froument , and in 1996 Jarre and Rampling separated . They divorced in 2002 . He had a brief relationship with Isabelle Adjani , but married French actress Anne Parillaud in May 2005 . In November 2010 the couple announced their divorce .
Jarre has a half @-@ sister Stéphanie Jarre , from Maurice Jarre 's other marriages . His stepbrother , Kevin Jarre , died in 2011 . Although Maurice and Jean @-@ Michel remained estranged , following Maurice 's death in 2009 Jarre paid tribute to his legacy . Jarre said about his father :
My father and I never really achieved a real relationship . We probably saw each other 20 or 25 times in our lifetime . When you are able , at my age , to count the times you have seen your father , it says something ... I think it 's better to have conflict , or , if you have a parent who dies , you grieve , but the feeling of absence is very difficult to fill , and it took me a while to absorb that .
= = Large concerts = =
= = Honours = =
2015 - GQ Man of the Year .
An asteroid , 4422 Jarre , has been named in his honour . He is an honorary citizen of Gdansk .
= = Discography = =
As of 2004 , Jarre had sold an estimated 80 million albums .
Studio albums
= = Filmography , soundtracks , documentaries = =
Jarre composed for movies but he also took part in documentaries .
1984 - Le voyage d 'Orphée ( artistic collaborator )
1997 - Jean Michel Jarre : Oxygene in Moscow ( himself )
2002 - Jean Michel Jarre : Aero ( himself )
2012 - Musique ( s ) électronique ( s ) : documentary of Jérémie Carboni ( Oxygene piece and himself as composer )
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= Lactarius deterrimus =
Lactarius deterrimus , also known as false saffron milkcap or orange milkcap , is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae . The fungus produces medium @-@ sized fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) with orangish caps up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) wide that develop green spots in old age or if injured . Its orange @-@ coloured latex stains maroon within 30 minutes . Lactarius deterrimus is a mycorrhizal fungus that associates with Norway spruce and bearberry . The species is distributed in Europe , but has also found in parts of Asia . A visually similar species in the United States and Mexico is not closely related to the European species . Fruit bodies appear between late June and November , usually in spruce forests . Although the fungus is edible — like all Lactarius mushrooms from the section Deliciosi — its taste is often bitter , and it is not highly valued . The fruit bodies are used as source of food for the larvae of several insect species . Lactarius deterrimus can be distinguished from similar Lactarius species by difference in the mycorrhizal host or latex colour .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
Although the fungus is one of the most common in Central Europe , the species was not validly described until 1968 by German mycologist Frieder Gröger . Before this , L. deterrimus was regarded as a variety of L. deliciosus ( L. deliciosus var. piceus , described by Miroslav Smotlacha in 1946 ) . After Roger Heim and A. Leclair described L. semisanguifluus in 1950 , this fungus was referred to as the latter . L. fennoscandicus was separated from L. deterrimus in 1998 by Annemieke T. Verbeken and Jan Vesterholt and was classified as a separate species .
The epithet of deterrimus is Latin , and was chosen by Gröger to highlight the poor gustatory properties of the mushroom , such as the bitter aftertaste and often heavy maggot infestations . The superlative of " dēterior " ( meaning less good ) means " the worst , the poorest " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " false saffron milkcap " .
Several molecular phylogenetic analyses show that L. deterrimus , L. sanguifluus , Lactarius vinosus and L. fennoscandicus form a group of related species , which might include the North American species L. paradoxus and L. miniatosporus . Although L. deliciosus var. deterrimus qualifies as synonym for L. deterrimus , the families , which had been characterized in North America as Lactarius deliciosus var. deterrimus , are not closely related with the European types . They also seem not to form a monophyletic group .
Lactarius deterrimus belongs to the section Deliciosi of the genus Lactarius . According to molecular phylogenetics studies , this section forms a definite phylogenetic group within the milk cap relatives . Deliciosi species mainly have an orange or reddish @-@ coloured latex and taste mild to slightly bitter . They are strict mycorrhizal associates of conifers . The next closest relative of L. deterrimus is L. fennoscandicus .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Macroscopic characteristics = = =
The cap is 3 to 10 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) , rarely up to 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) wide and more or less centrifugal @-@ shaped and round . It is at early stage convex and furled on the slightly churlish edge , and depressed in the centre and later flat , funnel @-@ shaped depressed . The cap skin is bare , greasy in moist weather and slightly shiny when dry . The cap is tangerine to orange @-@ brown , darker zoned towards the edges and dulls mainly yellow @-@ brown . In old age or after cold or frost it changes the colour more or less to dirty greenish or green @-@ spotted .
The dense , bow @-@ like lamellae are pale @-@ orange to pale @-@ ochre and on the stipe basifixed or slightly decurrent . They are brittle and intermixed with shorter lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stem ) as well as partly forking near the stem . In old age or in cases of injury they receive initially dark red , later grey green spots . The spore print is pale ochre .
The mainly long and cylindrical stipe is reddish orange . It is 4 to 8 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) ( rarely 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) ) long , 1 to 1 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) wide and barely foveate or blotchy . On the basis it is often slightly thickened or pompous and becomes hollow inside . A bloomy circular zones is found on the lamella disposition .
The milk is first carrot @-@ red and becomes a maroon colour within 10 to 30 minutes . The brittle and pale @-@ yellowish flesh is often infested with maggots . If cut or injured it becomes , as the milk , first carrot @-@ red , then maroon and within hours dirty green . The fruit body smells harsh , fruit @-@ like and first tastes mild , but then slightly resinous @-@ bitter and nearly spicy or somewhat astringent .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The rotund to ellipsoid spores are 7 @.@ 5 – 10 µm long and 6 – 7 @.@ 6 µm wide . The surface ornamentation extends to 0 @.@ 5 µm high and is mainly from warts and short , wide ridges , which are linked through few fine lines to form an incomplete net ( reticulum ) . The suprahilar area , a distinctly limited zone above the apiculus , is weakly amyloid . Basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored and measure 45 – 60 × 9 @.@ 5 – 12 µm . They are roughly cylindrical to somewhat club @-@ shaped and often have an oil droplet or a granular body . The sterigmata are 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm long . The thin @-@ walled pleurocystidia are sparse , but somewhat common near the gill edge . They are protruded and are 45 – 65 µm long and 5 – 8 µm wide , they are sometimes smaller near the gill edge . Nearly spindle @-@ shaped , they are often straightened or constricted like a string of pearls at the apex . The body is often fine and grained . Pseudocystidia are largely present . They are 4 – 6 µm wide and are sometimes protruded , but are often shorter than the basidioles ( basidia in the early developmental stage ) . The basidioles are cylindric to spiral and have an ochre @-@ coloured substance , similar to the laticifers . Near the top they are , however , almost hyaline ( transparent ) . The gill edge is usually sterile and has a few to many cheilocystidia . The thin @-@ walled cheiloleptocystidia are 15 – 25 µm long and 5 – 10 µm wide . They are almost club @-@ shaped or irregularly shaped and transparent , and often contain a granular material . The cheilomacrocystidia are also thin @-@ walled and measure 25 – 50 µm long and 6 – 8 µm wide . They are slightly spindle @-@ shaped and often have a tip resembling a string of pearls ; their interior is hyaline or granular . Laticifers are abundant , striking and body is ochre coloured . The cuticle of the cap is an ixocutis , whereby the hyphae are linked in a jellylike matrix , that can swell up in moisture to become heavily slimy .
= = Similar species = =
The likewise very common Lactarius deliciosus is similar in appearance . Lactarius deterrimus differs basically from the first because its flesh becomes reddish within 10 minutes and in about 30 minutes dark maroon , caused by the discolouration of the milk . The milk of L. deliciosus stays orange or becomes reddish within 30 minutes . Also , the milk of the latter tastes mild , while the milk of the first distinctly bitter . The cap of L. deterrimus changes its colour in old age or if injured distinctly greenish and is common only under spruces , while L. deliciosus is native under pines .
Even more similar is the very rare Lactarius semisanguifluus . Its milk also discolours within 5 to 8 minutes to maroon . The cap of older fruit bodies is nearly completely greenish . It is also common under pines . The most similar and also the most closely related fungus is Lactarius fennoscandicus , a boreal to subalpine species . Its cap is distinctly zoned and brown @-@ orange . Sometimes the cap has purple @-@ grey tones . The stem is pale to blunt orange @-@ ochre .
= = Distribution = =
Lactarius deterrimus is mainly distributed in Europe , but the fungus has also found in areas of Asia ( Turkey , India , Pakistan ) . According to recent molecular biologic research , the similar North American species from the United States and Mexico are not closely related to the European species . In Europe , the fungus is especially common in Northern , North @-@ East and Central Europe ; in the UK , it may be found from July through to November . In the south and west it is common in mountainous areas . In the east , its range extends to Russia .
= = Ecology = =
Lactarius deterrimus has traditionally been considered to have a strict mycorrhizal host specificity with Norway spruce . In 2006 , it was reported that the fungus can also form arbutoid mycorrhiza with bearberry ( Arctostaphylos uva @-@ ursi ) . Arbutoid mycorrhizal associations are variants of ectomycorrhiza found in certain plants in the Ericaceae characterised by hyphal coils in epidermal cells . The mycorrhiza formed by L. deterrimus on both bearberry and Norway spruce show typical features such as a hyphal mantle and a Hartig net ; the distinguishing characteristic between the mycorrhizal symbioses with the different hosts is that the hyphae penetrate the epidermal cells of bearberry , although there are also some differences in the form of the Hartig net , branching pattern , and colour . Although bearberry has been shown to form mycorrhiza with a wide range of fungi both in the field and in laboratory experiments , it had never previously been known to form mycorrhiza with fungi thought to be strictly host @-@ specific . Bearberry may function as a nurse plant to help re @-@ establish Norway spruce in deforested areas .
The species is common in spruce @-@ fir and spruce @-@ moorland forests and in spruce forests and plantations . Together with spruces , the fungus is also common in different European beech and oak @-@ European hornbeam forests , but also on the forest edges , on clearings and in clearcut meadows and even on juniper heathers and in parkland . There are scarcely any habitats where the spruce is common , while the fungus is not found there . The fungus is very common in young spruce forests that are 10 to 20 years old , where it occurs on forest path edges occasionally in masses .
The fungus probably favours calcareous soil , although it has been found on nearly every soil type . It appears on sand , peat , limestone soils , rankers and Cambisols . It endures acidic as well as alkaline and low @-@ nutrient to relatively high @-@ nutrient soils . Heavily eutrophic soils are inappropriate for its habitat .
The fruit bodies appear from late June to November , but usually from August to October ; overwintered specimens can be found in freezing days up to early February . The fungus prefers the downs and the uplands , but is also not uncommon in lowlands .
= = = Fruit body = = =
Many fungi can serve as source of food for insect larvae , whereas most insects eat fungi only occasionally . Still , a whole range of insect species specialize on fungi . These animals are mainly beetle larvae , especially hairy fungus beetles ( Mycetophagidae ) , rove beetles ( Staphylinidae ) , and true flies ( Diptera ) . Milk caps are especially attractive for true flies , while beetle larvae are comparatively rarer . The most common insects found on the fungus are Mycetophilidae and Phoridae larvae , which populate even the youngest fruit bodies . Also relatively common on mature or overaged fruit bodies are Drosophilidae and Psychodidae . Species from the section Deliciosi are often infested by Diptera larvae .
The following species have been isolated from the fruit bodies of L. deterrimus :
Ula sylvatica ( Pediciidae ) : This very common Micropezidae were isolated from more than 70 different fungus species , which belong to completely different genera and families . Its larvae spend an unusually long portion of its life cycle in the fruit body , usually three or four weeks .
Mycetophila blanda ( Mycetophilidae ) : The Mycetophilidae cultivates usually in milk caps of the section Deliciosi .
Mycetophila estonica ( Mycetophilidae ) : A rare species first described in 1992 , which is closely related with Mycetophila blanda and is also common in milk caps .
Mycetophila evanida ( Mycetophilidae ) : Was found in fungi including Lactarius fulvissimus and Russula luteotacta .
Culicoides scoticus ( Ceratopogonidae ) : It is one of the most common biting midges found in fungi and been found in over 20 different fungus species .
Mydaea corni : This species belongs to the family Muscidae and was to date only found in species of Lactarius and Russula .
Many different fruit flies have been recorded on L. deterrimus : Drosophila funebris , Drosophila phalerata , Drosophila transversa and Drosophila testacea .
Psychoda albipennis , Psychoda lobata and Tinearia alternata were isolated from the fruit bodies of the fungus . The larvae of Psychoda lobata are known to develop from a wide range of fungus species from over 30 genera .
= = = Parasitism = = =
Abnormally developed milk caps infested by the parasitic sac fungus Hypomyces lateritius ( syn . Peckialla laterita ) are occasionally found in summer and autumn . The infested fruit bodies are usually more or less heavily malformed with a harder and more solid flesh than typical fruit bodies , so that they are more resistant to rot and can even survive the winter . They do not create gills ; instead , the cap bottom is covered by an initially soft , white hyphen fungus , also known as a subiculum . Early on the mycelia becomes denser and takes on a white @-@ grey colour . The perithecia are created after about 10 – 14 days . Perithecia are fruit bodies of the Hypomyces and other sac fungi , in which the spindle @-@ shaped asci are produced . Besides L. deterrimus , L. deliciosus and L. sanguifluus can become infested , rarely other milk caps . Hypomyces lateritius , H. ochraceus , H. rosellus , H. odoratus , among other Hypomyces species live parasitically on different milk caps and brittlegills as well as on the fruit bodies of species from other genera .
= = Importance = =
= = = Edibility = = =
Lactarius deterrimus is an edible mushroom , but is much less appreciated than the similar L. deliciosus . The first tastes slightly bitter and is often infested by maggots . Like L. deliciosus , this fungus is mainly stir @-@ fried in butter or oil ; if it is cooked in water , the flesh becomes very soft . Young fruit bodies can be also pickled , or dried for later use . As the fungus is often heavily infested by maggots , skilled mushroom pickers prefer young fruit bodies . The urine discolours to red if a large amount of milk caps are eaten , but this is entirely harmless and is not evidence for an impairment to health . The red @-@ coloured azulene compounds , ingested with the mushroom food , are more or less excreted with the urine .
= = = Contents = = =
The milk cap 's fruit bodies have a characteristic orange milk juice ( latex ) . The guaiane sesquiterpenes are responsible for the orange colour . Sesquiterpenes are terpenes composed of three isoprene units and therefore have 15 carbon atoms . Sesquiterpenes are widely distributed in nature and are found in plants as well as animals , for example in the juvenile hormone of insects . Plants use sesquiterpenes as a defense compound against insects . According to some studies , sesquiterpenes have antibiotic , anticarcinogenic , or immunostimulant effects .
Young , uninjured fruit bodies of L. deterrimus have sesquiterpenoides in the form of fatty acid dihydroazulene @-@ esters . About 85 % of the yellow @-@ coloured dihydroazulene are esterified with stearic acid and about 15 % with linoleic acid . If the fruit body is injured , the free sesquiterpene – a dihydroazulene alcohol – is released enzymatically . Several products are produced from it through oxidation : the yellow @-@ coloured aldehyde delicial ( 1 @-@ formyl @-@ 6 , 7 @-@ dihydro @-@ 4 @-@ methyl @-@ 7 @-@ isopropenylazulene ) , the purple @-@ coloured aldehyde lactarovioline ( 1 @-@ formyl @-@ 4 @-@ methyl @-@ 7 @-@ isopropenylazulene ) , and the blue @-@ coloured alcohol deterrol ( 1 @-@ hydroxymethyl @-@ 4 @-@ methyl @-@ 7 @-@ isopropenylazulene ) . The milk is first maroon through mixing with the different colours and discolours green . The dihydroazulene alcohol and delicial are unstable compounds , which react to form further products . Delicial polymerises particularly slight .
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= In the Zone =
In the Zone is the fourth studio album by American recording artist Britney Spears . It was released on November 12 , 2003 , by JIVE Records . Its music incorporates R & B , dance , house , trip hop , and hip hop styles with instrumentation from guitars , drums , synthesizers , strings , and Middle Eastern musical instruments . Its themes range from love , dancing , empowerment , and in the case of songs such as " Touch of My Hand " , sex and masturbation . Contributions to the album 's production came from a wide range of producers , including Bloodshy & Avant , R. Kelly , Trixster , Moby , Guy Sigsworth and The Matrix .
With the conclusion of the Dream Within a Dream Tour in July 2002 and the end of her relationship with Justin Timberlake , Spears planned to take a six @-@ month break from her career ; however , work for In the Zone began later that November . She began writing songs for the album while touring internationally , despite not knowing the direction of the album . She experimented with different producers , trying to find those with whom she had chemistry . The first song recorded was " Touch of My Hand " , which Spears claims set the mood for the album . She co @-@ wrote all but four tracks , and often changed the lyrics to suit herself . Spears stated she was an autobiographical songwriter , although not to the point where she felt self @-@ exploited . She also explained that the sexual nature of In the Zone was subconscious and happened while she was in the process of developing the album . Spears collaborated with artists such as Madonna in " Me Against the Music " and the Ying Yang Twins in " ( I Got That ) Boom Boom " .
In the Zone received mixed to positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its mix of different styles and Spears 's songwriting , but criticized her vocals for being distant and processed . Commercially , In the Zone became an international success , debuting atop of the charts in France and the United States , and peaking inside the top ten in fifteen countries . In the United States , she became the first female artist to have four consecutive number @-@ one albums . In the Zone went on to become the eighth best selling album of 2003 .
Four singles were released from the album : " Me Against the Music " , " Toxic " and " Everytime " met international chart success , all peaking at number one in Australia and Ireland and reaching top five positions elsewhere . To promote In the Zone , Spears performed the songs in a number of television appearances and also embarked on The Onyx Hotel Tour . The album and its music videos are largely seen by critics as the end of her transition from teen pop star to a more adult female artist . In 2009 , Amy Schriefer of NPR listed In the Zone as one of The 50 Most Important Recordings of the Decade , calling it " a primer on the sound of pop in the ' 00s " .
= = Background and development = =
In November 2001 , Spears released her third album , Britney , which portrayed more adult and provocative themes and featured the lead single " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . The album sold 4 million copies in the United States ; nevertheless , it was viewed as " poor @-@ selling " in comparison to her previous efforts . The following year , her relationship of three years with pop singer Justin Timberlake ended after months of speculation . After the Dream Within a Dream Tour in support of Britney finalized in July 2002 , Spears announced she would take a break from her career for six months . In November 2002 , she revealed that she had started working on her next studio album . She explained , " Well , actually , I just said that I wanted two or three weeks off . [ .... ] And the whole world was like , ' Ohmigod , [ sic ] she 's gone ... "
While in Europe , Spears met with William Orbit and Daft Punk about possible collaborations , and originally confirmed Darkchild and The Neptunes as producers . When asked by The Hollywood Reporter about the direction of the record , Spears responded it was an organic evolution , adding , " It should just happen naturally from the way you feel . [ ... ] Whatever happens , happens " . Additionally , Spears scheduled meet @-@ and @-@ greets with Timbaland and Missy Elliott in an effort to help evolve her sound . Elliott would also enlist in further production work with Nisan Stewart for Spears ' project , however none of the initial material saw the light of day . Fred Durst was asked by Spears ' management to submit material , and he wrote and produced three trip hop tracks that were recorded by Spears in January 2003 . However , after news of an affair between them broke , Durst told JIVE Records he was not going to let them use the songs for the album . In March 2003 , Lauren Christy from The Matrix spoke about the development of the album with MTV News , and likened their work with Spears to Madonna 's Ray of Light . Scott Spock , also from The Matrix , continued comparing her to Madonna , saying ,
" She 's taking it to the next level in her career . Madonna constantly takes what 's in the club and puts what she does on top of it and makes it mainstream . I think Britney is starting to embrace that concept where she 's looking to work on different stuff , instead of using the same familiar , and applying it to her . [ ... ] I don 't think [ her fans ] will be freaked out or upset . I think they 'll be really into what 's going to happen . "
Spears also previewed several songs to Quddus Philippe of MTV in May 2003 , including " Touch of My Hand " , " Brave New Girl " and " Everytime " . Spears commented , " I 've really been able to take my time and have creative control and make [ the new album ] special , special , special . " On August 27 , 2003 , Spears opened the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards performing a medley of " Like a Virgin / Hollywood " with Madonna , Christina Aguilera and Missy Elliott . The performance started with Spears appearing on stage on top of a giant wedding cake while wearing a wedding gown and veil ; she sang the first few lines of " Like a Virgin " before Aguilera appeared from behind the cake and joined her . Madonna then emerged from the cake wearing a black coat and a hat and started singing " Hollywood " before proceededing to kiss Spears and Aguilera on the lips . Missy Elliott came out from a wedding chapel to sing her song " Work It " halfway through the performance . The kiss generated strong reaction from the media . The performance was listed by Blender magazine as one of the twenty @-@ five sexiest music moments on television history . MTV listed the performance as the number @-@ one opening moment in the history of the MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Recording = =
For In the Zone , Spears worked with hit producers such as Bloodshy & Avant , R. Kelly , Diddy , Christopher Stewart , Moby , Guy Sigsworth and The Matrix . She first started writing songs for In the Zone during the Dream Within a Dream Tour . Spears commented about writing while touring , " The only thing that was scary to me is that I didn ’ t know if they were good . [ But ] You can ’ t trust anybody . You have to go with your feelings . " Spears commented that she was an autobiographical songwriter , although not to the point she felt self @-@ exploited . Following the end of the tour , Spears invited her friend and backing vocalist Annet Artani to her home in Los Angeles . They started writing songs at the piano , and shortly after , they traveled to Lake Como in Lombardy , Italy . Among the tracks they worked on was " Everytime " , which Artani confirmed to be written as a response to Justin Timberlake 's " Cry Me a River " , as well as " Shine " , written by Spears about her sister Jamie Lynn , which was left unfinished . Earnest recording of the album began in May 2003 . Spears commented that although she did not know initially what direction she wanted to go with the album , she took time to work with different producers and to find those who she had chemistry with . The first song recorded for In the Zone was " Touch of My Hand " , and Spears said it " really did provide a balance for the rest of the record . We just went from there . " Following the recording sessions for " Everytime " , Spears complimented Sigsworth , saying , " I just basically told him exactly how I wanted the song to sound . And he was so amazing because there 's a lot of producers you tell them things and they don 't get it . And you 're like oh , that 's not the right way . He got it just right . He was amazing . "
Christopher Stewart and Penelope Magnet , known collectively as RedZone , presented Spears with the third song they had written and produced , " Pop Culture Whore " . While her management liked the track , she rejected it , telling them the song " sucked " . After bonding with Spears during a night in New York City to " get in her world " , as Magnet explained , it was easier to " actually write and know what she would and wouldn 't say , to know where her real vibe is " . Stewart and Magnet began working on the first version of " Me Against the Music " ; Stewart came up with the track , while Magnet developed the melody on a piano and some of the lyrics . During the recording sessions , Stewart recalls that the studio 's air @-@ conditioning died for three days , but Spears " didn 't complain or anything , and for me that shows she 's where she is for a reason . " While rehearsing for their performance at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , Spears played a finished version of " Me Against the Music " to Madonna . After Madonna commented that she liked the track , Spears asked her to do the song with her . RedZone then handed " Me Against the Music " to Madonna , who arranged and recorded her vocal additions on her own , therefore making the song a duet . Spears , who has been a fan of Madonna for years , was " beyond surprised " when she heard Madonna 's verse . She said " I just asked her to do a little thing , but she really went there . She did a lot of stuff to it . " RedZone were then enlisted to work on several more songs for the album , including co @-@ writing " Early Mornin ' " , recording background vocals for " Outrageous " and producing " The Hook Up " .
The Matrix commented that after they presented songs to Spears , she tailored them to suit herself , especially the lyrics . Christy said , " ... she really knows what she wants . She knows if she 's trying something on that doesn 't fit right for her . She 's like , ' No , that 's not me . ' She 's not one to strap on some sort of fake image . " Christy also claimed to be impressed with Spears 's vocal ability during the recording of " Shadow " . Steve Anderson , Lisa Greene and Stephen Lee wrote " Breathe on Me " at Metrophonic Studios in London , England . Before meeting with the other writers , Anderson thought of two concepts for songs specifically for Spears : one he had worked on " for ages " , and " Breathe on Me " , which he drafted on the morning of the sessions . Greene and Lee did not like the first concept , and they wrote " Breathe on Me " with Anderson . The song was produced by Mark Taylor , who kept most of the programming done by Anderson . With Taylor , Spears recorded " Breathe on Me " and " And Then We Kiss " , which did not make the album . Before the album was released , Spears 's manager Larry Rudolph commented that it was important for Spears to continue moving away from a traditional pop sound , citing " I 'm a Slave 4 U " and " Boys " from Britney as departures from her previous music . Barry Weiss , then @-@ president of JIVE Label Group , added , " She has achieved what she set out to achieve , which was to make a mature album that didn 't sound like something she would have done three years while still making a commercial album that has hit singles . [ ... ] It 's the kind of record she should be doing right now , and it came down to her to make it . " In the Zone was recorded at Battery Studios and The Dojo in New York City , 3 : 20 Studios , Decoy Studios , Pacifique Studios , Record Plant and Westlake Audio in Los Angeles , California , The Chocolate Factory , in Chicago , Illinois , Triangle Sond { sic } Studios in Atlanta , Georgia , Metrophonic Studios and Olympic Studios in London , England , and Murlyn Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . Throughout the beginning of 2003 , Spears started testing tracks by playing them in nightclubs such as Show in New York City .
= = Composition = =
According to Billboard , In the Zone marks a musical departure for Spears . Instead of traditional pop , the album is darker and more dance @-@ oriented . Spears talked about the overall sound of the album with Rolling Stone , saying , " I 'd describe it as trance @-@ y , kind of vibe record — something you could listen to that 's no so song @-@ structured [ ... ] Of course I 'm not doing ' ... Baby One More Time ' and those massive hits anymore . I think this record is where I am at right now in my life . It 's sensual , it 's sexual . I 'm probably writing about that subconsciously because I don 't have that right now . " Amy Schriefer of NPR stated the album is a mix of dance , house , crunk , Diwali beats and hip hop . According to William Shaw of Blender , the main theme of In the Zone is " Spears ’ s awakening to her sexuality as a single woman . " The first single from the album , " Me Against the Music " , features Madonna , but was constructed as a duet after she was added to the track . Spears and Madonna trade lines during the verses , and Madonna sings solo in the bridge . The instrumentation in the song includes influences of hip hop and funk guitars . The song 's lyrics feature Spears and Madonna singing of the pleasures of letting go on the dancefloor , in " I 'm up against the speaker / Trying to take on the music / It 's like a competition " . The second song , " I Got That ( Boom Boom ) " , is an Atlanta @-@ style hip hop track featuring the Ying Yang Twins .
" Showdown " has " bubbly " beats and its lyrics , about " fighting and making up with carnal relations " , include the lines " I don ’ t really want to be a tease / But would you undo my zipper , please ? " The fourth track , " Breathe on Me " , was described as the most sensual song of the record . Containing trip hop influences , Spears sings , " Oh , it 's so hot , and I need some air / And boy , don 't stop ' cause I 'm halfway there " and " Just put your lips together and blow . " " Early Mornin ' " depicts Spears looking for men at a club in New York City . The song has a percolating beat and featured subdued vocals from Spears , who purrs and yawns through the track . The nightclub Show is referenced . " Toxic " , which Spears later named as her favorite song from her career , was originally offered to Kylie Minogue . Released as the album 's second single , it contains elements of electropop and bhangra music , and features varied instrumentation , such as drums , synthesizers , high @-@ pitched strings and surf guitars . Lyrically , " Toxic " talks about being addicted to a lover . " Outrageous " , the fourth and final single from the album , is a hip hop @-@ inspired track that according to MTV features Spears " whisper [ ing ] and moan [ ing ] [ ... ] with a snake charmer melody giving the song an exotic feel . " The lyrics talk about materialism and amusement , with the singer referencing in the chorus a number of things that give her pleasure . In " Touch of My Hand " , which Spears felt it was comparable to Janet Jackson 's " That 's the Way Love Goes " ( 1993 ) , she sings in a lower register . The instrumentation contains elements of Middle Eastern music and its lyrics refer to masturbation , " I will be bold / Going to the places where I can be out of control / Don 't want to explain tonight / All the things I try to hide . "
The ninth track " The Hook Up " has a reggae feel and features Spears singing in a Jamaican Patois accent . The ballad " Shadow " talks about how reminders of a lover can still linger after he ’ s gone . " Brave New Girl " lyrics talk about a young woman finding her passion and losing inhibitions . Backed by choppy , electro @-@ funk beats , she sings in a bouncy near @-@ rap , " She 's gonna pack her bags , she 's going to find her way , she 's going to get right out of this / She don 't want New York , she don 't want L.A. , she 's going to find that special kiss . " The song incorporates elements of the music of No Doubt , Blondie and Madonna . " Everytime " begins with a piano introduction accompanying Spears 's breathy vocals , which build from soft to strong throughout the song . " Everytime " lyrics are a plea for forgiveness for inadvertently hurting a former lover . In the song , the singer explains she feels unable to continue in lines such as " Everytime I try to fly I fall / Without my wings I feel so small " . During an interview with MTV , Spears said about the song , " It 's about heartbreak , it 's about your first love , your first true love . That 's something all people can relate to , because you all have that first love that you think you 're going to be with the rest of your life . " When asked if " Everytime " was about Timberlake , she responded " I 'll let the song speak for itself . " The Rishi Rich 's Desi Kulcha Remix of " Me Against the Music " removes the original melody of the song and adds a clattering backbeat and Punjabi shouts . In " The Answer " , Spears sings that her lover is the answer to all her needs : " Who can hold me tight , keep me warm through the night ? / Who can wipe my tears when it 's wrong , make it right ? / Who can give me love till I 'm satisfied ? / Who 's the one I need in my life ? " . In " Don 't Hang Up " , she pleads on the phone for her lover to keep her satisfied long @-@ distance .
= = Critical reception = =
In the Zone holds a score of 66 out of 100 ( indicating " generally positive reviews " ) based on 13 critical reviews , according to the music review aggregator Metacritic . Jason Shawhan of About.com gave a positive review , saying that while the album 's vibe is sexy , the result is a personal statement from Spears . He also added , " T [ here ] ' s another thing about Spears ' new record , as none of her previous albums ever managed to produce any kind of sustained emotional response than the pleasure that comes from a good pop record . I miss Max Martin , for sure , but it feels like Ms. S. has been paying attention to La Ciccone . To put it another way , this is Britney 's True Blue . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said that the album " [ is ] all club @-@ ready , but despite some hints of neo @-@ electro and the Neptunes , it doesn 't quite sound modern — it sounds like cuts from 1993 or Madonna 's Bedtime Stories and Ray of Light . Production @-@ wise , these tracks are not only accomplished but much more varied than any of her previous albums . " Ruth Mitchell of BBC Online called " Early Mornin ' " the best track of the album , but added , " Sadly , her attempts to prove her new @-@ found maturity are what overwhelm and cloud all that is good about In The Zone . " Mim Udovitch of Blender commented , " This I ’ m @-@ coming @-@ out record is an unhesitant move from songs of the heart to songs of the groin [ ... ] No longer a girl , freed from slavery , now fully a woman , she makes a pretty convincing mistress . " David Browne of Entertainment Weekly called " Brave New Girl " and " Touch of My Hand " the best and most straightforward moments of the album , but added that " On a CD intended to celebrate her lurch into adulthood , Spears remains distant and submerged . For all her freedom , she 's still finding her way . "
Jon Pareles of Rolling Stone said , " [ Spears 's ] voice is so processed , its physicality almost disappears . [ ... ] In the Zone offers strip @-@ club , 1 @-@ 900 sex , accommodating and hollow . Beyond the glittering beats , Spears sounds about as intimate as a blowup doll . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine stated , " Britney 's fourth album , In The Zone , finds the pop tart coming of age with a bold mix of hip @-@ hop and dance music , wiping clean the last traces of her bubblegum @-@ pop past . [ ... ] For the most part , In The Zone is a big , fat , thumping love letter to the dancefloor , which makes Madonna 's involvement [ ... ] even more appropriate . " Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian commented , " Unlike previous Britney albums , In the Zone has no filler and no shoddy cover versions , just 57 varieties of blue @-@ chip hit @-@ factory pop . There is southern hip @-@ hop , deep house , Neptunes @-@ style R & B , the ubiquitous Diwali beat and , most importantly , oodles of Madonna . " Jason King of Vibe deemed it as " A supremely confident dance record that also illustrates Spears 's development as a songwriter . " " Toxic " won Spears her only Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording in 2005 .
= = Commercial performance = =
According to Nielsen SoundScan , In the Zone sold 609 @,@ 000 during its first week of availability in the United States , debuting at the top of the Billboard 200 . The album had the second highest debut sales of 2003 by a female artist ( only behind Alicia Keys 's The Diary of Alicia Keys ) , as well as the fifth highest debut sales of the year . Spears also became the first female artist in Billboard 's history to have four consecutive number @-@ one albums . By its third week , In the Zone had already sold 1 million copies in the country . The album was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on December 16 , 2003 , for shipments of 2 million copies in the United States . It has sold over 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies there according to Nielsen SoundScan . In Canada , the album debuted at number two in the Canadian Albums Chart with sales of 31 @,@ 000 units . It was certified three @-@ times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies .
In Australia and New Zealand , In the Zone debuted at number ten and twenty @-@ five in the official charts , respectively . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) indicating shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . The album debuted at number three on the Oricon weekly album chart in Japan , selling around 59 @,@ 128 copies . In Mexico , In the Zone was certified platinum on December 17 , 2003 , by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for shipments of 150 @,@ 000 copies . The album was also certified platinum in Argentina by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) for shipments of 40 @,@ 000 copies in total . In the Zone debuted at number fourteen on the UK Albums Chart , staying on the chart for forty @-@ three weeks and jumping to its peak of number thirteen on its thirty @-@ fourth week in the chart . It was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies . The album also debuted at the top of the charts in France . In April 2004 , it was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for shipments of a million copies in Europe . In the Zone was the eighth best selling album of 2003 .
= = Singles = =
" Me Against the Music " was released as the lead single from In the Zone on October 20 , 2003 , by JIVE Records . The label 's choice for the first single was originally " Outrageous " , but Spears convinced them to release " Me Against the Music " . The song received mixed reviews from critics . Some felt it was a strong dance track of the album , while others referred to it as lackluster and disappointing . " Me Against the Music " achieved international success , peaking atop of the charts in countries such as Australia , Denmark , Hungary , Ireland and Spain , as well as the European Hot 100 Singles . It also peaked at number two in Canada , Italy , Norway and the United Kingdom , and inside the top five in many other nations . The song won the " Hot Dance Single of the Year " accolade at the 2004 Billboard Music Awards . In the song 's accompanying music video , Spears chases Madonna inside a nightclub . " Toxic " was released as the album 's second single on January 12 , 2004 . After trying to choose between " ( I Got That ) Boom Boom " and " Outrageous " , Spears selected " Toxic " instead . The song received positive reviews from critics . " Toxic " attained worldwide success , reaching the top @-@ five in fifteen countries , while topping the charts in Australia , Canada , Hungary , Norway and the United Kingdom . In the United States , it became her first single to peak inside the top ten in almost four years . The accompanying music video for the song portrays Spears as a secret agent in the search of a vial of green liquid . After she steals it , she enters an apartment and poisons her unfaithful boyfriend . The video also includes interspersed scenes of Spears naked with diamonds over her body . " Toxic " won Spears her first Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording , and its often referred to as one of her defining songs .
" Everytime " was the third single released from the album , on May 17 , 2004 . It received positive appreciation from contemporary critics . " Everytime " was a commercial success , peaking inside the top five in most countries , while reaching the top of the charts in Australia , Hungary , Ireland and the United Kingdom . The music video for " Everytime " portrays Spears as a star hounded by paparazzi , who drowns in her bathtub when she starts bleeding from a wound in her head . In the hospital , doctors fail to resuscitate her while a child is born in the next room , implying she reeincarnated . The original treatment would have had Spears killing herself from a drug overdose , but the plot was removed after it received criticism by several organizations , who perceived it as a glamorization of suicide . " Outrageous " was the fourth and last single from the album , released on July 13 , 2004 . The song was finally chosen as a single after it was selected as the theme song for the 2004 film Catwoman . " Outrageous " received mixed reviews from critics . Some praised its funky sound , noting its influence from Michael and Janet Jackson , while others deemed it as " forgettable " . The song only charted in the United States , entering many of Billboard 's component charts and peaking at number seventy @-@ nine on the Hot 100 . The music video was being shot in New York City in June 2004 , when Spears hurt her knee and had to undergo arthroscopic surgery . The video was canceled , as well as The Onyx Hotel Tour and the feature in the Catwoman soundtrack .
= = Promotion = =
In November 2003 , Barry Weiss spoke to Billboard and said that In the Zone was being promoted in a worldwide level , exhausting areas such as print and electronic media , TV , radio and video to raise awareness of the album 's release . In addition , JIVE worked with lifestyle marketer the Karpel Group to market the album to the gay community . Other broader @-@ based marketing efforts included a tie @-@ in with marketing company LidRock , where after ordering a soda at Sbarro , customers received a cup featuring the artwork and a three @-@ inch disc in the lid featuring " Brave New Girl " and songs by two other artists . In December 2003 , an updated LidRock disc included a remix of " Me Against the Music " without Madonna , as well as songs by fellow JIVE acts Nick Cannon and Bowling for Soup . Regal Theaters also showed a short film that included footage of the making of Spears 's music videos . Two national TV advertising campaigns began on November 1 , 2003 , one with a teaser ad in American comedy show Saturday Night Live and another exclusively on MTV . No sponsored cross @-@ marketing campaigns were planned , as Larry Rudolph explained , " [ This time ] it 's going to be more about the music than about corporate tie @-@ ins . " In terms of international exposure , during a fourth @-@ month period Spears was featured in seven mini TV @-@ specials and more than one @-@ hundred and fifty interviews outside the US .
Spears first performed " Me Against the Music " at the 2003 NFL Kickoff Live on September 4 , 2003 at the National Mall . The performance segued into a medley of " ... Baby One More Time " and " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , which included pyrotechnics . On September 14 , 2003 , Spears played a surprise concert at Rain Nightclub in the Palms Casino Resort , and performed " Me Against the Music " , " Breathe on Me " and a medley of " ... Baby One More Time " and " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . On October 18 , 2003 , Spears performed " Me Against the Music " and " Everytime " during the twenty @-@ ninth season of Saturday Night Live . Spears opened the 2003 American Music Awards telecast with a performance of " Me Against the Music " . On November 17 , 2003 , a concert special titled Britney Spears : In the Zone aired in ABC . The following day , she performed " Me Against the Music " and " ( I Got That ) Boom Boom " on the American music show TRL at Times Square . " Me Against the Music " was also performed on American late @-@ night show The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and American morning show Live with Regis and Kelly on November 17 and 24 , 2003 . She performed " Toxic " , " Breathe on Me " and " Me Against the Music " as the headliner of the Jingle Ball on December 8 , 2003 , at the Staples Center . On January 24 , 2004 , Spears opened the 2004 NRJ Music Awards with a performance of " Toxic " . On August 5 , 2004 , Spears performed " Everytime " at the British music chart show Top of the Pops .
= = = The Onyx Hotel Tour = = =
The Onyx Hotel Tour to promote In the Zone was the fourth concert tour by Britney Spears . A tour to promote the album was announced in December 2003 . Its original name was the In the Zone Tour , but Spears was sued for trademark infringement and banned from using the phrase ' in the zone ' . Spears felt inspired to create a show with a hotel theme which she later mixed with the concept of an onyx stone . The stage , inspired by Broadway musicals , was less elaborate than her previous tours . The setlist was composed mostly by songs from In the Zone as well as some of her past songs reworked with different elements of jazz , blues and Latin percussion . Tour promoter Clear Channel Entertainment marketed the tour to a more adult audience than her previous shows while sponsor MTV highly promoted the tour on TV shows and the network 's website . The tour was divided into seven segments : Check @-@ In , Mystic Lounge , Mystic Garden , The Onyx Zone , Security Cameras , Club and the encore . Check @-@ In displayed performances with dance and advanced in the hotel theme . Mystic Lounge featured an homage to Cabaret and other musicals , while remixing some of Spears 's early hits . Mystic Garden displayed a jungle @-@ inspired stage . The Onyx Zone displayed a ballad performance with acrobats . Security Cameras was the raciest part of the show , with Spears and her dancers emulating different sexual practices . Club displayed a performance with urban influences . The encore consisted of a system malfunction interlude and Spears performed wearing a red ensemble . The tour received mixed reviews from contemporary critics , who praised it for being an entertaining show while criticizing it for looking " more [ like ] a spectacle than an actual concert " . The Onyx Hotel Tour was commercially successful , grossing $ 34 million . In March , Spears suffered a knee injury onstage which forced her to reschedule two shows . In June , Spears fell and hurt her knee again during a music video shoot . She underwent surgery and the remainder of the tour was cancelled .
= = Legacy = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commented , " If 2001 's Britney was a transitional album , capturing Spears at the point when she wasn 't a girl and not yet a woman , its 2003 follow @-@ up , In the Zone , is where she has finally completed that journey and turned into Britney , the Adult Woman . " Erlewine compared Spears to her peer Christina Aguilera , explaining that both equated maturity with transparent sexuality and the pounding sounds of nightclubs , but while Aguilera " comes across like a natural @-@ born skank , Britney is the girl next door cutting loose at college , drinking and smoking and dancing and sexing just a little too recklessly , since this is the first time she can indulge herself . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine stated , " For a girl who 's always seemed too sexed @-@ up for her age , In The Zone finds Britney finally filling her britches , so @-@ to @-@ speak . Her little girl coquettishness actually works now — maybe because , at 21 , she 's finally a woman . " Jason King of Vibe said the album showcased a transformed Spears , " no longer a girl , and all the woman any man can handle . " In 2009 , Amy Schriefer of NPR listed the album on The 50 Most Important Recording of the Decade list . Calling it " a primer on the sound of pop in the ' 00s " , she deemed Spears as the ideal vehicle for a futuristic sound , since she was still trying to break away from her teen pop past . Schriefer praised " Toxic " and " Everytime " , and also stated , " While the decade 's history of celebrity obsession , paparazzi voyeurism and conflicted constructions of female sexuality and motherhood are written on Spears ' body , the decade 's history of impeccably crafted pop is written on her body of work . "
Julie Andsager in Sex in consumer culture ( 2006 ) said that the music videos from In the Zone presented a different Spears , and that although the album was intended to target the gay market , the videos were clearly designed for heterosexual men . Andsager suggested that Spears took cues more directly from sexual fantasies , and that the use of sanitized images of attractive young women posed in sexual ways ( lesbian chic ) serves two audiences : primarily , it sought to fulfill heterosexual fantasies , but as a secondary function , it may also serve young women as a source of instruction in attracting males . From a marketing perspective , the fantasy @-@ fulfillment purpose of the album was apparent not only on the videos , but also in the kiss between Spears at Madonna at the Video Music Awards . Finally , Andsager explained that " [ Spears ] has , perhaps , taken her sexuality to its extreme — for network television , at least — at the age of 22 " .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer .
^ [ b ] signifies a vocal producer .
^ [ c ] signifies a remixer .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Back to Basics : Live and Down Under =
Back to Basics : Live and Down Under is the fourth video album by American singer @-@ songwriter Christina Aguilera . It premiered on television on January 26 , 2008 on VH1 , and was released on DVD on February 4 , 2008 , by RCA Records . The DVD included material from recordings from two of Aguilera ’ s concerts during her Back to Basics Tour in Adelaide on July 17 and 18 , 2007 . Behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage is included with video from the concerts .
Upon its release , Back to Basics : Live and Down Under garnered positive views from music critics as well as attained chart success in a number of countries , peaking at number one on the DVD charts of Belgium ( Flanders ) and the United Kingdom . In the United States , the DVD debuted atop the chart with first @-@ week sales of 18 @,@ 437 copies . It achieved double platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and gold certification by Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
= = Background and release = =
To support Back to Basics ( 2006 ) , Aguilera embarked on the worldwide concert Back to Basics Tour . The tour received mixed to positive reviews from music critics ; The Georgia Straight 's Mike Usinger praised Aguilera 's vocals as " insanely powerful , " while Dave Simpson from The Guardian criticized the setlist as " confusing . " The show in Adelaide , Australia on July 17 and 18 , 2007 was filmed and was released as a DVD .
On January 26 , 2008 , Back to Basics : Live and Down Under made it premiere on VH1 at 10 PM . The DVD was released officially on February 4 , 2008 in the United Kingdom . The next day , it was released in Canada and the United States . In Germany , it was released on February 8 , 2008 . It was released on February 11 in France , and on February 16 in Australia . The DVD features old @-@ school style materials such as trapeze artists , circus jugglers , and cabaret dancing . It also includes behind @-@ the @-@ scene interviews with dancers , musicians , stylists , Aguilera 's husband Jordan Bratman and the singer herself .
= = Critical response = =
Upon its release , Back to Basics : Live and Down Under garnered mainly positive feedback from music critics . Jake Meaney for PopMatters gave it a seven out of ten stars rating , commenting it " huge and overwhelming , deeply soulful and expressive , if sometimes a bit unsubtly melismatic " . Clayton Perry from the online website Blogcritics provided a positive review , writing that it " is more than a simple presentation of song and dance ; the show , by all measures , is a Broadway @-@ caliber production " . The New York Times was also impressed toward the video release , writing that it is " at the top of her already speaker @-@ blowing vocal range " .
= = Commercial performance = =
On February 25 , 2008 , the DVD debuted and peaked at number 2 on the ARIA Music DVD Chart , where it remained its peak for two weeks . On the Austrian Music DVD Chart , it debuted at number 7 on the issue chart dated February 22 , 2008 . The following week , it fell to number 8 . The DVD reached its peak at number 6 on March 14 , 2008 . In the Wallonia region of Belgium , Live and Down Under made its first chart appearance at number 10 on February 16 , 2008 . It subsequently peaked at number 8 the following week . In the Flanders region , the DVD peaked atop the chart on March 1 , 2008 after two weeks charting within the top 10 .
In New Zealand , it peaked at number 7 on the RIANZ DVD Chart and remained on the top ten for on week . It also peaked at number 6 in Austria , number 4 in Switzerland , number 2 in Dutch , and atop the chart of United Kingdom . In the United States , Back to Basics : Live and Down Under debuted at number one on the Billboard Top Music Videos chart on February 23 , 2008 with first @-@ week sales of 18 @,@ 437 copies . It fell to number 3 the following week . On March 8 , 2008 , the DVD fell to number 4 .
The DVD was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 50 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for exceeding shipments of 30 @,@ 000 copies in Australia .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from DVD liner notes
= = = Bonus content = = =
" Dancers "
" Wardrobe : Simone Harouche "
" Hair & Make @-@ Up : Stephen Sollitto "
" Musicians "
" Background Vocalists "
" Musical Director : Rob Lewis "
" Jordan Bratman "
" Christina Aguilera "
= = Personnel = =
Christina Aguilera – vocals , primary artist , creative director
Hamish Hamilton – director
Sasha Allen , Erika Jerry – background vocals
Irving Azoff , Kelly Perkins , Harry Sandler – management
Errol Cooney – guitar
Ethan Farmer – bass
Irene Fukunaga – executive assistant
Miguel Gandelman – saxophone
James Glader – photography
Jean @-@ Pierre Leloir – photo courtesy
Rob Lewis – music direction
Peter Mokran – mixing
Raymond " Ez " Monteiro – trumpet
Garret Smith – trombone
Eric Weaver – assistant
Chris Woehrle – design
Credits adapted from AllMusic
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= SMS Meteor ( 1890 ) =
SMS Meteor was an aviso of the Imperial German Navy , the lead ship of her class . She had one sister ship , Comet . She was built by the Germaniawerft shipyard . Her keel was laid in 1888 ; she was launched in January 1890 , and completed in May 1891 . Her career was limited due to poor handling and excessive vibration ; she remained on active service only until 1895 . She was used as a harbor guard ship from 1904 to 1911 , after which she became a barracks ship in Kiel . Meteor was sold for scrap in 1919 and subsequently dismantled .
= = Design = =
Meteor was 79 @.@ 86 meters ( 262 @.@ 0 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 9 @.@ 56 m ( 31 @.@ 4 ft ) and a maximum draft of 3 @.@ 68 m ( 12 @.@ 1 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 078 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 061 long tons ; 1 @,@ 188 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) and a range of approximately 960 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 780 km ; 1 @,@ 100 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . Meteor had a crew of 7 officers and 108 enlisted men .
As built , the ship was armed with four 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns placed in single pivot mounts , two side @-@ by @-@ side forward , and two side @-@ by @-@ side aft . The guns were supplied with between 462 and 680 rounds of ammunition . Meteor also carried three 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , one mounted submerged in the bow and the other two in deck @-@ mounted launchers on the broadside . She was protected with a 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick deck , along with 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) of steel armor plating for the conning tower .
= = Service history = =
Meteor was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in 1888 , and launched on 20 January 1890 . Fitting @-@ out work then commenced , and was completed by 19 May 1891 , when she was commissioned into the German fleet . Meteor served with the fleet only briefly ; this was due to her poor handling and excessive vibration at high speed . In 1893 , she was assigned as the dispatch vessel for the I Division of the Maneuver Squadron , which was composed of the four Sachsen @-@ class ironclads .
By 1895 , she was withdrawn from front @-@ line service and used for fishery protection . This duty lasted only a year , after which she was placed out of service . In 1899 , she was reclassified as a light cruiser , along with her sister ship Comet , though both vessels remained out of service . Meteor was used as a harbor guard ship starting on 3 May 1904 . On 24 June 1911 , she was stricken from the naval register and used as a barracks ship in Kiel . She served in this capacity through World War I. After the German defeat , the ship was sold for scrapping in 1919 . Meteor thereafter was broken up in Rendsburg .
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= Anglo @-@ Italian Cup =
The Anglo @-@ Italian Cup ( also known as the Anglo @-@ Italian Inter @-@ League Clubs Competition and from 1976 – 86 as the Alitalia Challenge Cup , Talbot Challenge Cup or Gigi Peronace Memorial ) is a defunct European football competition .
The competition was played intermittently between 1970 and 1996 between clubs from England and Italy . It was founded by Gigi Peronace , following the two @-@ team Anglo @-@ Italian League Cup in 1969 . The initial Anglo @-@ Italian Cup was played as an annual tournament from 1970 to 1973 . The first final was abandoned early due to violence , with Swindon Town declared the winners . During its time the tournament had a reputation for violence between fans , but it returned as a semi @-@ professional tournament from 1976 before it was abolished again in 1986 .
In 1992 , the Anglo @-@ Italian Cup was re @-@ established as a professional cup for second tier clubs – it replaced the English Full Members Cup . The Italian representatives were Serie B teams . This version of the Cup ran for four seasons , until 1996 , before being discontinued due to fixture congestion . The trophy was a 22 @-@ inch ( 56 cm ) high gold loving cup mounted on a wooden plinth .
= = History = =
= = = Professional era = = =
From 1967 , a place in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup was awarded to the Football League Cup winners , but that season 's winners , Queens Park Rangers , could not take up their place because UEFA did not at that time allow third @-@ tier teams to compete in the Fairs Cup . When the same situation arose two years later with Swindon Town , a two @-@ legged match against that year 's Coppa Italia winners , A.S. Roma , was organised by way of compensation . Following the popularity of that event , dubbed the Anglo @-@ Italian League Cup , and as a way to generate income to pay players ' wages during the extended close season caused by the 1970 FIFA World Cup , the first Anglo @-@ Italian Cup was inaugurated in 1970 .
For the first competition there were six English teams and six Italian teams . These teams were split into three groups consisting of two English and two Italian teams each , with two points being awarded for a win , one point for a draw , and a point for each goal scored . The final was contested between the best team from each country , and Swindon played Napoli at the Stadio San Paolo on 28 May 1970 . Swindon were 3 – 0 up after 63 minutes , when violence started to break out . The match had to be abandoned after 79 minutes , with Swindon being declared as the first winners of the tournament .
In 1971 , the second edition of the tournament , Blackpool and Bologna were the two nations ' best @-@ ranked teams and contested the final at the Stadio Renato Dall 'Ara on 12 June 1971 . Prior to the match , tournament organiser Gigi Peronace stressed that it was imperative for an Italian club to win back the trophy . After 90 minutes the score was 1 – 1 and the match went into extra @-@ time , during which Micky Burns scored the winning goal for Blackpool .
Blackpool qualified for the final again in 1972 , but were unsuccessful in their defence of the title , with Roma winning 3 – 1 . In 1973 , points were no longer awarded for each goal scored , and Newcastle United went on to win the final 2 – 1 against Fiorentina at the Stadio Artemio Franchi on 3 June 1973 . Due to lack of interest the tournament did not continue , and it was not until 1976 that it re @-@ emerged as a semi @-@ professional competition .
= = = Semi @-@ professional era = = =
In March 1976 , the Anglo @-@ Italian Cup was re @-@ introduced as a semi @-@ professional tournament , with six entrants from each country . Wimbledon and Monza reached the final , with Monza winning the final 1 – 0 , making them unbeaten for the tournament . For the next two years Bath City were the English finalists but they lost to Lecco in 1977 , and Udinese in 1978 , when the tournament was renamed the Alitalia Challenge Cup .
In 1979 , each country had four entrants and Sutton United defeated Italian finalists Chieti 2 – 1 to become the first and only English winners of the competition during its time as a semi @-@ professional competition . Attempting to defend their title the following year , Sutton United reached the final but were defeated by Triestina .
In 1981 , the tournament was called the Talbot Challenge Cup and Modena were the winners . The following year the tournament was renamed the Gigi Peronace Memorial , after the man who organised the tournament , and reduced to four teams . The new format consisted of two Anglo @-@ Italian semi @-@ finals , which meant the final was not necessarily contested by an English and an Italian team . That year , Modena successfully defended their title in a final against Sutton United , who were the last English team to reach the final of the semi @-@ professional tournament .
From 1983 to 1986 , the finals were all @-@ Italian contests , and after the 1986 instalment the tournament was discontinued .
= = = Professional tournament again = = =
The competition was re @-@ established in 1992 – 93 as a replacement for the Full Members Cup . It was a professional tournament for teams competing in the second tier of football — the newly renamed First Division in England and Serie B in Italy .
The new version of the tournament began with preliminary rounds – 24 English teams competed in 8 groups of three teams . Each team played the others once , and the eight group winners progressed to the main competition .
The main competition consisted of two groups , each with four English , and four Italian teams . Each team would play four group games – against every team in its group from the other nation . Then , the top team in each group from each nation competed in semi @-@ finals : an all @-@ English semi @-@ final , and an all @-@ Italian semi @-@ final . The final was a single match played at Wembley .
In the 1992 – 93 tournament , Derby County lost the final 3 – 1 to Cremonese . Brescia won the final in 1994 against Notts County , but Notts County reached the final again in 1995 and defeated Ascoli 2 – 1 . The last instalment of the competition was held in 1995 – 96 , and Genoa triumphed 5 – 2 over Port Vale in the final on 17 March 1996 . The competition was abandoned in 1996 because the two leagues could not agree on dates for fixtures , and due to increasing violence at matches .
= = Participants = =
For the original professional tournament in the 1970s , the English entrants were either First Division or Second Division sides . ( The First Division sides had generally finished in the lower half of the table , while the Second Division sides were generally mid @-@ table or better . ) With the exception of Bari and Como in 1973 , all Italian teams playing in the 1970s tournament had just competed in the previous Serie A season . The Italian clubs were often mid @-@ table or higher finishers who had sometimes also qualified for the European competitions .
When the competition was revived in the 1990s , for the first two seasons all English sides playing in the First Division ( 2nd level ) participated , but in the last two tournaments only 8 English teams played . In 1994 / 95 , two of the clubs relegated from the Premiership were joined by six teams that had just missed out on promotion . For 1995 / 96 , only one relegated Premiership team competed – most of the remaining teams had finished in mid @-@ table or lower table in the previous First Division campaign , and Birmingham City had just been promoted from Division Two .
The Italian participants in the revived 1990s tournament were the four teams that had just been relegated from Serie A and the four teams that had finished highest but not been promoted in Serie B. The exception to this was Verona , who were relegated in 1991 / 92 , but did not play in the 1992 / 93 cup .
= = = Table of participants and performance by season = = =
Key
Won tournament ; runner @-@ up ; lost in semi @-@ final ( English or Italian final ) ; lost in quarter @-@ final ( English or Italian semi @-@ final ) ; eliminated in group stage ; eliminated in preliminary qualifying .
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= Old Bridge , Pontypridd =
The Old Bridge ( Welsh : Yr Hen Bont ) , which is now also known as the William Edwards Bridge or Pontypridd Bridge , was originally known as the New Bridge or Newbridge , it is an arched single @-@ span footbridge that spans the River Taff at Pontypridd in Wales . The bridge was built by William Edwards and was completed in 1756 . The bridge now has statutory protection as a scheduled ancient monument and is grade I listed .
= = Pontypridd = =
In the early 18th century Pontypridd , then known as Pont @-@ y @-@ tŷ @-@ pridd ( The bridge of the earthen house ) , was a tiny hamlet . Pont @-@ y @-@ tŷ @-@ pridd took its name from the original bridge of the same name , however very little is known of that ancient ford with stepping stones , which ran alongside the current Old Bridge , and was used only when the river ran low . Possibly in 1744 or after the bridge was built , Pont @-@ y @-@ tŷ @-@ pridd became known as Newbridge or New Bridge after the William Edwards ' Bridge . By 1856 , Newbridge had been renamed Pontypridd .
In 1746 when William Edwards was just 27 years of age , he was commissioned by the Hundreds of Miskin and Caerphilly to build a three @-@ arch bridge across the River Taff . For this he was paid the sum of GB £ 500 , on condition that he would maintain it for seven years .
= = Construction = =
= = = The first bridge = = =
The first bridge to be constructed was a three @-@ arch stone bridge , which was built in 1746 . It was destroyed by a heavy storm which caused the River Taff to flood about two years later . A large amount of debris came down the river , which then become trapped against the two abutments supporting the bridge . The weight and force of the debris ultimately destroyed the bridge , which was then swept away down the river .
= = = The second bridge = = =
After the destruction of the first bridge over the fast flowing River Taff , William Edwards decided to design a much more radical 140 ft ( 43 m ) single @-@ arch bridge that would eliminate the possibility of debris destroying the bridge due to the flooding of the River Taff . The second bridge was built from 1748 , however two reports differ as to what actually happened during this second attempt to build the bridge . Thomas Morgan , contemporary of Edwards , said that " … when he ( William Edwards ) had almost finished the arch ; the centre timber work gave way and all fell to the bottom . " However , The National Library of Wales have a contemporary works known as the Plasybrain manuscript which says that , " Just after the first single arch was finished and before the centre was struck , a flood came and carried all away . " It is not clear which one of these two accounts is the accurate one , however it is clear that Edwards ' latest attempted to build a bridge cross the River Taff had yet again ended in failure .
= = = The third bridge = = =
The single @-@ arch bridge was rebuilt and was actually finished . It stood for a period of about six weeks before again it collapsed because the new bridge was not balanced , which forced the keystone out , which once again caused the bridge to collapse . In the Theory of Arches and Pontypridd , it states that " the weight of the bridge was either too great on the haunches or too little on the crown . " At this stage Edwards was either encouraged or forced to try again with extra money being provided to cover his losses for the earlier attempts .
= = = The fourth bridge = = =
The final design of the bridge included three cylindrical voids ( holes ) of 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) , 1 @.@ 7 m ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) and 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) on each side on the bridge . This reduced the weight and pressure on the crown and the bridge is still in operation today , however it can only be used by pedestrians . The Theory of Arches and Pontypridd , states that as a bridge , the bridge was a failure , as it was " only eleven feet wide between the parapets and so steep that wagons had to use a ' chain and drag ' to descend from the crown . "
The 140 ft Old Bridge surpassed the 130 ft ( 40 m ) Old Walton Bridge as the longest single @-@ span bridge in Great Britain and remained the longest bridge for another 40 years . It was also one of the few bridges in Europe , and indeed worldwide , whose span exceeded the 40 m mark .
The whole project ( including the three failed attempts ) cost the architect a total of £ 1 @,@ 153 18s . 2d . ( approximately £ 1 @,@ 153 @.@ 91 ) , and consequently he made a loss of over £ 600 . It was reported that Edwards ' attempts to build the bridge over the River Taff left him in a considerable amount of debt and Thomas Morgan reported that " … the mason was considerably in debt and greatly discouraged . But the Lords Talbot and Windsor , who have estates in the neighbourhood pitied his case , and being willing to encourage such an enterprising genius , most generously promoted a subscription among the gentry in those parts . "
= = Subsequent history = =
The problem with the Old Bridge was that it was so steep that it made it very difficult to get horse carts to go across it . By 1857 , a new bridge , the Victoria Bridge , was built next to the Old Bridge , which was paid for by the people of Pontypridd . The Victoria Bridge is a three @-@ arch bridge , that was built by Thomas Jenkins , this overcame many of the problems with the steepness of the Old Bridge .
Since the bridge was opened in 1756 , it has become the subject for many landscape artists , including Richard Wilson and Turner .
The Old Bridge is now a scheduled monument and is also depicted in two emblems of local rugby union teams ; Pontypridd RFC and Cilfynydd RFC . Artist Lulu Quinn was commissioned by Rhondda Cynon Taf County Borough Council to illuminate the Old Bridge as part of a regeneration programme for Pontypridd called the Monument Illumination Scheme . Initial tests to illuminate the bridge took place on 19 August 2008 , and the project has subsequently been officially launched after the tests were successful .
= = Bridge imagery = =
Representations of William Edwards ' Bridge can be seen in local heraldic and civic stationery , including the crest of Pontypridd Rugby Football Club , and Cilfynydd Rugby Football Club . The community @-@ to @-@ community organisation PONT ( Partnerships Overseas Networking Trust ) , also bases its logo upon the Bridge . Pontypridd High School in Cilfynydd incorporates the bridge design into the school shield , as does Pontypridd Town Council with its logo representing the south Wales Valleys and a section of the Old Bridge in the foreground . Pontypridd Male Voice Choir also incorporates the Old Bridge in the choir logo .
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= Constantine Lekapenos =
Constantine Lekapenos or Lecapenus ( Greek : Κωνσταντίνος Λακαπηνός ) was the third son of the Byzantine emperor Romanos I Lekapenos ( r . 920 – 944 ) , and co @-@ emperor from 924 to 945 . With his elder brother Stephen , he deposed Romanos I in December 944 , but was overthrown and exiled by the legitimate emperor Constantine VII ( r . 913 – 959 ) a few weeks later . Constantine was exiled to the island of Samothrace , where he was killed while attempting to escape sometime between 946 and 948 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family = = =
Constantine was one of the youngest sons of Romanos I and his wife Theodora . Theophanes Continuatus mentions him as the youngest son of the imperial couple , while the 11th @-@ century chronicler George Kedrenos mentions him as the third of four known sons . His older brothers were Christopher Lekapenos ( co @-@ emperor 921 – 931 ) and Stephen Lekapenos ( co @-@ emperor 924 @-@ 945 ) . It is unclear if Theophylact ( Patriarch of Constantinople in 933 – 956 ) was his younger brother or slightly older than he was . His sisters included Helena , who married Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos ( r . 913 – 959 ) , and Agatha , who married Romanos Argyros . He probably also had at least two unnamed sisters , known only because of their marriages to the magistroi Romanos Mosele and Romanos Saronites .
= = = Reign = = =
Romanos Lekapenos had risen to power in 919 , when he had managed to appoint himself regent over the young Constantine VII and marry his daughter Helena to him . Within a year , he successively rose from basileopator to Caesar , and was eventually crowned senior emperor on 17 December 920 . To consolidate his hold on power , and with a view of supplanting the ruling Macedonian dynasty with his own family , he raised his eldest son Christopher to co @-@ emperor in May 921 , while Stephen and Constantine were proclaimed co @-@ emperors on 25 December 924 .
Following Christopher 's early death in 931 , and given Constantine VII 's de facto sidelining , Stephen and Constantine assumed an increased prominence , although formally they still ranked after their brother @-@ in @-@ law in the college of emperors . In 939 , Constantine married his first wife Helena , a daughter of the patrikios Adrian , an Armenian .
Symeon Magister records the death of Helena on 14 January 940 , and on 2 February of the same year , Constantine married his second wife , Theophano Mamas . Constantine had a son , named Romanos , but it is not recorded by which of his two wives . This Romanos was castrated in 945 , after the Lekapenoi lost power , to prevent him from claiming the Byzantine throne . He nevertheless pursued a career in the court , eventually reaching the rank of patrikios and the post of Eparch of Constantinople .
Stephen and Constantine Lekapenos came to the fore in 943 , when they opposed a dynastic marriage for their nephew , Romanos II . Their father wanted to have his eldest surviving grandson married to Euphrosyne , a daughter of his successful general John Kourkouas . Although such a union would effectively cement the loyalty of the army , it would also strengthen the position of the legitimate Macedonian line , represented by Romanos II and his father Constantine VII , over the imperial claims of Romanos 's own sons . Predictably , Stephen and Constantine opposed this decision , and prevailed upon their father , who was by this time ill and old , to dismiss Kourkouas in the autumn of 944 . Romanos II instead married Bertha , an illegitimate daughter of Hugh of Arles , King of Italy , who changed her name to Eudokia after her marriage .
With Romanos I approaching the end of his life , the matter of his succession became urgent . In 943 , Romanos drafted a will which would leave Constantine VII as the senior emperor following his death . This greatly upset his two sons , who feared that their brother @-@ in @-@ law would have them deposed and force them to take monastic vows . Motivated , in the opinion of Steven Runciman , partially by self @-@ preservation and partially from genuine ambition , they started planning to seize power through a coup d 'état , with Stephen apparently the ringleader and Constantine a rather reluctant partner .
Their fellow conspirators included Marianos Argyros , the protospatharios Basil Peteinos , Manuel Kourtikes , the strategos Diogenes , Clado , and Philip . Kedrenos , however , considers Peteinos to have served as an agent of Constantine VII among the conspirators . On 20 December 944 , the conspirators set their plans in motion . The two brothers smuggled their supporters in the Great Palace of Constantinople during the midday break in palace activities . They then led their men into the chamber of Romanos I , where they easily captured the " ill old man " . They were able to transport him to the nearest harbour and from there to Prote , one of the Princes ' Islands and a popular place of exile . There , Romanos agreed to take monastic vows and retire from the throne .
Having managed to quietly depose their father , the brothers now had to deal with Constantine VII . Unfortunately for them , rumours soon spread around Constantinople , to the effect that , following Romanos 's deposition , Constantine VII 's life was in danger . Before long , crowds gathered before the palace , demanding to see their emperor in person . The contemporary Lombard historian Liutprand of Cremona notes that the ambassadors and envoys from Amalfi , Gaeta , Rome , and Provence present in the capital also supported Constantine VII . Stephen and his brother had to succumb to the inevitable , recognizing their brother @-@ in @-@ law as the senior emperor .
The new triumvirate lasted for about 40 days . The three emperors soon appointed new leaders for the military services . Bardas Phokas the Elder was appointed as the new Domestic of the Schools , and Constantine Gongyles as head of the Byzantine navy . Stephen and his brother managed to reward their fellow conspirators . Peteinos became patrikios and Great Hetaeriarch , Argyros was appointed Count of the Stable , Kourtikes a patrikios and droungarios of the Watch .
On 26 January 945 , however , at the urging of their sister , the Augusta Helena , another coup removed the two Lekapenoi from power under the accusation that they attempted to poison Constantine VII , and restored the sole imperial authority to the latter .
= = = Exile and death = = =
Initially , the two brothers were sent to Prote . The Byzantine chroniclers have their father welcoming them by quoting a passage from the Book of Isaiah , specifically Chapter 1 @.@ 2 : " Hear , O heavens , and give ear , O earth ; for Jehovah hath spoken : I have nourished and brought up children , and they have rebelled against me . " Liutprand of Cremona , however , gives a slightly different account , having Romanos I receive his sons with bitter sarcasm , thanking them for not neglecting him and begging them to excuse the monks for their ignorance on how to properly receive emperors .
Constantine was soon transported to Tenedos , and then to Samothrace . He was ultimately killed while attempting to escape the island . The exact date is unknown , but since Theophanes Continuatus claims that the exiled Romanos I saw a nightmare featuring his son 's descent to Hell at the time of Constantine 's death , it can be placed between 946 and Romanos 's own death in 948 .
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= Streptococcal pharyngitis =
Streptococcal pharyngitis , also known as strep throat , is an infection of the back of the throat including the tonsils caused by group A streptococcus . Common symptoms include fever , sore throat , red tonsils , and enlarged lymph nodes in the neck . A headache , and nausea or vomiting may also occur . Some develop a sandpaper @-@ like rash which is known as scarlet fever . Symptoms typically begin one to three days after exposure and last seven to ten days .
Strep throat is spread by respiratory droplets from an infected person . It may be spread directly or by touching something that has droplets on it and then touching the mouth , nose , or eyes . Some people may carry the bacteria without symptoms . It may also be spread by skin infected with group A strep . The diagnosis is made based on the results of a rapid antigen detection test or throat culture in those who have symptoms .
Prevention is by washing hands and not sharing eating utensils . There is no vaccine for the disease . Treatment with antibiotics is only recommended in those with a confirmed diagnosis . Those infected should stay away from other people for at least 24 hours after starting treatment . Pain can be treated with paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) and non @-@ steroidal antiinflammatory drugs ( NSAIDS ) such as ibuprofen .
Strep throat is a common bacterial infection in children . It is the cause of 15 – 40 % of sore throats among children and 5 – 15 % among adults . Cases are more common in late winter and early spring . Potential complications include rheumatic fever and peritonsillar abscess .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The typical symptoms of streptococcal pharyngitis are a sore throat , fever of greater than 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) , tonsillar exudates ( pus on the tonsils ) , and large cervical lymph nodes .
Other symptoms include : headache , nausea and vomiting , abdominal pain , muscle pain , or a scarlatiniform rash or palatal petechiae , the latter being an uncommon but highly specific finding .
Symptoms typically begin one to three days after exposure and last seven to ten days .
Strep throat is unlikely when any of the symptoms of red eyes , hoarseness , runny nose , or mouth ulcers are present . It is also unlikely when there is no fever .
= = Cause = =
Strep throat is caused by group A beta @-@ hemolytic streptococcus ( GAS or S. pyogenes ) . Other bacteria such as non – group A beta @-@ hemolytic streptococci and fusobacterium may also cause pharyngitis . It is spread by direct , close contact with an infected person ; thus crowding , as may be found in the military and schools , increases the rate of transmission . Dried bacteria in dust are not infectious , although moist bacteria on toothbrushes or similar items can persist for up to fifteen days . Contaminated food can result in outbreaks , but this is rare . Of children with no signs or symptoms , 12 % carry GAS in their pharynx , and , after treatment , approximately 15 % of those remain positive , and are true " carriers " .
= = Diagnosis = =
A number of scoring systems exist to help with diagnosis ; however , their use is controversial due to insufficient accuracy . The modified Centor criteria are a set of five criteria ; the total score indicates the probability of a streptococcal infection .
One point is given for each of the criteria :
Absence of a cough
Swollen and tender cervical lymph nodes
Temperature > 38 @.@ 0 ° C ( 100 @.@ 4 ° F )
Tonsillar exudate or swelling
Age less than 15 ( a point is subtracted if age > 44 )
A score of one may indicated no treatment or culture is needed , or it may indicate the need to perform further testing if other high risk factors exist , such as a family member having the disease .
The Infectious Disease Society of America recommends against empirical treatment and considers antibiotics only appropriate when given after a positive test . Testing is not needed in children under three as both group A strep and rheumatic fever are rare , unless a child has a sibling with the disease .
= = = Laboratory testing = = =
A throat culture is the gold standard for the diagnosis of streptococcal pharyngitis , with a sensitivity of 90 – 95 % . A rapid strep test ( also called rapid antigen detection testing or RADT ) may also be used . While the rapid strep test is quicker , it has a lower sensitivity ( 70 % ) and statistically equal specificity ( 98 % ) as a throat culture . In areas of the world where rheumatic fever is uncommon , a negative rapid strep test is sufficient to rule out the disease .
A positive throat culture or RADT in association with symptoms establishes a positive diagnosis in those in which the diagnosis is in doubt . In adults , a negative RADT is sufficient to rule out the diagnosis . However , in children a throat culture is recommended to confirm the result . Asymptomatic individuals should not be routinely tested with a throat culture or RADT because a certain percentage of the population persistently " carries " the streptococcal bacteria in their throat without any harmful results .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
As the symptoms of streptococcal pharyngitis overlap with other conditions , it can be difficult to make the diagnosis clinically . Coughing , nasal discharge , diarrhea , and red , irritated eyes in addition to fever and sore throat are more indicative of a viral sore throat than of strep throat . The presence of marked lymph node enlargement along with sore throat , fever , and tonsillar enlargement may also occur in infectious mononucleosis .
= = Prevention = =
Tonsillectomy may be a reasonable preventive measure in those with frequent throat infections ( more than three a year ) . However , the benefits are small and episodes typically lessen in time regardless of measures taken . Recurrent episodes of pharyngitis which test positive for GAS may also represent a person who is a chronic carrier of GAS who is getting recurrent viral infections . Treating people who have been exposed but who are without symptoms is not recommended . Treating people who are carriers of GAS is not recommended as the risk of spread and complications is low .
= = Treatment = =
Untreated streptococcal pharyngitis usually resolves within a few days . Treatment with antibiotics shortens the duration of the acute illness by about 16 hours . The primary reason for treatment with antibiotics is to reduce the risk of complications such as rheumatic fever and retropharyngeal abscesses ; antibiotics are effective if given within 9 days of the onset of symptoms .
= = = Analgesics = = =
Analgesics such as non @-@ steroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs ( NSAIDs ) and paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) help significantly in the management of pain associated with strep throat . Viscous lidocaine may also be useful . While steroids may help with the pain , they are not routinely recommended . Aspirin may be used in adults but is not recommended in children due to the risk of Reye 's syndrome .
= = = Antibiotics = = =
The antibiotic of choice in the United States for streptococcal pharyngitis is penicillin V , due to safety , cost , and effectiveness . Amoxicillin is preferred in Europe . In India , where the risk of rheumatic fever is higher , intramuscular benzathine penicillin G is the first choice for treatment .
Appropriate antibiotics decrease the average 3 – 5 day duration of symptoms by about one day , and also reduce contagiousness . They are primarily prescribed to reduce rare complications such as rheumatic fever and peritonsillar abscess . The arguments in favour of antibiotic treatment should be balanced by the consideration of possible side effects , and it is reasonable to suggest that no antimicrobial treatment be given to healthy adults who have adverse reactions to medication . Antibiotics are prescribed for strep throat at a higher rate than would be expected from its prevalence .
Erythromycin and other macrolides or clindamycin are recommended for people with severe penicillin allergies . First @-@ generation cephalosporins may be used in those with less severe allergies and some evidence supports cephalosporins as superior to penicillin . Streptococcal infections may also lead to acute glomerulonephritis ; however , the incidence of this side effect is not reduced by the use of antibiotics .
= = Prognosis = =
The symptoms of strep throat usually improve within three to five days , irrespective of treatment . Treatment with antibiotics reduces the risk of complications and transmission ; children may return to school 24 hours after antibiotics are administered . The risk of complications in adults is low . In children , acute rheumatic fever is rare in most of the developed world . It is , however , the leading cause of acquired heart disease in India , sub @-@ Saharan Africa and some parts of Australia .
Complications arising from streptococcal throat infections include :
The economic cost of the disease in the United States in children is approximately $ 350 million annually .
= = Epidemiology = =
Pharyngitis , the broader category into which Streptococcal pharyngitis falls , is diagnosed in 11 million people annually in the United States . It is the cause of 15 – 40 % of sore throats among children and 5 – 15 % in adults . Cases usually occur in late winter and early spring .
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= Typhoon Rammasun ( 2002 ) =
Typhoon Rammasun , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Florita , was the first of four typhoons to contribute to heavy rainfall and deadly flooding in the Philippines in July 2002 . The fifth tropical cyclone of the 2002 Pacific typhoon season , Rammasun developed around the same time as Typhoon Chataan , only further to the west . The storm tracked northwestward toward Taiwan , and on July 2 it attained its peak intensity with winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Rammasun turned northward , passing east of Taiwan and China . In Taiwan , the outer rainbands dropped rainfall that alleviated drought conditions . In China , the rainfall occurred after previously wet conditions , resulting in additional flooding , although damage was less than expected ; there was about $ 85 million in crop and fishery damage in one province .
After affecting Taiwan and China , Rammasun began weakening due to an approaching trough , which turned the typhoon northeastward . It passed over the Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima and also produced strong winds in Okinawa . About 10 @,@ 000 houses lost power on the island , and high surf killed two sailors . On the Japanese mainland , there was light crop damage and one serious injury . After weakening to a tropical storm , Rammasun passed just west of the South Korean island of Cheju @-@ do , killing one person from high waves . The storm crossed the country , killing three others and leaving $ 9 @.@ 5 million in damage . High rains also affected North Korea and Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East .
= = Meteorological history = =
Toward the end of June , the monsoon trough extended across the western North Pacific Ocean just north of the equator , spawning two tropical disturbances . The easternmost one eventually developed into Typhoon Chataan , and the western disturbance persisted to the east of Palau with an associated area of convection . The system gradually organized , developing a weak circulation after wind shear steadily decreased . Early on June 28 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression near Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) . At the same time , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) declared the system as Tropical Depression Florita , and a few hours later the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 09W .
After forming , the depression tracked northwestward , influenced by a ridge to the northeast , although it briefly turned to the northeast due to an increase in westerly winds ; however , its northwest motion quickly resumed . A trough over the Philippine Sea increased outflow over the depression , and the convection became better organized . Early on June 29 , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Rammasun . While moving northwestward , the circulation initially remained broad and disorganized , located east of the cycling convection . However , Rammasun steadily intensified , and an eye developed on July 1 . That day , the JMA and the JTWC upgraded the storm to a typhoon about 930 km ( 575 mi ) east of Luzon in the Philippines . The typhoon continued strengthening , developing concentric eyewalls with well @-@ defined rainbands . At 1500 UTC on July 2 , the JMA estimated peak 10 minute sustained winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Early on July 3 , the JTWC estimated 1 minute sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) about 350 km ( 220 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Okinawa , or 510 km ( 315 mi ) southeast of Taiwan .
While at peak intensity , Rammasun turned northward , steered around the subtropical ridge to its east , and early on July 3 it struck the Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima . A stationary trough over China weakened the convection on the western periphery of the typhoon , and the eye gradually became less organized . On July 4 , Rammasun began weakening , and by 0000 UTC on July 5 it was located about 280 km ( 175 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Shanghai as a minimal typhoon . Shortly thereafter , Rammasun weakened to tropical stom status . An approaching trough caused the storm to accelerate to the northeast , which weakened the convection and left the circulation exposed . Around 2200 UTC on July 5 , Rammasun made landfall in South Korea , near Seosan or about 70 km ( 45 mi ) northwest of the country ’ s capital of Seoul . The JTWC estimated that the landfall intensity was around 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . The storm quickly crossed the country , and although the JTWC considered Rammasun dissipated early on July 6 over the country , the JMA continued tracking the storm toward the northeast , declaring the storm extratropical at 1200 UTC that day . Early on July 8 , the JMA reported that the remnants of Rammasun dissipated to the south of Vladivostok .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As Rammasun moved away from the Philippines , it enhanced the monsoon and produced rainfall and flooding . Several landslides were reported , and more than 3 @,@ 000 people had to evacuate . Subsequent storms also enhanced the monsoon , and combined with the effects from Typhoon Chataan , Severe Tropical Storm Nakri , and Typhoon Halong , there were 85 deaths , with 45 people injured in the Philippines . The combined damage in the country totaled $ 10 @.@ 3 million ( ₱ 522 million 2002 PHP ) .
Before the typhoon affected Taiwan , residents in Taipei prepared sand bags , and President Chen Shui @-@ bian ordered the military to be on standby to assist in the storm 's aftermath . Taiwan 's Central Weather Bureau issued an offshore typhoon warning on July 2 , prompting officials to cancel ferry service and restrict water activities in Kenting National Park . After an extended drought that resulted in water restrictions for two months , the typhoon dropped rainfall across the country . In Miaoli County , Rammasun dropped 681 mm ( 26 @.@ 8 in ) of rainfall , the highest total on the island . The rains caused landslides in two villages , although damage was minor . On July 4 , the water restrictions were removed island @-@ wide , with the exception of Taipei ; the city 's restriction was removed a day later after determining that the Feitsui Dam and the Shihmen Dam reached levels approaching their full capacity .
In contrast to the previously dry conditions on Taiwan , eastern China was experiencing above @-@ normal rainfall , and many reservoirs were near capacity when Rammasun was approaching the region . While paralleling the eastern coast of China , Rammasun dropped heavy rainfall that reached 225 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) in Ningbo , and wind gusts peaked at 165 km / h ( 102 mph ) in eastern Zhejiang . Officials canceled 200 flights either departing or arriving from Shanghai Pudong International Airport . High winds destroyed a migrant worker village in Shanghai , killing five people . The winds damaged a building that was under construction , injuring 44 people . A woman was killed in Chongming when winds knocked a wall onto her . Rammasun downed trees and caused power outages in the region , and storm flooding forced over 2 @,@ 700 people to evacuate . High winds left about $ 85 million in agriculture and aquaculture damage in Zhejiang ; however , damage was less than expected due to the storm remaining offshore .
Striking the Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima , the typhoon produced peak wind gusts of 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) while in the eyewall , with sustained winds of 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) . Similarly strong winds were reported near Okinawa , reaching 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) . High seas from the typhoon killed two United States Navy sailors . In Okinawa , Rammasun left about 10 @,@ 000 houses without power . Two people were injured in the country , one of them severely . A station in Miyazaki Prefecture on the Japanese island of Kyushu reported the highest rainfall associated with Rammasun , with a total of 290 mm ( 11 in ) . One house in the country was damaged due to the typhoon , and there was at least one report of a landslide . Crop damage in the country totaled $ 4 @.@ 4 million ( ¥ 896 million 2002 JPY ) . The threat of the storm prompted officials to cancel 61 airplane flights .
Typhoon Rammasun passed a short distance west of Cheju @-@ do , an island offshore South Korea , dropping more than 300 mm ( 12 in ) of rainfall . High surf killed one person on the island , and officials restricted access to Hallasan mountain and all parks . Seven boats were damaged , and many roads on the island were flooded . Before Rammasun struck the South Korean mainland , airline officials canceled 167 flights . There were three deaths on the mainland , including one boy who drowned in floodwaters . Damage in the country totaled $ 9 @.@ 5 million , much of it property damage ; there was also damage to the rice crop . Rainfall extended into neighboring North Korea , damaging rice and maize . Later , Rammasun brought the average monthly rainfall in only two days in portions of Primorsky Krai , causing flooding along roads and riverways .
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= Truthiness =
Truthiness is a quality characterizing a " truth " that a person making an argument or assertion claims to know intuitively " from the gut " or because it " feels right " without regard to evidence , logic , intellectual examination , or facts .
American television comedian Stephen Colbert coined the word in this meaning as the subject of a segment called " The Wørd " during the pilot episode of his political satire program The Colbert Report on October 17 , 2005 . By using this as part of his routine , Colbert satirized the misuse of appeal to emotion and " gut feeling " as a rhetorical device in contemporaneous socio @-@ political discourse . He particularly applied it to U.S. President George W. Bush 's nomination of Harriet Miers to the Supreme Court and the decision to invade Iraq in 2003 . Colbert later ascribed truthiness to other institutions and organizations , including Wikipedia . Colbert has sometimes used a Dog Latin version of the term , " Veritasiness " . For example , in Colbert 's " Operation Iraqi Stephen : Going Commando " the word " Veritasiness " can be seen on the banner above the eagle on the operation 's seal .
Truthiness , although a " stunt word " , was named Word of the Year for 2005 by the American Dialect Society and for 2006 by Merriam @-@ Webster . Linguist and OED consultant Benjamin Zimmer pointed out that the word truthiness already had a history in literature and appears in the Oxford English Dictionary ( OED ) , as a derivation of truthy , and The Century Dictionary , both of which indicate it as rare or dialectal , and to be defined more straightforwardly as " truthfulness , faithfulness " . Responding to claims , Colbert explained the origin of his word as : " Truthiness is a word I pulled right out of my keister " .
= = Use by Stephen Colbert = =
Stephen Colbert , portraying his character Dr. Stephen T. Colbert , chose the word truthiness just moments before taping the premiere episode of The Colbert Report on October 17 , 2005 , after deciding that the originally scripted word – " truth " – was not absolutely ridiculous enough . " We 're not talking about truth , we 're talking about something that seems like truth – the truth we want to exist " , he explained . He introduced his definition in the first segment of the episode , saying : " Now I 'm sure some of the ' word police ' , the ' wordinistas ' over at Webster 's are gonna say , ' Hey , that 's not a word ' . Well , anybody who knows me knows I 'm no fan of dictionaries or reference books . They 're elitist . Constantly telling us what is or isn 't true . Or what did or didn 't happen . "
When asked in an out @-@ of @-@ character interview with The Onion 's A.V. Club for his views on " the ' truthiness ' imbroglio that 's tearing our country apart " , Colbert elaborated on the critique he intended to convey with the word :
Truthiness is tearing apart our country , and I don 't mean the argument over who came up with the word ...
It used to be , everyone was entitled to their own opinion , but not their own facts . But that 's not the case anymore . Facts matter not at all . Perception is everything . It 's certainty . People love the President [ George W. Bush ] because he 's certain of his choices as a leader , even if the facts that back him up don 't seem to exist . It 's the fact that he 's certain that is very appealing to a certain section of the country . I really feel a dichotomy in the American populace . What is important ? What you want to be true , or what is true ? ...
Truthiness is ' What I say is right , and [ nothing ] anyone else says could possibly be true . ' It 's not only that I feel it to be true , but that I feel it to be true . There 's not only an emotional quality , but there 's a selfish quality .
During an interview on December 8 , 2006 , with Charlie Rose , Colbert stated :
I was thinking of the idea of passion and emotion and certainty over information . And what you feel in your gut , as I said in the first Wørd we did , which was sort of a thesis statement of the whole show – however long it lasts – is that sentence , that one word , that 's more important to , I think , the public at large , and not just the people who provide it in prime @-@ time cable , than information .
On his April 2 , 2009 episode of the Colbert Report , Colbert added an addendum to the definition : a word so straight that it drives men wild .
= = Coverage by news media = =
After Colbert 's introduction of truthiness , it quickly became widely used and recognized . Six days after , CNN 's Reliable Sources featured a discussion of The Colbert Report by host Howard Kurtz , who played a clip of Colbert 's definition . On the same day , ABC 's Nightline also reported on truthiness , prompting Colbert to respond by saying : " You know what was missing from that piece ? Me . Stephen Colbert . But I 'm not surprised . Nightline 's on opposite me ... "
Within a few months of its introduction by Colbert , truthiness was discussed in The New York Times , The Washington Post , USA Weekly , the San Francisco Chronicle , the Chicago Tribune , Newsweek , CNN , MSNBC , Fox News , the Associated Press , Editor & Publisher , Salon , The Huffington Post , Chicago Reader , CNET , and on ABC 's Nightline , CBS 's 60 Minutes , and The Oprah Winfrey Show .
The February 13 , 2006 , issue of Newsweek featured an article on The Colbert Report titled " The Truthiness Teller " , recounting the career of the word truthiness since its popularization by Colbert .
= = = The New York Times coverage and usage = = =
In its October 25 , 2005 , issue , eight days after the premiere episode of the Report , The New York Times ran its third article on The Colbert Report , " Bringing Out the Absurdity of the News " . The article specifically discussed the segment on " truthiness " , although the Times misreported the word as " trustiness " . In its November 1 , 2005 issue , the Times ran a correction . On the next episode of the Report , Colbert took the Times to task for the error , pointing out , ironically , that " trustiness " is " not even a word " .
In its December 25 , 2005 , issue , The New York Times again discussed " truthiness " , this time as one of nine words that had captured the year 's zeitgeist , in an article titled " 2005 : In a Word ; Truthiness " by Jacques Steinberg . In crediting truthiness , Steinberg said , " the pundit who probably drew the most attention in 2005 was only playing one on TV : Stephen Colbert " .
In the January 22 , 2006 issue , columnist Frank Rich used the term seven times , with credit to Colbert , in a column titled " Truthiness 101 : From Frey to Alito " , to discuss Republican portrayals of several issues ( including the Samuel Alito nomination , the Bush administration 's response to Hurricane Katrina , and Jack Murtha 's Vietnam War record ) . Rich emphasized the extent to which the word had quickly become a cultural fixture , writing , " The mock Comedy Central pundit Stephen Colbert 's slinging of the word ' truthiness ' caught on instantaneously last year precisely because we live in the age of truthiness . " Editor & Publisher reported on Rich 's use of " truthiness " in his column , saying he " tackled the growing trend to ' truthiness , ' as opposed to truth , in the U.S. "
The New York Times published two letters on the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Dinner , where Stephen Colbert was the featured guest , in its May 3 , 2006 edition , under the headline " Truthiness and Power " .
Frank Rich referenced truthiness again in The New York Times in 2008 , describing the strategy of John McCain 's presidential campaign as being " to envelop the entire presidential race in a thick fog of truthiness " , Rich explained that the campaign was based on truthiness because " McCain , Sarah Palin and their surrogates keep repeating the same lies over and over not just to smear their opponents and not just to mask their own record . Their larger aim is to construct a bogus alternative reality so relentless it can overwhelm any haphazard journalistic stabs at puncturing it . " Rich also noted , " You know the press is impotent at unmasking this truthiness when the hardest @-@ hitting interrogation McCain has yet faced on television came on ' The View ' . Barbara Walters and Joy Behar called him on several falsehoods , including his endlessly repeated fantasy that Palin opposed earmarks for Alaska . Behar used the word ' lies ' to his face . "
= = Widespread recognition = =
Usage of " truthiness " continued to proliferate in media , politics , and public consciousness . On January 5 , 2006 , etymology professor Anatoly Liberman began an hour @-@ long program on public radio by discussing truthiness and predicting that it would be included in dictionaries in the next year or two . His prediction seemed to be on track when , the next day , the American Dialect Society announced that " truthiness " was its 2005 Word of the Year , and the website of the Macmillan English Dictionary featured truthiness as its Word of the Week a few weeks later . Truthiness was also selected by The New York Times as one of nine words that captured the spirit of 2005 . Global Language Monitor , which tracks trends in languages , named truthiness the top television buzzword of 2006 , and another term Colbert coined with reference to truthiness , wikiality , as another of the top ten television buzzwords of 2006 , the first time two words from the same show have made the list .
The word was listed in the annual " Banished Word List " released by a committee at Lake Superior State University in Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan in 2007 . The list included " truthiness " among other overused terms , such as " awesome " celebrity couple portmanteaus such as " Brangelina " , and " pwn " . In response , on January 8 , 2007 Colbert stated that Lake Superior State University was an " attention @-@ seeking second @-@ tier state university " . The 2008 List of Banished Words restored " truthiness " to formal usage , in response to the 2007 @-@ 2008 Writers Guild of America strike .
= = = American Dialect Society 's Word of the Year = = =
On January 6 , 2006 , the American Dialect Society announced that " truthiness " was selected as its 2005 Word of the Year . The Society described its rationale as follows :
In its 16th annual words of the year vote , the American Dialect Society voted truthiness as the word of the year . First heard on The Colbert Report , a satirical mock news show on the Comedy Central television channel , truthiness refers to the quality of preferring concepts or facts one wishes or believes to be true , rather than concepts or facts known to be true . As Stephen Colbert put it , " I don 't trust books . They 're all fact , no heart . "
= = = Merriam @-@ Webster 's Word of the Year = = =
On December 10 , 2006 the Merriam @-@ Webster Dictionary announced that " truthiness " was selected as its 2006 Word of the Year on Merriam @-@ Webster 's Words of the Year , based on a reader poll , by a 5 – 1 margin over the second @-@ place word google . " We 're at a point where what constitutes truth is a question on a lot of people 's minds , and truth has become up for grabs " , said Merriam @-@ Webster president John Morse . " ' Truthiness ' is a playful way for us to think about a very important issue . " However , despite winning Word of the Year , the word does not appear in the 2006 edition of the Merriam @-@ Webster English Dictionary . In response to this omission , during " The Wørd " segment on December 12 , 2006 Colbert issued a new page 1344 for the tenth edition of the Merriam Webster dictionary that featured " truthiness " . To make room for the definition of " truthiness " , including a portrait of Colbert , the definition for the word " try " was removed with Colbert stating " Sorry , try . Maybe you should have tried harder . " He also sarcastically told viewers to " not " download the new page and " not " glue it in the new dictionary in libraries and schools .
= = = The New York Times crossword puzzle = = =
In the June 14 , 2008 edition of The New York Times , the word was featured as 1 @-@ across in the crossword puzzle . Colbert mentioned this during the last segment on the June 18 episode of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , and declared himself the " King of the Crossword " .
= = = BBC " portrait of the decade " = = =
In December 2009 , the BBC online magazine asked its readers to nominate suggestions of things to be included on a poster which would represent important events in the 2000s ( decade ) , divided into five different categories : " People " , " Words " , " News " , " Objects " and " Culture " . Suggestions were sent in and a panel of five independent experts shortened each category to what they saw as the 20 most important . Among the nominations selected in the " Words " category was " Truthiness " . As a result , the word " Truthiness " appeared in the poster .
= = = Research = = =
In 2012 , a study examining truthiness was carried out by PhD student Eryn Newman of Victoria University of Wellington . The experiments showed that people are more likely to believe that a claim is true regardless of evidence when a decorative photograph appears alongside it .
= = Use in political and social commentary = =
= = = Kitty Genovese case retrospective = = =
As noted by Jesse Singal in an April 5 , 2016 piece " How the False Story of Kitty Genovese ’ s Murder Went Viral " in New York Magazine upon the death of Kitty Genovese 's murderer , the entire escalation of a myth surrounding the murder , alleging that 38 people had been silent witnesses allowing a vicious death to proceed in front of them , was attributable to the myth 's appeal to " truthiness " ( grounded in fear - of insecurity and lack of community spirit ) over full investigation into actual truth :
" Today , of course , there is exponentially more news coverage than there was in 1964 — not to mention exponentially more attempts to slot attention @-@ getting events into simple , truthy stories about human nature . The gap between the famous version of the Genovese story and the true one , then , is worth remembering , if only as a check on our natural tendency to hear a story and then nod along and say , ' Of course that ’ s what happened ! ' ”
= = = James Frey controversy = = =
The Chicago Tribune published an editorial in its January 16 , 2006 issue titled " The Truthiness Hurts " , crediting the rise of truthiness as serendipitously providing an apt description of the Oprah Book Club controversy over James Frey 's fictionalized " memoir " , A Million Little Pieces . Truthiness was also used to describe the controversy over the factual accuracy of Frey 's book by USA Today in its January 15 , 2006 issue , by several other publications including The New York Times , and by the television news program Nightline on its October 23 and January 26 editions .
Oprah Winfrey also discussed truthiness with Frank Rich on her show , in reference to the Frey controversy and the column " Truthiness 101 " Rich had recently published in The New York Times . They also mentioned Colbert 's role in making the word " truthiness " .
On January 27 , MSNBC ran a commentary titled " Oprah strikes a blow for truthiness : Do facts really matter ? Ask Winfrey , James Frey or Stephen Colbert " , making the case that Winfrey 's about @-@ face on Frey 's book was a " small ( and belated ) but bold nudge back out of the proud halls of truthiness " , but also opportunistic and too little too late .
= = = In the Canadian Parliament = = =
In 2006 , Liberal Party of Canada leadership contender Ken Dryden used truthiness as an extensive theme in a speech in the House of Commons . The speech dealt critically with the Harper government 's Universal Child Care Plan . Dryden defined truthiness as " something that is spoken as if true that one wants others to believe is true , that said often enough with enough voices orchestrated in behind it , might even sound true , but is not true . "
The transcript of all debates in the House ( Hansard ) is made available in both official languages ; the translators into French chose to render " truthiness " as fausse vérité ( " false truth " ) .
= = = Alleged snubbing by the Associated Press , and Colbert 's response = = =
The Associated Press reported on the American Dialect Society 's selection of truthiness as the Word of the Year , including the following comments by one of the voting linguists :
Michael Adams , a professor at North Carolina State University who specializes in lexicology , said " truthiness " means " truthy , not facty " . " The national argument right now is , one , ' Who 's got the truth ? ' and , two , ' Who 's got the facts ? ' " he said . " Until we can manage to get the two of them back together again , we 're not going to make much progress . "
On each of the first four episodes of the Report after the selection of truthiness as Word of the Year , Colbert lamented that news reports neglected to acknowledge him as the source of the word . On the first of these episodes , he added Michael Adams to his " On Notice " board , and Associated Press reporter Heather Clark , the author of the article , to his " Dead to Me " board . On the third of these episodes , he ranked the AP at the top of the " Threat @-@ Down " , one of few entries ever to gain the number one spot in place of bears . On the following episode he called Adams and asked for an apology . Though Adams never apologized , Colbert " accepted " his " apology " , but failed to take him " off notice " .
= = = = Associated Press response to Colbert = = = =
On January 13 , the first day after the four @-@ day run of criticism of the AP on the Report , the AP ran a story about The Colbert Report being upset about being snubbed by the AP , in an article titled " Colbert : AP the biggest threat to America " . As he has in the past , Colbert remained in character in an interview for the story , and used it to further the political satire of truthiness ; excerpts of the story are :
" When an AP story about the designation sent coast to coast failed to mention Colbert , he began a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek crusade , not unlike the kind his muse Bill O 'Reilly might lead in all seriousness . "
" ' It 's a sin of omission ... ' Stephen Colbert told the AP on Thursday ... ' It 's like Shakespeare still being alive and not asking him what Hamlet is about , ' he said . "
" The Oxford English Dictionary has a definition for ' truthy ' dating back to the 1800s .... ' The fact that they looked it up in a book just shows that they don 't get the idea of truthiness at all , ' Stephen Colbert said Thursday . ' You don 't look up truthiness in a book , you look it up in your gut . ' "
" Though slight , the difference of Colbert 's definition and the OED 's is essential . It 's not your typical truth , but , as The New York Times wrote , ' a summation of what [ Colbert ] sees as the guiding ethos of the loudest commentators on Fox News , MSNBC and CNN . ' "
" Colbert , who referred on his program to the AP omission as a ' journalistic travesty , ' said Thursday that it was similar to the much @-@ criticized weapons of mass destruction reporting leading up to the Iraq War . ' Except , ' he said , ' people got hurt this time . ' "
On January 14 , Clark herself responded in an article titled " Exclusive ' News ' — I 'm dead to Stephen Colbert " . She furthered the rise of " truthiness " in published English in conceding , " Truthiness be told , I never had seen The Colbert Report until my name graced its ' Dead to Me ' board this week ... But I will say that I watched Colbert 's show for the first time ... It was funny . And that 's not just truthy . That 's a fact . "
= = = Arianna Huffington = = =
On January 31 , 2006 , Arianna Huffington used truthiness in The Huffington Post . Huffington later appeared as a guest on the March 1 , 2006 , episode of The Colbert Report . She challenged Colbert on his claim that he had invented the word truthiness . During the interview , Colbert declared , " I 'm not a truthiness fanatic ; I 'm truthiness ' father . " Huffington corrected him , citing Wikipedia , that he had merely " popularized " the term . Regarding her source , Colbert responded : " Fuck them ! "
= = = President George W. Bush = = =
At the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner , Colbert , the featured guest , described President Bush 's thought processes using the definition of truthiness . Editor and Publisher used " truthiness " to describe Colbert 's criticism of Bush , in an article published the same day titled " Colbert Lampoons Bush at White House Correspondents Dinner — President Not Amused ? " E & P reported that the " blistering comedy ' tribute ' to President Bush ... left George and Laura Bush unsmiling at its close " and that many people at the dinner " looked a little uncomfortable at times , perhaps feeling the material was a little too biting — or too much speaking ' truthiness ' to power " . E & P reported a few days later that its coverage of Colbert at the dinner drew " possibly its highest one @-@ day traffic total ever " , and published a letter to the editor asserting that " Colbert brought truth wrapped in truthiness " . On the same weekend , The Washington Post and others also reported on the event . Six months later , in a column titled " Throw The Truthiness Bums Out " , The New York Times columnist Frank Rich called Colbert 's after @-@ dinner speech a " cultural primary " and christened it the " defining moment " of the United States ' 2006 midterm elections .
= = = Charles Krauthammer = = =
Conservative commentator Charles Krauthammer brought the term up in a discussion about President Obama on the show Fox News All @-@ Stars in June 2010 , saying :
What we see here is conditional truthiness . When the administration needs to say , oh , we knew how bad it was , it says it , and when it needs to say we had no idea how bad it was , it says it . It depends when it needs it ; it 'll invent a new truth .
= = = Cato Institute amicus brief = = =
In 2014 , the Cato Institute filed an amicus brief to the United States Supreme Court co @-@ authored by humorist P.J. O 'Rourke and legal scholar Ilya Shapiro in the Susan B. Anthony List v. Driehaus free speech case . The brief included an extended discussion of the role of truthiness in American political discourse :
In modern times , " truthiness " — a " truth " asserted " from the gut " or because it " feels right , " without regard to evidence or logic — is also a key part of political discourse . It is difficult to imagine life without it , and our political discourse is weakened by Orwellian laws that try to prohibit it .
After all , where would we be without the knowledge that Democrats are pinko @-@ communist flag @-@ burners who want to tax churches and use the money to fund abortions so they can use the fetal stem cells to create pot @-@ smoking lesbian ATF agents who will steal all the guns and invite the UN to take over America ? Voters have to decide whether we 'd be better off electing Republicans , those hateful , assault @-@ weapon @-@ wielding maniacs who believe that George Washington and Jesus Christ incorporated the nation after a Gettysburg reenactment and that the only thing wrong with the death penalty is that it isn 't administered quickly enough to secular @-@ humanist professors of Chicano studies .
= = " Mathiness " = =
In a 2015 article in the American Economic Review " Papers and Proceedings " , the economist Paul Romer decried " Mathiness in the Theory of Economic Growth " . Romer claims that mathematics is progressive in economics when it is rigorous and when the mathematical variables have a clear relationship to actual and plausibly measurable aspects of the economy . He writes that in growth theory today , both aspects are frequently missing and that the resulting use of mathematics is merely mathiness .
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= TM and Cult Mania =
TM and Cult Mania is a non @-@ fiction book that examines assertions made by the Transcendental Meditation movement ( TM ) . The book is authored by Michael Persinger , Normand Carrey and Lynn Suess and published in 1980 by Christopher Publishing House . Persinger is a neurophysiologist and has worked out of Laurentian University . He trained as a psychologist and focused on the impacts of religious experience . Carrey is a medical doctor who specialized in psychiatry . He focused his studies into child psychiatry with research at Dalhousie University , and has taught physicians in a psychiatry residency program in the field of family therapy . Suess assisted Persinger in researching effects of geological phenomena on unidentified flying object sightings in Washington ; the two conducted similar research in Toronto and Ottawa .
TM and Cult Mania analyzes the efficacy or lack thereof of the TM meditation process , concluding that it is , " no more effective than many other meditation techniques " . The authors write that , " Transcendental Meditation has achieved international recognition through commercial exploitation " and " poor scientific procedures " . The book notes that physiological changes observed due to partaking in TM methodology are very small . Persinger , Carrey , and Suess conclude in TM and Cult Mania , " science has been used as a sham for propaganda by the TM movement . "
A positive capsule review in the Los Angeles Times noted that the authors use logic to point out transparencies in the assertions of Transcendental Meditation . John Horgan , in his book Rational Mysticism , questions Persinger 's neutrality and says that in his book he treats religious beliefs and spiritual practices as mental illness .
= = Authors = =
Michael Persinger is a neurophysiologist who has worked at Laurentian University in Greater Sudbury , Ontario , Canada . He trained as a psychologist and focused on the impacts of religious experience . Persinger is the author of the book Neuropsychological Basis of Human Belief , and since its publication he has researched and examined the physiological and neurological causes of religious belief systems . Normand Carrey received education as a medical doctor and specialized in psychiatry . He became a child psychiatrist , and worked out of Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Carrey has conducted studies into psychological resilience , and has taught physicians in a psychiatry residency program in the field of family therapy . He has worked in the field of adolescent psychiatry at IWK Health Centre . Lynn Suess assisted Persinger in 1980 , in researching geological phenomena which may have affected unidentified flying object sightings in Washington . Suess and Persinger performed similar research in Toronto and Ottawa .
= = Contents = =
TM and Cult Mania takes a look at the assertions made by the Transcendental Meditation movement and analyzes them from a scientific perspective . The book acknowledges that those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique feel relaxed and experience an increase in creativity . According to the book , the physiological effects reported by the scientific studies on Transcendental Meditation are relatively small from a scientific perspective and " no more effective than many other meditation techniques " . Transcendental Meditation is seen as most noteworthy due to its ability to manipulate stress and expectancy .
" Transcendental Meditation has achieved international recognition through commercial exploitation " and " poor scientific procedures " , write the authors . The book notes , " Frankly , the reported effects of TM upon human behavior are trivial . Considering the alleged potency of the TM procedure , the changes in physiological and behavioral measures are conspicuously minute . " TM and Cult Mania comes to the conclusion that , " science has been used as a sham for propaganda by the TM movement . "
= = Reception = =
A capsule review of the book for the Los Angeles Times , Phil Freshman commented , " Using hard logic and crackling humor , a trio of Canadian laboratory researchers cogently deflates Transcendental Meditation ; they spotlight transparencies in its claims and warn of its latent hazards to those in wobbly mental health . " In his book Rational Mysticism , author John Horgan comments that although Persinger says he 's neutral toward religious belief , he 's more biased than other neurotheologians and that his two books " cast religious belief and spiritual practices in a psychopathological light " .
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= Ride Me to Hell =
" Ride Me to Hell " is the third episode of the second season of the American animated television series Ugly Americans , and the seventeenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on July 14 , 2011 . In the episode , Grimes is outraged by the unsatisfying ending of his favorite television series , and Mark helps him unravel his attachment to the series while uncovering several deep @-@ seated memories . Meanwhile , Callie is expected to take over as the leader of Hell from her father , but is unwilling to do so .
The episode was written by Mike Rowe and directed by Aaron Augenblick and series creator Devin Clark . While the series ' first season mainly referenced horror films , " Ride Me to Hell " pays homage to 1970s cop shows . Clark used Grimes unleashing his memories from the 1970s as an opportunity to parody cop shows such as CHiPs and Starsky and Hutch . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Ride Me to Hell " was watched by 814 @,@ 000 viewers in its original airing , a slight drop in total viewership when compared to previous episodes . The episode received positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Frank Grimes ' favorite television series , Dishonorable Discharge , ends after six seasons and it is revealed that the entire series was just an angel 's dream . Grimes is outraged and determined to change the ending . Later , Mark Lilly tells his girlfriend , the half @-@ demon Callie Maggotbone , that he has not seen his father since his sixth birthday . Mark 's roommate , the zombie Randall , is touched by this and decides to document Mark 's journey to find his father , so that he can become a Hollywood director . Mark is assigned by Twayne Boneraper to investigate Grimes , who has been busting people who enjoyed the ending of Dishonorable Discharge . He and Randall ( who documents everything with his video camera ) ride along with Grimes . In a memory sequence of Grimes ' , it is revealed that he was a real cop in the 1970s and worked with an undercover expert named Jimmy . He was dishonorably discharged from the force and repressed all of his memories of being a cop . Mark figures that this is why he is so angry with the ending of the series , and takes him through his past by using the same car Grimes and his partner Jimmy had . In the car , Grimes has a memory sequence again and drives to Hollywood .
Meanwhile , Aldermach Maggotbone is ready to hand over his title as the leader of Hell to his daughter , Callie . However , Callie does not want to take over his job . A competition is held to choose which one will overtake the title and Callie tries to lose every challenge , but Twayne makes sure that she wins each time . At the studio where Dishonorable Discharge was filmed , Grimes forces some bystanders to act in his ending of the series , which reveals the memory Grimes had repressed : While trying to take down Aldermach when he became the new leader of Hell , Grimes accidentally killed a disguised Jimmy . In present time , Mark , Grimes and Randall head back to New York to sabotage the new ceremony . At the ceremony , Aldermach unexpectedly chooses to give the Slitherix ( a big snake one has to swallow to become the leader of Hell ) to his secretary , Cathy , to spare Callie from getting the job . Just as Cathy is about to receive the snake , Grimes crashes the car into the church and shoots her . It is then revealed that she is really Grimes ' old partner Jimmy , who had worked undercover in Hell for 35 years . Embarrassed , Grimes begins to repress his memories again , which Mark believes is for the best . The episode ends with an angel waking up , suggesting that the episode was her dream .
= = Production = =
" Ride Me to Hell " was written by Mike Rowe and directed by Aaron Augenblick and series creator Devin Clark . Screenwriter and executive producer Daniel Powell said that the episode explores " a little bit more " about Mark 's background , particularly that his father left him when he was younger , and that it " sort of informs why he became a social worker " . Unlike the series ' first season , which paid homage mainly to horror films , season two referenced a variety of genres . In an interview with Matt Barone of the magazine Complex , Clark used " Ride Me to Hell " as an example that the season " taps into a little bit beyond the horror culture " . He referred it to as " one of our big episodes " and stated that it references contemporary shows with " unsatisfied endings " , such as Monk and Lost . In the episode , Grimes unleashes memories of being a cop in the 1970s , which Clark saw as an opportunity to make fun of 1970s cop shows , such as CHiPs and Starsky and Hutch . He said , " It 's always a fun opportunity to see what other worlds I can pull from , even beyond horror . We had some really fun opportunities this season to pull from old ' 70s cop shows . ... So , it 's fun for me just to step out and try lots of different styles and looks . I 'm excited for whatever the writers throw at me , thematically . It 's just a new opportunity to try something different . " " Ride Me to Hell " was the fifth episode to be produced for the second season . In addition to the regular cast , the episode features appearances by recurring guest voice actors Pete Holmes , Julie Klausner and Mike O 'Gorman .
= = Reception = =
The episode originally aired in the United States on Comedy Central on July 14 , 2011 . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 814 @,@ 000 viewers and acquired a 0 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode slightly dropped in terms of total viewership from the previous episode , " Callie and Her Sister " , which was watched by 980 @,@ 000 viewers . " Ride Me to Hell " received a positive review from Ology 's Josh Harrison , who commented that it " successfully redeemed " the character Grimes , who was his least @-@ favorite character up until this episode . Harrison wrote , " I 'm thrilled to see Grimes shine in his starring role . Admittedly this episode was a bit light on isolated funny incidents ... but Randall 's director @-@ speak was a solid throughline , and I 'm always happy to see more demon politics . " Harrison graded the episode 8 @.@ 7 out of 10 and remarked that " it was a cut above its predecessors this season , but still a bit shy of the very best UA [ episodes ] " .
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= Toyota War =
The Toyota War is the name commonly given to the last phase of the Chadian – Libyan conflict , which took place in 1987 in Northern Chad and on the Libyan – Chadian border . It takes its name from the Toyota pickup trucks used as technicals to provide mobility for the Chadian troops as they fought against the Libyans . The 1987 war resulted in a heavy defeat for Libya , which , according to American sources , lost one tenth of its army , with 7 @,@ 500 men killed and US $ 1 @.@ 5 billion worth of military equipment destroyed or captured . Chadian losses were 1 @,@ 000 men killed .
The war began with the Libyan occupation of northern Chad in 1983 , when Libya 's leader Muammar Gaddafi , refusing to recognize the legitimacy of the Chadian President Hissène Habré , militarily supported the attempt by the opposition Transitional Government of National Unity ( GUNT ) to overthrow Habré . The plan was foiled by the intervention of France which , first with Operation Manta and later with Operation Epervier , limited Libyan expansion to north of the 16th parallel , in the most arid and sparsely inhabited part of Chad .
In 1986 the GUNT rebelled against Gaddafi , stripping Libya of its main cover of legitimacy for its military presence in Chad . Seeing an occasion to unify Chad behind him , Habré ordered his forces to pass the 16th parallel so as to link with the GUNT rebels ( who were fighting the Libyans in Tibesti ) in December . A few weeks later a bigger force struck at Fada , destroying the local Libyan garrison . In three months , combining the methods of guerilla and conventional warfare in a common strategy , Habré was able to retake almost all of northern Chad , and in the following months , inflicted new heavy defeats on the Libyans , until a ceasefire putting an end to the conflict was signed in September . The ceasefire left open the issue of the disputed Aouzou Strip , which was eventually assigned to Chad by the International Court of Justice in 1994 .
= = Background = =
Since 1983 Chad was de facto partitioned , with the northern half controlled by the rebel Transitional Government of National Unity ( GUNT ) headed by Goukouni Oueddei and supported on the ground by Libyan forces , while the south was held by the Western @-@ backed Chadian government guided by Hissène Habré . This partition on 16th parallel ( the so @-@ called Red Line ) into Libyan and French zones of influence was informally recognised by France in 1984 , following an accord between France and Libya to withdraw their forces from Chad . The accord was not respected by Libya , which maintained at least 3 @,@ 000 men stationed in northern Chad .
During the period between 1984 and 1986 , in which no major clash took place , Habré greatly strengthened his position thanks to western support and Libya 's failure to respect the Franco @-@ Libyan 1984 agreement . From 1984 onwards , the GUNT also suffered increasing factional tensions , centered on the fight between Goukouni and Acheikh ibn Oumar over the leadership of the organization . Taking advantage of the GUNT 's difficulties , Habré struck a series of accords with smaller rebel factions , which left the GUNT at the beginning of 1986 with only three of the eleven factions that had originally signed the Lagos Accord in 1979 . The remaining factions were Goukouni 's People 's Armed Forces ( FAP ) , Acheikh 's armed branch of the Democratic Revolutionary Council ( CDR ) and that part of the Chadian Armed Forces ( FAT ) which had maintained its loyalty to Wadel Abdelkader Kamougué .
= = Forces on the ground = =
At the opening of 1987 , the last year of the war , the Libyan expeditionary force was still impressive , comprising 8 @,@ 000 soldiers , 300 tanks , many multiple rocket launchers ( rocket artillery ) and regular artillery pieces , Mi @-@ 24 helicopters and sixty combat aircraft . These forces did not have a unified command , but were divided into an Operational Group South , active in the Tibesti with 2 @,@ 500 men , and an Operational Group East , centered in Faya @-@ Largeau .
Apparently formidable , the Libyan military disposition in Chad was marred by serious flaws . The Libyans were prepared for a war in which they would provide ground and air support to their Chadian allies , act as assault infantry , and provide reconnaissance . By 1987 , however , Muammar Gaddafi had lost his allies , exposing Libya 's inadequate knowledge of the area . Libyan garrisons came to resemble isolated and vulnerable islands in the Chadian Sahara . Also important was the low morale among the troops , who were fighting in a foreign country , and the structural disorganization of the Libyan army , which was in part induced by Gaddafi 's fear of a military coup against him . This fear led him to avoid the professionalization of the armed forces .
The Libyans had also to deal with the greatly strengthened Chadian National Armed Forces ( FANT ) , which was composed of 10 @,@ 000 highly motivated soldiers , led by experienced and able commanders , such as Idriss Déby , Hassan Djamous and President Hissène Habré himself . And while FANT previously had no air power , limited mobility and few anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ aircraft weapons , by 1987 it could count on the French Air Force to keep Libyan aircraft grounded and , more importantly , to provide 400 highly mobile Toyota pickups equipped with MILAN anti @-@ tank guided missiles . It is these trucks that gave the name " Toyota War " to this last phase of the Chadian @-@ Libyan conflict .
= = Libyan expulsion = =
Habré selected as the first target for his reconquest of northern Chad the well @-@ fortified Libyan communications base of Fada . It was defended by 2 @,@ 000 Libyans and the bulk of the Democratic Revolutionary Council ( CDR ) militia ( Gaddafi 's closest Chadian allies ) , well @-@ provided with armour and artillery . Hassan Djamous , the thirty @-@ year @-@ old FANT commander @-@ in @-@ chief , pitched about 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 men against Fada 's Libyan garrison . Taking advantage of his army 's superior knowledge of the terrain , which apparently included unknown access points to the base , Djamous avoided a frontal assault and used his forces ' high mobility to surround the Libyan positions and then unleashed his troops , destroying the defending garrison . In the battle , 784 Libyans were killed and 100 tanks destroyed , while only 50 FANT soldiers died .
The unexpected defeat stunned Gaddafi , who then reacted on January 4 by recalling to service all of the army reservists . In an act of defiance towards France , he also ordered the bombing of Arada , well south of the 16th parallel . France retaliated with a new airstrike on Ouadi Doum and destroyed their radar system , effectively blinding the Libyan Air Force in Chad for several months . Gaddafi attempted to contain the FANT threat by rushing several new battalions into Chad ( especially to Faya @-@ Largeau and Ouadi Doum ) , including units of the elite Revolutionary Guard . This brought the amount of Libyan forces in the country to a total of 11 @,@ 000 by March .
In March 1987 , the main Libyan air base of Ouadi Doum was captured by Chadian forces . Although strongly defended by minefields , 5 @,@ 000 soldiers , tanks , armored vehicles , and aircraft , the Libyans ' base fell to a smaller Chadian attacking force led by Djamous equipped with trucks mounted with machine guns and antitank weapons . Observers estimated that , in the Chadian victories in the first three months of 1987 , more than 3 @,@ 000 Libyan soldiers had been killed , captured , or deserted . Large numbers of tanks , armored personnel carriers , artillery , fixed @-@ wing aircraft , and helicopters were captured or destroyed . In some cases , Libya sent its own aircraft to bomb abandoned Libyan equipment to deny its use to the Chadians . It was reported that , in many cases , Libyan soldiers had been killed while fleeing to avoid battle . At Ouadi Doum , panicked Libyans had suffered high casualties running through their own minefields .
The fall of Ouadi Doum was a severe setback for Libya . Deserted by most of their Chadian allies , Libyan forces found themselves isolated in foreign territory , and the loss of the main Libyan air base in Chad prevented Libya from providing close air cover to its troops . In general , the offensive against FANT had exposed the vulnerability of Libya 's heavy armor to a more mobile enemy . On Gaddafi 's orders , a general withdrawal was undertaken from Borkou @-@ Ennedi @-@ Tibesti Prefecture , beginning with Faya @-@ Largeau . The town had served as the main Libyan base during the preceding four years , but was in danger of being encircled . Its garrison of 3 @,@ 000 men , together with the survivors of Ouadi Doum , retired toward the Libyan base at Maatan @-@ as @-@ Sarra , north of the Chadian border . In an attempt to reduce the damage inflicted to his international standing , Gaddafi announced that Libya had won the confrontation , and was now leaving Chad so that the opposition could play its part in fighting Habré .
These military actions left Habré in control of Chad and in a position to threaten the expulsion of Libya from the Aouzou Strip , affected the international perception of Libya as a significant regional military power , and cast renewed doubt on the competence and determination of Libyan soldiers , especially in engagements beyond the country 's borders to which they evidently felt no personal commitment .
The Toyota War attracted considerable interest in the United States , where the possibility of using Habré to overthrow Gaddafi was given serious consideration . As part of the Reagan Administration 's support for his government , Habré , during a visit to Washington , received a pledge of US $ 32 million worth of aid , including Stinger anti @-@ aircraft missiles .
= = Renewed Chadian offensive = =
In August 1987 , the encouraged Chadians carried their offensive into the disputed Aouzou Strip , occupying the town of Aouzou following another battle in which the Libyans suffered severe losses in troops and abandoned equipment . In retaliation , Libya intensified its air bombardments of towns in the north , usually from altitudes beyond the range of FANT 's shoulder @-@ fired missiles . Appeals by Habré for French air missions to defend the area against the bombing were rejected , as Aouzou had been retaken against the wishes of French President François Mitterrand . Instead , Mitterrand called for international mediation to settle competing claims to the disputed territory .
After a succession of counterattacks , toward the end of August the Libyans finally drove the 400 Chadian soldiers out of the town . This victory – the first by Libyan ground forces since the start of the Toyota War – was apparently achieved through close @-@ range air strikes , which were followed by ground troops advancing cross @-@ country in jeeps , Toyota all @-@ terrain trucks , and light armored vehicles . For the Libyans , who had previously relied on ponderous tracked armour , the assault represented a conversion to the desert warfare tactics developed by FANT . To highlight the victory , Gaddafi flew foreign journalists to the region , so the news of his victory could reach the headlines .
Habré quickly reacted to this setback and to the continued bombing of FANT concentrations in northern Chad . On September 5 , 1987 he mounted a surprise raid against the key Libyan air base at Maaten al @-@ Sarra . Reportedly , 1 @,@ 000 Libyans were killed , 300 were captured , and hundreds of others were forced to flee into the surrounding desert . Chad claimed that its troops destroyed about 32 aircraft – including MiG @-@ 21 and MiG @-@ 23 fighters , Su @-@ 22 fighter @-@ bombers , and Mi @-@ 24 helicopters – before the FANT column withdrew to Chadian soil .
The attack had been opposed by France , who refused to provide FANT with intelligence and logistical support , causing FANT to suffer considerable losses . The French Defence Minister André Giraud let it be known that " France was not implicated in any way " in the attack and " had not been informed of it " . The American reaction was markedly different , as it had previously supported the attempted reconquest of the Aouzou Strip ; it now welcomed the Chadian raid .
= = Ceasefire = =
Because of domestic opposition , internal demoralization , and international hostility , Gaddafi assumed a more conciliatory attitude following his defeat . On the other side , Habré also found himself vulnerable , as the French feared that the attack on Maatan as @-@ Sarrah was only the first stage of a general offensive into Libya proper , a possibility that France was not disposed to tolerate . As a result , Mitterrand forced Habré to accept the mediation efforts of the Organization of African Unity 's Zambian Chairman , Kenneth Kaunda , which resulted in a ceasefire on September 11 .
It was assumed that war would , sooner or later , resume , but in the end the ceasefire violations were relatively minor . Gaddafi announced in May 1988 that he would recognize Habré as President of Chad " as a gift to Africa " , even if Libya refused to leave the disputed Aouzou Strip . On October 3 the two countries resumed diplomatic relations , and another important step was made when the two countries agreed in September 1990 to refer the dispute to the International Court of Justice . On February 3 , 1994 the court ruled in favour of Chad , thus definitively solving the Aouzou controversy by assigning the territory to the southern country .
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= Grey 's Anatomy =
Grey 's Anatomy is an American medical drama television series that premiered on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) as a mid @-@ season replacement on March 27 , 2005 . The series focuses on the fictional lives of surgical interns , residents , and attendings as they gradually evolve into seasoned doctors , while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships . The title is a play on Gray 's Anatomy , a human anatomy textbook by Henry Gray . The show 's premise originated with Shonda Rhimes , who serves as an executive producer , along with Betsy Beers , Mark Gordon , Krista Vernoff , Rob Corn , Mark Wilding , and Allan Heinberg . Although the show is set in Seattle at the fictional Grey @-@ Sloan Memorial Hospital ( Formerly Seattle Grace Mercy @-@ West ) it is primarily filmed in Los Angeles , California . The show was originally titled Complications following the complicated medical procedures and personal lives of the cast .
The series was created to be racially diverse , utilizing a color @-@ blind casting technique . It revolves around the title character Dr. Meredith Grey played by Ellen Pompeo . The series ' original cast consisted of nine star billed cast members including Ellen Pompeo , Sandra Oh , Katherine Heigl , Justin Chambers , T. R. Knight , Chandra Wilson , James Pickens Jr . , Isaiah Washington and Patrick Dempsey . The cast has undergone major changes throughout the run of the show , with many major cast members leaving and being replaced by several new characters . The series in its twelfth season had a large ensemble of sixteen actors , including four from the original cast . On March 3 , 2016 , ABC renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a thirteenth season , scheduled to premiere on September 22 , 2016 .
Grey 's Anatomy is one of the highest @-@ rated dramas in the 18 – 49 demographic . Although the ratings have fallen over the past few seasons , it was once among the overall top 10 shows in the United States . Grey 's Anatomy has been well received by critics , considered an impact on culture , the series has received numerous awards , and has also been included in various critics ' top ten lists . It is the recipient of the 2007 Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series — Drama , and multiple Emmy nominations , including two for Outstanding Drama Series . The show has produced several specials , as well as distributed all seasons to DVD , and released a collection of merchandise . In 2012 , Grey 's Anatomy was named the fifth @-@ highest revenue earning show , in terms of advertising per half @-@ hour . It 's the longest running scripted primetime show currently airing on ABC and the second longest scripted primetime show ever on ABC only behind The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet .
= = Plot = =
The series follows Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , the daughter of an esteemed general surgeon named Ellis Grey , following her acceptance into the residency program at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital . During her tenure as a resident , Grey works alongside fellow doctors Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) , Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) , and George O 'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) , who each struggle to balance their personal lives with the hectic work and training schedules assigned to them . They are overseen during their internship by Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) , a senior resident who works beneath Grey 's love @-@ interest Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , the head of neurosurgery ; Yang 's fiancee Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) , the head of cardio ; and Ellis Grey 's ex @-@ lover Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) , the Chief of Surgery . The residents are later joined by Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) and April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) , former Mercy @-@ West residents who join Seattle Grace following an administrative merger in the sixth season . Throughout the first six seasons O 'Malley , Burke and Stevens all depart the series which has become very controversial in the media over the life @-@ span of the series . In addition to Shepherd , Webber , and Burke , the surgical wing is primarily supervised by Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) , as head of trauma ; Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) , as head of pediatric surgery ; Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) , a resident who later becomes head of orthopedics , who left Seattle at the end of the twelfth season ; Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) , as head of cardio ; Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , as head of plastics ; Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ) , as head of OB / GYN , neonatal , and fetal surgery ; Teddy Altman ( Kim Raver ) , as head of cardio ; and Amelia Shepherd ( Caterina Scorsone ) , Derek 's sister who is hired to replace him as head of neuro . Derek is killed in the series ' eleventh season .
Later additions to the residency program include Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , Meredith 's half @-@ sister . Grey is killed alongside Mark Sloan in the season eight finale ; Leah Murphy ( Tessa Ferrer ) ; Shane Ross ( Gaius Charles ) , who departs alongside Yang in the tenth season finale ; Stephanie Edwards ( Jerrika Hinton ) ; Jo Wilson ( Camilla Luddington ) , a doctor who begins a romantic relationship with Karev ; Andrew Deluca ( Giacomo Gianniotti ) , the love @-@ interest of Meredith 's half sister Maggie Pierce ( Kelly McCreary ) , who also serves as head of cardio ; and Benjamin Warren ( Jason George ) , an anesthesiologist and currently a resident , has to balance his wife Miranda Bailey 's new role as Chief of Surgery with his own desire to succeed . Season twelve sees the arrival of Nathan Riggs ( Martin Henderson ) , while Meredith appointed head of general surgery - a post previously held by her mother .
= = Production and development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Shonda Rhimes , the series ' creator , wanted to make a show that she would enjoy watching , and thought it would be interesting to create a show about " smart women competing against one another " . When asked how she decided to develop a medical drama , Rhimes responded :
The series was pitched to ABC Entertainment , who gave the green light , and the show was picked up as a mid @-@ season replacement for Boston Legal in the 2005 television season . Francie Calfo , executive vice president of development at ABC Entertainment , commented that ABC was looking for a medical show that was unlike the others airing at the time . She pointed out that " [ m ] edical shows are hard , and it was hard trying to figure out where ours could be different . But where everybody else is speeding up their medical shows , [ Rhimes ] found a way to slow it down , so you get to know the characters . There 's definitely a strong female appeal to it . "
Rhimes initially conceived Grey 's Anatomy as a statement against racism . She endeavored to create a show that featured a racially diverse cast that allowed viewers to relate to characters regardless of race . While creating characters , as well as writing the first script , the series ' writers had no character descriptions in mind , and hoped to cast the best actor available for each part . Rhimes has explained that if the network did not allow her to create characters this way , she would have been hesitant about moving forward with the series . Female roles in particular were developed as multi @-@ faceted characters . Rhimes offered her insight on this , " I wanted to create a world in which you felt as if you were watching very real women . Most of the women I saw on TV didn 't seem like people I actually knew . They felt like ideas of what women are . They never got to be nasty or competitive or hungry or angry . They were often just the loving wife or the nice friend . But who gets to be the bitch ? Who gets to be the three @-@ dimensional woman ? "
Before the series debuted on March 27 , 2005 , there were a few early releases to close friends and family of the producers and actors . The show was scheduled to run in the Boston Legal time slot for four weeks . However , high ratings and viewership led to it holding onto the slot for the remainder of the season . ABC Entertainment President , Steve McPherson , commented on the scheduling change : " Ultimately we decided that , without having adequate lead time or marketing dollars to devote to moving either show so late in the season , we 'd continue to let [ Grey 's Anatomy ] build on its tremendous momentum through May . " The show 's title , Grey 's Anatomy , was devised as a play on words : a reference to both Henry Gray 's medical textbook , Gray 's Anatomy , and the title character Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) . Prior to broadcast , it was announced that the show 's title would change from Grey 's Anatomy to Complications , although ultimately this did not come to pass .
= = = Production team = = =
Grey 's Anatomy is produced by ShondaLand , in association with The Mark Gordon Company , and ABC Studios ( formerly Touchstone Television ) . Rhimes , Betsy Beers , Krista Vernoff , Mark Gordon , Rob Corn , and Mark Wilding have all served as executive producers throughout the course of the series . In subsequent seasons , Steve Mulholland , Kent Hodder , Nancy Bordson , James D. Parriott , and Peter Horton have also been executive producers , with Allan Heinberg joining the show in 2006 in this role . As of season eight , the current executive producers are Rhimes , Beers , Gordon , Vernoff , Corn , Wilding , and Heinberg .
Rhimes is the series ' most prolific writer . She often promotes the show by answering fan questions on her Twitter account . Other members of the writing staff are Vernoff , Wilding , Peter Nowalk , Stacy McKee , William Harper , Zoanne Clack , Tony Phelan , Joan Rater , and Debora Cahn . From the second through seventh seasons , the writers maintained a blog entitled Grey Matter , where the writer of an episode discussed the motives behind the writing . Directors vary by episode , with Rob Corn directing most frequently , followed by Tom Verica . Horton , Edward Ornelas , and Jessica Yu have also directed a substantial number of episodes . Cast members Chandra Wilson and Kevin McKidd have both directed multiple episodes .
Grey 's Anatomy has been edited by Susan Vaill since the show 's inception , and David Greenspan was named an editor in 2006 . Casting directors Linda Lowy and John Brace have been a part of the production team since 2005 . Production design is led by Donald Lee Harris , assisted by art director Brian Harms , and costume design is led by Mimi Melgaard . Working alongside Melgaard , Thomas Houchins supervises costumes , Ellen Vieira is the makeup artist , and Jerilynn Stevens serves as a hair stylist . The Director of Photography is Herbert Davis . The music coordinator is Danny Lux . Karen Lisa Pike , M.D. is the on @-@ set medical consultant , alongside Linda Klein , a RN . The production staff is part of a Grey 's Anatomy softball team that competes against other television shows , such as CSI : Crime Scene Investigation .
= = = Casting = = =
Grey 's Anatomy used a color @-@ blind casting technique , resulting in a racially diverse ensemble . Each role was cast without the character 's races being pre @-@ determined , keeping Rhimes ' vision of diversity . The production staff began casting with the program 's title character , Meredith Grey , which Rhimes stated was a difficult role to cast . " I kept saying we need a girl like that girl from Moonlight Mile , " said Rhimes , " and after a while , they were like , ' We think we can get that girl from Moonlight Mile . " The next to be cast , Sandra Oh ( Dr. Cristina Yang ) , was initially invited to audition for the character of Bailey , but pressed to read for the role of Cristina instead . Many actors read for the role of Dr. Derek Shepherd , but when Patrick Dempsey read for the part , " he was just perfect " , according to Rhimes .
The only character developed with a racial description in mind was Dr. Miranda Bailey , who is portrayed by Chandra Wilson . The character was written as a tiny blonde with curly hair , but when Wilson began speaking , Rhimes reported : " [ Wilson ] is exactly who Miranda is . " James Pickens Jr. was selected to appear as Dr. Richard Webber in the series ' pilot and first season . Katherine Heigl wanted to portray Dr. Izzie Stevens as a brunette , but was requested to retain her natural blonde for the part . Isaiah Washington , who portrayed Dr. Preston Burke , initially read for the role of Shepherd , but was cast as Burke , because the original actor to play Burke had to withdraw . T. R. Knight signed on for the pilot as Dr. George O 'Malley , expecting that the role might be short @-@ lived , because he liked that the character was multi @-@ faceted . Rounding out the season one cast was Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev .
The second season marked the introduction of Dr. Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) and Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) . They were initially cast as recurring characters , but both were given star billing at the opening of the third season . Ramirez was cast after ABC executives offered her a role in the network show of her choice , Dane had previously auditioned unsuccessfully for a role in the pilot episode . Dr. Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ) also joined the show in season two , after making a guest appearance in season one . In October 2006 , Washington allegedly insulted Knight with a homophobic slur , during an on @-@ set altercation with Dempsey , and ABC terminated Washington 's contract at the end of the third season . Washington also made a guest appearance in season 10 . At the conclusion of the third season , Walsh also departed the show to pursue the Grey 's Anatomy spin @-@ off , Private Practice , but continues to make guest appearances .
Chyler Leigh joined the cast as a main character in the fourth season as Dr. Lexie Grey , Lexie had appeared as a guest star in the final two episodes of the third season . On the selection of Leigh for the role of Lexie , Rhimes said : " Chyler stood out ... It felt like she could be Meredith 's sister , but she had a depth that was very interesting . " Dr. Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) , who first appeared on Grey 's Anatomy in the second season , became a series regular in the fourth season . Shortly after the announcement that Smith would be a regular member of the cast , Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Ausiello , reported that her character , Hahn , would depart from Grey 's Anatomy on November 6 , 2008 . E ! Online 's Kristin Dos Santos asserted that Smith 's dismissal from the show had been forced by the ABC network , as part of an attempt to " de @-@ gay " Grey 's Anatomy , but Rhimes countered these claims , saying that " we did not find that the magic and chemistry with Brooke 's character would sustain in the long run " .
Season five introduced actor Kevin McKidd ( Dr. Owen Hunt ) , who was signed as a series regular after originally being cast for a specific story arc . In addition , Jessica Capshaw ( Dr. Arizona Robbins ) was originally introduced for a three episode arc , but received a contract extension until the end of the season and then became a series regular in the sixth season . Knight departed the show at the conclusion of season five , citing an unhappiness with the development and lack of screen time for his character . Directly following Knight 's departure , it was reported by Entertainment Weekly that Heigl had not returned to the set as scheduled after her maternity leave , and it was later confirmed that Heigl would not return to the show at all .
Kim Raver , who was cast as recurring character Dr. Teddy Altman in the sixth season , was given star billing later in the season . Sarah Drew ( Dr. April Kepner ) and Jesse Williams ( Dr. Jackson Avery ) , who both made their series debuts as recurring characters in the sixth season , received star billing in the seventh .
The six original actors ' contracts expired after season eight , but in May 2012 , Pompeo , Oh , Dempsey , Chambers , Wilson , and Pickens renewed their contracts with the show for another two years . At the conclusion of the eighth season , Leigh 's character departed from the show at Leigh 's request , and with Rhimes ' agreement . Raver 's character was also written out of the show during the season eight finale , and Rhimes stated that Raver was offered a contract renewal , but declined . In July 2012 , Dane confirmed that he was departing the show to pursue other projects ; he made his final appearances in the first two episodes of the ninth season . With the start of season 10 , Camilla Luddington , Jerrika Hinton , Gaius Charles & Tessa Ferrer were introduced to the show as series regulars . They were first introduced to the show in season 9 as new interns . On August 13 , 2013 , Oh announced that the show 's tenth season would be her final season . In March 2014 it was announced that Isaiah Washington , who portrayed Preston Burke in the first three seasons of the show , would make a guest appearance to coincide with the departure of series regular Sandra Oh , his former on @-@ screen love interest . As of March 25 , 2014 , both Charles and Ferrer 's contracts were not renewed for season 11 . On May 2 , 2014 it was announced that , in addition to Pompeo and Dempsey , all original remaining cast members — aside from Sandra Oh — signed two years deals , extending their contracts through seasons 11 and 12 . Despite joining the series in its second season , Sara Ramirez is on the same negotiation schedule as the first season cast and has also inked a new two @-@ year deal .
= = = Filming locations and technique = = =
Rhimes considered setting the medical drama in her hometown , Chicago , but eventually decided to go with Seattle , to distinguish Grey 's Anatomy from the Chicago – based ER .
Fisher Plaza , which is the headquarters building of Fisher Communications and Fisher 's ABC affiliated KOMO radio and television stations in Seattle , is used for some exterior shots of Grey @-@ Sloan Memorial Hospital . In particular , air ambulances land on the KOMO @-@ TV newscopter 's helipad . This suggests the hospital is close to the Space Needle ( which is directly across the street from Fisher Plaza ) , the Seattle Monorail , and other local landmarks . However , the hospital used for most other exterior and a few interior shots is not in Seattle ; these scenes are shot at the VA Sepulveda Ambulatory Care Center in North Hills , California . Most scenes are taped at Prospect Studios in Los Feliz , just east of Hollywood , where the Grey 's Anatomy set occupies six sound stages . Some outside scenes are shot at the Warren G. Magnuson Park in Seattle . Several props used are working medical equipment , including the MRI machine . When asked about operating room scenes , Sarah Drew offered this :
We work with Bovine organs , which is cow 's organs . The smell is repulsive and makes us all gag . And we use an actual soldering tool to solder the organs . It smells like burning flesh . There 's also a lot of silicone and blood matter , red jello mixed with blood and chicken fat . It 's pretty gross .
Costumes are used to differentiate between attending surgeons , who wear navy blue scrubs , and residents , who wear light blue scrubs . The series is filmed with a single @-@ camera setup , as are many dramas . Grey 's Anatomy is often filmed using the " walk and talk " filming technique , popularized on television by series such as St. Elsewhere , ER , and The West Wing .
= = Series synopsis = =
= = = Overview = = =
Grey 's Anatomy follows the lives of surgical interns and residents at the fictional Grey @-@ Sloan Memorial Hospital ( formerly Seattle Grace Hospital , Season 1 – 6 , Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital , Season 6 – 9 , and then Grey @-@ Sloan Memorial Hospital , Season 9 – present ) , as they gradually evolve into seasoned doctors , with the help of their competent mentors . Every installment , typically , commences with a voice @-@ over narrative from Meredith Grey or a season regular , foreshadowing the theme of the episode . Each season tends to represent the physicians ' academic year , with each completed year qualifying the residents at a level higher in the surgical field . The season will always end with a finale , typically involving a tragic event such as a death or character departure . Most installments revolve around the doctors ' everyday lives as surgeons , but the show puts an emphasis on their personal , rather than professional , lives . The series sets aside medical ethic concerns to focus on character development and relationships . Although the physicians treat the illnesses of their patients , often through complex surgeries , their primary motivation is customarily praise and competition .
The residents initially arrive at the hospital each morning and argue over who will care for a certain patient . A hospital superior is in charge of assigning cases , often translating to tense feelings between the residents and their superiors . Episodes migrate back and forth from the doctors interacting with their patients , and with their co @-@ workers . Once assigned a case , each doctor diagnoses the patient , with the help of his or her attending physician , which usually leads to surgery . The surgeons tend to form personal connections with their patients , with a patient often conveying a message to his or her doctor , which unintentionally relates to the doctor 's private life . The show displays the growth of relationships between the doctors , either friendly or sexual , often stemming to a clash between their personal and professional lives . Emotional scenes are often accompanied by an indie rock background song , something that has become a hallmark of the series . At the conclusion of each episode , one of the characters delivers another voice @-@ over , typically contrasting or following up on their initial one .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main characters = = =
The five characters who are first introduced in the series premiere , as surgical interns , are Grey , Karev , O 'Malley , Stevens , and Yang . They are initially mentored by Bailey , a senior resident who becomes the hospital 's Chief Resident , and later an attending general surgeon , in season six . The surgical program is initially headed by the Chief of Surgery , Richard Webber , who has a pre @-@ existing personal relationship with Meredith , having had an affair with her mother when Meredith was a child . In Webber 's employ are attending neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd , dubbed ' McDreamy ' by the residents , and attending cardiothoracic surgeon Preston Burke . Shepherd is introduced as Meredith 's love interest , while Burke begins a relationship with Yang .
Introduced in the show 's second season are obstetrician @-@ gynecologist and neonatal surgeon , Addison Montgomery , plastic surgeon Mark Sloan ( nicknamed ' McSteamy ' by the interns ) , from New York , and orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres . Montgomery is Shepherd 's wife who arrives in Seattle seeking reconciliation with him , Sloan is Shepherd 's former best friend , who aided the breakdown of his marriage by having an affair with Montgomery , while Torres is introduced as a love @-@ interest , and eventual wife for O 'Malley . The penultimate episode of season three introduces Lexie Grey , Meredith 's half @-@ sister who unexpectedly decides to pursue her internship at Seattle Grace Hospital after her mother 's sudden death , and begins an on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship with Sloan . Burke and Yang , having been engaged , endeavor to plan their wedding , while Montgomery departs the show at the conclusion of the third season , relocating to California , seeking a new life . The season three finale shows Burke 's exit from the show , after leaving Yang at the altar on their wedding day .
Grey , Yang , Karev , and Stevens are all promoted to residents , in the season four premiere , while O 'Malley is forced to repeat his internship year , following his failing of the intern exam . Subsequently , Torres and O 'Malley divorce one another , due to him having a sexual affair with Stevens , initially concealing it from Torres . Early in the fourth season , cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn becomes Torres ' love interest . During the fifth season , Hahn departs from the series , and O 'Malley retakes his intern exam , passing , joining his fellow physicians as a resident . Two new characters are introduced , former United States Army trauma surgeon Dr. Owen Hunt , and pediatric surgeon Dr. Arizona Robbins . Hunt becomes a love @-@ interest for Yang , while Robbins becomes a love @-@ interest for Torres . When Stevens is diagnosed with stage four metastatic melanoma , she and Karev wed one another at the conclusion of the fifth season . In addition , Meredith and Shepherd marry , with their vows written on a post @-@ it note .
O 'Malley dies in the premiere of the sixth season , due to injuries sustained by being hit by a bus , and Stevens later departs Seattle after being diagnosed with cancer and following a lack of communication between her then husband Karev following the Seattle Grace merger with Mercy West . Several new characters are introduced as Seattle Grace Hospital merges with Mercy West . Residents April Kepner and Jackson Avery both transfer to Seattle Grace Hospital from Mercy West , and the latter entertains a brief relationship with Lexie Grey , until she reunites with Mark Sloan . Subsequently , Teddy Altman is introduced as the new Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery . In the season six finale , a deceased patient 's grieving husband embarks on a shooting spree at the hospital , injuring Karev , Shepherd , and Hunt , and killing residents Charles Percy and Reed Adamson . In the shooting 's emotional reverberations , Hunt and Yang abruptly marry , not wanting to risk separation . Torres and Robbins eventually wed , officiated by Bailey . In season eight , Webber steps down and allocates his job to Hunt . As the final year of residency for Meredith , Yang , Karev , Avery , and Kepner is coming to a close , the doctors are all planning to relocate to different hospitals to pursue their specialty careers . However , all plans are put on hold when several doctors from Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital are engaged in a plane crash , which kills Lexie and endangers Meredith , Shepherd , Yang , Robbins , and Sloan . At the conclusion of the eighth season , Altman is courteously fired by Hunt as she struggles to decide whether or not to take the job as Chief at the United States Army Medical Command ( MEDCOM ) . In the season nine premiere , Sloan dies due to sustained injuries from the plane crash following a brief relapse of temporary health ( the surge ) and the remaining characters work through their post traumatic stress and Arizona Robbins ' loss of limb by way of suing Seattle Grace Mercy West as the hospital was responsible for putting the surgeons on the plane . The season continues with the struggle of the lawsuit and the animosity that it creates within the hospital , Yang and Hunt eventually divorce in order to help the lawsuit . Robbins cheats on Torres with a visiting facial reconstruction specialist . The doctors who were on the plane won the lawsuit , but the pay out bankrupts the hospital . They all club together and buy Seattle Grace Mercy West , with the help of the Harper Avery Foundation , and they become the Board of Directors , once being called the " Grey @-@ Sloan 7 " . One of the changes they implement is renaming the hospital to Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital . Grey 's Anatomy then concluded its 10th season on ABC and saw the departure of one of its major players , Cristina Yang , played by Sandra Oh . Towards the end of the eleventh season , Derek Shepherd witnesses a car accident and pulls over to help the injured , but his car is hit by a truck with him inside as he attempts to leave the scene . He later dies at another hospital following the doctors ' mishandling of his injuries . The season 12 finale saw the departure of one of the show 's longest running characters , Callie Torres , played by Sara Ramirez .
= = = Recurring characters = = =
With the drama 's setting being a hospital , numerous medical personnel appear regularly on the show , as well as several other recurring characters . Joe ( Steven W. Bailey ) , is first shown as the owner of the Emerald City Bar and Grill , across the street from the hospital , which is a common relaxation area for the physicians . Also introduced in the pilot , is the legendary former surgeon , Dr. Ellis Grey ( Kate Burton ) , Meredith 's Alzheimer 's @-@ stricken mother , who appeared on the show until her death in season three . In the first season , Olivia Harper ( Sarah Utterback ) , a nurse who appeared on the show occasionally until getting laid off in the merger with Mercy West , engages in sexual activity with O 'Malley , giving him Syphilis . Serving as an assistant and secretary to the Chief of Surgery , former nurse Patricia ( Robin Pearson Rose ) , has appeared on the show since its debut . Tyler Christian ( Moe Irvin ) , a hospital nurse , makes occasional appearances throughout the series . Within the second season , Bailey becomes pregnant by her husband , Tucker Jones ( Cress Williams ) , who makes frequent appearances on Grey 's Anatomy , until their divorce in season five . While Bailey takes a sabbatical , due to her pregnancy , the cheerful Dr. Sydney Heron ( Kali Rocha ) , fills her position as the resident supervising Grey , Yang , Karev , O 'Malley , and Stevens , and makes occasional appearances until the fifth season .
Thatcher and Susan Grey ( Jeff Perry and Mare Winningham ) , Meredith 's estranged father and step @-@ mother , are introduced in season two , with Susan making appearances until her death in season three , and Thatcher continuing to appear on the series . Adele Webber ( Loretta Devine ) , is introduced as Richard 's wife , who eventually acquires Alzheimer 's , in the seventh season , and continued to make appearances until her death in season nine . Introduced as Preston 's mother , Jane Burke ( Diahann Carroll ) makes occasional appearances until the fourth season . Denny Duquette ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) , a patient suffering from congestive heart failure , originates as one of Burke 's patients , who goes on to propose to Stevens , after weeks of bonding between the two . Facing death , Stevens cuts Duquette 's left ventricular assist device ( LVAD ) , to elevate his position on the United Network for Organ Sharing ( UNOS ) transplant list . This ultimately ends in his death , marking his initial departure from the show , and placing Stevens on disciplinary probation . Initially conceived as a veterinarian hired for Shepherd 's dog , Doc , Dr. Finn Dandridge ( Chris O 'Donnell ) soon becomes a love interest for Meredith , while Shepherd is with Montgomery . Dandridge is included in a multi @-@ episode story arc , consisting of nine episodes , ending when Meredith reunites with Shepherd .
In season three , George 's father , Harold O 'Malley ( George Dzundza ) , is diagnosed with cancer and dies , with his wife Louise ( Debra Monk ) and George 's brothers Jerry ( Greg Pitts ) and Ronny ( Tim Griffin ) by his side . Louise goes on to appear occasionally , and was last seen in season eight . A ferryboat accident brings along Rebecca Pope ( Elizabeth Reaser ) , who is initially introduced as a pregnant Jane Doe victim , suffering from Amnesia . Pope eventually embarks on a relationship with Karev , until she is diagnosed with a personality disorder in season four , and makes her final departure . Amidst the crisis of the ferryboat crash , Meredith falls into the water at the disaster site . Although rescued , she goes into cardiac arrest , waking up in what appears to be limbo . Within the limbo , Meredith is entertained by deceased acquaintances Duquette and Dylan Young ( Kyle Chandler ) , who was killed during a bomb crisis in the second season , until eventually being resuscitated . Seeking a cure to her depression , Meredith undergoes therapy sessions with the hospital psychiatrist , Dr. Katharine Wyatt ( Amy Madigan ) , who in addition , serves as a psychiatrist to Hunt .
The season four premiere introduces several new interns , to be trained under Meredith , Yang , Karev , Stevens , and eventually O 'Malley . Among them are Dr. Steve Mostow ( Mark Saul ) who continues to make appearances , and Dr. Sadie Harris ( Melissa George ) who formed a friendship with Meredith while the two were in college . Harris is fired in the fifth season , due to not actually having a medical degree , and departs the show immediately after . Meredith and Shepherd 's relationship reaches a toll , and the two separate , leading Shepherd to entertaining a relationship with Rose ( Lauren Stamile ) , a nurse . Rose appears frequently until season five , when Shepherd rekindles his relationship with Meredith . Throughout the fifth season , Stevens experiences full @-@ out hallucinations of Duquette , signaling that she is ill , and once she is lucid , he departs , marking his final appearance . Following the announcement of her relationship with Robbins , Callie 's father Carlos Torres ( Hector Elizondo ) initially contests his daughter 's concurrence in homosexuality , but eventually accepts it , and he reappears several times throughout the series .
The hospital 's merging with Mercy West introduces new residents : Dr. Reed Adamson ( Nora Zehetner ) and Dr. Charles Percy ( Robert Baker ) , but the two are both murdered in the season six finale . Also introduced in the sixth season is Dr. Ben Warren ( Jason George ) , an anesthesiologist and eventual husband to Dr. Miranda Bailey , as well as Sloan Riley ( Leven Rambin ) , Dr. Mark Sloan 's estranged daughter who seeks kinship with him . Dr. Lucy Fields ( Rachael Taylor ) , an obstetrician @-@ gynecologist , is introduced in the seventh season , and serves as a love interest for Dr. Alex Karev , until eventually relocating to pursue a career in Africa . Robbins receives a grant to aid children in Malawi , which leads to a falling out between her and Torres . While in Malawi , Robbins is replaced by Dr. Robert Stark ( Peter MacNicol ) , a pediatric surgeon with an interest in Dr. April Kepner , who appears occasionally until season eight . Following the breakdown of Dr. Torres ' relationship with Dr. Robbins , Dr. Sloan and Dr. Torres unite , and she becomes pregnant . Torres ' relationship with Robbins is subsequently mended , and the couple endeavors to raise their new daughter , Sofia Robbin Sloan Torres , with the help of Dr. Sloan . Shepherd and Meredith also become new parents , with their adoption of Zola , a baby girl from Malawi . Conceived as a patient with a tumor condition who later develops diabetes , Henry Burton ( Scott Foley ) befriends Dr. Altman and eventually joins her in marriage only to get treated using her medical insurance , until he dies while undergoing heart surgery .
In the season nine premiere , interns Dr. Jo Wilson ( Camilla Luddington ) , Dr. Heather Brooks ( Tina Majorino ) , Dr. Shane Ross ( Gaius Charles ) , Dr. Stephanie Edwards ( Jerrika Hinton ) , and Dr. Leah Murphy ( Tessa Ferrer ) are introduced . Steven Culp and William Daniels play Dr. Parker and Dr. Craig Thomas , respectively . Dr. Parker is Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery and Dr. Craig Thomas ( William Daniels ) is an attending cardiothoracic surgeon at Mayo Clinic , where Cristina worked temporarily . Dr. Alana Cahill ( Constance Zimmer ) introduced in the ninth season is appointed to cut costs at the hospital and she eventually decides the best course of action would be to seek out a new buyer until the four crash survivors and Torres on the behalf of Sloan to pool their money together in a bid to purchase the hospital themselves . Kepner starts dating a paramedic named Matthew ( Justin Bruening ) and they form a deep relationship over the course of the ninth ad tenth seasons and she eventually agreed to marry before reconciling with Avery in the middle of the wedding Mathew . Lauren Boswell ( Hilarie Burton ) is introduced as a craniofacial surgeon consulting on a case at Grey Sloan Memorial who showed romantic interested in Arizona and eventually ended up having a one @-@ night stand with her .
Dr. Heather Brooks dies in the premier of season ten . She goes to search for Dr. Webber and finds him lying in the basement of the hospital . Trying to save Dr. Webber , she accidentally steps into a puddle and electrocutes herself while hitting her head as she falls . Bailey moves a cancer patient in Webber 's room to force some perspective and make him take the treatment . Also introduced in the tenth season was Dr. Karev 's estranged father Jimmy Evans ( James Remar ) who tries to form a relationship with his son but fails repeatedly and ultimately dies in a botched surgery . The conclusion of season 10 has Cristina leaving Grey Sloan for Dr. Burke 's job overseas while Dr. Ross makes a last @-@ minute decision to follow her in order to study under her . Dr. Maggie Pierce ( Kelly McCreary ) unknowingly drops a bombshell that she is the adopted love child of Dr. Webber and the late Dr. Grey , which makes for yet another half sister of Dr. Meredith Grey . Also , Dr. Yang leaves her seat on the board to Dr. Karev while Dr. Webber all but promises the seat to Dr. Bailey . Introduced in season eleven is Dr. Nicole Herman ( Geena Davis ) who is Chief of Fetal Surgery at Grey Sloan Memorial , she mentors Arizona Robbins in a fetal surgery fellowship , Herman plays in a twelve episode arc before departing after episode fourteen .
Season 11 begins with new surgical residents coming to the hospital . Meredith is struggling with the idea that Maggie is actually her half sister because of her mother 's romance with Dr. Weber . Callie and Arizona 's relationship falls through after realising they both want different things at the time . April and Jackson learn heartbreaking news that their baby has a lethal birth defect , where April decides that she will carry the baby till full term no matter the consequences . They end up having a boy , Samuel , who dies shortly after birth .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Grey 's Anatomy has been well received among critics . The show holds an average of 74 % positive score on Rotten Tomatoes and 7 @.@ 7 / 10 score at IMDB site . The A.V. Club gave an insight on both the overwhelming success and lows in the quality of the hit medical drama saying , " The quality arc for the show is all over the place , starting with a steady build in the first season , then skyrocketing into phenomenon in season two , then leveling off and dipping in season three , before having some seriously bumpy moments in seasons four ( interrupted by the writers ’ strike ) and five . The climb begins again in season six " Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly in a review wrote , " I believe the show ’ s best season to date is season 2 . Let me make it clear that I ’ m not saying seasons 3 through 9 were bad . In my opinion , there have only been a few lulls in the show ’ s history , and most of them didn ’ t last a full season . " adding , " I still enjoy the show , and I ’ ll honestly never stop watching . By any standards , Grey ’ s Anatomy has been successful television , ranking highly in the ratings for nine seasons and entering the cultural lexicon via phrases as cloying yet catchy as " McDreamy . " , the show has had its periods of being intensely irritating , and it has had its periods when it seems as if Shonda Rhimes has taken leave of her faculties , but it ’ s also got an amazingly high batting average , particularly with every solid season that passes along in this second act of its run . " The site lauded the show saying , " On average , it ’ s been very good TV , filled with interesting , driven characters who run the gamut of professions within the show ’ s hospital setting . It ’ s been , by turns , a good soap , a good romantic comedy , a good medical drama , and a good interpersonal show about an unexpected workplace family . "
The first season received positive reviews which steadily built up , with Gary Levin of USA Today calling Grey 's Anatomy one of the top shows on television . New York Daily News named Grey 's Anatomy a " winner " , whereas Newsday expressed a positive opinion by stating " You simply can 't stop watching . " The Washington Post 's Tom Shales was critical of season one , finding it reminiscent of ER and commenting that : " The show is much more a matter of commercial calculation than an honest attempt to try something fresh and different . " Shortly after its initial airing , the Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan called Grey 's Anatomy the new Friends ; a concluded National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) sitcom following the lives of a group of young adults , that all of its ten @-@ year run in the top @-@ five for viewer ratings . The second season received critical acclaim , top critics like Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the show a " phenomenon " not just TV adding the show was , " one of the best TV shows around " , Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly later during the tenth season called the second " the show ’ s best season to date " however , Kevin Carr of 7M Pictures opined that Grey 's Anatomy is a mere combination of Scrubs , ER , Sex and the City , and The Love Boat . It further garnered positive reviews , Christopher Monfette of IGN Entertainment added : " The second season of this medical drama expertly wove its signature elements of complex relationships , whimsical banter and challenging life @-@ lessons ; all to a montage @-@ fetish , indie @-@ rock soundtrack . " Todd Gilchrist also from IGN called the season " terrific " adding , " Indeed , one of the best currently on television . While it remains to be seen what the creators do with it , now that it 's become an outright event program , the season demonstrates that Rhimes and co. know what to do with the opportunities presented them. whether you 're male or female , this is the kind of entertainment that small @-@ screen devotees and folks fed up with television need to see . "
The title character of Grey 's Anatomy , Meredith , has received both overwhelmingly positive and weary feedback by critics along the course of the show , with the development of the character garnering praise from majority critics . Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times referring to her as " the heroine of Grey 's Anatomy " . BuddyTV praised the distinct uniqueness in the character calling Meredith an " unconventional heroine " adding , " From the very beginning Meredith Grey has been an unconventional heroine . Neither black nor white but always ... wait for it ... many shades of grey , she has always been , even in her lighter moments , dark and twisty . " When Pompeo did not receive an Emmy nomination for her work as Meredith , Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times suggested that Pompeo , " who has worked very hard and against all narrative odds to make Meredith Grey an interesting character " , should have received a nomination at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , in 2009 . IGN 's Monfette , less impressed , criticized her storyline as " some bizarrely under @-@ developed sub @-@ plot about depression and giving Derek a season 's worth of reconsidering to do . " Robert Rorke of the New York Post was also critical of Meredith 's role in the show , writing : " She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas , but lately , she 's been a little dopey , what with the endless ' McDreamy ' soliloquies . " Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV commented that " You gotta love Mer when she 's gloomy . " The development of the character has received praise from critics . Reviewing the first part of the eighth season , TV Fanatic wrote : " this season belongs to Meredith Grey . She is the heart and soul of the show and has been outstanding . This is a character that used to be so dark and twisty and has now grown into a more mature woman . Ellen Pompeo has been at the top of her game this season . " Rick Porter reviewing the episode How to Save a Life from the eleventh season for Zap2it wrote , " Without Meredith , and without one of Pompeo 's strongest performances in her long time on the show , " How to Save a Life " would have run the risk of coming across as a baldly manipulative death episode , the likes of which the show has done several times before . He added . " How to Save a Life " may not be the ideal Emmy @-@ submission episode for Ellen Pompeo , considering Meredith is off screen for more than half of it . But it 's among the best work she 's ever done on the show . " Janalen Samson of BuddyTV lauded the Meredith 's development throughout the series saying , " When one considers how this character has grown over eleven seasons , it really is amazing . Kudos to Ellen Pompeo for her fine work . She 's actually done the impossible , because I actually care what happens to Meredith Grey . " Reviewing the season 12 premiere Sledgehammer critics including Alex Hawkins of the Western Gazette again highlighted Pompeo 's due for an Emmy Award .
The majority of the supporting cast of Grey 's Anatomy have been well received as well , with the New York Post 's Rorke deeming Stevens to be " the heart and soul " of Grey 's Anatomy , whereas Eyder Peralta of the Houston Chronicle was critical of her character development , stating : " [ She 's ] the reason I don 't watch Grey 's Anatomy anymore . " Kelli Catana of The Huffington Post named Yang " the best damn character " and deemed " the Meredith / Yang relationship the most true friendship on network television . " Television Without Pity writer Lauren Shotwell claimed Yang is " the only one of these five [ residents ] that regularly acts like an actual doctor " . Analyzing Alex Karev Rachel Simon called him ' Underrated ' , she pointed out that Alex ’ s personal growth never seems to get acknowledged as " Alex has evolved , slowly and realistically , into a genuinely good person whose faults don ’ t miraculously disappear , but take a backseat to much better qualities . " Robert Bianco of USA Today said Dempsey has a " seemingly effortless way of humanizing Derek 's ' dreamy ' appeal with ego and vanity " . and his friendship with Mark Sloan has been well received Victor Balta said " they ’ ve demonstrated an easy chemistry that makes for some of the great comic relief around Seattle Grace Hospital . " While Addison Montgomery was deemed " sassy and bright and interesting . " TV Guide said of Walsh 's stint on Grey 's Anatomy : " She [ Walsh ] adds spice to an already hot show . " ortho surgeon Callie Torres after receiving mixed views earlier was praised for her bisexual storyline and critics further added that the character was anchored by stellar performance by Sara Ramirez .. Lexie Grey initially being criticized became a critics a favorite in the series Keen of The Trades wrote , " Chyler Leigh , does a fantastic job of making the progression feel seamless . Lexie steals the show as one of the best characters on the series . " With the departure of several cast members throughout the seasons , many new characters were added to the drama 's ensemble . McKidd and Capshaw were referred to as " fresh additions " to the series , by Monfette of IGN . In addition , Matt Roush of TV Guide commented : " Hunt / McKidd is the most encouraging thing to happen to Grey 's Anatomy in quite a while . " Matt Mitovich of TV Guide noted that Robbins " quickly established herself as a fan favorite " , describing her as : " a breath of fresh air in the often angsty halls of Seattle Grace . On April Kepner and Jackson Avery Courtney Morrison of TVFanatic wrote " April has grown since her character was introduced . She ’ s no longer much less annoying than she used to be , and she ’ s honest . A girl with principles is a girl you want to do well . " and described her and Avery as " a couple for whom viewers can root " . Speaking of the new cast members , in addition to the remaining original , Robert Bianco from USA Today called them the show 's " best ensemble in years " .
Regarding season three , Bill Carter of The New York Times called Grey 's Anatomy " television 's hottest show " , adding : " [ No show ] is expected to challenge Grey 's Anatomy for prime @-@ time pre @-@ eminence . " Contrasting with Carter 's view , Monfette of IGN said that it speedily found itself " mired in the annoying and absurd " , adding : " This third season may very well represent a case of over @-@ writing a concept that has , perhaps tragically , run bone @-@ dry on narrative fuel . " At the conclusion of season three , Entertainment Weekly 's Gregory Kirschling said " the show lacked a defining happy , warm @-@ gooseflesh moment " , adding that the season " didn 't leave you dying for the [ next ] season premiere " . Speaking of the fourth season , Laura Burrows of IGN said the series became " a little more than mediocre , but less than fantastic " , adding : " This season proved that even strong chemistry and good acting cannot save a show that suffers from the inevitable recycled plot . "
In contrast to the moderately negative feedback the third and fourth seasons received , Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said of the fifth season : " Overall , it feels more like the good old days than Grey 's Anatomy has in a long time . " Misha Davenport from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said season five " hits on all the things the show does so well " , adding : " There is romance , heartbreak , humor and a few moments that will move fans to tears . " Brian Lowry of Variety , less impressed , opinionated that the season five displayed the show running out of storylines . Speaking of the sixth season , Bianco of USA Today wrote : " Grey 's has always loved grand gestures . You like them or you don 't ; the only real question is whether the show pulls them off or it doesn 't . This year , it did . "
The series has a score of 66 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on five reviews for season seven . In response to the season , Bianco from USA Today commented : " Happily , it now seems to have landed on solid ground . " Also of the seventh season , Entertainment Weekly 's Jennifer Armstrong said : " It 's in the shooting 's emotional reverberations that the show is regenerating after the past few hit @-@ and @-@ miss seasons , " whereas Verne Gay of Newsday commented : " Unfortunately , they 've settled on far @-@ too @-@ easy and facile answers for the most part . " HitFix gave a positive review saying that , " season 7 overall has been one of the show 's strongest ever . " and added , " There was a time when Grey 's Anatomy was this show where I suffered through a lot of stuff that made me cringe to get to those genius melodrama moments it could do so well . Over the last couple of years , it 's evolved into a show that 's much more consistent in tone , where it may not move me as often as it did in the early years but also very rarely makes me question my reasons for watching . " Speaking of season eight , Entertainment Weekly 's Mandi Bierly called it a " so @-@ so season " , and Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it " emotional " . Also acknowledging the fan base Verne Gay of Newsday wrote " Grey 's has had a good season and has an intensely loyal fan base to prove it . " regarding the 8th season .
The ninth season received more positive reviews , Rob Salem of Toronto Star called it " a solid return to form . " Brad Williams writing for What Culture praised the show 's development over the season saying , " Grey 's Anatomy has developed into a fine example of how a TV show can mature beyond its initial purpose . " calling it " something almost anyone can watch and enjoy . " Praising the friendship between Cristina and Meredith of Entertainment Weekly wrote , " There 's still one good reason to keep watching : Where else can you find such deep friendships between female co @-@ workers " . The tenth season was also marked with praise , Annie Barrett for Entertainment Weekly wrote " There 's true sorrow here along with the passion , which keeps their dynamic so intriguing to me . " Caroline Siede from The A.V. Club wrote in her review for the 10th season " At its best , Grey 's Anatomy is about everyday bravery , sacrifice , and courage . At its worst , it 's a melodramatic , moralizing soap opera . Both sides are on display as the show heads confidently into its 10th season . " Many sources , including Rachel Simon of Bustle and Nicole Pomarico of Wetpaint , claimed that Sandra Oh 's performance during her final season on Grey 's Anatomy is worthy of an Emmy nomination .
Bryce Olin of Netflix ranked Grey 's 9th among the 50 Best TV Shows on Netflix stating , " It ’ s a tough call , but based on Grey ’ s casting choices and revolutionary portrayals of female doctors in the series , I ’ m willing to argue that Grey ’ s Anatomy is the best medical drama of all time . Obviously , Shonda Rhimes didn ’ t reinvent the wheel with the series , but there ’ s no denying its popularity . " adding , " I understand its significance in the pop culture sphere . " He also stated that the show could go higher in the ranks with the upcoming season stating , " Apparently , Grey ’ s Anatomy fans are passionate about their show , although it seems like they ’ ve been closeted for the last few years . I ’ d love to move Grey ’ s Anatomy even higher on the ranking , but I ’ ll have wait until the 11th season comes to Netflix . "
= = = = Critics ' top ten lists = = = =
Critics included Grey 's Anatomy in top ten lists for five of its twelve seasons ; these are listed below in order of rank .
= = = Impact = = =
Grey 's Anatomy has been considered an impact on culture by Entertainment Weekly 's executive editor , Lori Majewski , with her writing : " Grey 's Anatomy isn 't just a show , it 's a phenomenon . When [ the ] final shows air , every place in New York City is empty . You could get a table at the best restaurants . " The Daily Beast 's Jace Lacob also considered the show an impact , comparing its success to that of Friends , and calling it a " cultural phenomenon " . Steve Sternberg , a media analyst with Magna Global USA explained that the show appeals to a broad audience , writing : " Roughly 80 percent of households during prime time only have one TV set on . People are looking for shows they can watch with other household members . " Grey 's Anatomy introduced a " mc @-@ labeling " surge , ever since it dubbed Dempsey 's character " McDreamy " . Canadian newspaper the National Post considers this trend a " phenomenon " .
Analyzing the show 's impact on culture , Dessylyn Arnold of Yahoo ! Voices noted that the " mc @-@ labeling " trend has been parodied on other shows including ER and Degrassi : The Next Generation . Mark Lawson of The Guardian has credited Grey 's Anatomy with popularizing the " songtage " , or musical montage segments . Parodying this , MADtv created a spoof on the show in 2006 , making fun of the series ' emotional scenes including those accompanied by a musical montage . The show 's premise inspired the creation of A Corazón Abierto , a Colombian adaptation of Grey 's Anatomy , which in turn spawned a Mexican version of the same name . A study conducted by the University of Western Sydney revealed that 94 % of 400 polled medical students are regular viewers of Grey 's Anatomy . An additional study conducted by Brian Quick of the University of Illinois indicated that the show 's portrayal of doctors being " smart , good looking , capable , and interesting " , leads viewers to associating real @-@ world doctors to be that way .
Grey 's has also been credited to have changed the perception on how good and bad television can be defined , The A.V. Club write , " Since The Sopranos burst onto the scene , we ’ ve too often classified a show as " good " based on how closely it adhered to the dark , violent , male @-@ centric template set out by that particular show . It ’ s time for that to end . At its best , Grey ’ s has been among the very best shows on TV , and at its worst , it ’ s been at least fascinating to watch . To write it off is to unnecessarily narrow the definition of what good TV can be , to limit what the medium is capable of . TV is at its best when it emotionally connects , and even when it seems to be otherwise merrily hurtling off a cliff , Grey ’ s Anatomy is nothing but emotional connection , which is more than other , more consistently better shows can say . "
In 2011 , a woman residing in Sheboygan , Wisconsin became unresponsive due to an asthma attack . Unable to wait for an ambulance , her daughter and a friend performed cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) on her , which they learned from Grey 's Anatomy . Despite this , Resident Karen Zink , M.D. , deemed the show 's portrayal of interns inaccurate , adding : " None of [ the characters ] have bags under their eyes . They all leave the hospital dressed cute , with their hair done and makeup on . That is so far away from the reality of interns . You are just dragging your butt , trying to stay alive . You don 't have time to do your hair . You don 't have time to put on makeup . Every surgical intern has bags under their eyes . " The series placed at No. 66 on Entertainment Weekly 's " New TV Classics " list , and was declared the third highest rated show for the first ten years of the Internet Movie Database ( 2002 – 2012 ) .
= = = U.S. television ratings = = =
Grey 's Anatomy has received high viewership and ratings since its debut . The first four seasons of the program each ranked in the top ten among all viewers , reaching its peak Nielsen ratings in the second season , attracting an average of 19 @.@ 44 million viewers per episode , and ranking at fifth place overall . Following the show 's time @-@ slot being relocated , overall rankings steadily declined , dropping below the top ten in its fifth season . Grey 's Anatomy made its greatest fall from its sixth to seventh season , slipping from seventeenth place to thirty @-@ first . The series is on a steady decline in terms of overall viewership and rankings , yet Grey 's Anatomy still holds value in charts when numbers are pulled from the digital video recorder ( DVR ) . It was the most recorded show between 2007 and 2011 , based on cumulative totals , and has been for several years in a row .
The most @-@ watched episode of the series is " It 's the End of the World " , with 37 @.@ 88 million viewers , aided by a lead @-@ in from Super Bowl XL . In 2011 , Grey 's Anatomy was named the fourth @-@ highest revenue earning show of the year , with US $ 2 @.@ 67 million per half hour , behind Desperate Housewives , Two and a Half Men , and American Idol at the top . In 2012 , the show was the fifth @-@ highest revenue earning show of the year , with US $ 2 @.@ 75 million per half hour , behind Glee , Two and a Half Men , The X Factor ( U.S. ) and American Idol . While Grey 's Anatomy is no longer ranked in the top numbers for overall ratings , the show 's ranking in the key 18 – 49 demographic has remained high . As of season eight , the series is the highest @-@ rated drama on television in the target demographic . Below is a table of Grey 's Anatomy 's seasonal rankings in the U.S. television market , based on average total viewers per episode . Each U.S. network television season starts in September and ends in late May , which coincides with the completion of May sweeps .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Grey 's Anatomy has won a number of awards . As of July 2012 , the show has been nominated for twenty @-@ five Primetime Emmy Awards , having been nominated for at least one every year , except in 2010 . At the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2005 , Oh was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series , which she went on to be nominated for every year until 2009 , and Horton was nominated for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series . The following year , at the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards , the series received a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series , which they were nominated for again in 2007 . Also in 2006 , Wilson was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series , which she went on to be nominated for every year until 2009 , and Kyle Chandler was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series . The 58th Ceremony also honored Rhimes and Vernoff , who were both nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series . Rhimes , whose career kicked off in 1995 , has since produced yet another ABC series , Scandal , which began on air in 2012 and is continuing into the third season . Beginning in 2005 , Rhimes has been continually nominated for numerous awards , including three Emmy Awards : first in 2006 for a dramatic series and a separate nomination for writing a dramatic series , followed by a third nomination in 2007 for a dramatic series .
In 2007 , at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards , Heigl won the award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series , while Knight was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series . Numerous guest actresses have been nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series , including Burton in 2006 and 2007 , Christina Ricci in 2006 , Reaser in 2007 , Diahann Carroll in 2008 , and Sharon Lawrence in 2009 , but the only actress to have won the award is Devine in 2011 , who was nominated again in 2012 . The show has also been nominated for thirteen Creative Arts Emmy Awards , having won three of them : Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series , Outstanding Makeup for a Single @-@ Camera Series ( Non @-@ Prosthetic ) , and Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series , Miniseries , Movie or a Special .
The show has received ten Golden Globe Award nominations since its premiere . At the 63rd Golden Globe Awards , in 2006 , the series was nominated for Best Drama Series , Dempsey was nominated for Best Actor in a Drama Series , which he was nominated for again in 2007 , and Oh won the award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series , Miniseries , or Television Film . The following year , at the 64th Golden Globe Awards , in 2007 , Pompeo was nominated for Best Actress in a Drama Series , and the show won the award for Best Drama Series . At the 65th Golden Globe Awards , in 2008 , Heigl was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in a Series , Miniseries , or Television Film , while the series in whole was nominated for Best Drama Series .
The series has won People 's Choice Awards for Best Drama thrice in 2007 , 2013 and 2015 and has been nominated for several other People 's Choice Awards , with nominations received by Oh as well as multiple wins from Dempsey , Pompeo winning in recent years 2013 and 2015 , Heigl , Wilson , Demi Lovato , for guest starring , and the drama in whole for Favorite TV Drama . In 2007 , Rhimes and the female cast were the recipient of the Women in Film Lucy Award , in recognition of the excellence and innovation in the show as a creative work that has enhanced the perception of women through the medium of television . The series has been honored with numerous NAACP Image Award nominations , many having been won , including five awards for Outstanding Drama Series . Grey 's Anatomy has also received several Screen Actors Guild Awards , with nominations received by Dempsey , as well as wins from Oh , Wilson , and the main cast for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series .
= = Broadcast history = =
Grey 's Anatomy 's first season commenced airing as a mid @-@ season replacement to Boston Legal on March 27 , 2005 and concluded on May 22 , 2005 . The nine @-@ episode season aired on Sundays in the 10 : 00pm EST time slot , following Desperate Housewives . The show was renewed by ABC for a second season , that aired in the same time slot as season one . Premiering on September 25 , 2005 and concluding on May 15 , 2006 , the season consisted of twenty @-@ seven episodes . The first five episodes of the second season were originally scheduled to air during the first , but the network decided to close the first season of Grey 's Anatomy on the same night as Desperate Housewives ' finale . During the second season , Grey 's Anatomy produced two specials recapping the events of recent episodes , narrated by Bailey , entitled " Straight to the Heart " and " Under Pressure " . The show was renewed for a third season , which was relocated to the coveted Thursday 9 : 00pm EST time slot — a slot that the series has held onto since then . Commencing on September 21 , 2006 and ending on May 17 , 2007 , season three consisted of twenty @-@ five episodes . Two more specials were produced during the show 's third season , entitled " Complications of the Heart " and " Every Moment Counts " , which were narrated by Bailey and Morgan , respectively .
ABC renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a fourth season , which aired from September 27 , 2007 to May 22 , 2008 , and ultimately consisted of seventeen episodes . The fourth season had a reduced number of episodes , due to the 2007 – 08 Writers Guild of America strike , which caused production to cease from February to April , leaving the show with no writing staff during that time . At the beginning of the fourth season , the show aired its final special entitled " Come Rain or Shine " , created to transition viewers from Grey 's Anatomy to Private Practice , which was narrated by the editors of People magazine . The show received a renewal for a fifth season , which premiered on September 25 , 2008 and concluded on May 14 , 2009 ; consisting of twenty @-@ four episodes . The series was renewed for a sixth season consisting of twenty @-@ four episodes , which commenced on September 24 , 2009 and ended on May 20 , 2010 . During its sixth season , Grey 's Anatomy aired a series of webisodes entitled Seattle Grace : On Call at ABC.com. ABC renewed the show for a seventh season , which premiered on September 23 , 2010 and concluded on May 19 , 2011 ; consisting of twenty @-@ two episodes . Following up with Seattle Grace : On Call , Seattle Grace : Message of Hope aired during the beginning of the seventh season . Also during the seventh season , the series produced a musical episode entitled " Song Beneath the Song " , featuring music that became famous through their use in Grey 's Anatomy . The show received a twenty @-@ four episode eighth season renewal , which commenced on September 22 , 2011 with a two @-@ hour episode , and ended on May 17 , 2012 . Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a ninth season , which premiered on September 27 , 2012 and ended on May 16 , 2013 . Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a tenth season on May 10 , 2013 and premiered on September 27 , 2013 with a two @-@ hour episode , and ended on May 15 , 2014 .
On May 8 , 2014 , ABC renewed the series for an eleventh season that aired from September 2014 to May 2015 ) . In addition , the show was relocated to the Thursday 8 : 00pm EST time slot . After four seasons outside the top 25 rated shows , Grey 's Anatomy was the number 15 show in the 2013 – 2014 season , the show 's tenth . The show also re @-@ entered the top five shows in the 18 – 49 viewer demographic .
On May 7 , 2015 , ABC renewed the series for a twelfth season that premiered on September 24 , 2015 and concluded on May 19 , 2016 .
On March 3 , 2016 , ABC renewed Grey 's for a thirteenth season which will air from 2016 to 2017 .
= = = Private Practice = = =
On February 21 , 2007 , The Wall Street Journal reported that ABC was pursuing a spin @-@ off medical drama television series for Grey 's Anatomy featuring Walsh 's character , Montgomery . Subsequent reports confirmed the decision , stating that an expanded two @-@ hour broadcast of Grey 's Anatomy would serve as a backdoor pilot for the proposed spin @-@ off . The cast of Grey 's Anatomy was reportedly unhappy about the decision , as all hoped the spin @-@ off would have been given to them . Pompeo commented that she felt , as the star , she should have been consulted , and Heigl disclosed that she had hoped for a spin @-@ off for Stevens . The backdoor pilot that aired on May 3 , 2007 sees Montgomery take a leave of absence from Seattle Grace Hospital , to visit her best friend from Los Angeles , Naomi Bennett ( Merrin Dungey , later Audra McDonald ) , a reproductive endocrinology and infertility specialist . While in Los Angeles , she meets Bennett 's colleagues at the Oceanside Wellness Center . The two @-@ hour broadcast entitled " The Other Side of This Life " served as the twenty @-@ second and twenty @-@ third episodes of the third season , and was directed by Michael Grossman , according to Variety . The cast included Amy Brenneman , Paul Adelstein , Tim Daly , Taye Diggs , Chris Lowell , and Merrin Dungey .
KaDee Strickland 's character , Charlotte King , who would be introduced in the spin @-@ off 's first season premiere , did not appear in the backdoor pilot . Her addition to the main cast was announced on July 11 , 2007 , prior to the commencement of the first season . She did not have to audition for the role , but was cast after a meeting with Rhimes . Also not present in the backdoor pilot was McDonald , due to her character , Naomi Bennett , being portrayed by a different actress , Merrin Dungey . However , on June 29 , 2007 , ABC announced that Dungey would be replaced , with no reason given for the change . The drama was titled Private Practice , and its premiere episode followed the second part of the season debut of Dancing with the Stars , and provided a lead @-@ in to fellow freshman series Dirty Sexy Money . Pushing Daisies , a third new series for the evening , rounded out the lineup as a lead @-@ in to Private Practice . The series ended its run in January 2013 after six seasons .
Grey 's Anatomy had three crossover storylines with Private Practice .
" Before and After " / " Ex @-@ Life " / " An Honest Mistake " — Addison 's brother Archer is brought to Seattle Grace for surgery , after which Derek asks for help with a pregnant neuro patient .
" Blink " / " Another Second Chance " — Addison helps Mark perform an operation on his pregnant daughter .
" Have You Seen Me Lately ? " / " You Break My Heart " — Derek 's sister Amelia asks him to perform a risky gliosarcoma surgery .
= = Distribution = =
Grey 's Anatomy episodes appear regularly on ABC in the United States . All episodes are approximately forty @-@ three minutes , and are broadcast in both high @-@ definition and standard . The series ' episodes are also available for download at the iTunes Store in standard and high @-@ definition qualities , and Amazon Video . ABC Video on demand also releases recent episodes of the show for temporary viewing . Recent episodes are also available at ABC 's official Grey 's Anatomy website , and on Hulu and Xfinity . In 2009 , ABC signed a deal allowing Grey 's Anatomy episodes to be streamed on Netflix . Grey 's Anatomy is syndicated on Lifetime , with one hour blocks weekdays at 1 : 00 pm , 2 : 00 pm , and 3 : 00 pm EST .
Since its debut , Buena Vista Home Entertainment has released the first eight seasons on DVD to regions 1 , 2 , and 4 . The first season 's DVD , released on February 14 , 2006 , features an alternate title sequence , bloopers , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , audio commentaries , and an extended edition of the pilot episode . Season two 's DVD , released on September 12 , 2006 , which includes extended episodes , an interview with Wilson , deleted scenes , a set tour , a " Q & A " with the cast , and a segment on the creating of special effects . The DVD for the third season was released on September 11 , 2007 , with bonus features including extended episodes , an interview with star Dempsey , audio commentaries , and bloopers .
The fourth season 's DVD released on September 9 , 2008 , features an interview with Heigl and Chambers , extended episodes , bloopers , and deleted scenes . Season five 's DVD was released on September 15 , 2009 , and includes unaired scenes , bloopers , and extended episodes . The DVD for season six , released on September 14 , 2010 , features deleted scenes , an extended finale , and bloopers . The seventh season 's DVD , released on September 13 , 2011 , includes an extended edition of the musical episode , bloopers , as well as deleted scenes . In addition , the eighth season 's DVD was released on September 4 , 2012 with several bonus features and deleted scenes .
The ninth season 's DVD released on August 27 , 2013 with several bonus features and deleted scenes . The tenth season 's DVD was released on September 2 , 2014 with new several bonus features and deleted scenes . The season was officially released on DVD as a six @-@ disc boxset under the title of Grey 's Anatomy : The Complete Tenth Season – Live For The Moments on September 2 , 2014 and featured an extended episode Do You Know ? and a special feature from Sandra Oh titled " An Immeasurable Gift " . The eleventh released on DVD as a six @-@ disc box set on August 18 , 2015 with interviews with new series regular Caterina Scorsone and a special feature for Dempsey 's departure How To Say Goodbye Dr. Derek Shepherd .
= = Merchandise = =
ABC has partnered with CafePress and Barco Uniforms to provide branded merchandise through an online store . The products available include shirts , sweatshirts , kitchen @-@ ware , home @-@ ware , and bags , with the Grey 's Anatomy logo on it . Also available are custom unisex scrubs and lab coats in a variety of colors and sizes , designed by Barco . The merchandise released by ABC is available for purchase at the Grey 's Anatomy official website , and US $ 1 from every purchase to Barco 's Nightingales Foundation .
Five volumes of the Grey 's Anatomy Original Soundtrack have been released as of 2011 . For the first two seasons , the show 's main title theme was an excerpt from " Cosy in the Rocket " , by British duo Psapp ; it is featured on the first soundtrack album released via ABC 's corporate cousin , Hollywood Records , on September 27 , 2005 . The second soundtrack , featuring songs from the series ' second season , was released on September 12 , 2006 , followed by a third soundtrack with music from the third season . Following the seventh season musical episode " Song Beneath the Song " , " Grey 's Anatomy : The Music Event " soundtrack was released , with volume four of the soundtrack released subsequently .
In January 2009 , Ubisoft announced that it had signed a licensing agreement with ABC Studios to develop a video game based on Grey 's Anatomy . Designed for the Wii , Nintendo DS , and PC , Grey 's Anatomy : The Video Game was released on March 10 , 2009 . The game allows the player to assume the role of one of the main characters , making decisions for the character 's personal and professional life , and competing in a number of minigames . It has been criticized by reviewers because of the simplicity of the mini @-@ games and voice actors who do not play the same characters on the series , with Jason Ocampo of IGN giving it a 6 @.@ 0 / 10 overall rating .
ABC and Nielsen partnered in 2011 to create a Grey 's Anatomy application for Apple 's iPad . The application was designed to allow viewers to participate in polls and learn trivial facts as they watch a live episode . It uses Nielsen 's Media @-@ Sync software to listen for the episode and to post features as the episode progresses .
= = International adaptation = =
An adaptation named as " Doktorlar " ( Doctors ) was aired on December 28 , 2006 , in a Turkish Network , Show TV , and it lasted four seasons .
In 2010 , " A Corazón Abierto " , an adaptation of the series , was made by the Colombian network RCN TV .
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= Political history of Mysore and Coorg ( 1565 – 1760 ) =
The political history of Mysore and Coorg ( 1565 – 1760 ) is the political history of the contiguous historical regions of Mysore state and Coorg province located on the Deccan Plateau in west @-@ central peninsular India ( Map 1 ) . It begins with the fall of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 and ends just before the rise of Sultan Haidar Ali in 1761 .
At the height of the Vijayanagara Empire ( 1350 – 1565 ) , the Mysore and Coorg region was ruled by motley chieftains , or rajas ( " little kings " ) . Each raja had dominion over a small area , and each supplied soldiers and annual tribute for the empire 's needs . Soon after the empire 's fall and the subsequent eastward move of the diminished ruling family , many chieftains , especially in the west , tried to loosen their imperial bonds and expand their realms . Sensing opportunity amidst the new uncertainty , various powers from the north invaded the region intermittently . Among these were the Sultanate of Bijapur to the northwest , the Sultanate of Golconda to the northeast , the fledgling Maratha empire , farther northwest , and the Mughal empire , farther north still . For much of the 17th century the tussles between the little kings and the big powers , and amongst the little kings , resulted in shifting sovereignties , loyalties , and borders . By the turn of the 18th century , the political landscape had become better defined . The northwestern hills were being ruled by the Nayaka rulers of Ikkeri , the southwestern , in the Western Ghats , by the Rajas of Coorg , the southern plains by the Wodeyar rulers of Mysore , all of which were Hindu dynasties ; whereas the eastern and northeastern regions were being ruled by the Muslim Nawabs of Arcot and Sira . Of these , Ikkeri and Coorg were independent , Mysore , although much expanded , was formally a Mughal dependency , and Arcot and Sira , Mughal subahs ( or provinces ) .
The stability , however , was not to last . Mysore 's expansions had been based on unstable alliances . When the alliances began to unravel , as they did during the next half century , political decay set in , presided over inevitably by pageant kings . The Mughal governor , Nawab of Arcot , in a display of the still far @-@ flung reach of a declining Mughal empire , raided the Mysore capital , Seringapatam , to collect unpaid taxes . The neighbouring Raja of Coorg began a war of attrition with Mysore over western territory . Soon , the Maratha empire invaded again and exacted more concessions of territory . In the chaotic last decade of this period , a little @-@ known Muslim cavalryman , Haidar Ali , seized power in Mysore . Under him , in the decades following , Mysore was to expand again . It was to do so prodigiously to match in size southern India itself . It was also to pose the last serious threat to the new rising power on the subcontinent , the English East India Company .
A common feature of all large regimes in the region during the period 1565 – 1760 is increased military fiscalism . This mode of creating income for the state consisted of extraction of tribute payments from local chiefs under threat of military action . It differed both from the more segmentary modes of preceding regimes and the more absolutist modes of succeeding ones — the latter achieved through direct tax collection from citizens . Another common feature of these regimes is the fragmentary historiography devoted to them , making broad generalizations difficult .
= = Poligars of Vijayanagara , 1565 – 1635 = =
The last Hindu empire in South India , the Vijayanagara Empire , was defeated on 23 January 1565 , in the Battle of Talikota by the combined forces of the Muslim states of Bijapur , Golconda , and Ahmadnagar to its north . The battle was fought in Talikota on the doab ( or " tongue " of land ) between the Kistna river and its major left bank tributary , the Bhima , 100 miles ( 160 km ) north of the imperial capital of Vijayanagara ( see Map 2 ) . The invaders later destroyed the capital , and the ruler 's family escaped to Penukonda , 125 miles ( 201 km ) southeast , where they established their new capital . Soon they moved their capital another 175 miles ( 282 km ) east @-@ southeast to Chandragiri , not far from the southeastern coast , and survived there until 1635 , their dwindling empire concentrating its resources on its eastern Tamil and Telugu speaking realms . According to historian Sanjay Subrahmanyam : " ... in the ten years following 1565 , the imperial centre of Vijayanagara effectively ceased to be a power as far as the western reaches of the peninsula were concerned , leaving a vacuum that was eventually filled by Ikkeri and Mysore . " Earlier , in the heyday of their rule , the kings of Vijayanagara had granted tracts of lands throughout their realm to various vassal chiefs on the stipulation that they pay tribute and render military service . The chiefs in the northern regions were supervised directly from the capital . Those in the richer , more distant southern provinces , however , could not be controlled easily and the Vijayanagara emperors were able to collect only part of the annual revenue from them . Overseen by a viceroy — titled Sri Ranga Raya and based in the island town of Seringapatam on the river Kaveri ( also Cauvery ) , some 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of the capital — the southern chiefs bore various formal titles . These included the title Nayaka , assumed by the chiefs of Keladi in the northwestern hills , of Basavapatna , and Chitaldroog in the north , of Belur in the west , and of Hegalvadi in the centre ; the title Gowda , assumed by the chiefs of Ballapur and of Yelahanka in the centre , and of Sugatur in the east ; and Wodeyar , assumed by the rulers of Mysore , of Kalale and of Ummatur in the south . ( See Map 2 . )
The somewhat tenuous hold the Vijayanagara centre had on its southern periphery resulted only partly from the latter 's remoteness . The centralisation imposed by the empire was resisted by the southern chiefs ( sometimes called rajas , or " little kings " ) for moral and political reasons as well ; according to historian Burton Stein :
'Little kings ' , or rajas , never attained the legal independence of an aristocracy from both monarchs and the local people whom they ruled . The sovereign claims of would @-@ be centralizing , South Indian rulers and the resources demanded in the name of that sovereignty diminished the resources which local chieftains used as a kind of royal largess ; thus centralizing demands were opposed on moral as well as on political grounds by even quite modest chiefs .
These chiefs came to be called poligars , a British corruption of " Palaiyakkarar " ( Tamil : holder of " palaiya " or " baronial estate " ) . ( Kannada : " pale " + " gara " = palegara ) .
Meanwhile , almost a decade after their victories at Talikota , the Deccan sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar agreed in 1573 not to interfere in each other 's future conquests by reserving regions to the south for Bijapur . In 1577 , Bijapur forces attacked again and overwhelmed all opposition along the western coast . Easily taking Adoni , a former Vijayanagara stronghold , they attempted next to take Penukonda , the new Vijayanagara capital . ( See Map 3 ) . ) There , however , they were repulsed by an army led by the Vijayanagara ruler 's father @-@ in @-@ law , Jagadeva Raya , who had traveled north for the engagement from his base in Baramahal . For his services , Jagadeva Raya 's territories within the crumbling empire were vastly expanded , extending westward now up to the Western Ghats , the mountain range running along the southwestern coast of India , and with a new capital in Channapatna ( See Map 6 . )
The territories controlled by the other poligars were also changing fast . Some , such as Tamme Gowda of Sigatur , expanded theirs by performing services for the Vijayanagara monarch and receiving territorial rewards . In Tamme Gowda 's case , the rewards consisted of a tract of land which , from his base in Sigatur , extended west to Hoskote and east to Punganur . Others , such as the Wodeyars of Ummattur and of Mysore ( now Mysore district ) , achieved the same end by ignoring the monarch altogether , and annexing small states in their vicinity . ( See Map 3 . ) Through much of the 16th century , the chiefs of Ummattur in particular had carried on " unceasing aggression " against their neighbors , even in the face of punitive raids by the Vijayanagara armies . In the end , as a compromise , the son of a defeated Ummattur chief was appointed the viceroy at Seringapatam . The Wodeyars of Mysore too were eying surrounding land ; by 1644 , when the Wodeyars unseated the powerful Changalvas of Piriyapatna , not only had they become the dominant presence in the southern regions of what later became Mysore state , but the Vijayanagara empire was also on its last legs , having only a year 's life left . ( See Map 6 . )
= = Bijapur , Marathas , Mughals , 1636 – 1687 = =
The Sultans of Bijapur , for their part — some sixty years after their defeat at Penukonda — regrouped and struck again in 1636 . They did so now with the blessing of the Mughal empire of Northern India , whose tributary states they had recently become . They had also the help of a Maratha chieftain of western India , Shahaji Bhonsle , who was on the lookout for rewards of jagir land in the conquered territories , and whose son , Shivaji Bhonsle was to found the Maratha Empire some 30 years later . In the western @-@ central poligar regions , the Bijapur @-@ Shahji forces achieved only mixed results : The Nayakas of Keladi were decisively defeated , but were able to buy back their lands from their Bijapur invaders . The Bijapur attack on Seringapatam was repulsed in its entirety by the reigning Wodeyar of Mysore , with great losses to the invaders . ( See Map 4 . )
In the east , the Bijapur @-@ Shahji forces had better success ; in 1639 , they took possession of gold @-@ rich Kolar district and soon of Bangalore , a city founded a century earlier by Kempe Gowda I , and to become , two centuries later , a hub of British presence . Next , moving down the Eastern Ghats , the range of mountains rising behind the coastal plains of southeastern India , they captured the historic towns of Vellore and Gingee . Returning north through the east @-@ central maidan plain ( average elevation 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) ) , they gained possession of the towns of Ballapur , Sira , and the hill fortress of Chitaldroog . ( See Map 4 . )
A new province named Caranatic @-@ Bijapur @-@ Balaghat , consisting of possessions such as Kolar , Hoskote , Bangalore , and Sira , and situated above ( or westwards of ) the Eastern Ghats range , was soon incorporated into the Sultanate of Bijapur and granted to Shahji as a jagir , or temporary gift . The possessions below the Ghats , such as Gingee and Vellore became part of another province , named Carnatic @-@ Bijapur @-@ Payanghat , whose first governor was none other than Shahji again . When Shahji died in 1664 , his son , Venkoji , from his second wife , who meanwhile had become the ruler of Tanjore farther south , inherited these territories . This twist of fate , however , did not sit well with Shivaji — Shahji 's oldest son , from his first wife — who now led an expedition southwards to claim his fair share . Shivaji 's quick victories resulted in a partition , whereby both the Carnatic @-@ Bijapur provinces became his dominions , and whereas Tanjore was retained by Venkoji . ( See Map 4 . )
The successes of Bijapur and Shivaji were being watched warily by the major imperial presence on the subcontinent , the Mughal Empire in North India . Having become the Mughal emperor in 1659 , Aurengzeb , soon set himself upon destroying the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda , the latter famous for its diamond mines , as well as the burgeoning Maratha power of Shivaji . In 1686 , the Mughals took Bijapur and , the following year , Golconda . Before long , fast moving Mughal armies were bearing down on the former Vijayanagara dominions . In 1687 , a new Mughal province ( or suba ) was created with capital at Sira . Bangalore , quickly taken by the Mughals from the Marathas , was sold to the Wodeyar of Mysore for 300 @,@ 000 rupees . Qasim Khan was appointed the first Mughal Faujdar Diwan ( literally , " military governor " ) of the Province of Sira .
= = Wodeyars of Mysore , 1610 – 1760 = =
Although their own histories date the origins of the Wodeyars of Mysore ( also " Odeyar " , " Udaiyar " , " Wodiyar " , " Wadiyar " , or " Wadiar " , and , literally , " chief " ) to 1399 , records of them go back no earlier than the early 16th century , and according to Subrahmanyam 2001 even the late sixteenth or early 17th centuries . These poligars are first mentioned in a Kannada language literary work from the early 16th century . A petty chieftain , Chamaraja ( now Chamaraja III ) , who ruled from 1513 to 1553 over a few villages not far from the Kaveri river , is said to have constructed a small fort and named it , Mahisuranagara " Buffalo Town " ) , from which Mysore gets its name . ( See Map 5 . ) Th Wodeyar clan issued its first inscription during the chieftaincy of Timmaraja ( now Timmaraja II ) who ruled from 1553 to 1572 . Towards the end of his rule , he is recorded to have owned 33 villages and fielded an army of 300 men .
By the time of the short @-@ lived incumbency of Timmaraja II 's son , Chama Raja IV — who , already well into his 60s , ruled from 1572 to 1576 — the Vijayanagara Empire had been dealt its fatal blow . Before long , Chama Raja IV withheld payment of the annual tribute to the now weakened empire 's viceroy at Seringapatam . The viceroy responded by attempting to arrest Chamaraja IV ; in this , however , he failed , and the taxes remained unpaid . An outright military challenge to the empire would have to await the incumbency of Raja I , Chama Raja IV 's eldest son , who became the Wodeyar in 1574 . Early in 1610 , Raja I captured Seringapatam and , in a matter of days , on 8 February 1610 , moved his capital there . ( See Map 5 . ) During his rule , according to Stein 1987 , his " chiefdom expanded into a major principality " .
In 1638 , the reins of power fell into the hands of the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Kanthirava Narasaraja I , who , a few months earlier , had been adopted by the widow of Raja I. Kanthirava was the first wodeyar of Mysore to create the symbols of royalty , such as a royal mint , and went on to issue coins named Kanthiraya ( corrupted to " Canteroy " ) after himself . These remained a part of Mysore 's " current national money " well into the 18th century .
Catholic missionaries , who had arrived in the coastal areas of southern India — the southwestern Malabar coast , the western Kanara coast , and the southeastern Coromandel coast ( also " Carnatic " ) — beginning early in the 16th century , did not start work in land @-@ locked Mysore until half way through the seventeenth . ( See Map 5 ) . The Mysore mission was established in Seringapatam in 1649 by Leonardo Cinnami , an Italian Jesuit from Goa . Expelled a few years later from Mysore on account of opposition in Kanthirava 's court , Cinnami returned , toward the end of Kanthirava 's rule , to establish missions in half a dozen locations . During his second stay Cinnami obtained permission to convert Kanthirava 's subjects to Christianity . He was successful mostly in the eastern regions , later part of the Madras Presidency of British India . According to ( Subhrahmanyam 1985 , p . 209 ) , " Of a reported 1700 converts in the Mysore mission in the mid @-@ 1660s , a mere quarter were Kannadigas ( Kannada language speakers ) , the rest being Tamil speakers from the western districts of modern @-@ day Tamil Nadu , ... " Married ten times , the ruler died on 31 July 1659 , at the age of 44 . At his funeral , all his surviving wives killed themselves by committing sati on his funeral pyre .
After an unremarkable period of rule by short @-@ lived incumbents , in 1672 , Kanthirava 's 27 @-@ year @-@ old grand nephew , Chikka Devaraja , became the new wodeyar . During his rule , centralized military power increased to an unprecedented degree for the region . ( See Map 5 and Map 7 . ) Introducing various mandatory taxes on peasant @-@ owned land , Chikka Devaraja , however , exempted his soldiers ' land from these payments . The perceived inequity of this action , the unusually high taxes , and the intrusive nature of his regime , created wide protests which had the support of the wandering Jangama ascetics in the monasteries of the Lingayats , a monotheistic religious order that emphasizes a personal relationship with the Hindu god Shiva . According to Nagaraj 2003 , a slogan of the protests was :
Basavanna the Bull tills the forest land ; Devendra gives the rains ;
Why should we , the ones who grow crops through hard labor , pay taxes to the king ?
The king , resolving upon a " treacherous massacre " , used the stratagem of inviting over 400 monks to a grand feast at the famous Shaiva center of Nanjanagudu and , upon its conclusion , presenting them with gifts and directing them to exit one at a time through a narrow lane where they were each strangled and beheaded by waiting royal wrestlers . According to Mark Wilks , quoted in Rice 1897a , " Circular orders had been sent for the destruction , on the same day , of all the Jangam matha ( places of residence and worship ) in his dominions ; and the number reported to have been in consequence destroyed was upwards of seven hundred . " This " sanguinary measure " had the effect of stopping cold all protests to the new taxes .
Around this time , 1687 , Chikka Devaraja purchased the city of Bangalore for Rs . 300 @,@ 000 from Qasim Khan , the new Mughal governor of the Province of Sira . Through the latter , Chikka Devaraja " assiduously cultivated an alliance " with Mughal emperor Aurangzeb . He also turned his attention to the regions that were less the objects of Moghul interest . The regions to the southeast below the Eastern Ghats mountains around Baramahal and Salem were annexed to Mysore , and , in 1694 , regions in the southwest up to the Baba Budan mountains on the western edge of the Deccan Plateau , were added . Two years later Chikka Devaraja attacked lands farther south belonging to the Madurai Nayak ( also " Madura " ) and laid a siege of Trichinopoly . ( See Map 7 . )
After the death of Qasim Khan , his Mughal liaison , Chikka Devaraja sent a diplomatic mission to Emperor Aurangzeb at Ahmadnagar with the intention of either renewing his Mughal connections , or seeking Mughal recognition of his southern conquests . In response , in 1700 , it was said , the Mughal emperor sent the Mysore Raja a signet ring " bearing the title Jug Deo Raj ( literally , " lord and king of the world " ) and permission to sit on an ivory throne " and a " Firangi " Sword from his Palace Regalia , with Gold Etching on the Hilt , to be used as a Sword of State by the Mysore Raja , while sitting on the throne . After the return of the mission , Chikka Devaraja reorganized his administration into eighteen departments , in " imitation of what the envoys had seen at the Mughal court " . When the Raja died on 16 November 1704 , his dominions extended from Midagesi in the north to Palni Hills and Anaimalai in the south , and from Coorg in the west to Dharmapuri district in the east . ( See Map 5 and Map 7 . ) During his long reign of 31 years , he had made Mysore a " secure and prosperous state . "
However , according to Subrahmanyam 1989 , the polity that Chikka Devaraja left for his son was " at one and the same time a strong and a weak " one . Although it had uniformly expanded in size from the mid @-@ 17th century to the early 18th century , it had done so as a result of alliances that tended to hinder the very stability of the expansions . Some of the southeastern conquests ( such as that of Salem ) , although involving regions that were not of direct interest to the Mughals , were nonetheless the result of alliances with the Mughal governor of Sira and with Venkoji , the Maratha ruler of Tanjore ; the siege of Tiruchirapalli had to be abandoned because the alliance had begun to rupture . ( See Map 7 . ) Similarly , in addition to allegedly receiving a signet ring and a Royal State Sword or Sword of State , a consequence of the diplomatic mission sent to Aurangzeb in 1700 was formal subordination to Mughal authority and a requirement to pay annual taxes ; there is evidence too that the administrative reforms Chikka Devaraja has instituted might have been a direct result of Mughal influence .
The early 18th century ushered in the rule of Kanthirava Narasaraja II , who , being both deaf and mute , ruled under the regency of a series of army chiefs ( Delavoys ) all of whom hailed from a single family from the village of Kalale in the Nanjangud taluk ( or sub @-@ district ) of Mysore . Upon the ruler 's death in 1714 at the age of 41 , his son , Dodda Krishnaraja I , still two weeks shy of his 12th birthday , succeeded him .
Around this time a change had come in the governance of the Mughal Province of Sira to the north and northeast of Mysore . ( See Map 11 . ) In 1713 , the province was split into a payanghat jurisdiction with capital at Arcot and governed by a newly styled Nawab of Arcot , and a balaghat jurisdiction with capital at Sira , and governed by an also newly styled Nawab of Sira . That same year , the military governor of the old province , Sadat @-@ ulla Khan , was made the new Nawab of Arcot , and another official , Amin Khan , was appointed Nawab of Sira ; Since Mysore remained a formal tributary state of Sira , this division , and the resulting loss of revenue from the rich Maidān plain of Mysore , provoked Sadat @-@ ulla Khan 's displeasure . In collusion with the rulers of Kadapa , Kurnool , and Savanur and the Maratha Raja of Gutti , he decided to march against Dodda Krishnaraja I. The Nawab of Sira , anxious to preempt the coalition 's action , hit upon a similar plan for reaching the Mysore capital , Seringapatam . In the end , both Nawabs — of Arcot and Sira — settled upon a joint invasion led by the former . Dodda Krishnaraja , for his part , was able to " buy off this formidable confederacy " by offering a tribute of Rs . 10 million ( 10 million ) . Although avoiding bloodshed , the outcome made Mysore vulnerable to similar future claims , which were made successfully two years later by Maratha raiders who appeared in the Mysore capital . The resulting depletion of the Mysore treasury led Mysore to attack and absorb the poligar chiefdom of Magadi to its north . ( See Map 11 . )
Wilks 1811 gave a decidedly negative appraisal of the ruler 's character :
Whatever portion of vigour or of wisdom appeared in the conduct of this reign belonged exclusively to the ministers , who secured their own authority by appearing with affected humility to study in all things the inclinations and wishes of the Raja ( ruler ) . ... he ( Dodda Krishnaraja I ) thought himself the greatest and happiest of monarchs , without understanding , or caring to understand , during a reign of nineteen years , the troublesome details through which he was supplied with all that is necessary for animal gratification .
According to Rice 1897a , p . 370 , the ruler 's lack of interest in the affairs of state , led two ministers , Devaraja , the army chief ( or delavayi ) , and his cousin , Nanjaraja , who was both the revenue minister ( the sarvadhikari ) and the privy councilor ( pradhana ) , to wield all authority in the kingdom . After Dodda Krishnaraja 's death in 1736 , the ministers appointed " pageant rajas " , and effectively ruled Mysore until the rise of Haidar Ali in 1760 .
= = Nayakas of Ikkeri and Kanara trade , 1565 – 1763 = =
In the northwestern regions , according to Stein 1987 @,@
an even more impressive chiefly house arose in Vijayanagara times and came to enjoy an extensive sovereignty . These were the Keladi chiefs who later founded the Nayaka kingdom of Ikkeri . At its greatest , the Ikkeri rajas controlled a territory nearly as large as the Vijayanagara heartland , some 20 @,@ 000 square miles , extending about 180 miles south from Goa along the trade @-@ rich Kanara coast .
When Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut , on the southwestern Malabar coast of India , in 1498 , the Vijayanagara empire was about to reach its apex . During the 16th century the chieftaincies , or Nayaka principalities , of Keladi ( and later of Ikkeri and Bednur ) were established in the western part of what later became Shimoga district . ( See Map 2 and Map 9 . ) Sadasiva Raya Naik , the first of the Keladi chiefs , was granted permission by the Vijayanagara emperor to administer some towns on the western Kanara coast . In the decade after the fall of the Vijayanagara empire , the Portuguese , who until then had pursued their pepper trade entirely on the Malabar coast farther south , decided as a commercial strategy , to hedge their bets , and commenced purchasing some pepper from the Kanara region . During 1568 – 1569 , they took possession of the coastal towns of Onor ( now Honavar ) , Barcelor ( now Basrur ) , and Mangalore and constructed fortresses and factories at each location . ( See Map 1 and Map 8 . )
Onor ( Modern Honnavar ) was located on the banks of the Sharavathi River , two miles ( 3 km ) upstream from the mouth , where the river widened into a lake . Built strategically on a cliff overlooking the river , the Portuguese fort contained homes for thirty casados ( married settlers ) . A natural sandbank kept out the large ocean @-@ going ships , and left the harbour accessible only to small craft . Approximately , 35 miles ( 56 km ) farther upstream , the Portuguese maintained a weighing station at Gersoppa , where they purchased the pepper . During the latter part of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th , Onor became not only the principal port for the export of Kanara pepper , but also the most important Portuguese supply point for pepper in all of Asia .
Located some 50 miles ( 80 km ) south of Onor , and a few miles up the Coondapoor estuary ( now Varahi ) was the town of Barcelore ( now Basrur ) . Building their fortress downstream of the existing Hindu town in order to control any approaches from the sea , the Portuguese provided accommodation for some 30 casados within its walls ; another 35 casados and their families lived in a walled area at a stone 's throw . Barcelore became a busy trading centre which exported rice , local textiles , saltpetre , and iron from the interior regions and imported corals , exotic yard goods and horses . ( See Map 1 and Map 8 . )
Fifty miles south of Barcelore was Mangalore , the last of the Portuguese strongholds in Kanara , situated on the mouth of the Netravati River . There too the Portuguese built a fortress and alongside it a walled town with accommodation for 35 casados families . Both Barcelore and Mangalore became principal ports for the export of rice and during the first half of the 17th century and supplied the many strategic fortalezas that were of significance to the Estado da India , the Portuguese Asian empire . These included , Goa , Malacca , Muscat , Mozambique and Mombasa . ( See Map 1 . )
As a ready source of rice , pepper and teak , the Kanara coast was important to the Estado da India . For much of the 16th century , Portuguese had been able to negotiate favorable terms of trade with the weak principalities that constituted the Kanara coast . Towards the end of the century , the Nayaka ruler of Keladi ( and Ikkeri ) , Venkatappa Nayaka ( r . 1592 – 1629 ) , " assumed independence " from the residual Vijayanagara empire . Asserting power , he and his successors , Virabhadra Nayaka ( r . 1629 – 1645 ) and Shivappa Nayaka ( r . 1645 – 1660 ) forced a revision of the previous trade treaties . By the 1630s , the Portuguese had agreed to buy pepper at market rates and the rulers of Ikkeri had been permitted two voyages per year without the purchase of a cartaz ( a pass for Portuguese protection ) as well as annual importation of twelve duty @-@ free horses .
With the Bijapur raids threatening the region , Shivappa Nayaka moved the capital once again , this time to Bednur ( later Nagar ) , which was deemed safer . ( See Map 6 . ) Shivappa Nayaka rapidly took possession of a region that extended east to Shimoga , south to Manjarabad , and west through most of the Kanara coast . When the last king of Vijayanagara sought refuge in his realms , Shivappa Nayaka set him up at Belur and Sakkarepatna , and later mounted an unsuccessful siege of Seringapatam on the latter 's behalf . By the 1650s , he had driven the Portuguese out of the three fortalezas at Onor , Barcelore , and Mangalore . After his death in 1660 , his successor Somashker Nayaka , however , sent an embassy to Goa for reestablishing the Portuguese trading posts in Kanara . By 1671 a treaty , which was very favorable once again to the Portuguese , had been agreed to . ( See Map 8 and Map 9 . )
Before the treaty could be implemented , Somashkar Nayaka died and was succeeded by an infant grandson Basava Nayaka , his succession disputed by the Queen Mother , who favored another claimant , Timmaya Nayaka . The 1671 treaty languished amidst the succession struggle until 1678 , when yet another treaty was negotiated with Basava Nayaka who emerged as the victor . Since both parties in the succession struggle had been interested in purchasing European artillery from the Portuguese , the eventual treaty of 1678 was even more favorable to the latter . Under it , Basava agreed to pay 30 @,@ 000 xerafins in Portuguese war @-@ charges for the decade @-@ long conflict with the Dutch ( whom the Nayakas of Ikkeri had supported ) , to provide construction material for the factory at Mangalore , to provide 1 @,@ 500 sacks of clean rice annually , to pay a yearly tribute for Mangalore and Barcelore , to destroy the factories of the Omani Arabs on the Kanara coast , and to allow Catholic churches to be built at a number of locations in Kanara . With the treaty in place , Portuguese power returned to Kanara after an interregnum of almost half a century . The Nayakas of Ikkeri , in their turn , managed to control the region until 1763 , at which time Haidar Ali took possession of it and declared the intention of making a new capital , later called Nagar . ( See Map 9 . )
= = Subahdars of Sira , 1689 – 1760 = =
A Mughal province , which comprised the Carnatic region south of the Tungabhadra river , and which was to exist for seventy years , was established in 1687 with its capital at Sira ( in Tumkur District ) . ( See Map 10 . ) Known as the Province of Sira ( also Carnatic @-@ Balaghat ) , it was composed of seven parganas ( districts ) : Basavapatna , Budihal , Sira , Penukonda , Dod @-@ Ballapur , Hoskote , and Kolar ; in addition , Harpanahalli , Kondarpi , Anegundi , Bednur , Chitaldroog , and Mysore were considered by the Mughals to be tributary states of the province . Qasim Khan ( also , Khasim Khan or Kasim Khan ) was appointed the first Subahdar ( governor ) and Faujdar ( military governor ) of the province in 1689 . Having displayed " energy and success " both in controlling and in developing the province , he died in 1694 , either killed by Maratha raiders from the northwest , or killing himself in disgrace after these raiders seized a treasure under his care . Most Subhahdars who governed after him were to be replaced in a year or two by a successor . The instability would continue until Dilavar Khan was appointed governor in 1726 , his term lasting until 1756 . In 1757 , Sira was overrun by the Marathas , only to be restored to the Mughals in 1759 . In 1761 future ruler Haidar Ali , whose own father had been the Mughal military governor ( or Faujdar ) of Kolar district in the province , captured Sira , and soon conferred on himself the title of " Nawab of Sira " . However , the defection of his brother five years later caused the province to be lost again to the Marathas , who retained it until Haidar 's son , Tipu Sultan , recaptured it for his father in 1774 .
The capital of the province , Sira town , prospered most under Dilavar Khan and expanded in size to accommodate 50 @,@ 000 homes . ( See Map 10 . ) Palaces and public monuments of Sira became models for other future constructions ; both Haidar Ali 's palace in Bangalore and Tipu Sultan 's in Seringapatam , built during the period 1761 – 1799 of their rule , were modeled after Dilavar Khan 's palace in Sira . Likewise , according Rice 1908 , Bangalore 's Lal Bagh as well as Bangalore fort may have been designed after Sira 's Khan Bagh gardens and Sira fort respectively . Sira 's civil servants , however , could not be as readily reproduced ; after Tipu Sultan had succeeded his father as Sultan of Mysore in 1782 , he deported 12 @,@ 000 families , mainly of city officials , from Sira to Shahr Ganjam , a new capital he founded on Seringapatam island .
Earlier , in 1689 , after the Moghul armies had overrun the region of the Mysore table @-@ land , twelve parganas ( or sub @-@ districts ) were annexed to the newly formed province ( subah ) of Sira . The remaining region was allowed to remain under the rule of the poligars , who continued to collect taxes from the cultivators , but were now required to pay annual tribute to the provincial government in Sira . In the annexed regions , in which tax assessment on cultivation was under amāni or Sarkār ( provincial government ) management , an elaborate system of officials collected and managed revenue . Most offices had existed in the region under the previous Bijapur Sultanate administration , and consisted , among others , of Deshmūks , Deshpāndes , Majmūndārs , and Kānungoyas . The Deshmūks " settled accounts " with the village headmen ( or patels ) ; the Deshpāndes verified the account @-@ books of the village registrars ( or kārnāms ) ; the Kānungoyas entered the official regulations in the village record @-@ books and also explained decrees and regulations to the village governing officers and residents . Lastly , the Majmūndārs prepared the final documents of the " settlement " ( i.e. the assessment and payment of tax ) and promulgated it .
Until the mid @-@ 17th century , both village- and district ( taluq ) accounts had been prepared in the language and script of Kannada , the region 's traditional language . However , after the Bijapur invasions , Maratha chieftains came to wield authority in the region and brought in with them various officials who introduced the Marathi language and script into the " public accounts " . The new language even found its way into lands ruled by some poligar chiefs . These chieftains had brought in Marathi @-@ speaking horsemen from the northern Bijapur realms for their newly formed cavalry units and resorted to hiring Maratha accountants for the benefit of these cavalrymen . After the province of Sira was created , the official language of the Moghul empire , Persian , came to be used .
= = Rajas of Coorg , mid @-@ 16th century – 1768 = =
Although , Rājendranāme , a " royal " genealogy of the rulers of Coorg , written in 1808 , makes no mention of the origin of the lineage , its reading by historian Lewis Rice led him to conclude that the princely line was established by a member of the Ikkeri Nayaka family . Having moved south to the town of Haleri in northern Coorg in the disguise of a wandering Jangama monk , he soon began to attract followers ; then , with their help , or their acquiescence , he took possession of the town , and in such manner came to rule the entire country . ( See Map 11 . ) According to the genealogy , the Coorg rajas who ruled from the mid @-@ 16th century to the mid @-@ 18th century were :
By the late 17th @-@ century , the rajas of Coorg had created an " aggressive and independent " state , which became known for its acts of " wanton cruelty " against enemies , and for its " system of terror " directed at its citizens . Muddu Raja , the Coorg ruler from 1633 to 1687 , initially ruled from the town of Haleri , but later moved his capital to Mercara , which he fortified and where he built a palace in 1681 . Early during the rule of his successor , Dodda Virappa ( 1687 – 1736 ) , the army of the neighboring kingdom of Mysore , under the orders of Wodeyar Chikka Devaraja , attacked and seized Piriyapatna , a territory which abutted Coorg ( see Map 11 ) , and which was then being ruled by a kinsman of Dodda Virappa . Buoyed by the victory , the Mysore army soon attacked Coorg itself ; however , it had advanced only a short distance , when , while camping overnight on the plain of Palupare , it was surprised by a Coorg ambush . In the ensuing massacre , the Mysore army lost 15 @,@ 000 men , and the survivors had to beat a hasty retreat . For most of the next two decades , the western reaches of Mysore remained vulnerable to attacks by the Coorg army . In the border district of Yelusavira , the Coorg and Mysore forces fought to a stalemate and , in the end , had to work out a tax sharing arrangement .
In 1724 , major hostilities resumed between Coorg and Mysore . Changing his modus operandi from guerrilla skirmishes in the hilly Coorg jungle to open field warfare , Dodda Virappa , attacked the Mysore army in the plains . Catching it off guard , he took in rapid succession six fortresses from Piriyapatna to Arkalgud . The resulting loss of revenue , some 600 @,@ 000 gold pagodas , was felt in Mysore , and several months later , in August or September 1724 , a large army was sent from Seringapatam , the Mysore capital , to Coorg . Upon the Mysore army 's arrival in the western region , however , the Coorg forces , returning to guerrilla warfare , retreated into the woods . Emboldened by the lack of resistance , the Mysore forces next mounted an attack on the Coorg hills . There too , they met no resistance . However , a few days into this invasion , the Mysore forces , recalling their ignominious ambush in the 1690s , panicked and retreated during the night . Soon , the Coorg army was attacking the Mysore outposts again . This pattern of back and forth was to continue until the Mysore army was recalled , a few months later , to Seringapatam , leaving the region again vulnerable to the periodic raids of the Coorg army . According to historian Sanjay Subrahmanyam ,
The entire episode yields a rare insight into one aspect of war in the 18th century : the ( Coorg ) forces , lacking cavalry , with a minimum of firearms , lost every major battle , but won the war by dint of two factors . First , the terrain , and the possibility of retreating periodically into the wooded hillside , favoured them , in contrast to their relatively clumsy opponents . Second , the Mysore army could never maintain a permanent presence in the region , given the fact that the Wodeyar kingdom had several open frontiers .
More than a century earlier , Lewis Rice , had written :
Dodda Virappa evinced throughout his long and vigorous reign an unconquerable spirit , and though surrounded by powerful neighbours , neither the number nor the strength of this enemies seems to have relaxed his courage or damped his enterprise . He died in 1736 , 78 years old . Two of his wives ascended the funeral pile with the dead body of the Raja .
The ruler was succeeded by his grandson , Chikka Virappa , whose unremarkable rule lasted until 1768 , when Coorg was conquered by Haidar Ali , the new sultan of Mysore .
= = Assessment : the period and its historiography = =
From the mid @-@ 15th century to the mid @-@ 18th century , according to historian Burton Stein , rulers of states in southern India commenced financing wars on a different footing than had their predecessors . To varying degrees , all the rulers of the Mysore and Coorg region — the Vijayanagara emperors , the Wodeyars of Mysore , the Nayakas of Ikkeri , the Subahdars of Sira , and the Rajas of Coorg — fall under this category . A similar political system , referred to as " military fiscalism " by French historian Martin Wolfe , took hold in Europe between the 15th and 17th centuries . During this time , according to Wolfe , most regimes in Western Europe emerged from the aristocracy to become absolute monarchies ; they simultaneously reduced their dependence on the aristocracy by expanding the tax base and developing an extensive tax collection structure . In Stein 's words ,
Previously resistant aristocracies were eventually won over in early modern Europe by being offered state offices and honors and by being protected in their patrimonial wealth , but this was only after monarchies had proven their ability to defeat antiquated feudal forces and had found alternative resources in cities and from trade .
In southern India , none of the pre @-@ 1760 regimes were able to achieve the " fiscal absolutism " of their European contemporaries . Local chieftains , who had close ties with their social groups , and who had only recently risen from them , opposed the excessive monetary demands of a more powerful regional ruler . Consequently , the larger states of this period in southern India , were not able to entirely change their mode of creating wealth from one of extracting tribute payments , which were seldom regular , to that of direct collection of taxes by government officials . Extorting tribute under threat of military action , according to Stein , is not true " military fiscalism , " although it is a means of approaching it . This partial or limited military fiscalism began during the Vijayanagara Empire , setting the latter apart from the more " segmentary " regimes that had preceded it , and was a prominent feature of all regimes during the period 1565 – 1760 ; true military fiscalism was not achieved in the region until the rule of Tipu Sultan in the 1780s .
Stein 's formulation has been criticized by historian Sanjay Subrahmanyam , in part , on account of the lack of extensive historiography for the period . The 18th @-@ century Wodeyar rulers of Mysore — in contrast to their contemporaries in Rajputana , Central India , Maratha Deccan , and Tanjavur — left little or no record of their administrations . Surveying the historiography , Subrahmanyam , says :
A major problem attendant on such generalisations by modern historians concerning pre @-@ 1760 Mysore is , however , the paucity of documentation on this older ' Old Regime ' .
The first explicit History of Mysore in English is Historical Sketches of the South of India , in an attempt to trace the History of Mysoor ( Wilks 1811 ) , by Mark Wilks . Wilks claimed to have based his history on various Kannada language documents , many of which have not survived . According to Subrahmanyam 1989 , p . 206 , all subsequent histories of Mysore have borrowed heavily from Wilks 's book for their pre @-@ 1760 content . These include , Rice 1897 , Lewis Rice 's well @-@ known Gazetteer and Rao 1948 , C. Hayavadana Rao 's major revision of the Gazetteer half a century later , and many modern spin @-@ offs of these two works . In Subrahmanyam 's words , " Wilks 's work is an important one therefore , not only for its own sake , but for its having been regurgitated and reproduced time and again with minor variations . "
A Wodeyar dynasty genealogy , the Chikkadevaräya Vamśävali of Tirumalarya , was composed in Kannada during the period 1710 – 1715 , and was claimed to be based on all the then @-@ extant inscriptions in the region . Another genealogy , Kalale Doregala Vamśävali , of the Delvoys , the near @-@ hereditary chief ministers of Mysore , was composed around the turn of the 19th century . However , neither manuscript provides information about administration , economy or military capability . The ruling dynasty 's origins , especially as expounded in later palace genealogies , are also of doubtful accuracy ; this is , in part , because the Wodeyars , who were reinstated by the British on the Mysore gaddi in 1799 , to preside over a fragile sovereignty , " obsessively " attempted to demonstrate their " unbroken " royal lineage , to bolster their then uncertain status .
The earliest manuscript offering clues to governance and military conflict in the pre @-@ 1760 Mysore , seems to be Dias ( Dias 1725 ) , an annual letter written in Portuguese by a Mysore @-@ based Jesuit missionary , Joachim Dias , and addressed to his Provincial superior . After the East India Company 's final 1799 victory over Tipu Sultan , official Company records began to be published as well ; these include East India Company 1800 , a collection of Anglo @-@ Mysore Wars @-@ related correspondence between the Company 's officials in India and Court of Directors in London , and Wilks 1805 , the first report on the new Princely State of Mysore by its resident , Mark Wilks . Around this time , French accounts of the Anglo @-@ Mysore wars appeared as well , and included Michaud 1809 , a history of the wars by Joseph @-@ François Michaud , another Jesuit priest . The first attempt at including a comprehensive history of Mysore in an English language work is Buchanan 1807 , an account of a survey of South India conducted at Lord Richard Wellesley 's request , by Francis Buchanan , a Scottish physician and geographer . By the end of the period of British Commissionership of Mysore ( 1831 – 1881 ) , many English language works had begun to appear on a variety of Mysore @-@ related subjects . These included Rice 1879 , a book of English translations of Kannada language inscriptions , and Digby 1878 , William Digby 's two volume critique of British famine policy during the Great Famine of 1876 – 78 , which devastated Mysore for years to come .
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= Elagabalus =
Elagabalus / ˌɛləˈɡæbələs / or Heliogabalus ( Greek : Μάρκος Αὐρήλιος Ἀντωνίνος Αὔγουστος ; Latin : Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus ; c . 203 – March 11 , 222 ) , was Roman emperor from 218 to 222 . A member of the Severan dynasty , he was Syrian , the second son of Julia Soaemias and Sextus Varius Marcellus . In his early youth he served as a priest of the god Elagabal in the hometown of his mother 's family , Emesa . As a private citizen , he was probably named Sextus Varius Avitus Bassianus . Upon becoming emperor he took the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus . He was called Elagabalus only after his death .
In 217 , the emperor Caracalla was assassinated and replaced by his Praetorian prefect , Marcus Opellius Macrinus . Caracalla 's maternal aunt , Julia Maesa , successfully instigated a revolt among the Legio III Gallica to have her eldest grandson ( and Caracalla 's cousin ) , Elagabalus , declared emperor in his place . Macrinus was defeated on 8 June 218 at the Battle of Antioch . Elagabalus , barely fourteen years old , became emperor , initiating a reign remembered mainly for sex scandals and religious controversy .
Later historians suggest Elagabalus showed a disregard for Roman religious traditions and sexual taboos . He replaced the traditional head of the Roman pantheon , Jupiter , with the deity of whom he was high priest , Elagabalus . He forced leading members of Rome 's government to participate in religious rites celebrating this deity , over which he personally presided . Elagabalus was supposedly " married " as many as five times , lavished favours on male courtiers popularly thought to have been his lovers , and was reported to have prostituted himself in the imperial palace . His behavior estranged the Praetorian Guard , the Senate , and the common people alike . Amidst growing opposition , Elagabalus , just 18 years old , was assassinated and replaced by his cousin Severus Alexander on 11 March 222 , in a plot formulated by his grandmother , Julia Maesa , and carried out by disaffected members of the Praetorian Guard .
Elagabalus developed a reputation among his contemporaries for extreme eccentricity , decadence and zealotry . This tradition has persisted , and in writers of the early modern age he suffers one of the worst reputations among Roman emperors . Edward Gibbon , for example , wrote that Elagabalus " abandoned himself to the grossest pleasures and ungoverned fury " . According to Barthold Georg Niebuhr , " The name Elagabalus is branded in history above all others " because of his " unspeakably disgusting life " .
= = Family and priesthood = =
Elagabalus was born around the year 203 to Sextus Varius Marcellus and Julia Soaemias Bassiana . His father was initially a member of the Equites class , but was later elevated to the rank of senator . His grandmother , Julia Maesa , was the widow of the consul Julius Avitus , the sister of Julia Domna , and the sister @-@ in @-@ law of the emperor Septimius Severus . He had at least one sibling : an unnamed elder brother . His mother , Julia Soaemias , was a cousin of the Roman emperor Caracalla . Other relatives included his aunt Julia Avita Mamaea and uncle Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus and among their children , their son Severus Alexander . Elagabalus 's family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the sun god Elagabal , of whom Elagabalus was the high priest at Emesa ( modern Homs ) in Roman Syria .
The deity Elagabalus was initially venerated at Emesa . This form of the god 's name is a Latinized version of the Syrian Ilāh hag @-@ Gabal , which derives from Ilāh ( a Semitic word for " god " ) and gabal ( an Aramaic word for " mountain " ) , resulting in " the God of the Mountain , " the Emesene manifestation of the deity . The cult of the deity spread to other parts of the Roman Empire in the 2nd century ; a dedication has been found as far away as Woerden ( Netherlands ) , near the Roman limes . The god was later imported and assimilated with the Roman sun god known as Sol Indiges in republican times and as Sol Invictus during the second and third centuries CE . In Greek the sun god is Helios , hence " Heliogabalus " , a hybrid conjunction of " Helios " and " Elagabalus " .
= = Rise to power = =
When the emperor Macrinus came to power , he suppressed the threat against his reign from the family of his assassinated predecessor , Caracalla , by exiling them — Julia Maesa , her two daughters , and her eldest grandson Elagabalus — to their estate at Emesa in Syria . Almost upon arrival in Syria , Maesa began a plot with her advisor and Elagabalus ' tutor Gannys , to overthrow Macrinus and elevate the fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Elagabalus to the imperial throne .
His mother publicly declared that he was the illegitimate son of Caracalla , therefore due the loyalties of Roman soldiers and senators who had sworn allegiance to Caracalla . After Julia Maesa displayed her wealth to the Third Legion at Raphana they swore allegiance to Elagabalus . At sunrise on 16 May 218 , Publius Valerius Comazon , commander of the legion , declared him emperor . To strengthen his legitimacy through further propaganda , Elagabalus assumed Caracalla 's names , Marcus Aurelius Antoninus .
In response Macrinus dispatched his Praetorian prefect Ulpius Julianus to the region with a contingent of troops he considered strong enough to crush the rebellion . However , this force soon joined the faction of Elagabalus when , during the battle , they turned on their own commanders . The officers were killed and Julianus ' head was sent back to the emperor .
Macrinus now sent letters to the Senate denouncing Elagabalus as the False Antoninus and claiming he was insane . Both consuls and other high @-@ ranking members of Rome 's leadership condemned Elagabalus , and the Senate subsequently declared war on both Elagabalus and Julia Maesa .
Macrinus and his son , weakened by the desertion of the Second Legion due to bribes and promises circulated by Julia Maesa , were defeated on 8 June 218 at the Battle of Antioch by troops commanded by Gannys . Macrinus fled toward Italy , disguised as a courier , but was later intercepted near Chalcedon and executed in Cappadocia . His son Diadumenianus , sent for safety to the Parthian court , was captured at Zeugma and also put to death .
Elagabalus declared the date of the victory at Antioch to be the beginning of his reign and assumed the imperial titles without prior senatorial approval , which violated tradition but was a common practice among 3rd @-@ century emperors nonetheless . Letters of reconciliation were dispatched to Rome extending amnesty to the Senate and recognizing the laws , while also condemning the administration of Macrinus and his son .
The senators responded by acknowledging Elagabalus as emperor and accepting his claim to be the son of Caracalla . Caracalla and Julia Domna were both deified by the Senate , both Julia Maesa and Julia Soaemias were elevated to the rank of Augustae , and the memory of both Macrinus and Diadumenianus was condemned by the Senate . The former commander of the Third Legion , Comazon , was appointed commander of the Praetorian Guard .
= = Emperor ( 218 – 222 ) = =
Elagabalus and his entourage spent the winter of 218 in Bithynia at Nicomedia , where the emperor 's religious beliefs first presented themselves as a problem . The contemporary historian Cassius Dio suggests that Gannys was in fact killed by the new emperor because he was forcing Elagabalus to live " temperately and prudently " . To help Romans adjust to the idea of having an oriental priest as emperor , Julia Maesa had a painting of Elagabalus in priestly robes sent to Rome and hung over a statue of the goddess Victoria in the Senate House . This placed senators in the awkward position of having to make offerings to Elagabalus whenever they made offerings to Victoria .
The legions were dismayed by his behaviour and quickly came to regret having supported his accession . While Elagabalus was still on his way to Rome , brief revolts broke out by the Fourth Legion at the instigation of Gellius Maximus , and by the Third Legion , which itself had been responsible for the elevation of Elagabalus to the throne , under the command of Senator Verus . The rebellion was quickly put down , and the Third Legion disbanded .
When the entourage reached Rome in the autumn of 219 , Comazon and other allies of Julia Maesa and Elagabalus were given powerful and lucrative positions , to the outrage of many senators who did not consider them worthy of such privileges . After his tenure as Praetorian prefect , Comazon would serve as the city prefect of Rome three times , and as consul twice . Elagabalus soon devalued the Roman currency . He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 58 % to 46 @.@ 5 % — the actual silver weight dropping from 1 @.@ 82 grams to 1 @.@ 41 grams . He also demonetized the antoninianus during this period in Rome .
Elagabalus tried to have his presumed lover , the charioteer Hierocles , declared Caesar , while another alleged lover , the athlete Aurelius Zoticus , was appointed to the non @-@ administrative but influential position of Master of the Chamber , or Cubicularius . His offer of amnesty for the Roman upper class was largely honoured , though the jurist Ulpian was exiled .
The relationships between Julia Maesa , Julia Soaemias , and Elagabalus were strong at first . His mother and grandmother became the first women to be allowed into the Senate , and both received senatorial titles : Soaemias the established title of Clarissima , and Maesa the more unorthodox Mater Castrorum et Senatus ( " Mother of the army camp and of the Senate " ) . They held the title of Augusta as well , indicating that they may have been the power behind the throne . Indeed , they held much influence over the young emperor throughout his reign , and can be found on many coins and inscriptions - a rare honor for Roman women .
= = = Religious controversy = = =
Since the reign of Septimius Severus , sun worship had increased throughout the Empire . Elagabalus saw this as an opportunity to install Elagabal as the chief deity of the Roman pantheon . The god was renamed Deus Sol Invictus , meaning God the Undefeated Sun , and honored above Jupiter .
As a token of respect for Roman religion , however , Elagabalus joined either Astarte , Minerva , Urania , or some combination of the three to Elagabal as wife . A union between Elagabal and a traditional goddess would have served to strengthen ties between the new religion and the imperial cult . In fact , there may have been an effort to introduce Elagabal , Urania , and Athena as the new triad of Rome - replacing that of Jupiter , Juno , and Minerva .
He stirred further discontent when he himself married the Vestal Virgin Aquilia Severa , claiming the marriage would produce " godlike children " . This was a flagrant breach of Roman law and tradition , which held that any Vestal found to have engaged in sexual intercourse was to be buried alive .
A lavish temple called the Elagabalium was built on the east face of the Palatine Hill to house Elagabal , who was represented by a black conical meteorite from Emesa . Herodian wrote " this stone is worshipped as though it were sent from heaven ; on it there are some small projecting pieces and markings that are pointed out , which the people would like to believe are a rough picture of the sun , because this is how they see them " .
In order to become the high priest of his new religion , Elagabalus had himself circumcised . He forced senators to watch while he danced around the altar of Deus Sol Invictus to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals . Each summer solstice he held a festival dedicated to the god , which became popular with the masses because of the free food distributed on such occasions . During this festival , Elagabalus placed the Emesa stone on a chariot adorned with gold and jewels , which he paraded through the city :
A six horse chariot carried the divinity , the horses huge and flawlessly white , with expensive gold fittings and rich ornaments . No one held the reins , and no one rode in the chariot ; the vehicle was escorted as if the god himself were the charioteer . Elagabalus ran backward in front of the chariot , facing the god and holding the horses ' reins . He made the whole journey in this reverse fashion , looking up into the face of his god .
The most sacred relics from the Roman religion were transferred from their respective shrines to the Elagabalium , including the emblem of the Great Mother , the fire of Vesta , the Shields of the Salii and the Palladium , so that no other god could be worshipped except in company with Elagabal .
= = = Sex / gender controversy = = =
The question of Elagabalus ' sexual orientation is complicated and confusing , due in large part to salacious and unreliable sources . Elagabalus married and divorced five women , three of whom are known . His first wife was Julia Cornelia Paula ; the second was the Vestal Virgin Julia Aquilia Severa .
Within a year , he abandoned her and married Annia Aurelia Faustina , a descendant of Marcus Aurelius and the widow of a man recently executed by Elagabalus . He had returned to his second wife Severa by the end of the year . According to Cassius Dio , his most stable relationship seems to have been with his chariot driver , a blond slave from Caria named Hierocles , whom he referred to as his husband .
The Augustan History claims that he also married a man named Zoticus , an athlete from Smyrna , in a public ceremony at Rome . Cassius Dio reported that Elagabalus would paint his eyes , epilate his hair and wear wigs before prostituting himself in taverns , brothels , and even in the imperial palace :
Finally , he set aside a room in the palace and there committed his indecencies , always standing nude at the door of the room , as the harlots do , and shaking the curtain which hung from gold rings , while in a soft and melting voice he solicited the passers @-@ by . There were , of course , men who had been specially instructed to play their part . For , as in other matters , so in this business , too , he had numerous agents who sought out those who could best please him by their foulness . He would collect money from his patrons and give himself airs over his gains ; he would also dispute with his associates in this shameful occupation , claiming that he had more lovers than they and took in more money .
Herodian commented that Elagabalus enhanced his natural good looks by the regular application of cosmetics . He was described as having been " delighted to be called the mistress , the wife , the queen of Hierocles " and was reported to have offered vast sums of money to any physician who could equip him with female genitalia . Elagabalus has been characterized by some modern writers as transgender , perhaps transsexual .
= = = Fall from power = = =
By 221 Elagabalus ' eccentricities , particularly his relationship with Hierocles , increasingly provoked the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard . When Elagabalus ' grandmother Julia Maesa perceived that popular support for the emperor was waning , she decided that he and his mother , who had encouraged his religious practices , had to be replaced . As alternatives , she turned to her other daughter , Julia Avita Mamaea , and her daughter 's son , the thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Severus Alexander .
Prevailing on Elagabalus , she arranged that he appoint his cousin Alexander as his heir and be given the title of Caesar . Alexander shared the consulship with the emperor that year . However , Elagabalus reconsidered this arrangement when he began to suspect that the Praetorian Guard preferred his cousin over himself .
Following the failure of various attempts on Alexander 's life , Elagabalus stripped his cousin of his titles , revoked his consulship , and circulated the news that Alexander was near death , in order to see how the Praetorians would react . A riot ensued , and the guard demanded to see Elagabalus and Alexander in the Praetorian camp .
= = = = Assassination = = = =
The emperor complied and on 11 March 222 he publicly presented his cousin along with his own mother , Julia Soaemias . On their arrival the soldiers started cheering Alexander while ignoring Elagabalus , who ordered the summary arrest and execution of anyone who had taken part in this display of insubordination . In response , members of the Praetorian Guard attacked Elagabalus and his mother :
So he made an attempt to flee , and would have got away somewhere by being placed in a chest , had he not been discovered and slain , at the age of 18 . His mother , who embraced him and clung tightly to him , perished with him ; their heads were cut off and their bodies , after being stripped naked , were first dragged all over the city , then the mother 's body was cast aside somewhere or other while his was thrown into the [ Tiber ] .
Following his assassination , many associates of Elagabalus were killed or deposed , including his lover Hierocles . His religious edicts were reversed and the stone of Elagabal was sent back to Emesa . Women were again barred from attending meetings of the Senate . The practice of damnatio memoriae — erasing from the public record a disgraced personage formerly of note — was systematically applied in his case .
= = = Augustan History = = =
The source of many of these stories of Elagabalus 's depravity is the Augustan History ( Historia Augusta ) , which includes controversial claims . The Historia Augusta was most likely written toward the end of the 4th century during the reign of emperor Theodosius I. The life of Elagabalus as described in the Augustan History is of uncertain historical merit . Sections 13 to 17 , relating to the fall of Elagabalus , are less controversial among historians .
= = = Cassius Dio = = =
Sources often considered more credible than the Augustan History include the contemporary historians Cassius Dio and Herodian . Cassius Dio lived from the second half of the 2nd century until sometime after 229 . Born into a patrician family , he spent the greater part of his life in public service . He was a senator under emperor Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus . Afterwards he served as suffect consul around 205 , and as proconsul in Africa and Pannonia .
Severus Alexander held him in high esteem and made him his consul again . His Roman History spans nearly a millennium , from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy until the year 229 . As a contemporary of Elagabalus , Cassius Dio 's account of his reign is generally considered more reliable than the Augustan History , although by his own admission Dio spent the greater part of the relevant period outside of Rome and had to rely on second @-@ hand accounts .
Furthermore , the political climate in the aftermath of Elagabalus ' reign , as well as Dio 's own position within the government of Alexander , likely influenced the truth of this part of his history for the worse . Dio regularly refers to Elagabalus as Sardanapalus , partly to distinguish him from his divine namesake , but chiefly to do his part in maintaining the damnatio memoriae and to associate him with another autocrat notorious for a dissolute life .
= = = Herodian = = =
Another contemporary of Elagabalus was Herodian , who was a minor Roman civil servant who lived from c . 170 until 240 . His work , History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius , commonly abbreviated as Roman History , is an eyewitness account of the reign of Commodus until the beginning of the reign of Gordian III . His work largely overlaps with Dio 's own Roman History , but both texts seem to be independently consistent with each other .
Although Herodian is not deemed as reliable as Cassius Dio , his lack of literary and scholarly pretensions make him less biased than senatorial historians . Herodian is considered the most important source for the religious reforms which took place during the reign of Elagabalus , which have been confirmed by numismatic and archaeological evidence .
= = = = Edward Gibbon and later historians = = = =
For readers of the modern age , The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon ( 1737 – 94 ) further cemented the scandalous reputation of Elagabalus . Gibbon not only accepted and expressed outrage at the allegations of the ancient historians , but might have added some details of his own ; he is the first historian known to state that Gannys was a eunuch , for example . Gibbon wrote :
To confound the order of the season and climate , to sport with the passions and prejudices of his subjects , and to subvert every law of nature and decency , were in the number of his most delicious amusements . A long train of concubines , and a rapid succession of wives , among whom was a vestal virgin , ravished by force from her sacred asylum , were insufficient to satisfy the impotence of his passions . The master of the Roman world affected to copy the manners and dress of the female sex , preferring the distaff to the sceptre , and dishonored the principal dignities of the empire by distributing them among his numerous lovers ; one of whom was publicly invested with the title and authority of the emperor 's , or , as he more properly styled himself , the empress 's husband . It may seem probable , the vices and follies of Elagabalus have been adorned by fancy , and blackened by prejudice . Yet , confining ourselves to the public scenes displayed before the Roman people , and attested by grave and contemporary historians , their inexpressible infamy surpasses that of any other age or country .
Two hundred years after the age of Pliny , the use of pure , or even of mixed silks , was confined to the female sex , till the opulent citizens of Rome and the provinces were insensibly familiarized with the example of Elagabalus , the first who , by this effeminate habit , had sullied the dignity of an emperor and a man .
Some recent historians argue for a more favourable picture of his life and reign . Martijn Icks in Images of Elagabalus ( 2008 ; republished as The Crimes of Elagabalus in 2012 ) doubts the reliability of the ancient sources and argues that it was the emperor 's unorthodox religious policies that alienated the power elite of Rome , to the point that his grandmother saw fit to eliminate him and replace him with his cousin . Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y Prado , in The Emperor Elagabalus : Fact or Fiction ? ( 2008 ) , is also critical of the ancient historians and speculates that neither religion nor sexuality played a role in the fall of the young emperor , who was simply the loser in a power struggle within the imperial family ; the loyalty of the Praetorian Guards was up for sale , and Julia Maesa had the resources to outmaneuver and outbribe her grandson . According to this version , once Elagabalus , his mother , and his immediate circle had been murdered , a wholesale propaganda war against his memory resulted in a vicious caricature which has persisted to the present , repeated and often embellished by later historians displaying their own prejudices against effeminacy and other vices which Elagabalus had come to epitomize .
= = Legacy = =
Due to the ancient tradition about him , Elagabalus became something of an ( anti- ) hero in the Decadent movement of the late 19th century . He often appears in literature and other creative media as the epitome of a young , amoral aesthete . His life and character have informed or at least inspired many famous works of art , by Decadents , even by contemporary artists . The most notable of these works include :
= = = Literature and biographies = = =
L 'Agonie ( Agony ) ( 1888 ) , the best known novel by the French writer Jean Lombard , featuring Elagabulus as the protagonist
In 1903 Georges Duviquet published what purports to be a faithful biography of the emperor : Héliogabale : Raconté par les historians Grecs et Latins , [ avec ] dix @-@ huit gravures d 'après les monuments original .
The previous pair of works inspired the Dutch writer Louis Couperus to produce his novel De Berg van Licht ( The Mountain of Light ) ( 1905 ) , which presents Elagabalus in a sympathetic light .
Algabal ( 1892 – 1919 ) , a collection of poems by the German poet Stefan George
The Sun God ( 1904 ) , a novel by the English writer Arthur Westcott
The Amazing Emperor Heliogabalus ( 1911 ) , a biography by John Stuart Hay
Héliogabale ou l 'Anarchiste couronné ( Heliogabalus or The Anarchist Crowned ) ( 1934 ) by Antonin Artaud , combining essay , biography , and fiction
Family Favourites ( 1960 ) , a novel by the Anglo @-@ Argentine writer Alfred Duggan in which Heliogabalus is seen through the eyes of a faithful Gaulish bodyguard and depicted as a gentle and charming aesthete , personally lovable but lacking in political skills .
Child of the Sun ( 1966 ) , a novel by Lance Horner and Kyle Onstott , better known for writing the novel that inspired the movie Mandingo
Super @-@ Eliogabalo ( 1969 ) , a novel by the Italian writer Alberto Arbasino
Boy Caesar ( 2004 ) , a novel by the English writer Jeremy Reed
Le Scandaleux Héliogabale : Empereur , Prêtre et Pornocrate ( 2006 ) , by the novelist Emma Locatelli
= = = Plays = = =
Zygmunt Krasiński . " Irydion " ( 1836 ) , in which Elagabalus is portrayed as a cruel tyrant
Mencken , H.L. and Nathan , George Jean . Heliogabalus A Buffoonery in Three Acts . New York : Alfred A. Knopf , 1920
de Escobar Fagundes , C.H. Heliogabalo : O Sol é a Pátria . Ed . Devir . Rio de Janeiro , 1980
Gilbert , S. Heliogabalus : A Love Story . Toronto , Cabaret Theatre Company , 2002
Ferreyra , Shawn . Elagabalus , Emperor of Rome , 2008
Arelis . Heliogabalus , ( 2008 )
= = = Paintings = = =
Heliogabalus , High Priest of the Sun ( 1866 ) , by the English decadent Simeon Solomon
One of the most notorious incidents laid to his account is immortalized in the 19th @-@ century painting The Roses of Heliogabalus ( 1888 ) , by the Anglo @-@ Dutch academician Sir Lawrence Alma @-@ Tadema . It shows guests at one of his extravagant dinner parties smothered under a mass of " violets and other flowers " dropped from above .
Heliogabalus ( 1974 ) , by Anselm Kiefer
Antonin Artaud Heliogabalus ( 2010 – 11 ) , by Anselm Kiefer
= = = Music = = =
Eliogabalo , an opera by Venetian Baroque composer Francesco Cavalli ( 1667 )
Heliogabale , an opera by French composer Déodat de Séverac ( 1910 )
Heliogabalus imperator ( Emperor Heliogabalus ) , an orchestral work by the German composer Hans Werner Henze ( 1972 )
Artaud , an album by Luis Alberto Spinetta ( 1973 )
Eliogabalus , Second album of the Italian @-@ Slovenian experimental band Devil Doll
Six Litanies for Heliogabalus , an album by American musician John Zorn ( 2007 )
= = = Dance = = =
Héliogabale , a modern dance choreographed by Maurice Béjart
= = = Film = = =
Héliogabale , a 1909 silent film by the French director André Calmettes
A Roman Orgy ( Héliogabale , ou L 'orgie romaine ) , a 1911 silent short by the French director Louis Feuillade
Elagabalus is portrayed by Mathew Baynton in the CBBC series Horrible Histories .
= = = Vocabulary = = =
The Spanish word heliogábalo means " a person overwhelmed by gluttony " .
= = = Secondary material = = =
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= The French Connection ( ice hockey ) =
The French Connection was a line of professional ice hockey forwards who played together for the Buffalo Sabres of the National Hockey League from 1972 until 1979 . The line consisted of Hall of Famer Gilbert Perreault at centre and All @-@ Stars Rick Martin and Rene Robert at left wing and right wing , respectively . All three players were French @-@ Canadian ; Perreault is from Victoriaville , Quebec , Martin was from Verdun , Quebec , and Robert is from Trois @-@ Rivières , Quebec . The name was related both to the origins of the players and the 1971 hit movie entitled The French Connection , based upon the book of the same name .
The trio excelled together , with each being named to the Official NHL All @-@ Star Team at least once and to the National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game at least twice while playing together as a unit for seven full seasons . Perreault and Martin were the Buffalo Sabres ' first @-@ round draft picks in the franchise 's first two years , and Robert was acquired late in the franchise 's second season via a spring 1972 trade . The players were named to several National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game teams and dominated the Buffalo scoring statistical leadership during their years together . They led the Sabres to the franchise 's first Stanley Cup Finals appearance and continue to hold many of the franchise 's scoring records .
= = History = =
Perreault was acquired by the team with their first draft pick of their inaugural season in the 1970 Entry Draft . Martin followed the next year as the team 's first pick in 1971 . Both players were drafted after three seasons with the Montreal Junior Canadiens . Robert was acquired in a trade on March 4 , 1972 , for Eddie Shack . He played twelve games for the Sabres during the 1971 – 72 NHL season . Perreault played his entire 17 @-@ season career with the Sabres . Martin played all but 4 games of his injury @-@ shortened 11 @-@ season career with the Sabres . The trio played together as a line most of the time until the fall of 1979 . On October 5 , 1979 , Scotty Bowman traded Robert to the Colorado Rockies for defenseman John Van Boxmeer . This ended the French Connection era in Buffalo , but not before the trio became the first three players to accumulate 200 goals in a Sabres uniform . Each player 's jerseys were retired ; Perreault 's # 11 was retired during a ceremony on October 17 , 1990 , and Robert 's # 14 and Martin 's # 7 were retired on November 15 , 1995 . All three numbers hang together from the First Niagara Center under a French Connection banner .
In hopes of averting the lean years that troubled most expansion teams , George Imlach , the Sabres first coach and General Manager , attempted to build a high @-@ scoring club to excite the local hockey fans . Perreault was regarded as a smooth skater and tremendous stickhandler . Perreault was chosen to be the franchise player around which a team could be built and succeed . Although Martin and Perreault had played two years together with the Montreal Junior Canadiens ( Perreault even lived with Martin 's family during the 1969 – 70 season ) , they had never played on the same line before being paired in Buffalo . Since Martin was one of the few who could keep up with Perreault as a skater they were paired together after the Sabres drafted Martin . It was very clear during the 1971 – 72 season that Perreault and Martin were a natural pairing . Sabres coach Joe Crozier felt the two just needed a third player who would stay high and check . Sabres coach quickly teamed Robert with Perreault and Martin after the trade . The two players complemented Perreault and became a dynamic combination that dazzled fans . They were dubbed the French Connection by writer Lee Coppola as a reference to the Academy Award @-@ winning film and their heritage via the Buffalo Auditorium message board . The pair played together as a regular line through the 1974 – 75 season . At times , they were split up during the last four seasons . When they played together they often faced the opposition 's top defensive lineups . Since the trio were tremendous skating scoring threats these opponents would concentrate on checking them and staying on top of them . For example , against the Montreal Canadiens Bob Gainey 's line would oppose them . Rick Martin once said about this line " I had Jimmy Roberts between me and my shadow . "
Perreault was known as a naturally gifted skater and playmaker who was capable of making an end @-@ to @-@ end rush at any time . His fame was hampered by his own shy personality . His stickhandling and head faking confounded even the best defensive players in the world . Martin was considered the " marksman " of the three who was dangerous with the wristshot and slapshot . Robert was known for his " blinding speed and lethal shot " . He made his mark with the French Connection , as one of the league 's most highly regarded powerplay point men , and on the second line penalty killing unit . He was perhaps the least flashy of the three , but was the most complete . He was the player who checked and worked hard in the corners .
Perreault holds numerous club career records ( including regular season games played , goals , assists , points , game @-@ winning goals , 30 @-@ goal seasons , 20 @-@ goal seasons , and shots on goal ) . However , Martin holds the franchise career records for hat tricks , four @-@ goal games , 40 @-@ goal seasons , consecutive 40 @-@ goal seasons , 50 @-@ goal seasons ( tied with Danny Gare ) and consecutive 50 @-@ goal seasons . Although Robert 's name is not as prominent in the record books. his 40 @-@ goal and 60 @-@ assist 1974 – 75 NHL season was the club 's first 100 @-@ point season by an individual . During the seven full seasons the trio was together , Perreault led the Sabres in scoring five times and Robert and Martin led the team once each . Martin led the team three times in goals , Perreault twice and Robert once during this time . Perreault led the team in assists four times and Robert did so twice . In addition , the two tied once for the lead in assists . Martin 's 1975 – 76 season with 7 hat tricks continues to be tied with Alexander Mogilny for the franchise single @-@ season record . Martin and Perreault continue to be first and second for rookie season points and goals in franchise history ( records set before the arrival of Robert ) .
The trio led the Sabres to the Stanley Cup playoffs every full season they were together , except the 1973 – 74 NHL season when Perreault suffered a broken leg and only played in 55 games . The impact of the combination was obvious as the team began the first full season of the French Connection era with a ten @-@ game unbeaten streak ; the team made the playoffs for the first time in the history of the franchise and the three members of the French Connection were the teams three leading scorers . The team suddenly went unbeaten in their first 21 home games , while setting a record for post 1967 expansion teams by recording a home winning streak of 12 and while going unbeaten in New York state for 25 games including 1 win at the Nassau Coliseum and 3 at the Madison Square Garden . Their first playoff appearance during their first full season together ( 1972 – 3 ) was not only the franchise 's first playoff appearance , but the series also marked history as the only National Hockey League Playoff series with brothers ( Ken Dryden and Dave Dryden ) as opposing goaltenders . In the first game of the series , both goaltenders were chosen as being among the three stars of the game . During the 1974 – 75 NHL season , all members of the trio were selected to play in the National Hockey League All @-@ Star game ; they all finished among the top ten in league scoring , and they led the team to a tie for first place in the regular season standings .
Among their postseason highlights was the May 20 , 1975 , game three of the 1975 Stanley Cup Finals . This game , known as the fog game , was memorable because Buffalo Memorial Auditorium had no air conditioning and the arena temperature matched the 90 degree outdoor temperature , which caused fog to shroud the ice surface . During the overtime , play was delayed seven times due to fog on the ice surface at the Buffalo Memorial Auditorium . The players were instructed by Flyer coach Fred Shero and Sabre coach Floyd Smith to shoot whenever possible because of the impaired goaltender vision . Eventually , the French connection combined to score a Martin to Perreault to Robert game @-@ winning goal . This came after the French Connection swarmed Flyer goalie enabling Bill Hajt to knock in a Rick Martin rebound to send the game to overtime .
The 1975 – 76 season would also be memorable for the trio and the franchise . On January 4 , 1976 , the Sabres hosted part of the two @-@ team eight @-@ game NHL tour by the opposing the Soviet Wings . The Sabres handed the Russians the first of only two defeats on the tour . The French Connection contributed 4 goals and 5 assists to a 12 @-@ 6 victory . The night marked the worst defeat by a Russian hockey team in international competition .
The trio was , and remains , immensely popular in Buffalo , New York , as well as the surrounding Western New York area , and their international popularity and cultural prominence was also evident . They never won a Stanley Cup , but are an important part of hockey history . Rick Martin was the 1977 National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game most valuable player and Perreault scored the game @-@ winning overtime goal in the 1978 NHL All @-@ Star Game at the Buffalo Memorial Auditorium . Perreault was selected to play in nine All @-@ Star games ( 1970 – 71 , 1971 – 72 , 1973 – 74 , 1974 – 75 , 1976 – 77 , 1977 – 78 , 1978 – 79 , 1979 – 80 , 1983 – 84 ) , Martin was selected to play in seven consecutive All @-@ Star games ( 1971 – 72 through 1977 – 78 ) and Robert was selected to two All @-@ Star games ( 1972 – 73 , 1974 – 75 ) . In addition , Martin was selected as the Official NHL All @-@ Star First Team Left Wing in 1973 – 74 & 1974 – 75 and the Official NHL All @-@ Star Second Team Left Wing in 1975 – 76 & 1976 – 77 . Perreault was selected as the Official NHL All @-@ Star Second Team Center in 1975 – 76 & 1976 – 77 . Rene Robert was selected as the Official NHL All @-@ Star Second Team Right Wing in 1974 – 75 . Perreault earned the Calder Trophy in 1971 and the Lady Byng Trophy in 1973 . All honours for all players were as Buffalo Sabres . All Official NHL All @-@ Star Team selections were earned while the three were teammates . Perreault was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1990 .
The line made occasional appearances as members of the Buffalo Sabres Alumni Hockey Team until Martin 's death in March 2011 . Their last appearance together was to introduce Terrence Pegula as the Sabres ' owner on February 24 , 2011 .
= = The French Connection years = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
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= Tropical Depression Two ( 2010 ) =
Tropical Depression Two was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that impacted portions of Texas and Mexico during the highly active 2010 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed from a tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa and crossed the Atlantic Ocean without any development . Upon entering the western Gulf of Mexico , the depression encountered a conducive environment for tropical cyclone development , and was designated Tropical Depression Two at 0600 UTC on July 8 . Intensification into a tropical storm was initially anticipated by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) , but due to its proximity to land , the depression failed to attain the status . It made landfall on South Padre Island , Texas before degenerating into a remnant low on July 9 , and dissipating the following day . Due to the system 's weak intensity , there were no reports of damage inflicted by winds across Texas or Mexico , although the cyclone did bring minimal rainfall totals to northern Mexico , an area severely affected by Hurricane Alex just one week previous .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Depression Two can be traced back to a disorganized tropical wave that was first noted by the NHC on June 24 as it moved off the western coast of Africa , and into the Atlantic Ocean . Moving towards the west , the wave showed no signs of organization until July 3 as it entered the western Caribbean Sea . During the 24 hours that followed , it continued to coalesce , and the NHC subsequently increased the disturbance 's chance of developing into a tropical cyclone . A defined surface circulation did not form as a result of the wave 's movement over the Yucatan Peninsula , and the system lost organization . The system remained disorganized as it traversed the peninsula and eventually emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on July 7 . Situated over water once more , the wave was able to gradually develop as it moved in a northwesterly direction . Following a reconnaissance mission , the NHC noted in their Tropical Weather Outlook that there was a high chance of the system developing into a tropical cyclone within the next 48 hours .
Early on July 8 , additional data from the Hurricane Hunters indicated that the system developed a closed circulation and the NHC classified it as a tropical depression at 0000 UTC , making it the second of the hurricane season . At this time , the system was situated roughly 250 mi ( 400 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas . At this time , the depression also attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1005 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 68 inHg ) . Tropical Depression Two was anticipated to intensify into a tropical storm before making landfall in Mexico ; however , the depression failed to gain strength before moving inland . Following a reconnaissance mission at 1200 UTC , Hurricane Hunters found winds near tropical storm intensity ; however , land @-@ based observations did not support this and the depression was not classified as a tropical storm . Later that day , the depression made landfall in South Padre Island , Texas at 1515 UTC with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . The tropical depression weakened slightly while moving near the Texas @-@ Mexico border , when the NHC discontinued advisories on the system . Although the NHC ceased monitoring Tropical Depression Two , the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ( HPC ) issued advisories until it dissipated early on July 10 , over northern Mexico .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Immediately after Tropical Depression Two was classified , a tropical storm warning was issued for the state of Texas , covering the coastline from Baffin Bay to the northern mouth of the Rio Grande . In addition , a tropical storm warning was also issued by the government of Mexico , stretching from Rio San Fernando northward also to the mouth of the Rio Grande . Subsequent coastal flooding and flash flood warnings were issued by local National Weather Service offices in southern and eastern Texas as the NHC predicted 4 to 8 in ( 100 to 200 mm ) of rain , with 10 in ( 250 mm ) locally . Alerts were also issued for the Mexican states of Tamaulipas , Nuevo León and Coahuila , where officials warned people of the potential for heavy rains , flooding , and landslides . The Sistema Nacional de Protección Civil ( National Civil Protection System ) raised a red alert , the highest level on the scale , for portions of Tamaulipas and noted that extreme caution was necessary in areas between Rio San Fernando and the Texas @-@ Mexico border . After Tropical Depression Two made landfall in Texas , all of the tropical storm warnings associated with the storm were discontinued .
Upon making landfall along the Texas @-@ Mexico border , the depression produced a storm surge between 2 and 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 and 1 @.@ 22 m ) . Portions of Mustang and Padre Island were flooded by the storm ; however , damage was minimal . Two funnel clouds were reported in relation to the depression — one near Rockport and the other near Victoria . After the NHC issued their final advisory on Tropical Depression Two , the HPC began to monitor the system , recording minimal rainfall across southern and eastern Texas . As Tropical Depression Two dissipated , it moved inland and the HPC 's advisories indicated that much of eastern and southern Texas experienced rainfall of at least 1 in ( 25 mm ) , with the exception of Corpus Christi and Laredo . Rainfall associated with Tropical Depression Two in Texas peaked at 5 @.@ 16 in ( 131 mm ) along the Guadalupe River adjacent to the city of Victoria . Rainfall inside the city of Victoria itself was measured at 4 @.@ 25 in ( 108 mm ) , while the Victoria Regional Airport reported precipitation at Victoria Regional Airport . Tropical Depression Two contributed to localized flooding in southern Texas and northeastern Mexico , adding to the 24 in ( 610 mm ) of rain caused by Hurricane Alex just south of the Rio Grande . Throughout Tamaulipas , Mexico , relatively little rain fell in relation to the depression . Matamoros recorded rainfall for roughly two hours before the system passed through the region . The resulting floods from Alex and the depression caused nearly $ 80 million in losses throughout the region .
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= 6th Congress of the Workers ' Party of Korea =
The 6th Congress of the Workers ' Party of Korea ( WPK ) was held in the February 8 House of Culture in Pyongyang , North Korea , from 10 – 14 October 1980 . The congress is the highest organ of the party , and is stipulated to be held every four years . 3 @,@ 062 delegates represented the party 's membership ; 117 foreign delegates attended the congress , without the right to speak . The congress saw the reappointment of Kim Il @-@ sung as WPK General Secretary and the Presidium of the Politburo established as the highest organ of the party between congresses .
At this congress , Kim Il @-@ sung designated his son Kim Jong @-@ il as his successor . The move was criticized by the South Korean media and ruling communist parties of the socialist states in Eastern Europe and Asia because it was considered nepotist . The congress also saw the WPK and North Korea move away from orthodox communism by emphasizing the Juche idea over Marxism – Leninism , giving the party a nationalistic bent . The next party congress was not convened before 2016 , despite party rules that stipulated that a congress had to be held every fifth year .
= = Preparations = =
Little is known about the preparations for the 6th Congress . It was convened a decade after the 5th WPK Congress ( in 1970 ) , outside the party norm of a quadrennial meeting . There was no official reason for its postponement , but it was probably due to the fact that WPK General Secretary Kim Il @-@ sung spent much of the 1970s gathering support ( and creating an independent power base ) for his son and planned successor Kim Jong @-@ il . In addition , a great deal of time was spent restructuring party organizations and functions . The primary reason for the 6th Congress was to formalize Kim Jong @-@ il as Kim Il @-@ sung 's chosen successor .
= = Delegates and attendees = =
The 6th Congress was attended by 3 @,@ 062 delegates with voting rights and 158 without them ; this marked an increase of 1 @,@ 349 voting and 137 non @-@ voting delegates from the 5th Congress . The increase indicates a growth in membership . The 6th Congress is significant for its large number of delegations : 177 delegations from 118 countries were represented . While communist and workers ' parties customarily invite " fraternal parties " to party congresses , the WPK had taken the unusual step of not inviting foreign delegations to the 1st , 2nd and 5th congresses . Among those invited this time were the Communist Party of China and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . The WPK leadership also invited a number of non @-@ communist parties and organizations to the congress . The official report said that 155 foreign organizations from 105 countries attended the congress , indicating that 22 delegations remained incognito . For unknown reasons , no foreign delegates spoke at the congress .
= = The Congress = =
The 6th Congress was held at the February 8 House of Culture from 10 – 14 October 1980 , with a recess on 11 October . Compared to its predecessor , the 6th Congress was fairly short . It began with opening addresses by Kim Il @-@ sung , the Executive Bureau , the Secretariat and the Credentials Committee . After the opening remarks , the congress ' agenda was decided : " ( 1 ) Summing up the work of the Party Central Committee ; ( 2 ) Evaluation of the work of the Party Central Auditing Committee ; ( 3 ) Revision of the Party Rules and ( 4 ) Election of the central leading agencies of the Party . " This was followed by a report on the Central Committee 's performance since the 5th Congress . The 6th Congress was adjourned on 11 October , and 12 October began with the election of a committee to draft congressional decisions . Lee Nak @-@ bin then delivered a report on the work of the Central Auditing Committee since the 5th Congress . The rest of the day was spent discussing the Central Committee report . 13 October was devoted to debates and congratulatory speeches , and on 14 October the congress elected the 6th Central Committee and the 6th Central Auditing Committee .
Significant at the 6th Congress was the generational shift within the WPK , with Kim Il @-@ sung planning to formalize the position of Kim Jong @-@ il . 248 members were elected to the 6th Central Committee : 145 full members and 103 candidate members . This was an increase of 76 members from the 5th Central Committee , which had 172 members . The expansion of the Central Committee is a sign of an expanding party , since one Central Committee member represents 10 @,@ 000 party members . Of the 248 members , " 139 ( 60 full members and 79 candidate members ) " were new to the Central Committee . However , compared to previous Central Committees the replacement rate was relatively low ( 41 @.@ 4 % , compared with 72 @.@ 2 % at the 5th Congress ) . Only two members have sat on the Central Committee since the 1st Central Committee : Kim il @-@ sung and Kim Il . The cause of the high Central Committee replacement rate had been intra @-@ party conflict , and the Yanan , South Korean , domestic and Soviet @-@ Korean factions ( as well as ideological opponents of hereditary succession ) had been purged from the Central Committee at previous congresses . Amendments to Party rules changed the name of the Political Committee back to its original name ( the Politburo ) , and created a Presidium within the Politburo to further centralize the power of the ruling elite .
Of the 158 delegates with speaking rights , 39 participated in the debates — much @-@ lower participation than at the 5th Congress , in which 98 of 137 delegates with speaking rights participated . All debate participants were Party bureaucrats and technocrats , making it the first congress at which the " revolutionary generation " was not present . 38 topics were debated : twenty @-@ one focused on the economy , ten on politics , five on social and cultural affairs , one on military affairs and one on possible unification with South Korea . Socialist construction , the designated primary task of the party during the 1980s , was the focal point of the discussions . The 6th Congress ended with Kim Il @-@ sung presenting a summary of what had been decided : " ( a ) Shining victory of the Three Revolutions — achievements in ideological , technological and cultural revolutions ; ( b ) Conversion of entire society along the lines of Juche idea ; ( c ) Independent and peaceful reunification of the fatherland ; ( d ) Strengthening of the solidarity with the anti @-@ imperialist self @-@ reliant forces ; ( e ) strengthening of Party work . "
= = = 1st plenum = = =
The 1st plenum of the 6th Central Committee , to elect the central party leadership , was held immediately after the 6th Congress . 34 members were elected to the 6th Politburo , an increase from 15 in the 5th Politburo . Of these 34 , 19 were full members and 15 candidate members . Five members were elected to the Presidium , and Kim Jong @-@ il was ranked fourth in the hierarchy of the Politburo and the Presidium . The 6th Secretariat was composed of nine members , with Kim Jong @-@ il ranked second . The size of the Secretariat did not change from the 5th Congress , but of its nine members only Kim Il @-@ sung was from the party 's " revolutionary generation " ( 60 % of the members of the 5th Secretariat came from that generation ) . Kim Il @-@ sung and Kim Jung @-@ rin were the only incumbents to be reelected . The elected 6th Central Military Commission ( CMC ) was composed of 19 members , of which Kim Jong @-@ il ranked third ( behind Kim Il @-@ sung and Oh Jin @-@ u ) . This marked the first time in the party 's history that the CMC membership was made public . Kim Il @-@ sung and Kim Jong @-@ il became the only officials with seats in all four bodies : the Presidium , Politburo , Secretariat and CMC . While Kim Jong @-@ il was outranked in the Presidium , Politburo and Secretariat , none of the members who outranked him had positions in other bodies ( except for Oh Jin @-@ ju , second @-@ ranked member of the CMC ) . Below is a list of members ( and their respective rankings ) of the Presidium , full and candidate members of the Politburo , Secretariat and CMC :
The 1st plenum saw the " revolutionary generation " retire from their executive posts , surrendering them to the new generation of Kim Jong @-@ il ; however , they still controlled the highest organs of power : the Presidium and the Politburo . The plenum saw the disappearance of Kim Yong @-@ ju ( Kim Il @-@ sung 's brother , considered his chosen successor before Kim Jong @-@ il ) , Kim Dong @-@ gyu , Ryu Jang @-@ sik and Lee Yong @-@ mu from important party positions . The reason for the purge is unknown , but presumably linked to Kim Il @-@ sung 's time @-@ consuming consolidation of his son 's power base .
= = Policy decisions = =
= = = Kim Jong @-@ il as successor = = =
Kim Yong @-@ ju was believed to be Kim Il @-@ sung 's first choice as successor , and his authority increased until he became co @-@ chairman of the North – South Coordination Committee . From late 1972 until the 6th Congress , Kim Yong @-@ ju became an increasingly remote figure within the regime ; at the 6th Congress , he lost his seats in the Politburo and on the Central Committee . However , rumors were confirmed that Kim Il @-@ sung began grooming Kim Jong @-@ il in 1966 . From 1974 until the 6th Congress , Kim Jong @-@ il ( called the " Party centre " by North Korean media ) became the second @-@ most @-@ powerful man in North Korea .
The choice of Kim Jong @-@ il as Kim Il @-@ sung 's successor met with considerable criticism . Critics accused Kim Il @-@ sung of creating a dynasty , turning North Korea into a feudal state . An anonymous South Korean critic said , " Hereditary succession of power [ was an ] inevitable consequence of the elder Kim 's irrevocable commitment to the dream of founding a dynasty of his own and of his family " , adding that Kim Jong @-@ il 's rise to power was proof of the " degeneration " of the WPK into a " thoroughly personalized family affair built up around a personality cult . " The Communist Party of the Soviet Union , the Communist Party of China and other ruling parties of socialist states did not approve Kim Jong @-@ il 's appointment as heir apparent . Kim Il @-@ sung 's choice of successor arguably concerned the promotion of revolutionary zeal in the country ( taking into account the negative treatment Joseph Stalin received from his successor ) .
= = = Korean unification = = =
At the congress , Kim Il @-@ sung stressed the importance of " achieving the goal of the unification of the fatherland which has been the greatest and long @-@ cherised desire of the whole people is the most important revolutionary task facing the Party " . He warned his audience that if Korea remained divided , it might never be unified again because of relations among the big powers . Kim Il @-@ sung called for the establishment of the " Democratic Confederal Republic of Koryo " ( DCRK ) , a national government of North and South Korea . The DCRK would be ruled by a Supreme Confederal National Congress ( SCNC ) , with an equal number of representatives from North and South Korea . The SCNC representatives would elect a Presidium , which would rule on its behalf . Under this system , South Korea would remain capitalist and North Korea socialist . However , the WPK leadership named three conditions for North Korea to join the DCRK : ( 1 ) Social democratization of South Korea , the ouster of its current ruling class , repeal of the Anti @-@ Communist and National Security Laws and replacement of its military regime by a democratic one representing the will of the people ; ( 2 ) Reducing tensions with the establishment of a truce and a peace agreement ; ( 3 ) Reducing American interference in the region , holding open the possibility of improved relations with the United States if it supported Korean reunification .
= = = From communism to nationalism = = =
The 6th Congress signified a move away from orthodox communism , with the Juche given primacy over Marxism – Leninism ; in foreign relations , an independent national policy was given primacy over proletarian internationalism . According to political analyst Kim Nam @-@ sik , " They [ changes ] represent a marked departure from the fundamental principles of communism , and a new orientation for the North Korean future in the 1980s . " In contrast to other ruling communist parties in socialist states , democratic centralism in the WPK did not hold the leader ( the WPK General Secretary ) accountable . In many ways it functioned the other way around , with the WPK accountable to the leader . This unusual system is rooted in North Korea 's leader theory .
In contrast to other socialist states ( which upheld the orthodox communist belief that the masses are masters of historical development ) , WPK ideology asserts that the masses can only initiate revolutionary change through a leader . While other socialist states often emphasized certain historical figures , due weight was still given to the people . The opposite occurred in North Korea , where the party line was " The great revolutionary task of the working class is pioneered and led to victory by the Leader and completed under the leadership of the Leader only . " From this perspective , the revolutionary task given the working class by the other socialist regimes became the sole responsibility of the leader in North Korea . The leader theory supports one @-@ man leadership , since all important tasks can only be accomplished by a great leader it argues . This ideological outlook may explain why Kim Il @-@ sung appointed his son , Kim Jong @-@ il , as his successor . In North Korea , Kim Il @-@ sung was considered a " Great Leader " with a decisive role ; he was cited by official media as the man who established the WPK and founder of the Juche idea . Because of this , Kim Il @-@ sung was not " elected " WPK General Secretary ; the position was bestowed on him by divine right .
While North Korea had already begun to move from a foreign policy based upon proletarian internationalism at the Conference of Party Representatives in 1966 , the WPK leadership had never explicitly broken with proletarian internationalism as it did at the 6th Congress . In theory , a communist party supports policy contributing to the world revolution . Communist regimes rarely lived up to this ideal ; by the 1950s , ideological schisms within the world communist movement made it all but impossible . From 1966 onwards , North Korea strengthened relations with neutral countries in the global Cold War . Proletarian internationalism was replaced with a national , independent foreign policy ; if a socialist and non @-@ socialist country were at war , North Korea could ( in theory ) support the non @-@ socialist country if it benefited North Korea . At the 6th Congress , Kim Il @-@ sung attached more importance to relations with Third World countries than to unity in the socialist camp . While North Korea argues that independence and proletarian internationalism are not exclusive , in orthodox communist theory they are .
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= Day of the Moon =
" Day of the Moon " is the second episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . Written by show runner Steven Moffat , and directed by Toby Haynes , the episode was first broadcast on 30 April 2011 on BBC One in the United Kingdom and on BBC America in the United States . The episode is the second of a two @-@ part story that began with " The Impossible Astronaut " .
In 1969 America , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) attempts , alongside newlyweds Amy ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory ( Arthur Darvill ) , companion River Song ( Alex Kingston ) and FBI agent Canton Everett Delaware III ( Mark Sheppard ) , to lead the human race into a revolution against the Silence , a race of aliens who cannot be remembered after they are encountered .
" The Impossible Astronaut " and " Day of the Moon " were designed to be a darker opener to the series and were partially filmed in the United States , a first for the programme . Moffat was keen on incorporating Area 51 , the moon landing , and President Richard Nixon ( played by Stuart Milligan ) into the plot . The episode received final viewing figures of 7 @.@ 3 million in the UK . It received generally positive reviews from critics , though many worried about the number of questions that had been left unanswered .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
In the three months since the end of " The Impossible Astronaut " , the Doctor , Amy , Rory and River Song have been attempting to track the Silence , an alien race who cannot be remembered after they are encountered . Ex @-@ FBI agent Canton Delaware , under the ruse of capturing them as criminals , helps to reunite the group inside a special prison at Area 51 containing the TARDIS . Though they do not yet know the name or motive for the aliens , the Doctor 's allies have discovered they exist across the entire planet , and have the ability to place post @-@ hypnotic suggestions in humans they encounter . The Doctor plants a communication device called a nanorecorder in each of the group 's hands to record audio of meetings with the Silence . As they travel to Kennedy Space Center shortly before the launch of Apollo 11 , Amy tells the Doctor she was mistaken and is not pregnant as she previously had claimed .
While the Doctor alters part of the command module of Apollo 11 , Canton and Amy visit a nearby orphanage , hoping to find where the girl in the spacesuit was taken from . Amy discovers a nest of the Silence , and a photograph of her and a baby amongst pictures of the little girl from the space suit . The girl enters with the Silence , and Amy is abducted and taken to their time engine control room . Arriving too late , the Doctor and his allies find Amy 's recording device , through which Rory still can hear Amy 's voice confessing her love for one of the group . Canton is able to shoot and wound one of the creatures , and from it the Doctor discovers the creatures are the Silence , a group he was warned about by several of his foes in his recent adventures . Analysing the now @-@ empty space suit , River realises that the girl possesses incredible strength to have forced her way out of it , and that the suit 's advanced life @-@ support technology would have called the President as the highest authority figure on Earth when the girl got scared . The Doctor realises why the Silence have been controlling humanity — by guiding their technological advances , they have influenced humanity into the Space Race for purposes of building a spacesuit , which must somehow be crucial to their intentions . Meanwhile , Canton interrogates the captured Silent in the Area 51 prison , who mocks humanity for treating him when " ... you should kill us all on sight " . Canton records this using Amy 's mobile phone .
The Doctor uses Amy 's communication chip to track her location , and lands the TARDIS in the Silence 's control room five days later . As River and Rory hold the Silence at bay , the Doctor shows them the live broadcast of the moon landing . As they watch , the Doctor uses his modification of the Apollo command module to insert Canton 's recording of the wounded Silent into the footage of the landing . Because of this message , humans will now turn upon the Silence whenever they see them . The group frees Amy and departs in the TARDIS , while River kills all the Silence in the control room . Amy reassures Rory that the man he overheard her speaking of loving through the communication chip was him , not the Doctor .
River refuses the Doctor 's offer to travel with him , returning to her Stormcage prison in order to keep a promise . She kisses the Doctor goodbye , and as the Doctor has never kissed her before she deduces that this will be her last kiss with him . In the TARDIS , Amy appears unable to remember seeing her picture in the orphanage and says that she told the Doctor , rather than Rory , when she believed she was pregnant through fears that travelling in the TARDIS might have affected her child 's development . As the trio sets off , the Doctor discreetly uses the TARDIS scanner to attempt to determine if Amy is pregnant .
Six months later , a homeless man in New York City comes across the young girl , previously seen in the astronaut 's suit . The girl says she is dying , but can fix it ; before the man 's eyes , she appears to begin regenerating , a trait only applied to Time Lords .
= = = Continuity = = =
The Silence 's ' time engine ' set was previously used in " The Lodger " . The Doctor describes it as " very Aickman Road " , a reference to the house the ship occupied in that episode . When the Silent reveals his species ' name to the Doctor , the Doctor has flash @-@ backs to " The Eleventh Hour " and " The Vampires of Venice " , the first mentions of the Silence . The " Eye Patch Lady " ( Frances Barber ) appears for the first time in this episode , and makes similar appearances in " The Curse of the Black Spot " and " The Rebel Flesh " before her connection to Amy is revealed in " The Almost People " . The Doctor uses the TARDIS 's scanners to detect Amy 's alternating pregnancy state . The Doctor repeats the scan with the same results in " The Curse of the Black Spot " and " The Rebel Flesh " .
The Doctor and Rory discuss both being present at the fall of Rome . As an Auton , Rory guarded the Pandorica from the Roman era to the present day in " The Big Bang " , and the First Doctor indirectly instigated the Great Fire of Rome in The Romans . The Doctor is held captive in Area 51 , which he had visited previously in the Tenth Doctor animated serial Dreamland .
= = Production = =
Steven Moffat , head writer of the new series , said before broadcast that this would be one of the darkest openers to a series ever done for Doctor Who . Director Toby Haynes believed that the darker episodes like " The Impossible Astronaut " and " Day of the Moon " would allow the series to get into " more dangerous territory . " The creation of the Silence was partly inspired by the figure from the Edvard Munch painting The Scream . Introducing the alien villains became a " big challenge " for the producers ; it would tie in with the loose " silence will fall " arc that carried through the fifth series . Moffat did not wish to end the arc in the previous series , as he felt it would be " more fun " to continue it . Elsewhere in the episode , Delaware was written to be deceptively antagonistic towards the protagonists , which was based on actor Mark Sheppard 's past as villains for his work in American television . Moffat was also keen on the idea of having the Doctor imprisoned with a beard in Area 51 . Smith wore a glued @-@ on beard , which was difficult to peel off .
Incorporating Nixon into the plot was accidental ; Moffat wanted to set the story during the moon landing and looked up the United States president during the time . He was initially disappointed that it was such a " rubbish one " and briefly considered using a generic , unnamed president , such as the one seen in " The Sound of Drums " . However , he thought it " didn 't feel right for a story partly about real events " and realized it could be fun to use Nixon . He believed there was something " comically awkward " about him , and it would be interesting for the Doctor to have to work with someone he did not like . The episode makes references to the Watergate scandal and David Frost .
Many of the opening scenes of the episode were filmed on location in the United States . The sequence where Delaware chases Amy was shot in the Valley of the Gods in Utah . Gillan found it difficult to run because of the altitude . The scene in which Amy confronts Canton was originally watched by three Silence in the script , but this did not make it to the film version . The sequence where Delaware chases Rory was shot at the Glen Canyon Dam in Arizona . The Dam sequence was the final scene to be shot in the States . " The Impossible Astronaut " and " Day of the Moon " marked the first time that Doctor Who has filmed principal photography footage within the United States . The sequence where Delaware chases River in New York was in fact shot in central Cardiff . A set was later constructed in a studio for the jump sequence , and Kingston was replaced by a stunt woman to perform the jump . The scenes set in Area 51 were filmed in a large disused hangar in South Wales .
The Florida orphanage was filmed at the abandoned Troy House in Monmouthshire . To add the effect that a storm is outside the building , the production crew placed rain machines outdoors and flashing lights to simulate lightning . The Silence were portrayed by Marnix van den Broeke and other performers . The masks caused vision difficulties for the performers , who had to be guided by two people when they had to walk . Van den Broeke did not provide the voices of the Silence , as it was replaced during post @-@ production . The control room set used from " The Lodger " was used again for this episode . Moffat wanted the set to be used again , feeling it would be a suitable Silence base . The set was adapted to give it a darker , evil feel .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Day of the Moon " was first broadcast on BBC One on 30 April 2011 at 6 pm and on the same date on BBC America in the United States . Initial overnight ratings showed that the episode had been watched by 5 @.@ 4 million viewers , a decrease of 1 @.@ 1 million from the previous week . The episode received final ratings of 7 @.@ 3 million viewers on BBC One , seventh for the week on that channel . It received an Appreciation Index of 87 , considered " excellent " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode was met with generally positive reviews from television critics . Dan Martin of The Guardian praised the episode for its " action , tension , horror and River Song in a business suit , " but felt it " sags a little around the middle . " Martin believed the scenes with Amy and Delaware in the orphanage were the " fear factor " of the episode . He later rated it the fourth best episode of the series , though the finale was not included in the list . Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy stated " after the sensational opening gambit that kicked off the series premiere , it 's perhaps unsurprising that ' Day of the Moon ' starts with a similarly thrilling onslaught of action . " Jeffery was positive towards the nano @-@ recorder , which provided the episode with " a number of unsettling moments in which characters listen back to their own terrified exclamations about the Silents . " However , Jeffery felt the final scenes " expose this episode 's chief flaw — quite simply , too much is left unresolved . " In conclusion , the reviewer stated " While ' The Impossible Astronaut ' aced the set @-@ up , ' Day of the Moon ' falters slightly in providing the resolution . " Jeffery rated the episode four stars out of five .
Tom Phillips of Metro stated that " Amy and Canton 's sojourn to the orphanage was not just a high @-@ mark for sheer skin @-@ crawling horror on recent mainstream telly — that image of The Silence nesting on the ceiling like cadaverous bat @-@ people will live on in the nightmares of many , many children — but also genuinely , properly weird . " Dave Golder from SFX thought that although the series was " shaping up to be like no other before it , as the show moves even further away from its traditional series of sequential standalone stories format and more towards Lost style storytelling " , that the episode " is no mere exercise in delayed gratification . You want fun ? You want creepy ? You want action ? You 've got it – all not @-@ so @-@ neatly tied up with a neat bow tie . " Golder went on to state that " once again we 're treated to some outstanding direction , glorious performances , near flawless FX and gorgeous locations ... " Day Of The Moon " is huge fun , effortlessly entertaining , beguilingly bat 's @-@ arse and blessed with a cliffhanger so jawdroppingly unexpected it 's bound to keep viewers hooked " . He gave the episode a rating of four out of five stars .
IGN reviewer Matt Risley rated the episode 9 out of 10 , saying it " maintained the thrills , chills and scalp @-@ scratching plot twists of " The Impossible Astronaut " , whilst somehow tweaking its predecessor 's thundering pace into 45 minutes of near @-@ perfectly plotted TV . " When comparing it to " The Impossible Astronaut " , he said it was " scarier , creepier ... and more action packed in every way ... [ and ] also managed to leave things on a suitably epic , mythos @-@ expanding note . " He concluded , " the show as a whole has a brand new energy , and we can 't wait to see where Who goes from here . "
Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph was more critical with the episode , stating , " having set up an interesting cliffhanger last week , it was a tad annoying that Steven Moffat did his trick again of taking a swerve with the pre @-@ credits section of this week 's episode , and more supposed shock value with the shootings of Amy and Rory , " but also more annoyed " that what exactly was going on here , and how it was influenced by the events of the previous episode , were never exactly explained , leaving the audience to fill in the blanks . " Fuller believed that the plot and ending " only raised more questions than answers , " believing that the overarching storyline would " require the audience 's concentration over many weeks ; any casual viewer tuning in this week , and I suspect not a few fans , will have been left baffled by the goings @-@ on , " but still felt the episode " was interesting and showed just how , when the writers use their imagination , Doctor Who can tell stories in a way little else on television can . "
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= Joe Sakic =
Joseph Steven Sakic ( / ˈsækᵻk / ; born July 7 , 1969 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey executive and former player . He played his entire 21 @-@ year National Hockey League ( NHL ) career with the Quebec Nordiques / Colorado Avalanche franchise . Named captain of the team in 1992 ( after serving as a co @-@ captain in 1990 – 91 ) , Sakic is regarded as one of the most capable team leaders in league history and was able to motivate his team to play at a winning level . Sakic led the Avalanche to Stanley Cup titles in 1996 and 2001 , being named the most valuable player of the 1996 playoffs , and honored as the MVP of the NHL in 2001 by the hockey writers and his fellow players . As such , he is one of six Avalanche players in franchise history to participate in both of the team 's Stanley Cup victories . Sakic was also named to play in 13 NHL All @-@ Star Games and selected to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team at centre three times .
Over the course of his career , Sakic was one of the most productive forwards in the game , having twice scored 50 goals and earning at least 100 points in six different seasons . His wrist shot , considered one of the best in the NHL , was the source of much of his production as goalies around the league feared this shot . At the conclusion of the 2008 – 09 NHL season , he was the eighth all @-@ time points leader in the NHL , as well as 14th in all @-@ time goals and 11th in all @-@ time assists . During the 2002 Winter Olympics , Sakic helped lead Team Canada to its first ice hockey gold medal in 50 years , and was voted as the tournament 's most valuable player . He represented the team in six other international competitions , including the 1998 and 2006 Winter Olympics .
Sakic retired from the NHL on July 9 , 2009 , and had his jersey number retired prior to the Avalanche 's 2009 – 10 season opener on October 1 , 2009 , at Pepsi Center . On November 12 , 2012 , Sakic was inducted in the Hockey Hall of Fame , along with Adam Oates , Pavel Bure and Mats Sundin . On April 11 , 2013 , Sakic and 11 others were inducted into the Canada Sports Hall of Fame . He served as executive advisor and alternate governor for the Avalanche , effective at the end of the 2010 – 11 season , and promoted to Executive Vice President of hockey operations on May 10 , 2013 .
= = Early life = =
Sakic was born in Burnaby , British Columbia , to Marijan and Slavica Sakic ( originally Šakić , Croatian pronunciation : [ ʃakitɕ ] ) , immigrants from Croatia in what was then Yugoslavia . Growing up in Burnaby , he did not learn to speak English well until kindergarten , having been raised with Croatian as his mother tongue . At the age of four , Sakic attended his first NHL game , a match between the Vancouver Canucks and Atlanta Flames ; after watching the game , Sakic decided that he wanted to become a hockey player . As a smaller player , he was forced to use skill rather than size to excel , and modeled himself after his idol , Wayne Gretzky . After showing exceptional promise as a young hockey player in Burnaby , Sakic was referenced as a new Wayne Gretzky in the making . He scored 83 goals and 156 points in only 80 games for Burnaby , while attending school at Burnaby North Secondary Soon after , he was added to the Lethbridge Broncos of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) for the last part of the 1985 – 86 season .
During the 1986 – 87 season , the Broncos relocated to Swift Current , Saskatchewan , becoming the Swift Current Broncos . Sakic , playing in his first full season , was named Rookie of the Year of the WHL . He notched 60 goals and 73 assists for 133 points . But while Sakic enjoyed success on the ice , he and his team faced a tragedy on the night of December 30 , 1986 . The Broncos were driving to a game against the Regina Pats , and due to bad weather conditions , the bus crashed after the driver lost control on a patch of black ice outside of Swift Current . While Sakic was unharmed , four of his teammates ( Trent Kresse , Scott Kruger , Chris Mantyka and Brent Ruff ) were killed . This incident had a lasting impact on the young Sakic , who declined to talk about the crash throughout his career . The next year , in 1987 – 88 , Sakic was named the WHL Most Valuable Player and Canadian Major Junior Player of the Year . He scored 160 points ( 78 goals , 82 assists ) , tying him with Theoren Fleury of the Moose Jaw Warriors for the WHL scoring title .
= = NHL career = =
= = = Quebec Nordiques = = =
Sakic was drafted 15th overall by the Quebec Nordiques in the 1987 NHL Entry Draft . Rather than make the immediate jump , he told the Nordiques management he would prefer to spend the 1987 – 88 season in Swift Current to prepare for the NHL . He made his NHL debut on October 6 , 1988 , against the Hartford Whalers and registered an assist . His first NHL goal came two days later against goaltender Sean Burke of the New Jersey Devils . During the season , he wore # 88 because his preferred number , # 19 was already taken by a teammate , Alain Côté . While considered a front @-@ runner for the Calder Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year due to his rapid scoring pace , an ankle injury that forced him to miss 10 games in December and the resulting scoring slump helped quash any hopes of winning the award . He would finish his rookie season with 62 points in 70 games .
In 1989 – 90 , his second NHL season , Sakic was able to switch his number back to his familiar # 19 ( Alain Côté had retired over the summer ) , and scored 102 points , which was ninth overall in the league . At the start of the next season , 1990 – 91 , he was named co @-@ captain along with Steven Finn ( Sakic was captain for home games , Finn for away games ) and again passed the 100 point mark , improving to 109 points and sixth overall in the league , but would slip during 1991 – 92 to 94 points , partly as a result of missing 11 games . Early on in the season , Sakic showed some of his leadership qualities , even while Mike Hough was serving as captain , as he stood firm in the Eric Lindros holdout issue . With Lindros holding out against the Nordiques , who were one of the worst teams in league , Sakic commented , " We only want players here who have the passion to play the game . I 'm tired of hearing that name . He 's not here and there are a lot of others in this locker room who really care about the game . " Lindros was traded a year later , ending the situation and bringing in a number of quality players , which vastly improved the Nordiques . During their first four seasons with Joe Sakic , the Nordiques finished last place in the Adams Division and last in the entire league for three straight years , from 1989 to 1991 .
Starting with the 1992 – 93 season , Sakic became the sole captain of the franchise . Under his leadership , the Nordiques made the playoffs for the first time in six years and set a franchise record for wins and points in the process ( since broken by the 2000 – 01 Colorado Avalanche team ) . Sakic reached the 100 @-@ point plateau , the third time he did so in five years , by scoring 48 goals and 105 points in the regular season , and added another six points in the playoffs . In the shortened 1994 – 95 , after the 1994 – 95 NHL lockout , Sakic was eight points behind Jaromír Jágr for the scoring title with a fourth @-@ place finish , and helped the Nordiques win the division title , their first since the 1985 – 86 season .
= = = Colorado Avalanche = = =
In May 1995 , the Nordiques announced that the team had been sold and were relocating from Quebec . Before the start of the 1995 – 96 season , the franchise moved to Denver , Colorado , and was renamed the Colorado Avalanche . Sakic led the team to its first Stanley Cup championship , scoring 120 points in 82 regular season games and 34 points in 22 playoff games . He was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the 1996 NHL playoffs . During the run for the Cup , Sakic again proved himself to be an effective team leader . Although his Nordiques had missed the playoffs in five of his first seven years in the NHL , he scored 18 goals , including six game @-@ winners , and 34 points . He was one goal off from the record for goals in a playoff year , and his game @-@ winning goals established a new record .
In the 1996 – 97 season , Sakic only played in 65 games due to a lacerated calf , yet still managed to score 74 points as the Avalanche earned their first Presidents ' Trophy and third straight division title . He had another great playoff season with eight goals and 17 assists , and took the Avalanche all the way to the conference finals , where they eventually lost to the Detroit Red Wings in six games . As a free agent during the summer of 1997 , Sakic signed a three @-@ year , $ 21 million offer sheet with the New York Rangers as a restricted free agent . Under the collective bargaining agreement at the time , the Avalanche had one week to match the Rangers ' offer or let go of Sakic . Colorado would match the offer , which instigated a salary raise for many NHL players .
Injuries would again limit Sakic 's playing time in the 1997 – 98 season . While playing in his first Olympics with Team Canada , Sakic hurt his knee and was forced to miss 18 games with the Avalanche . In the 64 games he did play in , he still scored 63 points , enough to earn him his seventh All @-@ Star appearance . He finally rebounded from his injury problems in the 1998 – 99 season , finishing fifth in the league in scoring with 41 goals and 96 points in only 73 games . He led the Avalanche all the way to within one game of the Stanley Cup Finals , where they lost to the eventual champion Dallas Stars . After the season ended , Sakic was ranked number 94 on The Hockey News ' list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players .
During the 1999 – 2000 season , Sakic reached several career milestones . Injuries limited him to only 60 games , but he still managed to lead the team in scoring with 81 points . On December 27 , 1999 , against the St. Louis Blues , Sakic earned an assist to become the 56th player in NHL history to reach 1 @,@ 000 career points . Later in the season , on March 23 , 2000 , he scored a hat trick against the Phoenix Coyotes , and became the 59th player to score 400 career goals . It also gave him 1 @,@ 049 points with the Quebec / Colorado franchise , passing Peter Šťastný as the all @-@ time leader on the team .
Sakic eclipsed the 100 point mark again in 2000 – 01 , finishing with 118 along with a career best 54 goals , both being second @-@ best in the league . He won the Hart Memorial Trophy , the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy and the Lester B. Pearson Award ( the latter presented to him by former Nordiques mentor Peter Šťastný [ 1 ] ) , while also being a finalist for the Frank J. Selke Trophy . He led the Avalanche to their second Stanley Cup championship , defeating the defending title holders New Jersey Devils in seven games . Memorably , after receiving the Cup from the NHL commissioner , Sakic broke with tradition by not hoisting it first as most captains do , instead passing the Cup straight to Ray Bourque , a player who had waited a record @-@ breaking 22 seasons to win the Stanley Cup .
Sakic led the Avalanche in scoring again in the 2001 – 02 season , finishing sixth in the league with 79 points . On March 9 , 2002 , he played in his 1,000th career game . The Avalanche once again reached the Western Conference Finals , but lost to the eventual Cup @-@ winning Detroit Red Wings . The following year , Sakic appeared in only 58 games and finished with just 58 points . He rebounded the following year , finishing third in the league with 87 points . It also marked the first time since the 1993 – 94 season that his team did not win the division title , which was won by the Vancouver Canucks .
Following the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , the Avalanche were forced to lose many of their key players in order to stay below the salary cap . Even with the loss of teammates Peter Forsberg and Adam Foote , Sakic still helped the Avalanche get into the playoffs , where they eventually lost to the Anaheim Ducks in the conference semi @-@ finals . In June 2006 , Sakic signed a one @-@ year , $ 5 @.@ 75 million deal to keep him with the Avalanche for the 2006 – 07 season . Upon the retirement of Steve Yzerman a month later , on July 3 , 2006 , Sakic became the League leader for most NHL career points scored among active players .
Sakic had another strong season in the 2006 – 07 . He scored his 600th career goal on February 15 , 2007 , against the Calgary Flames , becoming the 17th player in history to reach the milestone and third that year . On the final day of the regular season , he scored his 100th point , reaching the milestone for the sixth time in his career . At the same time , Sakic became the second @-@ oldest NHL player to score 100 points in a season at age 37 , alongside hockey legend Gordie Howe . Despite his efforts as well as a late @-@ season charge , Sakic and the Avalanche missed the playoffs for the first time in 11 years , finishing one point behind the eighth placed Calgary Flames . On May 1 , the NHL announced that Sakic was named as one of the three finalists of the Lady Byng Trophy , but it was eventually awarded to Pavel Datsyuk of the Detroit Red Wings .
In April 2007 , Sakic signed on for a 19th NHL season with the Colorado Avalanche , signing a one @-@ year deal for 2007 – 08 . Sakic commented on the deal , saying " at this stage in my career , I prefer to do one @-@ year deals as I evaluate my play year @-@ to @-@ year . " Upon signing Sakic to the deal , Avalanche General Manager François Giguère said , " Joe is the heart of this organization and his leadership and value to this team and especially our young players is unquestioned . " On October 7 , 2007 , he scored a goal and had an assist against the San Jose Sharks , moving past Phil Esposito into eighth place on the NHL career points list with 1 @,@ 591 . Nineteen days later , Sakic scored a goal and assisted Ryan Smyth for an overtime game @-@ winning goal against the Calgary Flames , reaching his 1,600th point in the NHL . On December 27 , 2007 , it was announced that Sakic underwent hernia surgery to accelerate the recovery of an injury that had forced him to miss the previous 12 games after a 232 consecutive games played streak . The operation caused him to miss a career @-@ high 38 games . He was activated off of the injured reserve on February 24 and played that night , scoring an assist . On March 22 , 2008 , Sakic recorded his 1,000th career assist against the Edmonton Oilers , becoming the 11th player in NHL history to reach this milestone .
On June 21 , 2008 , Sakic had a talk with Colorado General Manager François Giguère and said that he is uncertain with his future with the Avalanche . However , it was announced on August 27 , 2008 , that Sakic decided to sign a one @-@ year contract with the team . Injuries limited Sakic 's playing time in 2008 – 09 . A herniated disk in his back forced him to stop playing in early November , after playing in 15 games , in which Sakic scored 12 points . While at home letting his back heal , Sakic broke three fingers in a snow @-@ blower accident . He announced his retirement on July 9 , 2009 The Avalanche retired his jersey , # 19 , prior to their 2009 – 10 season opener on October 1 , 2009 , with a " C " on the banner to represent his lengthy service as team captain ( having been the only captain of the Avalanche until he retired ) . Sakic was also named the inaugural member of the Avalanche Alumni Association .
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
Sakic was voted into the NHL All @-@ Star Game 13 times and played in 12 of them , serving as a captain for two of them , the last in 2007 . He had at least one point in 11 of them . The only one that he missed entirely was the 1997 All @-@ Star Game , due to an injury . Sakic won the Most Valuable Player award in the 2004 All @-@ Star Game after scoring a hat trick , despite the Western Conference losing the game . He is the all @-@ time assist leader in All @-@ Star Games with 16 assists and is third place in all @-@ time all @-@ star scoring with 22 points , behind Mario Lemieux ( 23 points ) and Wayne Gretzky ( 25 points ) . His best record in an All @-@ Star Game was in 2007 , when he scored four assists for the winning team ; however the MVP award was given to Daniel Brière , who had a goal and four assists .
= = International play = =
Sakic had an extensive international hockey career , representing Canada at seven international competitions . After being drafted by the Nordiques in 1987 , he went on and helped Canada win the 1988 World Junior Championship . His next tournament was the 1991 World Championships , where Canada won the silver medal and Sakic contributed eleven points in ten games . He tried out for the 1991 Canadian Canada Cup team , but was the first player to be cut , being cited for his weak leg strength . Sakic was bitter about the experience , feeling he was not given a good enough chance to prove himself , and called the whole experience " a complete waste of time . "
Sakic 's first successful professional tournament was the 1994 World Championships , where Canada won its first gold medal in the tournament since 1961 . Sakic 's seven points in eight games were a crucial part of the team 's success . During the 1996 World Cup of Hockey , he played only a minor role in Canada 's second @-@ place finish as he scored one goal and two assists in six games . However , the tournament allowed him to showcase that he was indeed a dominant player who had simply been overlooked .
Sakic 's first Olympic appearance came in 1998 at Nagano , Japan , after the event allowed NHL players to compete for the first time . Bothered by a knee injury , he only scored three points in four games , as the Canadian squad failed to meet expectations and finished in fourth . Sakic 's second Olympic appearance came in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City . Led by his strong play , the Canadian team played their way to the gold medal match against Team USA , where Sakic had four points and helped the team win its first gold medal in 50 years . He was later named MVP of the tournament with a cumulative tally of four goals and six assists and became one of the first Canadian members of the Triple Gold Club . Sakic also played a part in Canada 's triumph in the 2004 World Cup of Hockey , where he scored six points in six games .
On December 21 , 2005 , Sakic was named captain of Team Canada for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Italy . Once again , Team Canada was heavily favored and given high expectations , but they failed to medal , finishing seventh overall . Sakic finished the tournament with three points .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
After he retired , Sakic decided to take time off from hockey and spent time with his family . In 2011 , two years after his retirement , Sakic returned to the Avalanche to work in their front office . He was named an executive advisor and alternate governor for the team , effective at the end of the 2010 – 11 season . In his role as an advisor , Sakic would advise the team in hockey @-@ related matters , and as an alternate governor , would represent the team at Board of Governors meetings .
On June 26 , 2012 , Sakic was selected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on November 12 , 2012 , along with Mats Sundin , Pavel Bure and Adam Oates . Sakic was the only member of his class who won the Stanley Cup during his career .
On May 10 , 2013 , the Avalanche promoted Sakic Executive Vice President of Hockey Operations . In this expanded role , Sakic has the final say on all matters regarding hockey personnel . He now shares most of the duties normally held by a general manager with head coach Patrick Roy , who also doubles as vice president of hockey operations . General Manager Greg Sherman remained in his post , but now serves mainly in an advisory role to Roy and Sakic .
= = Personal life = =
Sakic and his wife Debbie have three children : son Mitchell , born in 1996 , and fraternal twins ; son Chase and daughter Kamryn , born in October 2000 . They met at a local high school while he was playing in Swift Current , and they frequently return to the town during the off @-@ season . Sakic is an avid golfer , and competed in the celebrity Pro Am golf tournament in Lake Tahoe in the summer of 2006 . Each summer , he also hosts his own charity golf tournament which benefits the Food Bank of the Rockies . His charity work , which is estimated to have provided more than seven million meals to poor children and families , has earned an NHL Foundation Player Award in 2007 .
Sakic was a fan favourite in his hometown of Burnaby , where a street has been named Joe Sakic Way in his honour . Throughout British Columbia , he is affectionately known as " Burnaby Joe " ; in Colorado , he is known simply as " Super Joe . " His younger brother Brian joined the Swift Current Broncos during Joe 's final season with the team , and later played for the Flint Generals of the United Hockey League . Sakic also has an uncredited role in the movie Happy Gilmore as a " player at hockey tryouts " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
Boldface denotes career high in each statistics .
= = = International = = =
= = = All @-@ Star games = = =
= = Legacy = =
= = = Milestones = = =
Sakic recorded his 1,000th career point on December 27 , 1999 , against the St. Louis Blues . He became the 11th player to reach 1 @,@ 500 points , doing so on October 25 , 2006 , with an assist against the Washington Capitals , and the sixth to do so with one franchise . Gordie Howe , Wayne Gretzky , Mario Lemieux , Raymond Bourque and Steve Yzerman are the others who have achieved this feat . On March 22 , 2008 , Sakic notched his 1,000th career assist against the Edmonton Oilers on a second period goal scored by Tyler Arnason .
Sakic played his 1,000th career game on March 9 , 2002 , against the Los Angeles Kings . His 500th career goal came against the Vancouver Canucks on December 11 , 2002 . In a February 15 , 2007 , game against the Calgary Flames , Sakic scored his 600th career goal . He also earned his 900th assist , the 16th player to do so , against the Flames in a game on March 12 , 2006 .
During the final game of the 2006 – 07 season , Sakic scored his 100th point of the year . This made him , at age 37 , the second oldest player in NHL history , after Gordie Howe , to record 100 points in a regular season . He became the longest active tenured captain in the league , with fifteen seasons leading the Nordiques / Avalanche franchise , after the retirement of Steve Yzerman at the conclusion of the 2005 – 06 regular season . On March 22 , 2008 , against the Edmonton Oilers , Sakic recorded the 1,000th assist of his career , the 11th player to do so . The gloves he wore in the game were later sent to the Hockey Hall of Fame .
Alongside Bobby Clarke , Wayne Gretzky and Mark Messier , Sakic is one of four players to captain his team to a Stanley Cup championship and win the Hart Memorial Trophy in the same year . Sakic is also a member of the Triple Gold Club , a term used in ice hockey to describe players who have won an Olympic Gold medal , a World Championship Gold medal and the Stanley Cup .
= = = Records = = =
In his 20 @-@ year career with the Nordiques and Avalanche , Sakic has obtained nearly all of the franchise scoring records , including most all @-@ time goals ( 625 ) , assists ( 1 @,@ 016 ) and points ( 1 @,@ 641 ) . He also holds the franchise record for most games played ( 1 @,@ 363 ) , and is on several notable NHL records which are most All @-@ Star game assists ( 16 ) and most playoff overtime goals ( 8 ) .
= = = Leadership = = =
Throughout his career , Sakic was one of the top scorers in the league , but in his early years , he was criticized for not leading his team to playoff success . While in Quebec , the Nordiques were one of the worst teams in the league , finishing last in their division five out of the seven years Sakic was with the team , including three straight years of being last overall in the league . After leading the Avalanche to the Stanley Cup in 1996 with his 34 playoff points , Sakic began to be seen as a leader capable of winning , and he was seen as one of the league 's premier players .
Though Sakic was a quiet individual , he was able to motivate his team to play at higher levels , which earned him the respect of his peers and executives . The first signs of Sakic 's leadership began to show while still a member of the Swift Current Broncos of the WHL . After the bus crash that killed four of his teammates , Sakic was seen as the leader of the team , acknowledging that the experience changed his outlook on life . Early in his career with the Nordiques ( when Mike Hough was still captain ) , with the team hoping to rebuild around their top draft pick Eric Lindros , and holding onto Lindros ' rights for the season when he refused to sign , Sakic suggested that the team could progress without Lindros saying " We only want players here who have the passion to play the game . I 'm tired of hearing that name . He 's not here and there are a lot of others in this locker room who really care about the game . " Lindros was traded a year later , bringing in a number of quality players , which vastly improved the Nordiques . Sakic 's leadership qualities led him to be courted by other teams , such as in the summer of 1997 , when the New York Rangers offered him a large contract in order to replace departed captain Mark Messier , though the Avalanche ultimately matched the offer and retained Sakic .
One of the most defining actions of Sakic 's career was at the conclusion of the 2001 playoffs . Defying the NHL tradition of the captain being the first to skate around with the Stanley Cup , Sakic passed it off to teammate Ray Bourque . Bourque , one of the best defensemen to ever play , had been traded to the Avalanche the year before after spending 21 years with the Boston Bruins and setting the record for most games played without winning the Cup . Sakic 's handing of the Stanley Cup exemplifies his classiness and how he performs through actions rather than words .
When an eye injury forced Steve Yzerman ( who normally wore number 19 for Canada ) to miss the 2004 World Cup of Hockey , Sakic and Joe Thornton both refused the number out of respect for their injured countryman , even though both players each wore the number 19 for their respective NHL clubs and who were now eligible to wear it for Team Canada in Yzerman 's absence .
Sakic 's leadership qualities and abilities helped carry the Avalanche in the years since their 2001 Stanley Cup , which saw the team lose key players to retirement and free agency , especially after the 2004 – 05 lockout .
= = Awards = =
= = = WHL and CHL = = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = International = = =
All awards taken from NHL.com
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